FiS. 4
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Encyclopedia Britjnnicj;
Or, A
DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS, S C I E N C E S, &c.
On a Plan entirely New:
By Which,
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefted into the Form of Diftinft
TREATISES or SYSTEMS,
- COMPREHENDING
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Latefl Difcoveries and Improvements;
AND FULL EXPLANATIONS given of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER
Relating to Natural and Artificial Objedts, or to Matters Ecclesiastical,
► Civil, Military, Commercial, &c.
TOGETHER WITH
A DESCPJPTION of all the Countries,
Cities, Principal Mountains, Seas,
Rivers, throughout the World;
A General HISTORY, Ancient and Modern>
of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and
States;
AND
An Account of the LIVES of the mod Eminent Persons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
THE WHOLE COMPILED FROM THE WRITINGS OF THE BEST AUTHORS, IN SEVERAL LANGUAGES; THE MOST APPROVED DICTIONARIES,
AS WELL OF GENERAL SCIENCE AS OF PARTICULAR BRANCHES; THE TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, AND MEMOIRS, OF LEARNED •
tSOCIETIES, BOTH AT HOME AND ABROAD; THE MS. LECTURES OF EMINENT PROFESSORS ON DIFFERENT SCIENCES ;
AND A VARIETY OF ORIGINAL MATERIALS, FURNISHED BY AN EXTENSIVE CORRESPONDENCE.
The Second Edition; greatly Improved and Enlarged.
ILLUSTRATED WITH ABOVE TWO HUNDRED COPPERPLATES.
VOL. I.
INDOCn DISCANT, ET AMENT MEMINlSSE PERITl.
EDINBURGH:
Printed for J. Balfour and Co. W. Gordon, J. Bell, J. Dickson, C. Elliot, W. Creech,
J. McCliesh, A. Bell, J. Hutton, and C. Macfarqjjhar.
MDCCLXXVIII.
*
■' M.rg
<?■ 1965
#
PREFACE.
THE mind of man has been by fome authors called a tabula rafa, and com¬
pared to a fheet of clean paper. But this principle, however generally re¬
ceived, may perhaps admit of fome hefitation; efpecially if it fhould be found
lefs falutary in its confequences than could be wifhed. One fhould imagine, that
the human intelled;, by its original conftitution, eafily admits and retains fome
impreffions, as congenial to its nature, and faithful to their obje&s ; whilft it re¬
pels others with averfion or difdain, as fubverfive of its happinefs, and falfe to
the things which they reprefent. Hence our frame, from its very origin, feems
marked by the hand of nature with indubitable fignatures of pre-eminence and
diftindtion. Hence man aflumes the important characters of a rational being
and a moral agent. Hence his defires of happinefs and truth are iniatiable, and
his capacities of enjoying them indefinite.
From the feebleft efforts of infancy to the laft convulfive ftrugglesof departing
life, thefe grand objedts, thefe irrefiftible attractions, adtuate all his powers, and
animate all his enterprifes, through every gradation of his progreffive being. It
muft, however, be acknowledged, that, in thefe fublime purfuits, the mind is ob¬
noxious to error and deception: but ftiil the ends which fhe propofes are the fame,
though fhe may err in feledting the proper means by which alone they can be
attained. We may further obferve, that though truth and happinefs originally
appear to the mind in different forms ; yet, in nature, they are infeparable : for
nothing that is falfe can be a fource of endlefs and univerfal happinefs ; nor can
any truth, as truth, be productive of unmixed and permanent mifery.
Whether the fuperior defires and capacities with which our nature is invefted
neceffarily refult from the inherent excellence of its powers, or from the ad¬
vantages of its ftrudture and organization, or from both, we cannot at prefent
flay to inquire. Thefe queftions will more properly find their folution in other
departments of fcience. It is fufficient for the purpofe which we have now in
view, to obferve this important fadt eftablifhed, That the original powers of man
are fufceptible of culture and refinement to a very high'degree; and that the pro¬
per exertion and application of thefe faculties are not only conducive, but effen-
tial, to his happinefs, whether confidered as an individual, or a focial being.
Every attempt, therefore, to enlarge his views, to improve his talents, to diredt
his efforts, and to form his nature for its fublime deftiny, fhould certainly com¬
mand the public regard and attention; and the only apology which can be offered
for the cold reception too generally given to fuch laudable endeavours, arifes
either from their multiplicity, or from their want of merit and confequently of
fuccefs. It would be at the fame time an endlefs and a faflidious talk, to enu¬
merate the various methods by which men of leifure and fpeculation have effayed
to cultivate the public underftanding and tafte, or to trace literature through all
the various forms in which it has tried to gain the general attention.
Abftradt truths have, as it were, been clothed with a body, that, by the dra¬
pery of narrative and allegory, they might be more effedtually recommended to
our notice, and more agreeably inculcated. The various topics of art and fcience
a 2 have
E.
P R E F A C
have been ranged in a fyftematic order, and volumes profefledly written upon
each. But the tafte for novelty ftill demanded various gratification. Hence un¬
connected mifcellanies, and detached efiays, appeared. But thefe periodical ef-
fufions of genius and learning, that they might be obvious to all capacities,
were generally too flimfy and fuperficial either to attract or deferve the atten¬
tion of a cultivated mind. To exhibit art and fcience in all their extent and
lultre, it was at laft thought neceflary to reunite the detached parts in one
work, that their proportions, their relations one to another, and to the ge¬
neral fyftem of which they are conllituents, might be more clearly and ob-
vioully perceived. With this intention, Dictionaries of Arts and Sciences have
been compiled; and it is certain, that fuch a plan, regularly and fuccefsfully
profecuted, may be productive of numberlefs utilities and advantages. But when
topics, far from being digefted into a fyftem, or difpofed in their natural order,
are violently dilacerated, and, without any regard to their proper pofitions,
huddled together as the order of the letters which conftitute their technical terms
determine, fuch a work fhould rather be called a book of fhreds and patches, than
a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. We do not deny, that every article, as an
article, may have confiderable merit: but, as it ftands connected in nature with
what ought to precede or to follow it, we affirm, that it cannot have the fame in¬
fluence upon the mind without its antecedents and confequences; and that an
underftanding formed upon fuch models, is rather a chaos of detached and he¬
terogeneous ideas, than a regular intellect. It is only by thinking in method, by
reducing our ideas to a proper and natural order, by obferving what they poflefs
in common, and what are their relations or differences, that our reafoning fa¬
culties are capable of making any progrefs at all. Without thefe affiftances, we
might be ranked amidft fenfitive or confcious beings, but could never attain the
human or rational character. At the fame time, it muft be confeffed, that there
is fome inconvenience in being reduced to the neceffity of perufing a whole fy¬
ftem when we only want to confult a particular topic. To avoid thefe difagree-
able extremes, the compilers of the EncyclopsediaBritannica have endeavoured to
give a compendious, yet clear and fatisfaCtory, account of each particular fcience
or art, under its proper denomination; whilft the fubordinate articles in each are
likewife explained under their technical terms. Thus the fyftematic reader will
be fully and .regularly informed by turning to the general name of the fcience
which he wiffiesto explore; whilft the perfon who, already acquainted with the
whole, wiffies only to confult particular topics, or others who are willing to content
themfelves with partial and detached views of things, will find them illuftrated
under the articles by which they are denominated. To be more explicit upon this
head: Detached articles may be divided into three kinds. The firft confifts of
fuch as, independent of particular fyftems, admit of a full and complete illuftr^tion
as they ftand ; the fecojid, of fuch as require partly to be difcuffed under the fy¬
ftems to which they belong, and partly under their own proper denominations;
the third, of fuch as are fufficiently elucidated in the fyftems to which they ap¬
pertain. Thofe of the firft kind need no references. Thofe of the fecond, being
only partially explained under their particular denominations, demand references
to the fyftems where the illuftrations are completed. For thofe of the laft, as no
explication is found neceffary under the terms, we refer to the fyftems of which
they
P R E F A C E.
they are conftituents, where the fubje&s are fully difcufled. Thefe our readers
may confult as emergencies require or their own difpofitions impel them.
To accomplifh a talk fo arduous and important, neither labour nor expence
has been fpared. The beft authors on each particular fcience have been collected,
and compared. Such as could be abridged without diladvantage, have been epi¬
tomized with all poffible care: others who were more concife and tenacious of'
their fubjedts, have been more clofely purfued, and more faithfully retained.
When topics have been obfcurely or imperfedtly treated, the utmoft endeavours
have been ufed to fupply thefe defedts; and upon fuch parts of fcience as the
compilers have not found properly illuftrated by other authors, original effays are
inferted. Nor do thefe amount to an inconfiderable number. To each particular
art or fcience, a hiftory of its origin, progrefs, and revolutions, is prefixed, fo
far as thefe can be colledted or deduced from hiftorians, or from other authors by
whom the fubjedts are occafionally treated. But where thefe are defedtive, care-
lefs, or inconiiftent, in their narrations ; neither can abfolute certainty, nor cir-
cumftantial accuracy, be expedted from us. This talk, therefore, demands no
fmall degree of induftry and perfpicacity, becaufe the various events relative to the
difcovery or improvement of literature have often been either entirely negledted,
or only obfcurely hinted, by their contemporary authors. A few inftances will
fhow how inaufpicious to learning thefe omiflions have proved, and of what im¬
portance the difcovery of fuch events mull; be, not only as they gratify mere un¬
meaning curiofity, but as they elucidate the particular fciences in which they are
found. Every one who has the leaft acquaintance with navigation, mull ob-
ferve the ineftimable utility of the mariners compafs ; which, by rendering
voyages more fafe and expeditious, gives a facility and fuccefs to the bufinefs
of commerce, which it could not have attained by any other means. Yet the
name of its inventor, the asra and occafion of its difcovery, are extremely un¬
certain : for though, in the year 1260, it was produced as his own invention
by Paulus Venetus, it was not applied to the purpofes of navigation for a long
time afterwards, when it was again exhibited by Gioya of Amalphi, who like-
wife claimed the difcovery as*his own. Nothing has more effedhially contri¬
buted to render knowledge accelfible.and diffufive than the art of printing: yet
the fame culpable inattention of authors had left its origin, and the gradations of
its improvement, difficult to be inveftigated. The wonderful powers o£ magnetifm
and electricity long remained undifcovered, and longer ftill unapplied to the pur¬
pofes of utility. Nor have we, perhaps, at this enlightened period, derived from
them all the advantages of which they may be found productive : a confideration
which ought ineeffimtly to ftimulate our induftry in acquiring fuch improvements
as have been already made, or to actuate our inventive powers for enlarging the
fpher* of difcovery.
In the theories of arts we may reafonabfy hope to find a higher degree of fatif-
faCtion. Particular care has therefore been taken to deduce them, with all pof¬
fible accuracy, in a feries of conclufions drawn from intuitive truths, or from
principles previoufly difcovered. But wherever fuch a feries has been left inter¬
rupted by others, and where it appears impoffible from the ftate of learning to
fupply that deficiency, we muft be forgiven for only exhibiting, as certain, fuch
as have been made; without impofing on the public conjectural for real improve-
a 3 ments.
PREFACE.
ments, which from the former hate of learning have feemed, and from its pre-
fent may ftill feem, unattainable. Yet, through the whole of this department,
wherein fuch regions of hefitation and conjecture occur, we have not remained
filent and fupine. A number of probable folutions not commonly met with have
been offered to the public attention. In difputed points, arguments and objec¬
tions have been difplayed in their full force; a method which is fo far from leading
to fcepticifm, that it not only appears the moft efficacious but the only real means
of difcovering and eflablifhing truth. Thus every reader will fee his favourite
fyftem attacked and defended in fuch a manner that his own judgment may de¬
termine the victory; and thus, by comparing it with other fyftems, he may ei¬
ther fee the merit of his own, or reCtify its errors, or adopt any other which
may appear preferable. Thus likewife the compilers will preferve their effential
character, which, by afiuming the fpirit or tenets of any party as their own, would
be entirely deftroyed.
To make the perufal of this comprehenfive work as eafy and fuccefsful as pof-
fible, marginal references are made from general fyftems to particular articles,
and reciprocally from the latter to the former. Thus the diligent inquirer after
truth will no longer find himfelf under a neceffity of hunting the letters of the
alphabet through all their arbitrary forms and pofitions, nor tantalized at laft by
the unfatisfadory glance of an objeCt which the whole art or induftry of man
could not poffibly explain in fuch a folitary and infulated fituation. The utility
of this expedient will fufficiently appear from the following inftance; andfrom
hence we may likewife fee how abortive and impotent the attempts of fome au¬
thors have proved who by references have tried to dired us how we may form a
full fyftem from independent topics. From the preface of Chamber’s Didionary
the fubfequent may be quoted as an example. “ Agriculture, or the Tillage
and improvement of Soils, Clay^Sand, Earth, 8tc. by the operations of Ploughing,
Fallowing, Burning, Sembradore, Semination, Manuring, &c. to produce Corn,
Hemp, Flax, Liquorice, Saffron, &c. for Malt, Farina, &c. Granary, Threjh-
ing, &c. The culture of Trees, Timber, &c. by Planting, Shrew ding. Barking, &c.
for Coppice, Park, Paddock, Hedge, Pajlure, &c. But how extremely difficult
it would be to follow a fubjed through fuch a multitude of references, as well as
new ones which fpring up at every one of them, any perfon may eafily con¬
ceive.
Whilft, however, we prove the expediency of references from fciences to ar¬
ticles, and from articles to fciences, we regret, that unavoidable contingencies
in the progrefs of the work have fometimes put it out of our power to ob-
ierve this rule with all the fidelity which we could have wifhed. For in fe-
veral articles relating to the fciences of Optics and Medicine, inftead of mar¬
ginal notes, an index at the end of thefe articles is referred to. This, it
muft be owned, is attended with fome little inconvenience; but it was inevitable
on account of a variety of communications received after the work was begun,
fo that proper references could not be made to the numbers originally placed on
the margin, the plan of thefe diflertations being fomewhat altered. Befides,
when the nature of a work fo extenfive and multiform is duly confidered, it will
immediately occur to every reader of candour and indulgence, how eafy it is for
the utmoft care and affiduity to fail in fome inftances. Thefe, however, it is
hoped,
PREFACE.
hoped, will be found few and of little importance; the work, during its whole
progrefs, having been fuperintended with unremitting vigilance and affiduitv.
After furveying any particular fcience, it will be found equally ufeful and^ en¬
tertaining to acquire fome notion of the private hiftory of fuch eminent perfons
as have either invented, cultivated, or improved, the particular art or fcience in
which our attention has been recently engaged. This has induced the com¬
pilers to enrich the Encyclopsedia Britannica with a new department, which
is not to be found in any other colledtion of the fame kind, except in the
French Encyclopedie. Of all hiftorical purfuits, Biography is perhaps the
moft delightful and inftrudtive. Its tendency to illuftrate particular palfages in
general hiftory, and to diffufe new light through the arts and fciences in which
the perfons whofe lives are related were employed, is too obvious to require ex¬
plication. Befides, it exhibits the human charader in all poflible forms and fi-
tuations. It not only attends its hero through all the buftle of public life, but
purfues him to his moft fequeftered retirements. It fhows, how diftinguifhed
characters have been involved in misfortunes and difficulties; by what means
they were extricated; or with what degree of fortitude and dignity they have
difcharged the various functions, or fuftained the different viciffitudes, of a che¬
quered and fluctuating life. For thefe reafons it is, that every man of learning
and genius has efteemed the biographical labours of Plutarch among the moft
precious and valuable remains of antiquity. The lives and characters, therefore,
of fuch perfonages as have either excelled in the arts of war or peace, of fuch as
have either diftinguiffied themfelves in the theatre of aCtion or in the recefs of
contemplation, will be found under their proper names alphabetically difpofed.
When we read of the perfons by whom, and the occafions on which, any par¬
ticular branch of human knowledge has been cultivated, we naturally wiffi to
know fomething of the places where thofe tranfaCtions have paffed. This curi-
ofity, fo natural and laudable, has frequently been felt by the compilers of this
work. And, in order to gratify a defire fo ufeful and congenial to the human
mind; befides the general fyftem of Geography, they have fubjoined to the name
of each particular place, an account of its fituation, its climate, its foil, its peculia¬
rities, its inhabitants, its revolutions, laws, and government, with whatever elfe
appeared neceffary for the reader’s information, and comprehenfible in a work
of fuch variety and extent.
In treating of fuch matters as are peculiar to certain authors, the obligation is
generally acknowledged by the compilers of this Dictionary; but, in fuch fub-
jeCts as were common to many writers, they did not imagine thofe acknowledge¬
ments required either by their own gratitude or the curiofity of their readers.
Yet, that all poffible means of improvement may be put in the power of fuch as.
wifh to cultivate their tafte or genius, a lift of thofe authors who have been moft
diftinguifhed and fuccefsful in the various departments of art or fcience will be
added. It will eafily occur to the reader, that thefe are the authors chiefly ufed
in this compilation ; and by this he will be enabled to confult each particular au¬
thor in his own province. But fo much pains have been taken to feleCt and ex-
trad from each whatever is valuable, that it is hoped the neceffity of this re-
fearch will be in a great meafure fuperfeded. From the catalogue propofed to be
given, it muft appear what a confiderable and extenfive library would be required.
to
PREFACE.
to afford fo much knowledge as this work contains, and what an immenfe difpa-
rity there is between the expenfe of purchafing it, and that of procuring the
books from whence it was derived.
We have already hinted the almoft infuperable difficulty attending the execution
of a plan fo various in its nature, and fo confiderable in its extent. To redrefs,
therefore, as far as pofhble, the inconveniences arifing from cafual omiffions, an
Appendix may be thought indifpenfably neceffary. But though the plan propo-
fed fhould be accomplifhed in a manner equal to our own fc>r our readers moft
fanguine expectations, fuch an Appendix would ftill be found a moft important
addition. For even though the work fhould be as perfedt as poflible according to
the ftate of arts and fciences at the time of its exhibition, ftill revolutions may
happen, and improvements may be made, in various branches both of theoretical
and practical knowledge, which an Appendix will give the compilers a proper
opportunity of inferting. This acceftion, therefore, to the original plan, our
readers will be pleafed to find.
In a collection fo large and multifarious as that which is now recommended to
the public attention, the critic muft be fevere, and the genius minute, who could
flop to animadvert upon every trivial inaccuracy of ftyle. We think it indeed in¬
difpenfably incumbent on every author who would be read with intelligence and
pleafure, after fufficiently attending to the nature and importance of what he fub-
mits to the public obfervation, that he fhould, in the next degree, regard the vehicle
by which it is conveyed. But where the fubje&s are fo indefinitely varied, and
where propriety requires that each fhould be expreffed in a manner fuitable to its
nature; it can fcarcely be imagined, that the fame exaCtnefs and uniformity fhould
equally prevail in this as in compofitions of a nature lefs extenfive and complex.
After all, though the compilers are confcious of having done their utmoft to
render this work as extenfively and generally ufeful as it could poflibly be ; yet,
fince no human production, even from the origin of literature to the prefent
period, has ever been found perfeCt in its kind, it would be cruel, if not unjuft,
to expeCt abfolute perfection in the prefent attempt. From every candid and be¬
nevolent inquirer after truth, therefore, they hope, that the merit of their in¬
tention and the utility of their plan will in a great meafure atone for fuch trivial or
unavoidable faults as may be found in its execution. Such was the fpirit in which
one of the nobleft and wifeft of ancient critics perufed his contemporary poets :
Verum ubi flura nitent in carmine, non ego paucis
Offendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudti,
Aut humana parum cavit natura  Hor.
But where the beauties more in number fliine,
I am not angry, when a cafual line
(That with fome trivial faults unequal flows)
A carelefs hand, or human frailty, (hows. Francis.
A
A NEW
DICT PON ARY
O F
Arts, Sciences, &c.
A
A>. a THE charafter of the firftietter of the al-
a^h.r.eX'..— phabet in Latin, Engliih, French, and
J moft of the prefent languages of Europe.
5 The firft character in the Hebrew alpha¬
bet is called aleph, in the Greek alpha, in
the Arabic eleph, and in the Syriac oleph.
A has defervedly the firft; place in the alphabet on
account of its fimplicity, very little more being necef-
fary to its pronunciation than opening the mouth.
A, an article. See Article.
A, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, and
fignified 500; and when a dalh was added on the top,
A, 5000.
A, in the Julian calendar, is the firft of the feven do-
* See minical letters *. It had been in ufe among the Ro-
mans long before the eftablilhment of Chriftianity, as
f See Nun- the firft of the eight nundinales f litter a; in imitation
dhial. whereof it was that the dominical letters were firft in¬
troduced.
A is alfo an abbreviature, ufed with different inten¬
tions. Hence,
A, among logicians, is ufed to denote an univerfal
affirmative propofition; according to the verfe,
Afferit A, negat E, verum generaliter ambx:
Thus, in the firft figure, a fyllogifm confifting of three
univerfal affirmative propofitions, is faid to be in Bar-
ba-ra; the A thrice repeated, denoting fo many of the
propofitions to be univerfal, <bc- See Barbara.
A, among the Romans, was ufed in the giving of
votes'or fuftrages.—When a new law was propofed,
each voter had two wooden ballots put in his hand;
the one marked with a capital A, fignifying antique,
q. d. antiquam volo; and the other with,Fi R. for uti
rogas. Such as were againft the law, caft the firft into
the urn: as who ftiould fay, I refufe it, I antiquate it;
or, I like the ancient law, and defire no innovation.
A1, in the trials of criminal caufes, alfo denoted ab-
folution: whence Cicero, pro Milvne, calls A, litter a
falutaris, a faving letter.—Three ballots were diftri-
buted to each judge, marked with the letters, A for
, abfolvo, I acquit; C for condemno, I condemn ; and
N. L. for non liquet. It is not clear. From the number
of each caft into the urn, the praetor pronounced the
prifoner’s fate. If they were equal in number, he was
abfolved.
- A, in the ancient inferiptions of marbles, &c. occa-
fionally ftands for Augujlus, ager, aiunt, &c. When
double, it denotes Augujli; and when triple, aurum, ar¬
gentum, as; and fometimes its meaning can only be
Vol. I.
AAR
known by the reft of the infeription. Ifidore adds, that y
when it occurs after the word miles (foldier), it denotes Aaron,
him young. On the reverfe of ancient medals, it de- "
notes them ftruck by the city of Argos, fometimes by
that of Athens; but on coins of modern date, it is the
mark of Paris.
A, as an abbreviation, is alfo often found in modern
writers: as, A. D. for anno domini; A. M. artium
magijier, matter of arts, <bc.
A, the letter a, with a line above it thus, a, is ufed
in medical preferiptions for ana, of each; fometimes it
is written thus, aa : e. g. & Mel. Sacchar. & Mann, a,
vel aa, ^j. i. e. Take of honey, fugar, and manna, of
each one ounce.
A. A. A. The chemical abbreviation for Amalgama,
or Amalgamation.
AA, the name of feveral rivers in Germany and Swif-
ferland.
AACH, a little town in Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, near the fource of the river Aach, and almoft
equally diftant from the Danube and the lake Con-
ftance. It belongs to the houfe of Auftria; and is twelve
miles north-eaft of Schaffhaufen, and twenty-five north-
weft of Conftance. E. Long. 9. o. Lat. 47. 55.
AAHUS, a little town in Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and biffioprick of Munfter. It is the ca¬
pital of Aahus, a fmall diftridl; has a good cattle; and
lies north-eaft of Coesfeldt. E. Long. 7.1. Lat. 52.10.
AAM, a Dutch meafure of capacity for liquids, con¬
taining about 63 pounds avoirdupois weight.
AAR, the name of two rivers, the one in Swiffer-
land, the other in Weftphalia. Alfo the name of a
fmall ifland in the Baltic.
AARON, high-prieft of the Jews, and brother to
Mofes, was by the father’s fide great-grandfon, and by
the mother’s grandfon, of Levi. By God’s command
he met Mofes at the foot of mount Horeb, and they
went together into Egypt to deliver the children of If-
rael: he had a great ffiare in all that Mofes did for
their deliverance; the feriptures call him the prophet of
Mofes, and he a£led in that capacity after the Ifraelites
had paffed over the Red Sea. He afeended mount Si¬
nai with two of his fons, Nadab and Abihu, and fe-
venty elders of the people ; but neither he • nor they
went higher than half way, from whence they fawthe
glory of God; only Mofes and Jolhua went to the top,
where they ftaid forty days. During, their abfence,
Aaron, overcome by the people’s eager intreaties, fet
up the golden calf, which the Ifraelites worfhipped by
A his
A B [ 2 ] ABA
Aaron his confent. This calf has given rife to various con-
y jeftures. Some rabbles maintain that he did not make
  — the golden calf; but only threw the gold into the fire,
to get rid of the importunities of the people; and that
certain magicians, who mingled with the Ifraelites
at their departure from Egypt, caft this gold into
the figure of a calf. According to fome authors,
the fear of falling a facrifice to the refentment of
the people by giving a refufal, made Aaron com¬
ply with their defire: and they 'alledge alfo, that he
hoped to elude their requeft, by demanding of the
women to contribute their ear-rings, imagining they
would rather choofe to remain without a vifible deity,
than be deprived of their perfonal ornaments. This
affair of the golden calf happened in the third month
after the Ifraelites came out of Egypt. In the firft
month of the following year, Aaron was appointed
high-prieft by God, which office he executed during the
time that the children of Ifrael continued in the wil-
dernefs. He died in the fortieth year after their depar¬
ture from Egypt, upon mount Hor, being then an 123
years old; A. M. 2522, of the Julian period 3262, be¬
fore the Chriftian sera 1452. With regard to the at¬
tempts of the Egyptian magicians to imitate the mi¬
racles performed by his rod, fee fome remarks under
the article Magic.
Aaron Ben Afer, a celebrated rabbi, who, in the
fifth century, had a <hare in the invention of the He¬
brew points and accents.
Aaron of Alexandria, a Chriffian prieft and phy-
fician, who flourifhed in Egypt about the year 621.
He is the moft ancient author who has treated of the
fmall-pox.
* See Ca- Aaron Harifchon, a learnedrabbi and caraite * in the
I3111 century, wrote an Hebrew grammar, printed at
Conftantinople 1581; probably the fame with Aaron
the caraite, who wrote a commentary on the five books
of Mofes, which is in MS. in the French king’s library.
AARSENS (Peter), a painter, called in Italy Pietro
Eongo, becaufe of his ftature, was born at Amfterdam
1519. He was eminent for all kinds of fubjedls; but was
particularly famous for altar-pieces, and for reprefenting
a kitchen with its furniture: he had the pain to fee a
fine altar-piece of his deftroyed by the rabble in the
infurre&ion 1566, though a lady of Alcmaer offered
200 crowns for its redemption.
AB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the He¬
brews, and the fifth of their ecclefiaftical year, which
begins with the month Nifan. It anfwers to the moon
of July; that is, to part of our month of the fame
name, and to the beginning of Auguft : it confifts of
thirty days. The Jews faff on the firft of this month,
in memory of Aaron’s death; and on the ninth, becaufe
on that day both the temple of Solomon, and that
erefted after the captivity, were burnt; the former by
the Chaldeans, and the latter by the Romans. The
fame day is alfo remarkable among that people for the
publication of Adrian’s edift, wherein they were for¬
bid to continue in Judea, or even to lookback when at
a diftance from Jerufalem in order to lament the defo-
lation of that city. The 18th of the fame month is alfo
a faft among the Jews ; becaufe the lamp in the fanc-
tuary was that night extinguiftied, in the time of Ahaz.
Ab, in the Syriac calendar, is the name of the laft
fummer-month. The firft day of this month they call¬
ed Saum Miriam, the faft of the virgin, becaufe the Aba
eaftern Chriftians fafted from that day to the fifteenth, Aba|tors
which was therefore called Fatbr-Miriam, the ceffation —a ors'-
of the faft of the virgin.
ABA (or rather Abau) Hanifah, firnamed Al-
Nooman, was the fon of Thabet, and born at Cou-
fah in the 80th year of the Hegira ; this is the moft
celebrated do&or of the orthodox Muflulmans, and his
fe& holds the principal efteem among the four which # Herbe] )t
they indifferently follow. Motwithftanding this *, he Qr;e"tl
was not very well efteemed during his life, infomuch p. SI.
that the khaliff Almanfor caufed him to be imprifoned
at Bagdat, for having refufed to fubfcribe to the opi¬
nion of abfolute predeftination, which the Muffulmans
call Cadha. But afterwatds Abou Jofeph, who was
the fovereign judge or chancellor of the empire under
thekhaliff Hadi, brought his doftrine into fuch credit,
that it became a prevailing opinion, That to be a good
Muffulman was to be a Hanifite. He died in the
150th year of the hegira, in the prifon of Bagdat
aforefaid. And it was not till 335 years after his death,
that Melick Schah, a fultan of the Selgiucidan race,
built for him a magnificent monument in the fame city,
whereto he adjoined a college peculiarly appropriated
to fuch as made a profeflion of this fe£f. This was.
in the 485th year of the hegira, and Anno Chrifti
1092. The moft eminent fucceflbrs of this doftor were
Ahmed Benali, A1 Giaflas, and A1 Razi who was
the matter of Naflari; and there is a mofque particu¬
larly appropriated to them in the temple of Mecca.
ABACATUAIA, in ichthyology, a barbarous
name of the zeus vomer. See Zeus.
ABACH, a market-town of Germany, in Lower
Bavaria, feated on the Danube, fix miles fouth-weft of
Ratifbon, and twenty-nine north of Landftuit. It is
remarkable for Roman antiquities, and for fprings of
mineral waters which are faid to be good for various
diftempers. E. Long. 11. 56. Lat. 48. 53.
ABACK (a fea-term), the fituation of the fails when
their furfaces are flatted againft the mafts by the force
of the wind. The fails are laid to be taken aback, when
they are brought into this fituation, either by a hidden
change of the wind, or by an alteration in the ftiip s
courle. They are laid aback, to efteft an immediate re¬
treat, without turning to the right or left; or, in the fea-
phrafe, to give the fhip Jiern-iuay, in order to avoid
fome danger difcovered before her in a narrow channel,
or when fhe has advanced beyond her ftation in the line
of battle, or otherwife. The fails are placed in this
pofition by flackening their lee-braces, and hauling in
the weather ones; fo that the whole effort of the wind
is exerted on the forepart of their furface, which readily
pufhes the fhip aftern, unlefs fhe is reftrained by fome
countera&ing force. See Backing, and Bracing.
It is alfo ufual to fpread fome fail aback near the
ftern, as the mizzen-top-fail, when a fhip rides with a
a fingle anchor in a road, in order to prevent her from
approaching it fo as to entangle the flukes of it with
her flackened cable, and thereby loofen it from the
ground.
ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of ftate
worn by the kings of England, the upper part whereof
was in the form of a double crown.
ABACTORS, or Abactores, a name given to
thofe who drive away, or rather fteal, cattle by herds,
or.
Abaci,
various.
* See PI. I
ABA [
or great numbers at once ; and are therefore very pro¬
perly diftinguifhed from fares, or thieves.
ABACUS, among the ancients, was a kind of cup¬
board, or buffet. JLivy, deferibing the luxury into
which the Romans degenerated after the conqueft of
Afia, fays, They had their abaci, beds, &c. plated
over with gold. (Dec. IV. Lib. ix.)
Abacus, among the ancient mathematicians, figni-
fied a table covered with duff, on which they drew their
diagrams ; the word in this fenfe being derived from
the Phoenician aritfL duff.
Abacus, in architecture, fignifies the fuperior part or
member of the capital of a column, and ferves as a kind
of crowning to both. Vitruvius tells us the abacus was
originally intended to reprefent a fquare tile laid over
an urn, or rather over a balket.—An Athenian old
woman happening to place a balket, thus covered, over
the root of an acanthus; that plant Ihooting up the
following fpring, encompaffed the balket all round, till
meeting with the tile, it curled back in a kind of fcroll.
An ingenious fculptor palling by, took the hint, and
immediately executed a capital on this plan ; reprefent-
xng the brick by the abacus, the leaves by the volutes,
and the balket by the vafe, or body of the capital. Such
was the rife of the firft regular order.—The form of the
abacus is not the fame in all orders: in the Tufcan, Do¬
ric, and Ionic, it is generally fquare; but in the Corin¬
thian and Compofite, its four fides are arched inwards,
and embellilhed in the middle with fome ornament, as a
rofe or other flower. Scammozzi ufes abacus for a con¬
cave moulding on the capital of the Tufcan pedeftalj
and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus, or boul-
• tin, in the Tufcan and Doric orders, by the fame name*.
Abacus is alfo the name of an ancient inftrument for
facilitating operations in arithmetic. It is varioufly
contrived. That chiefly ufed in Europe is made by
drawing any number of parallel lines at the diftance of
two diameters of one of the counters ufed in the calcu¬
lation. A counter placed on the loweft line, figni¬
fies i; on the zd, 10; on the 3d, 100; on the 4th,
1000, &c. In the intermediate fpaces, the fame
counters are eftimated at one half of the value of the
line immediately fuperior, viz. between the iff and zd,
5 ; between the zd and 3d, 50, &c< See Plate I. fig. z.
A B, where the fame number, 1777 for example, isre-
prefented under both by different difpofitions of the
counters.-
Chincfe Abacus. See Chinese-Swanpan.
Abacus Pythagoricus, the common multiplication-
. table; fo called from its being invented by Pythagoras.
Abacus is alfo ufed by modern writers for a table of
numbers ready call up, to expedite the operations of
arithmetic. In this fenfe we have Abaci of addition, of
multiplication, of divifion ; an Abacus logifticus; Aba¬
cus of fquares, of cubes, &c.
Abacus Logijiicus is a reftangled triangle, whofe
fides, forming the right angle, contain the numbers
from 1 to 60; and its area, the facta of each two of the
numbers perpendicularly oppofite. This is alfo called
a canon of fexagefimals.
Abacus <b Palmula, in the ancient mufic, denote
the machinery, whereby the firings of polypleftra, or
inftruments of many firings, were ftruck with a plec¬
trum made of quills.
Abacus Harmonious, is ufed by Kircher for the
3 ] ABA
ftrufture and difpofition of the keys of a mufical in¬
ftrument, whether to be touched with the hands or the
feet.
Abacus Major, in metallurgic operations, the name
of a trough ufed in the mines, wherein the ore is waftied.
ABADDON, is the n&me which St John in the
Revelations gives to the king of the locuft, the angel
of the bottomlefs pit. The infpired writer fays, this
word is Hebrew, and in Greek fignifies ’Ayoxxuav, i. e. a
dejiroyer. That angel-king is thought to be Satan or
the devil: but Mr le Clerc thinks *, with Dr Hammond,
that by the 'locuft which came out of the abyfs, may
be underftood the zealots and robbers, who miferably
affli&ed the land of Judea, and laid it in a manner wafte,
before Jerufalem was taken by the Romans; and that
Abaddon, the king of the locuft, may be John of Gif-
chala, who, having treacheroufly left that town a little
before it was furrendered to Titus, came to Jerufalem,
where he foon headed part of the zealots, who acknow¬
ledged him as their king fwhilft the reft would not
fubmit to him. This fubdivifion of the zealot-party
brought a thoufand calamities on the Jews.
ABADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave to
gods of the firft order. In the Roman mythology, it is
the name of a ftone which Saturn fwallowed, by the con¬
trivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his new-born
fon Jupiter: hence it ridiculoufly became the objeft of
religious worfliip.
ABiE, or Aba, a town of Phocis in Greece, near He¬
licon ; famous for an oracle of Apollo older than that
at Delphi, and for a rich temple plundered and burnt
by the Perfians. (Strabo.)
ABAFT, a fea-term, fignifying the hinder part of
a {hip, or all thofe parts both within and without which
lie towards the ftern, in oppofition to afore ; which
fee.—Abaft, is alfo ufed as a prepofition, and fignifies
farther aft, or nearer the ftern; as, the barricade Hands
abaft the main-maft, i. e. behind it, or nearer the ftern.
ABAISED, Abaiffe, in heraldry, an epithet ap¬
plied to the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip looks
downwards to the point of the fhield, or when the wings
are flmt, the natural way of bearing them being ex¬
tended.
ABALAK, a town in Siberia, two miles from To-
bolikoi, where there is a famous picture of the Virgin
Mary, that is conftantly vifited by a great number of
pilgrims: the clergy carry this image every year in pro-
ceflion to Tobolfkoi, where it is kept for a fortnight.
E. Long. 64. xo. Lat. 57. 1.
ABALIENATION, in law, the aft of transfer¬
ring one man’s property to another.
ABALIENATUS, among phyficians, means cor¬
rupted. When applied to the body, it fignifies that a
part is fo deftroyed as to require extirpation. When
applied to the fenfes, it expreffes their total deftrudlion.
ABALLABA, now Appleby, a town inWeftmore-
land, remarkable only for its antiquity, having been a
Roman ftation. (Notitia Imperii.) See Appleby.
ABANA, (Bible,) otherwife Amana, a river of
Phoenicia, which, rifing from mount Hermon, walhes
the fouth and weft fides of Damafcus, and falls into the
Phoenician fea, to the north of Tripolis, called Chryfor-
rhoas by the Greeks.
ABANGA, the name of the fruit of the palm-tree,
in the ifland of St Thomas. The tree is the Palma Ady
A z Inftila
Abaddon
II '
Ahanga.
on Rev. ix.'
& le Clerc’s
Suppl.
t Jofeph.
* be/. Jud.
lib.iv. c,x,7.
Haverc.
ABA
[ 4
Abano InfuU S. Thoma, C. B. The fruit is like a lemon ex-
Abins ternallY; an^ the inhabitants give three or four of the
 — kernels two or three times a-day as a reftorative *.
* See Aiy. ABANO, a town of the Paduano, in the republic of
Venice, famous among the ancients for its hot baths.
It is five miles fouth-well of Padua, and fifteen fouth-
eaft of Vicentia. E. Long. 10. 7. Lat. 45. 20.
ABANTES, a people who came originally from
Thrace, and fettled in Phoceca, a country of Greece,
where they built a town which they called Aba, after
the name of Abas their leader; and, if we may credit
fome ancient authors, the Abantes went afterwards into
the ifland Euboea, now called Negropont: others fay
the Abantes of Euboea came from Athens. The Aban¬
tes were a very warlike people, clofing with their ene¬
mies, and fighting hand to hand. See next article.
ABANTIAS, or Abantis, a name of the ifland
Euboea, in the Egean fea, extending along the coaft of
Greece, from the promontory Sunium of Attica to
Theflaly; and feparated from Boeotia by a narrow ftrait,
called Euripus. From its length the ifland was formerly
called Maoris: afterwards Ab anti as, or Abantis, from
the Abantes, a people originally of Thrace, called by
Homer 6W8fv M^o'uvJac, from wearing their hair long
behind, having in a battle experienced the inconveni¬
ence of wearing it long before; and from cutting their
forelocks, they were called Curetes. {Abantscus,t\\et epi¬
thet; Ovid.) See Abantes.
ABAPTISTON, in furgery, the perforating part
of the inftrument called a trepan. The word is from
the negative «, and\fi«*-7a> to fink under. This inftru¬
ment hath had various contrivances to prevent its fink¬
ing fuddenly upon the membranes of the brain when
the operator was fawing the ikull: whence its name.
But the prefent practice proves all precautions needlefs,
unlefs the operator is attentive and careful when he ufes
this inftrument.
ABARA, a town in the Greater Armenia, under
the dominion of the Turks: it is often the refidence of
the archbifhop of Nakfivan, from which place it is
twenty miles north. Long. 46. 25. Lat. 39. 45.
ABARANER, a town of Afia, in Grand Armenia,
belonging to the Turks. It is feated on the river Alin-
Sena, twenty miles north of Nakfivan. Long. 46. 30.
.at. 39. 50.
ABARlM, high mountains of fteep afeent, fepara-
ting the country of the Ammonites and Moabites from
the land of Canaan, where Mofes died. According to
Jofephus, they ftood oppofite to the territory of Jeri¬
cho, and were the laft ftation but one of the Ifraelites
coming from Egypt. Nebah and Pifgah were parts of
thefe mountains.
ABARIS, the Hyperborean; a celebrated fage of
antiquity, whdfehiftory and travels have been the fubject
of much learned difeufiion. Such a number of fabulous
* Jamblicb. ftorjeS*
were told of him, that Herodotus himfelf feems
^f Lab if t0 fcruple to relate them. Fie tells us only -j-, that this
cap. 36. Barbarian was faid to have travelled with an arrow,
and took no fuftenance : but this does not acquaint us
with the marvellous properties which were attributed
to that arrow; nor that it had been given him by the
Hyperborean Apollo. With regard to the occafion of
} Under the his leaving his native country, Harpocration J tells us,
word ’Afa- that the whole earth being infefted with a deadly
f” plague, Apollo, upon being confulted, gave no other
] ABA
anfwer, than that the Athenians ftiould offer up
prayers in behalf oi all other nations: upon which,
feveral countries deputed ambaffadors to Athens,
among whom was Abaris the Hyperborean. In this
journey, he renewed the alliance between his country¬
men and the inhabitants of the ifland of Delos. It
appears that he alfo went to Lacedaemon; fince, ac¬
cording to fome writers ||, he there built a temple con-
fecrated to Proferpine the Salutary. It is aflerted, that
he was capable of foretelling earthquakes, • driving
away plagues, laying ftorms J, &c. He wrote feveral
books, as Suidasf informs us, viz. Apollo’s arrival into
the country of the Hyperboreans ; The nuptials of the
river Hebrus; ©ioyov.a, or the Generation of the Gods;
A colleftion of oracles; &c. Himerius * the fophift
applauds him for'fpeaking pure Greek; which at¬
tainment will be no matter of wonder to fuch as con-
fider the ancient intercourfe there was between the
Greeks and Hyperboreans.—If the Hebrides, or
Weftern Iflands of Scotland, (fays Mr Tolandf), were
the Hyperboreans of Diodorus J, then the celebrated
Abaris was of that country; and Ukewife a druid,
having been the prieft of Apollo. Suidas, who knew
not the diftin&ion of the infular Hyperboreans, makes
him a Scythian; as do fome others, mifled by the fame
vulgar error; though Diodorus has truly fixed his
country in an ifland, and not on the continent. And
indeed the fi&ions and miftakes concerning our Abaris
are infinite: however, it is by all agreed that he travelled
quite over Greece, and from thence into Italy, where
he convetfed familiarly with Pythagoras, who favour¬
ed him beyond all his -difciples, by inftrufting him in
his dodtrines (efpecially his thoughts of nature) in a
plainer and more compendious method than he did any
other. This diftindtion could not but be very advan¬
tageous to Abaris. The Hyperborean, in return,
prefented the Samian, as though he equalled Apollo
himfelf in wifdom, with the facred arrow, on which
the Greeks have fabuloufly related * that he fat aftride,
and flew upon it, through the air, over rivers and lakes,
forefts and mountains; in like manner as our vulgar ftill
believe, particularly thofe of the Hebrides, that wizards
and witches fly whitherfoe ver they pleafe on their broom-
fticks. The orator Himerius above mentioned, tho’ one
of thofe who, from the equivocal fenfe of the word
Hyperborean, feem tohave miftaken Abaris for a Scy¬
thian, yet deferibes his perfon accurately, and gives
him a very noble charadter. “ They relate (fays he)
“ that Abaris the fage was by nation an Hyperbo-
“ rean, appeared a Grecian in fpeech, and refembled
“ a Scythian in his habit and appearance. He came
“ to Athens, holding a bow in his hand, having a
“ quiver hanging on his ftioulders, his body wrapt up
“ in a plad, girt about the loins with a gilded belt,
“ and wearing trowzers reaching from his wafte down-
“ ward.” By this it is evident (continues Mr To-
land) that he was not habited like a Scythian, who
were always covered with Ikins; but appeared in the
native garb of an Aboriginal Scot. As to what re¬
lates to his abilities, Himerius informs us, that “he
was affable and pleafant in converfation, in difpatch-
1 lnS great affairs fecret and induftrious, quick-fighted
1 in prefent exigencies, in preventing future dangers cir-
! cumfpedt, a fearcher after wifdom, defirous of friend-
‘ fhip, trufting indeed little to fortune, andhaving every
“ thing
Abaris
the Hyper¬
borean.
|| PaufaniaSy
lib. iii. p.94.
f Porphyry
in Vila Py-
thagor.
f Under the
word ’AC«-
* Fragment
of his Ora¬
tion prefer-
ved by Pho-
Bibliotheca,
p. 113S.
f Account
of the Dru-
Pcfthumous
Works,vo\.i.
p. 161.
\ Diod. Skv
lib. ii, iii..
* Jamblichr
Vila Pylhag,
p. 1 28k
Abarti-
culatio
II .
Abafcia.
ABA [
“ thing trufted to him for his prudence.” Neither the
Academy nor the Lycaeum could have furnilhed a man
with fitter qualities to travel fo far abroad, and to fuch
• wife nations, about affairs no lefs arduous than impor¬
tant. And if we further attentively confider his mo¬
deration in eating, drinking, and the ufe of all thofe
things which our natural appetites inceffantly crave;
joining the candour and fimplicity of his manners with
the folidity and wifdom of his anfwers, all which we
find fufficiently attefted ; it muft be owned, that the
world at that time had few to compare with Abaris.
ABARTICULATIO, in anatomy, a fpeciesof arti¬
culation admitting of a manifeft motion; called alfo
Diarthrofis, and Dearticulatio, to diftinguifh it from
that fort of articulation which admits of a very obfcure
motion, and is called Synarthrofis. See Articulatio.
ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls.
It is i-8th lefs than the European carat.
Abas, in the heathen mythology, was the fon of
Hypothoon and Meganira, who entertained Ceres, and
offered a facrifice to that goddefs; but Abas ridiculing
the ceremony, and giving h#r opprobrious language,
fhe fprinkled him with a certain mixture fhe held in her
cup, on which he became a newt or water-lizard.
Abas (Schah) the Great, was third fon of Coda-
bendi, 7 th king of Perfia, of the race of the Sophis.
Succeeding to his father at 18, in 1585', he found the
affairs of Perfia at a low ebb, occafioned by the con-
quefts of the Turks and Tartars. He regained feveral
of the provinces they had feized; but death put a flop
to his vi6fories in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He
was the greateft prince that had reigned in Perfia for
many ages; and it was he who made Ifpahan the me¬
tropolis of Perfia: his memory is held in the higheft
veneration among the Perfians.
Abas (Schah) his grandfon, 9th king of Perfia, of
the race of the Sophis, fucceeded his father Sefi at 13
years of age: he was but 18 when he madehimfelf ma¬
tter of the city Candahar, which had furrendered in his
father’s reign to the Great Mogul, and all the province
about it; and he preferved it afterwards againft this
Indian emperor, though he befieged it more than once
with an army of 300,000 men. He was a very merci¬
ful prince, and openly protefted the Chriftians: he had
formed a defign of extending the limits of his kingdom
toward the north, and had for that effeft levied a power¬
ful army; but death put a flop to all his great defigns,
at 3 7 years of age, in 1666.
ABASCIA, or Abcas, a country in Alia, tribu¬
tary to the Turks, fituated on the coaft of the Black
Sea. The people are poor, thievifh, and treacherous,
infomuch that there is no trading with them without
the utmoft caution. Their commodities are furs, buck
and tyger fkins, linen yarn, boxwood, and bees-wax:
but their greateft traffic is in felling their own children,
and even one another, to the Turks; infomuch that they
live in perpetual diftruft. They are deftitute of many ne-
ceffaries of life, and have nothing among them that can
be called a town; though we find Anacopia, Dandar,
and Czekorni, mentioned in the maps. They have the
name of Chriftians; but have nothing left but the name,
any more than the Mingrelians their northern neigh¬
bours. The men are robuft and active, and the women
are fair and beautiful; on which account the Turks
have a great value for the female Haves which they
5 1 ABB
purchafe from among them. Their cuftoms are much Abafll
the fame as thofe of the Mingrelians; which fee. Ab^d-e
E. Long, from 39 to 43. Lat. from 43 to 45.  
ABASSI, or Abassis, a filver coin current in Per¬
fia, equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence
halfpenny Sterling. It took its name from Schah
Abas II. king of Perfia, under whom it was ftruck.
ABATAMENTUM, in law, is an entry to lands
by interpofition, e. when a perfon dies feized, and
another who has no right enters before the heir.
To ABATE, (from the French abbatre, to pull down,
overthrow, demoliffi, batter down, or deftroy), a term
ufed by the writers of the Engliffi common-law both
in an a&ive and neutral fenfe ; as, To abate a caftle, is
to beat it down. To abate a writ, is, by fome excep¬
tion, to defeat or overthrow it. A ftranger abateth ;
that is, entereth upon a houfe or land void by the death
of him that laft poflefled it, before the heir takes pof-
feffion, and fo keepeth him out: wherefore, as he that
putteth out him in pofleffion is faid to diffeize, fo he
that fteppeth in between the former pofleffor and his heir
is faid to abate. In the neuter fignification thus: The
writ of the demandant ftxall abate; that is, fhall be dif-
abled, fruftrated, or overthrown. The appeal abateth
by covin ; that is, the accufation is defeated by deceit.
A bate, in the manege, implies the performing any
downward motion properly. Thus a horfe is faid to
abate or take down his curvets, when he puts both his
hind legs to the ground at once, and obferves the fame
exaftnefs in all the times.
ABATEMENT, in heraldry, an accidental figure
fuppofed to have been added to coats-of-arms, in order
to denote fome dilhonourable demeanour or ftain,
whereby the dignity of the coat-armour was rendered
of lefs efteem. See Heraldry, n° 12, 1.
Abatement, in law. See To Abate.
Abatement, in the cuftoms, an allowance made
upon the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged
is determined by the judgment of two merchants upon
oath, and afcertained by a certificate from thefurveyor
and land-waiter.
ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the ftables.
ABATOR, in law, a term applied to a perfon who
enters to a houfe or lands, void by the death of the laft
poffeffor, before the true heir.
ABATOS, an ifland in the lake Mceris, formerly
famous for its flax and papyrus. It was the burial-
place of Ofiris, (Lucan.)
ABAVO, in botany, a fynonime of the adanfonia*. * See Adan-
ABB, a term, among clothiers, appliedtotheyarnof a/0"*13-
weaver’s warp. They alfo fay Abb-wool in the fame fenfe.
ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, lite-'
rally fignifies a father*; and figuratively, a fuperior, re- * See Allot.
puted as a father in refpedf of age, dignity, or affec¬
tion. It is alfo a Jewiffi title of honour given to fome
of the clafs called Tanaites.
ABBADIE (James) an eminent Proteftant divine,
born at Nay in Bern, in 1654; firft educated there un¬
der the famous John la Placette, and afterward at the
univerfity of Sedan. From thence he went into Holland
and .Germany, and was minifter in the French church of
Berlin. He left that place in 1696; came into Engand;
~ was fome time minifter in the French church in the Savoy,
London ; and was made dean of Kiilalow in Ireland.
He died at St Mary le Bonne near London, in 1727,
ABB [
Abbas aged 73. He was ftrongly attached to the caufeof king
A||( ^ William, as appears in his elaborate defence of the re-
 volution, and his hiftory of the affaffination-plpt. He
had great natural abilities, which he improved by true
and ufeful learning. He was a moft zealous defender
of the primitive- dodtrine of the Proteftants, as appears
by his writings; and that ftrong nervous eloquence, for
which he was fo remarkable, enabled him to enforce the
doftrines of his profeffion from the pulpit with great fpi-
rit and energy. He publifhed feveral works in French
that were much efteemed; the principal of which are, A
Treatife on the Truth of the Chriftian Religion; The
art of Knowing one’s Self; A Defence of the Britifh
Nation ; and, The Hiftory of the laft Confpiracy in
England, written by order of king William III.
ABBAS, fon of Abdalmothleb, and Mahomet’s
uncle, cppofed his nephew with all his power, efteem-
ing him an impoftor and infidel; but in the fecond year
of the hegira, being overcome and made a prifoner at
the battle of Bendir in 623, a great ranfom being de¬
manded for him, he reprefented to Mahomet, that his
paying it would reduce him to poverty, which would
redound to the diflionour of the family. But Mahomet
having been informed of Abbas’s having fecreted large
fums of money, afked him after the purfes of gold he
had left in his mother’s cuftody at Mecca. Abbas, up¬
on this, conceiving him to be really a prophet, em¬
braced his new religion; became one of his principal
captains; and faved his life when in imminent danger at
the battle of Henain, againft the Thakefites, foon after
the reduction of Mecca. But befides being a great
commander, Abbas was a famous do6tor of the Muf-
fulman law, infomuch that he read lectures upon every
chapter of the Koran, as his nephew pretended to re¬
ceive them one by one from heaven. He died in 652,
and his memory is held in the higheft veneration among
the Mulfulmans to this day.
Abul Abbas, firnamed Saffah, was proclaimed kha-
lif; and in him began the Dynafty of the
A BBASSIDES, who poffefled the khalifate for 524
years; and there were 37 khalifs of this race who fuc-
ceeded one another without interruption.
Sec Abbot. ABBE, in a monaftic fenfe, the fame with Abbot *.
Abbe, in a modem fenfe, is the name of a curious
popular charafter in France, very much mentioned, but
very little known, in Britain. The term is not to be
rendered in our language, as the exiftence of the being
which it denominates is pofterior to the reformation, and
no fuch charafter was known among the Romanifts
till about a century and a half ago.
Abbes, according to the ftritteft definition, are per-
fons who -have not yet obtained any precife or fixed
fettlement in church or ftate, but moft heartily wifh for,
and would accept of, either, juft as it may happen.
In the mean while, their privileges are many. They
are admiffible in all companies, and no degradation to
the beft, notwithftanding they are fometimes found in
the worft. Their drefs is rather that of an academic, or
of a profeffed fcholar, than of an ecclefiaftic; and, ne¬
ver varying in colour, is no incumbrance on the pocket.
Thefe abbes are very numerous, and no lefs ufeful.
They are, in colleges, the inftruftors of youth; in pri¬
vate families, the tutors of young gentlemen; and many
procure a decent livelihood by their literary and witty
compofitions of all kinds, from the profoundeft philo-
6 ] ABB
fophy to the moft airy romances. They are, in fhort, Abbe
a body of men who poffefs a fund of univerfal talents AJjey,
and learning, and are inceffantly employed in the culti —-
vation of every various branch of literature and inge¬
nuity. No fubjeht whatever efcapes them; ferious or
gay, folid or ludicrous, facred or profane, all pay tri¬
bute to their refearches; and as they are converfant in
the loweft as well as the higheft topics, their fame is
equally great in the learned and in the fcribbling world.
—A diftinguiftiing part of their charafter, too, though
we ftiall but flight! y touch it, is their devotion to the
fair fex: whofe favourites, in return, they have the ho¬
nour of being in the moft enviable degree; the wit and
fmartnefs for which they are ufually remarkable, being
juft the very things that fuit the French ladies.—In fine,
thefe abbes are fought after by moft people, on various
accounts; as they are equally men of bufinefs and plea-
fure, not lefs expert in the moft ferious tranfa&ions, than
fond of enjoying their ftiare of w-hatever occupies the gay
world. Hence they diligently frequent all public fpec-
tacles, which are thought incomplete without them; as
they compofe the moft intelligent part of the company,
and are the moft weighty approvers or condemners of
what pafles in almoft all places.
ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of
nuns*. The abbefs has the fame rights and authority * See Abbey
over her nuns, that the abbots regular have over their and Nm-
monks. The fex indeed does not allow her to perform
the fpiritual functions annexed to the priefthood, where¬
with the abbot is ufually invefted; but there are inftances
of fome abbefles who have a right, or rather a privilege,
to commiflion a prieft to a<SI for them. They have even
a kind of epifcopal jurifdiftion, as well as fome abbots
who are exempted from the vifitation of their diocefans.
ABBEVILLE, a confiderable city of France in
Picardy, and the capital of Ponthieu; the river Somme
runs through the middle of it, and divides it into
two parts. It has a collegiate church and twelve
parilh-churches, the moft confiderable of which are St
George’s and St Giles’s, befides a great number of
monafterics and nunneries, a bailiwic, and a prefidial
court. It is a fortified town ; the walls are flanked
with baftions, and furrounded by large ditches; and it
was never yet taken. The country about it is low,
marftiy, and dirty. It is pretty well peopled, and is
famous for its woollen manufa&ory. It is about fifteen
miles eaft of the Britilh channel, and Ihips may come
from thence by the river Somme to the middle of the
town. It is ninety miles almoft direftly north of Paris.
E. Long. 2. 6. Lat. 50. 7.
ABBEY, a monaftery, or religious houfe, governed
by a fuperior under the title of abbot or abbefs *. anAAtt^
Abbeys differ from priories, in that the former are un- J ’
der the direction of an abbot, and the others of a prior f: t See -Prior,
but abbot and prior (we mean a prior conventual) are
much the fame thing, differing in little but the name.
Fauchet obferves, that, in the early days of the French
monarchy, dukes and counts were called abbots, and
duchies and counties abbeys. Even fome of their kings
are mentioned in hiftory under the title of abbots. Phi¬
lip I. Louis VI. and afterwards the dukes of Orleans,
are called abbots of the monaftery of St Aignan. The
dukes of Aquitain were called abbots of the monaftery
of St Hilary, at Poiftiers; and the earls of Anjou of
S. .Aubin, &c.
Monafteries
ABB [ 7 ] ABB
Abbey Monafleries were at firft nothing more than religious
Abbot houfes, whither perfons retired from the buftle of the
 :— world to fpend their time in folitude and devotion. But
they foon degenerated from their original inllitution,
and procured large privileges, exemptions, and riches.
They prevailed greatly in Britain before the reforma¬
tion ; particularly in England: and as they increafed
in riches, fo the Hate became poor; for the lands,
which thefe regulars pofiefled, were in 77iortua manu,
i. e. could never revert to the lords who gave them.
This inconvenience gave rife to the ftatutes againft gifts
in mortmaine, which prohibited donations to thefe re¬
ligious houfes; and Lord Coke tells us, that feveral
lords, at their creation, had a claufe in their grant,
that the Donor might give or fell his land to whom he
would (exceptis viris Religiojis <b Judais) excepting
Monks and Jews.
Thefe places were wholly abolilhed in England at
the time of the Reformation; Henry VIII. having
firft appointed vifitors to infpedt into the lives of the
monks and nuns, which were found very diforderly:
upon which, the abbots, perceiving their diffolution
unavoidable, were induced to refign their houfes to the
king, who by that means became invefted with the
abbey-lands: thefe were afterwards granted to different
perfons, whofe defcendents enjoy them at this day:
they were then valued at 2,853,000 /. per annum, an
immenfe fum in thofe days.
ABBEY-BOYLE, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Rofcommon and province of Connaught, twenty-
three miles north of Rofcommon. W. Long. 8. 32.
Lat. 56. 54. It is remarkable for an old abbey.
ABBEY-HOLM, a towh in Cumberland, fo called
from an abbey built there by David king of Scots. It
ftands on an arm of the fea, and had a market on Satur¬
days ; it has now a fair on October 29, for horfes and
horned cattle : it is fixteen miles fouth-weft of Carlifle.
W. Long. 2. 38. Lat. 54. 45.
ABBOT, or Abbat, the fuperior of a monaftery of
* See Abbey monks erefted into an abbey or prelacy *.
and Abbefs. 'pjie name j^bbot is originally Hebrew, where it fig-
nifies father. The Jews call father, in their language,
Ab ; whence the Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba ;
thence the Greeks Aee«<-, which the Latins retained,
Abbas ; and hence our Abbot, the French Abbe, &c.
— St Mark and St Paul ufe the Syriac Abba in their
Greek, by reafon it was then commonly known in the
fynagogues and the primitive affemblies of the Chri-
ftians ; adding to it, by way of interpretation, the word
father, ACta 0 rar^, “ Abba, father;” q. d. Abba, that
is to fay, Father.—But the name Ab, and Abba, which
at firft was a term of tendernefs and affeftion in the He¬
brew and Chaldee, became at length a title of dignity
and honour: The Jewilh doftors affe&ed it; and one of
their moft ancient books, containing the fayings or
apophthegms of divers of them, is entitled Pirke Ab*
both, or Avoth; i. e. Chapters of the Fathers. It was
in allufion to this affectation, that Jefus Chrift forbad
his difciples to call any man their father on earth;
which word St Jerome turns againft the fuperiors of the
monafteries of his time, for affuming the title of Ab¬
bots, or Fathers.
The name Abbot, then, appears as old as the infti-
tutiori of monks itfelf.—The governors of the primi¬
tive monafteries affumed indifferently the titles Abbots,.
and Archimandrites *. They were really diftinguifhed Abbot,
from the clergy; though frequently confounded with
them, becaufe a degree above laymen.   
In thofe early days, the abbots were fubjeCt to the a*
bifhops and the ordinary pallors. Their monafteries ^an&rite "
being remote from cities, built in the fartheft folitudes,
they had no fhare in ecclefiaftical affairs. They went
on Sundays to the parilh-church with the reft of the
people ; or, if they were too remote, a prieft was fent
them to adminifter the facraments; till at length they
were allowed to have priefts of their own body. The
abbot or archimandrite himfelf was ufually the prieft:
but his funftion extended no farther than to the fpiritual
affiftance of his monaftery; and he remained ftill ia
obedience to the bilhop. There being among the ab¬
bots feveral perfons of learning, they made a vigorous
oppofition to the riling herelies of thofe times ; which
firft occafioned the bilhops to call them out of their de¬
farts, and fix them about the fuburbs of cities, and at
length in the cities themfelves : from which sera their
degeneracy is to be dated. The abbots, now, foon
wore off their former plainnefs-and fimplicity, and be¬
gan to be looked on as a fort of little pi-elates. They
afpired at being independent of the bilhops; and became
fo infupportable, that fame fevere laws weremade againft
them at the council of Chalcedon: this notwithlland-
ing, in time many of them carried the point of inde¬
pendency ; and got the appellation of lord, with other
badges of the epifcopate, particularly the mitre.
Hence arofe new fpecies of diftinClions between the
abbots. Thofe were termed mitred abbots, who were
privileged to wear the mitre, and exercife epifcopal au¬
thority within their refpeClive precinCls, being exemp¬
ted from the jurifdiClion of the billiop. Others were
called croftered abbots, from their bearing the crofier
or paftoral ftaff. Others were ftyled oecumenical or uni-
verfal abbots, in imitation of the patriarch of Conftan-
tinople: while others w'ere termed card/W/abbots, from
their fuperiority over all other abbots.—Among us, the
mitred abbots were lords of parliament; and called
abbots-fovereign, and abbots-general, to diftinguilh
them from the other abbots. And as there were lords
abbots, fo there were alfo lords priors, who had exempt
jurifdiClion, and were likewife lords of Parliament.
Some reckon 26 of thefe lords abbots and priors, that
fat in parliament. Sir Edward Coke fays, that there
were 27 parliamentary abbots, and two priors. In the
parliament 20 Rich. II. there were but 25 abbots, and
two priors: but in the fummons to parliament, anno
4 Ed. III. more are named.
At prefent, in the Roman-catholic countries, the
principal diftinClions obferved between abbots, are thofe -
of regular and commendatory. The former take the vo\y
and wear the habit of their order; whereas the latter
are feculars, though they are obliged by their bulls to
take orders when of proper age.
Antiently the ceremony of creating an abbot confifted
in cloathing him with the habit called cuculla, or cowl;
putting the paftoral ftaff into his hand, and the fhoes cal¬
led pedales on his feet; but at prefent, it is only a fimple
benediClion, improperly called, by fome, confecration.
Abbot is alfo a title given to others befide the fupe¬
riors of monafteries : thus bilhops, whofe fees were
formerly abbeys, are called abbots; as are the fupe¬
riors of fome congregations of regular canons, parti¬
cularly'
ABB [ 8 ] ABB
Arehbifhop culaily that of St Genevieve at Paris: and among the
A'bhot- Genoefe, the chief magiftrate of their republic former¬
ly bore the title of abbot of the people. It was like-
wife ufual, about the time of Charlemagne, for feveral
lords to affume the title oi count~abbots, abba-comites ;
and that for no other reafon, but becaufe the fuper-
intendancy of certain abbeys was committed to them.
ABBOT (George), archbifhop of Canterbury, was
born October 29.-1562, at Guildford in Surrey. He
went through his ftudies at Oxford, and in 1597 was
chpfen principal of Univerfity College. In'!599, he
was inftalled dean of Winchefter : the year following,
he was chofen vice-chancellor of the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and a fecond time in 1603'. In 1604, that tranf-
lation of the bible now in ufe was begun by the direc¬
tion of king James; and Dr Abbot was the fecond of
eight divines of Oxford, to whom the care of tranfla-
ting the whole New Teftament (excepting the epiftles)
was committed. The year following, he was a third
time vice-chancellor. In 1608., he went to Scotland
with George Hume earl of Dunbar, to affift in efta-
blifiiing ap union betwixt the kirk of Scotland and the
* Beylin’s church of England; and in this affair he behaved* with
hift. of Pref- j-jych addrefs and moderation, that it laid the founda-
p^:anS' tion of all his future preferment. For king James ever
after paid great deference to his advice and counfel; and
upon the death of Dr Overton bifliop of Litchfield and
Coventry, he named Dr Abbot for his fucceffor, who
was accordingly confecrated bilhop of thofe two united
fees in December 1609. About a month afterwards
he was tranflated to the fee of London, and on the fe¬
cond of November thereafter was raifed to the archie-
pifcopal fee. His great zeal for the Proteftant religion
made him a ftrenuous promoter of the match between
the Eledtor Palatine and the princefs Elizabeth; which
was accordingly concluded and folemnized the 14th of
February 1612, the archbifhop performing the cere¬
mony on a ftage erected in the royal chapel. In the
following year happened the famous cafe of divorce be¬
twixt the iadyFrancis Howard, daughter of the earl of
Suffolk, and Robert earl of Effex : an affair which has
been by many confidered as one of the greateft blemifhes
of king James’s reign; but the part atted therein by
the archbifhop added much to the reputation he had al¬
ready acquired for incorruptible integrity. The matter
was by the king referred to a court of delegates. The
archbifhop fawplainly, that his Majefly was very defirous
tjie lady flioqld be divorced^ but. he -was, in his own
judgment, dire£tly againfl the divorce. He labour¬
ed all he could to extricate himfelf from this difficulty,
by having an end put to the caufe by fome other way
than by fentence : but it was to no purpofe; for thofe
who drove on this affair, had got too great power to
be reftrained from bringing it to the conclufion the king
defired. The archbifhop prepared a fpeech, which he
intended to have fpoken againft the nullity of the mar¬
riage, in the court at Lambeth ; but he did not make
ufe of it, becaufe the king ordered the opinions to
be given in few words. He continued, however, in¬
flexible in his opinion againfl: the divorce ; and drew
up his reafons, which the king thought fit to anfwer
himfelf. It need fcarce be added, that fentence was gi¬
ven in the lady’s favour.—In 1618, the king publifh-
ed a declaration, which he ordered to be read in all
churches, permitting fports and paftimes on the Lord’s
day: this gave great uneafmefs to the archbifhop; Archbifhop
who, happening to be at Croydon when it came thither, 
had the courage to forbid its being read.—Being now
in a declining flate of health, the archbifhop ufed
in the fummer to go to Hampfhire for the fake of re¬
creation ; and being invited by lord Zouch to hunt in
his park at Bramzill, he met there with the greateft
misfortune that ever befell him; for he accidentally kill¬
ed the game-keeper, by an arrow from a crofs-bow
which he fhot at one of the deer. This accident threw
him into a deep melancholy; and he ever afterwards
kept a monthly fall on Tuefday, the day on which
this fatal mifchance happened, and he fettled an an¬
nuity of 20/. on the widow*. There were feveral per- * Fuller’s
fans who took an advantage of this misfortune, to church-hift.
leffen him in the king’s favour; but his Majefty faid, XVUK
“ An angel might have mifcarried in this fort.” His P‘ 7"
enemies alledging that he had incurred an irregularity,
and was thereby incapacitated for performing the offi¬
ces of a primate ; the king directed a commiffion to
ten perfons to inquire into this matter. The refult,
however, was not fatisfattory to his Grace’s enemies;
it being declared, that, as the murder was involuntary,
he had not forfeited his archiepifcopal char after. The
archbifhop thenceforward feldom affifted at the council,
being chiefly hindered by his infirmities ; but in the
king’s laft illnefs he was fent for, and attended with
great conftancy till his Majefly expired on the 27th of
March 1625. He performed the ceremony of the co¬
ronation of king Charles I. though very infirm and
much troubled with the gout. He was never greatly
in this king’s favour; and the duke of Buckingham be¬
ing his declared enemy, watched an opportunity of
making him feel the weight of his difpleafure. This he
at lafl: accomplifhed, upon the archbifhop’s refufing to
licenfe a fermon, preached by Dr Sibthorpe to juftify a
loan which the king had demanded, and pregnant with
principles which tended to overthrow the conftitution.
The archbifhop was immediately after fufpended from
all his functions as primate; and they were exereifed
by certain bifhops commiffioned by the king, of whom
Laud, the archbp’s enemy, and afterwards his fucceffor,
was one : while the only caufe affigned for this proce¬
dure was, That the archbifhop could not at that time
perfonally attend thofe fervices which were otherwife
proper for his cognifance and direction. He did not,
however, remain long in this fituation ; for a parlia¬
ment being abfolutely neceffary, his Grace was fent for,
and reftored to his authority and jurifdiAion. But not
proving friendly to certain rigorous meafures adopted
by the prevailing church-party, headed by Laud, whofe
power and intereft at court was now very confiderable,
his prefence became unwelcome there; fo that upon
the birth of the prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II.
Laud had the honour to baj^ize him, as dean of the
chapel. The archbifhop being worn out with cares and
infirmities, died at Croydon, the 5th of Auguft 1633,
aged feventy-one years ; and was buried at Guilford,
the place of his nativity, and where he had endowed an
hofpital with lands to the amount of 300 /. per annum.
A ftately monument was erected over the grave, with
the effigy of the archbifhop in his robes. He fhewed
himfelf, in moil circumflances of his life, a man of
great moderation to all parties; and was defirous that
the clergy^fhould attradl the efteem of the laity by the
fanftity
ABB [ 9 ] A B D
Abbot faiwEtity of their manners, rather than claim it as due to
(Robert ) 'J,ei'r function. His notions and principles, however,
not fuiting the humour of fome writers, have drawn
upon him many fevere reflections; particularly, which
is to be regretted, from the earl of Clarendon. But
Dr Welwcod has done more juftice to his merit and
* Memoirs, abilities *. He wrote feveral tra&s upon various fub-
8V0. 1700. je£g . as already mentioned, tranflated part of the
P' 3 * New Teftament, with the reft of the Oxford divines,
1611.
ABBOT (Robert,) elder brother to the former, and
born at Guilford in 1560, went through his ftudies in
Baliol college, Oxford. In 1582, he took his degree
of mafter of arts, and foon became a celebrated preach¬
er ; and to this talent he chiefly owed his preferment.
Upon his firft fermon at Worcefter, he was chofen lec¬
turer in that city, and foon after redlor of All-faints in
the fame place. John Stanhope, efq; happening to hear
him preach at Paul’s-crofs, was fo pleafed with him,
that he immediately prefented him to the rich living of
Bingham in Nottinghamflure. In 1597, he took his
degree of doftor in divinity: and, in the beginning of
king James’s reign, was appointed chaplain in ordinary
to his Majefty; who had fuch an opinion of him as a
writer, that he ordered the doftof’s book De Antichrijlo
to be printed with his own commentary upon part of
the Apocalypfe. In 1609, he was eledled mafter of
Baliol college ; which truft he difcharged with the ut-
moft care and afliduity, by his frequent leClures to the
fcholars, by his continual prefence at public exercifes,
and by promoting temperance in the fociety. In No¬
vember 1610, he was made prebendary of Normanton
in the church of Southwell; and, in 1612, his Majefty
appointed him regius profeflbr of divinity at Oxford.
The fame of his leClures became very great; and thofe
which he gave upon the fupreme power of kings againft
Bellarmine and Suarez, fo much pleafed his Majefty,
that, when the fee of Saliftmry became vacant, he na¬
med him to that bilhoprick, and he was confecrated
by his own brother at Lambeth, December 3, 1615.
When he came to Salilbury, he found the cathedral
running to decay, through the negligence and covet-
oufnefs of the clergy belonging to it: however, he found
means to draw five hundred pounds from the prebenda¬
ries, which he applied to the reparation of this church.
He then gave himfelf up to the duties of his fundlion
with great diligence and afliduity, vifiting his whole
diocefe in perfon, and preaching every Sunday whilft
health would permit. But this was not long: for his fe-
dentary life, and clofe application to ftudy, brought
upon him the gravel and ftone; of which he died on the
2d of March 1618, in the fifty-eighth year of his age;
having not filled the fee quite two years and three
months, and being one of the five bifhops which Salif-
bury had in fix years. He was buried oppofite to the
* e/bifhop’s feat in the cathedral. Dr Fuller *, fpeaking of
England; in t}le two brothers, fays, “ that George was the more
am> « plaufible preacher, Robert the greateft fcholar;
“ George the abler ftatefman, Robert the deeper di-
“ vine ; gravity did frown in George, and fmile in
“ Robert.” Fie publiihed feveral pieces ; and alfo
left behind him fundry manufcripts, which Dr Corbet
made a prefent of to the Bodleian library.
ABBOTS BROMLEY, a town in Staffordfture,
with a market on Tuefday. After the diffolution of
Von. I.
the monafteries, it was given to the Lord Paget; and Abbots-
has fince been called Paget’s Bromley, and is fo deno- Br0‘*’ler
minated in the county map. But it retains its old Abdal-
name in the king’s books, and is a difcharged vicarage malek.
of 30 /. clear yearly value. It likewife retains the old
name with regard to the fairs; which are three, and all
for horfes and horned cattle. They are on the Thurf-
day before Mid-lent Sunday, the 22d of May, and
24th of Auguft. It is fix miles eaft of Stafford, feven
north of Litchfield, and 128 north-weft of London.
W. Long. 1. 2. Lat. 52. 45'.
ABBOTSBURY, a fmall town in Dorfetfhire, with
a market on Thurfday; feven miles weft of Wey¬
mouth, feven fouth-weft of Dorchefter, and a hundred
and thirty-three weft-by-fouth of London. The fair is
on July the tenth, for (heep and toys. W. Long. 1. 17.
Lat. 50. 40. The abbey near this town was founded
by a Norman lady, about the year 1026; and Edward
the Confefibr and William the Conqueror were confi-
derable benefa&ors to it.
ABBREVIATE of Adjudications, in Scots law, an
abftradl or abridgment of a decreet of adjudication, * See
which is recorded in a regifter kept for that purpofe *. part ][[_ *
ABBREVIATION. See Abbreviature. n°clxxii. 5.
ABBREVIATOR, in a general fenfe, a perfon
who abridges any large book into a narrower compafs.
Abbreviators, a college of 72 perfons in the
chancery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves,
and reduce petitions, when granted by him, into proper
form for being converted into bulls.
ABBREVIATURE, or Abbreviation, proper¬
ly fignifies the fubftitution of a fyllable or letter for a
whole word: thus, M. ftands for munipulus, a handful;
and Cong, for congius, a gallon.
Abbreviature, in a lefs proper fenfe, is ufed for
any mark or character. See Character.
ABBUTALS, fignify the buttings or boundings
of land towards any point. Limits were anciently di-
ftinguiftied by artificial hillocks, which were called bo-
tent ines; and hence butting. In a defcription of the
fite of land, the fides on the breadth are more properly
adjacentes, and1 thofe terminating the length are abbu-
tantes ; which, in old furveys, were fometimes exprefs-
ed by capitare, to head, whence abbutals are now call¬
ed head-lands.
ABCEDARY, or Abcedarian, an epithet given
to compofitions, the parts of which are difpofed in the
order of the letters of the alphabet: thus we fay, Ab¬
cedarian pfalms, lamentations, hymns, <bc.
ABDALA, the fon of Abdalmothleb, was the fa¬
ther of the prophet Mahomet.
ABDALMALEK, the fon of Mirvan, and the 5t!l
khalif of the race of the Ommiades, firnamed Rafch al
Hegiarat, i. e. the {kinner of a ftone, becaufe of his
extreme avarice; as alfo Aboulzebab, becaufe his
breath was faid to be fo poifonous as to kill all the flies
which refted on his face. Yet he furpafled all his pre-
deceflbrs in power and dominion ; for in his reign the
Indies were conquered in the eaft, and his armies pene¬
trated Spain in the weft : he likewife extended his em¬
pire toward the fouth, by making himfelf mafter of
Medina and Mecca. He began his reign in the 65
of the hegira, A. D. 64S; reigned 15 years; and
four of his fons enjoyed the khalifate one after ano¬
ther.
B
Abdalmelek,
A B D [ io ] A B D
Abdalraekk Abdalmelek (Ben Zohar), an eminent phyfician,
I] commonly called by the Europeans Avenzoar *.
-4|^ra' - ABDALMOTHLEB, or Abdal Mafeleb, the
-nan ^on Hafhem, the father of Abdalla, and grand¬
father of Mahomet the prophet of the Muffulmans, was,
it is faid, of fuch wonderful comelinefs and beauty, that
all women who faw him became enamoured: which
may have given occafion to that prophetic light, which,
according to the Arabians, fhone on the foreheads of
him, his anceftors, and defcendants; it being certain
that they were very handfome and graceful men. He
died when Mahomet, of whom he had taken peculiar
care, was only 8 or g years old; aged, according to
fome, no, and according to other writers 120.
ABDALONYMUS, or Abdoeonymus, (inclaflio
hiftory), of the royal'family of Sidon, and defcended
from king Cinyras, was contented to live in obfcurity,
and get his fubfiftence by cultivating a garden, while
St'rato was in pofleffion of the crown of Sidon. Alexan¬
der the Great having depofed Strato, inquired whether
any of the race of Cinyras was living, that he might fet
him on the throne. It was generally thought that the
whole race was extinft: but at laft Abdalonymus was
thought of, and mentioned to Alexander; who imme¬
diately ordered fome of his foldiers to fetch him. They
found the good man at work, happy in his poverty,
and entirely a ftranger to the noife of arms, with which
all Alia was at that time difturbed; and they could
fcarcely perfuade him that they were in earneft. Alex¬
ander was convinced of his high defcent, by the dig¬
nity that appeared in his perfon; but was defirous of
learning from him in what manner he bore his poverty.
“ I wilh (faid Abdalonymus) I may bear my new
“ condition as well: Thefe hands have fupplied my
*l neceffities: I have had nothing, and I have wanted
“ nothing.” This anfvverpleafed Alexander fo much,
that, befides giving him all that was Strato’s, he aug¬
mented his dominions, and gave him a large prefent
out of the Perfian fpoils.
ABDALS, in the Eaftern countries, a kind of
faints fiippofed to be infpired to a degree of madnefs.
The word comes, perhaps, from the Arabic, Abdal¬
lah, the fervant of God. The Perfians call them deva-
•neh khoda, limilar to the Latins way of fpeaking of their
prophets and fibyls, q. d. furentes deo, raging \<dth the
god. They are often carried by excefs of zeal, efpe-
cially in the Indies, to run about the ftreets, and kill
all they meet of a different religion ; of which travel¬
lers furnilh many inftances. The Englilh call this,
running a muk, from the name of the inltrument, a fort
of poignard, which they employ on thofe defperate oc-
cafions. If they are killed, as it commonly happens,
before they have done much mifchief, they reckon it
■ highly meritorious; and are elteemed, by the vulgar,
martyrs for their faith.
ABDERA, a maritime town of Thrace, not far from
the mouth of the river Neffus, on the eaft fide; ( Strabo.)
The foundation thereof, according to Herodotus,
was attempted to be laid by Timefius the Clazome-
nian; but he was forced by the Thracians to quit the
defign. The Teians undertook it, and fucceeded; fet-
* Plinii lling there, in order to avoid the infults of the Perfians.
iib.xxv. c.8. —Several Angularities are told of Abdera *. The grafs
Juft. lib. xv. of the country round it was fo ftrong, that fuch horfes
*> as eat of it ran mad. In the reign of Caffander king, of
Macedon, this city was fo peftered with frogs and rats, Abdera
that the inhabitants were forced to quit it for a time.
—The Abderites, or Abderitani, were very much deri- naies. "
ded for their want of wit and judgment: yet their 
city has given birth to feveral eminent perfons ; as,
Protagoras, Democritus, Anaxarchus, ’ Hecatasus the
hiftonan, Nicasnetus the poet, and many others, who -
were mentioned among the illuftrious men.—In the
reign of Lyfimachus, Abdera was afflifted for fome
months with a moft extraordinary difeafe f : this was t
a burning fever, whofe crifis was always on the feventh jh conjcrtl,en-
day, and then it left them ; but it fo diftra&ed their initio. .
imaginations, that they fancied themfelves players.
After this, they were ever repeating verfes from fome
tragedy, and particularly out of the Andromeda of
Euripides, as if they had been upon the ftage; fo
that many of thefe pale, meager aftors were pouring
forth their tragic exclamations in every ftreet. This
delirium continued till the winter following ; which
was a very cold one, and therefore fitter to remove it.
Lucian, who has defcribed this difeafe, endeavours to
account for it this manner: Archelaus, an excellent
player, afted the Andromeda of Euripides before the
Abderites, in the height of a very hot fummer. Seve¬
ral had a fever at their coming out of the theatre ; and
as their imaginations were full of the tragedy, the de¬
lirium which the fever raifed reprefented perpetually
Andromeda, Perfeus, Medufa, &c. and the feveral
dramatic incidents, and called up the ideas of thofe ob-
jefts, and the pleafure of the reprefentation, fo ftrongly,
that they could not forbear imitating Archelaus’s
aftion and declamation : And from thefe the fever
fpread to others by infection.
ABDEST, a Perfian word, properly fignifying the
water placed in a bafon for walhing the hands; but is
ufed to imply the legal purifications practifed by the
Mahometans before they enter on their religious cere¬
monies.
ABDIAS of Babylon, one of the boldeft legend-
writers, who boafted he had feen our Saviour, was one
of the 72 difciples, had been eye-witnefs of the ac¬
tions and prayers at the deaths of feveral of the apo-
ftles, and had followed into Perfia^ St Simon and St
Jude, who, he faid, made him the firft bilhop of Ba¬
bylon. His book entitled Hijloria certaminis apqftolici,
was publifhed by Wolfgang Lazius, at Bafil, 1551; and
it as fince borne feveral impreffions in different places.
ABDICATION, the adfion whereby a magiftrate,
or perfon in office, renounces and gives up the fame
before the term of fervice is expired.
This word is frequently confounded with refignation ;
but differs from it, in that abdication is done purely
and fimply, whereas refignation .is in favour of fome
third perfon. It is faid to be a renunciation, quitting,
and relinquifhing, fo as to have nothing further to do
with a thing; or the doing of fuch adfions as are in-
confiftent with the holding of it. On king James’s lea¬
ving the kingdom, and. abdicating the government, the
lords would have had the word defer t tun made ufe of; but
the commons thought it was not comprehenfive enough*
for that the king might then have liberty of returning.
ABDOMEN, in anatomy, is that part of the trunk
of the body which lies between the thorax and the bot¬
tom of the pelvis. See Anatomy, n° 349, &c.
ABDOMINALES, or. Abdominal Fishes, con-
ftitute
Abdon
II
Abelard.
ABE [ ii ] ABE
ftitute the IVth Order of the Fourth Clafs of Animals,
in the Linnsean fyftem. See Zoology, n° 10, d.
ABDON, one of the Levitical cities in the fouth of
the tribe of Afher. (Joihua.)
Abdon, the fon of Hillel, a Pirathonite, fucceeded
Elon, and judged Ifrael eight years.
ABDUCTION, a form of reafoning among logi¬
cians, which confifts in drawing concluiions from cer¬
tain and undeniable propofitions.
Abduction, in furgery, a fpeciesof frafture where¬
in 'the broken parts of the bone recede from each other.
ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, in anatomy, a name
given to feveral of the mufcles on account of their fer-
ying to withdraw, open, or pull back, the parts to which
they are fixed.
ABEL, fecond fon of Adam and Eve, was a Ihep-
herd. He offered to God fome of the firftlings of his
flock, at the fame time that his brother Cain offered
fruits of the earth. God was pleafed with Abel’s ob¬
lation, but diffatisfied with Cain’s ; which fo exafpe-
rated the latter, that he rofe up againft his brother and
killed him. Thefe are the only circumftances Mofes
relates of him ; though, were we to take notice of the
feveral particulars which curiofity has given birth to
on this occafion, they would run to a very great length.
But this will not be expected.—It is remarkable, that
the Greek churches, who celebrate the feafts of every
patriarch and prophet, have not done the fame honour
to Abel; his name is not to be found in any catalogue
of faints or martyrs till the 10th century, nor even in
the new Roman martyrology. However, he is prayed
to with fome other faints in feveral Roman litanies laid
for perfons who lie at the point of death.
ABELARD (Peter), one of the moil famous doc¬
tors of the twelfth century, was born at Palais near
Nantz, in Britany : he was well learned in divinity,
philofophy, and the languages; but was particularly di-
ftinguifhed by his fkill in logic, and his fondnefs for dif-
putations, which led him to travel into feveral pro¬
vinces in order to give public proof of his acutenefs in
that fcience. After having baffled many antagonifts,
he read lectures in divinity with great applaufe at Pa¬
ris ; where he boarded with a canon whofe name was
pulbert, and who had a very beautiful niece named He-
loife. The canon ardently wifired to fee this young
lady make a figure among the learned, and Abelard
was made her preceptor: but inftead of inftrufting her
in the fciences, he taught her to love. Abelard now
performed his public functions very coldly, and wrote
nothing but amorous verfes. Heloife proving w ith child,
Abelard fent her to a filter of his in Britany, where Ihe
w’as delivered of a fon. To foften the canon’s anger, he
offered to marry Heloife privately; and he was better
pleafed with the propofal than the piece; who, from a
lingular excefs of paflion, chbfe to be his miltrefs rather
than his wife. She married, however; but ufed often to
protell upon oath that Ihe was fingle, which provoked
the canon to ufe her ill. Upon this, Abelard fent her
to the monaftery of Argenteuil; where (he put on a re¬
ligious habit, but did not take the veil. Heloife’s re¬
lations confidering this as a fecond treachery, hired ruf¬
fians, who, forcing into his chamber in the dead of the
night, emafculated him. This infamous treatment made
him fly to the gloom of a cloilter. He affumed the mo-
naftic habit in the abbey, of St Dennis; but the dif-
orders of that houfe foon drove him from thence. He Abelard
was afterwards charged with herefy; but after feveral A|el
perfecutions for his religious fentiments, he fettled in a Mizraim.
folitude in the diocefe of Troies, where he built an ora-  
tory, to which he gave the name of the Paraclet. He
was afterwards chofen fuperior of the abbey of Ruis in
the diocefe of Vannes: when the nuns being expelled
from the nunnery in which Heloife had been placed,
he gave her his oratory; where Ihe fettled with fome of
her lifter nuns, and became their priorefs. Abelard mix¬
ed the philofophy of Ariftotle with his divinity, and in
1140 was condemned by the council uf Rheims and Sens.
Pope Innocent II. ordered him to be imprifoned, his
books to be burnt, and forbid him ever teaching again.
However, he was foon after pardoned, at the felicita¬
tion of Peter the Venerable, who received him into his
abbey of Clugni, where he led an exemplary life. He
died in the priory of Marcellus at Chalons, April 21,
1142, aged fixty three. His corpfe was fent to He¬
loife, who buried it in the Paraclet. He left feveral
works: the moll celebrated of which are thofe tender
letters that paffed between him and Heloife, with the
account of their misfortunes prefixed; which have been
tranllated into Englilh, and one of them immortalized
by the harmony of Mr Pope’s numbers.
ABEL-TREE, or Abele-tree, an obfolete name
for a fpecies of the poplar. See Populus.
Abel-beth-maacha, called alfo Abel-mahn, a town
in the tribe of Naphthali, in the north of Canaan, to¬
wards Syria, where was a diftrift called Maacha *. * 1 Kin. xy.
ABELIANS, Abeloites, or Abelonians, in *ChrO'xvi.
church-hiftory, a feft of heretics mentioned by St Au-
ftin J, which arofe in the diocefe of Hippo in Africa, t Auguflin.
and is fuppofed to have begun in the reign of Arcadius, deHxr.c.Sj.
and ended in that of Theodofius. Indee'd it was not
calculated for being of any long continuance. Thofe
of this fe£t regulated marriage after the example of Abel;
wfflo, they pretended, was married, but died without ever
having known his wife. They therefore allowed each
man to marry one woman, but enjoined them to live in
continence: and, to keep up the feift, when a man and
woman entered into this fociety, they adopted a boy and'
a girl, who were to inherit their goods, and to marry
upon the fame terms of not begetting children, but of
adopting two of different fexes.
ABELLA, anciently a town of Campania, near
the river Clanius. The inhabitants were called Abel-
lani, and faid to have betn a colony of Chalcidians.
The nux Avellana, called alfo Prasneftina, or the hazel¬
nut, takes its name from this town, according to Ma-
crobius. Now Avella.
ABELLINUM, anciently a town of the Hirpini,
a people of Apulia; diftant about a mile from the rivu¬
let Sabbato, between Beneventum and Salernum. Pliny
calls the inhabitants Abellinates, with the epithet Pro-
topi, to diftinguifli them from the Abellinates Marfi.
Now Avellino. E. Long. 15. 20. Lat.-2i.
ABEL-MEHOLA, the country of the prophet E-
liftia, fituate in Manafleh, on this fide Jordan, between
the valley of Jezreel and the village Bethmaela in the
plains of Jordan, where the Midianites were defeated
by Gideon. Judges, vii. 22.
ABEL-MIZRAIM, called alfo the Threlhing-
flbor. of At ad; fignifying the lamentation of the E-
gyptians ; in allufion to the mourning for Jacob,
B 2 Gen.
ABE [
Abelmofch Gen. i. 3, xc, 11. Suppofed tobe near Hebron. (Wells.)
Abtrbro- ABELMOSCH, or Abelmusch, in botany, the
thick. trivial name of a fpecies of the hibifcus. See Hibiscus.
■  ABEL-SATTIM, or Sittim, a town in the plains
of Moab, to the N. E. of the Dead Sea, not far from
Jordan, where the Ifraelites committed fornication with
the daughters of Moab: So called, probably, from the
great number of iittim-trees there.
ABEN EZRA (Abraham) a celebrated rabbi, born
at Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews, The wife, great,
and admirable Doftor, was a very able interpreter of
the Holy Scriptures; and was well Ikilled in grammar,
poetry, phjlofophy, aftronomy, and medicine. He
was alfo a perfebt matter of the 'Arabic. His principal
work is, Commentaries on the Old Teftament, which
is much efteemed: thefe are printed in Bamberg’s and
BuxtorPs Hebrew Bibles. His ttyle is clear, elegant,
concife, and much like that of the Holy Scriptures:
he almoft always adheres to the literal fenfe, and every
where gives proofs of his genius and good fenfe : he,
however, advances fome erroneous fentiments. The
fcarceft of all his books is entitled, Jefud Mora; which
is a theological work, intended as an exhortation to the
ftudy of the Talmud. He died in 1174, aged 75.
ABEN MELLER, a learned rabbin, who wrote a
commentary on the Old Teftament in Hebrew, intitled
The Perfection of Beauty. This rabbin generally fol¬
lows the grammatical fenfe and the opinions of Kim-
chi. The beft edition is that of Holland.
ARENAS, a town of France, in Languedoc and in
the lower Vivarais, feated on the river Ardefch, at the
foot of the Cevennes, 15 miles north-weft of Viviers.
E. Long. 4. 43. Lat. 44. 40.
ABENSPERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle and duchy of Bavaria, and in the government of
Munich. It is feated on the river Abentz, near the Da¬
nube, 13 miles fouth-weft of Ratilbon, and. 20 eaft of
Ingolftadt. E. Long. 11. 38. Laf. 48. 45.
ABERAVON, a borough-town of Glamorgan (hire
in Wales, governed by a portreeve. It had a market,
which is now difcontinued: the vicarage is difcharged,
and is worth 45 1. clear yearly value. It is feated at
the mouth of the river Avon, 19 miles fouth-weft of
Cowbride, 75 eaft of St David’s, and 194 weft of
London. W. Long. 3. 21. Lat. 51.40.
ABERBROTHICK, or Arbroath, one of the
royal boroughs of Scotland, lituated in the county of
Angus, about forty miles N.' N. E. of Edinburgh; its
W. Long, being 2. 29. and N. Lat. 56. 36. It is feat¬
ed on the difcharge of the little river Brothic into the
fea, as the name imports, Aber in the Britilh implying
fuch a fituation. It is a fmall but flourilhing place,
well built, and ttill increafing. The town has been in
an improving ftate for the thirty laft years, and the
number of inhabitants greatly augmented; which is
owing to the introdu&ion of manufablures. The num¬
ber, at this time, is faid to be about three thoufand
five hundred: thefe principally confift of weavers of
coarfe brown linens, and fome fail-cloth; others are
employed in making white and coloured threads : the
remainder are either engaged in the (hipping of the
place, or in the necefiary and common mechanic trades.
The brown linens, or Ofnaburghs, were manufac¬
tured here before any encouragement was given by
Government, or the linen company erected at Edin¬
burgh. It appears from the books of the ftamp-off.ee Aberbro-.
in this town, that feven or eight hundred thoufand *
yards are annually made in the place, and a fmall di- Aberdeen/
ftrift round. Beiides this export and that of thread,  —
much barley and fome wheat is fent abroad. The
foreign imports are flax, flax-feed, and timber, from
the Baltic. The coafting trade confifts of coals from •
Rovrowftounnefs, and lime from Lord Elgin’s kilns
in Fife.—At this place, in default of a natural har¬
bour, a tolerable artificial one of piers has been formed,
where, at fpring-tides, which rife here fifteen feet,
(hips of two hundred tons can come, and of eighty at
neap-tides; but they muft lie dry at low water. This
port is of great antiquity: there is an agreement yet
extant between the abbot and the burghers of Aber-
brothic, in the year 1194, concerning the making of'
the harbour. Both parties were bound to contribute
their proportions; but the largeft fell to the ihare of
the former, for which he was to receive an annual tax
payable out of every rood of land lying within tiie bo¬
rough.—The glory of this place was the abbey, whofe
very ruins give fome idea of its former magnificence.
It w-as founded-by William the Lion in 1178, and de¬
dicated to our celebrated primate Thomas a Becket.
The founder was buried here; but there are no re¬
mains of his tomb, or of any other, excepting that
of a monk, of the name of Alexander Nice). The
monks were of the Tyronenfian order; and were fit ft
brought from Kelfo, whofe abbot declared thofe of
this place on the firft inftitution to be free from his
jurifdidftion. The laft abbot was the famous Cardinal
Beaton, at the fame time archbiftiop of St Andrews,
and, before his death, as great and abfolute here as
Wolfey was in England. King John, the Englifii
monarch, granted-this monaftery mbit uncommon pri¬
vileges ; for by charter, under his great feal, he exemp¬
ted it a tcloniis et confuetudine in every part of Eng¬
land, except London.
ABERCONWAY, or Conway, Caernarvonfhire,
North-wales ; fo called from its fituatiou at the mouth
of the river Conway. It is a large well-built town ;
but its cattle is now in ruins. It is governed by a
mayor and two bailiffs, and has a market on Fridays.
It is 229 meafured miles from London. W. Lon. 3. 47.
Lat. 53. 20.
ABERDEEN, the name of two cities in Scotland,
called the Old and New Towns, fituated on the Ger¬
man Ocean, in W. Long. 1.40. and N. lat. 57. 19.
The Old Town lies about a mile to the north of the Old Town,
new, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a
fine bridge, of a Angle arch, which refts at both fides
on two rocks. The old town was formerly the feat of
the bilhop, and had a large cathedral commonly called
St Macher's. This two very antique fpires, and one
aifle, which is ufed as a church, are now the only re¬
mains of it. The biftioprick was founded in the time
of David I. who tranflated it from Mortlich in Banff-
fhire to this place. The cathedral had anciently two
rows of ftone pillars acrofs the church, and three
turrets ; the fteeple, which was the largett of thefe tur¬
rets, refted upon an arch, fupported by four pillars.
In this cathedral there was a fine library; but, about
the year 1560, it was almoft totally deftroyed. But
the capital building is the King’s-college, on the
fouth fide of the town, which is a large and {lately
fabric.
ABE [ 13 ] ABE
Aberdeen, fabric. It is built round a fquare, with cloifters on
the fouth fide. T'he chapel is very ruinous within ;
but there ftill remains fome wood-work of exquifite
workmanihip. This was preferved by the fpirit of the
principal at the time of the reformation, who armed
his people and checked the blind zeal of the barons of
the Mearns, who after ftripping the cathtdral of its
roof, and robbing it of the bells, were going to violate
this feat of learning. They fhipped their facrilegious
booty, with an intention of expofing it to fale in Hol¬
land : but the veffel had fcarcely gone out of port, but
it perifhed in a ftorm with all its ill-gained lading.
The fteeple is vaulted with a double crofs arch; above
which is an imperial crown, fupported by eight ftone-
pillars, and clofed with a globe and two guilded crof-
fes. In the year 1631 this fteeple was thrown down
by a ftorm, but was Toon after rebuilt in a more {lately
form. This college was founded in 1494, by William
Elphinfton biftiop of this place, Lord Chancellor of
Scotland in the reign of James III. and Lord Privy
Seal in that of James IV. But James IV. claimed the
patronage of it, and it has fince been called the King's
College. This college, and the Mariihai-college in the
New Town, form one univerfity, called the Univerfity of
King Charles. The library is large, but not remark¬
able for many curiofities. He£lor Boethius was the
firft principal of the college; and fent for from Paris
for that purpofe, on an annual falary of forty marks
Scots, at thirteen pence each. The fquare tower on
the fide of the college was built, by contributions from
general Monk and the officers under him then quar¬
tered at Aberdeen, for the reception of ftudents ; of
which there are about a hundred belonging to the col¬
lege, who lie in it.
NewTowr. The New Town is the capital of the fhire of Aber¬
deen. Por largenefs, trade, and beauty, it greatly ex¬
ceeds any town in the north of Scotland. It is built on
a hill or fifing ground, and lies on a fmallbay formed by
the Dee, deep enough for a (hip of 200 tons. It is
about two miles in circumference, and contains 13000
fouls, and about 3 000 in the fuburbs; but the whole
number of inhabitants between the bridges Dee and
Don, which includes both the Aberdeens, and thedn-
terjacent houfes or hamlets, is eftimated at 20,000.
The buildings (which are of granite from the neigh¬
bouring quanies) are generally four ftories high; and
have, for the moft part, gardens behind them, which
gives it a beautiful appearance. On the high ftreet is
a large church, which formerly belonged to the Fran-
eifeans. This church was begun by Bp William El¬
phinfton ; and finiflied by Gavinus Dunbar, Bifiiop of
Aberdeen, about the 1500. . Bp Dunbar is faid like-
wife to have built the bridge over the Dee, which con-
fifts of feven arches. In the middle of Caftle-ftreet is
an cdlagon building, with neat bas-relievos of the
kings of Scotland from James I. to James VII. The
town-houfe makes a good figure, and has a handfome
fpire in the center. The grammar-fehool is a low but
neat building. Gordon’s hofpital is handfome; in front
is a good ftatue of the founder: it maintains fortyboys,
who are apprenticed at proper ages. The infirmary
is a large plain building, and fends out between
eight and nine hundred cured patients annually. But
the chief public building in the new town is the
Marifhall-college, founded by George Keith earl of
Marifhall, in the year 1593; but fince greatly aug- Aberdeen
mented with additional buildings. There are about I!
140 ftudents belonging to it. In both the Marifhall venny.
and King’s-college the languages, mathematics, na- "
tural philofophy, divinity, foe. are taught by very
able profeffbrs. The convents in Aberdeen were :
One of Mathurines, or of the order of the Trinity,
founded by William the Lion, who died in 1214;
another of Dominicans, by Alexander II.; a third of
Obfervantines, a building of great length in the middle
of the city, founded by the citizens and Mr Richard
Vans, &c.; and a fourth of Carmelites, or White
Friars, founded by Philip de Arbuthnot in 1350.
Aberdeen once enjoyed a good fhare of the tobacco Trade,
trade ; but was at length forced to refign it to Glaf-
gow, which was fo much more conveniently fituated for
it. At prefent, its imports are from the Baltic, and
a few merchants trade to the Weft Indies and North
America. Its exports are ftockings, thread, falmon,
and oatmeal. The firft is a moft important article, as
appears by the following ftate of it. For this manu-
fadlure, 20,800 pounds worth of wool is annually
imported, and 1600 pounds worth of oil. Of this
wool is annually made 69,333 dozen pairs of ftock¬
ings; worth, at an average, 1 /. 10 /. per dozen.
Thefe are made by the country-people, in almoft all
parts of this great county, who get 4 s. per dozen for
fpinning, and 14/. per dozen for knitting; fo that
there is annually paid them 62,329/. 14/. There is,
befidcs, about 2000/. value of ftockings manufactured
from the wool of the county. The thread manu failure ia
another confiderable article, though trifling in compa¬
nion of the woollen. The falmon-filheries on the Dee
and the Don are a good branch of trade. About 46
boats, and 130 men, are employed on the firft ; and,
in fome years, 167,000 tfr. of fifit have been fent pick-
led to London, and about 930 barrels of faked fifh ex¬
ported to France, Italy, foe. The fiffiery on the Don
is far lefs confiderable.—Aberdeen, with Aberbrothick,
Brechin, Montrofe, and Inverbervie, returns one mem¬
ber to Parliament.
ABERDOUR, a fmall town in Fifefhire, Scot¬
land, on the frith of Forth, about ten miles N. W. of
Edinburgh. In old times it belonged tothe Viponts ;
in 1126 was transferred to the Mortimers by marriage,
and afterwards to the Douglafes. William, Lord of
Liddefdale, furnamed the Flonver of chivalry, in the
reign of David II. by charter conveyed it to James
Douglas, anceftor of the prefent noble owner the Earl
of Morton. The monks of Inchcolm had a grant
for a burial-place here from Allan de Mortimer, in the
reign of Alexander III. The nuns, ufually ftyled the
poor Clares, had a convent at this place.
ABERFORD, a market-town in the weft riding
of Yorklhire, Hands in a bottom; and is about a mile
long, and indifferently well built. It is near a Ro¬
man highway, which is raifed very high, and not far
from the river Cock; between which and the town
there is the foundation of an old caftle ftill vifible.
The market-day is Wednefday, and it is 181 miles
north-by-weft from London. W. Long. 2. 45. Lat.
55. 52.
ABERGAVENNY, a large, populous, and flou-
rifliing town in Monmouthlhire, feated at the conflu-
ence of the rivers Ufk and Gavenny. It has a fine
bridge.
ABE [ 14 j ABE
jgkbemethy bridge over the Ufl<, confifting of fifteen arches ; and
II . being a great thoroughfare from the weft part of Wales
to Bath, Briftol, Gloucefter, and other places, is well
furnifhed with accommodations for travellers. It is
furrounded with a wall, and had once a caftle. It is go¬
verned by a bailiff, a recorder, and twenty-feven bur-
geffes; has two markets, one on Wednefdays, and the
other on Fridays ; and carries on a confiderable trade
in flannels, which are brought hither for fale from
the other parts of the county. Its fairs are on
May 14, for lean horned cattle and fheep ; on the firft
Tuefday after Trinity-Sunday, for linen and woollen
cloth; and on the 25th of September, for flannels, hogs,
and hcrfes. It is 142 miles diftant from London.
W. Long. 2. 45. Lat. 51. 50. >
ABERNETHY (John), an eminent diffenting mi-
nifter, was the fon of Mr John Abernethy a diffenting
minifter in Colraine, and was born on the ip1'1 of Oc¬
tober 1680. When about nine years of age, he was
feparated from his parents, bis father being obliged to
attend fome public affairs in London ; and his mother,
to fhelter herfelf from the mad fury of the Iriih rebels,
retiring to Derry, a relation who had him under his
care, having no opportunity of conveying him to her,
took him with him to Scotland; by which means he
efcaped the hardfliips he muft have fuffered at the fiege.
of Derry, where Mrs Abernethy loft all her other
children. He afterwards ftudied at the univerfity of
Glafgow, till he took the degree of mafter of arts ; and,
in 1708, he was chofen mmifter of a diffenting con¬
gregation at Antrim, where he continued above twenty
years. About the time of the Bangorian controverfy
(for which, fee Hoadly), a diffenfion arofe among his
brethren in the miniftry at Belfaft, on the fubjeft of
fubfcription to the Weftminifter confeffion ; in which
he became a leader on the negative fide, and incurred
the cenfure of a general fynod. Being in confequence
defected by the greateft part of his congregation, he
accepted an invitation to fettle in Dublin, where his
preaching was much admired. He was diftinguiftted by
his candid, free, and generous fentiments"; and died of
the gout in Dec. 1740, in the fixtieth year of his age.
He publifhed a volume of fermons on the Divine At¬
tributes ; after his death a fecond volume was publifii-
ed by his friends; and thefe were fucceeded by two
other volumes on different fubjedts : all of which have
been greatly admired.
Abernethy, a town in Strathern, a diftricl of
Perthlhire, in Scotland. It is feated on the river Tay,
a little above the mouth of the Erne. It is faid to have
been the feat of the Pidtilh kings; and was afterwards
the fee of an archbilhop, fince transferred to St An¬
drews. It is now greatly decayed.
ABERRATION, in aftronomy, a fmall apparent
motion of the fixed liars difcovered by the late Dr
Bradley. The difcovery was made by accident in the
year 1 725, when Mr Molyneux and Dr Bradley began
to obferve the bright liar in the head of Draco, mark¬
ed y by Bayer, as it paffed near the zenith, with an in-
ftrument made by Mr Graham, in order to difcover the
parallax of the earth’s, annual orbit; and, after repeated
obfervations, they found this ftar, about the beginning
of March 1726, to be 20" more foutherly than at the
time of the firft obfervation. It now indeed feemed to
have arrived at its utmoft limit fouthward; becaufe, in
feveral trials made about this time, no fenfible difference Aberration
was obferved in its fituation. By the middle of April, AbJttor
it appeared to be returning back again toward the —i—
north ; and, about the beginning of June, it paffed at the
fame diftance from the zenith as it had done in Decem¬
ber, when it was firft obferved: in September following
it appeared- 49" more northerly than it was in March,
juft the contrary way to what it ought to appear by
the annual parallax of the liars. This unexpected
phenomenon perplexed the obfervers very much ; and
Mr Molyneux died before the true caufe of it was dif¬
covered. After this. Dr Bradley, with another inftru-
ment more exaCt and accurately adapted to this pur-
pofe, obferved the fame appearances not only in that
but many other liars: and, by the great regularity
that appeared in a feries of obfervations made in all
parts of the year, the doctor was fully fatisfied with re¬
gard to the general laws of the phasnomena; and there¬
fore endeavoured to find out the caufe of them. He
was already convinced, that the apparent motion of the
liars was not owing to a nutation of the earth’s axis.
The next thing that offered itfelf, was an alteration in
the direCt'ion of the plumb line, with which the in-
ftrument was conftantly rectified; but this, upon trial,
proved infufficient. Then he had recourfe to what re-
fraClion might do; but here alfo nothing fatisfaClory
occurred. At laft this acute aftronomer found, that the
phenomena in queftion proceeded from the progreffive
motion of light, and the earth’s annual motion in its
orbit: for he perceived, that if light was propagated
in time, the apparent place of a fixed objeCt would not
be the fame when the eye is at reft, as when it is mo¬
ving in any other direction, than that of the line paf-
fing through the eye and objeCt; and that, when the
eye is moving in different directions, the apparent place
of the objeCt would be different *. * YWe
Aberration, in optics, is ufed to denote that error 1 ^0 '
or deviation of the rays of light, when infleCted by a
lens or fpeculum, whereby they are hindered from
meeting 01 juniting in the fame point. There are two
fpecies of the abberrations of rays, diftinguilhed by
their different caufes; one arifing from the figure of the
glafs or fpeculum, the other from the unequal refrangi-
bility of the rays of light. This laft fpecies is fometimes
called the Newtonian, from the name of its inventor *. * Sce Optia,
ABERYSTWITH, a market-town of Cardigan- n° 19—*2.
fhire, in Wales, feated on the Ridal, near its confluence
with the Iftwith, where it falls into the fea. It was
formerly a walled town; and fortified with a caftle,
which is now in ruins; and the town itfelf is gone to
decay, for there is fcarce a hundred houfes remaining.
However, it is governed by a mayor and recorder ; and
fends dhe member to parliament. It is noted for its
fiftiing trade, and has a good market on Mondays for
corn and wool. Its diftance from London is 199 miles
weft-fouth-weft. W. Long. 4. 15. Lat. 52. 30.
ABESTA, the name of one of the facred books of
the Perlian magi, which they afcribe to their great
founder Zoroafter. The abefta is a commentary on two
others of their religious books called Zend and Pazend;
the three together including the whole fyftem of the
Igniccld, or worihippers of fire.
ABETTOR, a law-term, implying one who en¬
courages another to the performance of fome criminal
aCtion, or who is art and part in the performance it¬
felf.
Abex
II
Abgar.
* EcclWift.
lib. i. c. 13.
A B G
[ 15 ]
A B I
felf. Treafon is the only crime in which abettors are
excluded by law, every individual concerned being con-
fidered as a principal. It is the fame with Ari-and-part
in the Scots law.
ABEX, a country in High Ethiopia, in Africa,
bordering on the Red Sea, by which it is bounded on
the eaft. It has Nubia or Sennar on the north; Sennar
and Abyfiinia on the weft; and Abyffinia on the fouthi
.Its principal towns are Suaquem and Arkeko. It is
fubjeft to the Turks, and has the name of the Begler-
beg of Habeleth. It is about five hundred miles in
length and one hundred in breadth, and is a wretched
country; for the heat here is almoft infupportable, and
the air is fo unhealthy, that an European cannot ftay
long there without the utmoft hazard of his life. It is
very mountainous, infomuch that there are nfany more
wild beafts than men. There are forefts, in which grow
a great number of ebony trees.
ABEYANCE, in law, the expeftancy of an eftate.
Thus if lands be leafed to one perfon for life, with re-
verfion to another for years, the remainder for years is
an abeyance till the death of theleffee.
ABGAR, or Abgarus, a name given to feveral
of the kings of EdefTa in Syria. The moft celebrated of
them is one who, it is faid, was cotemporary with
Jefus Chrift; and who having a diftemper in his feet,
and hearing of Jefus’s miraculous cures, requefted him,
by letter, to come and cure him. Eufebius *, who be¬
lieved that this letter was genuine, and alfo an an-
fwer our Saviour is faid to have returned to it, has tranf-
lated them both from the Syriac, and afferts that they
were taken out of the archives of the city of Edeffa.
The firft is as follows : “ Abgarus, prince of Edeffa, to
“ Jefus the holy Saviour, who hath appeared in the flelh
“ in the confines of Jerufalem, greeting. I have heard
“ of thee, and of the cures thou haft wrought without
“ medicines or herbs. For it is reported thou makeft
“ the blind to fee, the lame to walk, lepers to be clean,
“ devils and unclean fpirits to be expelled, fuch as
“ have been long difeafed to be healed, and the dead
“ to be raifed; all which when I heard concerning
“ thee, I concluded with my felf, That either thou
“ waft a God come down from heaven, or the Son of
“ God fent to do thefe things. I have therefore writ-
“ ten to, thee, befeeching thee to vouchfafe to come
“ unto me, and' cure my difeafe. For I have alfo heard
“ that the Jews ufe thee ill, and lay fnares to deftroy
“ thee. I have here a little city, pleafantly fituated,
“ and fufficient for us both. Abgarus.” To this
letter, Jefus, it is faid, returned an anfwer by Ananias,
Abgarus’s courier, which was as follow's : “ Bleffed
“ art thou, O Abgarus! who haft believed in me
“ whom thou haft not feen ; for the fcriptures fay or
“ me, They who have feen me have not believed in
“ me, that they who have not feen, may, by believing,
“ have life. But whereas thou writeft to have me
“ come to thee, it is of neceffity that I fulfil all things
“ here for which I am fent ; and having finilhed them,
“ to return to him that fent me : but when I am re-
“ turned to him, I will then fend one of my difciples
“ to thee, who ftiall cure thy malady, and give life to
“ thee and thine. Jesus.” After Jefus’s afcenfion,
Judas, who is alfo named Thomas, fent Thaddeus one
of the feventy to Abgarus; who preached the gofpel to
him and his people, cured him. of his diforder, and
wrought many other miracles: which was done, fays Abgillns
Eufebius, A. D. 43.—Though the above letters are AJjes
acknowledged to be fpurious ty the candid writers f of r—■—
the church of Rome; feveral Proteftant authors, as Dr
Parker J, Dr Cave ||, and Dr Grabe $, have maintained 2'eft.
that they are genuine, and ought not to be reje&ed. part i. c. 3.
ABGILLUS (John), furnamed Prefter John, was Dupin’s
fon to a king of the Frifcii; and, from the aufterity of ^ft- of the
his life, obtained the name of Prejier or Prieft. He c 6
attended Charlemagne in his expedition to the Holy gee alfo,"
Land ; but inftead of returning with that monarch to Jones'sNeur
Europe, it is pretended that he gained mighty con- Method cf
quefts, and founded the empire of the AbylDnes, calL-^*™/^
ed, from his name, the empire of Prefter John. He is thority of the
faid to have written the hiftory of Charlemagne’s jour- N.T. vol. ii.
ney into the Holy Land, and of his own into the In- P- 7> &c.
dies; but they are more probably trifling romances,
wr itten in the ages of ignorance. nature ir the
ABIANS, anciently a people of Thrace, or (accord- Xian relig.
ing to fome authors) of Scythia. They had no fixed ha- Preface,and
bitations; they led a wandering life. Their houfes were
waggons, which carried all their poffeffions. They t^,inchrift.
lived on the flelh of their herds and flocks, on milk, vol.i.p.i.g.
and cheefe, chiefly on that of mare’s milk. They were § Spidleg.
unacquainted with commerce. They only exchanged
commodities with their neighbours. They poffelfed inNotis,
lands ; but they did not cultivate them. They affign- p. 313, 321,
ed their agriculture to any who would undertake it, re- 316.
ferving only to themfelves a tribute ; which they ex-
afted, not with a view to live in affluence, but merely
to enjoy the neceffaries of life. They nevqr took arms
but to oblige thofe to make good a promife to them by
whom' it had been broken. They paid tribute to none
of the neighbouring ftates. They deemed themfelvea
exempt from fuch an impofition ; for they relied on
their ftrength and courage, and confequently thought
themfelves able to repel any invafion. The Abians,
we are told, were a people of great integrity. This ho¬
nourable eulogium is given them by Homer. (Strabo.)
ABIATHAR, high-prieft of the Jews, fon to Abi-
melech, who had borne the fame office and received
David into his houfe. This fo enraged Saul, who ha¬
ted David, that he put Abimelech to death, and 81
priefts; Abiathar alone efcaped the maffacre. He af¬
terward was high-prieft; and often gave king David te~
ftimonies of his fidelity, particularly during Abfalom’s
confpiracy, at which time Abiathar followed David,
and bore away the ark. But after this, confpiring with
Adonijah, in order to raife him to the throne of king
David his father; this fo exafperated Solomon againft
him, that he divefted him of the priefthood, and ba-
niflied him, A. M. 3021, before Chrift 1014.
ABIB, lignifying an ear of corn, a name given by
the Jews to the firft month of their ecclefiaftical year,
afterwards called Nifan. It commenced at the vernal
equinox; and according to the courfe of the moon, by
which their months were regulated,. anfwered* to the
latter part of our March and beginning of April.
'ABIDING by ‘writings, irt Scots law: When a
perfon founds upon a writing alledged to be falfe, he
may be obliged to declare judicially, whether he
will ftand or abide by it as a true deed; As to the
confequence of abiding by, or paffing from, a falfe
deed, fee Law, Part III. N°clxxxvi.32.
ABIES, the Fir-tree, a genus of. evergreens ; the
characters ■
Abies,
the Fir-tree.
Species de-
cribed.
Culture.
AB I [I(5] ABI
characters of which are, There are male and female
flowers on the fame tree; the male flowers have em-
palements of four leaves without petals, many ftami-
na, and naked fummits. The female flowers are col-
letted in a fcaly cone, each fcale covering two flowers
having neither petals or ftamina, with one pointal, and
are each fucceededby a winged nut. The diftinguifliing
charatter of this genus, is the leaves arifing fingly from
their bafe whereas the Pines have two or more arifing
from the fame point.
The Fir has always been feparated from the Pine-
trees by all writers on botany before Dr Linnaeus;
and were generally diftinguiflied therefrom, by their
leaves being produced fingly on the branches; the
leaves of the Pines being produced by pairs, threes, or
fives, out of ftieaths which furround their bafe. And
as this diftinttion is now well known among the nur-
fery-gardeners, it is much better to keep them fepa-
rate, than to join them, with the cedar of Libanus and
larch-tree, to the Pine, as the dottor has done, making
them of one genus; efpecially as the culture of them
is very different. See Pin us.
The following fpecies are now in the Britifli gardens.
i. Picea, or the filver or yew-leaved fir, grows na¬
turally in many parts of Germany, but the fineft trees
of this fort are growing upon mount Olympus. The
Stra(burgh turpentine is drawn from this tree. The
wood is white and fort, and therefore not greatly efteem-
ed. 2. Alba, or the fpruce or Norway fir, fometimes
called the pitch-tree, grows naturally on the low lands
of Sweden, Norway^ and Denmark, or the mountains
of Scotland; as alfo in many other parts of Europe.
The wood is very light, white, rots in the air, and
crackles in the fire. It is ufed for making mufical in-
ftruments, packing-boxes, <&c. The Laplanders make
ropes of the roots, and employ them for faftening toge¬
ther the thin planks of their portable canoes. The in¬
habitants of Canada prepare a pleafant and wholefome
liquor from the leaves. 3. Balfamea, or the balm-of-
Gilead fir, fo nearly refembles the picea, as fcarcely to
be diftinguiflied from it after it is grown to a large fize.
4. Canadenfis, or the fmall-coned American fpruce fir,
grows naturally in many parts of North America, from
whence the cones have been brought to England. The
leaves are ftiorter than thofe of the fpruce fir, but like
them in ftiape; the cones are loofe, and about an inch
in length. 5. The Newfoundland fpruce, is a native
of Newfoundland and feveral other parts of North
America; where the inhabitants make three forts of
it, by the titles of Black, White, and Red Spruce.
6. Americana, or the American hemlock fir, is alfo a
native of the fame country ; and in the northern parts
grows to be a very large tree: but in Britain the branches
fpread wide every way, fo that there is no appearance
of the trees ever arriving to any confiderable height.
The leaves are fhort, and fliaped very like thofe of the
yew-tree : they are ranged on two fides of the branches
only; fo they appear flat, like thofe of the filver fir; but
are of a pale green on both fides. The cones are
fmall, loofe, and roundifh. From moft of thefe firs,
the inhabitants of North America collett a clear fra¬
grant turpentine, which they ufe for curing green
wounds; and the phyficians there make great ufe of
it internally.
All the forts of fir are propagated by feeds. The
time for lowing them is about the middle of March, Abies,
when the feafon is mild; otherwife it had better be de- the Fir-tree.
ferred till the end of that month, or the beginning of
April. The feeds which are preferved in their cones,
will keep good much longer than thofe which are ta¬
ken out: but the cones of the filver and balm-of-Gi-
lead firs generally fall to pieces in the autumn, foop
after the feeds are ripe ; fo that if they are not care¬
fully watched, and gathered at that time, the feeds will
be loft. The cones of all the forts of fir open with
more eafe than thofe of the pines, and require but little
trouble to get out their feeds. If they are fpread on a
cloth before a fire for a few hours, their fcales will open
and emit the feeds. They may be fown in pots or
boxes filled with light frefti earth, and covered over
about half an inch thick with the fame earth : thefe
fliould be placed to an eaft afpett, where they may
have the fun till eleven in the morning. Or if the feeds
are fown in a bed of earth, it ftiould be fhaded with
mats in the middle of the day: for when they are too
much expofed to the fun, the furface of the ground will
dry fo faft (efpecially in dry feafons) as to hinder the
feeds from vegetating ; and when the plants begin to
appear, if they are not fcreened from the fun, many
of them will be foon deftroyed. The feeds muft be
carefully guarded againft mice and birds, who are very
fond of them, but particularly when the plants begin
to appear; for as they thruft up the cover of the feeds
on their top, the birds, in pecking off thefe covers,
deftroy the young plants: therefore the fureft me¬
thod is to cover them with nets until the plants have
thrown off their hulks and expanded their feed-leaves,
foon after which they will be out of danger. After
the plants have remained in the feed-bed one year, they
may be tranfplanted into beds in rows at five or fix
inches diftance, and the plants in the rows four inches
afunder. They muft be carefully weeded ; and, if the
feafon proves very dry, it will be of fervice gently to
fprinkle them over with water once or twice a-week du¬
ring the hot time of the year. When they have grown
two years in thefe beds, they may then be tranfplanted
into the nurfery, placing them in rows at three feet
diftance, and in the rows a foot afunder. The beft
feafon for removing them is in April, juft before they
begin to (hoot. The fmaller thefe trees are planted
out where they are to remain, the greater will be
their progrefs, and they will grow to a much larger
fize than thofe that are removed at a much greater
age.—The wood of all the forts of fir yet known, being
much inferior to that of the Pine *, it is not common * See Pinus.
to make plantations of them for their timber, but to
cultivate them in pleafure-grounds for ornament. With
this view, they fliould be placed fo far afunder as to ad¬
mit the free air between them; otherwife the lower
branches will decay, and render the trees unfightly.
The great beauty of thefe trees is their pyramidal
form, and their being furnifiied with lateral branches
from about feven feet above the furface of the ground
to the top. Thefe branches fhould be well garniftied
with leaves: to obtain which, the trees ftiould not be
planted nearer than 18 or 20 feet; for when they are
clofer planted, the under branches foon drop then-
leaves, and totally decay. The unlkilful difpofition of
thefe trees has brought them into difrepute with many
perfons; whereas, if properly placed, they may be
made
A B I [ i
Abigeat made very ornamental to fine feats.—In pruning off the
Abinidrin uir<^er branches to the defigned height, there muft be
 £ care taken not to cut off too many at the fame time; one
tier being enough to be difplaced in a year. The belt
time for this operation is in the beginning of Septem¬
ber.—The American fpruce-firs, planted in light moiff
ground, grow to a large fize, and make a beautiful
appearance ; and iff they are allowed room for their
lower branches to fpread and extend, they will be gar-
nifhed with them almoft to the ground, forming them-
felves in a pyramidal figure.--For the medicahufes of cer¬
tain fpecies of the Abies, fee Materia Medica, n° 6i.
ABIGEAT, an old law-term, denoting the crime
of Healing cattle by droves or herds. This crime was
more feverely punilhed than furturn, the delinquent be¬
ing often condemned to the mines, banifiiment, and
fometimes capitally.
ABIHU, brother to Nadab, and fon to Aaron.
The two former had the happinefs to afcend mount Si¬
nai with their father, and there to behold the glory of
God: but afterward putting ftrange fire into their cen-
fers, inftead of the facred fire commanded by God, fire
rufhing upon them killed them. Though all the peo¬
ple bewailed this terrible cataftrophe, Mofes forbad A-
aron and his two fons Eleazar and Ithamar to join in
the lamentation.
ABILITY, a term in law, denoting a power of
doing certain aftions in the acquifition or transferring
of property.
ABIMELECH, king of Gerar, a country of the
Philiftines, cotemporary with Abraham. This pa¬
triarch and his family being there, his wife Sarah,
though'90 years of age, was not fafe in it; for Abi-
melech carried her offi and was fo enamoured of her,
that he refolved to marry her. Abraham did not de¬
clare himfelf Sarah’s hulband; but gave out fhe was
his fifter. But the king being warned in a dream, that
file was married to a prophet, and that he fiiould die if
he did not reftore her to Abraham, the king obeyed:
at the fame time reproving Abraham for his difinge-
nuity ; who thereupon, among other excufes, faid file
was really his fifter, being born of the fame father, tho’
of a different mother. Abimelech afterwards gave con-
fiderable prefents to Abraham; and a covenant, that of
Beerfheba, was entered into between them.—After the
death of Abraham, there being a famine in the neigh¬
bouring countries, Ifaachis fon alfo withdrew into Ge¬
rar, \vhich was then likewife governed by a king called
Abimelech, probably the fucceffor of the former.
Here Rebekah’s beauty forced her hufband to employ
Abraham’s artifice. Abimelech difcovering that they
were nearer related, chid Ifaac for calling his wife his
fifter; arid, at the fame time, forbid all his fubjeffts,
upon pain of death, to do the leaft injury to Ifaac
or Rebekah.—Ifaac’s profperity loft him the king’s
friendftiip, and he was defired to go from among them.
He obeyed; but Abimelech afterward entered into a
Covenant with him.
Abimelech, the natural fon of Gideon, by Drama
his concubine. His violent a&s and death'are record¬
ed in Judges, chap. ix.
ABINGDON, a market-town in Berkftiire, feated
on a branch of the Thames, received its name from an
abbey anciently built there. The ftreets, which are
well paved, centre in a fpacious area, in which the
Vol. I.
7 ] A B L
market is held; and in the centre of this area is the Abingdon
market-houfe, which is fupported on lofty pillars, with ' J[ .
a large hall of free-ftone above, in which the fummer- —
aflizes for the county are held, and other public bufi-
nefs done, the Lent aflizes being held at Reading. It
has two churches; one dedicated to St Nicholas, and
the other to St Helena : the latter is adorned with
a fpire, and both are faid to have been ereffted by the
abbots of Abingdon. Here are alfo two hofpitals,
one for fix, and the other for thirteen poor men, and
as many poor women; a free fchool; and a charity-
fchool. The town was incorporated by queen Mary;
and is governed by a mayor, two bailiffs, and nine al¬
dermen : it fends two members to parliament, who are.
chofen by the inhabitants at large not receiving alms.
Its great manufa&ure is malt, large quantities of
which are fent by water to London. The market-
days are on Monday and Friday; and it hath four,
fairs for horfes and other .cattle, on the firft Monday
in Lent, on June 20, on September 19, and on De¬
cember 11. It is fix miles and a half fouth of Ox¬
ford, forty-feven eaft of Gloucefter, and fifty-five weft
of London. Long. 1. 20. Lat. 51.
AB-INTESTATE, in the civil law, is applied to a
perfon who inherits the right of one who died inteftate
or without making a will. See Intestate.
ABIRAM, a feditious Levite, who, in concert
with Korah and Dathan, rebelled againft Mofes and
Aaron, in order to fliare with fhem in the government
of the people; when Mofes ordering them to come
with their cenfers before the altar of the Lord, the
earth fuddenly opened under their feet, and fwallowed.
up them and their tents ; and at the fame inftant fire
came from heaven, and confumed two hundred and fif¬
ty of their followers. Numb.xvi.
AB1SHAI, fon of Zeruiah, and brother to Joab,
was one of the celebrated warriors who flouriftied in
the reign of David: he killed with his own hand three
hundred men, with no other weapon but his lance ; and
flew a Philiftine giant, the iron of whofe fpear weighed
three hundred fiiekels. 1 Sam. xxvi. 2 Sam. xxiii.
ABJURATION, in our ancient cuftoms, implied
an oath, taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who
had fled to a place of fanftuary, whereby he folemnly
engaged to leave the kingdom for ever.
Abjuration, is now ufed to fignify the renouncing,
difclaiming, and. denying upon oath, the Pretender to
have any kind of right to the crown of thefe kingdoms.
Abjuration of herefy, the folemn recantation off any
doctrine as falfe and wicked.
ABLACTATION, or weaning a child from the
breaft. If the mother or nurfe has enough of milk, a
child will need little or no other food before the feT
cond or third month of its age ; when it will be pro¬
per to give it, once or twice a-day, a little water-pap ;
and as it grows older, it may be fed oftener, and have
its panada fometimes mixed with milk. This will ac-
cuftom the child by degrees to take food, and will
render the weaning both lefs difficult and lefs dange¬
rous. Weaning, unlefs when ailments, weaknefs, or
fuch like circumftances, forbid, ought generally to take
place about the fixth or feventh month, at fartheft by
the ninth or tenth. The child ought then to be fed
four or five times a-day ; but ftiould never be accu-
ftomed to eat in the night. The food fiiould be Ample
C and
A B L
Ablactation ancj light; not fpoiled with fngar, wine, and fuch like
Abhition additions, for they produce the difeafes that children are
~———— moft troubled with. Unfermented flour makes a vifcid
food that turns four before it digefts, and well fer¬
mented bread foon turns four; but if the panada made
of this latter be given new, the inconvenience of four-
ing is prevented. To prevent acidity in the child’s
ftomach by a daily ufe of vegetable food, give now and
then a little frelh broth, made from either veal, mut¬
ton, or beef. Rice is not fo apt to turn four as wheat
bread is; it therefore would be a more convenient food
for children, and deferves to be attended to. Toafted
bread boiled in water till it is almoft dry, then mixed
with frefh milk not boiled, is an agreeable change.
As the teeth advance, the diet may increafe in its. foli-
dity. As to the quantity, let the appetite be the mea-
fure of it; obferving to fatisfy hunger, but no more ;
which may be thus managed, Feed the child no longer
than he eats with a degree of eagernefs: but children
may at all times be allowed good light bread to chew as
much as they pleafe. Butter ought by all means to be
denied them-? as it both relaxes the ftomach, and pro¬
duces grofs humours. In place of this, let them be
ufed as early as poffible with honey ; which is cooling,
cleanfing, tends to fweeten the humours, prevents or
deftroys worms, and renders children lefs fubjedl to
fcabbed head and other cutaneous diforders. In feed¬
ing, let the child be held in a fitting pofture, and that
until the ftomach has nearly digefted its contents ; the
too common praftice of violently dancing and Ihaking
the child ftiould be avoided. Divert it during the day
as much as pofiible, which will make it fleep foundly
all the night. Never awaken a child when it is afleep,
for thus licknefs and peevifhnefs .are often produced.
Ablactation, among the ancient gardeners, the
* See Graft- {-ame w;th vvhat is called grafting by approach *.
ABLAI, a country of Great Tartary, the inhabi¬
tants of which, called Buchars or Buchares, are fubject
to Ruffia, but that only for protection. It lies eaft-
ward of the river Irtis, and extends five hundred leagues
along the fouthern frontiers of Siberia.
ABLACQUEATION, an old term in gardening,
fignifies the operations of removing the earth and baring
the roots of trees in winter, to expofe them more free¬
ly to the air, rain, fnows, &c.
ABLATIVE, is the 6th cafe in Latin grammar,
and peculiar to that language. It is oppofed to the
dative, which expreffes the acftion of giving, the abla¬
tive expreffing that of taking away.
ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, afeledl body of fol-
* Which fee. diers chofen from among thofe Extraordinarii *.
ABLEGMINA, in Roman antiquity, thofe choice
parts of the entrails of vidfims, which were offered in
facrifice to the gods. They were fprinkled with flour,
andT burnt upon the altar ; the priefts pouring feme
wine on them.
ABLUENTS, in medicine, the fame with diluters.
ABLUTION* in a general fenfe, fignifies thewafti-
ing or purifying fomething with water.
Ablution, in a religious fenfe, a ceremony in ufe
among the ancients, and ftill pradtifed in feveral parts
of the world : it confifted in wafhing the body, which
was always done before facrificing,or even enteringtheir
fioufqs.—Ablutions appeal' to be as old as any ceremo¬
nies, and external worfhip itfelf. Mofes enjoined them;
ABO
the heathens adopted them; and Mahomet and his fol- Ablution j
lowers have continued them : thus they have got foot- L
ing among moft nations, and make a confiderable part  LL—
of moft eltabliflied religions. The Egyptian priefts had
their diurnal and nodturnal ablutions ; the Grecians
their fprinklings; the Romans their luftraticns and lava-
tions; the Jews their walhing of hands and feet, befide
their baptiims. The ancient Chriftians had their ablu¬
tions before communion; which the Romilh church ftill
retain before their mafs, fometimes after: the Syrians,
Cophts, &c. have their folemn wafhings on Good-
Friday : the Turks their greater and leffer ablutions ;
their Ghaft and Wodou, their Aman, Taharat, &c.
ABNER, the fon of Ner, father-in-law to Saul,
and general of all his forces, wdio ferved him on all oc-
cafions with fidelity and courage. After the death of
that prince, Abner fet Iftibofneth, Saul’s fon, on the
throne. A war breaking out between the tribe of Ju¬
dah who had elefted David king, and Ifrael, Abner
marched againft that prince with the flower of his troops,
but was defeated. Abner afterward, being difguifed,
went over to David, and difpofed the chiefs of the ar¬
my and the elders of Ifrael to declare for him ; and
was received by David with fuch teftimonies of affec¬
tion, as gave umbrage to Joab, who killed him trai-
teroufly.
ABNOBA, howAbenow, a long range of moun¬
tains in Germany, taking different names according to
the different countries they run through. As about the
river Maine, called the Oden or Ottenwald; between
Heffe and Franconia, the Speffart; and about the
duchy of Wirtemberg, where the Danube takes its rife,
called the Baar.
ABO, a maritime town in Sweden : it is the capi¬
tal of the province of Finland, and is feated in the
gulph of that name, at the mouth of the river Aura-
joki. It is a good port; and is the fee of a biftiop, fuf-
fragan of Upfal. It has alfo an univerfity, founded by
queen Chriftina in 1640. It lies 120 miles north-eaft
from Stockholm. E. Long. 21. 28. Lat. 60. 50.
ABOARD, the infide of a ftiip, Hence any perfon
who enters a Ihip is faid to go aboard: but when an
enemy enters in the time of battle, he is faid to board;
a phrafe which always implies hoftility.—To fall a-
board of is to ftrike or encounter another ftiip when one
or both are in motion, or to be driven upon a ftiip by
the force of the wind or current. —Aboard-main-tack, the
order to draw the main-tack, i. e. the lower corner of
the main-fail, down to the chefs-tree. See Chess-tree.
ABOLITION, implies the a& of annulling, de-
ftroying, making void, or reducing to nothing. In
lawr, it fignifies the repealing any law or ftatute.
ABOLLA, a w'arm kind of garment, lined or dou¬
bled, worn by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out of
the city, in following the camp.—Critics and antiqua¬
ries are greatly divided as to the form, ufe, kinds, &c.
of this garment. Papias makes it a fpecies of the toga,
or gown; but Nonius, and the generality, a fpecies of
the pallium, or cloak. The abolla feems rather to have
flood oppofed to the toga, which was a garment of
peace, as the abolla was of war; at leaft Varro and
Martial place them in this oppofite light. There feem
to have been different kinds of abollas, fitted to differ¬
ent occafions. Even kings appear to have ufed the
abolla: Caligula was affronted at Icing Ptolemy for ap¬
pearing
[ 18 ]
Abomafns
Aborigines,
* See Com¬
parative A-
ratomy.
ABO [ i9 ] ABO
pearing at the fliews in a purple abolla, and by the eclat
thereof turning the eyes of the fpeftators from the em-
' peror upon himfelf.
ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, names
' of the fourth ftomach of ruminating animals*.
ABOMINATION, a term ufed in fcripture with
, regard to the Hebrews, who, being (hepherds, are faid
to have been an abomination to the Egyptians, becaufe
they facrificed the facred animals of that people, as
oxen, goats, iheep, &c. which the Egyptians eiteemed
as abominations, or things unlawful. The term is alfo
applied in the facred writings to idolatry and idols, be¬
caufe the worfhip of idols is in itfelf an abominable
thing, and at the fame time ceremonies obferved by
idolaters were always attended with licentioufnefs and
other odious and abominable actions. The abomination
of deflation^ foretold by the prophet Daniel, is fuppo-
fed to imply the ftatue of Jupiter Olympius, which
Antiochus Epiphanes caufed to be placed in the temple
of Jerufalem. And the abojnination of deflation, men¬
tioned by the Evangelifts, fignilies the enfigns of the
Romans, during the laft liege of Jerufalem by Titus,
on whom the figures of their gods and emperors were
embroidered, and placed upon the temple after it was
taken.
ABON, Abona, or Abonis, (Antonine ;) a town
and river of Albion. The town, according to Camden,
is Abingdon ; and the river Abhon or Avon. But by
Antonine’s Itinerary, the diftance is nine miles from
the Venta Silurum, or Caer-Went: others, therefore,
take the town to be Porlhut, at the mouth of the river
Avon, over againft Briftol. Abhon or Avon, in the
Celtic language, denotes a river.
ABOR, Chabor, or Habor, a diftrift in Afiyria,
on the river Gozan, bounding On Media, 2 Kings xvii.
ABO RIGINES, ( Dionyfius of Halicarnalfus, Livy,
Virgil;) originally a proper name, given to a certain
people in Italy, who inhabited the ancient Latium,
or country now called Campagna di Roma. In this
fenfe the Aborigines are diftinguilhed from the Jani-
gense, who, according to the ralfe Berofus, inhabited
the country before them.; from the Siculi, whom
they expelled; from the Grecians, from whom they
defcended ; from the Latins, whofe name they af-
fumed after their union with iEneas and the Trojans;
laftly, from the Aufonii, Volfci, Oenotrii, &c. neigh¬
bouring nations in other parts of the country.—Whence
this people came by the appellation, is much difputed.
St Jerom fays, they were fo called as being, abfque
origine, the primitive planters of the country after the
flood : Dion, of Halicarnaffus accounts for the name,
as denoting them the founders of the race of inhabitants
of that country : others think them fo called, as being
originally Arcadians, who claimed to be earth-born,
and not defcended from any people. Aurelius Victor
fuggefts another opinion, viz. that they were called
Aborigines, q. d. Aberrigines, from ab, from, and err are,
to wander; as having been before a wandering people.
Paufanias rather thinks they were thus called a™
from mountains ; which opinion feems confirmed by
Virgil, who, fpeaking of Saturn, the legiflator of this
people, fays,
Is genus indocile ac difperfum montibus altis
Compofuit, legefque dedit. 
The Aborigines were either the original inhabitants of Aborigines,
the country, fettled there by Janus, as fome imagine ; Abn"’' n-
or by Saturn, or Cham, as others ; not long after the
difperfion, or even, as fome think, before it: or they
were a colony fent from fome other nation ; who ex¬
pelling the ancient inhabitants the Siculi, fettled in their
place.—About this mother-nation there is greatdifpute.
Some maintain it to be the Arcadians, parties of whom
were brought into Italy at different times.; the firft
under the conduct of Oenotrius, fon of Lycaon, 450
years before the Trojan war ; a fecond from Theffaly;
a third under Evander, 60 years before the Trojan
war: befides another under Hercules; and another
of Lacedaemonians, who fled from the fevere defcpline
of Lycurgus : all thefe uniting, are faid to have form¬
ed the nation or kingdom of the Aborigines. Others
will have them of barbarian rather than Grecian origin,
and to have come from Scythia ; others from Gaul.
Laftly, others will have them to be Canaanites, expell¬
ed by Jofliua.
ABORTION, in midwifery, the birth of a foetus
before it has acquired a fufficient degree of perfeftion
to enable it to perform refpiration and the other vital
fun&ions*. treatment11*
The praftice of procuring abortions was prohibited . , of A’b_
by the ancient Greek legiflators Solon and Lycurgus. ortions, fee
Whether or not it was permitted among the Romans, M.b-wifery,
has been much difputed. It is certain the practice, n°12"
which was by them called vifceribus vim inferre, was
frequent enough: but whether thefe was any penalty
on it, before the emperors Severus and Antonine, is
the queftion. Noodt maintains the negative ; and fur¬
ther, that thofe princes only made it criminal in one
particular cafe, viz. of a married woman’s pradftiiing
it out of refentment againft. her hufband, in order to
defraud him of the comfort of children: this was or¬
dered to be puniftied by a temporary exile. The foun¬
dation on which the pradlice is faid to have been al¬
lowed, was, that the foetus, while in utero, was repu¬
ted as a part of the mother, ranked as one of her own
vifcera, over which ihe had the fame power as over the
reft : befides, that it was not reputed as a man, homo ;
nor to be alive, otherwife than as a vegetable : confe-
quently, that the crime amounted to little more than
that of plucking unripe fruit from the tree. Seneca re-
prefents it as a peculiar glory of Helvia, that fhe had
never, like other women, whofe chief ftudy is their beau¬
ty and lhape, deftroyed the foetus in her womb. The
primitive fathers, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Minutius Fe¬
lix, Auguftin, &c. declaimed loudly againft the praftice
as virtual murder. Several councils have condemned it.
Yet we are told that the modern Romifh ecclefiaftical
laws allow of difpenfations for it. Egane mentions
the rates at which a difpenfation for it may be had.—
In fome countries, the procuring of abortions is ftill
faid not only to be allowed, but even enjoined by law;
as among the Formofans, if Mr Pfalmanazar had been
to be believed, who relates, that the women there, tho’
married, are not allowed to breed before 35 years of
age. When with child before that time, they are obli¬
ged to make themfelves abortive by force : to this end
the prieftefs (for in that country, according to him, the
prieftly office belongs to women) tramples on the pa¬
tient’s belly, till fhe bring forth. But the extraordi¬
nary fabrications of this author are now well known *. * See
The manazar‘
A B R [ 20 ] A B R
Abortion The practice of artificial abortion is chiefly in the
Abraca hands of women and nurfes, rarely in that of phyfi-
- dab,..*' cians ; who, in fome countries, are not admitted to the
*    profeffion without abjuring it. Hippocrates, in the
oath he would have enjoined on all phyficians, includes
their not giving the peffus abortivus : though elfewhere
he gives the formal procefs whereby he himfelf procured
in a young woman a mifcarriage. In the Supplement
to Chambers’s Diftionary, a detail is given of the vari¬
ous methods by which abortions may be procured.
But we were unwilling to beftow room upon informa¬
tion . which it feemed equally ufelefs and improper to
propagate. It may, however, be obferved, that often
all the powers of art prove ineffeftual, and no lefs often
do the attempts prove the means of punifhment by the
fatal confequences which they produce.
Abortion, among gardeners, fignifies fuch fruits as
are produced too early, and never arrive at maturity.
ABORTIVE, is, in general, applied to whatever
comes before its legitimate time, or to a defign which
mifcarries.
ABOU-NAVAS, an Arabian poet of the firft clafs,
was born at Balfora ; and flourilhed at the court of
Aaron al Rafchid, at the end of the 7th century.
ABOUT, the fit-nation of a (hip immediately after
(he has tacked, or changed her courfe by going about
* See Tack- anq (landing on the other tack *.—About-Jkip! the or-
der to the (hip’s crew to prepare for tacking.
% ABOUTIGE, a town in Upper Egypt, in Africa,
near the Nile, where they make the bed opium in all
the Levant. It was formerly a large, but now is a
mean place. N. lat. 26. 50.
ABRA, a filver coin (truck in Poland, and worth
about one (lulling Sterling. It is current in feveral
parts of Germany, Conftantinople, Aftracan, Smyrna,
and Grand Cairo.
ABRABANEL, Abarbanel,or Avravanel, (I-
faac) a celebrated rabbi, defcended from king David,
and born at Li(bon A. D. 1437. He became coun-
fellor to Alphonfo V. king of Portugal, and afterwards
to Ferdinand the Catholic ; but in 1492 was obliged
to leave Spain with the other Jews. In (hort, after re-
fiding at Naples, Corfou, and feveral other cities, he
died at Venice in 1508, aged 71. Aljrabanel pafied
for one of the mod learned of the rabbis ; and the Jews
gave him the names of the Sage, the Prince, and the
Great Politician. We have a Commentary of his on
all the Old Tedament, which is pretty fcarce : he there
principally adheres to the literal fenfe ; and his dyle is
clear, but a little diffufe. H is other works are, A Treatife
on the Creation of the World ; in which he refutes A-
ridotle, who imagined that the world was eternal: A
Treatife on the explication of the prophecies relating to
the Mefiiah, againd the Chridians: A. book concern¬
ing articles of Faith ; and fome others lefs fought after.
Though Abrabanel difcovers his averfion to Chridia-
abracadabra n^T’ yet in ah his writings he treats the Chridians with
"abracadabr politenefs and good-manners.
abracadab ABRACADABRA, a magical word, recommended
abracada by Serenus Samonicus as an antidote againd agues and
abrac d b;veral other difeafes. It was to be written upon a piece
abrae paper as many times as the word contains letters,
abra omitting the lad letter of the former every time, as in
abr the margin f , and repeated in the fame order ; and then
ab fufpended about the neck by a linen thread. Abracada¬
bra was the name of a god worfhipped by the Syrians; Abraham.
fo wearing his name was a fort of invocation of his aid:  
a praftice which, though not more ufeful, yet was lefs
irrational, than is the equally heathenidi pra&ice among
thofe who call themfelves Chridians, of wearing various
things, in expectation of their operating by a Sympathy,
whole parents were Ignorance and Superdition.
ABRAHAM, the father and dock whence the faith¬
ful fprung, was the fon of Terah. He was defcended
from Noah by Shem, from whom he was nine degrees
removed. Some fix his birth in the 130th year of Te-
rah’s age, but others place it in his father’s 70th year.
It is highly probable he was born in the city of Ur, in
Chaldea, which he and his father left when they went
to Canaan, where they remained till the death of Terah;
after which, Abraham refumed his fird defign of going
to Paledine. The .Scriptures mention the feveral pla¬
ces he dopped at in Canaan; his journey into Egypt,
where his wife was carried off from him ; his going into
Gerar, where Sarah was again taken from him, but re-
dored as before ; the victory he obtained over the four
kings who had plundered Sodom ; his compliance with
his wife, who infilled that he (hould make ufe of their
maid Hagar in order to raife up children ; the cove¬
nant God made with him, fealed with the ceremony of
circumcifion ; his obedience to the command of God,
who ordered him to offer up his only fon as a facrifice,
and how this bloody aft was prevented ; his marriage
with Keturah; his death at the age of 175 years ; and
his interment .at the cave of Macpelah, near the body
of Sarah his fird wife. It would be of little ufe to
dwell long upon thefe particulars, fince they are fo well
known. But tradition hfos fupplied numberlefs others,
the mention of one or two of which may not be unac¬
ceptable.
Many extraordinary particulars have been told rela¬
ting to his converfion from idolatry. It is a pretty
general opinion, that he fucked in the poifon with his
milk; that his father mack datues, and taught that
they were to be worihipped as gods*. Some Jewilh * ^u’das, m
authors relate f, that Abraham followed the fame trade joff^xiv^
with.Terah for a conliderable time. Maimonides J fays, 'j Apud Ge-
that he was bred up in the religion of the Sabaeans, who nebrand. in
acknowledged no deity but the dars ; that his reflec- 9^on‘ N
tions on the nature of the planets, his admiration of rec 3,^"
their motions, beauty, and order, made him conclude
there mud be a being fuperior to the machine of the
univerfe, a being who created and governed it: how¬
ever, according to an old tradition, he did not re¬
nounce paganifm till the 50th year of his age. It is
related||, that his father, being gone a journey, left ll^e!'Iegger"
him to fell the datues in his abfence; and that a man, Ptat"'
whq pretended to be a purchafer, a(ked him how old he ;;; p 3(Sj
was. Abraham anfwered, “ Fifty.”—“ Wretch that
thou art, (faid the other,) for adoring, at fuck an age,
a being which is but a day old!” Thefe words greatly
confounded Abraham. Some time afterwards, a wo¬
man brought him fome flour, that he might give it as
an offering to the idols; but Abraham, indead of
doing fo, took up a hatchet and broke them all to
ieces, excepting the larged, into the hand of which
e put the weapon. Terah, at his return, aflced
whence came all this havock ? Abraham made an-
fwer, that the datues had had a great conted which
(hould eat fird of the oblation; “ Upon whieh, (faid
A B R
A^ra[‘am> he), - the god you fee there, being the ftouteft, hewed
ites*1” t^ie ot^ers to pieces with that hatchet.” Terah told
— :— him this was bantering; for thofe idols had not the
fenfe to aft in this manner. Abraham retorted thefe
words upon his father againft the worfhipping of fuch
ods. Terah, flung with this raillery, delivered up
is fon to the cognilance of Nimrod, the fovereign of
the country: who exhorted Abraham to worfhip the
fire ; and, upon his refufal, commanded him to be
thrown into the midfl of the flames: “ Now let your
God (faid he) come and deliver you But (adds
the tradition), Abraham came fafe and found out of
the flames.—This tradition is not of modern date,
Hebraic3 in ^nce ^ *s t0^ ^7 St Jerom *; who feems to credit it
Geiieiln. *n general, but difbelieves that part of it which makes
g It is Terah fo cruel as to be the informer againfl his own
the ""proper f°n* Perhaps the antiquity of the word Ur § might
name of a have given rife to the fiftion altogether. Such as lay
city, and it flrefs 0n the following words which God fays to Abra-
edjW^The ^am’ (Gen. xv. 7.), lam the Lord that brought thee out
iLat.verfion, °f Ur of the Chaldees, imagine that he faved him from
Efdras ix a great perfecution, fince he employed the very fame
has it thus: words in the beginning of the decalogue to denote the
CNtw define ^‘verance from Egypt.
‘chaldeerum. Abraham is faid to have been well (killed in many fei-
* Antiq. ences, and to have wrote feveral books. Jofephus * tells
hb.i. cap. 7, us that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic and geo¬
metry ; and, according to Eupolemus and Artapan, he
inflrufted the Phoenicians, as well as the Egyptians,
in aflronomy. A work which treats of the creation
has been long aferibed to him ; it is mentioned in the
jHeideggeix Talmud f, and the Rabbis Chanina and Hofchaia ufed
arch! tom.fl. to reac* ^ on the eve before the fabbath. In the firft
p. 143. ages of Chriftianity, according to St Epiphanius J, a
1 Advcrf. heretical feft, called Sethinians, difperfed a piece which
Hasi.paSC. J!aJ the title of Abraham's Revelation. Origen mentions
alfo a treatife fuppofed to be wrote by this patriarch.
All the feveral works which Abraham compofed in the
plains of Mamre, are faid to be contained in the li-
Kirchen’s ^rar7 t^e monaftery of the Holy crofs on Mount
treatife ofli- jAmaria> in Ethiopia ||. The book on the creation was
braries, printed at Paris 1552, and tranflated into Latin by
p. 142, Poftel: Rittangel, a converted Jew, and profeflbr at
Konigfberg, gave alfo a Latin tranflation of it, with
remarks, in 1642.
Abraham ben meir, or Aben ezra. See Abe»
EZRA.
Abraham Usque, a Portuguefe Jew, who tranfla¬
ted the Bible out of Hebrew into Spanifli. It was print¬
ed at Ferrara in 1553, and re-pfinted in Holland in
2630. This Bible, efpecially the firft edition, which is
moil valuable, is marked with ftars at certain words,
which are defigned to fhew that thefe words are diffi¬
cult to be underftood in the Hebrew, and that they
may be ufed in a different fenfe.
Abraham (Nicholas,) a learned Jefuit born in the
diocefe of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtained the
rank of divinity pnofeflbr in the univerfity of Pont-a-
Moufon, which he enjoyed 17 years, and died Septem¬
ber 7, 1655. He wrote Notes on Virgil and on Non-
nius; A Commentary onfome of Cicero's Orations, in
2 vols folio ; An excellent colleftion of theologicalpieces,
in. folio, entitled Pharus Veteris Tejlamenti ; and fome
other works.
ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks extermina-
A B R
ted for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century. Abrantes
Alfo the name of another feft of heretics who had ad- AbrJ|,
opted the errors of Paulus. See Paulicians. ment.
ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura,
feated on the river Tajo, belongs to a marquis of the
fame name. It Hands high, is furrounded with gardens
and olive-trees, and contains thirty-five thoufand inha¬
bitants. It has four convents, an alms-houfe, and an
hofpital. W. Long. 7. 18. Lat. 39. 13.
ABRASAX, or Abraxas, the fupreme god of the
Bafilidian heretics. It is a myftical word, compofed of
the Greek numerals *, /?, g, «, 5, «, which together
make up the number CCCLXV. For Bafilides taught,
that there were 365 heavens between the earth and the
empyraean ; each of which heavens had its angel or in¬
telligence, which created it; each of which angels like-
wife was created by the angel next above it; thus af-
cending by a fcale to the fupreme Being, or firft Crea¬
tor. The Bafilidians ufed the word Abraxas by way of
charm or amulet.
ABRASION, in medicine, the corroding of any
part by acrid humours or medicines.
ABRAX, an antique ftone with the word abraxas
engraven on it. They are of various fizes, and moll of
them as old as the third century.
ABREAST, (a fea-term) fide by fide, oroppofiteto;
a fituation in which two or more fliips lie, with their fides
parallel to each other, and their heads equally ad vanced.
This term more particularly regards the line of battle
at fea, where, on the different occafions of attack, re¬
treat, or purfuit, the feveral fquadrons or divifions of
a fleet are obliged to vary their difpofitions, and yet
maintain a proper regularity by failing in right or cur¬
ved lines. When the line is formed abreaft, the whole
fquadron advances uniformly, the fliips being equally
diftant from and parallel to each other, fo that the length
of each (hip forms a right angle with the extent of the
fquadron or line abreaft. The commander in chief is
always ftationed in the center, and the fecond and third
in command in the centers of their refpeftive fquadrons.
—Abreajl, within the (hip, implies on a line with the
beam, or by the fide of any objeft aboard ; as, the fri¬
gate fprung a leak abreajl of the main hatch-way, i. e.
on the fame line with the main hatch-way, crofling the
(hip’s length at right angles, in oppofitiun to afore or
abaft the hatch-way -We difeovered a fleet abreajl * Sce dlafk
of Beachy-head; i. e. off, or direftly oppofite to it.
ABRETTENE, (Strabo ;) Abrettine, (Stepha-
nus ;) a diftrift of Myfia, in Afia. Hence the epithet
Abrettenus given Jupiter, (Strabo).; whofe prieft was
Cleon, formerly at the head of a gang of robbers, and
who received many and great favours at the hand of
Antony, but afterwards went over to Aguftus. The
people were called Abretteni; inhabiting the country
between Ancyra of Phrygia, and the river Rhyndacus.
ABRIDGEMENT, in literature, a term fignify-
ing the reduftion of ~a book into a fmaller compafs.
The art of conveying much fentiment in few words,
is the happieft talent an author can be poffeffed of.
This talent is peculiarly neceffary in the prefent date
of literature ; for many writers have acquired .the dex¬
terity of fpreading a few tritical thoughts over feveral
hundred pages. When an author hits upon a thought
that pleafes him, he is apt to dwell upon it, to view it
in-different lights, to force it in improperly, or upon
[ 21 ]
AhrWge-
A B R [ 22 ] A B R
the flighted relations, Though this may be pleafant
to the writers, it tires and vexes the reader. There is
another great fource of diffuiion in compofition. It is
-a capital object with an author, whatever be the fub-
jecd, to give vent to all his beft thoughts. When he
finds a proper place for any of them, he is peculiarly
happy. But, rather than facrifice a thought he is fond
of, he forces it in by way of digreffion, or fuperfluous
illuftration. If none of thefe expedients anfwer his
purpofe, he has recourfe to the margin, a very conve¬
nient apartment for all manner of pedantry and imper¬
tinence. There is not an author, however correft,
but is more or lefs faulty in this refpeft. An abridger,
however, is not fubject to thefe temptations. The
thoughts are not his own; he views them in a cooler
and lefs affectionate manner; he difcovers an impro¬
priety in fome, a vanity in others, and a want of utili¬
ty in many. His bufinefs, therefore, is to retrench
fuperfluities, digreffions, quotations, pedantry, &c. and
to lay before the, public only what is really ufeful.
This is by no means an eafy employment : To abridge
fome books, requires talents equal, if not fuperior, to
thofe of the author. The fafts, manner, fpirit, and
reafoning, muff be preferved; nothing effential, either
in argument or illuftration, ought to be omitted.
The difficulty of the talk is the principal reafon why
we have fo few good abridgements : Wynne’s abridge¬
ment of Locke’s Effay on the Human underftanding, is,
perhaps, the only unexceptionable one in our language.
Thefe obfervations relate folely to fuch abridgements
as are ddigned for the public. But,
When a perfon wants to fet down the fubftance of
any book, a fhorter and lefs laborious method may be
followed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex¬
amples of abridgements for the public : But as it may
be ufeful, efpecially to young people, to know how to
abridge books for their own ufe, after giving a few di-
re&ions, we ffiall exhibit an example or two, to ffiew
with what eafe it may be done.
Read the book carefully; endeavour to learn the
principal view of the author ; attend to the arguments
employed : When you have done fo, you will general¬
ly find, that what the author ufes as new or additional
arguments, are in reality only collateral ones, or ex-
tenfions of the principal argument. Take a piece of
paper or a common-place book, put down what the
author wants to prove, fubjoin the argument or argu¬
ments, and you have the fubftance of the book in a
few lines. For example,
In the Effay on Miracles, Mr Hume’s defign is to
prove, That miracles which have not been the imme¬
diate objedts of our fenfes, cannot reafonably be be¬
lieved upon the teftimony of others.
Now, his argument (for there happen; to be but
one) is,
“ That experience, which in fome things is variable,
in others uniform, is our only guide in reafoning
“ concerning matters of faft. A variable experience
“ gives rife to probability only; an uniform expe-
“ rience amounts to a proof. Our belief of any fa ft
“ from the teftimony of eye-witneffes, is derived from
“ no other principle than our experience in the veraci-
“ ty of human teftimouy. If the faft attefted be mi-
“ raculous, here arifes a conteft of two oppofite expe-
“ riences, or proof againft proof. Now, a miracle is
“ a violation of the laws of nature; and as a firm and
“ unalterable experience has eftabliftied thefe laws, the
“ proof againft a miracle, from the very nature of the
“ faft, is as complete as any argument from expe-
“ rience can poffibly be imagined ; and if fo, it is an
“ undeniable confequence, that it cannot be furmount-
“ ed by any proof whatever derived from human tefti-
“ mony.”
In Dr Campbell’s Differtation on Miracles, the au¬
thor’s principal aim is to ftiew the fallacy of Mr Hume’s
argument; which lie has done moft fuccefsfully by an¬
other Angle argument, as follows :
“ The evidence arifing from human teftimony is not
“ folely derived from experience : on the contrary, te-
“ ftimony hath a natural influence on belief antecedent
“ to experience. The early and unlimited affent given
“ to teftimony by children gradually contrafts as they
“ advance in life : it is, therefore, more confonant to
“ truth, to fay, that our diffidence in teftimony is the
“ refult of experience, than that our faith in it has this
“ foundation. Befides, the uniformity of experience,
“ in favour of any faft, is not a proof againft its being
“ reverfed in a particular inftance. The evidence ari-
“ fing from the Angle teftimony of a man of known
“ veracity will go rarther to eftablifti a belief in its be-
“ ing aftually reverfed: If his teftimony be confirmed
“ by a few others of the fame charafter, we cannot
“ with-hold our affent to the truth of it. Now, tho’
“ the operations of nature are governed by uniform
“ laws, and though we have not the teftimony of our
“ fenfes in favour of any violation of them ; fiill, if in
“ particular inftances we have the teftimony of thou-
“ funds of our fellow-creatures, and thofe too men of
“ ftrift integrity, fwayed by no motives of ambition
“ or intereft, and governed by the principles of com-
“ mon fenfe, That they were aftually eye-witnefles
“ of thefe violations, the conftitution of our nature
“ obliges us to believe them.”
Thefe two examples contain the fubftance of about
400 pages. Making private abridgements of this
kind has many advantages; it engages us to read with
accuracy and attention ; it fixes the fubjeft in our
minds ; and, if we flrould happen to forget,, inftead of
reading the books again, by glancing a few lines we
are not only in poffefiion of the chief arguments, but re¬
call in a good meafure the author’s method and manner.
Abridging is peculiarly ufeful in taking the fub¬
ftance of what is delivered by Profeffors, isc. It is
impoffible, even with the affiftance of fhort-hand, to
take down, verbatim, what is faid by a public fpeaker.
Befides, although it were prafticable, fuch a talent
would be of little ufe. Every public fpeaker has cir¬
cumlocutions, redundancies, lumber, which deferve not
to be copied. All that is really ufeful may be com¬
prehended in a fhort compafs. If the plan of the dif-
courfe, and arguments employed in fupport of the dif¬
ferent branches, be taken down, you have the whole.
Thefe you may afterwards extend in the form of a dif-
courfe dreffed in your own language. This would not
only be a more rational employment, but would like-
wife be an excellent method of improving young men
in compofition, an objeft too little attended to in all
our univerfities.
Abridgement, in law, fignifies the making a de¬
claration or plaint (horter by leaving out fomething.
ABRO-
Abritlge-
'
A B S [ 23 ] A B S
Abroclic* ABRODIETICAL; delicate or nice in diet.
AB ROGATION, fignifies annulling, making void,
Abfolute or repealing a law.
“ " ABROLKOS, the name of certain Ihelves, or banks
of fand, about 20 leagues from the coaft of Brazil.
ABROTANUM, in botany, a fynonime of feveral
plants. See Artemisia, Filago, Santolina ; and
Materia Medica, n° 62, 63.
ABROTONUM, a town and harbour on the Medi¬
terranean, in the dillridt of Syrtis Parva, in Africa,
(Strabo, Pliny :) one of the three cities that went to
form Tripoly.
* See Gly- ABRUS, in botany, thetrivial name of the glycine *.
AB RUZZO, a province in Naples. The river Pefca-
ra divides it into two parts; one of which is called Ul¬
terior, whereof Aquila is' the capital; and the other
Citerior, whofe capital is Solomona. Befides the Ap-
penines, there are two confiderable mountains, the one
called Monte Cavallo, and the other Monte Maiello.
The top of this laft is always covered with fnow. A-
bruzzo is a cold but fruitful country; and abounds with
corn, rice, feveral good fruits, and faffron.
ABSALOM, the fon of David by Maacah, was
brother to Thamar David’s daughter, who was ravifil¬
ed by Amnon their eldeft brother by another mother.
He waited two years for an opportunity of revenging
the injury done to his filler, and at laft procui*ed the
affaflination of Amnon at a feaft which he had prepared
for the king’s fans. He took refuge with Taimai king
of Gelhur ; and was no fooner reftored to favour^ but
he engaged the Ifraelites,to revolt from his father.
Abfalom was defeated in the wood of Ephraim : as he
was flying, his hair caught hold of an oak, where he
hung till joab came and thruft him through with three
darts : David had exprefsly ordered his life to be fpared,
and extremely lamented him.
ABSCEDENTIA, in furgery, a term applied to
decayed parts of .the body, which, in a morbid Hate,
are feparated from the found, or lofe that union which
was preferved in a natural ftate.
ABSCESS, in furgery; from abfeedo, to depart.
A cavity containing pus ; or, a gathering of matter in
a part: So called, becauie the parts which were joined
are now feparated ; one part recedes from another, to
make way for the collected matter. See Surgery, n° 8.
ABSCISSION, a figure in rhetoric, whereby the
fpeaker Hops fiiort in the middle of his difeourfe, lea¬
ving the audience to make the inference.
Abscission, in furgery, the fame with amputation.
ABSCONSA, a dark lanthern ufed by the monks
at the ceremony of burying their dead.
ABSENCE, in Scots law : When a perfon cited
before a court does not appear, and judgment is pro-
* See L iv nounce(^’ t^iat judgment is faid to be in abfence. No
Pair XU.' Perfon can be tried criminally in abfence *.
No clxxxv. ABSINTHIATED Medicines, fuch as are impreg-
2,4> natedwith abfinthium or wormwood.
ABSINTHIUM, in botany, the trivial name of
the common wormwood or artemifia. It is alfo a fyno¬
nime of the tanacetum incanum, the fenecio incanum,
the anthemis montana, the achilleea egyptiaca, and of
the parthenium hyfterophorus. See Artemisia, fee.
and Materia Medica, n° 64, 65, 66.
ABSIS, in aftronomy, the fame with Apsis.
ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, denotes a thing’s
being independent of, or unconnedled with, any other; Abfolute
it is alfo ufed to exprefs freedom from all limitation.
Absolute Gravity, in phyfics, is the whole force by —  ——
which a body is urged downwards.
Absolute Government, is that wherein the prince,
unlimited by the laws, is left folely to.his own will * .* See Go-
Absolute Equation, in aftronomy, is the aggregate vernnic”t-
of the optic and eccentric equation^. The apparent
inequality of a planet’s motion arifing from its not be¬
ing equally diftant from the earth at all times, is call¬
ed its optic equation, and would fubfift even if the pla¬
net’s real motion were uniform. The eccentric ine¬
quality is caufed by the planet’s motion being uniform.
To illuftrate which, conceive the fun to move, or to
appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in
whofe centre the earth is placed. It is manifeft, that
if the fun moves uniformly in this circle, it muft appear
to move uniformly to a fpeftator on the earth, and in
this cafe there will be no optic nor eccentric equation:
but fuppofe the earth to be placed out of the centre of
the circle, and then, though the fun’s motion ftiould
be really uniform., it would not appear to be fo, being
feen from the earth: and in this cafe there would be an
optic equation, without an eccentric one. Imagine
farther, the fun’s orbit to be not circular, but elliptic,
and the earth in its focus; it will be as evident that the
fun cannot appear to have an uniform motion in fuch
ellipfe : fo that his motion will then be fubjeA to two
equations, the optic and the eccentric. See jEouATioN.
Absolute Motion G Motion.
Absolute .SAyr? S- See <; Space.
Absolute 7/Vwe ('Time.
Absolute, in metaphyfics, denotes a being that
pofieftes independent exiftence.
ABSOLUTION, in general, is the pardoning or
forgiving a guilty perfon.
Absolution, in civil law, is a fentence whereby
the party accufed is declared innocent of the crime laid
to his charge.
Absolution, in the canon law, is a juridical a<ft,
whereby the prieft declares the fins of fuch as are pe¬
nitent remitted.
Absolution is chiefly ufed among Proteftants for a
fentence whereby a perfon who hands excommunicated
is releafed or freed from that punifhment.
ABSORBENT Medicines, teftaceous powders, as
chalk, crab-eyes, fee. which are taken inwardly for dry¬
ing up or abforbing any acrid or redundant humours
in the ftome.ch or inteftines. They are likewife applied
outwardly to ulcers or fores with the fame intention*. * See Mate-
Absorbent Vejfsls, a name given promifeuoufly to ria Medica,
the lafteal veffels, lymphatics, and inhalent arteries f. r*
Naturalifts fpeak of the like abforbents in plants, the n° 373 &c!
fibrous or hairy roots of which are as a kind of vafa f See Mcdi~
abforbentia, which attraft and imbibe the nutritious cine’ Part r-
juices from the earth. See Plants, n°2x, 50.. ^
ABSORBING, the fwallowing up, fucking up, no
or imbibing, any thing;: thus black bodies are faid to
abforb the rays of light; luxuriant branches, to ab-
forb or wafte the nutricious juices which ftiould feed
the fruit of trees, fee,
ABSORPTION, the effedts of abforbing. In the
animal oeconomy, it is the adt whereby the abforbent
veflels imbibe the juices j, fee. ' J See Anata-
ABSORUS, Apsorus, Absyrtis, Absyrtides, mJ>110 s6?*
Apsyrtides 37°‘
A B S [ 24 ] A B S
Abflemious Apsyrtides, Apsyrtis, and Absyrtium, (Strabo,
a Mela, Ptolemy;) iflands in the Adriatic, in the gulf
menC- of Carnero; fo called from Abfyrtus, Medea’s brother,
there flain. They are either one ifland, or two, fepa-
rated by a narrow channel, and joined by a bridge;
and are now called Cherfo and Ofero.
ABSTEMIOUS, Abstemii, in church-hiftory, a
name given to fuch perfons as could not partake of the
cup of the eucharift, on account of their natural aver-
lion to wine. Calvinifts allow thefe to communicate
in the fpecies of bread only, touching the cup with
their lip ; which, on the other hand, is by the Luthe¬
rans deemed a profanation.
ABSTEMIUS (Laurentius) a native ofMacerata,
profeffor of belles lettres inUrbiho, andlibrarian of duke
Guido Ubaldo, under the pontificate of Alexander VI.
He wrote, 1. Notes on moft difficult paffages of
ancient authors. 2. Hecatomythium, /. e. A collec¬
tion of an 100 fables, <bc. v/hich have been often
printed with thofe of 7Efop, Phsedrus, Gabrias, Avie-
nus, fee.
ABSTERGENT Medicines, thofe employed for re-
folving obftru&ions, concretions, <bc. fuch as foap, <&c.
ABSTINENCE, in a general fenfe, the a£t or ha¬
bit of refraining from fomething which we have a pro-
penfion to or find pleafure in.—Among the Jews,
various kinds of abftinence were ordained by their law.
Among the primitive Chriftians, feme denied them-
felves the ufe of fuch-meats as were prohibited by that
law, others looked upon this abftinence with contempt;
as to which, St Paul gives his opinion, Rom.xiv. 1—^3.
The council of Jerufalem, which was held by the Apo-
ftles, enjoined the Chriftian converts to abftain from
meats ftrangled, from blood, from fornication, and
from idolatry. Abftinence, as preferibed by the gof-
pel, is intended to mortify and reftrain the paffions, to
humble our vicious natures, and by that means raife
our minds to a due fenfe of devotion. But there is
another fort of abftinence, which may be called ritual,
and confifts in abftaining from particular meats at cer¬
tain times and feafons. It was the fpiritual monarchy
of the weftern world, which firft introduced this ritual
abftinence ; the rules of which were called rogations;
but grofsly abufed from the true nature and defign of
failing.—In England, abftinence from fleffi has been
enjoined by ftatute even fince the reformation, particu¬
larly on Fridays, and Saturdays,' on vigils, and on all
commonly called fijh-days. The like injunctions were
renewed under Elizabeth : but at the fame time it
was declared, that this was done not out of motives of
religion, as if there were any difference in meats ; but in
favour of the confumption of fiih, and to multiply the
number of fiftiermen and mariners, as well as fpare the
ftock of iheep. The great fail, fays St Auguftin, is to
abftain from fin.
Abstinence is more particularly ufed for a fpare
diet, or a flender parfimonious ufe of food, below the
ordinary ftandard of nature. The phyficians relate
wonders of the effects of abftinence in the cure of many
diforders, and protracting the term of life. The noble
Venetian^ Cornaro, after all imaginable means had
proved vain, fo that his life was defpaired of at forty,
recovered, and lived to near an hundred, by mere dint
of abftinence; as he himfelf gives the account. It is
indeed furprifing to what a great age the primitive
Chriftians of the Eaft, who retired from the perfecu- Abftinenre.
tions into the defarts of Arabia and Egypt, lived,
liealthful and cheerful, on a very little food. Caffiah
affures us, that the common rate for 24 hours was 12
ounces of bread, and mere water : with this St An¬
thony lived 105 years; James the hermit, 104; Ar-
fenius, tutor of the Emperor Arcadius, 120; S. Epi-
phanius, 115 ; Simeon the Stylite, 112 ; and Romauld,
120. Indeed, we can match thefe inftances of longe¬
vity at home. Buchanan writes, that one Laurence
preferved himfelf to 140 by force of temperance and
labour; and Spotfwood mentions one Kentigern, af¬
terwards called S. Mongah or Mungo, who lived to
185 by the fame means. Other inftances fee under
the article Longevity.—Abftinence, however, is to
be recommended only as it means a proper regimen ;
for in general it muft have bad confequences when
obferved without a due regard to conftitution, age,
ftrength, fee. According to Dr Cheyne, moft of the
chronical difeafes, the infirmities of old age, and the
ftiort lives of Englilhmen, are owing to repletion ; and
may be either cured, prevented, or remedied by abfti¬
nence : but then the kinds of abftinence which ought
to obtain, either in ficknefs or health, are to be dedu- * See
ced from the laws of diet and regimen*. went. Diet
Among the brute creation, we fee extraordinary in- Regimen ;
ftances of long abftinence. Theferpent-kind, in particu- & Medicine,
lar, bear abftinence to a wonderful degree. We have feen &c
rattle-fnakes that hadfubfiftedmanymonths withoutany ’
food, yet Hill retained their vigour and fiercenefs. Dr
Shaw fpeaks of a couple of ceraftes, (a fort of Egyp¬
tian ferpents), which had been kept five years in a
bottle clofe corked, without any fort of food, unlefs a
fmall quantity of fand wherein they coiled themfelves
up in the bottom of the veffel may be reckoned as
fuch: yet when he faw them, they had newly call their
Ikins, and were as brifk and lively as if juft taken. But
it is even natural for divers fpecies to pafs four, five, or
fix months every year, without either eating or drink¬
ing. Accordingly, the tortoife, bear, dormoufe, fer-
pent, &c. are obferved regularly to retire, at thofe
feafons, to their refpective cells, and hide themfelves,
fome in the caverns of rocks or ruins ; others dig holes
under ground ; others get into woods, and lay them¬
felves up in the clefts of trees ; others bury themfelvea
under water, And thefe animals are found as fat
and flefhy after fome months abftinence as before.-—
Sir G. Ent * weighed his tortoife feveral years fuccef- *Phil.Tran.
fively, at its going to earth in October, and coming n° 154-
out again in March ; and found, that, of four pounds
four' ounces,' it only ufed to lofe about one ounce.
—Indeed, we have inftances of men paffing feveral
months as ftrictly abftinent as other creatures. In par¬
ticular, the records of the Tower mention a Scotchman
imprifoned for felony, and ftriftly watched in that for-
trefs for fix weeks : in all which time he took not the ♦
leaft fuftenance ; for which he had his pardon. Num-
berlefs inftances of extraordinary abftinence, particu¬
larly from morbid caufes, are to be found in the different
periodical Memoirs, Tranfaclions, Ephemerides, &c.—?
It is to be added, that, in moft inftances of extraordinary
human abftinence related by naturalifts, there were faid
to have been apparent marks of a texture of blood and
humours, much like that of the animals above mentioned.
Though it is no improbable opinion, that the air itfelf
may
A B S
Abftinents may furnifh fomething for nutrition. It is certain,
Ahitr aion t^iere are f^bftances of all kinds, animal, vegetable, &c.
—-1'!-n floating in the atmofphere, which muft be continually
taken in by refpiration. And that an animal body may
be nourilhed thereby, is evident in the inftance of vi¬
pers ; which if taken when firfl: brought forth, and
kept from every thing but air, will yet grow very con-
liderably in a few days. So the eggs of lizards are
obfervcd to increafe in bulk, after they are produced,
though there be nothing to furnifli the increment but
air alone ; in like manner as the eggs or fpawn offilhes
grow and are nourilhed with the water. And hence,
fay forne, it is that cooks, turnfpit-dogs, &c. though
they eat but little, yet are ufually fat.
ABSTINENTS, or Abstinentes, a fet of here¬
tics that appeared in France and Spain about the end
of the third century. They are fuppofed to have bor¬
rowed pail of their opinions from the Gnoftics and
Manicheans, becaufe they oppofed marriage, con¬
demned the ufe of meats, and placed the Holy Ghoft
in the clafs of/Created beings.
ABSTRACT Idea, in metaphyfics, is a partial idea
of a complex objedt, limited to one or more of the
component parts or properties, laying alide or ab-
ftradling from the reft. Thus, in viewing an objedt
with the eye, or recolledling it in the mind, we can
eafily abftradt from fome of its parts or properties, and
attach ourfelves to others : we can attend to'the rednefs
of a cherry, without regard to its figure, tafte, or
confiftence. See\ABSTRACxioN.
Abstract Terms, words that are ufed to exprefs
abftradt ideas. Thus beauty, uglinefs, whitenefs,
roundnefs, life, death, are abftradt terms.
Abstract Numbers, are affemblages of units, con-
fidered in themfelves, without denoting any particular
and determined particulars. Thus 6 is an abftradt
number, when not applied to any thing; but, if we
fay 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number. See the
article Number.
Abstract Mathematics, otherwife called Pure
Mathematics, is that which treats of magnitude or
quantity, abfolutely and generally confidered, without
reftridtion to anyfpeciesof particular magnitude fuch
are Arithmetic and Geometry. In this fenfe, abftradt
mathematics is oppofed to mixed mathematics, wherein
iimple and abftradt properties, and the relations of
quantities primitively confidered in pure mathematics,
are applied to fenfible objedts, and by that means be¬
come intermixed with phyfical confiderations ; fuch are
Hydroftatics, Optics, Navigation, &c.
ABSTRACTION, the operation of the mind
when occupied by abftradt ideas. A large oak fixes
our attention, and abftradts us from the flirubs that
furround it. Jn the fame manner, a beaoitifub woman
in a crowd, abftradts our thoughts, and engroffes our
attention folely to herfelf. Thefe are examples of real
abftradiion : when thefe, or any others of a fimilar
kind, are recalled to the mind after the objedis them¬
felves are removed from our fight, they form what is
called abjlraft idea's, or the mind is faid to be employed
in abftradt ideas. But the power of abftradtion is not
confined to objedts. that are feparable in reality as well
as mentally : the fize, the figure, the colour of a tree
are infeparably connedted, and cannot exift independent
of each other; and yet we can mentally confine our
Vol. I.
A B U
obfervations to any one of thefe properties, negledting Abfimfe
or abftradting from the reft. H
ABSTRUSE, fomething deep, hidden, concealed, ——-~nt'
or far removed from common apprehenfions, and there¬
fore not eafily underftood; in oppoiition to what is
obvious and palpable. Thus metaphyfics is an abftrufe
fcience ; and the dodtrine of fluxions, and the method
de maximis and minimis, are abftrufe points of know¬
ledge.
ABSURD, an epithet applied to any thing that
oppofes the human apprehenfion, and contradidts a
manifeft truth. Thus, it would be abfurd to fay that
fix and fix make only io, or to deny that twice fix
make 12. When the term abjurd is applied to adtions,
it has the fame import as ridiculous.
ABSURDITY, an impropriety, or fomething that
oppofes an evident truth or principle. The contra-
didtion is the greateft of all abfurdities.
ABSYNTHIUM. See Absinthium.
ABSYRTUS, in the heathen mythology, the fon
of iEta and Hypfea, and the brother of Medea. The
latter running away with Jafon, after her having aflift-
ed him in carrying off the golden fleece, was purfued
by her father; when, to flop his progrefs, flie tore Ab-
fyntusdn pieces, and fcattered his limbs in his way.
ABTHANES, a title of honour ufed by the an¬
cient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their nobles
thanes, which in the old Saxon fignifies king's minijlers;
and of thefe the higher rank were ftyled abthanes, and *
thofe of the lower underthanes.
ABUCARAS (Theodorus), metropolitan of Caria
in the ninth century, was remarkable for his zeal in de¬
fending what he believed to be the truth, and was the
author of above forty controverfial treatifes againft the
Saracens, Jews, and reputed heretics. This metropo¬
litan at firft embraced the dodlrines of Phot-ius ; for
which, begging pardon of the council of Conftaniinople
in 869, he was reftored to the communion of the
church, and obtained a feat in the council. His works
are inferted in the Supplement of the Bibliotheque des
Peres, the Paris edition.
ABUKESO, in commerce, the fame with Aslan *. * Which fee.
ABULFARAGIUS (Gregory), fon to Aaron a
phyfician, born in 1226, in the city of Maiatia, near
the fource of the Euphrates in Armenia. Pie followed
the profeffion of his father ; and prattifed with great
fuccefs, numbers of people coming from the moft re¬
mote parts to aik his advice. However, he would hardly
have been known at this time, had his knowledge been
confined to phyfic : but he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well
as philofophy and divinity ; and he wrote a hiftory
which does honour to his memory. It is written in
Arabic, and divided into dynafties. It donfifts of ten
parts, being an epitome of univerfal hiftory from the
creation of the world to his own time. Dr Pocock pu-
blifhed k with a Latin tranflation in 1663 5 and added,
by way of fupplement, a Ihort continuation relating
to the hiftory of the eaftern princes.
ABUNA, the title given to the archbilhop or me¬
tropolitan of Abyffinia. See Abyssinian.
ABUNDANT Number, in arithmetic, is a number,
the fum of whofe aliquot parts is greater than the num¬
ber itfelf. Thus the aliquot parts of 12, being 1, 2,
3, 4, and 6, "they make, when added together, 16.
D An
[ 25 ]
A B Y [ 26 ] A B Y
Abundantia An abundant number is oppofed to a deficient number.
If or that which is greater than all its aliquot parts taken
  ^—together; as 14, whofe aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 7,
which make no more than 10 : and to a perfett num¬
ber, or one to which its aliquot parts -sre equal, as 6,
whofe aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 3.
ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, reprefented
in ancient monuments under the figure of a woman
with a pleafing afpeft, crowned with garlands of flowers,
pouring all forts of fruit out of a horn which Ihe holds
in her right hand, and fcattering grain with her left,
taken promifcuoufly from a fheaf or corn. On a medal
of Trajan, fhe is reprefented with two cornucopia:.
ABUS, (Tacitus) ; a river of Britain, formed by
the confluence of the Ure, the Derwent, Trent, &c.
falling into the German fea, between Yorkfliire and
Lincolnlhire, and forming the mouth of the Humber.
ABUSE, in a general fenfe, implies the perverting
fomething^ from its genuine or original intention. Thus
an abufe of words is the ufing them without any clear
and diftinit ideas.
ABUTILON, in botany, the trival name of fe-
veral fpecies of the fida. See Sida. Abutilon is alfo
a fynonime of the melochia tomentofa and melochia
deprefla, two American plants of the monadelphia
pentandria clafs. It is likewife a fynonime of the la-
vatora, malya, and hibifcus.
,ABYDOS, anciently a town built by the Milefians
in Afia, on the Hellefpont, where it is fcarce a mile
over, oppofite to Seftos on the European fide, (Dio-
nyfius Periegetes.) Now both called the Dardanelles.
Abydos lay midway between Lampfacus and Ilium,
famous for Xerxes’s bridge, (Herodotus, Virgil) ; and
for the loves of Leander and Hero, (Mufasus, Ovid) ;
celebrated alfo for its oyftefs, (Ennius, Virgil.) The
inhabitants were a foft, effeminate people, given much
to detraction; hence the proverb, Ne temere Abydum,
when we would caution againft danger, (Stephanus.)
Abydos, (Strabo, Pliny) ; anciently an inland town
of Egypt, between Ptolemais and Diofpolis Parva, to¬
wards Syene ; famous for the palace of Memnon, and
the temple of Ofiris. A colony of Milefians; (Ste¬
phanus.)
ABYLA, (Ptolemy, Mela) ; one of Hercules’s pil¬
lars, on the African fide, called by the Spaniards Sier¬
ra de las Monas, over againft Calpe in Spain, the other
pillar ; fuppofed to have been formerly joined, but fe-
paratedby Hercules, and thus to have given entrance
to the fea now called the Mediterraean: the limits
of the labours of Hercules, (Pliny.)
ABYSS, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething pro¬
found, and, as it were, bdttomlefs. The word is ori¬
ginally Greek, aSu^a-or, compounded of the privative «,
and pv<r<n>s, bottom ; q. d. without a bottom.
Abyss, in a more particular fenfe, denotes a deep
mafs or fund of waters. In this fenfe, the word is
particularly ufed, in the Septuagint, for the water
which God created at the beginning with the earth,
which encompaffed it round, and which our tranflators
render by deep. Thus it is that darknefs is faid to
have been on the face of the abyfs.
Abyss is alfo ufed for an immenfe cavern in the
earth, where God collected all thofe waters on the
third day ; which, in our verfion, is rendered the feas,
and elfewhere the.great deep. Dr Woodward, in his
Natural Hillory of the Earth, aflerts, That there is a Abyfs.
mighty collection of waters inclofed in the bowels of
the earth,' conftituting a huge orb in the interior or
central parts of it; and over the furface of this water
he fuppofes the terreftrial ftrata to be expanded. This,
according to him, is what Mofes calls the great deep,
and what molt authors render the great Abyfs. The
water of this vaft Abyfs, he aflerts, does communicate
with that of the ocean, by means of certain hiatus’s
or chafms palling betwixt it and the bottom of the
ocean : and this and the Abyfs he fuppofes to have
one common centre, around which the water of both
is placed; but fo, that the ordinary furface of the
Abyfs is not level with that of the ocean, nor at fo great
a diftance from the centre as the other, it being for
the molt part reftrained and deprefled by the ftrata of
earth lying upon it: but where-ever thofe ftrata are
broken, or fo lax and porous that water can pervade
them, there the water of the Abyfs afeends ; fills up
all the clefts and fiflures into which it can get admit¬
tance ; and faturates all the interftices and pores of
the earth, ftone, or other matter, all around the globe,
quite up to the level of the ocean.—The exiftence of an
abyfs, or receptacle of fubterraneous waters, is contro- * j);ffert
verted by Camerarius * ; and defended by Dr Wood-* Tanr. Acta
ward, chiefly by two arguments : the firft drawn Erud. fupp.
from the vaft quantity of water which covered the ton!- v’-
earth in the time of the deluge ; the fecond, from the p' 24‘
confideration of earthquakes, which he endeavours to
fliew are occafioned by the violence of the waters in
this abyfs. A great part of the terreftrial globe has
been frequently fhaken at the fame moment; which
argues, according to him, that the waters, which were
the occafion thereof, were coextended with that part
of the globe. There are even inftances of univerfal
earthquakes; which (fays he) fhew, that the whole
abyfs muft have been agitated : for fo general an effect
mull have been produced by as general a caufe, and
that caufe can be nothing but the fubterraneous
Abyfs f.—To this abyfs alfo has been attributed f Hift. of
the origin of fprings and rivers ; the level main- f'ie cartiil-
tained in the furfaces of different feas ; and their not.|"^"‘s de
overflowing their banks. To the effluvia emitted tom, ivi’;;,
from it, fome even attribute all the diverfities of p. 393.
weather and changes in our atmofphere j:. Ray ||, Memoirs of
and other authors, ancient as well as modern, fuppofe
a communication between the Cafpian fea and the , &c.
ocean by means of a fubterranean abyfs : and to this i Holloway,
they attribute it, that the Cafpian does not overflow, infod. to
notwithftanding the great number of large rivers it re- ^he
ceives, of which Kempfer reckons above 50 in the Earth. Aft a
compafs of 60 miles ; tho’, as to this, others fuppofe Erud. 1717.
that the daily evaporatio>n may fuffice to keep the P- 3T3-
level.-—After all, however, that has been advanced by
naturalifts concerning this Abyfs, its exiftence remains ;; Ci Jc
as yet uneftablilhed by any folid proofs. p- 7$.
Abyss is alfo ufed to denote hell. In which fenfe
the word is fynonymous with what is otherwife called
Barathrum, Erebus, and Tartarus; in theEnglifh bible,
the bottomlefs pit. The unclean fpirits expelled by
Chrift, begged, ne imperaret ut in abyjfum irent, ac¬
cording to the vulgate ; i*f a/?uo-o-ov, according to the
Greek. Luke via. 31. Rev. ix. 1.
Abyss is more particularly ufed, in antiquity, to de¬
note the temple of Proferpine. It was thus called on
account
A B Y [ :
Abyflinia, account of the immenfe fund of gold and riches depofi-
ted there ; fome fay, hid under ground.
Abyss is alfo ufed, in heraldry, to denote the centre
of an efcutcheon. In which fenfe, a thing is faid to
be bore in abyfs, en abyfme, when placed in the middle
of the fliield, clear from any other bearing: He bears
azure, a flower de Us, in abyfs.
ABYSSINIA, by fome called Higher Ethiopia, and
by the Arabians Al Hahajh, is bounded on the north
by Nubia; on the eaft, by the Arabic gulph or Red Sea,
and the kingdom of Adel; on the fouth, by the king¬
doms of Ajan, Alaba, and Gingiro; and on the weft,
by the kingdom of Goram and part of Gingiro ; and
is divided into a great number of provinces. The
principal river is the Nile, which has its fource in this
country; and the moft confiderable lake, that of Dam-
bea, which difcharges itfelf into the Nile, is about 700
miles in length, and 90 in breadth. The air is pretty
temperate in the mountains, and therefore their towns
and ftrong-holds are generally placed on them; but in
the valleys it is hot and fuffocating. The foil and face
of the country is various. In'tome places there are
nothing but rocks and profound caverns: in others,
efpecially where there are rivers, the land is exceeding
fruitful ; and the banks of thefe ftreams are bordered
with flowers of various kinds, many of which are un¬
known in Europe. The torrents in the rainy feafon
vvafh a great deal of gold from the mountains. This
feafon begins in May, when the fun is vertical, or dire&ly
over their heads; and ends in September. To thefe tor¬
rents is attributed the overflowing of the Nile, the caufe
of which fo much puzzled the ancients. It was com¬
monly attributed to the melting of the fnow upon the
hills in thefe parts : but experience has fince undecei¬
ved the world; for there is no fnow, even on the higheft
hills in this country.—The country produces a great
variety of ani'mals, both tame and wild, fuch as lions, ti¬
gers, rhinocerofes, leopards, elephants, monkeys, flags,
deer ; horfes, camels, dromedaries, goats, cows, fheep;
likewife oftriches, with a vaft variety of other birds. In
the rivers are crocodiles and the hippopotamus. Travel¬
lers mention alfo a peculiar kind of bees, fmall, black,
and without a fling, which hive in the earth, and make
honey and wax that are extremely white. The coun-
try Is greatly infefted with locufts, which devour every
thing that is green wherever they come.—Befides the
large towns, there are a great number of villages,
which in fome places are fo thick fown, that they look
like one continued town: the houfes are very mean,
being but one ftory high ; and built of ftraw, earth, and
lime. In moft of the towns the houfes are feparated
by hedges, which are always green, and mixed with
flowers and fruit-trees at a certain diftance from each
other, which affords an agreeable profpeft.—The go¬
vernment is monarchical. The fovereign has the title
' of Negus, and is an abfolute prince. When he is in
camp, the tents are fo regularly difpofed as to. have the
appearance of a city ; and there is a captain over every
divifion, to prevent diforders and to execute juftice.—
The Abyffmes in general are of an olive, complexion,
tall, graceful, and well featured. Thofe who are nei¬
ther mechanics or tradefmen (which few of them are),
nor tillers of the ground, are inured to bear arms, which
are a head-piece, a buckler, a coat of mail, bows and
arrows, darts, pikes capped with iron at both ends, a
>7 ] A B Y
fling, and a fword: they have very few fire-arms, and AbyiBnja,
thofe were introduced by the Portuguefe. The habit
of perfons of quality is a filken veft, or fine cotton,
with a kind of fcarf. The citizens have the fame ha-
bit, only coarfer. The common people have nothing
but a pair of cotton drawers, and a fcarf which covers
the reft of their body. The women are of a healthy
conftitution, a&ive, and moderately handfome, having
neither flat nofes nor thick lips like the negroes; and
nature is fo friendly, that they ftand in little need of
midwives, which is indeed the cafe of moft countries in
the torrid zone. They appear in public as in Europe,
without being forbid the converfation of the men as
among the Mahometans. Princeffes of the royal blood
are not permitted to marry foreigners ; and when they
take the air, they go in great ftate, with 400 or 500
women attendants. Their language is the Ethiopic,
which bears a great affinity with the Arabic; but par¬
ticular provinces have a different dialed!:. As to their
religion,- fee the next article.
Manufactures are almoft wholly wanting in thiscoun-
try; and the few trades which they have amongft them
are always conveyed from the father to the children.
They feein indeed by their churches, and other ruinated
places, to have had a knowledge of architecture. But
the workmen were fent for from other countries, and
were forced to do all themfelves; fo that when thefe fa¬
brics were reared, efpecially the imperial palace built
by Peter Pais, a Portuguefe architect, the people flock¬
ed from all parts of Ethiopia to view it, and admired
it as a -new wonder of the world.—Gold, filver, copper,
and iron, are the principal ores with which their mines
abound in this extenfive part of Africa ; but not above
one third part is made ufe of by way of merchandize,
or converted into money ; of which they have little or
no ufe in Abyffinia. They cut their gold indeed into
fmall pieces for the pay of their troops, and for expences
of' the court, which is but a modern cuftom among
them; the king’s gold, before the end of the 17th cen¬
tury, being laid up in his treafury in ingots,- with in¬
tent to be never carried out, nor ever ufed in any thing
but veffels and trinkets for the fervice of the palace.
In the lieu of fmall money, they make ufe of rock-fait
as white as fnow and as hard as ftone. This is taken
out of the mountain of Lafta, and put into the king’s
warehoufes; where it is reduced into tablets of a foot
long, and three inches bread, ten of which are worth
about a French crown. When they are circulated in
trade, they are reduced into ftill fmaller pieces, as oc-
dafion requires. This fait is alfo applied to the fame
purpofe as common fea-falt. With this mineral fait
they purchafe pepper, fpices, and iilk fluffs, which are
brought to them by the Indians, in their ports in the
Red Sea. Cardamums, ginger, aloes, myrrh, caffia,,
civet, ebony-wood, ivory, wax, honey, cotton andlin-
nens of various forts and colours,- are merchandizes
which may be had from Abyflinia; to which may be
added fugar, hemp, flax, and excellent wines, if thefe
people had the art of preparing them. It is affirmed
there are in this country the lineft emeralds that are
any where to be found; and, though they are found
but in one place, they are there in great quantities, and
fome fo large and fo perfedt as to be of almoft inefti-
mable value. The greateft part of the merchan¬
dizes above mentioned, are more for foreign than in-
D 2 hind-
A B Y [ 28 ] A C A
Abyffinia, land trade. Their domeftic commerce confifts chiefly
Abyfflnian, jn fa|t> honey, buck-wheat, grey peafe, citrons, oran-
es, lemons, and other provifions, with fruits and her-
age neceflary for the fupport of life. Thofe places
that the Abyffinian merchants frequent the moft, who
dare venture to carry their commodities by fea them-
felves, are Arabia' Felix, and the Indies, particu¬
larly Goa, Cambaye, Bengal, and Sumatra. With
rep-ard to their ports on the Red Sea, to which fo¬
reign merchants commonly refort, the moft confider-
able are thofe of Mette, Azum, Zajalla, Maga, Dazo,
Patea, and Brava. The trade of the Abyffinians by
land is inconfiderable. There are, however, bands of
them who arrive yearly at Egypt, particularly at Cairo,
laden with gold duft, which they bring to barter for
the merchandizes of that country, or of Europe, for
which they have occafion. Thefe cafilas or caravans,
if we may be allowed thus to call a body of 40 or 50
poor wretches who unite together for their mutual af-
iiftance in their journey, are commonly three or four
months on their route, traverfing forefts and moun¬
tains almoft impaflable, in order to exchange their gold
for neceflaries for their families, and return immediately
with thegreateft part of the merchandize on their backs.
Frequently the Jews or Egyptians give them large
credit; which may feem furpvifmg, as they are beyond
recourfe if they fhould fail of payment. But experience
has fhewn, that they have never abufed the confidence
repofed in them; and even in the event of death, their
fellow-travellers take care of the effects of the deceafed
for the benefit of their families, but in the firft place
for the difcharge of thofe debts contra&ed at Cairo.—
It remains only to be obferved, that one of the principal
branches of trade of the Abyflines is that of flaves; who
are greatly efteemed in the Indies and Arabia for the
beft, and moft faithful, of all that the other kingdoms of
Africa furnifh. The Indian and Arabian merchants
frequently fubftitute them as their factors; and, on ac¬
count of their good fervices and integrity, not only of¬
ten give them their liberty, but liberally reward them.
ABYSSINIAN, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, is ufed
as the name of a fedl, or herefy, in the Chriftian
church, eftablifhed in the empire of Abyffinia. The
Abyffinians are a branch of the Copts or Jacobites;
with whom they agree in admitting but one nature in
Jefus Chrift, and rejefting the council of Chalcedon :
whence they are alfo called Eutychians, and ftand
oppofed to the Melchites. They are only diftin-
guifhed from the Copts, and other fefts of Jacobites,
by fome peculiar national ufages.—The Abyffinian fe<ft
or church is governed by a bifliop or metropolitan
ftyled Abuna, lent them by the Coptic patriarch of
Alexandria refiding at Cairo, who is the only perfon
that ordains priefts. The next dignity is that of Ko-
mos, or Hegumenas, who is a kind of arch-prelbyter.
They have canons alfo, and monks : the former of
whom marry; the latter, at their admiffion, vow celi¬
bacy, but with a refervation : thefe, it is faid, make a
promife aloud, before their fuperior, to keep chaftity;
but add, in a low voice, as you keep it. The emperor
has a kind of fupremacy in ecclefiaftical matters. He
alone takes cognifance of all ecclefiaftical caufes, except
fome fmaller ones referved to the judges; and confers
all benefices, except that of Abuna.—The Abyffinians
have at different times expreffed an inclination to be
reconciled to the fee of Rome; but rather out of Abylflni*
intereft of ftate, than any other motive. The emperor A II .
David, or the queen regent on his behalf, wrote a cacla*
letter on this head to pope Clement VII. full of fub-
miffion, and demanding a patriarch from Rome to
be inftru&ed by: which being complied with, he
publicly abjured the do£trine of Eutychius and Diof-
corus in 1626, and allowed the fupremacy of the pope.
Under the emperor Seltan Seghedall was undone again;
the Romilh miffionaries fettled there had their churches
taken from them, and their new converts banifhed or put
to death. , The congregation depropaganda have made
feveral attempts to revive the million,but to littlepurpofe.
—The dodtrines and ritual of this fedtary form a ftrange
compound of Judaifm, Chriftianity, and fuperftition.
They pradtife circumcifion ; and are faid to extend the
pradtice to the females as well as males : they obferve
both Saturday and Sunday fabbaths: they eat no meats
prohibited by the law of Mofes: women are obliged to.
the legal purifications : and brothers marry their bro¬
thers wives, <bc. On the other hand, they celebrate the
epiphany with peculiar feftivity, in memory of Chrift’s
baptifm; when they plunge and fport in ponds and
rivers, which has occafioned fome to affirm that they
were baptized anew every year. Among the faints-
days is one confecrated to Pilate and his wife; by rea-
fon Pilate walhed his hands before he pronounced fen-
tence on Chrift, and his wife defired him to have no¬
thing to do with the blood of that juft perfon. They
have four lents: the great one commences ten days
earlier than ours, and is obferved with much feverity,
many abftaining therein even from filh, becaufe St Paul
fays there is one kind of flelh of men, and another of
fifties. They allow of divorce, which is eafily granted
among them, and by the civil judge ; nor do their civil
laws prohibit polygamy itfelf. They have at leaft as
many miracles and legends of faints, as the Romifli
church: which proved no fmall embarraffment to the
Jefuit miflionaries, to whom they produced fo many
miracles, wrought by their faints, in proof of their re¬
ligion, and thofe fo well circumftantiated and attefted,
that the Jefuits were obliged to deny miracles to
be any proof of a true religion; and in proof here¬
of to allege the fame arguments againft the Abyffi¬
nians, which Proteftants in Europe allege againft the
Papifts. They pray for the dead, and invoke faints
and angels ; have fo great a veneration for the virgin,
that they charged the Jefuits with not rendering her ho¬
nour enough. Images in painting they venerate; but
abhor all thofe in relievo, except the crofs. They hold
that the foul of man is not created; becaufe, fay they,
God finiftied all his work on the fixth day. They ad¬
mit the apocryphal books, and the canons of the apo-
ftles, as well as the apoftolical conftitutions, for ge¬
nuine. Their liturgy is given by Alvarez, and in En-
glifh by Pagit.
ACA, Ace, or Acon, a town of Phoenicia, on the
Mediterranean; afterwards czWe&Ptolemais; now Jcre.
ACACALOTL, the Brafilian name of a bird called
by fome corvus aquations, or the water-raven: proper¬
ly, the pelicanus carbo, or corvorant. See Pelicanus.
ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Rean-
tree, in botany, a fpecies of Mimofa *, according to * See Mi-
Linnaeus; tho’ other botanifts make it a diftinft genus. mofa%
Falfe Acacia, See Robinia.
7hree-
A C A [ 29 ] A C A
Acacia ‘Three-thorned Acacia, or Honey-Locujl. See Gle-
. Jl . c DITSIA.
- Ca etn.'C * Acacia, in the Materia Medica. See there, n° 67.
Acacia, among antiquaries, fomething refembling a
roll or bag, feen on medals, as in the hands of feveral
confuls and emperors. Some take it to reprefent a
handkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made lignals at
the games; others, a roll of petitions or memorials ;
and fome, a purple bag full of earth, to remind them
of their mortality.
ACACIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name of
feveral fefts of heretics ; fome of which maintained,
that the Son was only a fimilar, not the fame, fubftance
with the Father ; and others, that he was not only a
diftinft, but a difiimilar, fubftance. Two of thefe fefts
had their denomination from Acacius bilhop of Cxfa-
rea, who lived in the fourth century, and changed his
opinions, fo as, at different times, to be head of both.
Another was named from Acacius patriarch of Con-
flantinople, who lived in the clofe of the fifth century.
ACACIUS, firnamed Luscus, becaufe he was blind
of one eye, was bifhop of Caefarea in Paleftine, and fuc-
ceeded the famous Eul'ebius: he had a great fhare in
the banifhment of pope Tiberius’, and bringing Felix to
* See the the fee of Rome. He gave name to a feft #, and died
preceding about the year 365. He wrote the life of Eufebius, and
a“ • fevera] other works.
Acacius (St), bifhop of Amida, in Mefopotamia, in
420, was diftinguifhed by his piety and charity. He
fold the plate belonging to his church, to purchafe fe-
ven thoufand Perfian flaves who were ready to die with
want and mifery; and giving each of them fome mo¬
ney, fent them home. Veranius, their king, was fo af¬
fected with this noble inftance of benevolence, that he
defired to fee the bifhop ; and this interview procured
a peace between that prince and Theodofius I.
There have been feveral other eminent perfons of the
fame name; particularly, A martyr under the emperor
Decius: A patriarch of Antioch, who fucceeded Bafil
in 458, and died in 459: A bifhop of Miletum in the
fifth century; A famous rhetorician in the reign of the
emperor Julian: and, A patriarch of Conftantinople in
the fifth century; who was ambitious to draw the whole
power and authority of Rome by degrees to Conftan¬
tinople, for which he was delivered over irretrievably to
the devil by pope Felix III.
ACADEMICIAN, or AcademisTjU member of an
academy. See Academv in the modern fenfe.
ACADEMICS, or Academists, a denomination
given to the cultivators of a fpecies of philofophy ori¬
ginally derived from Socrates, and afterwards illu-
ftrated and enforced by Plato, who taught in a grove
near Athens, confecrated to the memory of Academus
an Athenian hero; from which circumftance this phi¬
lofophy received the name of academical. Before the
days of Plato, philofophy had, in a great meafure,
fallen into contempt. The contradictory fyftems and
hypothefes which had fucceffively been urged upon the
world were become fo numerous, that, from a view
of this inconftancy and uncertainty of human opinions,
many were led to conclude, that truth lay beyond the
reach of our comprehenfion. Abfolute and univerfal
fcepticifm was the natural confequence of this conclu-
fion. In order to remedy this abufe of philofophy
and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the
principles of the academical philofophy; and, in his Academics,
Phaedo, reafons in the following manner. “ If we are Academy.
“ unable to difcover truth,(fays he), it muft be owing
“ to two circumftances: either there is no truth in
“ the nature of things; or the mind, from a defeCt
“ in its powers, is not able to apprehend it. Upon
“ the latter fuppofition, all the uncertainty and fluc-
“ tuation in the opinions and judgments of mankind
“ admit of an eafy folution: Let us therefore be mo-
“ deft, and afcribe our errors to the real weaknefs .
“ of our own minds, and not to the nature of things
“ themfelves. Truth is often difficult of accefs : in
“ order to come at it, we muft proceed with caution
“ and diffidence, carefully examining every ftep; and,
“ after all our labour, we will frequently find our great-
“ eft efforts difappointed, and be obliged to confefs our
“ ignorance and weaknefs.”
Labour and caution in our refearches, in oppofition
to rafti and hafty decifions, were the diftinguiftiing
charaCteriftics of the difciples of the ancient academy.
A philofopher poffeffed of thefe principles, will be
flow in his progrtfs ; but will feldom fall into errors,
or have occalion to alter his opinion after it is once
formed. Vanity and precipitance are the great fources
of fcepticifm: hurried on by thefe, inftead of attending
to the cool and deliberate principles recommended by
the academy, feveral of our modern philofophers have
plunged themfelves into an abfurd and ridiculous kind
of fcepticifm. They pretend to difcredit things that
are plain, Ample, and eafily comprehended ; but give
peremptory and decilive judgments upon fubjedts that
evidently exceed the limits of our capacity. Of thefe,
Berkley and Hume are the moft confiderable. Berkley
. denied the exiftence of every thing, excepting his own
ideas. Mr Hume has gone a ftep further, and queftioned
even the exiftence of ideas; but at the fame time has
not hefitated to .give determined opinions with regard
to eternity, providence, and a future ftate, miraculous
interpofitions of the Deity, &c. fubjedts far above the
reach of our faculties. In his effay on the academical
or fceptical philofophy, he has confounded two very
oppofite fpecies of philofophy. After the days of Plato,
indeed, the principles of the firft academy were grofsly
corrupted by Arcefilas, Carneades, &c. This might
lead Mr Hume into the notion that the academical and
fceptical philofophy were fynonimous terms. But no
principles can be of a more oppofite nature than thofe
which were inculcated by the old academy of-Socrates
and Plato, and the fceptical notions which were propa¬
gated by Arcefilas, Carneades, and the other difciples
of the fucceeding academics.
ACADEMY, in antiquity, a garden or villa, fitu-
ated within a mile of Athens, where Plato and his fol¬
lowers held their philofophical conferences. It took
its name from one Academus, or Ecademus, a citizen
of Athens, who was the original owner of it, and made
it a kind of gymnalium: he lived in the time of The-
feus. Cimon embelliftied it with fountains, trees, and
walks; but Sylla, during the fiegeof Athens, employ¬
ed thefe very trees in making battering engines againft:
the city. Cicero too had his villa, or place of retire¬
ment, near Puzzuoli, which he alfo named an academy^
where he compofed his Academical quejlions, and his
book De natura dtorum.
Academy, among the moderns, is moft commonly
ufed
A C A [ 3° 1 A C A
Academies. ufed to fignify a fockty of learned men, eftablifhed for
”” “ the improvement of any art or fcience.
The firft Academy we read of, was eftablifhed by Char¬
lemagne, at the inftigation of Alcuin. It was compofed
of the chief wits of the court, the emperor himfelf being a
member. In their academical conferences, every perfon
was to give an account of what ancient authors he had
read; and each even affumed the name of fome ancient
author who pleafed him moft, or fome celebrated perfon
of antiquity. Alcuin, from whofe letters we learn thefe
particulars, took that of Flaccus, the firname of Ho¬
race : a young lord, named Augilbert, took that of
Homer: Adelard, bifhop of Corbie, was called Au-
guftin: Riculfe, bifhop of Mentz, was Dametas; and
* See School. the king himfelf, David *. This fhews the miftake of
fpme modern writers, who relate,. that it was in con¬
formity with the genius of the learned men of thofe
times, who were great admirers of Roman names, that
Alcuin took the name of Flaccus Albinos.
Moft nations have now their Academies ; but Italy
has byfar the greateft number.—The French have many
flourifhing academies, moft of which were eftablifhed
by Lewis XIV.—We have but few in Britain ; and
* SetSociety, thofe of chiefeft note go by a different name *. There
term with as ^owever» *n London, the Academy of Painting,
foreftablifh- an<^ that of Mufic; eftablifhed by letters-patent, and
merits of governed by their refpe&ive direftors.
this kind. In giving an account of the principal Academies, it
feems moft proper to arrange them according to their
fubjefts.
I. Medical Academies \ as that of the Naturae Cu-
riofi in Germany; that founded at Palermo in 1645 ’
another at Venice in 1701, which meets weekly in a
hall near the grand hofpital; another at Geneva in
1715, in the houfe of M. Le Clerc. The colleges of
phyficians at London and Edinburgh are alfo, by fome,
* See Col- ranked in the number of Academies *.
Lv* The Academy of Natures Gurioft, called alfo the
Leopoldine Academy, was founded in 1652 by Jo.
Laur. Baufchius, a phyfician; who, in imitation of the
Englifh, publifhed an invitation to all phyficians to
communicate their extraordinary cafes ; and, meeting
with fuccefs, was eledted prefident. Their works were
at firft publifhed feparately; but in 1670 a newfcheme
was laid for publifhing a volume of obfervations every
year. The firft volume appeared in 1684, under the
title of Ephemerides, and the work has been continued
with fome interruptions and variations of the title, <bc.
In 1687, the emperor Leopold took the fociety under
his protedlion, granting the members feveral privileges,
particularly that their prefidents fhould be counts pa¬
latine of the holy Roman empire. This academy has
no fixed refidence or regular affemblies : inftead of
thefe, there is a kind of bureau, or office, firft eftablifh¬
ed at Breflau, and afterwards removed to Nuremberg,
where letters, obfervations, &c. from correfpondents
or members are taken in. The academy confifts of a
prefident, two adjuncts or fecretaries, and colleagues or
members without reftriclion. The colleagues, at their
admiffion, oblige themfelves to two things: firft, to chufe
fome fubjedt out of the animal, vegetabl e, or mi neral ki ng-
dom, to handle, provided it had not been treated of by
any colleague before; the fecond, to apply themfelves to
furnifh materials for the Annual Ephemerides. Each
member to bear a fymbol of the academy; viz. a gold
ring, whereon, inftead of a ftorie, is a book open, and, Academies,
on the face thereof, an eye ; on the other fide the motto '
of the academy, Nunquam otiofus.
II. Chirurgical Academies ; as that inftituted
fome years ago, by public authority, at Paris: the mem¬
bers of which were not only to publifh their own and
.correfpondents obfervations and improvements; but to
give an account of all that is publifhed on furgery, and
to compofe a complete hiftory of the art, by their
extracts from all the authors ancient and modern
who have wrote on it. A queftion in furgery is an¬
nually propofed by the academy, and a gold medal of
two hundred livres value given to him who furnifhes
the moft fatisfaftory anfwer.
III. Ecclesiastical Academies ; as that at Bo¬
logna in Italy, inftituted in 1687, employed in the ex¬
amination of the doctrine, difcipline, and hiftory, of each
age of the church.'
IV. Cosmographical Academies; as that at Ve¬
nice, called the Argonauts. This was inftituted at the
felicitation of F. Coronelli, for the improvement of
geographical knowledge. Its defign was to. publifh
exaeft maps, both celeftial and terreftrial, as well par¬
ticular as general, together with geographical, hiftori-
cal, and aftronomical deferiptions. Each member, in
order to defray the expence offuch a publication,was
to fubferibe a proportional fum, for which they were
to receive one or more copies of each piece publifhed.
For this end, three focieties are fettled ; one under
F. Moro, provincial of the Minorites in Hungary; ano¬
ther under the abbot Laurence au Rue Payenne au
Marais; the third under F. Baldigiani, Jefuit, profef-
for of mathematics in the Roman college. The device
of this academy is the terraqueous globe, with the
motto Plus ultra; and at its expence all the globes,
maps, and geographical writings, of F. Coronelli have
been publifhed.
V. Academies ^Sciences.—Thefe comprehendfuch
as are erected for improving natural and mathematical
knowledge. They are otherwife called Philofophical
and Phyjical Academies.
The firft of thefe was inftituted at Naples, about the
year 1560, in the houfe of Baptifta Porta. It was call¬
ed the Academy Secretorum Natures; and was fuc-
ceeded by the Academy of Lyncei, founded at Rome by
Prince Frederic Cefi, towards the end of that century.
Several of the members of this academy rendered it fa¬
mous by their difeoveries ; among thefe was the cele¬
brated Galileo. Several other academies were inftituted
about that time, which contributed greatly to the ad¬
vancement of the fciences ; but none of them compa¬
rable to that of the Lyncei.
Some years after the death of Toricelli, the Academy
del Cimento made its appearance, under the protection
of Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de Medicis.
Redi was one of its chief members; and the ftudies
purfued by the reft may be collected from thofe curi¬
ous experiments publifhed in 1667, by their fecretary
Count Laurence Magulotti, under the tittle of Saggi di
Naturali Efperienze; a copy of which was prefented
to the Royal Society, tranflated into Englifh by Mr
Waller, and publifhed at London in 4t0.
The Academy degl’ Inquicti, afterwards incorporated'
into that of Della Traccia in the fame city, followed the
example of that of Del Cimento. Some excellent dif-
courfes
A C A
Academies, courfes on phylical and mathematical fubjefts, by Ge-
miniano Montenari, one of the chief members, were
publiflied in 1667, under the title of Penjieri Fijico
Matematici.
The Academy of Rojfano, in the kingdom of Naples,
was originally an academy of Belles Lettres, founded
in 1540, and transformed into an Academy of Sciences
in 1695 at t^le felicitation of the learned abbot Don
Giacinto Gimma ; who being made prefident, under
the title of Promoter General thereof, gave them a
new fet of regulations. He divided the academifts
into the following clafles : Grammarians, Rhetoricians,
Poets, Hiftorians, Philofophers, Phyficians, Mathema¬
ticians, Lawyers, and Divines, with a clafs apart for
Cardinals and perfons of quality. To be admitted a
member, a man muft have fome degrees in the faculty.
The members are not allowed to take the title ai Aca¬
demifts in the beginning of their books, without a
written permifiion from their prefident, which is not
granted till the work has been examined by the cen-
fors of the Academy; and the permiffion is the greateft
honour the Academy can confer, as they thereby adopt
the work, and are anfwerable for it againll all cri-
ticifms that may be made upon it. To this law the
prefident or promoter himfelf is fubjedl; and no aca-
demift is allowed to publifh any thing againft the wri¬
tings of another, without leave from the fociety.
Several other Academies of Sciences have been
founded in Italy; but, for want of being fupportedby
princes did not continue long. The lofs of them, how¬
ever, was abundantly repaired,by the inftitution of
others Hill fubfifting; fuch as, the Academy of Filarmo-
nici at Verona; of Ricovatri at Padua, where a learned
difeourfe on the origin of fprings was delivered by
Sig. Vallifnieri, firft: profefibr of phyfic in the univer-
fity of that city, and which was afterwards printed.
To the Academy of the Muti de Reggio, at Modena,
the fame Sig. Vallifnieri prefented an excellent difeourfe
on the fcale of created beings, fince inferted in his hi-
llory of the generation of man and animals printed at
Venice in the year 1721.
F. Merfenne is faid to have given the firft idea of a
philofophical Academy in France, towards the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, by the conferences of natu-
ralifts and mathematicians occafionally held at his
lodgings ; at which Gaflendi, Des Cartes, Hobbes,
Roberval, Pafcal, Blondel, and others afixfted. F.'Mer-
fenne propofed to each certain problems to examine, or
certain experiments to be made. Thefe private affem-
blies were fucceeded by more public ones, formed by
Mr Montmort, and Mr Thevenot the celebrated tra¬
veller. The French example animated feveral Englifti-
men of diftinctlon and learning to ere«ft a kind of
philofophical academy at Oxford, towards the clofe of
Oliver Cromwell’s adminiftration; which, after the
* See Society. Reftoration, was erefted into a Royal Society*. The
Engliih example, in its turn, animated the French.
Lewis XIV. in 1666, affifted by the counfels of Mr
Colbert, founded an Academy of Sciences at Paris,
with a fufficient revenue to defray the charge of expe¬
riments, and falaries to the members.
Royal Ac'ademy of Sciences. After the peace of the
Pyrenees, Lewis XIV. being defirous of eftablilhing
the arts, fciences, and literature, upon a folid founda¬
tion, direfted M. Colbert to form a fociety of men of
A C A
known abilities and experience in the different branches, Academics,
who ftiould meet together under the king’s protection,
and communicate their refpedtive difeoveries. Ac¬
cordingly Mr Colbert, having conferred with thofe
who were at that time moft celebrated for their learn¬
ing, refolved to form a fociety of fuch perfons as were
converfant in natural philofophy and mathematics, to
join to them other perfons flailed in hiftory and other
branches of erudition, along with thofe who were en¬
tirely engaged in what are called the Belles Lettres,
grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians
and natural philofophers were ordered to meet on Tuef-
days and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king’s li¬
brary, where the books of mathematics and natural
philofophy were contained; the learned in hiftory to
affemble on Mondays and Thurfdays, in the hall where
the books of hiftory were contained; and the clafs of
Belles Lettres to affemble on Wednefdays and Fridays.
All the different claffes were likewife ordered to meet
together upon the firft Thurfday of every month; and,
by their refpetlive fecretaries, make a report of the pro¬
ceedings of the foregoing month.
In a fliort time, however, the claffes of Hiftory,
Belles Lettres, &c. were united to the French Academy,
which was originally inftituted for the improvment and
refining the French language, fo that the royal Aca¬
demy contained only two claffes, viz. that of natural
philofophy and mathematics.
In year 1696, the king, by a proclamation dated the
26th of January, gave this Academy a new form, and
put it upon a more refpedtable footing.—It was now
to be compofed of four kinds of members, viz. hono¬
rary, penftonary aftociates, and eleves. Thefe laft were
a kind of pupils, or fcholai's, each of whom was attach¬
ed to one of the penfionaries. The firft clafs to contain
ten perfons, and each of the reft twenty. The hono¬
rary academifts to be all inhabitants of France; the
penfionaries all to refide at Paris; eight of the affociatcs
allowed to be foreigners r and the eleves all to live at
Paris. The officers to be, a prefident named by the
king, out of the clafs of honorary academifts; and a
fecretary and treafurer to be perpetual. Of the pen-
fionarjes, three to be geometricians, three aftronomen;,
three mechanics, three anatomifts, three chemifts, three
botanifts, and the remaining two to be fecretary and
treafurer. Of the twelve affociates, two to apply them-
felves to geometry, two to botany, and two to chemi-
ftry. The eleves to apply themfelves to the'fame kind
of fcience with the penfionaries they were attached to;
and not to fp'eak, except when called by the prefident.
No regular or religious to be admitted, except into the
clafs of honorary academifts ; nor any perfon to be ad¬
mitted either for affociate or penfionary, unlefs known
by fome confiderable printed work, fome machine, or
other difeove-ry. The affemblics were held on Wed¬
nefdays and Saturdays, unlefs either of them happened
to be a holiday, and then the affembly was held on the
preceding day.—To encourage the members to purfue
their labours, the king engaged not only to pay the or¬
dinary penfions, but even to give extraordinary grati¬
fications, according to the merit of their refpeCtive per¬
formances ; furniftiing withal the expence of the expe¬
riments and other inquiries neceffary to be made. . If
any member gave in a bill of charges of experiments
he had made, or defired the printing of any book, and
brought
[ 3' ]
'IP i |p' _ . . :
A C A [321 A C A
Academics, brought in the charges of graving, the money was im¬
mediately paid by the king, upon the prefident’s al¬
lowing and figning the bill. So, if an anatomift re¬
quired live tortoifes, for inftance, for making experi¬
ments about the heart, &c. as many as he pleafed were
brought him at the king’s charge. Their motto was,
Invenit et perfecit.
In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then regent,
made an alteration in their ronftitution; augmenting
the number of honoraries, and of alfociates capable of
being foreigners, to 12 ; admitting regulars among
fuch afibciates; and fuppreffing the clafs of eleves, as
it appeared to be attended with fome inconveniencies,
particularly that of making too great an inequality
among the Academifts, and being produ&ive of fome
mifunderftandings and animofities among the members.
At the fame time he created other two clafles; one con-
fifting of 12 adjunfts, who, as well as the afibciates.
Were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative to
fcience; and the other fix free afibciates, who were not
attached to any particular fcience, nor obliged to pur-
fue any particular work.
Since its re-efiabliihment in 1699, this Academy has
been very exatt in publifiiing, every year, a volume con¬
taining either the works of its own members, or fuch
memoirs as have been cbmpofed and read to the Aca¬
demy during the courfe of that year. Tor each volume
is prefixed the hiftory of the Academy, or an extraft
of the memoirs, and, in general, of whatever has been
read or faid in the Academy; at the end of the hiftory,
are the eulogiums on fuch Academifts as' have died that
year.—M. Rouille de Meflay, counfellor to the parlia¬
ment of Paris, founded two prizes, one of-2500, and
the other of 2000 livres, which are alternately diftri-
buted by the parliament every year ; the fubjebt for
the firft muft relate to phyfical aftronomy, and thofe for
the latter to navigation and commerce.
Notwithftanding the advantages which the members
of this Academy enjoy - over others, in having their
expences defrayed, and even being paid for their time
and attendance, they have fallen under fome imputa¬
tions, particularly that of plagiarifm, or borrowing
their neighbours inventions ; but with what juftice we
do not fay.
The Royal Society at Berlin was founded in j.700,
by Frederic II. king of Pruffia, on the model of that
of England; excepting that, befides natural know¬
ledge, it likewife comprehends the Belles Lettres. In
1710, it was ordained that the prefident (hall be one of
the counfellors of ftate, and nominated by the king.
The members were divided into four clafles ; the firft
for profecuting phyfics, medicine, and chemiftry; the
fecond for mathematics, aftronomy, and mechanics ;
the third for the German language and the hiftory of
the country ; the fourth for oriental learning, particu¬
larly as it may concern the propagation of the gofpel
among infidels. Each clafs to ele<ft a dire&or for
themfelves, who (hall hold his poll for life. The mem¬
bers of any of the clafies have free admiftion, into the
aflemblies of any of the reft.
. The great promoter of this inftitution was the cele-.
brated Mr Leibnitz, who accordingly was made the
firft direftor. The firft volume of their tranfaclions
was publiftied in 1710, under the title of Mifcellanea
Berolinenjia} and though they received but few marks
of the royal favour for fome time, they continued to Academies,
publifh new volumes in 1723, 1727, 1734> and 1740.
At laft, however, Frederic III. the prefent king of
Pruffia, gave new vigour to this Academy, by inviting
to Berlin fuch foreigners as were moft diftinguifhed for
their merit in literature, and encouraged his fubjebts to p
profecute the ftudy and cultivation of the fciences by
giving ample rewards; and thinking that the Academy,
which till that time had had fome minifter or opulent
nobleman for its prefident, would find an advantage in
having a man of letters at its head, he conferred that
honour on M. Maupertuis. At the fame time, he gave
a new regulation to the academy, and took upon
himfelf the title of its protector.
The academifts hold two public afiemblies annually;
one in January, on the prefent king’s birth-day; and
the other in May, on the day of his acceffion to the
throne. At the latter of thefe is given, as a prize, a
gold medal of 50 ducats value: the fubjeft for this prize
is fucceffively, natural philofophy, mathematics, meta- ^
phyfics, and erudition.
The Imperial Academy at Peterjburgh was projec¬
ted by Czar Peter the Great, who had taken the ne-
ceffary meafures for its eftabliftmlent, when he was
prevented by death from putting them into execution.
His fuccefl'or, the Czarina Catherine, laboured on the
fame plan; and in a ftiort time formed one of the moft
celebrated academies in Europe, compofed of the moft
confiderable foreigners, fome of them fettled at Peterf-
burgh. The memoirs of this academy, which are pu-
bliffied in Latin, are highly valuable, particularly for
the mathematical part. The Academy, however, was
in a very languifhing condition, when the emprefs
Czarina Elifabeth afeended the throne ; but that prin-
cefs, happily, naming count Rafomowfki prefident, he
gave it a new body of ftatutes, and quickly reftored it
to its ancient fplendor.
The building and apparatus of this academy are
extraordinary, there being a fine library, obfervatory,
&c. It partakes much of what we call an Univerfity;
having regular profeflbrs in the feveral faculties, who
read le&ures as in our fchools.—The ordinary aflem¬
blies are held twice a-week, and public or folemn ones
thrice a-year. In the public aflemblies an account is gi¬
ven of what has been done in the private ones. The
Academy has this modeft motto, Paulatim.
The Academy of Sciences, called the Jnjiitute of Bo¬
logna, was founded by count Marfigli in 1712, for
the cultivating of phyfics, mathematics, medicine, che¬
miftry, and natural hiftory. Its hiftory is written by
M. de Limiers, from memoirs furnilhed by the Foun¬
der himfelf.
VI. Academies of Law ; as that famous one at
Beryta, and that of the Sitientes at Bologna.
VII. Academies of History ; as the Royal Academy
of Portuguefe Hiftory at Lifbon. This Academy was
inftituted by King John V. in 1720. It confifts of a
director, four cenfors, a fecretary, and 50 members ;;
to each of which is affigned fome part of the ecclefiafti-'
cal or civil hiftory of .the nation, which he is to treat
either in Latin or Portuguefe. In the church-hiftory
of each diocefe, the prelates, fynods, councils, churches,
monafteries, academies, perfons illuftrious for fanftity
or learning, places famous for miracles or relics, muft
be diftindtly related in twelve chapters. The civil hifto-
' rY
i
A C A [ 33 J A C A
Ac::Jcrr.ies. ry compnfes the traniaftions of the Kingdom from the
overnment of the Romans down to the prefent time,
'he members who refide in the country are obliged to
make colledtions and extracts out of all the regifters, &c.
where they live. Their meetings to be onee in fifteen
days.
A medal was ftruck by this Academy, in honour of
their prince : the front of which was his effigy, with
the infeription Johannes V. Lufitamrum Rex ; and, on
the reverie, the Tame prince is reprefented Handing, and
railing Hiftory almoftproftrate before him, with the le¬
gend Hrjloria Refurges. Underneath are the follow¬
ing words in abbreviature : REGia ACADemia HI-
STorise LUSITanse, INSTITuta VI. Idus Decembris
MDCCXX.
VIII. Academies of Antiquities ; as that at Cor¬
tona in Italy, and at Upfal in Sweden. The firft is
defigned for the -ftudy of Hetrurian antiquities; the
other for illuftrating the northern languages, and the
antiquities of Sweden, in which notable difeoveries
have been made by it. The head of the Hetrurian
Academy is called Luc onion, by which the ancient go¬
vernors of the country were diftinguilhed. .One of their
laws is to give audience to poets only one day in the
year ; another is, to fix their feffiens, and impofe a tax
of a differtation on each member in his turn.
The Academy of Medals and Inferiptions at Paris was
fet on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of
.Lewis XIV. in 1663, for the ftudy and explanation
of ancient monuments, and perpetuating great and
memorable events, efpecially thofe pf the French mo¬
narchy, by coins, relievos, inferiptions, &c. The
number of members at firft was confined to four or
five, chofen, out of thofe of the French Academy;
who met in the library of Mr Colbert, from whom
they received his majefty’s orders. The days of their
meetings were not determined; but generally they
met on Wednefdays, efpeciaily in the winter leafon :
but, in 1691, the king having given the infpeftion of
this academy to M. de Pontchartrain comptroller ge¬
neral, &c. he fixed their meetings on Tuefdays and
Saturdays.
By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July 1701,
the Academy was compofed of ten honorary members ;
ten ajfociates, each of whom had two declarative voices;
I ten penfionaries ; and ten eleves, or pupils. They then
met every Tuefday and Wednefday, in one of the halls
of the Louvre; and had two public meetings yearly,
one the day after Martinmas and the other the 16th
after Eafter. The clafs of eleves has been fuppreffed,
and united to the afibciates. The king nominates their
prefident and vice-piefident yearly; but their fecretary
and treafurCr are perpetual. The reft are chofen by
the members themfelves, agreeably to the conftitutions
on that behalf given them.
One of the firft undertakings of this Academy, was
to compofe, by means of medals, a connefted hiftory of
the principal events of Lewis XIV.’s reign: but in this
defign they met with great difficulties, and of confe-
quence it was interrupted for many years; but at length
it was completed down to the advancement of the duke
of Anjou to the crown of Spain.
In this celebrated work, the eftabliftiment of the
Academy itfelf was not forgot. The medal on this
fubjeft reprefents Mercury fitting, and writing with an
Von. I.
antique ftylus on a table of brafs ; he leans with his Academies.
left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his feet are
feveral others placed upon a card : the legend, Rerum
geftarum fdes; and on the exergue. Academia regia
inferiptionum et nurnifniatum, injhtutd M.DC.LXIII.
fignifying that the Royal Academy of Medals and In¬
feriptions, founded in 1663, ought to give to future
ages a faithful teftimony of all great aftions. Befides
this work, we have feveral volumes of their memoirs;
and their hiftory, written and continued by their fecre-
taries.
IX. Academies of Belles Letters, are thofe
wherein eloquence and poetry are chiefly cultivated.
Thefe are very numerous in Italy, and not uncommon
in France.
The Academy of tlmidi at Florence has contributed
greatly to the progrefs of the fciences by the excel¬
lent Italian tranflations given, by fome of its members,
of the ancient Greek and Latin hiftorians. Their
chief attention is to the Italian poetry, at the fame
time that they have applied themfelves to the poliftiing
of their language, which produced the Academy La
Crufca. |
The Academy of Humorifts, Umorijli, had its origin
at Rome from the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a
Roman gentleman ; at which feveral perfons of rank
were guefts; and, it being carnival time, to give the
ladies fome diverliqn, they took themfelves to the re¬
citing of verfes, fonnets, fpeeches, firft ex tempore, and
afterwards premeditately ; which gave them the deno¬
mination of Belli Humori. After fome experience, co¬
ming more and more into the tafte of thefe exercifes,
they refolved to form an Academy of Belles Lettres;
and changed the title of Belli Humori for that of IIu-
morifli: chufing for their device a cloud, which, after
being formed of exhalations from the fait waters of the
ocean, returns in a gentle fweet ftiower; with this motto
from Lucretius, Redit agtnine dulci.
In 1690, the Academy of Arcadi was eftablilhed at
Rome, for reviving the ftudy of Poetry and of the
Belles Lettres. Befides moft of the politer wits of
both fexes in Italy, this academy comprehends many
princes, cardinals, and other ecclefiaftics ; and, to a-
void. difputes about pre-eminence, all appear malked
after the manner of Arcadian fliepherds. Within ten
years from its firft eftabliftiment, the number of Aca-
demifls amounted to fix hundred. They hold affem-
blies feven times a-year in a mead or grove, or in the
gardens of fome nobleman of diftindtion. Six of thefe
meetings are employed in the recitation of poems and
verfes of the Arcadi refiding at Rome; who read
their own compofitions ; except ladies and cardinals,
who are allowed to employ others. The feventh meet¬
ing is fet apart for the compofitions of foreign or
abfent members.
This academy is governed by a Cuftos, who repre¬
fents the whole fociety, and is chofen every four years,
with a power of eledting. 12 others yearly for his af-
fiftance. Under thefe are two fub-cuftodes, one vicar
or pro-cuftos, and four deputies or fuperintendants, an¬
nually chofen. The laws of the fociety are immuta¬
ble, and bear a near refemblance to the ancient model.
There are five manners of eledting members. The
firft is by acclamation. This is ufed when fovereign
princes, cardinals, and ambaffadors of kings, deft re to
E be
A C A [ 34 ] A C A
Academies. be admitted; and the votes are then given viva voce.
The fecond is called annumeration. This was intro¬
duced in favour of ladies and academical colonies, where
the votes are taken privately. The third, reprefenta-
tion, was eftablifhed in favour of colonies and univer-
fities, where the young gentry are bred; who have
each a privilege of recommending one or two mem¬
bers privately to be ballotted for. The fourth, furro-
gation, whereby new members are fubllituted in the
room of thofe dead or expelled. The laft, deJUnation;
whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, per-
fons of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi confer¬
red upon them, till fuch time as a vacancy fhall hap¬
pen. All the members of this body, at their admif-
fion, aflume new paftoral names, in imitation of the
Ihepherds of Arcadia. The academy has feveral co-v
lonies of Arcadi. in different cities of Italy, who are
all regulated after the fame manner.
X. Academies- of Languages; called, by fome,
Grammatical Academies; as,
- The Academy della Crufca at Florence, famous for
its vocabulary of the Italian tongue, was formed ^1582,
but fcarce heard of before the year 15 84, when it be¬
came noted for a difpute between TaiTo and feveral of
its members. Many authors confound this with the
; Florentine academy. The difcourfes which Toricelli,
the celebrated difciple of Galileo, delivered in the af-
femblies, concerning levity, the wind, the power of per-
cuffion, mathematics, and military architecture, are a
proof that thefe academifts applied themfelves to
things as well as words.
The Academy of Fruttiferi had its rife in 1617, at
- an aflembly of feveral princes and nobility of the coun¬
try, who met with a defign to refine and perfedt the
German tongue. It flourifhed long under the direc¬
tion of princes of the empire, who were always chofen
prefidents. In 1668, the number of members arofe to
upwards of 900. It was prior in time to the French
academy, which only appeared in 162^, and was not
eftablilhed into an academy before the year 1635. Its
hiftory is written in the German tongue, by George
Neumarck.
The French Academy, which had its rife from a meet¬
ing of men of letters in the houfeof M. Conrart, in 1629.
In 1635, it was erefted into an academy, by Cardinal
Richlieu, for refining and afcertaining the French lan¬
guage and ftyle.—The number of its members are limited
to 40; out of whom a diredtor, chancellor, and fecretary,
are to be chofen : the two former hold their poll for
two months, the latter is perpetual. The members of
this academy enjoy feveral privileges and immunities,
among which is that of not being obliged to anfwer be¬
fore any court but that of the king’s houlhold. They
meet three times a-week in the Louvre ; at breaking
up, forty filver medals are difiributed among them,
having on one fide the king of France’s head, and on
thereverfe, ProteRetir de /’ Academic, with laurel, and
this motto, A I'lmmortalite. By this diftribution, the
attendance of the Academifts is fecured, thofe who are
prefent receiving the furplus otherwife intended for the
abfent. To eledt or expel a member, at leaft eighteen
are required; nor can any be chofen unlefs he petition
for it; by this expedient, the affront of refufals from
perfons eledted is avoided. Religious are not admit¬
ted ; nor can any nobleman, or perfon of diftindlion,
be admitted on another footing than as a man of let- Academies.
ters. None are to be expelled, except for bafe and
dilhoneft pradtices ; and there are but two inftances of
fuch expulfions, the firfl: of M. Granier for refufing
to return a depofit the other of the Abbe Furetiere
for plagiarifm. The defign of this academy was
to give not only rules, but examples, of good writing.
They began with making fpeeches on fubjedts taken
at pleafure, about twenty of which were printed. They
met with great oppofition from the parliament at their
firfl; inftitution ; it being two years before the patents
granted by the king would be regiftered. They have
been feverely fatyrized, and their ftyle has been ridiculed
as enervating inftead of refining the French language.
They are alfo charged with having forfeited the world
by flattery, and having exhaulled all the topics of pa¬
negyric in praife of their founder; it being a duty in¬
cumbent-on every member, at his admiflion, to make
a fpeech in praife of the king, the cardinal, the chan¬
cellor Seguier, and the perfon in whofe place he is e-
ledted. The moil remarkable work of this academy
is a didtionary of the French tongue ; which, after
50 years fpent in fettling the words and phrafes to be
ufed in writing,- was at laft publilhed in 1694.
The Royal Spanijh Academy at Madrid held its firft:
meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder,
the duke d’ Efcalona. It confifted at firfl; of eight A-
cademifts, including the duke; to which number 14
others were afterwards added, the founder being cho¬
fen prefident or director. In 1714, the king granted
them his confirmation and protection. Their device
is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this,motto,
Limpia, Fya, y da Efplendor; “ it purifies, fixes, and
gives brightnefs.” The number of members is limited
to 24 ; the duke d’ Efcalona to be director for life,
but his fucceflbrs chofen yearly, and the fecretary to.
be perpetual. Their object, as marked out by the
royal declaration, was to cultivate and improve the
national language : they were to begin with chufing
carefully fuch words and phrafes as have been ufed by
the beft Spanifti writers ; noting the low, barbarous,
or obfolete ones; and compofing a dictionary wherein
thefe may be diftinguiflied from the former.
XI. Academies of Dancing; as that ereCted by
Lewis XIV. with privileges above all the reft.
XII. Academies of Painting', as the Academy of
Painting and Sculpture at Paris. This took its rife
from the difputes that happened betiveen the mafter
painters and fculptors in that capital; in confequence
of which, M. Le Brun, Sarazin, Corneille, and o-
thers of the king’s painters, formed a defign of inftitu-
ting a particular academy; and, having prefented a
petition to the king, obtained an arret dated Jan. 20.
1648. In the beginning of 1655, they obtained from
cardinal Mazarin a brevet, and letters patent, which
were regiftered in parliament; in gratitude for which
favour, they chofe the cardinal for their proteCfor, and
the chancellor for their vice-proteftor. In 1663, by
means ofM. Colbert, they obtained a penfion of 4000
livres. The academy confifts of a proteCtora vice-
proteCtor ; a direCtor ; a chancellor; four reCtors; ad¬
juncts to the reCtors; a treafurer; four profeflbrs, one
of which is profeffcr of anatomy, and another of geo¬
metry ; feveral adjunCts and counfellors, an hiftoria-
grapher, a fecretary, and two ulhers.
The
Aeademle:
II
Acalandm
* SeeCraycn
fainting.
A C A t 35 ] A C A
The Academy of Painting holds a public affembly rentupi, not far from the Metapontum, (Pliny, Strabo}; Acaleptic
^ every day for two hours in the afternoon, to which the now Fiume de Rofeto. Acanthus
'painters refort either to defign or to paint, and where the ACALEPTIC, in ancient profody, a complete verfe.  -
fculptors model after a naked perfon. There are 12 ACALYPHA, the Three-feeded Mercury, in bo-
profelfors, each of whom keeps the fchool for a month; tany, a genus of plants belonging to the moncecia mo-
and there are 12 adjuncts to fupply them in cafe of nadelphia clafs. There are only four fpecies of this
need. The profefibr upon duty places the naked man plant; the acalypha virginica, which is a native of Cey-
as he thinks proper, and fets him in two different atti- Ion; the virgata, indica, and auftralis, all natives of A-
tudes every week. This is what they call fetting the merica. Sir Hans Sloan ranks this plant with the
model. In one week of the month he fets two models nettle, under the name of urtica minor iners fpicata.
together, which is called fetting the group. The paint- As thefe plants have no beauty to recommend them,
ings and models made after this model, are called aca- and at the fame time are too tender to thrive eafily in
demies, or academy-figures. * They have likewife a wo- this climate, a particular defeription of the fpecies or
man who Hands for a model in the public fchool. their culture feems unneceffary.
Every three months, three prizes for deiign are diflri- ACAMANTIS, the ancient name of the ifland Cy-
buted among the eleves or difciples ; two others for prus, taken from one of its promontories, fituate to the
painting, and two for fculpture, every year. weft.
There is alfoan Academy of Painting, Sculpture, &c. ACAMAS, fon of Thefeus, followed the reft of the
at Rome, eftablifhed by Lewis XIV. wherein thofe Grecian princes to the fiege of Troy; and was deputed,
who have gained the annual prize at Paris are in- with Diomedes, to the Trojans, in order to get Helen
titled to be three years entertained at the king’s ex- reftored. Laodice, Priam’s daughter, fell in love with
pence, for their further improvement. him, Hole a night with him, and had a fon by him call-
XIII. sdcademies of Architecture; as that efta- ed Munitus. He was one of the heroes who concealed
bliftied by M. Colbert in 1671, confifting of a com- themfelves in the wooden horfe. One of the tribes of
pany of Ikilful architects, under the direction of the Athens was called Acamantides from him, by the ap-
fuperintendant of the buildings. pointment of the oracle. He founded a city in Phrygia
XIV. Academies ^Politics ; as that at Paris, con- Major, called Acamantium; and made war againft the
filling of fix perfons, who met at the Louvre, in the Solyms.
chamber where the papers relating to foreign affairs ACAMBOU, a kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of
were lodged. But this Academy proved of little fer- Guinea.
vice, as the kings of France were unwilling to truft any ACANACEOUS Plants, fuch as are armed with
but their minifters with the infpedtion of foreign alfairs. prickles.
Academy is alfo a term for fchools and other femi- ACANGIS, that is, Rdvagers or Adventurers ; a
naries of learning among the Jews, where their rabbins name which the Turks give their hulfars or light-
and dotdors inftruCled their youth in the Hebrew lan- troops, who are generally fent out in detachments to
guage, and explained to them the Talmud and the fe- procure intelligence, harafs the enemy, or ravage the
crets of the Cabbala : Thofe of Tiberias and Babylon country.
have been the molt noted. ACANTHA, in botany, the p-.-ickle of any plant;
Academy is often ufed with us to denote a kind of in zoology, a term for the fpine or prickly fins of fifties,
collegiate fchool, where youth are inftrufted in arts and ACANTHABOLUS, in furgery, an inftrument
fciences. There is one at Portfmouth for teaching na- for pulling thorns, or the like, out of the Ikin.
vigation, drawing, &c.; another at Woolwich, for forti- ACANTHINE, anything refembling or belong-
fication, gunnery, &c.—Befides thefe, there are nume- ing to the herb acanthus. Acanthine garments, among
rous academies, efpecially in London, for teaching the ancients, are faid to be made of the down of thi-
mathematics, languages, writing, accounts, drawing, files ; others think they were garments embroidered in
and other branches of learning. imitation of the acanthus.
Academy is likewife a name given to a riding- ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS Fishes, a term ufed
fchool, where young gentlemen are taught to ride the by Linnaeus and others for thofe fifties whofe back-fins
great horfe, &c. and the ground allotted is ufually are hard, ofleous, and prickly.
called the Menage. ACANTHOS, a town of Egypt, near JMemphis,
Academy Figure, a drawing cf a naked man or (Pliny); now B if ilia. Alfo a maritime town of Mace-
woman, taken from the life, which is ufually done on donia, to the weft of mount Athos, a colony of An-
paper with red or black chalk, agid fometimes with pa- drians, (Thucydides, Ptolemy); now Frijfo; near which
ftils or crayons*. See Academy,N0XII. par. i.fupra. was ftiewn Xerxes’s ditch, of feven ftadia, in order to
ACAD IE, or Acady, in geography, a name for- feparate mount Athos from the continent,, and convey
merly given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland, one of his fliips, without doubling Athos, into the Shigitic
our American colonies. See Nova Scotia. Bay. Acanthos, is alfo a town of Epirus.
ACJENA, in antiquity, a Grecian meafure of length, ACANTHUS, bears-breech, or hrank-urfine, in
being a ten feet-rod, ufed in meafuring their lands. botany; a genus of plants of the angiofpermia order
ACAJOU, or Cashew-nut-tree. See Anacar- belonging to the didynamia clafs. For the figure of
dium. this plant, which is extremely beautiful, fee Plate I.
ACALANDRA, a town of Lucania, on the other fig. 3. There are five
fide the A'pennine, (Strabo); now Salandra, in the Ba- Species. 1. The mollis, or common bear’s-breech, ,
iilicata, on the river Acalandrus. a native of Italy, is the fort that is ufed in medicine *, r;a
ACALANDRUS, a river falling into the bay of Ta- and is fuppofed to be the mollis acanthus of Virgil: n° 68.
E 3 the
A C A [ 36 ] A C A
Acanthus the leaves of this fpecies are famous for having gi¬
ll ven rife to the capital of the Corinthian pillars f.
Acapu co. rpjie fpjnopUS) or pndily bear’s-breech; the leaves of
t ,Se^ Ar~ which are deeply jagged in very regular order, and each
no 15*11’. fegment terminated with a fharp fpine, as are alfo
the footftalks of the leaves and the empalement of the
flower, which renders it troublefome to handle them.
3. Ilicifolius, or fhrubby bear’s-breech, grows natu¬
rally in both the Indies. It is an evergreen fhrub, which
rifes about four feet nigh; and is divided into many
branches, garhiflied with leaves like thofe of the com¬
mon holly, and armed with fpines in the fame manner:
the flowers are white, and fliaped like thofe of the com¬
mon acanthus, but fmaller. 4. The nigra, or Portugal
bear’s-breech, with fmooth finuated leaves of a livid
green colour, was difcovered in Portugal by Dr Jufixeu
of the royal garden at Paris. 5. The middle bear’s-
breech, with entire leaves, having fpines on their bor¬
der, is fuppofed to be the acanthus of Diofcorides.
Culture. They are all perennial plants. The firfl and
fecond fpecies may be propagated either by feeds, or by
off-fets from the roots. The bell way is to raife them
from'the feeds; which fhould be fown about the end of
March, in a light foil. They are bell dropped at di-
ftances into fhallow drills, and covered three quarters of
an inch with mould. When the plants are come up, the
ftrongeft (hould be marked, and the reft ftiould be pulled
up, that thefe may ftand at a yard diftance one from an¬
other. They require no other culture, but to keep them
clear from weeds. The third, fourth and fifth forts,
are propagated only by feeds; which, as they.do not
ripen in Europe, muft be obtained from the places in
which they grow naturally : the plants are fo tender,
that they cannot be preferred out of the ftove in this
country.
Acanthus is likewife ufed by Theophraftus as a
fynonime of the acacia.
Acanthus., in architedlure, an ornament reprefent-
ing the leaves of the acanthus, ufed in the capitals of
the Corinthian and Compofite orders.
ACANUS, in botany, a fynonime of carduus cafa-
bdnae of Linnaeus. See Carduus.
ACAPULCO, a confiderable town and port in
Mexico, on the South Sea. It has a fine harbour, from
whence a fhip annually fails to Manila in the Philip¬
pine iflands, near the coaft of China in Alia: and an¬
other returns annually from thence with all the treafures
of the Eaft Indies, fuch as diamonds, rubies, fapphires,
and other precious ftones; the rich caroets of Perfia; the
camphire of Borneo ; the benjamin and ivory of Peo-u
and Cambodia; the filks, muffins, and calicoes, of the
Mogul’s.country; the gold-duft, tea, china-ware, filk,
and cabinets, of China and Japan ; befides cinnamon,
cloves, mace, nutmegs, and pepper; infomuch that this
Angle fliip contains more riches that many whole fleets.
The goods brought to Acapulco are carried to the city
of Mexico by mules and pack-horfes ; and from thence
to Vera Cruz on the North Sea, in order to be fhipped
for Europe. Acapulco itfelf is a fmall place, confift-
mg of about 2 or 300 thatched houfes. Ships arrive at
the port by two inlets, feparated from each other by a
fmall ifland; the entrance into them in the day-time
is by means of a fea-breeze, as the failing out in the
night-time is effe&ed by a land-breeze. A wretched
fort, 42 pieces of cannon, and a garrifon of 60 men,
defend it. It is equally extenfive, fafe, and commo- Acarai
dious. The bafon which conftitutes this harbour is AcJrus
furrounded by lofty mountains, which are fo dry, that  —-
they are even deftitute of water. The air here is hot,
heavy, and unwholefome; to which none can habituate
themfelves, except certain negroes that are born under
a fimilar climate, or fome mulattoes. This feeble and
miferable colony is crowded with a vaft acceffion to its
numbers upon the arrival of the galleons; traders flock¬
ing here from all the provinces of Mexico, who come
to exchange European toys, their own cochineal, and
about ten millions f of filver for fpices, muflins, printed f £437,500
linens, filk, perfumes, and the gold works of Afia. Staling. •
W. Long. 102. 29. N. Lat. 17. 30.
ACARAI, a town of Paraguay in South America,
built by the Jefuits in 1624. Long-. 116. 40. S. lat. 26'.
ACARAUNA, a fmall American fiflr, called by
our failors the old-wife. See Labrus.
ACARNANIA, the firft country of Free Greece,
or Greece Proper, bounded on the weft by the Sinus
Ambracius, and feparated from fEtoiia by the river
Achelous on the eaft, and by the Sinus Ambracius
from Epirus. The people were called Acarnanes, de¬
noting perfpns unftiorn ; other Etolians, to the eaft of
the Achelous, being called Curetes, (Homer,) from
being (horn. According to Lucian, they were noted
for effeminacy and incontinence ; hence the proverb,
Porcellus Acarnanius. This country was famous for
an excellent breed of horfes ; fo that Ay.xfvmoc lx*®-, is
a proberbia! faying for a thing excellent in its kind.
It is now called la Carnia and il Defpotatn.
ACA-RON, or Accaron, a town of Paleftine, call¬
ed Ekron in fcripture. It was the boundary of the Phi-
liftines to the north ; ftood at fome diftance from the ^
fea, near Bethlheznefh; and was famous for the idol of
Baalzebub.
ACARUS, a genus of infects belonging to the or¬
der of aptera,' or fuch as have no wings. The acarus
has eight legs, two eyes, one on each fide of the head,
and two jointed tentacula. Moft of the fpecies of this
genus have been alfo arranged among the microfcopic
animalcules, but with no reafon; they are all fufficient-
ly vifible to the naked eye. The term Acarus is not
to be underftood, in this fenfe, as reftrained to the in-
feft commonly underftood by it, the Mite: that ani¬
mal is poffeffed of charaflers in common with a great
number of other infeifts, which have been called by
other names, but which are all conne&ed by nature,
and are therefore of the fame genus; fome of them
have been called fpiders, others lice, and others by
other names, referring them to genera to which they
have as little alliance in nature as to thefe. The ge¬
nus, on bringing thfffi back to it, appears a very nu¬
merous one #, and confifts of fome which are inhabi- * LinnaDus
tants of the earth, fqme of waters; fome which live on ^“j?®****
trees, others among ftones, and others on the bodies of 11
other animals, and even under their fkin. The defcrip-
tion of a few of the moft remarkable will here fulfice.
1. The firo, or cheefe-mite, is a very mintite fpecies. The Cheefe-
To the naked eye, thefe mites appear like moving parti- mite, tire,
cles ofduft. But the microfcope difeovers them to be per-
feft animals, having as regular a figure, and perform¬
ing all the funftions of life as perfe&ly, as creatures
that exceed them many times in bulk. The principal
parts of them are the head, the neck, and the body.
The
A C A [ 37 ] A C A
A cams. The head is fmall in proportion to the body ; and has
a fharp fnout, and a mouth that opens and (huts like a
mole’s. They have two fmall eyes, and are extremely
quickfighted; and when they have been once touched
with a pin, you will eaiily perceive how cunningly they
avoid a fecond touch. Their legs are each furnifhed
at the extremity with two little claws, with which the
animal very nicely takes hold of any thing. The hin¬
der part of the body is plump and bulky; and ends in
an oval form, from which there iifue out a few exceed¬
ing long hairs. Other parts of the body are alfo be-
fet with thin and long hairs. The males and females
are eafily diftinguifhed in thefe little animals. The fe¬
males are oviparous, as the loufe and fpider; and from
their eggs the young ones are hatched in their proper
form, without having any change to undergo after¬
wards. They are however, when firft hatched, ex¬
tremely minute ; and, in their growing to their full
fize, they call: their fkins feveral times. Thefe lit¬
tle creatures may be kept alive many months between
two concave glalfes, and applied to the microfcope
at pleafure. They are thus often feen in coitu, con¬
joined tail to tail; and this is performed by an incre¬
dibly fwift motion. Their eggs, in warm weather,
hatch in twelve or fourteen days ; but, in winter, they
are much longer. Thefe eggs are fo fmall, that a re¬
gular computation flxews, that 90 millions of them are
* Baker's not fo large as a common pigeon’s egg *. They are
Microfcope, very voracious animals, and have often been feen to eat
p‘1 7' one another. Their manner of eating is by thruft-
ing alternately one jaw forward and the other back¬
ward, and in this manner grinding their food ; and af¬
ter they have done feeding, they feem to chew the cud.
There are feveral varieties of this fpecies found in dif¬
ferent fubftances bdides cheefe; as in malt-duft, flour,
oat-meal, &<r. Thofe in malt-duft and oat-meal are
much nimbler than the cheefe-mites, and have more and
longer hairs. There are alfo a fort of wandering mites,
which range wherever there is any thing they can feed
on : They are often feen in the form of a white duft,
dnd are not fufpe&ed to be living creatures.—The mite
is called by authors, limply, Acorns* It is an animal
* Arcan veiT tenac^ous°f an<^ ^ve mont^s w^lout ^00^'
Nat.tomjx. Lewenhoek * had one which lived eleven weeks on
p. 3(J8. the point of a pin, on which he had fixed it for exa-
miping by his microfcope.—2. The fanguifugus. The
hinder part of the abdomen is creuated, the fcutel-
lum is oval and yellowifli, and the beak is trifid. It
is a native of America, and flicks fo faft on the legs
of travellers, fucking their blood, that they can hard¬
ly be extracted. 3. The telarius is of a greenifh yel¬
low colour. It has a fmall fling or weapon, with which
it wounds the leaves of plants, and occafions them to
fold backward. They are very frequently to be met
with in the autumn, inclofed in the folded leaves of the
The lime-tree. 4. The exulcerans, or itch-acarus, is a very
Itch-animal, fmall fpecies : its body is of a figure approaching to
, oval, and lobated; the head is fmall and pointed ; its
colour is whitilh, but it has two duiky femicircular
lines on the back. It has long fetaceous legs, but the
two firft are (liort. It is found in the puftules of the
itch: authors in general have fnppofed that it caufes
that difeafe; but, if this were fo, it wofild be found
■more univerfally in thofe puftules. It is more probable
that thefe only make a proper nidus for it. 5. The
batatas, is of a blood-colour, and a little rough; the Acaras.
fore pair of legs are as long as the body. It inhabits
the potatoes of Surinam. 6. The ovinus, or ftieep-
tick, has a flat body, of a roundifli figure, but fome-
what approaching to oval, and of a yellowifh white co¬
lour, and has a Angle large round fpot on the back :
the anus is vifible in the lower part of the body; the
thorax is fcarce conspicuous; the head is very fmall
and black ; the mouth is bifid : the antennae are of a
clavated figure, and of the length of the fnout; the
legs are fliort and black. It is common on fheep, and its
excrements ftain the wool green: it will live in the wool
many months after it is {horn from the animal. 7. The Acarus
coleoptratorum,or acarus of infefts, is extremely minute: infeas.
its body is round, reddifh, and covered with a firm and
hard {kin; the head is very fmall, the neck fcarce vifible;
the legs are moderately long, the anterior pair longer
than the others ; it has a whitenefs about the anus.
It is frequent on the bodies of many infedls, which it
infefts, as the loufe does others ; it runs very fwiftly :
the humble-bee, and many other of the larger infefts,
are continually infefted with it; but none fo much as
the common black beetle, which has thence been call¬
ed the loufy beetle. 7. The baccarum, or fcarlet tree-
mite, is a final] fpecies: its body is roundifli, and the
back not at ail flatted, as it is in many others; the {kin
is fincoth, fliining, and glofiy; and the whole animal
feems diftended, and ready to burft; the colour is a
bright red, but a little duflcier on the fides than elfe-
wliere : the head is very fmall, and the leg s {horty
there is on each fide a fmall dulkyfpot near the thorax,
and a few hairs grow from different parts of the body.
If is very common on trees, particularly on the cur¬
rant, on the fruit of which we frequently fee it running.
9. The longicornis, or red ftcne-acarus, is very fmall,
and of abright red colour; the body is round, and dif¬
tended; the head is very finall, and pointed; the legs
are moderately long, and of a paler red than the body:
the antennae are much longer than in any other fpecies.
It is frequent about old ftone-walls and on rocks, and
runs very nimbly. 10. The aquaticus is a fmall fpecies :
the Ijody is of a figure approaching to an oval, and the
back appears depreffed; it is of a bright and ftrong
fcarlet colour. The head is fmall; the legs are mode¬
rately long and firm, and are of a paler red than the
body. It is common in (hallow waters, where it runs
very fwiftly along the bottom. 11. The holofericeus
is a fmall fpecies : its body is roundifli, but a little ap¬
proaching to oval; the back fomewhat depreffed: it
is of a fine fcarlet colour, and covered with a velvety
• down. The head is very fmall; the eyes are two, and
very fmall; the legs are ftiort and of a paler red, and
there is a fmall black fpot near the infertion of the an¬
terior ones. It is very common under the furface of
the earth, and fometimes on herbs and among hay.
It is fuppofed to be poifonous, if fwallowed; but we
do not feem to have any certain account of fuch an ef-
feft. 12. The longipes is the largeft of the acarus L6ng-Ieg’d'
kind : its body is roundifli, of a duiky brown on the Acarus.
back, with a dufider fpot of a rhomboidal figure near "S'4’
the middle of it; the belly is whitifli; the legs are ex¬
tremely long and {lender. On the back part of the
head there Hands a little eminence, which has on it a
kind of double creft, formed as it were of a number of
minute fpines : the eyes are fmall and black, and are
ACC
Acaftos
Accele¬
ration.
[ 38 ] ACC
the revolution of the primum mobile and that of the Accelerator
fun, computed to be three minutes and fifty-fix feconds. II
ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the name of two —CCe-n
mufcles of the penis, which ferve for ejecting the urine
or femen. See Anatomy, n° 176.
ACCENDENTES, a lower order of minifters in
the Romifli church, whofe office is to light and trim the
candles.
ACCENDONES, or Accedones, in Roman 1
two in number. It is very common in our paftures,
towards the end of fummer. Ray and Lifter call it
araneus cruft at us longpifses ; Mouffet, araneus longpipes ;
- and, notwithftanding its having but two eyes, it has
been almoft univerfally ranked among the fpiders.
ACASTUS, in claffic hiftory, the fon of Pelias
king of Theffaly, and one of the moft famous hunters
of his time, married Hippolyta, who falling defperate-
ly in love with Peleus her fon-in-law, and he refufing
to gratify her wifties, fhe accufed him to her hufband of tiquity, a kind of gladiators, whofe office was to excite #
a rape; on which he flew them both. and animate the combatants during the engagement*. adt~
ACATALECTIC, a term, in the ancient poetry. The orthography of the word is contefted : the firft edi- “ °r’
for fuch verfes as have all their feet or fyllables, in con- tion of Tertullian, by Rhenanus, has it accedoties; an
tradiftin&ion to thofe that have a fyllable too few. ancient manufcript, accendones. Aquinas adheres to the
lepfy in regard to every thing. The former places their diftinguifliing character in en-
ACATERY, or Accatry, an officer of the king’s livening the combat by their exhortations and fugge-
houfehold, defigned for a check betwixt the clerks of ftions; the latter fuppofes them to be much the fame
 J   with what among us are called feconds, among the Ita¬
lians patroni: excepting that thefe latter only ftand by
to fee the laws of the fword duly obferved, without in¬
termeddling to give advice or inftruftion.
ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain fupernu-
merary foldiers, defigned to fupply the places of thofe
who fliould be killed or anywife difabled. They were
thus denominated, quia accenfebantur, or ad cenfum
adjiciebantur. Vegetius calls them fupernumerarii le-
the kitchen and the purveyors.
ACATHARSIA, an impurity of the blood or hu¬
mours.
ACATHISTUS, the name of a folemn hymn
anciently fung in the Greek church, on the Saturday
of the fifth week of Lent, in honour of the Virgin,
for having thrice delivered Conftantinople from the in-
vafions of the barbarous nations.
ACCA (St), biihop of Haguftaldt, or Hexham, in „ j ‘   
■Northumberland, fucceeded Wilfrid in that fee in 709. gionum. Cato calls them ferentarii, in regard they
He ornamented his cathedral in a moft magnificent
manner: he furnidled it alfo with plate and holy veft-
ments; and erefted a noble library, confiding chiefly
of ecclefiaftical learning, and a large collection of the
lives of the faints, which he was at great pains to pro¬
cure.—He was accounted a very able divine, and was
famous for his fldll in church-mufic. He wrote feveral
pieces: particularly, Pajfwnes Sanftorum, the Suffer¬
ings of the Saints: Pro illuftrandis fcripturis, ad Be-
.dam; For explaining the fcriptures, addreffedto Bede.
He died in 740, having enjoyed the fee of Hexham 31
years, under Egbert king of the Northumbrians.
ACCALIA, in Roman antiquity, folemn feftivals
held in honour of Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s nurfe :
they were otherwife called Laurentalia.
ACCAPITARE, in law, the aft of becoming vaf-
fal of a lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience.
Hence,
ACCAPITUM, fignifies the money paid by a vaffal
upon his admiffion to a feu.
Accapitum, in our ancient law, was ufed alfo to
exprefs the relief due to the chief lord. See Relief.
ACCEDAS ad curiam, in the Englifh law, a writ
lying, where a man has received, or fears, falfe judgr
ment in an inferior court. It lies alfo for juftice de¬
layed, and is a fpecies of the writ recordare.
ACCEDONES. See Accendones.
ACCELERATED, implies, in a general fenfe,
quickened, continually increafing. Thus, accelerated
motion is a motion continually increafing. See Motion.
ACCELERATION, an increale of velocity in the
motion of a body; it is oppofed to retardation, which
is a diminution of motion.
Acceleration, is alfo a term ufed by ancient aftro-
nomers, with whom it fignified the difference between
furnilhed thofe engaged in battle with weapons, drink,
&c. Though Nonnius fuggefts another reafon of that
appellation, viz. becaufe they fought with ftones, flings,
and weapons qua: ferruntur, fuch as are thrown, not
carried in the hand. They were fometimes alfo called
velites, and velati, becaufe they fought clothed, but not
in armour; fometimesadfcripticii, andadfcriptivi; fome¬
times rorarii. The accenji, Livy obferves, were placed
at the rear of the army, becaufe no great matter was
expefted from them : they were taken out of the fifth
clafs of citizens.
Accensi, in antiquity, denotes an inferior order of
officers, appointed to attend the Roman magiftrates,
fomewhat in the manner of ufliers, ferjeants, or tip-
ftaves among us. They were thus called from accire,
to fend for; one part of their office being to call affem-
blies of the people, fummon parties to appear and an-
fwer before the judges, &c.
Accensi, was alfo an appellation given to a kind of
adjutants, appointed by the tribune to affift each cen¬
turion and decurion. In which fenfe, accenfus is fyno-
nymous with optio.—In an ancient infcription, given
by a Torre, we meet Accensus EquiTUM Romano-
rum; an office no where elfe heard of. That author
fufpefts it for a corruption; and inftead thereof reads,
A CENSIBUS.
ACCENSION, the aftion of fetting a body on fire:
thus the accenfion of tinder is effefted by ftriking fire
with flint and fteel.
ACCENT, in reading or fpcaking, an infleftion of
the voice, which gives to each fyllable of a word its
due pitch in refpeft of height or lownefs. See the
article Reading, N° IV.—The word is originally La¬
tin, accentus: a compound of ad, to; and cano, to fing.
Accent us, quaft adcantus, or juxta cantum. In this
fenfe,
ACC [ 39 ] ACC
fcnfe, accent is fynonymous with the Greek rova? • the
Latin tenor, or tonor; and the Hebrew QVt), gujlus,
tafte.—For the doctrine'of Accents in Compojition, fee
Poetry, Paxt II. n053, 62, 70, 90,—98.
Accent, among grammarians, is a certain mark or
character placed over a fyllable, to direct the ftrefs of
its pronunciation. We generally reckon three gram¬
matical accents in ordinary ufe, all borrowed from the
Greeks, viz. the acute accent, ('), which {hews when
the tone of the voice is to be raifed. The grave ac¬
cent ('), when the note or tone of the voice is to be
depreffed. The circuntflex accent (~ or A), is compofed
of both the acute and the grave, and points out a kind
of undulation of the voice. The Latins have made the
fame ufe of thefe three accents.
The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and
mufical accent: though the firft and laid feem, in effedt,
to be the fame ; both being comprifed under the ge¬
neral name of tonic accents, becaufe they give the pro¬
per tone to fyllables; as the rhetorical accents are faid
to be euphonic, inafmuch as they tend to make the
pronunciation more fweet and agreeable. There are
four euphonic accents, and 25 tonic; of which fome
are placed above, and others below the fyllables; the
Hebrew accents fcrving not only to regulate the riixngs
and fallings of the voice, but alfo to diftinguilh the
feddions, periods, and members of periods, in a difeourfe;
and to anfwer the fame purpofes with the points in
other languages.—Their accents are divided into em¬
perors, kings, dukes, &c. each bearing a title anfwera-
ble to the importance of the dildinddion it makes. Their
emperor rules over a whole phrafe, and terminates the
fenfe completely ; anfwering to our point. Their king
anfwers to our colon; and their duke to our comma.
The king, however, occafionally becomes a duke, and
the duke a king, as tdie phrafes are more or lefs {hort.
It muld be noted, by the way, that the management
and combination of thefe accents differ in Hebrew
poetry from what they are in profe. The ufe of the tonic
or grammatical accents has Ixeen much controverted :
fome holding that they diidinguilh the fenfe; while
others maintain that they are only intended to regulate
the mufic, or finging ; alledging that the Jews fmg,
, * Cooper, rather than read, the fcriptures in their fynagogues *.
faic"1* Clav" t^*s’ however, as it will, it is certain the ancient
3"It ’ Hebrews were not acquainted with thefe accents. The
opinion which prevails amongld the learned, is, that
they were invented about the iixth century, by the
Jewilh dodtors of the fchool of Tiberias, called the
Mafforetes.
As to the Greek accents, now feen both in manu-
fcripts and printed books, there has been no lefs dif-
pute about their antiquity and ufe than about thofe of
the Hebrews. Ifaac Voffius endeavours to prove them
of modern invention; afferting, that anciently they had
nothing of this kind, but only a few notes in their
poetry, which were invented by Ariilophanes the gram¬
marian, about the time of Ptolemy Philopater; and
that thefe were of mufical, rather than grammatical ufe,
ferving as aids in the finging of their poems, and very
different from thofe introduced afterwards. He alfo
fhews from feveral ancient grammarians, that the man¬
ner of writing the Greek accents in thefe days was quite
different from thatwhich appearsinour books. The au¬
thor oiLaMethode Greque, p.546, obferves, that the right
pronunciation of the Greek language being natural to Accent,
the Greeks, it was needlefs for them to mark it by ac¬
cents in their writings: fo that, according to all ap¬
pearance, they only began to make ufe of them fo low
as the time in which the Romans, being curious to
learn the Greek tongue, fent their children to fludy at
Athens, thinking thereby to fix the pronunciation, and
to facilitate it to Grangers; which happened, as the fame
author obferves, a little before Cicero’s time. Wetftein,
Greek profeffor at Bafil, in a learned differtation en¬
deavours to prove the Greek accents of an older Hand¬
ing. He owns that they were not always formed in the
fame manner by the ancients; but thinks that difference
owing to the different pronunciation which obtained in
the different parts of Greece. He brings feveral reafons,
a priori, for the ufe of accents, even in the earlieft days :
as that they then wrote all in capital letters equidiftant
from each other, without any diftin&ion either of words
or phrafes, which without accents could fcarce be in¬
telligible; and that accents were neceffary to diftinguifh
ambiguous words, and to point out their proper mean¬
ing; which he confirms from a difpute on a paffage in
Homer, mentioned by Ariftotle in his Poetics, chap. v.
Accordingly, he obferves, that the Syrians, who have
tonic, but no diflindf ive accents, have yet invented cer¬
tain points, placed either below or above the words, to
fhew their mood, tenfe, perfon, or fenfe.
The ufe of accents, to prevent ambiguities, is molt
remarkably perceived in fome eaftern languages, par¬
ticularly the Siamefe and Chinefe. Among the peo¬
ple of China, every word, or (which is the fame thing)
fyllable, admits of five accents, as fpoken more acutely
or remifsly ; and thus Hands for many different things.
The fame found j#, according to the accent affixed to
it, fignifies God, a nnall, excellent, Jlupidity, and a
goofe.—The Chinefe have but 330 fpoken words in their
language ; but thefe being multiplied by the different
accents or tones, which affeft the vowels, furnifn a
language tolerably copious. By means hereof, their
330 fimple, founds come to denote 1650 things; but
this being hardly fufficient, they are increafed further
by afpirates added to each word, to double the number.
The Chinefe only reckon four accents: for which the .
miffionaries ufe the following marks, aa,. d, a, e~; to
which they have added a fifth, thus, «. They make a
kind of modulation; wherein, prolonging the duration
of the found of the vowel, they vary the tone, railing
and finking it by a certain pitch of voice : fo that their
talking is a fort of mufic or finging. Attempts have
been made to determine the quantity of the rife or fall in
each accent by means of mufical notes; but this is hard
to effedf, as being different in different perfons. - Hence
the great difficulty of the language to foreigners; they
are forced to fing moH fcrupuloufiy : if they deviate
ever fo little from the accent, they fay quite a diffe¬
rent thing from what was Intended. Thus, meaning
to compliment the perfon you are talking to with the
title Sir, you call him a beafi, with the fame word,
only a little varied in the tone. Magalhon makes the
language the eafier to learn on this account'.—The
Siamefe are alfo obferved to fing rather than talk.
Their alphabet begins with fix charafters, all only
equivalent to a K, but differently accented. For tho’
in the pronunciation the accents are naturally on the
vowels, yet they have-fome to diverfify fuch of their
. confonant*
ACC
[ 40 ]
ACC
Accent
II
Aceiaiou.
confonants as are in other refpefts the fame.
Accent, in mufic, is a certain modulation of founds
-to exprefs a paffion, whether by the voice or inftruments.
ACCENTER, in mufic, one of the three fingers in
Seer Trio. a trio, viz. the perfon who fings the higheft part*.
ACCEPTANCE, in law, a perfon’s agreeing to
offers made in bargaining, by which the bargain is
concluded.
Acceptance, in the church of Rome, is put for re¬
ceiving the pope’s couftitutions.
Acceptance, in commerce, is the fubfcribing, fign-
ing, and making one’s felf debtor for the fum contained
in a bill of exchange or other obligation. See Bills.
ACCEPTATION, in grammar, thefenfeor mean-
' ing wherein any word is taken.
ACCEPTER, or Acceptor, the perfon who ac¬
cepts a bill of exchange, &c.'
ACCEPTILATION, among civilians, an acquit¬
tance or difcharge given by the creditor to the debtor
without the payment of any value.
ACCESSIBLE, Tomething that may be approach¬
ed, or that accefs may be had to. Thus we fay, Such
a place is acceffible on one fide, &c.
ACCESS ION, in law, is a method of acquiring pro¬
perty, by which, in things that have a clofe connexion
or dependence upon one another, the property of the
principal thing draws after it the property of the ac-
ceflbry. Thus, the owner of a cow becomes likewife
the owner of the calf. See Law, Part III. n°clxii.6. It
fometimes likewife fignifies confent or acquiefcence.
Accession, among phyficians, is ufed for a paroxifm
of a difeafe ; among politicians, it fignifies a prince’s
ACCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any ca-
fual event.
Accident, among logicians, is ufed in a threefold
fenfe. I. Whatever does not efientially belong to a
thing; as the clothes a man wears, or the money in his
pocket. 2. Such properties in any fubjedt as are not
effential to it; thus whitenefs in paper is an acci¬
dental quality. 3. In oppofition to fubftance, all qua¬
lities whatever are called accidents; as fweetnefs, foft-
nefs, <bc.
Accident, in grammar, implies a property attach¬
ed to a word, without entering into its effential defini¬
tion ; for every word, notwithftanding its fignifica-
tion, will be either primitive, derivative, fimple, or
compound, which are the accidents of words. A
word is faid to be primitive, when it is taken from no
other word in the language in which it is ufed: thus
heaven, kin%, good, are primitive words. It is faid to
be derivative, when it is taken from fome other word:
thus heavenly, kingdom, .goodnefs, &c. are .derivatives.
A fimple word is eafily diftinguifhed from a,compound:
thus juft, jnjiice, are fimple words; unjujl, inju/fice,
are compound: res is a fimple word, as well as publica;
but refpublica is a compound. Befides thefe accidents,
which are common to all forts of words, each particu¬
lar fpecies has its accidents: thus the accidents of the
noun fubftantive are the gender, declenfion, and num¬
ber ; and the adjeftive has another accident, namely,
the companion. See Grammar, n° 14, &c. and the
article Language.
Accident
Accipenfer.
Accident, in heraldry, an additional point or mark
^ ^ in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re-
fucceeding to the government upon the death of his tained without altering the effence of the armour; fuch
predecefibr.
ACCESSORY, in law', is the fubjedl acquired by
acceffion: Or, in crimes, it fignifies the perfon by whofe
affiftance, advice, or command, the crime was commit¬
ted; in which fenfe, it is the fame with accomplice,
a?t and part, &c. See Law, Part III. n° clxxxiv.
4> S°.
ACCI, a towm of Tarraconenfis, (Pliny, Ptolemy;)
formerly called Slfli, fuppofed to be Guadix, to the
call of the city of Granada, at the foot of a mountain,
near the fource of the rivulet Guadalantin. Now
greatly decayed. It is the Cblonia Accitana Gemel-
la, (coins); and was of fome repute among the Ro¬
man colonies. The people were called Gemellenfes,
becaufe the colony confifted of colonifts from the’third
and fixth legions.
ACCIAIOLI (Donato), a man famous forhis learn¬
ing and the honourable employments he poffeffed in
Florence his native country, in the 15th century. He
wrote, A Latin tranfiation of fome of Plutarch’s Lives;
Commentaries on Ariftotle’s Ethics and Politics ; and
the Life of Charlemagne. He was fent to France by
the Florentines, to fue for fuccour from Lewis XI.
Sainft Pope Sextus IV. but died on his journey at
ilan ; his body was carried to Florence, and buried in
the church of the Carthufians. The fmall fortune he left
his children is a proof of his probity and difinterefted-
nefs.^ His daughters, like thofe of Ariftides, were
married at the public expence, as an acknowledgment
abatement, difference, and tin&ure.
ACCIDENTAL, in a general fenfe, implies fome-
thing that happens by accident, or that is not effential
to its fubject.
Accidental, in philofophy, is applied to that ef¬
fect which flows from fome caufe intervening by acci¬
dent, without being fubjedx, or at leaft without any
appearance of being fubjedt, to general laws or regu¬
lar returns. In this fenfe, accident is oppofed to confiani
and principal. Thus the fun’s place is, with refpedt to
the earth, the conftant and principal caufe of the heat
in fummer, and the cold in winter; whereas winds,
fnows, and rains, are the accidental caufes which of¬
ten alter and rpodify the adtion of the principal caufe.
Accidental Point, in perfpedlive, is that point in
the horizontal line where the projedfions of two lines
parallel to each other meet the perfpedtive plane.
ACCIPENSER, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies
belonging to the Amphibia Nantes of Linnasus. The
accipenfer has a Angle linear noftril: the mouth is in
the under part of the head, and contains no teeth; the
cirri are below the fnout, and before the mouth. There
are three fpecies of this genus, viz.
1. The hufo has 4 cirri; the body is naked, i. e. has
no prickles or protuberances. The Ikin of the hufo
is fo tough and ftrong, that it is employed for ropes
in carts and other wheel-carriages; and the ichthyo-
colla *, orifinglafs of the /hops, famous as an agglu-
- ; - r   1 7 tinant, and ufed alfo for the fining of wines, is made
of his fervices. His funeral elogium was fpoken by from its found or feales. The ancients were acquaint-
rAr'-ftnnW T . -A — |1~ * l | ^ ed with the fifli that afforded this drug. Pliny f men- t
tions it under the name of ichthyocolla; and fays, that Cl
the
fifh, Plate I.
fig. 6.
* See Ich¬
thyocolla.
Chriftopher Landini; and an elegant epitaph, by Poli-
tian, was inferibed on his tomb.
Plate T
ACC [ 41 J ACC
Acipenfer. the glue that was produced from it had the fame title;
and afterwards adds, that it was made out of the belly
of the fifh. The hufo is the largeft of the genus, and
grows to 24 feet in length. It inhabits the Danube
and the rivers of Ruflia.
The 2. The fturio, or fturgeon, with 4 cirri and 11
‘Sturgeon, fquamous protuberances on the back. That this is
PI- 1- hg.5. jjie >0vjo.x„c 0f Dorion, as quoted by Athenseus, is
very probable, as well from the account he gives of
its form as of its nature. He fays its. mouth is always
open, with which it agrees with the fturgeon; and that
it conceals itfelf in the hot months : this (hews it to be
a fiftt of a cold nature; which is confirmed by the hi-
ftory of the European fifh of this fpecies given by
IPhil.Tran. Mr Forfter J, in his Eflay on the Volga; who relates,
bii. 3J2. that they are fcarce ever found in that river in fpring
or fummer, but in vaft quantities in autumn and win¬
ter, when they crowd from the fea under the ice, and
are then taken in great numbers. Whether the acipen¬
fer is the fturgeon of the moderns, may be doubted;
otherwife Ovid would never have fpoken of it as a fo¬
reign filh :
Tuque p'eregrinis, Acipenfer, nebilis uadis.
And thou, afi(h in foreign feasrenown’d—
it being well known that it is not uncommon in the
Mediterranean, and even in the mouth of the Tiber,
at certain feafons. BuT this pafiage leaves us as much
in the dark as to the particular fpecies intended by the
word acipenfer, as the defcription Pliny has given us:
for that philofopher relates, that its fcales are placed in
a contrary direction to thofe of other filh, being turned
towards the mouth; which difagrees with the chara&er
of all that are known at prefent. Whatever fiftt-.it
might be, it was certainly the fame with the elops, or
helops ; as appears from Pliny, who makes it fynony-
f Lib.ix. 17. mous with the acipenfer f; and from another line of the
poet beforementioned:
Rt pretiofus Helops, nojiris incognitas uttdis.
The precious Helops, ftranger to our feas.
The fturgeori annually afcends our rivers, but in no
great numbers, and is taken by accident in the falmon-
nets. It feems a fpiritlefs filh, making no manner of
reliftance when entangled, but is drawn out of the wa¬
ter like a lifelefs lump. It is a filh that is feldom taken
far out at fea, but frequents fuch parts as are not re¬
mote from the aeftuaries of great rivers. It is admired
for the delicacy and firmnefs of its flelh, which is white
as veal, and extremely good when roafted. It is ge¬
nerally pickled. The moft we receive comes either
from the Baltic rivers, or North America: thofe cured
at Pillau have been, till of late, in the greateft repute ;
but through the encouragement given by the fociety
inftituted for promoting trade and manufactures, the
fturgeon from our colonies begins to rival thofe of the
Baltic. Great numbers are taken during fummer in
the lakes Frifchehaff, and Curifch'-haff near Pillau, in
large nets made of fmall cord. The adjacent Ihores are
formed into diftricts, and farmed out to companies of
filhermen, fame of which are rented for fix thoufand
guilders, or near three hundred pounds, per annum.
They are found in vaft abundance in the American ri¬
vers in May, June, and July; at which time they leap
fome yards out of the water, and, falling on their fides,
make a noife to be heard in ftill weather at fome miles
diftance. Caviare is made of the roes of this, and alfo
^ Von. I.
of all the other-forts of fturgeons, dried, faked, and •A<:c’P!tcr
packed up clofe. Ichthyocolla, or ifing-glafs, is alfo
made of the found of our fifti, as well as that of the  
others; but in very fmall quantity. The fturgeon
grows to a great fize, to the length of 18 feet, and to.,
the weight of 500 pounds, but it is feldom taken in
our rivers of that bulk. The largeft we have known
caught in thofe of Great Britain, weighed 460pounds;
which was taken about three years ago in the Efk, where
they are more frequently found than in our fouthern
waters. In the manner of breeding, this fi(h is an ex¬
ception among the cartilaginous kind ; being, like the
bony fifti, oviparous, fpawning in water.
3. The ruthenus has 4 cirri, and 15 fquamous pro¬
tuberances. It is a native of Ruflia.
ACCIPITER, the name of Linnaeus’s firft order of
Birds. See Zoology, n° 8, a.
Among the Romans, the term accipiter fignified a
hawk; and which, from its being very carnivorous, they
confidered as a bird of bad omen :
Odimus nccipitrcm, quia femper vivit in armis. Qvi d.
Pliny, however, tells us, that in fome cafes, particu¬
larly in marriage, it was efteemed a bird of good
omen, becaufe it never eats the hearts of other birds ;
intimating thereby, that no differences in a married
ftate ought to reach the heart. The accipiter was
worlhipped as a divinity by the inhabitants of Tentyra,
an ifland in the Nile, being confidered by them as the
image of the fun ; and hence we find that luminary re-
prefented, in hieroglyphics, under the figure of a hawk.
ACCISMUS, denotes a feigned refufal of fome-
thing which a perfon earneftly defires. The word is
Latin; or rather Greek, Axx<tr^of; fuppofed to be form¬
ed from ^fcco, the name of a foolifh old woman noted ,
in antiquity for an affedlation of this kind.
Accifmus is fometimes confidered as a virtue; fome-
times as a vice, which Auguftus and Tiberius prac-
tifed with great fuccefs. Cromwell’s refufal of the
crown of England, may be brought as an inftance of an
Accifmus.
Accismus is more particularly ufed, in rhetoric, as
a fpecies of irony.
ACCIUS (Lucius), a Latin tragic poet, the fonof
a freedman, and, according to St Jerom, born in the
confulihip of Hoftiiius Mancinus and Attilius Serra-
nus, in the year of Rome 583; but there appears
fomewhat of confufion and perplexity in this chronolo¬
gy. He made himfelf known before the death of Pa-
cuvius, a dramatic piece of his being exhibited the
fame year that Pacuvius brought one upon the ftage,
the latter being then eighty years of age, and Accius
only thirty. We do not know the name of this piece
of Accius’s, but the titles of feveral of his tragedies
are mentioned by various authors. He wrote on the
moft celebrated ftories which had been reprefented on
the Athenian ftage; as Andromache, Andromeda, A-
treus, Clytemneftra, Medea, Meleager, Philocletes,
the civil wars of Thebes, Tereus, the Troades, <&c.
He did not always, however, take his fubjeds from
the Grecian ftory; for he compofed one dramatic piece
wholly Roman : it was entitled Brutus, and related to
the expulfion of the Tarquins. It is affirmed by fpme,
that he wrote alfo comedies; which is not unlikely, if
he was the author of two pieces, the Wedding, and
the Merchant, which have been afcribed to him. He
F did
ACC t 42 ] ACC
Acclama- did not confine himfelf to dramatic writing; for he left
- tlon’ other productions, particularly his annals, mentioned
By Macrobius, Prifcian, Feftus, and Nonius Marcel-
lus. He has been cenfured for writing in too harfti a
ftyle, but in all other refpefts has been e(teemed a very
great poet. He was fo much efteemed by the public,
that a comedian was puniflied for only mentioning his
name on the ftage. Cicero fpeaks with great derifion
of one Accius who had written a hiitory; and, as our
author had wrote annals, fome infill that he is the per-
fon cenfuredbut as Cicero himfelf, Horace, Quinti¬
lian, Ovid, and Paterculus, have fpoken of our author
with fo much applaufe, we cannot think it is him whom
the Roman orator cenfures with fo much feverity.
There was alfo in this age a pretty good orator of
the fame name, againft whom Cicero defended Cluen-
tius. He was born in Pifaurum, and perhaps was a re¬
lation of our poet.
ACCIUS, a ppet of the 16th century, to whom is
attributed A Paraphrafe on JEfop's Fables, on which
Julius Scaliger bellows great encomiums.
ACCLAMATION, a confufed noife or flvout of
joy, by which the public exprefs their applaufe, efteem,
or approbation.
Acclamation, in a more proper fenfe, denotes a
certain form of words, uttered with extraordinary ve¬
hemence, and in a peculiar tone fomewhat refembling
a fong, frequent in the ancient affemblies. Acclama¬
tions were ufually accompanied with applaufes, with
which they are fometimes confounded: though they
ought to be dillinguifhed; as acclamation was given
' by the voice, applaufe by the hands ; add, that accla¬
mation was alfo bellowed on perfons abfent, applaufe
only on thofe prefent. Acclamation was alfo given by
women, whereas applaufe feems to have been confined
to men.
Acclamations are of various kinds ; ecdeliallical,
military, nuptial, fenatorial, fynodical, fcholaftic, thea¬
trical, <bc. We meet with loud acclamations, mulical
and rhythmical acclamations; acclamations of joy and
refpefl, and even of reproach and contumely. The
former,'wherein words of happy omen were ufed, were
alfo called, Laudationes, et bona vota, or good wifb.es ;
the latter, Execrationes ei convict a. Suetonius furnilhes
an inftance of this lall kind in the Roman fenate, on
occafion of the decree for demolilhing the llatues of
Domitian, when the fathers, as the hiltorian reprefents
it, could not refrain from contumelious acclamations of
the deceafed. The like were Ihown after the death of
Commodus, where the acclamations run in the follow¬
ing {train : Hojii patria honores detrahantur, parricidee
konores detrahantur ;' hojlis Jlatuas undique, parricides
ftatuas undique, gladiatoris Jlatuas undique, &c.—The
formula, in acclamations, was repeated- fometimes a
greater, fometimes a leffer, number of times. Hence
we find in Roman writers, acclamatiun ejl quinquies, et
vicies; five times, and twenty times: fometimes alfo
fexagies, and even oiiuagies; fixty and eighty times.
Acclamations were not unknown on the theatres in
the earlieft ages of the Roman commonwealth; but
they were artiefs then, and little other than confufed
Ihouts. Afterwards they became a fort of regular con¬
certs. That mentioned by Plnedrus, latare incolumis
Roma falvoprincipe, which was made for Auguftus, and
proved the occafion of a. pleafant miftake of a flute-
player called Princeps, (hews that mufical acclamations Acclama-
were in ufe in that emperor’s reign. Revertentem ex , t'on~
Provincia modulatis carminibus profequebantur, fays
Suetonius, who gives another inftance in the time of
Tiberius : a falfe report of Germanicus’s recovery be¬
ing fpread through Rome, the people ran in crouds to
the capitol with torches and viftims, finging, Saha
Roma, Saha Patria, Sahus ejl Germanicus.—Nero,
pafiionately fond of mufic, took fpecial care to improve
and perfecft the mufic of acclamations. Charmed with
the harmony wherewith the Alexandrians, who came
to the games celebrated'at Naples, had fung his praifes,
he brought feveral over to in draft a number of youth,
chofen from among the knights and people, in the dif¬
ferent kinds of acclamations praftifed at Alexandria.
Thefe continued in ufe as low as the reign of Theo-
doric. But "the people did not always make a Angle
chorus; fometimes there were two, who anfwered each
other alternately : thus, when Nero played on the
theatre, Burrhus and Seneca, who were on either
hand,' giving the fignal by clapping, 5000 foldiers
called Auguftals, began to chant his praife, which the
fpeftators were obliged to Repeat. The whole wras
condufted by a mulic-mafter called Mefochorus or Pau-
farius. —The honour of acclamations was chiefly ren¬
dered to emperors, their children, and favourites; and
to the magiftrates who prefided at the games. Per¬
fons of diftinguiflied merit alfo fometimes received
them, of which Quintilian gives us inftances in Cato
and Virgil. The moft ufual forms were, Feliciter, Lon- .
giorem vitam, Annos felices. The aftors themfelves,
and they who gained the prizes in the games of the
circus, were not excluded the honour of acclamations.
To theatrical acclamations may be added thofe of
the foldiery and the people in time of triumph. The
victorious army accompanied their general to the capi¬
tol; and, among the verfes they fung in his praifes, fre¬
quently repeated, lo Triumphe, which the people
anfwered in the fame {train. It was alfo in the way
of acclamation, that the foldiers gave their general the
title of Imperator, after fome notable viftory : a title
which he only kept till the time of his triumph.
The acclamations of the fenate were fomewhat more
ferious than the popular ones; but arofe from the fame
principle, viz. a defire of pleafing the prince or his fa¬
vourites ; and aimed like wife at the fame end, either to.
exprefs the general approbation and zeal of the com¬
pany, or to congratulate him on his viftories, or to
make him new proteftations of fidelity. Thefe accla¬
mations were ufually given after a report made by fome
fenator, to which the reft all. expreffed their confent by
crying Omnes, Omnes; or elfe, .ZEquum est, Jus-
tum est. Sometimes they began with acclamations,
and fometimes ended with them without other debates.
It was after this manner that all the eleftions and pro¬
clamations of emperors, made by the fenate, were con¬
dufted ; fomething of wrhich praftice is ftill retained
at modern eleftions of kings and emperors, where Vhat
Rex, Vive le Roy, and Long live the King, are cufto-
mary forms.
The Greeks borrowed the cuftom of receiving their
emperors in the public places from the Romans. Luit-
prand relates, that at a proceffion where he was pre¬
fent, they fung to the emperor Nicephorus, vow* ito ;
that is, Many years : which Codin exprefles thus, by
ACC [ 43 ] ACC
Acdama- to 4,a\x:iv to roxu^oviov, 0r by to oroxu^ov^Eiv; and the
tion. v/ifh or falutation by And at dinner, the
Greeks then prefent wifhed with a loud voice to the
emperor and Bardas, Ut Deus annos multiplicet; as he
trariflates the Greek. Plutarch mentions an acclama¬
tion fo loud, upon occafion of Flaminius’s reftoring li¬
berty to Greece, that the very birds fell from heaven
with the (hout. The Turks praftife fomething like
this on the fight of their emperors and grand viziers,
to this day.
For the acclamations wherewith authors, poets, &c.
were received, who recited their works in public ; it is
to beobferved, the aifemblies for this purpofe were held
vrith great parade in the moft folemn places, as the ca-
pitol, temples, the Athaneum, and the houfes of great
men. Invitations were fent every where, in order to
get the greater appearance. The chief care was that
the acclamations might be given with all the order and
pomp pofiible. Men of fortune who pretended to wit,
kept able applauders in their fervice, and lent them to
their friends. Others endeavoured to gain them by
prefents and treats. Philoftratus mentions a young
man named Vavus, who lent money to the men of let¬
ters, and forgave the intereft to fuch as applauded his
exerciies. Thefe acclamations were conducted much
after the fame manner as thofe 'on the theatre, Both as
to the muiic and the accompaniments : they were to
be fuited both to the fubjeft and to the perfon. There
were particular ones for the philofophers, for orators,
for hillorians, and for poets. It would be difficult to
rehearfe all the forms of them; one of the moft ufual
was Sophos, wdiich was to be repeated three times. Mar¬
tial comprehends feveral other ufual forms in this verfe!
Graviter, Cito, Nequiter, Huge, Beats.
Neither the Greeks nor Romans were barren on this
head. The names of gods and heroes were given
thofe whom they would extol. It was not enough
to do it after each head of difcourfe, chiefly after the
exordium; but the acclamations were renewed at every
fine paffage, frequently at every period.
The acclamations wherewith the fpedfators honoured
the victories of the athletoe, were a natural confequence
of the impetuous motions which attended the gymna-
ftic games. The cries and acclamations of the people,
fometimes expreffing their compaffion and joy, fome-
time's their horror and difguft, are ftrongly painted by
different poets and orators.
Acclamations made alfo a part of the ceremony of
marriage. They were ufed for the omen’s fake; being
the L^ta Omina, fometimes fpoken of before marriage
in Roman writers.
Acclamations, at firft praftifed in the theatre, and
puffing thence to the fenate, <&c. was in procefs of time
v received into the a&s of councils, and the ordinary af-
femblies of the church. The people expreffed their
approbation of the preacher varioufly ; the more ufual
forms were, Orthodox ! Third Apcjllt, tic. Thefe accla¬
mations being fometimes carried to excefs, and often
mifplaced, were frequently prohibited by the ancient
do&ors, and at length abrogated; though they ap¬
pear to have been in fome ufe as low as the time of St
Bernard.
Acclamation Medals, among antiquaries, fuch as
reprefent the people expreffing their joy in the pofture
of acclamation.
ACCLIVITY, the rife or afeent of a hill, in oppo* Acclivity
fition to the declivity or defeent of it. Some writers II
in fortification ufe it for the talus of a rampart.
ACCOLA, among the Romans, fignified a perfon 
who lived near fome place ; in which frnfe, it differed
from incola, the inhabitant of fuch a place.
ACCOLADE, a ceremony anciently ufed in the
conferring of knighthood.
Antiquaries are not agreed wherein the accolade
properly confifted. The generality fuppofe it to be the
embrace, or kifs, which princes anciently gave the new
knight, as a token of their affe&ion : whence the
word accolade ; q. d. a clafping, or taking round the
neck. Others will rather have it to be a blow on the
chine of the neck, given on the fame occafion. The
Accolade is of fome antiquity, in which foever of the
two fenfes it be taken. Greg, de Tours writes, that
the kings of France, even of the firft race, in confer¬
ring the gilt ffioulder-belt, kiffed the knights on the
left cheek. For the accolee, or blow, John of Salif-
bury affures us, it was in ufe among the ancient Nor¬
mans : by this it was that William the Conqueror
conferred the honour of knighthood on his fon Henry.
At firft, it was given with the naked fift ; but was af¬
terwards changed into a blow with the flat of the
fword on the ftoulder of the knight.
ACCOLEE, fometimes fynonymous with Acco¬
lade, which fee.—It is alfo ufed in various ienfes in he¬
raldry : fometimes it is applied to two things joined ;
at other times, to animals with crowns, or collars about
their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy’s arms ; and, laft-
ly, to kews, battons, maces, fvvoids, tic. placed faltier-
wife behind the fliield.
ACCOLTI (Bernardo), fecretary to the republic
of Florence, w'as furnamed L’Unico, or the Non-Such,
probably from the great extent of his underftanding,
the variety of fciences he had acquired, and the ex¬
cellency of his poetic vein 5 w hich not only gained
him a feat among the academicians of the court of
Urbino, but made that great Maecenas, pope Leo X.
in 1520, create him prince of the ftate of Nepi. He
wrote many pieces; among others, a colleflion of beau¬
tiful poems, printed at Venice in 1519 and 1553.
ACCOMMODATION, the application of one
thing, by analogy, to another; or the making two or
more things agree with one another.
To know a thing by accommodation, is to know it
by the idea of a fimilar ihing referred thereto.
A prophecy of feripture is faid to be fulfilled vari¬
ous wrays ; properly, as when a- thing foretold comes
to pafs; and improperly, or by way of accommoda¬
tion, when an event happens to .any place or people,
like to what fell out fome time before to another.—
Thus, the words of Ifaiah, fpoken to thofe of his own
time, are faid to be fulfilled in thofe who lived in our
Saviour's ; and are accommodated to them ; “ Ye hy¬
pocrites, well did Ifaias prophefy of you,” tic. which
fame words, St Paul afterwards accommodates to the
Jews of his time.
The primitive church acco?nmodated multitudes of
Jewifh, and even heathen ceremonies and pra&ices, to
Chriftian purpofes; but the Jews had before done the
fame by the Gentiles : fome will even have circumci-
fion, the tabernacle, brazen ferpent, &c. to have been
originally of Egyptian -ufe, and only accommodated by
F 2 Mofee
r
ACC [ 44 ] ACC
Accom- Mofes to the purpofes of Judaifm*. Spencer maintains,
panirr.ent t}ja^ moft Gf the rites of the old law, were an imitation
Accom- thofe of the Gentiles, and particularly of the Egyp-
plifhment. tians ; that God, in order to divert the children of If-
“ 7 rael from the worfhip they paid to the falfe deities, con-
fecrated the greateft part of the ceremonies performed
tom. i. ' " by thofe idolaters, and had formed out of them a body
p 506. of the ceremonial law; that he had indeed made fbme
alterations therein, as barriers againft idolatry ; and
that he thus accommodated his worlhip to the genius
and occafions of his ancient people. To this conde-
f De legib. fcenfioh of God, according to Spencer-j-, is owing the
Hebr. diff. i. orjg{n Gf the tabernacle, and particularly that of the
ACCOMPANIMENT, fomething attending or
added as a circumftance to another, either by way of
ornament, or for the fake of fymmetry.
Accompaniment, in mufic, denotes the inftruments
which accompany a voice to fuftain it, as well as to
make the mulic more full. The accompaniment is
ufed in recitative, as Well as in fong; on the Urge, as
well as in the choir, &c. The ancients had likewife
their accompaniments on the threatre ; they had even
different kinds of inftruments to accompany the chorus,
from thofe which accompanied the actors in the reci¬
tation.—The accompaniment, among the moderns, is
frequently a different part or melody from the fong it
accompanies. It is difputed whether it was fo among
the ancients. It is generally alleged, that their ac¬
companiments went no farther than the playing in
ottave, or in antiphony to the voice. The Abbe Fra-
guier, from a paffage in Plato, pretends to prove, that
they had a&ual fymphony, or mufic in parts : but
his arguments feem far from being conclufive.
Accompaniment, in painting, denotes fuch objetfts
as are added, either by way of ornament, or probability;
as dogs, guns, game, <bc. in a hunting-piece.
Accompaniment, in heraldry, any thing added to
a fhield by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling,
fupporters, fee. It is alfo applied to feveral bearings
about a principal one; as a faltier, bend, fefs, chev¬
ron, fee.
ACCOMPLICE. See Accessary.
ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or
fulfilling of any thing.
Accomplishment, is principally ufed in fpeaking
of events foretold by the Jewifh prophets in the Old
Teftament, and fulfilled under the New. We fay a
literal accomplilhment, a myftical or fpiritual accom-
plifhment, a fingle accomplifhment, a double accom-
plilhment, a Jewifh accomplifhment, a Chriftian, a
heathen accomplifhirKnt. The fame prophecy is fome-
times accomplifhed in all, or feveral of thofe different
ways. Thus, of fome of the prophecies of the Old Te-
• ftament, the Jews find a literal accomplifhment in their
own hiflory, about the time when the prophecy was
given : the Chriftians find another in Ghrilt, or the
earlieft days of the church ; the heathens another, in
fome of their emperors; the Mahometans, another in
their legiflator; &c. There are two principal ways of
accomplifhing a prophecy; direftly, and by accomvioda-
tion. See Accommodation, and Prophecy.
Accomplishment, is alfo ufed for any mental nr
perfonal endowment.
ACCORD, in mufic. See Concord.
Accord, in painting, is the harmony that reigns Account
among the lights and fhades of a pifture. Jl .
ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general fenfe, a "..cc.u atlon'
computation or reckoning of any thing by numbers.—
Colleftively, it is ufed to exprefs the books which mer¬
chants, traders, bankers, &c. uf& for recording their
tranfafifions in bufinefs. See Book-keeping.
Chamber of Accounts, in the French polity, is a
fovereign court of great antiquity, which takes cog-
nifance of and regifters the accounts of the king’s re¬
venue. It is nearly the fame with the Englifh Court of
Exchequer.
Account is taken fometimes, in a particular fenfe,
for the computation of time : thus we fay, The Julian
Account, the Gregorian Account, fee. in which fenfe
it is equivalent to fyle.
ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in the moft
general fenfe, is a perfon. fkilled in accounts. In a
more reftrifted fenfe, it is applied to a perfon, or of¬
ficer, appointed to keep the accounts of a public com¬
pany or office; as the South-fea, the India-company,
the Bank, the Excife, fee.
ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the art of keeping and
balancing accounts. See Book-keeping.
ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, a new officer in
the court of Chancery appointed by aft of parliament
to receive all moneys lodged in court inftead of the ma¬
ilers, and convey the fame to the bank of England for
fecurity.
ACCOUNTING-HOUSE, counting-house, or
compting-house, is a houfe, or office, fet apart by a
merchant, or trading-company, for tranfafting their
bufinefs, as well as keeping their books, accounts,
vouchers, fee.
ACCOUTREMENT, an old term, applied to the
furniture of a foldier, knight, or gentleman.
ACCRETION, in phyfics, the increafe, or growth, ^
of an organical body, by the acceffion of new parts *.
Accretion, among civilians, the property acquired an^’ Yegeta~
in a vague or unoccupied thihg, by its adhering to or tarn.
following another already occupied : thus, if a legacy
be left to two perfons, one of whom dies before the
teftator, the legacy devolves to the furvivor by right
of accretion.
ACCROCHE, in heraldry, denotes a thing’s be¬
ing hooked with another.
ACCUSATION, a pofture of the body, between
fitting and lying. The word comes from the Latin accu-
bare, compounded of ad, to, and cubo, I lie down. Ac-
cubation, or Accubitus, was the table-pofture of the
Greeks and Romans ; whence we find the words par¬
ticularly ufed for the lying, or rather (as we call it) fit¬
ting, down to meat. The Greeks introduced this po-
fture. The Romans, during the frugal ages of the re¬
public, were ftrangers to it. But as luxury got footing,,
this pofture came to be adopted, at leaft by the men;:
for as to women, it was reputed an indecency in them
to lie down among the men : though, afterwards, this
too was got over. But children did not lie down ; nor
fervants, nor foldiers, nor perfons of meaner condition;
but took their meals fitting, as a pofture lefs indulgent.
The Roman manner of difpofing themfelves at table was
this: A low round table was placed in the coenaculum,-
or dining-room ; and, about this, ufually three, fome¬
times only two, beds or couches; according to the num-
:.-u
ACC [45 ACC
, Accubitor ber of which, it was called biclinium or triclinium.
AccJltion '■^iefe were covered with a fort of bed-clothes, richer
 — or plainer according to the quality of the perfon, and
furnifhed with quilts and pillows, that the guefts might
lie the more commodioufly. There were ufually three
perfons on each bed; to crowd more, was efteemed for¬
did. In eating, they lay down on their left Tides, with
their heads refting on the pillows, or rather on their
their elbows. The firft lay at the head of the bed, with
his feet extended behind the back of the fecond; the
fecond lay with the back of his head towards the navel
of the firft, only feparated by a pillow, his feet behind
the back of the third; and fo of the third, or fourth.
The middle place was efteemed the moft honourable.
Before they came to table, they changed their clothes,
putting on what they called cosnatoria vejlis, the dining-
garment ; and pulled off their fhoes, to prevent fouling
the couch.
ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperors
of Conftantinople, whofe bufiuefs was to lie near the
emperor. He was the head of the youths of the bed¬
chamber, and had the cubicularius and procubitcr un¬
der him.
ACCUMULATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
heaping or amaffing things together. Among lawyers,
it is ufed in fpeaking of the concurrence of feveral titles
to the fame thing, or of feveral circumftanees to the
fame proof.
Accumulation of Degrees, in an univerfity, is the
taking feveral of them together, or at fmaller intervals
than ufual, or than is allowed by the rules of the uni¬
verfity. . -
ACCURSED, denotes fomething that lies under a
curfe, or is deteftable. It is likewife ufed for an ex¬
communicated perfon.
ACCURSIUS, a law-profeffor in the 13th century,
born in Florence. His authority was for fome time
fo great, that he waS' called the Idol of the Lawyers.
Accursius (Mariangelus), a famous critic of the
16th century, born at Aquilo in the kingdom of
Naples. His Diatrebes, printed at Rome in folio, in
1524, on Ovid and Solinus, are a proof of his abili¬
ties in that kind of erudition. In his edition of Am-
mianus Marcellinus there are five books-more than in
any of the preceding ones ; and he affirms he had cor-
refted 5000 errors in that hiftorian. His predomi¬
nant paffion was the fearching for and collefting of old
manufcripts : yet he made Latin and Italian verfes ;
was complete mafter of the French, German, and Spa-
nilh tongues ; and underftood optics and mufic. He
purged himfelf by oath, being charged for being a pla¬
giary with regard to his Aufonius ; it being reported,
that he had appropriated to himfelf the labours of Fa-
bricio Varana, biftiop of Camerino.
ACCUSATION, the charging any perfon with
a criminal aftion, either in one’s own name, or in that
of the ptiblic. The word is compounded of ad, to ;
and caufari, to plead.
Writers on politics treat of the benefit and the in-
conveniencies of public accufations. Various .argu¬
ments are alleged, both for the encouragement and
difcouragement of accufations againft great men. No¬
thing, according to Machiavel, tends more to the pre-
fervation of a ftate, than frequent accufations of per¬
fons trufted with the. adminiftration of public affairs.
This, accordingly, was ftriftly obferved by the Ro- Accufation’
mans, in the inftances of Camillus, accufed of corrup- Accll<ativc.
tion by Manlius Capitolinus, fee. Accufations, how¬
ever, in the judgment of the fame author, are not more
beneficial than calumnies are pernicious ; which is alfo
confirmed by the praftice of the Romans. Manlius,
not being able to make good his charge againft Ca¬
millus, was caft into prifon.
By the Roman law, there was no public accufer for
public crimes; every private perfon, whether interefted
in the crime or not, might accufe, and profecute the
accufed to punilhment, or abfolution. Cato, the moft
innocent perfon of his age, had been accufed 42 times,
and as often abfolved. But the accufation of private
crimes was never received but from the mouths of thofe
who were immediately interefted in them: None (e. g.)
but the hulband could accufe his wife of adultery.
The ancient Roman lawyers diftinguifhed between
pojlulatio, delatio, and accufatio. For, firft, leave was
defired to bring a charge againft one, which was call¬
ed pojlulare: then he againft whom the charge was laid,
was brought before the judge; which was called de-
ferre, or nominis delatio : laftly, the charge was drawn
up and prefented, which was properly the accufatio.
The accufation properly comrfienced, according to
Predianus, when the reus or party charged, being in¬
terrogated, denied he was guilty of the crime, and fub-
feribed his name to the delatio made by his opponent.
In the French law, none but the Procureur general,
or his deputies, can form an accufation, except for
high-treafon and coining, where accufation is open to
every body. In other crimes, private perfons can on¬
ly aft the part of denouncers, and demand reparation
for the offence, with damages. •
In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man ihall be im-
prifoned or condemned on any accufation, without trial
by his peers, ot the law : none {hall be vexed with any
accufation, but according to the law of the land: and no
man may be molefted by petition to the king, &c. unlefs.
it be by indiftrnent or prefentment of lawful men, or by
procefs at common law. Promoters of fuggeftions, are
to find furety to purfue them; and if they do not make
them good, {hall pay damages to the party accufed,
and alfo a fine to the king. No perfon is obliged to
anfwer upon oath to a queftion whereby he may accufe
himfelf of any crime.
ACCUSATIVE, in the Latin grammar, is the #
fourth cafe of nouns*, and fignifies the relation of the * Ste
noun on which the aftion implied in the verb termi- \a'f'
nates; and hence, in fuch languages as have cafes, thefe gunge,
nouns have a particular termination, called accufative: ire.
as, Augiiftus vicit Antonium, Auguttus' vanquiftied An¬
tony. Here Antonium is the noun, on which the ac¬
tion implied i« the verb vicit terminates; and, there¬
fore, muft have the accufative termination. Ovid, fpeak¬
ing of the palace of the fun, fays, Materiem fuperahat
opus. The work furpaffed the materials. Here mate¬
riem has the accufative termination ; becaufe it deter¬
mines the aftion of the verb fuperabat.--\n the Englilh
language there are no cafes, except the genitive; the
relation of the noun being {hewn by the affiftance of
prepofitions, as of, to, from. See.
ACCUSIORUM COLONIA, (Ptolemy;) an in¬
land town in the Cavares, in Gallia Narbonenlis: now
Grenoble, in Dauphine. See Grenoble.
ACE,.,
Are
I!
Acephalus.
| Defcript.
|| In Eph
Ger. dec. I
an. 3. obf
jip. p.184
'Dec ». an p
obfer. 148
p.asS.
9 See Tania.
ACC [ 46 ] ACE
ACE, among gamefters, a card or die marked only
with one point.
ACEPHALI, or Aceph alitis, a term applied to
feveral fefts who refufed to follow fome noted leader.
Thus the perfons who refufed to follow either John of
Antioch, or St Cyril, in a difpute that happened in the
council of Ephefus, were termed Acephali, without a
head or leader. Such bifhops, alfo, as were exempt
from the jurifdiftion and difcipline of their patriarch,
were ftyled Acephali.
Acephali, the levellers in the reign ofking Henry I.
who acknowledged no head or fuperior. They were
reckoned fopoor, that they had not a tenement by which
they might acknowledge a fuperior lord.
ACEPHALOUS, or Acephalus, in a general
fenfe ; without a head.
The term is more particularly ufed in fpeaking of
certain nations, or people, reprefented by ancient na-
turalifts and cofmographers, as well as by fome mo¬
dern travellers, as formed without heads; their eyes,
mouths, &e. being placed in other parts.
Such are.the Blemmyes, a nation of Africa near the
head of the Niger, reprefented to be by Pliny and So-
linus; Blemmyes traduntur capita abejfe, ore fy oculis
peciore affixis. Ctefias and Solinus mention others in
India near the Ganges, fine cervice, oculos in humeris
habentes. Mela alfo fpeaks of people, quibiis capita et
vultus in pcciore funt. And Suidas, Stephanus Byzan-
tinus, Vopifcus, and others after them, relate the like.
Some modern travellers ftiil pretend to find acephalous
people in America.
Several opinions have been framed as to the origin
of the fable of the Acephali. The firft is that of Tho¬
mas Bartholin, who turns the whole into a metaphor;
being convinced, that the name Acephali was anciently
given to fuch as had lefs brain, or conducted themfelves
lefs by the rules of prudence, than others.,. Olearius
rather apprehends, that the ancient voyagers, viewing
certain barbarous people from the coafts, had been im-
pofed on by their uncouth drefs ; for that the Samo-
gitians, being fhort of ftature, and going in the feve-
rity of winter with their heads covered in hoods, feem
at a diftance as if they were headlefs. F. Lafitau fays,
that by Acephali are only meant, people whofe heads
are funk below their fhoulders. In effedt, Hulfms, in
his epitome of Sir Walter Raleigh’s voyage to Guaiana,
alfo fpeaks of a people which that traveller found in the
province of Irvipanama, between the lakes of Panama and
Caffipa, who had no head or neck; and Hondius, in
his map, marks the place with the figures of thefe mon-
fters. YetDe J Laet rejt&s the flory; being informed
by other hands, that the inhabitants of the banks of
the Caora, a river that flows out of the lake of Caflipa,
have their head fo far funk between their fhoulders, that
many believed they had their,eyes in their fhoulders
and their mouths in their breafls.
But though the cxiflence of a nation of Acephali
be ill warranted, naturalifts furnifh feveral inftances
of individuals born without heads, by fome lufus or aber¬
ration of nature. Wepfer gives |j a catalogue of fuch
acephalous births, from Schenckius, Licetus, Pane us,
Wolfius, Mauriceau, &c.
Acephalus, an obfolete term for the taenia * or
tape-worm, which was long fuppofed to be acephalous.
The firft who gave itahead, was Tulpius; andafterhim,
Fehr : The former even makes-it biceps, or two-headed.
Acephalus, is alfo ufed to exprefs a verfe defedtive
in the beginning.
ACER, the maple-tree ; a genus of plants, of the
monoecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs. Of
this genus there are ten
Species. 1. The pfeudo platanus, improperly called
the fycamore, is a very large and beautiful tree, with
broad leaves divided into five lobes, ferrated in their
edges; of a dark-green colour on the upper fide, but
paler and fomewhat hoary underneath ; the flowers are
very fmall, and of a greenifh white colour. The fruit
is large, and beautifully variegated with green and
purple. This fpecies is a native of Germany ; but
thrives very well in Britain, where it is frequent in
plantations. Itisveryproperformakingplantationsnear
the fea, or fheltering fuch as are already too near it, be-
caufe the fycamore-tree pefifts the fpray of the ocean
much better than moft other trees. It has however
this inconvenience, that its leaves are devoured by in-
ftdis, fo as to become full of holes and very unfightly,
which has caufed the planting of it to be much neglec¬
ted of late,' 2. The campeftre, or common maple, is
too well known to need any particular account; it grow¬
ing very frequently, in hedge-rows, in moft parts of
Britain. The timber of the common mapple is far
fuperior to beech for all ufes of the turner; particularly
for difhes, cups, trenchers, <&c. When it abounds with
knots, as it frequently does, it is highly efteemed by
joiners for inlaj ings. It i& alfo often employed in ma¬
king mufical inftruments, on account of its lightnefs;
and for the whitenefs of its wood was formerly efteem¬
ed for making tables, &c. 3. The negundo, or Vir¬
ginian alh-leaved maple, is a very ftrong ftiooting tree;
and in Virginia, where it is a native, is one of the largeft
trees of this kind. It muft be planted in places not too
much expofed to violent winds, being fubjeft to fplit
thereby. 4. The platanoides, or Norway maple, grows
naturally in Norway, Sweden, and other Northern
countries in Europe : it rifes to a good height; and is
well furniflied with branches, with fmooth leaves, %f a
ftiining green colour, divided in the form of an hand.
Thefe have an acrid milky juice, which prevents them
from being preyed upon by JnfeCts as the fycamore is ;
and as this fpecies refifts the fpray of the fea equally
with the firft, it is preferred in plantations fituated near
the fea. 5. The rubrum, or Virginian fcarlet flower¬
ing maple, is a native of that country, and never grows
to a large fize in Britain. It is, however, cultivated
in gardens for the beauty of its flowers, which appear
in the beginning of April, in roundilh bunches, at the
bottom of the footftalks of the. leaves. The feeds are
ripe in five or fix weeks after; and ought to.be imme¬
diately fown, being otherwife very apt to. perilh. The
tree ought to be flickered, efpecially whilft young, from
the north-eaft winds; it delights in a moift light foil,
where it will thrive much better, as well as produce
many more flowers and much better feeds, than in a dry
round. A variety of this tree is known in England
y the name of Sir Charles Wager's Flowering Maple,
from its being firft fent from America to Sir Charles
Wager. The flowers of this kind come out in larger
clufters than the other, and furround the fmall branches,
fo that the tree appears entirely covered with them, and
makes a much more beautiful appearance than the for¬
mer,
Acer,
the
Maple-tree
ACE [ 47 ] ACE
Acer, mer, which now is not fo much efteemed. 6. The fac-
- lhe charinum, or American fugar-maple, fo called from a
M-ipie-tree. coarfe 0f fUgar being obtained from its juice by
* See Sugar. the inhabitants of North America *, grows to a large
fize. When young, it very much refembles the Nor¬
way maple: but as it grows up, the leaves become
more deeply divided, and their furfaces lefs fmooth ;
they are, befides, preyed upon by infers, like the fyca-
. more ; by which circumftances the two fpecies are eafi-
ly diftin'guifhed. 7. The Penfylvanicum, or Ameri¬
can mountain-maple, very much refembles the fugar-
maple, only its leaves are more pointed. 8. The opa-
lus, or Italian maple, is very common in moft parts of
Italy, particularly about Rome; but in Britain is
very rarely to be met with, though hardy enough to
bear the open air. It is one of the larged fpecies of
trees in Italy, and affords a great fhade by its nume¬
rous and large leaves. On this account it is planted on
the road-fides, and near habitations. 9. The monfpe-
fulanum, or Montpelier maple, is common in the fouth
of France, and in Italy ; but is hardly met with in
Britain. The leaves refemble thofe of the common
maple ; but are of a much thicker fubftance, a fhining
green colour, and not fo large. They continue in ver¬
dure very late in the autumn, which renders the trees
more valuable. 10. The creticum, or Cretan maple,
grows naturally in the Levant; it fomewhat refembles
the laft fpecies; but its leaves are of a much thinner
texture, and their footftalks covered with a foft hairy
down ; whereas thofe of the other are fmooth and foft.
Culture. All thefe fpecies are propagated either by
feeds or cuttings. If the firfl method is chofen, the
feeds fhould be fown in autumn, foon after they are ripe,
in a bed of common earth, covering them about half
an inch thick with light mould. If they cannot be fown
in autumn, they muff be put into fand to preferve their
growing quality ; for if kept dry till the fpring, the
feeds often fail, or at lead lie a whole year in the ground
before they vegetate. The feeds ought alfo to be fown
in a fheltered fituation ; becaufe moft forts of maple,
efpecially thofe which come from America, are very im¬
patient of heat while ypung ; and if the young plants
are expofed to the fun but one day, few of them will
furvive ; being inftantly attacked by infedts, which in
that fhort time devour their feed-leaves, after which
the plants drop to the ground. This is moft efpecially
remarkable in the American fugar-maple. When the
plants come up, they muft be kept free from weeds, and
in the following autumn tranfplanted into the nurfery,
where they may grow two or three years, and then be
planted where they are to remain. If maple-trees are to
be propagated by cuttings, they Ihould be planted in au¬
tumn, if the ground is dry ; but where the foil is cold
and moift, the fpring feafon is preferable. If cut from
the trees before the buds begin to fwell, and the ground
is not then fit to receive them, they may be wrapped in
mofs, and put in a cool place, where they will keep a
month or five weeks without injury ; but the trees pro¬
pagated from cuttings are not fo valuable as thofe from
feeds, becaufe they feldom grow fo large or fo upright.
if Moft, if not all the fpecies of maples, take well by ino¬
culation, or ingrafting on each other. Some of them
are plain, and others variegated or ftriped with dif¬
ferent colours, which by the means juft now mentioned
may be eafily intermixed..
ACERB, a four rough aftringency oftafte, fuch as
that of unripe fruit.
ACERENZA. See Cirenza.
ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the citerior princi¬
pality of Naples, with a bifhop’s fee. It is 17 miles
S. W. of Conza, and 12 N. E. of Salerno. E. longv
15. 46. N. lat. 40. 50.
ACERNUM, a town of the Picentini, (Pliny;)
now Acerno.
ACERRA, in antiquity, an altar ere&ed, among
the Romans, near the gate of a perfon deceafed, on
which his friends daily offered incenfe till his burial.—
The Chinefe have ftill a cuftom like this: they ereft an
altar to the deceafed in a room hung with mourning;
and place an image of the dead perfon on the altar, to
which every one that approaches it bows four times,
and offers oblations and perfumes.
The Acerra alfo fignified a little pot wherein were
put the incenfe and perfumes to be burnt on the altars
of the gods and before the dead. It appears to have
been the fame with what was otherwife called thuribu-
htm, and pyxis.
We find mention of Acerne in the ancient church..
The Jews had'alfo their Acerrce, in ourverfion render¬
ed cenfers; and the Romanifts ftill retain them under
the name of ihcenfe-pots. In Roman writers, we fre¬
quently meet with plena acerra, a full acerra : to un¬
derhand which, it is to be obferved, that people were
obliged to offer incenfe in proportion to their eftate and
condition; the rich in larger quantities, the poor only
a few grains; the former poured out acerras full on
the altar, the latter took out two or thfee bits with
their fingers.
ACCERA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples., and in the Terra di Lavoro ; feated on the
river Agno, 7 miles N. E. of Naples, and 20 S. W. of
Benevento. E. Lon. 15. 10. N. lat. 40. 55.
ACCERRiE,the ancient name of a town on the Cla-
nius, in Campania, not far from Naples, (Virgil;) now
Accerra.—The name alfo of another town, (Plu¬
tarch, Polybius,) now called la Girola, in the territory
and to the fouth-eaft of Lodi, where the rivulet Serio
falls into the Adda, to the weft of Cremona and north,
of Placentia.
ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a meafure ufedby
the ancients, equal to one-eighth of our pint. It feems
to have acquired its name from a veffel in which ace-
tum or vinegar was brought to their tables, and pro¬
bably contained about this quantity.
Acetabulum, in anatomy, a cavity in any bone
for receiving the protuberant head of another, and
thereby forming that fpecies of articulation called enar-
throjis. See Anatomy, n° 2, c.
Acetabulum, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of the peziza, or cup-peziza, a genus belonging
to the cryptogamia fungi of Linnaeus. It has got the
name of acetabulum, from the refemblance its leaves bear
to a cup. SccPeziza.
ACETARY. Nehemiah Grew, in his anatomy of
plants, applies this term to a pulpy fubftance in certain
fruits, (?. g. the pear, which is inclofed in a conge¬
ries of fmall calculous bodies towards the bafe of the
fruit, and is always of an acid tafte.
ACET1FICATION, a term ufed by chemifts for
the making of vinegar.
We.-
Acsrb
Acetary.
ACC [ 48 ] A C H
Acetofa, ACETOSA, Sorrel; by Linnaeus joined to the
Sorrel genus E)ock, under the title of Rumex : but as the
 J— plants have long been ufed in the kitchen, and fome-
times in the Ihops, under the title of Sorrel, we chufe
to preferve it; efpecially as, according to his method,
they feem more properly ranked in his 22d clafs, in-
titled Dicecia.—Of this genus there are reckoned eight
Species. 1. The pratenfis, or common forrel, grows
naturally in pafture-grounds in molt places of Eng¬
land and Scotland, lo requires no defcription. It is
alfo cultivated in gardens for culinary ufes, where
it produces large leaves, though it is generally fmall
when growing in the fields. It is a perennial plant,
and with proper management will continue many
years. Its acidity gives it a confiderable medicinal
^ria^Medka v'rtue 'n putrid difeafes *; and formerly an effcn-
n° <Jp. ’ tial fait was extra&ed from it by evaporating the juice
of the frefn plant. This was, however, very difficult to
procure, and yielded only in fmall quantity ; twenty
pounds of the plant affording little more than two oun-
, ces of fait. What was worfe, the fait when thus pro-'
cured was inferior in virtue, to the plant itfelf; fo that
this preparation is now entirely difufed. This plant is
fit for ufe all the year round. 2. The acetofella, or
ffieep’s forrel, grows naturally on dry banks, and on
gravelly ground, where by its creeping roots it proves
a very troublefome weed, fo is not admitted into gar¬
dens. It poffefTes the fame' medicinal virtues'with the
former. 3. The fcutata, round-leaved garden or
French forrel, is a more grateful acid than either of
the former; fo is preferably cultivated for culinary
ufes. About Paris it is cultivated in almoft as great
quantity as any other efculent plant. It has alfo been
much cultivated in England fince the introduction of
French cookery; being an ingredient in many of their
fauces and foups. 4. The digyna, or low creeping
forrel, grows naturally in the northern counties of
England, Wales, and Scotland. The leaves have very
fhort footftalks, are indented at both ends, and thick
in proportion to their fize. They grow near the
ground, and feldom rife above fix inches high. The
. roots creep in the ground, whereby it multiplies ex¬
ceedingly in a proper fituation. It is fometimes pre-
ferved in gardens for the fake of variety, but is not
ufed in the kitchen, though it is applicable to the fame
purpofes with the other fpecies. 5. The alpina, or
alpine forrel, is full as hardy as the common, and fitter
for the ufe of the kitchen, as having larger and more
fucculent leaves, of an equally grateful acid tafte.
6- The veficaria, or American annual forrel, is kept in
dome gardens for variety, but is- not of any ufe. It is
a native of America and Egypt. 7. The rofea, or
Egyptian forrel, grows naturally only in that country;
it has its name from the bladders of the feeds being of
a fine rofe colour. 8. The clunaria, or forrel-tree, is a
native of the Canary Iflands, and rifes with a ftrong
woody ftalk to the height of 10 or 12 feet. It is
frequently kept in Britain in gardens. 9. The fte-
rilis, or northern barren forrel, is ufed for culinary
purpofes; and is preferable to the common kind, very
rarely running to feed, and being fit for ufe all the
year round.
_ Culture. Moll fpecies of forrel may be propagated
either by feeds, fown early in the fpring on a moift
ffiady border; or by parting the roots, either in fpring
or autumn. The plants raifed from the feeds, however, Acetofa
are more vigorous than thofe propagated from cut- Acj,",ans
tings. They ought to be placed at a gobd diftance  :~
from one another, fo as to allow of digging the ground
about each plant. French forrel, particularly, ipreads
its roots fo much, that the plants ought not to be pla¬
ced at lefs than two feet diftance from one another. It
agrees better with an open fituation than fuch as are
natives of Britain. As the feed neither of French for¬
rel nor of the forrel-tree ripens well in England, they
can only be propagated from cuttings. The French
forrel thrives beft on ftony land, as it grows naturally
on rocks. The forrel-tree requires to be houfed in
winter, being unable to live in hard froft. If the cut¬
tings are planted in a fhady border any time in fum-
mer, and duly fupplied with water, they will foon put
out roots : upon which they muft be immediately ta¬
ken up, and planted in pots ; for if permitted to re¬
main in the border, they will foon grow fo vigorous as
to render their tranfplanting hazardous. When planted
in pots, they ftiould be placed in the ffiade, until they
are again rooted; then they may enjoy the open air
till Oftober, when the frofts begin to be ffiarp; at
which time, they ftiould be carried into the green-houfe,
and treated in the fame way as myrtles or other har¬
dy green-houfe plants.
ACETOSELLA. See Oxalis.
ACETOUS, an epithet applied to fuch fubftances
as are four or partake of the nature of vinegar.
ACETUM, vinegar, the vegetable acid of the che-
mifts. See Vinegar; and Materia Medica, n° 71.
with the references ib.
Acetum Dijlillatum, diftilled vinegar, or fpirit of
vinegar. See Pharmacy, n° 682.
Acetum Efuriens, a diftilled vinegar, redtified by
the help of verdigreafe. It has obtained this name, be-
caufe concentrated vinegar creates an appetite.
Acetum Radicatum, is likewife ufed to denote con¬
centrated vinegar ; but Boerhaave thinks the tartarus
regeneratus is the acetum radicatum of the old chemifts.
ACGIAPI-SARAI, a town on the north ftiore of
the Cafpian fea.
ACH, or Ache, in medicine, a term ufed for any
fevere pain; as Head-ach, Tooth-ach, &c.
ACELEANS, the inhabitants of Achaia Propria f, Xkaut
a Peloponnefian ftate. This republic was not confi- ' aia’ I
derable in early times, for the number of its troops,
nor for its wealth, nor for the extent of its territories ;
but it was famed for its probity, its juftice, and its
love of liberty. Its high reputation for thefe virtues
was very ancient. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to
re-eftablifti order in their towns, adopted the laws and
cuftoms of the Achaeans. After the famous battle of
Leudtra, a difference arofe betwixt the Lacedaemonians
and Thebans, who held the virtue of this people in
fuch veneration, that they terminated the difpute by
their decifion. The government of the Achseans was
democratical. They preferred their liberty till the
time of Philip and Alexander. But in the reign of
thofe princes, and afterwards, they were either fubject
to the Macedonians, who had made themfelves matters
of Greece, or oppreffed by cruel tyrants. The Achaean
commonwealth confifted of twelve inconfiderable towns
in Peloponnefus. Its firft annals are not marked by any
great adtion, for they are not graced with one eminent
character.
A G H [ 49 ] A C H
Achsans chara&er. After the death of Alexander, this little
II . republic was a prey to all the evils which flow from po-
.—1 aia‘— litical difeord. A zeal for the good of the community
was now extinguifhed. Each town was only attentive
to its private intereft. There was no longer any liabi¬
lity in the Hate ; for it changed its mailers with every
revolution in Macedonia. Towards the 124th Olym¬
piad, about the time when Ptolemy Soter died, and
when Pyrrhus invaded .Italy, the republic of the A-
chasans recovered its old inftitutions and unanimity.
The' inhabitants of Patra and of Dymas were the firll
aflertors of ancient liberty. The tyrants were banilh-
ed, and the towns again made one commonwealth.
A public council was inllituted, in which afiairs of
importance were difeuffed and determined. A regiller
was appointed to record the tranfailions of the coun¬
cil. This alfembly had two prefidents, who were no¬
minated alternately by the different towns. But in-
llead of two prefidents, they foon defied but one. Ma¬
ny neighbouring towns which admired the conllitution
of this republic, founded on equality, liberty, the love
of jullice, and of the public good, were incorporated
with the Achseans, and admitted to the full enjoyment
of their laws and privileges.—The arms which the
Achaeans chiefly ufed, were flings. They were trained
to the art from their infancy, by flinging from a great
dillance, at a circular mark of a moderate circumfe¬
rence. By long practice they took fo nice an aim,
that they were fure, not only to hit their enemies on
the head, but on any part of the face they chofe.
Their flings were of a different kind from thofe of the
Balearians, whom they far furpaffed in dexterity.
AOHJEI, (Achseans); the inhabitants of Achaia
Propria. In Livy, the people of Greece; for the moil
part called Achivi, by the Roman poets. In Homer,
the general qame for Grecians.
ACjEMENES, according to Herodotus, was fa¬
ther of Cambyfes, and grandfather of Cyrus the firft,
king of Perfia. Moll of the commentators of Horace
are of opinion, that the Achsemenes whom that poet
mentions, ode xii. of his 2d book, was one of the Per-
fian monarchs : but, if that were true, he muff have
reigned before the Medes fubdued the Perflans ; for
we do not hear of any king of that name from the
time that the Perflans founded that great monarchy,
which is looked upon as the fecond univerfal one.
However this be, the epithet Achamenians is frequent¬
ly given to the Perfians, in the old Latin poets.
Ach^menes, fon of Darius I. king of Perfia, and
brother of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt be¬
llowed on him, after Xerxes had forced the Egyp¬
tians to return to their allegiance. He fome time
after commanded the Egyptian fleet in the celebrated
expedition which proved fo fatal to all Greece. The
Egyptians having again taken up arms after the death
of Xerxes, Achaemenes was fent into Egypt to fup-
prefs the rebellion; but was vanquifhed by Inarus,
chief of the rebels, fuccoured by the Athenians.
ACHjEUS, coufin-german to Seleucus Ceraunus
. and Antiochus the Great, kings of Syria, became a
very powerful monarch, and enjoyed the dominions he
had ufurped for many years; but at lall he was pu-
nilhed for his ufurpations in a dreadful manner, in the
*Lib. viii. 140th year of Rome, as related by Polybius *.
cap. j, 6. ACHAIA, a name taken for that part of Greece
Vol. I.
which Ptolemy calls Hellas; the younger Pliny, Gra- Achaii
cia ; now called Livadia: bounded on the north by ,11
Theffaly, the river Sperchius, the Sinus Maliacus, and c c °us‘
mount Oeta ; on the well by the river Achelous; on
the call, turning a little to the north, it is walked by the
-Archipelago, down to the promontory of Sunium; on
the fouth, joined to the Peloponnefus, or Morea, by
the illhmus of Corinth, five miles broad. See Livadia.
Achaia Propria, anciently a fmall diltridl in the
north of Peloponnefus, running wellward along the
bay of Corinth, and bounded on the well by the Ionian
Sea, on the fouth by Elis and Arcadia, on the eall by
Sicyonia: inhabitants, the Acbseans*, properly fo called; * See
its metropolis, Patra. It is now called Romania Alta,. Ach&ans.
in the Morea.
Achaia was alfo taken for all thofe countries'that
joined in the Achaean league, reduced by the Romans
to a province. Likewife for Peloponnefus.
Achaiae presbyteri, or the Prelbyters of Achaia,
were thofe who were prefent at the martyrdom of St
Andrew the apollle, A D. 59; and are faid to have
written an epiftle in relation to it. Bellarmin, and fe-
veral other eminent writers in the church of Rome, al¬
low it to be genuine; while Du Pin, and fome others,
exprefsly rejeil it.
ACHAIUS, fon of Ethwin, was raifed to the
crown of Scotland after the death of Soluatius, A. D.
788. The emperor Charlemagne fent an embaffy to
defire an alliance with him againll the Englilh, whofe
pirates fo infdled the feas, that the merchants could
not carry'on their trade. This alliance was concluded
in Franceupon conditions fo advantageous to the Scots,
that Achaius, to perpetuate the memory of it, added
to the arms of Scotland a double field fowed with li¬
lies. He died in 819.
ACHAN, the fpn of Carmi, of the tribe of Ju¬
dah, at the taking of Jericho concealed tv/b hundred
fhekels of filver, a Babylonifli garment, and a wedge
of gold, contrary to the exprefs command of God.
This fin proved fatal to the Ifraelites, who were repul-
fed at the fiege of Ai. In this dreadful exigence, Jo-
(hua proftrated himfelf before the Lord, and begged
that he would have mercy upon his people. Achan
was difeovered by cafting lots, and he and his children
were Honed to death. This expiation being made, Ai
was taken by ftratagem. Jofh. vii. 8, 9.
ACHARACA, anciently a town of Lydia, fituate
between Tralles and Nyfa ; in which were the temple
of Pluto, and the cave Charonium, where patients flept
in order to obtain a cure.
ACHAT, in law, implies a purchafe on bargain.
And hence probably purveyors were called Achators,
from their making bargains.
ACETATES, the companion of Eneas, and his moll
faithful friend, celebrated in Virgil.
Achates, (Sil. Italicus) ; a river of Sicily, now
the Drillo, (Cluverius) ; which runs from north to
fouth, almoft parallel with, and at no great diftance
from, the Gela ; and rifes in the north of the territory
of Noto. It gave name to the Achates, or Agate,
faid to be firfl: found there.
ACHAZIB, or Achzib, a town of Galilee, in the
tribe of Aftier, nine miles from Ptolemais.---Alfo a
town in the more fouthern parts of the tribe of Judah.
ACHELOUS, in fabulous hiftory, wreftled with
G Hercules,
A C H [ 50 ] A C H
Achelous Hercules, for no lefs a prize than Deianira, daughter
Acheron to Oenus : but as Achelous had the power of af-
 L fuming all ihapes, the conteft was long dubious: at laft,
as he took that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his
horns ; fo that he was forced to fubmit, and to redeem
it by giving the conqueror the horn of Amalthea, the
fame with the Cornucopia or horn of plenty; which
Hercules having filled with a variety of fruits, confe-
crated to Jupiter. Some explain this fable, by faying.
That Achelous is a winding river of Greece, whofe
ftream was fo rapid, that it roared like a bull, and over¬
flowed its banks ; but Hercules, by bringing it into
two channels, broke off one of the horns, and fo re-
ftored plenty to the country. See the next article.
Achelous, a river of Acarnania ; which rifes in
mount Pindus, and, dividing iEtolia from Acarnania,
falls from north to fouth into the Sinus Corinthiacus.
It was formerly called Thoas, from its impetuofity,
and king of rivers, (Homer.) .The epithet Acheloius is
ufed for Aqueus, (Virgil); the ancients calling all water
Achelous, efpecially in oaths, vows, and facrifices, ac¬
cording to Ephorus: Now called Afpro Potamo. Rivers
are by the ancient poets called faur former, either from
the bellowing of their waters, or from their ploughing
the earth in their courfe: Hercules, reftraining by dykes
and mounds the inundations of the Achelous, is faid to
have broken off one of his horns, and to have brought
back plenty to the country. See the preceding ar¬
ticle.
Achelous, a rivulet of Theffaly, running by the
city Lamia, (Strabo, Paufanias.) Alfo a river of Pe-
loponnefus, running by Dymae, in Achaia, (Strabo) ;
and by mount Lycaeus in Arcadia, (Paufanias.)
ACHERI (Luke d’) a learned Benediftine of the
congregation of St Maur, was born at St Quintin, in
Picardy, in 1609 > and made himfelf famous by printing
feveral works, which till then were only in manufcript:
particularly, The epiftle attributed to St Barnabas;
The works of Lanfrank, archbilhop of Canterbury ;
A colleftion of fcarce and curious pieces, under the
title of Spicilegium, i. e. Gleanings, in thirteen vo¬
lumes, quarto. The prefaces and notes, which he an¬
nexed to many of thefe pieces, fhew him to be a man
of genius and abilities. He had alfo fome fhare in
the pieces inferted in the firft volumes of The afts of
the faints of the order of St Bennet, the title whereof
acquaints us that they were collected and publiflied by
him and father Mabillon. After a very retired life,
till the age of 73, he died at Paris the of April
1685, in the abbey of St Germain in the fields, where
he had been librarian.
ACHERON, a riverof Epirus. The poets feigned it
to have been the fon of Ceres, whom (he hid in hell for
fear of the Titans, and turned into a river, over which
fouls departed were ferried in their way to Elyfium.
Acheron, a river of Thefprotia, in Epirus; which,
after forming the lake Acherufia, at no great diftance
from, falls into the fea near, the promontory of Chi-
merium, to the weft of the Sinus Ambracius, in a courfe
from north to fouth.
Acheron, or Ac herds, a river of the Bruttii in
Italy, running from eaft to weft ; where Alexander
king of Epirus was flain by the Lucani, being decei¬
ved by the oracle of Dodona, which bid him beware
of Acheron.
ACHERNER, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft mag- Acherner
nitude in the fouthern extremity of the conftellation Ji
Eridanus. It longitude is ix°. 48". 20". of Pifces, and CM ae3'
its latitude 3 20. 46". 3'. S.
ACHERUSIA PALUS, a lake between Cumse
and the promontory Mifenum, now il Lago della Col-
lucid, (Cluverius.) Some confound it with the Lacus
Lucrinus, and others with the Lacus Averni. But
Strabo and Pliny diftinguifti them. The former takes
it to be an effufion, exundation, or walhes of the fea,
and therefore called by Lycophron, %vai;—-
Alfo a lake of Epirus, through which the Acheron
runs.—There is alfo an Achertfia, a peninfula of Bi-
thynia on the Euxiiie, near Heraclea ; and a cave there
of the fame name, through which Hercules is fabled
to have defcended to hell to drag forth Cerberus.
ACHIA, a kind of cane that grows in the Eaft In¬
dies, which is pickled green in the country, with ftrong
vinegar, pepper, and fome other fpice and ingredients.
This pickle comes to Europe in a fort of earthen jars,
about a foot high, and' the fame in breadth, growing
narrower at the mouth. The bits of cane are an
inch and a half in diameter, and a little above two
inches long, almoft of the fame confiftency with pick-
led cucumbers. They are of a pale yellow colour; and,
inftead of pulps, their infide is a clofe, fibrous fub-
ftance, like that of the common canes when the out-
fide coat is off. The Dutch bring home great quan¬
tities of this pickle, which their cold climate makes
them think wholfome. They generally eat it towards
the end of their meals, judging it very good to quicken
the appetite, and ftrengthen the ftomach.
ACHIAR, is a Malayan word, which fignifies all
forts of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and fpice.
The Dutch import from Batavia all forts of achiar,
which the Chinefe make after the manner of the Ma¬
layans ; but particularly that of bamboe, a kind of cane,
extremely thick, which grows in the Eaft-Indies,
and is preferved there, whilft it is ftill green, with very
ftrong vinegar and fpice. This is called Bamboe-
achiar. The name changes according to the fruit with
which the achiar is made.
ACHILLiEA, Yarrow, Milfoil, or Nosebleed;
a genus of the order of the polygamia fuperfiua, belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clafs of plants. The following
are the principal
Species. 1. The millefolium, or common yarrow,;
is found naturally on banks, and by the fides of foot¬
paths, in moft parts of England. It moft commonly
bears white flowers, though a variety of it is found
which bears purple ones. Thefe, however, do not
long continue to bear flowers of this colour, if tranf-
planted into gardens. It was formerly ufed in medi¬
cine ; but though it may ftill have a place in fome dif-
penfatories, no phyfician of any note experts any vir¬
tue from it, or ever prefcribes it. It creeps great¬
ly by its roots, and alfo multiplies by the feeds, fo that
it becomes a troublefome weed where it is once allow¬
ed to get a footing. The cultivation of it is recom¬
mended by Mr Anderfon, in his Effays on Agriculture,
as a proper food for cattle. 2. The fantolina, or
eaftern fneezwort, is fometimes cultivated in gardens ;
it has large yellow flowers, which ftand upon pretty-
long footftalks placed fingly, not in bunches as in the
common kind. It has leaves like lavender-cotton,.
which,.
A C H I s
Achli'hea, which, when rubbed, emit a ilrong oily odour. The
or flowers appear in June and July. 3. The tomentofa,
Yarrow,or woo]]y yarr0w, is a native of the fouth of France
and Spain, but lives in the open air in England. The
flowers are of a bright yellow, and continue long in
beauty, growing in clufters at the top of the ftalks,
which feldom rife above a foot high. The leaves are
finely cut, and very hoary. 4. The abrotanifolia, or
tall eaftern yarrow, is a native of the ifiands in the Ar¬
chipelago : it grows to the height of two feet and a
half, with large umbels of yellow flowers on the top;
the leaves refemble thofe of the common wormwood,
and are cut into long narrow fegments. 5. The cla-
venna, or Alpine umbelliferous wormwood, takes its
name from the mountains of which it is a native. It
feldom grows above fix or feven inches in height; it
fupports umbels of white flowers, like thofe of the com¬
mon fneezwort, which appear in April and May. The
leaves are filvery, and fliaped like thofe of wormwood,
^ which often decay in the autumn and winter. 6. The
tanacetifglia, or eaftern fneezwort, with tanfey leaves,
is a very humble plant, feldom riling above fix inches
in height. The flowers are nearly as large as thofe of
the common fneezwort, white, and growing in flat
umbels. They appear in June and July. The leaves
of the plant have fome likenefs to thofe of the common
wormwood, are very hoary, grow clofe to the ground,
and decay in autumn fo as to make little appearance
in winter. Like the laft fpecies, this is a native of
the Alps. 7. The ageratum, or fweet maudlin, was
formerly much ufed in medicine and for culinary pur-
pofes ; but has now fallen fo much into negleft as to
be totally unknown in the markets ; fo that when it is
demanded, the white maudlin is fubftituted in its ftead.
The reafon of this fubftitution was, that the latter is
more hardy and eafily propagated than the fweet maud¬
lin, which is apt to rot in wet winters. The common
maudlin flowers in June and July, and the feeds are
ripe in September. 8. The Egyptiaca, or hoary fneez¬
wort, is a native of the Archipelago. It hath very
hoary leaves, which remain all the year; and the plants
growing clofe and low, make a pretty appearance at all
feafons. The flowers are yellow, and are produced in
umbels on the top of the ftalks; they appear in June,
and continue till the end of Sep ember. 9. The ptarmi-
ea, or common fneezwort, grows wild in the woods, and
other fiiady places, in many parts of England ; fo is
not admitted into gardens. There is a variety, however,
with double flowers, which is preferved in gardens, and
is commonly known by the name of double maudlin.
This fpecies creeps greatly by the roots, fo as foon
to overfpread a large fpot of ground.' If planted in
pots, fo as to confine its roots from creeping, the ftalks
grow clofe -together, and make a tolerable appearance
when in flower; but when at a diftance, fo that the
roots have full liberty to run, the flowers appear but
indifferently. 10. The macrophylla, or Alpine fneez
wort, with feverfew leaves, is a native of the Alps. It
produces many ftalks riling near three feet high; ha¬
ving loofe branching umbels of white flowers on their
top, refembling thofe of the common fneezwort, but
larger. 11. The nana, or hoary Alpine milfoil, is like-
wife a native of the Alps ; the leaves are hoary, and
the umbels of its flowers are more compadl than the
former; the ftalks do not rife more than a foot high.
1 ] A C H
12. The nobilis, or fweet milfoil, approaches to the Achiilasa
nature of the common milfoil; but its leaves are of a Acll;]jej
paler green, and are neither fo long nor fo much cut —__1_
off as thofe of the common milfoil are: they have a Pl-H. fig.i.
ftrong fweet feent when bruifed. 13. The alpina, or
white maudlin, bears fome refemblance to the common
fneezwort; but the leaves are longer, of a deeper
green colour, and deeply indented in their edges; the
flowers are white, and the roots creep far under ground.
The plant will rife, in good land, to the height of
four feet.
Culture. All the forts of yarrow are eafily propa¬
gated by feeds, which may be fown either in the fpring
or autumn, upon a bed of common earth. When the
plants come up, and are ftrong enough for tranfplant-
ing, they ftiould be planted in beds in the nurfery,
where they may continue till autumn, when they fhould
be tranfplanted to the places where they are to remain.
The Archipelago kinds, however, are often deftroyed by
fevere froft ; fo they ought to be flickered during the
winter. Thefe kinds alfo rarely bring their feeds to
perfe&ion in England; they are therefore to be pro¬
pagated by flips, which may be taken off and plant¬
ed in a ftiady border any time in fummer, when they
will take root in about fix weeks, and then may be
tranfplanted where they are to remain.
Achillea, a name frequently given by the ancients
tothe gum calleddragons-blood. SeeDRAGONS-BLboD.
ACHILLEID, Achilleis, a celebrated poem of
Statius, in which that author propofed to deliver the
whole life and exploits of Achilles; but being pre¬
vented by death, he has only treated of the infancy
and education of his hero. See Statius.
ACHILLES, in fabulous hiftory, one of the
greateft heroes of ancient Greece, was the fon of Pe-
ieus and Thetis. He was a native of Phthia, in Thef-
faly ; and, according to the poets, his mother fed him
by day with ambrofia, arid by night covered him with
celeftial fire. She dipped him alfo in the waters of the
river Styx, by which his whole body became invulne¬
rable, except that part of his heel by which fine held
him ; and afterwards intrufted him to the care of the
centaur Chiron, who, to give him the ftrength necef-
fary for martial toil, fed him with honey, and the mar¬
row of lions and wild boars, &c. To prevent his go¬
ing to the fiege of Troy, flie difguifed him in female
apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court
of king Lycomedes: but Ulyffes difeovering him, per-
fuaded him to follow the Greeks. Achilles diftin-
guifhed himfelf by a number of heroic adlions at the
fiege. Being difgufted, however, with Agamemnon
for the lofs of Brifcis, he retired from the camp. But
returning to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus,
he flew Heclor, taftened his corpie to his chariot, and
dragged it round the walls of Troy. At laft Paris,
the brother of Hedtor, wounded him in the heel with
an arrow, while he was in the temple treating about
his marriage with Philoxena, daughter to king Priam.
Of this wound he died, and was interred on the pro¬
montory of Sigaeum; and after Troy was taken, '.he
Greeks facrificed Philoxena on his tomb. It is.faid,
that Alexander, feeing this tomb, honoured it by pla¬
cing a crown upon it; at the fame time crying out,
that “ Achilles was happy in having, during his life,
« fuch a friend as Patroclus ; and, after his death, a
G 2 “ poet
A C H [ 52 f A C H
Achilles « poet like Hijmer.” Achilles is fuppofed to have died
P f 1183 years before the Chriilian sera.
. r,'"0^ c’ Achilles Tatius. See Tatius.
T^W^Achillis, in anatomy is a ftrong tendinous
cord formed by the tendons of feveral mufcles, and in-
* Sec Anato ferted into the os calcis A It has its name from the
mj, n°tf5,b. £atal wounj Achilles i,s faid to have received in that
part from Paris the fon of Priam.
ACHILLINI (Alexander), born at Bologna, and
doftor of philofophy in that univerfity. He flourifned
in the 15th and 16th centuries, and by way of eminence
was ftyled the Great Philofopher. He was a ftedfaft
follower and accurate interpreter of Averroes upon Ari-
ilotle, but moll admired for his acutenefs and ftrength
of arguing in private and public difputations. He made,
,a furpriling quick progrefs in his ftudies, and was very
early promoted to a profefforfhip in the univerfity, in
which he acquitted himfelf with fo much applaufe that
• t his name became famous throughout all Italy. He con¬
tinued at Bologna till the year 1506; when the uni¬
verfity of Padua made choice of him to fucceed Anto¬
nio Francatiano in the finh chair of philofophy, and
his fame brought yaft numbers of Undents to his lec¬
tures at Padua : but the war, wherein the republic of
Venice was engaged againft the league of Cambray,
putting a ftop to the lectures of that univerfity, he
withdraw to his native country, where he was received
with the fame marks of honour and diflinition as be¬
fore, and again appointed profeffor of philofophy in
Bologna. He fpent the remainder of his life in this
city, where he died, and was interred with great pomp
in the church of St Martin the Great, which belongs to
the Carmelite friars. Jovius, who knew Achillini, and
heard his lectures, fays, that he was a man of fuch ex¬
ceeding fimplicity, and fo unacquainted with addrefs
and flattery, that he was a laughing-flock to the pert
and faucy young fcholars, although efteemed on account
of his learning. He wrote feveral pieces on philofo-
phical fubjefts, which he publilhed, and dedicated to
John Bentivogli.
Achillini (Claudius), grandfon of the former, read
leftures at Bologna, Ferrara, and Parma; where he
was reputed a great philofopher, a learned divine, an
excellent lawyer, an eloquent orator, a good mathe¬
matician, and an elegant poet. He accompanied Car¬
dinal Ludovino, who went as legate into Piedmont; but
being afterward neglected by this cardinal, when he
became pope under the name of Gregory XV. he left
Rome in difguft, and retired to Parma; where the duke
appointed him profefibrof law, with a good falary. He
publiihed a volume of Latin Letters, and another of
Italian.Poems, which gained him great reputation: he
died in 1640, aged 66.
ACHIOTTE, of Achiotl, a foreign drug, ufed
in dying, and in the preparation of chocolate. It is
the fame with what the French commonly call Rocou,
and the Dutch Orleane. It has been commonly efteem¬
ed a kind of argilla, or earth ; but later obfervers find
* -viz* The it a flower, or feed of a tree*, which grows chiefly in
miite*|la „di' very hot countries, as Yucutan, or Campechy, and
MitcUa.866 Guatimala. It is about the fize of a plumb-tree,
only more tufted; its branches being longer than the
trunk. The fruit is incloied in a rind like a chefnut,
except that it is of an oval figure. It begins to open
croflwife from the middle to the top; and fubdivides
into four parts, having in the middle a beautiful car¬
nation-coloured flower. The tree has no leaves ; but
inftead thereof ftioots out filaments like thofe of faf-
fron, only bigger and longer. Between thefe grow
little foft vermilion-coloured grains, about the fize
of pepper-corns; which the Indians, feparating from
the filaments, bake in cakes of about half a pound
each; in which form the drug is brought into Eu¬
rope. The poor people ufe Achiotte inftead of faf-
fron : others mix it as an ingredient in chocolate, du¬
ring the grinding of the cacoa, the quantity of two
drams to a pound, to give it a reddifh colour, &c.
though this practice was formerly more frequent than
at prefent, the opinion of its being an earth, which
even Mr Ray fell into, having difcredited its ufe. Some
alfo ufe it to dye wax of a vermilion colour. Phyfi-
cians hold it a good cordial, and prefervative againft
fuppreffion of urine. F. Labat defcribes the achiotte
fomewhat differently ; efpecially the preparation of it
for dying. The tree, according to him, produces year¬
ly its crops of flowers, of a carnation colour ; not un¬
like wild rofes. Thefe are fucceeded by a kind of rough
pods, or fruit refembling chefnuts, full of fmall grains;
which being fermented in water, and this water after¬
wards paffed through a carribbe fieve, it contracts a
red colour. It is then boiled, fcummed, fet on the fire
again, and ftirred; till at length it thickens, and will
fall loofe from the fpatula ; which is the Achiotte or
Rocou in perfeftion ; though to make it more beauti¬
ful, they have two further proceffes, which are de-
fcribed by F.Labat*. According to Savary, to pro¬
cure the Achiotte, they (hake out the grains in an ear¬
then veffel, foak and then walh them in feveral repeat¬
ed warm waters, till they have difcharged all their ver¬
milion colour : after which, letting the water ftand to
fettle, the fecula at the bottom is taken and formed
into little cakes and balls; which when pure, and not
adulterated either with red earth, or fine brick-duft,
are highly valued. Some alfo ufe fire to boil the A-
chiotte, and give it a farther confiftence.
^lCHISH, king of Gath, to whom David retired;
and who gained a complete victory over Saul, which
was fatal both to that prince and his fon Jonathan.
AHITOPHEL, a counfellor, who, revolting from
David king of Ifrael, fided with his rebellious fon Ab-
falom; to whom he gave crafty advice, which not being-
complied with, he hanged himfelf.
ACHLAR, a river of the greater Armenia, other-
wife called Arafs, Caiacz, and by the ancients Araxis.
ACHMETSCHET, a town of the peninfula of the
Crimea, the refidence of the fultan Galga, who is eldeft
fon of the Khan of Tartary. Long. 51. 20. Lat. 45. o.
ACHMET, fon of Sarim, has left a book concern¬
ing the interpretation of dreams according to the doc¬
trine of the Indians, Perfians, and Egyptians, which
was tranfcribed out of Greek into Latin by Leo Tuf-
cus in 1160. He lived in the 9th century.
ACHMET GEDUC, a famous general under Ma¬
homet II. and Bajazet II. in the 15th century. When
Mahomet II. died, Bajazet andZezan both claimed the-
throne: Achmet fided with the former, and by his
bravery and conduct fixed the crown on his head.
But Bajazet took away his, life; (hining virtue being
always an unpardonable crime in the eyes of a tyrant.
ACHONRY, a fmall town of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince
Achiotte
Achonry.
* Mem. de
Trev. 1712.
P-<537.
A C H [ 53 ] A C I
Achor vince of Connaught and county of Sligo, feated on the
II river Shannon.
thes.aB ACHOR, a valley of Jericho, lying along the river
   Jordan, not far from Gilgal; fo called fromAchan, the
troubler of Ifrael, being there ftoned to death.
Achor, in medicine. Trallian fays it is a fore on the
outfide of the head, full of little perforations, which dif-
charge a humour like ichor, whence its name, fie further
fays, that the cerion refembles an achor ;.-but that the
mouths ofy the perforations are larger, refembling the
cells of a honey-comb, whence the name ; the matter
is alfo nearly of the confiftence of thin honey. When
thefe difeafes fpread, the.ferum which ouzes out dries,
and forms a fcab.—-The achor differs from the favus
and tinea only in the degree of virulence. It is called
favUs when the perforations are large, and tinea when
they are like thofe which are made by moths in cloth.
But generally by tinea is underftood a dry fcab on the
hairy fcalp-of children, with thick fcales and an offen-
live fmell. When this diforder affefts the face, it is call¬
ed crujia la&ea; which, when it happens to children,
if in other refpefts they are healthy, the beft treat¬
ment, befides keeping the belly moderately lax, is
cleanlinefs and a moderate diet; an iffue may be.made,
andcontinued till the diforder is cleared and the ftfength
of the conftitution is eftablilhed, keeping the hair fhort
and walhing the head with foap fuds.—Some inftances
of this fort are very difficult of cure, and attended with
violent itching, a pale countenance, &c. but ftill the
fame method generally fucceeds in all the fpecies and
t See degrees of virulence. Small dofes of calomel f may be
given 33 an alterative, rather than as a laxative; and
$ Ibid, vin. antim. f in fuch dofes, at proper intervals, as the
; n0 36. ftomach will ealily retain. Externally, the unguent e
li ^ II pice || may be ufed two or three times in a week, or
I 110 SUj cream mixed with fait in fine powder. If the humour
is repelled, give warm fudorifics until it return.'—Wri¬
ters of medical obfervations afford divers anomalous in¬
ftances of achores, viz. Some found even in aged jpeo-
ple;Tome not on the head, but the feet; othersrefem-
bling the venereal difeafe ; others which difappeared
upon cutting the hair, and returned on its growing
anew; others followed by a thicknefs of hearing, others
by pannics, and others by a gutta ferena. Their dry¬
ing up has fometimes been followed by a fever, their
repulfion inwards by an epilepfy.
ACHRADINA, (Plutarch, Cicero, Livy); one
of the four cities or divifions of Syracufe, and the
ftrongeft, largeft, and moft beautiful part of it; fe-
parated by a very ftrong wall from the outer town,
Tycha and Neapolis. It was adorned with a very large
I forum, with beautiful porticos, a moft elegant pryta-
neum, va fpacious fenate-houfe, and a fuperb temple of
Jupiter Olympius. (Plutarch.)
ACHRAS. See Sapota.
ACHROMATIC an epithet expreffing want of co¬
lour. The word is Greek, being compounded of « pri¬
vative, and XP“f/-‘ci colour.
Achromatic Telefcopes. See Optics, n° 20.
ACHYR, a ftrong town and caftle of the Ukarin,
fubjedt to the Ruffians fince^ 1667. It ftands on the ri¬
ver Uorlklo near the frontiers of Ruffia, 127 miles W.
of Kiow, Long. 36. O. Lat. 49. 32.
ACHRYANTHES, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to monogynia clafs of plants.
There are feven fpecies, all natives of the Indies. On- Acbzib
ly one of them, the amaranthus, is commonly cultiva- Ac;d||;tls
ted in botanical gardens, and that more for the fake  —.
of variety than beauty. This fpecies grows to the
' height of three feet, with oblong pointed leaves. The
flowers come out in long fpikes from the extremi¬
ties of the branches, and appear in July, the feeds ri¬
pening in September. Plants of this kind muft be
reared in a hot-bed, and may be tranfplanted when
they have acquired fuffieient ftrength. If kept in pots,
and flieltered during the winter in a warm green-houfe,
they will live two or three years.
ACHZIB. SeeAcHAziB.
ACICULiE, the linall pikes or prickles of the
hedge-hog, echinus marinus, &c.
ACID ALUS, a fountain in Orchomenus a city of
Boeotia, in which the Graces, who are facred to Venus,
bathed. Hence the epithet Acidalia, given to Venus,
(Virgih)
ACIDS, fubftances which give a four, (harp, or
tart tafte. Among the chemifts, the acid falts are di-
ftinguilhed into the nitrous, vitriolic, muriatic, and ve¬
getable. See Chemistry, n° 22, 76, 103.
Acids, in the Materia Medica, are fuch medicines as
poffefs an acid quality See Mat. Med. n° 10.
ACIDALIUS (Valens,) would, in all probability,
have been one of the greateft critics in thefe latter ages,
had he lived longer to perfect thofe talents which na¬
ture had given him. He was born at Witftock, in
Brandenburg; and having vifited feveral academies in
Germany, Italy, and other countries, where he was
greatly efteemed, he afterwards took up his refidence
at Breflaw, the metropolis of Silefia. Here he remain¬
ed a confiderable time, in expectation of fame employ¬
ment; but nothing offering, he turned Roman-catho¬
lic, and was chofen reftor of a fchool at Nieffa. It
is related, tliat about four months after, as he was fol¬
lowing a proceffion of the holt, he was feized with a
fudden phrenzy; and being carried home* expired in a
very ihort time. But Thuanus tells us, that his ex-
ceffive application to ftudy was the occafion of his un¬
timely death; and that his fitting up a-nights in compo-
fing his Conjectures on Plautus, brought upon him a
dillemper which carried him off in three days, on the
25rh of May 1595, being juft turned of 28. He wrote
a Commentary on Quintus Curtius; alfo, IJotes on Ta¬
citus, on the Twelve Panegyrics; befides fpeeches, let¬
ters, and poems. His poetical pieces are inferted in
the Delicite of the German poets, and confift of epic
verfes, odes, and epigrams. A little piece, printed in
1595, under the title of Mulieres non effe hominesy
“ That women were not of the human fp'ecies,” was.
falfely aferibed to him. But the fa ft was, that Acida-
lius happening to meet with the manufeript, and think¬
ing it very whimfical, tranferibed it, and gave it to the
bookfeller, who printed it. The performance was high¬
ly exclaimed againft, infomuch that the bookfeller be¬
ing feized, he difeovered the perfon who gave him the
manufeript, and a terrible outcry was made againft Aci-
dalius. A ftory goes, that being one day to dine at a
friend’s houfe, there happened to be feveral ladies
at table, who fuppofing him to be the author, were mo¬
ved with fo much indignation, that they threatened to
throw their plates at his head. Acidalius, however, in-
genioully diverted their wrath. In his opinion, he faid.
Acidity
Acme.
* See Watzr
f See (hear
tide Piety.
ACM [ 54 ] AGO
the author was a judicious perfon, the ladies being cer¬
tainly more of the fpecies of angels than of men.—Mr
Baillet has given him a place among his Enfans Cele-
bres ; and fays, that he wrote a comment upon Plautus
when he was but 17 01' 18 years old, and that he com-
pofed feveral Latin poems at the fame age.
ACIDITY, that quality which renders bodies acid.
ACIDULjE. Mineral waters that contain a brilk
fpirit, when unaccompanied with heat, are thus named;
but if they are hot alfo, they are called therm#*.
ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that
have an acid in their compolition
ACILA, (Strabo;) Ocila, (Pliny;) and Ocelis,
(Ptolemy;) a ftaple or mart town in Arabia Felix, on
the Arabic gulf, from which, according to Pliny, they
fet fail for India. Now 7Jden.
ACILIUS GLABRIO ( Marcus ),conful in the year
of Rome 562, and 211 years before the Chriftian sera,
diftinguifhed himfelf by his bravery and conduit in gain¬
ing a complete viitory over Antiochus the Great, king
of Syria, at the Streights of Thermopylae in Theffaly,
and on feveral other occafions. Ke built the Temple
of Piety at Rome, in confequence of a vow he made
before the above-mentioned battle; and the reafon of
his giving it that name, is very remarkable. The ftory
is mentioned by Pliny,’Valerius Maximus, and others -f.
ACINIPPO, a town of Bastica, (Pliny;) its ruins,
called Honda la Viega, are to be feen near Arunda, in
the kingdom of Granada.
ACINUS, or Acini, the fmall protuberances of
mulberries, ftrawberries, &c. and by fome ■ applied to
•grapes. Generally it is ufed for thofe fmall grains
growing in bunches, after the manner of grapes, as
iLeguftrum, &c.
AC IS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Faunus and
Simetheis, was a beautiful Ihepherd of Sicily, who being
beloved by Galatea, Polyphemns the giant was fo en¬
raged, that he dallied out his brains again!! a rock; af¬
ter which Galatea turned him into a river, which was
called by his name.
Acis, (Ovid, Theocritus); a river of Sicily, run¬
ning from a very Cold fpring, in the woody and lhady
foot of mount iEtna, eaftward into, and not much above
a mile from, the fea, along green and pleafant banks,
with the fpeed of an arrow, from which it takes its
name. It is now called riki I act, or Chiaci, according
to the different Sicilian dialefts: Antonine calls \tdcius.
Alfo the name of a hamlet at the mouth of the slcis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is a
perfon’s owning or confeffing a thing; but, more par¬
ticularly, is the expreffion of gratitude for a favour.
AcKNOWLEDGMENT-Afcwy, a certain fum paid by
tenants, ia feveral parts of England, on the death of
their landlords, as an acknowledgment of their nevvlords.
ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of miflive
weapon, with a thong affixed to it, whereby to draw it
back. Moft authors defcribe it as a fort of dart or ja¬
velin; but Scaliger makes it roundilh or globular, with
a flender wooden ftem to poife it by.
ACLOWA, in botany, a barbarous name of a fpe¬
cies of colutea; fee Colute a. It is ufed by the natives
of Guinea to cure the itch : They rub it on the body,
as we do unguents.
ACME, the top or height of any thing. It is
sfually applied to the maturity of an animal juft before
it begins to decline ; and phyficians have ufed it to
exprefs the utmoft violence or crifis of a difeafe.
ACMONIA, and Agmonia, in Peutinger’s map,
a town of Phrygia Major, now in ruins. The inhabi¬
tants are called Acmonenfes by Cicero, and the city Ci-
vitas Acmonenfts. Alfo a city of Dacia, (Ptolemy,) on
the Danube, near the ruins of Trajan’s bridge, built
by Severus, and called Severicum; diftant 12 German
miles from Temefwar, to the fouth-eaft.
ACNIDA, Virginian Hemp, in botany, a ge¬
nius of the dioecia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. There is only one fpecies of it, viz. the
acnida canabina. It is a native of Virginia; but rarely
cultivated in Europe, except for the fake of variety.
It has little beauty, and at prefent is applied to no
ufeful purpofe.
ACNUA, in Roman antiquity, fignified a certain
meafure of land, near about the Engliffi rood, or fourth
part of an aci'e.
ACOEMET^E, or Acoemeti, in church-hiftory;
or, Men who lived without fleep ; a fet of monks who
chaunted the divine fervice night and day in their pla¬
ces of worffiip. They divided themfelves into three
bodies, who alternately fucceeded one another,To that
their churches were never filent. This practice they
founded upon the precept, Pray 'without ceaftng. They
flouriffied in the call about the middle of the 5th cen¬
tury. There are a kind of acoemeti ftill fubfifting in
the Roman church, viz. the religious of the holy facra-
ment, who keep up a perpetual adoration, fome one or
other of them praying before the holy facrament day
and night.
ACOLUTHI, or Acoluthists, in antiquity, was
an appellation given to thofe perfons who were fteady
and immoveable in their refolutions: and hence the
ftoics, becaufe they would not forfake_ their principles,
nor alter their refolutions, acquired the title of Acolu-
thi. The word is Greek, and compounded of «, priv.
and x&asuS®-, way; as never turning from the original
courfe.
Acoluthi, among the ancient Chriftians, implied a
peculiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin church;
for they were unknown to the Greeks for above 400
years. They were next to the fub-deacon ; and we
learn from the fourth council of Carthage, that the
archdeacon, at their ordination, put into their hands
a candleftick with a taper, giving them thereby to un-
derftand that they were appointed to light the candles
of the church ; as alfo an empty pitcher, to imply that
they were to furnifh wine for the eucharift. Some
think they had another office, that of attending the
biffiop wherever he went. The word is Greek, and
compounded of *, priv. and to hinder or difturb.
ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the
office or order of divine fervice ; or? the prayers, cere¬
monies, hymns, &c. whereof the Greek fervice is com-
pofed.
ACOMA, a town of North America, in New Mexi¬
co, feated on a hill, with a good caftle. To go into the
town, you muft walk up 50 fteps cut out of the rock.
It is the capital of that province, and was taken by the
Spaniards in 1599. W. Long. 104. 15. Lat. 35. o.
ACOMAC, the name of a county in Virginia. It
is on the eaftern fide of Chefepeak bay, on a flip of
land, by the Virginians called the eajiern Jhore. It is
Acolmhi
Acorn-c
rihtcii
A C H [ 55 ] AGO
j 'Acomi- a large county, and yet contains but one parifh, the
j natiis, inhabitants being- but thin at prefent, and fcattered up
-Aconituin- and down in diftind fettlements.
ACOMINATUS (Nicetas), was fecretary to Alex¬
ius Comnenus and to Ifaacus Angelus fucceflively: he
wrote an hiftory from the death of Alexius Comnenus
in 1118, where Zonaras ended his, to the year 1203,
which has undergone many impreffions, and is much
applauded by the belt critics.
ACONITUM, Aconite, Wolfsbane, or Monks¬
hood ; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to the
polyandria clafs of plants. There are 10
Species. 1. The lyco&onum, or yellow wolfsbane,
grows upwards of three feet high, flowers about the
middle of June, and if the feafon is not warm will con-
tinue in flower till Auguft. 2. The altiffimum, or
greateft yellow wolfsbane, grows upwards of four
feet high, and the fpikes of its flower are much longer
in this fort than the former. 3. The variegatum,
or leffer wolfsbane, feldom grows more than two feet
high; it carries blue flowers, and the fpikes of them
are much fhorter than either of the two laft. 4. The
anthora, or wholefome wolfsbane, flowers in the middle
of Auguft, and often continues in beauty till the middle
of September ; its flowers are not large, but are of a
beautiful fulphur-yellow colour. 5. The napeltus, bears
large blue flowers, which appear in Auguft, and make
a pretty appearance. There are two or three varieties
of this kind ; one with white, another with rofe-co-
I loured, and a third with variegated flowers; but thefe
are only varieties which often change. 6. The pyra-
midale, or common blue monkfhood, bears a long fpike
| of blue flowei-s, which appear fooner than any of the
other forts, being fo early as June, or fometimes even
May. The fpikes of flowers are upwards of two feet
long, fo that it makes a pretty appearance ; the feeds
KII. fig.*, are ripe in September. 7. The alpinum, or large-
flowered monkfhood, flowers in Auguft, and will grow
to the height of five feet in good ground; the flowers
are very large, of a deep blue colour, but not many
upon each fpike. 8. The pyrenaicum, or Pyrenean
monkfhood, flowers in July. It grows about four
feet high, and carries a long fpike of yellow flowers.
9. The cammarum, grows about four feet high, and
flowers in the beginning of July. 10. The orientale,
or eaftern monkfhood, grows fometimes more than fix
feet high, and bears a white flower.'
Culture. All thefe fpecies, except the laft, are na¬
tives of the Alps, the mountains of Germany, Au-
ftria, and-Tartary; fo require a cool fhady fituation,
except the wholefome wolfsbane, which muft have an
open expofure. They thrive better in a moift than dry
foil; but the ground muft not be fo wet as to have the
water ftanding near their roots in the winter-time.
They may all be propagated by fowing their feeds in
autumn, upon a north border, where they are fcreened
from the fun. The plants will come up in the fpring,
when they muft be kept clean from weeds during the
fummer-months ; and, in very dry feafons, if they are
frequently refrefhed with water, their growth will be
Y greatly promoted. The following autumn they fhould
be tranfplanted into fhady borders, in rows a foot afun-
der, and the plants fix inches diftant from one another.
In this fittiation they may remain two years, when they
will carry flowers, and fo may be tranfplanted to thofe
places where they are to remain. The eaftern monkf- Aconitun;
hood is a native of the Levant, from whence the feeds AcJrus
of it were firft fent by Dr Tournefort to the royal L.
arden at Paris, from whence fome other gardens have
een fumiihed with the feeds. It is very rare in Eu¬
rope at prefent.
Qualities. All thefe fpecies of plants are poifonous,
except the anthora, which has been faid to be an anti¬
dote to the reft. This, however, refts on the ■ Angle
authority of Matthiolus ; from whom others have im¬
plicitly and confidently copied this particular : but till
the efficacy of this antidote is eftablifhed by repeated
trials, made by experienced phyficians, we apprehend
it ought not to be mentioned ; as the mentioning an
antidote of this kind may occafion the negleft of other
more powerful remedies. Of the effefts of this, how¬
ever, and other vegetable poifons, rriedical writers give
but a confufed account. In general, thofe which are
not of the narcotic kind, nor excite violent vomitings
and purgings, produce their pernicious effeifts by irri¬
tating the nervous coats of the ftomach and inteftines,
fo as to occafion violent convulfions, not only in them,
but through the whole body. The proper cure is eva¬
cuation by vomit: but this is not to be obtained with¬
out fome difficulty; becaufe there is ufually fuch a
contra&ion about the upper orifice of the ftomach,
that nothing can either be fwallowed or thrown up.
In this cafe, an infufion of tobacco has been recom¬
mended, and may probably be of fervice : for being
itfelf of a very ftimulating nature, it may for a moment
take off the violent fpafms occalioned by the poifon ;
in which cafe, a violent vomiting will immediately en-
fue.—The ftomach being thoroughly emptied, and de¬
glutition rendered eafy, the cure may be completed by
oily and mucilaginous medicines. On account of the
poifonous qualities of monkfhood, no fpecies of it fhould
be planted where children have accefs, left they fhould
fuffer by putting the leaves or flowers in their mouths,
or rubbing them about their eyes ; for the juice of the
leaves will occafion great diforder by being only rubbed
upon very tender flefh ; and the farina of the flowers,
when blown into the eyes, caufes them to fwell greatly.
Aconitum Hyemale. See Helleborus.
ACONTIAS, in zoology, an obfolete name of the
anguis jaculus, or dart-fnake, belonging to the order
of amphibia ferpentes. See Anguis.
ACONTIUM, cckovIiov, in Grecian antiquity, a kind
of dart or javelin, refembling the Roman pilum.
ACONTIUS (James), a philofopher, civilian, and
divine, born at Trent in the 16th century: he embraced
the reformed religion; and, coming into England in the
reign of queen Elizabeth, was much honoured by her,,
which he acknowledges in a book dedicated to that
queen. This work is his celebrated Collection of the
Stratagems of Satan, which has been fo often tranfla-
ted, and borne fo many editions.
ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree. See Quercus.
Acorn, (in fea-language,) a little ornamental piece
of wood, fafhioned like a cone, an.d fixed on the upper-
moft point of the fpindle, above the vane, on the maft-
head. It is ufed to keep the vane from being blown
off from the fpindle in a whirlwind, or when the fhip
leans much to one fide under fail.
ACORUS, Calamus Aromaticus, Sweet Flag,
or Sweet Rush; a genus of themonogynia order, be¬
longing
AGO [ 56 ] AGO
Acorns, longing to the hexandria clafs of plants, of which only
“w^et'pJa one fpecies is known. It grows naturallyin (hallowftand-
—'   ing waters, and is found wild in fome parts of Britain.
The leaves are fometimes two feet long, narrow, com-
preffed, fmooth, and of a bright green, terminating in a
point; the root is pretty long, of a whitifh, reddifh, and
partly greenifh colour. Among the leaves there arifes
a Angle one, thicker and more robuft than the reft, fur¬
rowed on the furface, and of a paler green. On this grow
frequently two fpikes of flowers, by many writers called
juli. Thefe are of a brown colour, having a chequered
furface. The root of this plant has a very agreeable fla¬
vour, which is greatly improved by drying. It is reckon¬
ed carminative and ftomachic, having a warm, pungent,
bitterifh tafte; fo is frequently ufed as an ingredient in
* SeeJr^fte~ ^tters *• It has been complained of, however, as com-
no ip/ Ua’ mumcating a naufeous flavour to thofe bitters in which
it was infufed; and Neumann obferves, that its agree¬
able flavour, as well as its diftinguifhing tafte, refide en¬
tirely in a volatile effential oil; the fefidaum after di-
ilillation having a naufeous flavour, not at all refembling
that of the calamus.—The Turks candy the roots, and
imagine them a prefervative againft contagion. They
are ufually imported from the Levant into Britain ;
though thofe of our own country might anfwer equally
well. Neither horfes, cows, goats, fheep, or fwine, will
eat the herb, or its roots.
Culture. The acorus being a perennial plant, may Urorus.
be tranfplanted into a garden, where it will thii . very ^ II .
well if the ground is moift; but never flowers unlefs it '1
grows in water. It loves an open fituation, and will
not thrive well under the (hade of trees/ The flowers
appear the latter end of June, and continue till Auguft.
Acorus, in the materia medica, a name fometirnes #
given to the great gal ingal *. ~ . SfeGa2
ACOUSMATICI, fometimes alfo called /Jcoujhci, ^
in Grecian antiquity, fuch of the difciples of Pythagoras n° 1^4.
as had not completed their five years probation.
ACOUS TIC, in general, denotes any thing that re¬
lates to the ear, the fenfe of hearing, or the do&rine of
founds.,
Acoustic Dufl, in anatomy, the fame with meatus
auditorius, or the external paflage of the ear*. * See
Acoustic Inflrumenty or auricular tube. See Acou- A -alomJ’
as n° 4°5, b.
stics, n° 20.
Acoustic Vejfels, in the ancient theatres, were a
kind of veflels, made of brafs, fhaped in the bell fa-
fliion, which being of all tones within the pitch of the >
voice, or even of inftruments, rendered the founds more
audible, fo that the a&ors could be heard through all
parts of theatres, which were even 400 feet in diameter.
Acoustic Difciples, among the ancient Pythago¬
reans, thofe more commonly called Acoufmatici.
The Science of
ACOUSTICS
tv * ft' INSTRUCTS us in the nature of found. It is di-
iacou ics. I vJded by fome writers into Diacoujlics, which ex-
4 plains the properties of thofe fotinds that come dire&ly
CatacoufUcs from the fonorous body to the ear ; and Catacoujlics,
which treats of reflected founds : but fuch diftimStion
does not appear to be of any real utility.
Chap. I. Different Theories of Sound.
3 ^ Molt founds, we all know, are conveyed to us on
cles of found t^ie ^,0^0m tl'e air* 1° whatever manner they either
float upon it, or are propelled forward in it, certain it
is, that, without the vehicle of this or fome other fluid,
we Ihould have no founds at all. Let the air be ex-
hautted from a receiver, and a bell fliall emit no found
when rung in the void; for, as the air continues to
grow lefs denfe, the found dies away in proportion, fo
that at laft its ftrongeft vibrations are almoft totally
fdent.
4 Thus air is a vehicle for found. However, we muft
Air not the not, with fome philofophers, affert, that it is the only
only one. vehicle ; that, if there were no air, we fliould have no
founds whatfoever : for it is found by trial, that founds
are conveyed through water almoft with the fame faci¬
lity with which they move through air. A bell rung in
water returns a tone as diftinft as if rung in our aerial
atmpfphere. This was obferved by Derham, who alfo
remarked that the tone came a quarter deeper. Some
naturalifts allures us alfo, that fifties have a ftrong per¬
ception of founds, even at the bottom of deep ri¬
vers (a). From hence, it would feem not to be very
material in the propagation of founds, whether the
fluid which conveys them be elaftic or otherwife. Wa¬
ter, which, of all fubftances that we know, has the lead
elafticity, yet ferves to carry them forward; and if we
make allowance for the difference of its denfity, per¬
haps the founds move in it with a proportional rapidity
to what they are found to do in the elaftic fluid of air.
One thing however is certain, that whether the fluid
which conveys the note be elaftic or non-elaftic, what¬
ever found we hear is produced by a ftroke, which the,
founding body makes againft the fluid, whether air or
water. The fluid being ftruck upon, carries the im-!
preffion forward ot the ear, and there produces its fen-
fation. Philofophers are fo far agreed, that they all wtiatV0lln<i
allow that found is nothing more than the impreflion ;s and how
made by an elaftic body upon the air or water, and this propagated,
impreflion carried along by either fluid to the organ
of hearing. But the manner in which this conveyance
is made, is ftill difputed: Whether the found is diffufed
into the airy in circle beyond circle, like the waves tot
water when we difturb the fmoothnefs of its furfade
by dropping in a ftone; or whether it travels along, like
rays diffufed from a center, fomewhat in the fwift
manner that eleftricity runs along a rod of iron; thefe
are the queflions which at prefent divide the learned.
Newton was of the firft opinion. He has explained 6 ,
the progreffion of found by an undulatory, or rather a theory.*
vermicular, motion in the parts of the air. If we hav£
an exaft idea of the crawling of fome infe&s, we (hall
have a tolerable notion of the progreffion of found upon
this hypothelis. The infedd, for inftance, in its motion,
firft carries its contradlions from the hinder part, in or¬
der
(a) Others, however, deny this; aflerting, that fifties are totally deaf. Nor have anatomifts, from examining their
organs of hearing, been able to pronounce with certainty upon the matter. See Fish ; and Comparative Ana¬
tomy, n° 17J.
Ch. I.
ACOUSTICS.
Different der to throw its fore part to the proper diftance, then
Theories of j(- carrxes its contra&ions from the fore part to the hin-
Sound‘ der to bring that forward. Something fimilar to this
is the motion of the air when ftruck upon by a founding
Plate III. body. To be a little more precife, fuppofe ABC, the
fig- '• ftring of an harpfichord fcrewed to a proper pitch, and
drawn out of the right line by the finger at B. We have
* See Eh- elfewhere obferved#, that fuch a ftring would, if let go,
ft kity. vibrate to E; and from E to D, and back again. We
obferved, that it would continue thus te vibrate like a
pendulum for ever, if not externally refifted, and, like a
pendulum, all its little vibrations would be performed
in equal times, the laft and the firft being equally long
in performing. We (hewed alfo, that, like a pendulum,
its greateft fwiftnefs would always be when it arrived
at E, the middle part of its motion. Now then, if this
ftring be fuppofed to fly from the finger at B, it is ob¬
vious, that whatever be its own motion, fuch alfo will
be the motion of the parts of air that fly before it. Its
motion, as is obvious, is firft uniformly accelerated for¬
ward from B to E, then retarded as it goes from E to
D, accelerated back again as it returns from D to E,
and retarded from E to B. This motion being there¬
fore fent in fucceffion through a range of elaftic air, it
muft happen, that the parts of one range of air muft
be fent forward with accelerated motion, and then with
a retarded motion. This accelerated motion reaching
the remoteft end of the firft range will be communi¬
cated to a fecond range, while the neareft parts of the
firft range being retarded in their motion, and falling
back with the recefiion of the ftring, retire firft with
an accelerated, then with a retarded motion, and the
remoteft parts will foon follow. In the mean time,
while the parts of the firft range are thus falling back,
the parts of the fecond range are going forward with
an accelerated motion. Thus there wrill be an alter¬
nate condenfation and relaxation of the air, during the
time of one vibration ; and as the air going forward
ftrikes any oppofing body with greater force than upon
retiring, fo each of thefe accelerated progreffions have
been called by Newton a pulfe of found.
Thus will the air be driven forward in the diredtion of
the ftring. But now we muft obferve, that thefe pulfes
will move every way ; for all motion imprefled upon
fluids in any direftion whatfoever, operates all around
in a fphere: fo that founds will be driven in all direc-
Vol. I.
tions, backwards, forwards, upwards, downwards, and
on every fide. They will go on fucceeding each other,
one on the outfide of the other, like circles in difturbed
water; or rather, they will lie one without the other,
in concentric (hells, (hell above (hell, as we fee in the
coats of an onion.
All who have remarked the tone of a bell, while its
founds are decaying away, muft have an idea of the
pulfes of found, which, according to Newton, are for¬
med by the air’s alternate progreflion and receflion.
And it muft be obferved, that as each of thefe pulfes are
formed by a fingle vibration of the ftring, they muft
be equal to each other} for the vibrations of the ftring
are known to be fo.
Again, as to the velocity with which founds travel,
this Newton determines, by the moft difficult calcula¬
tion that can be imagined, to be in proportion to the
thicknefs of the parts of the air, and the diftance of
thefe parts from eaeh other. From hence he goes on
to prove, that each little part moves backward and for¬
ward like a pendulum; and from thence he proceeds
to demonftrate, that if the atmofphere were of the fame
denfity every where as at the furface of the earth, in
fuch a cafe, a pendulum, that reached from its higheft
furface down to the furface of the earth, would by its
vibrations difcover to us the proportion of the velocity
with which founds travel. The velocity with which
each pulfe would move, he (hews, would be as much
greater than the velocity of fuch a pendulum fwinging
with one complete vibration, as the circumference of a
circle is greater than the diameter. From hence he
calculates, that the motion of found would be 979 feet
in one fecond. But this not being confonant to ex¬
perience, he takes in another confideration, which de~
ftroys entirely the rigour of his former‘demonftration,
namely, vapours in the air; and then finds the motion
of found to be 1142 feet in one fecond, or near 13 miles
in a minute : a proportion which experience had efta-
blilhed nearly before.
Thus much will ferve to give an obfcure idea of a
moft obfcure theory; a theory which has met with num¬
bers of oppofers. Even John Bernouilli, Newton’s
greateft difciple, modeftly owps that he did not pre¬
tend to underftand this part of the Principia. He at¬
tempted therefore to give a more perfpicuous demon¬
ftration of his own, that might confirm and illuftrate
H the
57
Different
Theories of
Sound.
Preceding
Theory op-
Note on N°5lh. preceding page.'] Though air and water are both vehicles of found, yet neither of them feem
to be fo by themfelves, but only as they contain an exceedingly fubtile fluid capable of penetrating the moft folid bo¬
dies. Hence, by the medium of that fluid, founds can be propagated through wood, or metals, even more readily
than through the open air. By the fame means, deaf people may be made fenfible of founds, if they hold a piece of
metal in their mouth, one end of which is applied to the founding body. As it is certain, therefore, that air cannot
penetrate metals, we muft acknowledge the medium of found to be of a more fubtile nature; and thus the elecftricaf
fluid will naturally occur as the proper one. But why then is found no longer heard in an exbaufted receiver, if the
air is not the fluid by which it is conveyed, feeing the electrical matter cannot be excluded ? The reply to this is ob¬
vious: The eleCtrical fluid is fo exceedingly fubtile, and pervades folid bodies with fo much eafe,thatany motion of a fo¬
lid body in a quantity of eleCtric matter by itfelf, can never excite a degree of agitation in it fufficient for producing a
found ; but if the eleCtric fluid is entangled among the particles of air, water, wood, metal, &c. whatever affeCts their
particles will alfo affeCt this fluid, and produce an audible noife. In the experiment of the air-pump, however, there
may be an ambiguity, as the gradual exhaufting of the air creates an increafing difference of preffure on the outf.de,
and may oceafion in the giafs a difficulty of vibrating, fo as to render it lefs lit to communicate to the air without the
vibrations that ftrike it from within. From this caufe the diminution of found in an exhaufted receivertnay be fup¬
pofed to proceed, as well as from the diminution of the air. But if any internal agitation of Its parts fhould hap¬
pen to the eieCtrical fluid, exceeding loud noifes might be propagated through it, as has been the cafe when large me¬
teors have kindled at a great diftance from the earth. Of this an inftance is recorded in the Philofophical TranfaCtions
by Dr Halley. (See Fire). It is alfo difficult to account for the exceeding great fwiftnefs-ef found, upon the fuppo-
lition that it is propagated by means of air alone; for nothing is more certain, than that the ftrongeft and moft violent
gale is, in its courle, inert and (luggifh, compared with the motion of found.
58-
ACOUSTICS,
Ch. 1.
DiSerene
Theories of
Another
Theory.
the Newtonian theory. The fubjedt fecmed to rejedt
elucidation: his theory is obvioufly wrong, as D’Alem¬
bert has proved in his Theory of Fluids. Euler, there¬
fore, rejedting the Newtonian doctrine entirely, has at¬
tempted to eftablilh another; but as he has hitherto only
given the refult of liis calculations, without the progref-
11 ve proofs that confirm his opinion, the learned continue
in fufpenfe as to the merit of his work.
Various have been the objedtions that have been
made to the Newtonian fyftem of founds. Firft, it is
urged, that if the firft pulfe of found be driven by that
which immediately follows, and that by the fucceeding,
and fo on, it muft then happen, that the more nume¬
rous the pulfes, the farther will the found be driven ;
fo that a firing which vibrates the longeft will be heard
at the greateft diftance, which is contrary to known ex¬
perience. Again, it is urged, that this theory can
only agree with the motion of found in an elaftic fluid,
whereas founds are known to move forward through
water that is not elaftic. To explain their progrefs
therefore through water, a fecond theory muft be form¬
ed : fo that two theories muft be made to explain a
fimilar effedl; which is contrary to the fimplicity of
true philofophy, for it is contrary to the fimplicity of
nature. It is ftill farther urged, that this flow vermi¬
cular motion but ill reprefents the velocity with which
founds travel, as we know by experience that it is al-
moft 13 miles in a minute. In fhort, it is urged, that
fuch undulations as have been defcribed, when coming
from feveral fonorous bodies at once, would crofs, ob-
ftruft, and confound each other; fo that, if they were
conveyed to the ear by this means, we fhould hear no¬
thing but a medley of difcord and broken articulations.
But this is equally with the reft contradittory to ex¬
perience, fince we hear the fulleft concert, not only
without confufion, but with the higheft pleafure. Thefe
obje£lions, whether well founded or not, have given
rife to another theory: which we fhall likewife lay be¬
fore the reader; though it too appears liable to ob¬
jedtions, which fhall be afterwards mentioned.
Every found may be confidered as driven off from
the founding body in ftraight lines, and impreffed upon
the air in one diredtion only ; but whatever impreffion
is made upon a fluid in one diredtion, is diffufed upon
its furface into all diredtions: fo that the found firft
driven diredtly forward foon fills up a wide fphere, and
is heard on every fide. Thus, as it is impreffed, it in-
flantaneoufly travels forward with a very fwift motion,
refembling the velocity with which we know eledtricity
flies from one end of a line to another.
Now, as to the pulfes, or open (hakes as the mufi-
cians exprefs it, which a founding body is known to
make, each pulfe (fay the fuporters of this theory)
is itfelf a diftindl and perfedl found, and the inter¬
val between every two pulfes is profoundly filent. Con¬
tinuity of found from the fame body is only a de¬
ception of the hearing; for as each diftindl found fuc-
ceeds at very fmall intervals, the organ has no time to
tranfmit its images with equal fwiftnefs to the mind,
and the interval is thus loft to fenfe: juft as in feeing
a flaming torch, if flared round in a circle, it appears
as a ring of fire. In this manner a beaten drum, at
fome fmall diftance, prefents us with the idea of con¬
tinuing found. When children run with their flicks
along a rail, a continuing found is thus reprefented,
though it need fcarce be obferved, that the ftroke a-
gainft each rail is perfedlly diftindl and infulated. ^
According to this theory, therefore, the pulfes are _
nothing more than diftindl founds repeated by the fame
body, the firft ftroke or vibration being ever the loud-
eft, and travelling farther than thofe that follow; while
each fucceeding vibration gives a new found, but with
diminiftied force, till at laft the pulfes decay away to¬
tally, as the force decays that gives them exiftence.
All bodies whatfoever that are ftruck, return more
or lefs a found: but fome, wanting elafticity, give back
no repetition of the found; the noife is at once begotten
and dies: while other bodies, however, there are, which
being more elaftic, and whofe parts are capable of vi¬
bration, give back a found, and repeat the fame feveral
times fucceffively. Thefe laft are faid to have a tone;
the others are not allowed to have any.
This tone of the elaftic firing, or bell, is notwithfland-
ing nothing more than a fimilar found of what the for¬
mer bodies produced, but with the difference of being
many times repeated, while their note is but Angle. So
that, if we would give the former bodies a tone, it will
be neceffary to make them repeat their found, by re¬
peating our blows fwiftly upon them. This will effec¬
tually give them a tone, and even an unmufical inflru-
ment has often had a fine effeft by its tone in our con¬
certs.
Let us now go on then to fuppofe, that by fwift
and equably continued ftrokes we give any non-elaftic
body its tone, it is very obvious, that no alterations
will be made in this tone by the quicknefs of the ftrokes,
though repeated ever fo fall. Thefe will only render
the tone more equal and continuous, but make no al¬
teration in the tone it gives. On the contrary, if we make
an alteration in the force of each blow, a different tone
will then undoubtedly be excited. The difference will be
fmall, it muft be confeffed; for the tones of thefe inflex*
ible bodies are capable but of fmall variation; however,
there will certainly be a difference. The table on which
we write, for inftance, will return a different found when
ftruck with a club, from what it did when ftruck on¬
ly with a fwitch. Thus non-elaftic bodies return a
difference of tone, not in proportion to the fwiftnefs
with which their found is repeated, but in proportion
to the greatnefs of the blow which produced it ; for in
two equal non-elaftic bodies, that body produced the
deepeft tone that was ftruck by the greateft blow.
We now then come to a critical queftion. What
is it that produces the difference of tone in two elaftic
founding bells or firings ? Or what makes one deep and
the other Ihrill ? This queftion has always been hitherto
anfwered by faying, that the depth or height of the
note proceeded from the flownefs and fwiftnefs of the
times of the vibrations. The floweft vibrations, it has
been faid, are qualified for producing the deepeft tones,
while the fwifteft vibrations produce the higheft tones.
In this cafe, an effedl has been given for a caufe. It is
in fadl the force with which the founding firing ftrikes
the air when ftruck upon, that makes the true diftinc-
tion in the tones of founds. It is this force, with great¬
er or lefs impreflions, refembling the greater or lefs force
of the blows upon a non-elaftic body, which produces
correfpondent affections of found. The greateft forces
produce the deepeft founds: the high notes are the ef¬
fedl of fmall efforts. In the fame manner a bell, wide
Ch. I. A C O U
Different at the mouth, gives a grave found ; but if it be very
Sound °f uiafTy withal, that will render it llill graver; but if
 1_ mafiy, wide, and long or high, that will make the tone
deepeft of all.
Thus, then, will elaftic bodies give the deepeft found,
in proportion to the force with which they ftrike the
air: but if we ftiould attempt to increafe their force by
giving them a ftronger blow, this will be in vain; they
will ftill return the fame tone • for fuch is their forma¬
tion, that they are fonorous only becaufe they are ela¬
ftic, and the force of this elafticity is not increafed by
our ftrength, as the greatnefs of a pendulum’s vibration
will not be increafed by falling from a greater height.
Thus far of the lengths of cords. Now as to the fre¬
quency with which they vibrate the deepeft tones, it
has been found, from the nature of elaftic ftrings, that
the longeft ftrings have the wideft vibrations, and con-
fequently go backward and forward lloweft; while, on
the contrary, the Ihorteft ftrings vibrate the quickeft,
or come and go in the ftiorteft intervals. From hence
thofe who have treated of founds, have aflerted, as was
faid before, that the tone of the ftring depended upon
the length or the Ihortnefs of the vibrations. This,
however, is not the cafe. One and the fame ftring,
when ftruck, muft always, like the fame pendulum, re¬
turn precifely fimilar vibrations; but it is well known,
that one and the fame ftring, when ftruck upon, does
not always return precifely the fame tone: fo that in
this cafe the vibrations follow one rule, and the tone
another. The vibrations muft be invariably the fame
in the fame ftring, which does not return the fame tone
invariably, as is well known to muficians in general. In
the violin, for inftance, they can eafily alter the tone of
the ftring an oftave or eight notes higher, by a fofter
method of drawing the bow; and fome are known thus
to bring out the moft charming airs imaginable. Thefe
peculiar tones are by the Englifti fiddlers called flute-
notes. The only reafon that can be affigned for the
fame ftring thus returning different tones, muft certain¬
ly be the different force of its ftrokes upon the air. In
one cafe, it has double the tone of the other; becaufe
upon the foft touches of the bow, only half its eiafticity
is put into vibration.
This being underftood (continue the authors of
this theory) we lhall be able clearly to account for
many things relating to founds that have hitherto
been inexplicable. Thus, for inftance, if it be alk-
ed, When two ftrings are ft retched together of equal
lengths, tenfion, and thicknefs, how does it hap¬
pen, that one of them being ftruck, and made to vi¬
brate throughout, the other (hall vibrate throughout*
alfo ? the anfwer is obvious: The force that the
ftring ftruck receives is communicated to the air,
and the air communicates the fame to the fimilar
ftring; which therefore receives all the force of the
former; and the force being equal, the vibrations muft
be fo too. Again, put the queftion, If one ftring
be but half the length of the other, and be ftruck, how
will the vibrations be ? The anfwer is. The longeft
ftring will receive all the force of the ftring half as long
as itfelf, and therefore it will vibrate in proportion,
that is, through half its length. In the fame manner,
if the longeft ftring were three times as long as the
(b) The figure reprefents the inftrument with ten chords
the two outermoft: odtaves below them. But this feems no;
S T I C S. 59
other, it would only vibrate in a third of its length ; Different
or if four times, in a fourth of its length. In (hort. Theories of
whatever force the fmaller ftring impreffes upon the oun '
air, the air will imprefs a fimilar force upon the longer
ftring, and partially excite its vibrations.
From hence alfo we may account for the caufe of ^.3^ re
thofe charming, melancholy gradations of found in the See PlatcIIL
Eolian lyre; an inftrument (fays Sir John Hawkins) fig. *.
lately obtruded upon the public as a new invention,
tho’ deferibed above a century ago by Kircher *. * Vi Ac Kir-
This inftrument is eafily made, being nothing more cl'erj Mu'
than a long narrow box of thin deal, about 30 inches fur£ia>
long, 5 inches broad, and inches deep, with a cir¬
cle in the middle of the upper fide or belly about 1J-
inch diameter, pierced with fmall holes. On this fide are
feven, ten, or (according to Kircher) fifteen or more
ftrings of very fine gut, ftretchedover bridges ateach end,
like the bridge of a fiddle, and ferewed up or relaxed
with ferew-pins (b). The ftrings are all tuned to one
and the fame note; and the inftrument is placed in fome
current of air, where the wind can brulh over its ftrings
with freedom. A window with the fa(h juft raifed to
give the air admiffion, will anfwer this purpofe exa<ftly.
Now when the entering air blows upon thefe ftrings
with different degrees of force, there will be excited;
different tones of found; fometimes the blaft brings
out all the tones in full concert; fometimes it finks
them to the fofteft murmurs; it feels for every tone,
and by its gradations of ftrength folicits thofe grada¬
tions of found which art has taken different methods
to produce.
We come now, in the laft place, to confider (by this
theory) the loudnefs and lownefs, or, as the muficians
fpeak, the ftrength and foftnefs,. of founds. In vibrating
elaftic ftrings, the loudnefs of the tone is in proportion
to the deepnefs of the note; that is, in two ttrings, all
things in. other circumftances alike, the deepeft-tone
will be loudeft. In mufical inftruments upon a different
principle, as in the violin, it is otherwife ; the tones are
made in fuch inftruments, by a number of final! vibra¬
tions crowded into one ftroke. The rofined bow, for
inftance, being drawn along a ftring, its roughneffes
catch the ftring at very fmail intervals, and excite its
vibrations. In this inftrument, therefore, to excite
loud tones, the bow muft be drawn quick, and this will
produce the greateft number of vibrations. But it
muft be obferved, that the more quick the bow paffes
over the ftring, the lefs apt will the roughnefs of its
furface be to touch the ftring at every inftant; to re¬
medy this, therefore, the bow muft be preffed the har¬
der as it is drawn quicker, and thus its fulleft found
will be brought from the inftrument. If the fwiftnefs
of the vibrations in an inftrument thus rubbed upon,
exceed the force of the deeper found in another, then
the fwift vibrations will be heard at a greater diftance,
and as much farther off as the fwiftnefs in them ex¬
ceeds the force in the other. ,,
By the fame theory (itis alleged) may all the pheno- The nature
mena of mufical founds be eafily explained.—The fables of Mufical
of the ancients pretend, that mufic was firft found out. ®?^^
by the beating of different hammers upon the fmith’s cord;ng ato
anvil. Without purfuing the fabkJ, let us endeavour to the fame
explain the nature of mufical founds by a fimilar me- theory.
H 2 thod.
; of which fome direct only eight to be tuned unifons, and
to be material.
6o
ACOUSTICS.
Ch.L
Of Mufical thod. Let us fuppofc an anvil, or fevera] fimilar anvils, to
Sounds. ke upon by feveral hammers of different weights
or forces. The hammer, which is double that of an¬
other, upon ftriking the anvil will produce a found
double that of the other: this double found muficians
have agreed to call an O&ave. The ear can judge of
the difference or refemblance of thefe founds with great
eafe, the numbers being as one and two, and therefore
very readily compared. Suppofe that an hammer three
times lefs than the firft, ftrikes the anvil, the found pro¬
duced by this will be three times lefs than the firft: fo
that the ear, in judging the fimilitude of thefe founds,
will find fomewhat more difficulty; becaufe it is not fo
eafy to tell how often one is contained in three, as it
is to tell how often it is contained in two. Again,
fuppofe that an hammer four times lefs than the firft
ftrikes the anvil, the ear will find greater difficulty ftill
in judging precifely the difference of the founds; for
the difference of the numbers four and one cannot fo
foon be determined with precifion as three and one.
If the hammer be five times lefs, the difficulty of jud¬
ging will be ftill greater. If the hammer be fix times
lefs, the difficulty ftill increafes, and fo alfo of the fe-
venth, infomuch that the ear cannot always readily and
at once determine the precife gradation. Now, of all
comparifons, thofe which the mind makes moft eafily,
and with leaft labour, are the moft pleafing. There is
a certain r-egularity in the human foul, by which it
finds happinefs in exadt and ftriking and eafily-made
comparifons. As the ear is but an inftrument of the
mind, it is therefore moft pleafed with the combination
of any two founds, the differences of which it can moft
readily diftinguifh. It is more pleafed with the con¬
cord of two founds which are to each other as one and
two, than of two founds which are as one and three,
or one and four, or one and five, or one and fix or
feven. Upon this pleafure, which the mind takes in
comparifon, all harmony depends. The variety of
founds is infinite ; but becaufe the ear cannot com¬
pare two founds fo as readily to diftinguifti their dif-
criminations when they exceed the proportion of one
and feven, muficians have been content to Confine all
harmony within that compafs, and allowed but feven
notes in mufical compofition.
Let us now then fuppofe a ftringed inftrument fitted
up in the order mentioned above. For inftance: Let
the firft firing be twice as long as the fecond ; let the
third firing be three times Ihorter than the firft, let the
fourth be four times, the fifth firing five times, and
the fixth fix times as Ihort as the firft. Such an in¬
ftrument would probably give us a reprefentation of
the lyre as it came firft from the hand of the inven¬
tor. This inftrument will give us all the feven notes
following each other, in the order in which any two
of them will accord together moft pleafingly; but yet
it will be a very inconvenient and a very difagreeable
inftrument: inconvenient, for in a compafs of feven
firings only, the firft muft be feven times as long as
the laft; and difagreable, becaufe this firft firing will
be feven times as loud alfo; fo that when the tones are
to be played in a different order, loud and foft founds Of Mufical
would be intermixed with moft difgufting alternations. Sonndii'
In order to improve the firft inftrument, therefore,
fucceeding muficians very judicioufly threw in all the
other firings between the two firft, or, in other words,
between the two OClaves, giving to each, however, the
fame proportion to what it would have had in the firft
natural inftrument. This made the inftrument more
portable, and the founds more even and pleafing. They
therefore difpofed the founds between the Odtave in their
natural order, and gave each its own proportional di-
menfions. Of thefe founds, where the proportion be¬
tween any two of them is moft obvious, the concord
between them will be moft pleafing. Thus Octaves,
which are as two to one, have a moft harmonious effect;
the fourth and fifth alfo found fweetly together, and
they will be found, upon calculation, to bear the fame
proportion to each other that O(Staves do. “ Let it
“ not be fuppofed, (fays Mr. Saveur) that the mufi-
“ calfcale is merely an arbitrary combination of founds:
“ it is made up from the confonance and differences of
“ the parts which compofe it. Thofe who have often
“ heard a fourth and a fifth accord together, will be
“ naturally led to difeover their difference at once; and
“ the mind unites itfelf to their beauties.” Let us then
ceafe to affign the coincidences of vibrations as the caufe
of harmony, fince thefe coincidences in two firings vi¬
brating at different intervals, muft at beft be but fortui¬
tous ; whereas concord is always pleafing. The true
caufe why concordis pleafing, muft arife from ourpower,
in fuch a cafe, of meafuring more eafily the differences
of the tones. In proportion as the note can be meafured
with its fundamental tone by large and obvious diftinc-
tiens, then the concord is moft pleafing; on the con¬
trary, when the ear meafures the diferiminations of two
tones by very fmall parts, or cannot meafure them at
all, it lofes the beauty of their refemblance: the whole
is difeord and pain (c).
But there is another property in the vibration of a
mufical firing not yet taken noticeof, and which is alleged
to confirm the foregoing theory. If we ftrike the firing
of an harpfichord, or any other elaftic founding chord
whatever, it returns a continuing found. This till of
late was confidered as one fimple uniform tone; but all
muficians now confefs, that inftead of one tone it ac¬
tually returns four tones, and that conftantly. The
notes are, befide the fundamental tone, an oftave above,
a twelfth above, and a feventeenth. One of the bafs-
notes of an harpfichord has been differed in this man¬
ner by Rameau, and the actual exiftence of thefe tones
proved beyond a poffibility of being controverted. In
fa£t, the experiment is eafily tried; for if we fmartly
ftrike one of the lower keys of an harpfichord, and
then take the finger brilkly away, a tolerable ear will be
able to diftinguifh, that, after the fundamental tone has
ceafed, three other fhriller tones will bediftindtly heard;
firft the odlave above, then the twelfth, and laftly the fe¬
venteenth : the octave above is in general almoft mixed
with the fundamental tone, fo as not to be eafily per¬
ceived, except by an ear long habituated to the minute
diferi-
(c) It is certain, that in proportion to the fimplicity of relations in found, the ear is pleafed with its combinations;
but this is not to be admitted as the caufe why muficians have confined all harmony to an oiftave. Difcriminated
founds, whofe vibrations either never coincide, or at leaft very rarely, do not only ceafe to pleafe, but violently grate,
the ear. _ Harmony and difeord, therefore, are neither difcriminated by the judgment of hearers, nor the inftitution
of muficians, but by their own effential and immutable nature.
hi. I. ACOUSTICS. 61
if Mufical difcriminations of founds. So that we may obferve,
| Sounds. tjje fynalleft tone is heard laft, and the deepeft and
largeft one firft: the two others in order.
In the whole theory of founds, nothing has given
greater room for fpeculation, conjefture, and difap-
pointment, than this amazing property in elaftic fixings.
The whole firing is univerfally acknowledged to be in
vibration in all its parts, yet this fingle vibration re¬
turns no lefs than four different founds. They who
account for the tones of firings by the number of their
vibrations are here at the greateft lofs. Daniel Ber-
nouilli fuppofes, that a vibrating firing divides itfelf
into a number of curves, each of which has a peculiar
vibration; and though they all fwing together in the
common vibration, yet each vibrates within itfelf. This
opinion, which was fupported, as moft geometrical
fpeculations are, with the parade of demonftration,
was only born foon after to die. Others have afcribed
this to an elaftic difference in the parts of the air, each
of which, at different intervals, thus received different
impreffions from the firing, in proportion to their ela-
fticity. This is abfurd. If we allow the difference of
tone to proceed from the force, and not the frequency,
of the vibrations, this difficulty will admit of an eafy
folution. Thefe founds, though they feem to exift to¬
gether in the firing, a&ually follow each other in fuc-
ceflion : while the vibration has greatefi force, the
fundamental tone is brought forward: the force of the
vibration decaying, the o£tave is produced, but almoft
only inftantaneoufly; to this fucceeds, with diminilhed
force, the twelfth; and, laftly, the feventeenth is heard
to vibrate with great diftindtnefs, while the three other
tones are always filent. Thefe founds, thus excited,
are all of them the harmonic tones, whofe differences
from the fundamental tone are, as was faid, ftrong and
diftin&. On the other hand, the difcordant tones cannot
be heard. Their differences being but very fmall, they are
overpowered, and in a manner drowned in the tones of
fuperior difference: yet not always neither; for Da¬
niel Bernouilli has been able, from the fame ftroke, to
make the fame firing bring out its harmonic and its
difcordant tones alfo (d.) So that from hence we may
Ijuftly infer, that every note whatfoever is only a fuc-
cdfion of tones ; and that thofe are moft difiinftly
heard, whofe differences are moft eafily perceivable,
il i* To this theory, however, though it has a plaufible
M*bjf£Hons appearance> there are ftrong and indeed infuperable
Esngtheory* Okje&ion8- f'he very fundamental principle of it is
falfe. No body whatever, whether elaftic or non ela¬
ftic, yields a graver found by being ftruck with a larger
inftrument, unlefs either the founding body, or that
part of it which emits the found, is enlarged. In this
cafe, the largeft bodies always return the graveft
founds.
In fpeaking of elaftic and non-elaftic bodies in a mu¬
fical fenfe, we are not to pufh the diftinftion fo far as
when we fpeak of them philofophically. A body is mu~
fically elaftic, all of whofe parts are thrown into vibra¬
tions fo as to emit a found when only part of their fur-
face is ftruck. Of this kind are bells, mufical firings,
and all bodies whatever that are confiderably hollow.—■
Mufical non-elaftics are fuch bodies as emit a found
only from that particular place which is ftruck : thus,
a table, a plate of iron nailed on wood, a bell funk
in the earth, are all of them non-elaftxcs in a mufical Of Muficai
fenfe, though not philofophically fo. When afolidbo- SQllnds,
dy, fuch as a log of wood, is ftruck with a fwitch, only
that part of it emits a found which comes in contaft
with the fwitch; the note is acute and loud, but would
be no lefs fo though the adjacent parts of the log were
removed. If, inftead of the fwitch, a heavier or lar¬
ger inftrument is made ufe of, a larger portion of its
furface then returns a found, and the note is ccnfequent-
ly more grave ; but it would not be fo, if the large in¬
ftrument ftruck with a ftiarp edge, or a furface only
equal to that of the fmall one.
In founds of this kind, where there is only a fingle
thwack, without any repetition, the immediate caufe of
the gravity or acutenefs feems to be the quantity of air
difplaced by the founding body ; a large quantity of
air difplaced produces a grave found, and a fmaller
quantity a more acute one, the force wherewith the air
is difplaced fignifying very little.—What wc here ad¬
vance is confirmed by fome experiments made by Dr
Prieftley, concerning the mufical tone of eleClrical dif-
charges. The palfage being curious, and not very long,
we ffiall here tranfcribe it:
“ As the courfe of my experiments has required a
great variety of eleflxical explofions, I could not help
obferving a great variety in the mufical tone made by
the reports. This excited my curiofity to attempt to
reduce this variation to fome meafure. According¬
ly, by the help of a couple of fpinets, and two per-
fons who had good ears for mufic, I endeavoured to
afcertain the tone of fome electrical difcharges; and
obferved, that every difcharge made feveral ftrings, par¬
ticularly thofe that were chords to one another, to vi¬
brate : but one note was always predominant, and
founded after the reft. As every explofion was repeat¬
ed feveral times, and three of us feparately took the
fame note, there remained no doubt but that the tone
we fixed upon was at leaft very near the true one. The
refult was as follows.
“ A jar containing half a fquare foot of coated glafs
founded F ftiarp, concert pitch. Another jar of a dif¬
ferent form, but equal furface, founded the fame.
“ A jar of three fquare feet founded C below F
fliarp. A battery confifting of fixty-four jars, each
containing half a fquare foot, founded F below the C.
“ The fame battery, in conj unit ion with another of
thirty-one jars, founded C ftiarp. So that a greater
quantity of coated glafs always gave a deeper note.
“ Differences in the degree of a charge in the fame
jar made little or no difference in the tone of the ex¬
plofion : if any, a higher charge gave rather a deeper
note.
Thefe experiments fhew us how much the gravity or
acutenefs of founds depend on the quantity of air put in
agitation by the founding body. We know that the
noife of the eleftric explofion arifes from the return
of the air into the vacuum produced by the elecfric
flafti. The larger the vacuum, the deeper was the note:
for the fame reafon, the difcharge of a mufquet
produces a more acute note than that of a cannon; and
thunder is deeper than either.
Befides this, however, other circuipftances concur
to produce different degrees of gravity or acutenefs in
founds. The found of a table ftruck upon with a piece
of
(d) Vid. Memoires de I’Academie de Berlin, 1753, p. 153.
62 A c o tr
Mufical 0f wood, will not be the fame with that produced from
01111 s~ a plate of iron ftruck by the fame piece of wood, even
if the blows fhould be exaftly equal, and the iron per-
feftly kept from vibrating.—Here the founds are gene¬
rally faid to differ in their degrees of acutenefs, accord¬
ing to the fpecific gravities or denfities of the fubftan-
ces which emit them. Thus gold, which is the moft
denfe of all metals, returns a much graver found than
filver; and metalline wires, which are more denfe than
therms, return a proportionably graver found.—
But neither does this appear to be a general rule
in which we can put confidence. Bell-metal is den-
fer than copper, but it by no means appears to yield a
graver found; on the contrary, it feems very probable,
that copper will give a graver found than bell-metal, if
both are ftruck upon in their non-elaftic ftate ; and we
can by no means think that a bell of pure tin, the leaft
denfe of all the metals, will give a more acute found
than one of bell-metal, which is greatly more denfe.—
In fome bodies hardnefs feems to have a confiderable
effeft. Glafs, which is confiderably harder than any
metal, gives a more acute found ; bell-metal is harder
than gold, lead, or tin, and therefore founds much
more acutely ; though how far this holds with regard
to different fubftances, there are not a fufficient number
of experiments for us to judge.
In bodies mufically elaftic, the whole fubftance vi¬
brates with the ilighteft ftroke, and therefore they al¬
ways give the fame note whether they are ftruck with
a large or with a fmall inftrument; fo that ftriking a
part of the furface of any body mufically elaftic is equi¬
valent, in it, to ftriking the whole furface of a non-
elaftic one. If the whole furface of a table was ftruck
with another table, the note produced would be neither
more nor lefs acute whatever force was employed ; be-
caufe the whole furface would then yield a found, and
no force could increafe the furface; the found would
indeed be louder in proportion to the force employed,
but the gravity would remain the fame. In like man¬
ner, when a bell, or mufical firing, is ftruck, the whole
fubftance vibrates, and a greater ftroke cannot increafe
the fubftance.—Hence we fee the fallacy of what is
faid concerning the Pythagorean anvils. An anvil is
a body mufically elaftic, and no difference in the tone
can be perceived whether it is ftruck with a large, or
with a fmall hammer ; becaufe either of them are fuf¬
ficient to make the whole fubftance vibrate, provided
nothing but the anvil is ftruck upon: fmiths, however,
do not ftrike their anvils, but red-hot iron laid upon
their anvils; and thus the vibrations of the anvil are
flopped, fo that it becomes a non-elaftic body, and the
differences of tone in the ftrokes of different hammers
proceed only from the furface of the large hammers
covering the whole furface of the iron, or at leaft a
greater part of it than the fmall ones. If the fmall
hammer is fufficient to cover the whole furface of the
iron as well as the large one, the note produced will be
the fame, whether the large or the fmall hammer is ufed.
Laftly, The argument for the preceding theory,
grounded on the produftion of what are called flute-'
notes on the violin, is built on a falfe foundation ; for
thefe notes are not produced by drawing the bow foftly
on the firing, but by flightly touching the firing with
the finger. In this, cafe the fame founds are produced as
if the vibrations were transferred to the fpace between
S T I C S. Ch. I.
the end of the finger-board and the finger, inflead of that 1
between the finger and the bridge. Why this fmall part y101111 s'
of the firing fhould vibrate in fuch a cafe, and not that
which is under the immediate adlion of the bow, we
muft own ourfelves ignorant: nor dare we affirm that
the vibrations really are transferred in this manner, only
the fame founds are produced as if they were.
Though thefe objections feem fufficiently to over¬
turn the foregoing theory, with regard to acute founds
being the effefts of weak ftrokes, and grave ones of
ftronger impulfes, we can by no means admit that Ion- ' I
ger or fhorter vibrations are the occafion of gravity or
acutenefs in founds. A mufical found, however length¬
ened, either by firing or bell, is only a repetition of a
fingle one, whofe duration by itfelf is but for a mo¬
ment, and is therefore termed inappretiable, like the
fmack of a whip, or the explofion of an electrical bat¬
tery. The continuation of the found is nothing more
than a repetition of this inftantaneous inappretiable
noife after the manner of an echo, and it is only this
echo that makes the found agreeable. For this reafon,
mufic is much more agreeable when played in a large
hall where the found is reverberated, than in a fmall
room where there is no fuch reverberation. For the
fame reafon, the found of a firing is more agreeable
when put on a hollow violin than when faftened to a
plain board, &c.—In the found of a bell, we cannot
avoid obferving this echo very diftinClly. The found
appears to be made up of diftincl pulfes, or repetitions
of the fame note produced by the ftroke of the hammer.
It can by no means be allowed, that the note would be
more acute though thefe pulfes were to fucceed one
another more rapidly; the found would indeed become
more fimple, but would ftill preferve the fame tonet’—
In mufical firings the reverberations are vaftly more
quick than in bells; and therefore their found is more
uniform or fimple, and confequently moref agreeable
than that of bells. In mufical glaffes *, the vibrations * See
muft be inconceivably quicker than in any bell, or Harmonica.'^
flringed inftrument; and hence they are of all others
the moft fimple and the moft agreeable, though neither
the moft acute nor the loudeft.—As far as we can
judge, quicknefs of vibration contributes to the unifor¬
mity, or fimplicity, but not to the acutenefs, nor to
the loudnefs, of a mufical note.
It may here be objected, that each of the different
pulfes, of which we obferve the found of a bell to be
compofed, is of a very perceptible length, and far from
being inftantaneous; fo that it is not fair to infer what
we have done, namely, that the found of a bell is only
a repetition of a fingle inftantaneous ftroke, feeing it is-
evidently the repetition of a lengthened note.—To this
we reply, that the inappretiabie found which is produ¬
ced by ftriking a bell in a non-elaftic ftate, is the very'
fame which, being firft propagated round the bell, forms
one of thefe ftiort pulfes that is afterwards re-echoed
as long as the vibrations of the metal continue, and
it is impoffible that the quicknefs of repetition of any
found can either increafe or diminiff its gravity.
With regard to the production of the different tones
from the bafs-ftring of an harpfichord, we can only
offer a conjecture, which is, that as the firings of mu¬
fical inftruments are faftened at both ends, and very
tenfe, the vibrations of the middle parts muft be per-
. formed much more eafily than thofe towards the ex¬
tremities ;.
Ilh.II.
A C O U
ifteverbe- tremities; confequently, as vibration rauft have a cer-
rated tajn degree 0f ftrength before a found is produced, the
>°un s. m;dd]e parts of the firing may vibrate fo as to pro-
ftancet
iCulated
means <
ind.
duce a found, while the extremities have loft that power.
This will be equivalent to fhortening the ftring, and
confequently *he tone muft gradually grow more acute.
Chap. II. Of the Velocity of Sound. Axioms.
However it may be with regard to the theories of
jnd'^ °f ^oun^> (which we leave to the judgment of our rea¬
ders), experience has taught us, that it travels at about
the rate of 1142 feet in a fecond, or near 13 miles in a
minute ; nor do any obftacles hinder its progrefs, a con¬
trary wind only a fmall matter diminiftiing its velocity.
74 The method of calculating its progrefs is eafily made
1 progrefs known. When a gun is difcharged at a diftance, we
jculated. pee ^ flre iong before we hear the found. If then we
know the diftance of the place, and know the time of
the interval between our firft feeing the fire and then
hearing the report, this will ftiew us exadlly the time
the found has been travelling to us. For inftance, if
the gun is difcharged a mile off, the moment the flafh is
feen,you take awatchand count the feconds till you hear
the found ; the number of feconds is the time the found
has been travelling a mile.—Again, by the above ax¬
iom, we are enabled to find the diftance between ob-
je&s that would be otherwife immeafurable. For ex¬
ample, fuppofe you fee the flafti of a gun in the night at
fea, and tell feven feconds before you hear the report,
it follows therefore, that the diftance is feven times 1x42
feet, that is, 24 yards more than a mile and a half. In
like manner, if you obferve the number of feconds be¬
tween the lightning and the report of the thunder, you
know the diftance of the cloud from whence it proceeds.
Derham has proved by experience, that all founds
I founds whatever travel at the fame rate. The found of a gun,
e and the ftriking of a hammer, are equally fwift in their
motions ; the fofteft whifper flies as fwiftly, as far as
it goes, as the loudeft thunder.
To thefe axioms we may add the following.
17 Smooth and clear founds proceed from bodies that
are homogeneous, and of an uniform figure; and harfli
or obtufe founds, from fuch as are of a mixed matter
and irregular figure.
18 The velocity of found is to that of a briik wind as
fifty to one.
19 The ftrength of founds is greateft in cold and denfe
' air, and leaft in that which is warm and rarefied.
*0 In all founds, the angle of incidence is equal to that
of refleftion; that is, if a line be drawn perpendicular
to the reflecting furface, the point from which the found
iffues, and that to which it is reflected, will be equally
diftant from the perpendicular line.
Chap. III. Of Reverberated Sounds.
i,] 14 Sound, like b’ght, after it has been reflected from
feveral places, may be collected in one point, as into a
focus ; and it will be there more audible than in any
other part, even than at the place from whence it pro-
ij ceeded. On this principle it is that a whifpering gal-
apering lery is conftructed.
4III The form of this gallery muft be that of a concave
a, ’ hemifphere ( e), as ABC; and if a low found or whifper
be uttered at A, the .vibrations expanding themfelves
S T I C S. 63
every way will impinge on the points DDD, fee. and Reverbe-
from thence be reflected to EEE, and from thence to rate<1
the points F and G, till at laft they all meet in C, SQun(is'
where, as we have faid, the found will the moft di-
ftincftly heard.
Upon this principle alfo it is that the fpeaking trum- 2?
pet is formed. For the found, in paffmg through the
long and narrow part of the tube, is continually reflec¬
ted from its curved fide into the axis, and by that means
is prevented from fpreading till at its exit from the tube,
whereby the ftrength of the found is greatly increafed.
To the augmentation of the found, the condenfation of
the air in the tube (by n° 19.) likewife contributes.
But to illuftrate this more particularly: Let ABC p- 4
be the tube, BD the axis, and B the mouth-piece for
conveying the voice to the tube. Then it is evident,
when a perfon fpeaks at B in the trumpet, the whole
force of his voice is fpent upon the air contained in the
tube, which will be agitated through the whole length
of the tube; and, by various refledhons from the fide of
the tube to the axis, the air along the middle part of
the tube will be greatly condenfed, and its momentum
proportionably increafed, fo that when it comes to agi¬
tate the air at the orifice of the tube AC, its force will
be as much greater than what it would have been with¬
out the tube, as the furface of a fphere, whofe radius
is equal to the length of the tube, is greater than the
furface of the fegment of fuch a fphere whofe bafe is
the orifice of the tube. For a perfon fpeaking at B,
without the tube, will have the force of his voice fpent
in exciting concentric fuperficies of air all arpund the
point B ; and when thofe fuperficies or pulfes of air are
diffufed as far as D every way, it is plain the force of
the voice will there be diffufed through the whole fu¬
perficies of a fphere whofe radius is BD; but in the trum¬
pet it will be fo confined, that at its exit it will be dif¬
fufed through fo much of that fpherical furface of air
as correfponds to the orifice of the tube. But fince the
force is given, its intenfity will be always inverfely as
the number of particles it has to move ; and therefore
in the tube it will be to that without, as the fuperficies
of fuch a fphere to the area of the large end of the tube
nearly.—To make this matter yet plainer by calcu¬
lation: Let BD=5 feet, then
will the diameter of the fphere
DE=io feet, the fquare of
which is 100, which multiplied
by 0,7854, gives 78,54 fquare
feet for the area of a great circle
BHEFC; and therefore four ,•
times that area, viz. 4X78,  
54=314,16=fquare feet in the fuperficies of the a-
erial fphere. If now the diameter AC of the end
of a trumpet be one foot, its area will be 0,7854;
but, 7855 : 314,16 :: 1 : 400; therefore the air at
the diftance of BD will be agitated, by means ot
the trumpet,- with a force 400 times greater than by
the voice alone. It muft, however, be obferved,
that the more fonorous and audible the voice is made
by this means, the lefs articulate or diftinft it is : juft
as light, to which found bears in many things a pretty
near refemblance, the more it is diffufed, the lefs will it
diftinguilh the objects whereon it falls; and the more
it is condenfed, the brighter and more diftindl will the
objefts it is thrown on always appear.
(e) A cylindric or elliptic arch will anfwer ftill better than one that is circular.
For
64
ACOUSTICS.
Ch. III.
Reverbe- For a contrary reafon, the auricular tube, here repre-
rated fented, affifts fuch as are hard of hearing:, when not oc-
Sounds. ..... . . . - ^
. cafioned by the humours becoming infpiffated by cold.
16 8cc. and the obftruftions confequent thereon: in which
Auricular cafe> t}j;s machine can be of little fervice; waihing out
Tube’ the wax does much better. But when the organ itfelf
is by age enfeebled and decayed, that is, when the a-
couftic as well as other nerves have loft their delicacy,
this tube may be of real ufe and fervice in rendering
founds more diftinft and audible.—This machine then
feems to be juft the reverfe of the ftentorophonic tube,
or the fpeaking-trumpet juft mentioned ; as the ufe of
that is to diflipate, this is intended to collect, the rays
of found. With regard to the ftru&ure of it, the bafe
is beft made in form of the parabolic curve, finifhing at
top with a fmall bent tube, that it may more conveni¬
ently be applied to the ear. It does thus in fome mea-
fure referable the auditory dinft, or the inner ear itfelf,
which is alfo fomething conical, having the bafe out¬
ward, and the apex next the head ; that fo a larger
quantity of the moved air may be collected, received,
and thereby tranfmitted to the point of the auditory
nerve, which muft be ftiaken to produce hearing and
give this kind of perception. So that this contrivance is
in effect no more than the bafe of the ear enlarged, and
therefore capable of intercepting more of the rays of
found than the ear alone, and that in proportion to its
bafe ; and thefe being gradually contracted into the
fmaller end, are thence thrown upon the tympanum, and
affedt the inner ear according to the force and quantity
of the impreffion received. The fmoothnefs of thefe
machines is no fmall advantage to the conveyance of
founds through them ; for by experiment we know,
that thefe always glide with moft eafe, and move the
fartheft, over fmooth furfaces, where there is nothing
to obftrudt and divert their progrefs, or to occafion a
rebound.
n An echo is a refleftion of found ftriking againft fome
Echoes, objedt, as an image is refledled in a glafs : but it has
been difputed what are the proper qualities in a body
for thus refledting founds. It is in general known, that
caverns, grottoes, mountains, and ruined buildings, re¬
turn this image of found. Image we may call it, for
in every refpedt it refembles the image of a vifible ob-
jedt refledled from a polifhed furface. Our figures are
often reprefented in a mirrour, without feeing them our-
felves, while thofe ftanding on one fide are alone fen-
fible of the refledlion. To be capable of feeing the re-
fledted image of ourfelves, we muft be diredtly in a line
with the image. Juft fo is it in an echo; we muft ftand
in the line in which the found is refledted, or the repe¬
tition will be loft to us, while it may, at the fame time,
be diftindtly heard by others who ftand at a fmall di-
ftance to one fide of us. We have heard of a very ex¬
traordinary echo, at a ruined fortrefs near Louvain, in
Flanders. If a perfon fung, he only heard his own Entertain-
voice, without any repetition: on the contrary, thofe ^gn^sXp^"
who ftood at fome diftance, heard the echo but not the '
voice; but then they heard it with furprifing variations,
fometimes louder, fometimes fofter, now more near,
then more diftant. There is an account in the memoirs
of the French academy, of a fimilar echo near Rouen.
As (by n° 20) the angle of refledted found is equal to
that of its incidence, if we know the point from which
any found proceeds, and the place from which it is re¬
fledted, we may eafily find the point in which its echo
will be heard. To hear the echo of one fyllable, we
muft be at the diftance of 120 feet from the refledting
iurface; for two fyllables, 240 feet; for three fyllables,
360 feet, &c. For when we fpeak diftindtly, we fcarce
pronounce more than three fyllables, or three and
a half, in a fecond; and as (by n° 13,) found goes
1x42 feet in a fecond, if the diftance between the
fpeaker and the refledting furface were lefs than 360
feet, the firft fyllable would be returned before the laft
was pronounced (f), and therefore the echo could not
be diftindtly heard. The echo in Woodftock Park is
faid to return 17 fyllables in the day, and 20 in the
night; for then the air being colder and denfer, (by
n° 19) the ftrength of the found muft be greater.
From hence we may determine, nearly, the diftance of
an objedt that is inaccefiible ; for if an echo of 10 fyl¬
lables be refledted from the fide of a church or tower, it
follows, from what has been faid, that the objedt muft
be 1200 feet diftant.
The fame found may have feveral echoes, if there be
feveral refledting furfaces fo difpofed as to make it re¬
verberate to the fame point. Thus a violin, or other in-
ftrument, when founded in a room where there are fe¬
veral arches of the fame form, will found like a numbei
of violins of the fame fize playing in concert: or if the
arches be of different forms, there will feem to be diffe¬
rent inftruments playing the fame tune.
We ftiall difmifs this article with a few inventions
founded on fome of the preceding principles, which
may amufe a number of our readers.
Entertaining Experiments and Contrivances.
Place a concave mirror of about two feet diameter,
as A B (g ), in a perpendicular diredtion. The focus of I-Ti,e C°R
this mirror may be at 15 or IS inches dittance from tl)e
its furface. At the diftance of about five or fix feet plate II
let there be a partition, in which there is an opening fig. 5-
E F, equal to the fize of the mirror; againft this
opening muft be placed a picture, painted in water¬
colours, on a thin cloth, that the found may eafily pafs
through it (h).
Behind the partition, at the diftance of two or three
feet, place another mirror G H, of the fame fize as the
former,
(f) According to n° 13, the diftance fhould be 380 feet; for the firft: fyllable muft go as far as is equal to the
time the two laft fyllables are pronouncing, that is, two-thirds of a fecond; therefore the diftance ftiould be equal to
two-thirds of 1144 feet, or 7607-, that is, 380-3- going and coming. But as fome time muft be allowed for the reflec¬
ting furface to be made to vibrate by the impinging found, the firft diftance, 360 feet, will be very near the truth.
(g) Both the mirrors here ufed may be of tin or gilt pafteboard, this experiment not requiring fuch as are very ac¬
curate.
(h) The more effedtually to conceal the caufe of this illufion, the mirror AB may be fixed in the wainfcot, and a
gauze or any other thin covering thrown over it, as that will not in the leaft prevent the found from being refledted,.
An experiment of this kind maybe performed in a fielder garden, between two hedges; in one of which the mirror AB
may be placed, and in the other an opening artfully contrived.
Ch. III. A C O U
Entertain- former, and let it be diametrically oppofite to it.
si inS Expert- At the point C let there be placed the figure of a
1 iT1fnts’ f’ man feated on a pedeilal, and let his ear be placed ex-
adtly in the focus of the firft mirror : his lower jaw
muft be made to open by a wire, and fhut by a fpring;
and there may be another wire to move the eyes: thefe
wires muft pafs through the figure, go under the floor,
and come up behind the partition.
Let a perfon, properly inftru&ed, be placed behind
the partition near the mirror. You then propofe to
any one to fpeak foftly to the ftatue, by putting his
mouth to the ear of it, alluring him that it will anfwer
inftantly. You then give the fignal to the perfon be¬
hind the partition, who, by placing his ear to the fo¬
cus I, of the mirror G H, will hear diftindtly what the
other faid; and, moving the jaw and eyes of the ftatue
by the wires, will return an anfwer direftly, which
will in like manner be diftin&ly heard by the firft
fpeaker.
Remark. This experiment appears to be taken from
the Century of Inventions of the Marquis of Worcef-
ter ; whofe defigns, at the time they were publifhed,
were treated with ridicule and neglect as being im-
prafticable, but are now known to be generally, if not
univerfally, practicable. The words of the Marquis are
thefe : “ How to make a brazen or ftone head in the
midft of a great field or garden, fo artificial and natu¬
ral, that though a man fpeak ever fo foftly, and even
whifper into the ear thereof, it will prefently open its
1 mouth, and refolve the queftion in French, Latin,
Wellh, Irilh or Englilh, in good terms, uttering it out
of its mouth, and then Ihut it until the next queftion
be alked.”—The two following, of a fimilar nature,
appear to have been inventions of Kircher, by means
* w^c‘1 (as informs us *) he ufed to “ utter
fe&.vl’c j feigne<f and ludicrous confultations, with a view to
Ihew the fallacy and impofture of ancient oracles.”
ap II. Let there be two heads of plafter of Paris, placed
'r!le. C<.)ST1'on pedeftals, on the oppofite fides of a room. Theremuft
BuflsCaUVe ke a t,a tub of a inch diameter, that muft pafs from, the
ear of one head, through the pedeftal, under the floor,
and go up to the mouth of the other. Obferve, that
the end of the tube which is next the ear of the one
head, fhould be confiderably larger than that end which
comes to the mouth of the other. Let the whole be
fo difpofed that there may'not be the leaft fufpicion of
a communication.
Now, when a perfon fpeaks, quite low, into the ear
of one buft, the found is reverberated thro’ the length
of the tube, and will be diftinftly heard by any one
who ftiall place his ear to the mouth of the other. It
is not neceffary that the tube Ihould come to the lips
of the buft.—If there be two tubes, one going to the
car, and the other to the mouth, of each head, two per-
fons may converfe together, by applying their mouth
and ear reciprocally to the mouth and ear of the bufts;
and at the fame time other perfons that ftand in the
middle of the chamber, between the heads, will not
hear any part of their converfation.
! Thc Qricu HI. Place a buft on a pedeftal in the corner of a
lar Head. * roonl> and let there be two tubes, as in the foregoing
amufement, one of which muft go from the mouth and
the other from the ear of the buft, through the pedeftal,
and the floor, to an under apartment. There may be
likewife wires that go from the under jaw and the eyes
Vol. I.
S T I C S. 6s
of the buft, by which they may be eafily moved. Entertain -
A perfori being placed in the under room, and at a J^Expen-
fignal given applying his ear to one of the tubes, will
hear any queftiou that is alked, and immediately reply;
moving at the fame time, by means of the wires, the mouth
and the eyes of the buft, as if the reply came from it.
IV. Isa large cafe, fuch as is ufed for dials and fpring- A So
clocks, the front of which, or at leaft the lower part of nata_
it, muft be of glafs, covered on the infide with gauze,
let there be placed a barrel-organ, which, when wound
up, is prevented from playing, by a catch that takes a
toothed wheel at the end of the barrel. To one end of
this catch there muft be joined a wire, at the end of
which there is a flat circle of cork, of the fame dimen-
fion with the infide of a glafs tube, in which it is to rife
and fall. This tube muft communicate with a refer-
voir that goes acrofs the front part of the bottom of the
cafe, which is to be filled with fpirits, fuch as is ufed in
thermometers, but not coloured, that it may be the
better concealed by the gauze.
This cafe being placed in the fun, the fpirits will be
rarefied by the heat; and, rifing in the tube, will lift up
the catch or trigger, and fet the organ in play: which
it will continue to do as long as it is kept in the fun ;
for the fpirits cannot run out of the tube, that part of
the catch to which the circle is fixed being prevented
from rifing beyond a certain point by a check placed
over it.
When the machine is placed againft the fide of a
room on which the fun ftiines ftrong, it may conftantly
remain in the fame place, if you inclofe it in a fecond
cafe, made ofr thick wood, and placed at a little di-
ftance from the other. When you want it to perform,
it will be only necefl'ary to throw open the door of the
outer cafe, and expofe it to the fun.
But if the machine be moveable, it will perform in
all feafons by being placed before the fire ; and in the
winter it will more readily ftop when removed into the
cold.
A machine of this fort is faid to have been invented
by Cornelius Dreble, in the laft century. What the
conftruftion of that was, we know not; it might very
likely be more complex, but could fcarce anfwer the
intention more readily.
V. Under the keys of a common harpfichord let there Au;^a_
be fixed a barrel, fomething like that in a chamber or- tpl,s Harp-
gan, with flops orpins correfponding to the tunes you chord,
would have it play. Thefe flops muft be moveable, fo
that the tunes may be varied at pleafure. From each
of the keys let there go a wire perpendicular down :
the ends of thefe wires muft be turned up for about one-
fourth of an inch. Behind thefe wires let there be an
iron bar, to prevent them from going too far back.
Now, as the barrel turns round, its pins take the ends
of the wires, which pull down the keys, and play the
harpfichord. The barrel and wires are to be all in-
clofed in a cafe.
In the chimney of the fame room where the harpfi¬
chord ftands, or at leaft in one adjacent, there muft be
a fmoke jack *, from whence comes down a wire, or * See
cord, that, palling behind the wainfcot adjoining the Mechanics,
chimney, goes under the floor, and up one of the legs n 7*’
of the harpfichord, into the cafe, and round a fmall
wheel fixed on the axis of that firft mentioned. There
Ihould be pullies at different diftances, behind the wain-
I fcot
66 ACOUSTICS.
Entertain- {-cot an(j under the floor, to facilitate the motion of the
ing Experi- cj10r(j_
•^e-n-S:—- This machinery may be applied to any other key¬
ed inftrument, as well as to chimes, and to many o-
ther purpofes where a regular continued motion is re¬
quired.
An inftrument of this fort may be confidered as a
perpetual motion, according to the vulgar accepta¬
tion of the term; for it will never ceafe going till the
fire be extinguifhed, or fame parts of the machinery be
, worn out.
A Ventofal VI. At the top of a fummer-houfe, or other building,
Symphony, let there be fixed a vane AB, on which is the pinion C,
Plate III. tgkes the toothed wheel D, fixed on the axis EF,
which at its other end carries the wheel G, that takes
the pinion H. All thefe wheels and pinions are to be
between the roof and the deling of the building. The
pinion H is fixed to the perpendicular axis IK, which
goes down very near the wall of the room, and may be
covered after the fame manner as are bell-wires. At
the ,lower end of the axis IK there is a fmall pinion L,
that takes the wheel M, fixed on the axis of the great
wheel NO. In this wheel there muft be placed a num¬
ber of flops, correfponding to the tunes it is to play.
Thefe flops are to be moveable, that the tunes may be
altered at pleafure. Againft this wheel there muft
hang twelve fmall bells, anfwering to the notes of the
gamut. Therefore, as the wheel turns round, the1
flops ftriking againft the bells, play the feveral tunes.
There fhould be a fly to the great wheel, to regulate
its motion when the wind is flrong. The wheel NO,
and the bells, are to be inclofed in a cafe.
There may be feveral fets of bells, one of which
may anfwer to the tenor, another to the treble, and a
third to the bafs ; or they may play different tunes, ac¬
cording to the fize of the wheel. As the bells are
fmall, if they are of filver, their tone will be the more
pleafing.
Inftead of bells, glafies may be here ufed, fo difpo-
fed as to move freely at the ftroke of the flops. This
machinery may likewife be applied to a barrel-organ;
and to many other ufes.
A C Q_
Acqs ACQS, a town at the foot of the Pyrenasan moun-
Ij tains, in the government of Foix in France. It takes its
Acquittance name from the hot waters in thefe parts. E.long. 1.40.
lat. 43. o.
ACQUA-CHE-TAVELLA, a celebrated foun¬
tain of Italy, in Calabria Citerior, a province of Naples.
It is near the mouth of the river Grata, and the ruins
commonly called Sibari Rovinata. It has been faid to
beautify thofe who wafhed in it.
AQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of Italy,
in the territory of the church, and patrimony of St
Peter, with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Paglia, ten miles W. of Orvieto, and
57 N. by W. of Ropie. E. long. 11. 53. lat. 42. 43.
ACQUARIA, a fmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a
diftri£t of Modena, which is remarkable for its medici¬
nal waters. It is twelve miles fouth of the city of Mo¬
dena. E. long. 11. 17. lat. 44. 24.
ACQUEST, or Acquist, in law, fignifies goods
got bypurchafe or donation. See Conquest.
ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mont-
ferrat, with a bifhop’s fee, and commodious baths. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1745, and retaken by
the Piedmontefe in 1746 ; but after this, it was taken
again and difmantled by the French, who afterwards
forfook it. It is feated on the river Bormio, 25 miles
N. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Cafal. E. long.-8. 30.
lat. 44. 40.
ACQUISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining
or procuring fomething. Among lawyers, it is ufed
for the right or title to an eftate got by purchafe or
donation.
ACQUITTAL, a difcharge, deliverance, or fet-
ting of a perfon free from the guilt or fufpicion of an of¬
fence.
ACQUITTANCE, a releafe or difcharge in wri¬
ting for a fum of money, witnefling that the party has
paid the faid fum.—No man is obliged to pay a fum of
money if the demandant refufes to give an acquittance,
which is a full difcharge, and bars all aftions, fyc.. An
acquittance given by a fervant for a fum of money re¬
ceived for the ufe of his mafter, fhall be a good dif-
A C R
charge for that fum, provided the fervant ufed to re¬
ceive his mafter’s rents, debts, &c.
ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea,
where the Englifh, Dutch, and Danes, have llrong
forts, and each fort its particular village. W. long. o. 2.
lat. 5. o.
Acra, (Jofephus)'; one of the hills of Jerufalem, on
which flood the lower town, which was the Old Jeru¬
falem ; to which was afterwards added Zion, or the city
of David. Probably called Acra, from the fortrefs
which Antiochus built there, in order to annoy the
temple, and which Simon Maccabaeus took and razed
to the ground.
Acra Japygia, (Pliny); . (Ptolemy);
now Capo di San Maria di Leuca ; a promontory in the
kingdom of Naples, to the fcuth-eaft of Otranto, where
formerly was a town, now lying in ruins, on the Io¬
nian fea, over againft the Montes Acroceraunii of
Epirus.
Acr.e, in the ancient geography, a town of Sicily,
whofe inhabitants were called Acrenfes. It flood to
the foqjli of Syracufe at the diftance of 24 miles, near
the place now called the monaftery of Santa Maria
d’ Arcia, on an eminence, as appears from Silius Italicus..
The Syracufans were the founders of it, according to
Thucydides, 70 years after the building of Syracufe,
or 665 before Chrift. Hence the epithet Acrxus.
ACRAGAS, or Agragas, (anc.geogr.) fo called
bythe Greeks, andfometimes by the Romans, (Virgil);
but more generally Agrigentum by the latter ; a town
of Sicily. In Greek medals the inhabitants are called
akpitantinoIj and Agrigentini by Cicero. The town
flood upon a mountain, at the confluence of the Acra-
gas and Hypfa, near the port called E/iTOfiov by Ptole¬
my, but Eximov, or the Dock, by Strabo; and in the
time of the latter, fcarce a trace of all that fide remain¬
ed. In the year before Chrift 584, the people of Gela
built Acragas, 108 years after building their own city.
It took its name from the river running by it; and be¬
ing but two miles from, enjoyed all the conveniencies
that could come by, the fea. It was a place of great
ftrength, {landing on the top of a very fteep rock, and
w.aftiqd
Ch. in.
Entertain¬
ing Experi¬
ments, &c.
Acra
Ac/gas
Plateau^
A C R [ 67 j A C R
Acrafia wafhed on the fouth fide by the river Acragas, now
called Fiume di Gergenti, and on the fouth-weft by the
.  Hypfa, with a citadel to the fouth-eaft, externally fur-
rounded by a deep gulf, which made it inacceffible but
on the fide next the town. It was famous for the ty¬
rant Phalaris and his brazen bull. They were a people
luxurious in their tables, and magnificent in their dwell¬
ings; of whom Empedocles, in Diogenes Laertius, fays,
that they lived to-day as if they were to die to-morrow,
and built as if they were to live for ever. The coun¬
try round the city was laid out in vine and olive yards,
in the produce of which they carried on a great and
profitable commerce with Carthage. E. long. 13.30.
lat. 37. 20.
AC R AS I A, among phyficians, implies the predo¬
minancy of one quality above another, either with re¬
gard to artificial mixtures, or the humours of the hu¬
man body. The word is Greek, and compounded of «,
priv. and xEfowi^i to mix; q. d. not mixed in a juft pro¬
portion.
ACR ATH, (anc. geog.) a place in Mauritania Tin-
gitana, (Ptolemy ;) now fuppofed to be Velez de Go-
vtara; a fortified town in the kingdom of Fez, with a
citadel and commodious harbour on the Mediterranean,
fcarce a mile diftant from Penon de Velez, a Spanilh
fort. W. long.. 5. lat. 34. 45.
ACRE, or Acra, a fea-port town in Syria. It was
formerly called Ptolemais, and is a bilhop’s fee. It was
very famous in the time of the crufadoes, and under¬
went feveral fieges both by the Chriftians and Sara¬
cens. It is now an inconiiderable town, being entirely
fupported by its harbour, which is frequented by (hips
of feveral nations. It is 20 miles S. of Tyre, and 3 7 N.
of Jerufalem. E. long. 39. 25. lat. 32.40.
Acre, in the Mogul’s dominions, the fame with lack,
and fignifies the fum of 100,000 rupees ; the rupee is
of the value of the French crown of 3 livres, or 30 fols
of Holland ; an 100 lacks of rupees make a couron in
Indoftan, or 10,000,000 rupees: the pound Sterling is
about eight rupees ; according to which proportion, a
lack of rupees amounts to 12,500 pounds Sterling.
Acre, a meafure of land ufed in feveral provinces of
France, particularly Normandy. It is larger or lefs ac¬
cording to the different places; but commonly contains
160 perches.
The Acre of woods in France, confifts of four roods,
called vergees; the rood is 40 perches, the perch 24
feet, the foot 12 inches, the inch 12 lines.
Acre, the univerfal meafure of land in Britain. An
acre in England contains four fquare roods, a rood 40
perches or poles of 16^ feet each by ftatute. Yet this
meafure does not prevail in all parts of England, as the
length of the pole varies in different counties, and is
called cujiomary me afire, the difference running from
the 164- feet to 28. The acre is alfo divided into 10
fquare chains, of 22 yards each, that is 4840 fquare
yards. An acre in Scotland contains 4 fquare roods;
one fquare rood is 40 fquare falls ; one fquare fall,' 36
fquare ells ; one fquare ell, nine fquare feet and 73
fquare inches; one fquare foot, 144 fquare inches.
The Scots acre is alfo divided into 1 o fquare chains ;
the meafuring chain fhould be 24 ells in length, divi¬
ded into 100 links, each link inches; and fo one
fquare chain will contain 10,000 fquare links. The
Englifh ftatute-acre is about three roods and fix falls
ftandard meafure of Scotland. Acribeia
The word (formed from the Saxon acher, or the II
German aker, a field), did not originally fignify a de- -A^rid.0'
termined quantity of land, but any open ground, efpe- P ag ’ 
daily a wide champaign ; and, in this antique fenfe, it
feems to be preferved in the names of places, as Caftle-
acre, Weft-acre, &c.
ACRIBEIA, a term purely Greek, literally deno¬
ting an exquifite or delicate accuracy; fometimes ufed
in our language for want of a word of equal fignifica-
tion.
ACRID, a name for any thing that is of a fharp or
pungent tafte.
Acrids, in the MateriaMedica. See there, n° 25, i&tf*
ACRIDOPHAGI, in the ancient geography ; an
Ethiopian people, reprefented as inhabiting near the
deferts, and to have fed on locufts. •I'his latter cir-
cumftance their name imports; the word being com¬
pounded of the Greek locuf, and ?«/=« to eat. We
have the following account of them by Diodorus Si¬
culus *. Their ftature was lower than that of other ^
men; they were meagre, and extremely black. In the AlfoStrab'o
fpring, high weft winds drove from the defart to their lib. xvi.
quarter locufts of an extraordinary fize, and remarkable
for the fqualid colour of their wings. So great was
the number of thefe infefts, that they were the only
fuftenance of the barbarians, who took them in the fol¬
lowing manner: At the diftance of fome ftadia from
their habitations there was a wide and deep valley.
They filled this valley with wood and wild herbs, with
which their country abounded. When the cloud of
locufts appeared, which were driven on by the wind,
they fet fire to the fuel which they had collected. The
fmoke which arofe from this immenfe fire was fo thick,
that the locufts, in crofting the valley, were ftifled by
it, and fell in heaps on the ground. The pafiage of
the locufts being thus intercepted for many days, they
made a large provifion of thofe infefts. As their coun¬
try produced great quantities of fait, they falted them,
to render them more palatable, and to make them keep
till the next feafon. This peculiar fupply was their
foie food: they had neither herds nor flocks. They
were unacquainted with fiftiing ; for they lived at a dif¬
tance from the fea. They were very adftive, and ran
with great fwiftnefs. But their life was not of long
duration ; it exceeded not forty years. The clofe of
their life was extremely miferable ; for in their old-age,
winged lice of different, but all of ugly forms, bred in
their bodies. This malady, which began in the breaft
and belly, foon fpread through the whole frame. The
patient at firft felt an itching ; and the agreeable fen-
fation produced by his fcratching of himfelf, preceded
a moft deplorable calamity. For when thofe lice,
which had bred in his body, forced their way out,
they caufed effufions of corrupt blood, with excrucia¬
ting pains in the Ikin. The unhappy man, with la¬
mentable cries, was induftrious himfelf to make paf-
fages for them with his nails. Irr fhort, thefe lice if-
fued forth fucceftively from the wounds made by the
hands of the patient, as from a veffel full of holes, and
in fuch numbers that it was impofiible to exterminate
them.—^Whether this extraordinary and dreadful dif-
temper was occafioaed by the food of the inhabitants
of this country, or by a peftilential quality of their
climate, it is difficult to determine. Indeed, as to the
I 2 credibility
A C R [ 63 ] A C R
Acrido- credibility of the whole accoufit, we mull leave the ciples or followers of Ariftotle, &c. who were admit- Acroatic
Phag‘ reader to judge.—But though the circumftances of thefe ted into the fecrets of the inner or acroamatic phi- ^ II
Acroama- Peopk fhould be deemed fabulous, yet may the acrido- lofophy. Cr°n‘
tici. phagia be true. It is well known, that to this day the ACROATIC. Ariftotle’s leftures to his difciples
   inhabitants of Ethiopia, Arabia, &c. frequently ufe were of two kinds, exoteric and acroatic. The a-
locufts as food. The reader will not be difpleafed if croatic were thofe, to which only his own difci-
we lay before him the refult of Dr Hafielquift’s in- pies and intimate friends were admitted; whereas the
quiries as to this particular, who travelled in Syria and exoteric were public and open to all. But there are
Egypt fo late as the year 1752. This ingenious gen- other differences. The acroatic were fet apart for the
tleman, who travelled with a view to improve natural higher and more abftrufe fubjefts; the exoteric were
hiftory, informs us, that he afked Franks, and many employed in rhetorical and civil fpeculations. Again,
other people who had lived long in thefe countries, whe- the acroatics were more fubtile and exaft, evidence
ther they had ever heard that the inhabitants of Arabia and demonftration being here aimed at; the exoterics
and Ethiopia, <&c. ufed locufls as food. They anfwer- chiefly aimed at the probable and plaullble. The far¬
ed that they had. ' He likewife a feed the fame que- mer were the fubjeft of the mornings exercifes in the
ftion of Armenians, Cophtes, and Syrians, who lived in Lyceum, the latter of the evenings. Add, that the exo-
Arabia, and had travelled in Syria and near the Red- terics were publiihed: whereas the acroatics were kept
fea ; feme of whom faid they heard of fuch a practice, fecret; being either entirely concealed; or if they were
and others that they had often feen the people eat publiflred, it was in fuch obfeure terms, that few but
thefe infetts. He at laft obtained complete fatisfac- his own difciples would be the wifer for them. Hence,
tion on this head from a learned (heck at Cairo, who when Alexander complained of his preceptor for pub-
had lived fix years in Mecca. This gentleman told lifhing his acroatics, and thus revealing what fhould
him, in prefence of M. le Grand the principal French have been referved to his difciples, Ariftotle anfwered,
interpreter at Cairo, and others, that a famine frequent- that they were made public and not public; for that
ly rages at Mecca when there is a fcarcity of corn in none who had not heard them explained by the author
Egypt, which obliges the inhabitants to live upon coar- viva voce, would underftand them,
fer food than ordinary : That when corn is fcarce, the ACROATHOUM, or Acrothoum, (anc. geogr.)
Arabians grind the locufts in hand-mills, or ftone- a town fituated on the top of mount Athos, where the
mortars, and bake them into cakes, and ufe thefe cakes inhabitants, according to Mela, were longer lived by
in place of bread : That he has frequently feen locufts half than in any other country : called by the modern
ufed by the Arabians, even when there was no fcarci- Greeks, by the Italians, La Cima di Monte
ty of com; but then they boil them, flew them with Santo.
butter, and make them into a kind of fricaflee, which ACROCERAUNIA, or Montes Ceraunii, (anc.
he fays is not difagreeably tailed, for he had fome- geogr.) mountains running out into the fea, (fo called
times tailed thefe locuft-fricaffees out of curiofity. from their being often thunder-ftruck); feparating the
From this account, we may fee the folly of that dif- Ionian fea from the Adriatic ; where Illyria ends and
pute among divines about thenature of St John’s food in Epirus begins, (Horace): now called Monti della Chi-
the wildernefs: fome maintaining the original word to mer a.
fignify the fruits of certain trees ; others, a kind of ACROCORINTHUS, (anc. geogr.) a high and
birds, be.: but thofe who adhered to the literal mean- fleep hill, hanging over the city of Corinth, which was.
ing of the text were at leaf! the moll orthodox, although taken within the walls, as an acropolis, or citadel. On
their arguments were perhaps not fo ftrong as they might its top flood a temple of Venus; and lower down’ifTued
have been, had they had an opportunity of quoting fuch the fountain Pyrene, yielding not a plentiful, but a
an author as Haffelquift. clear ftream of water, (Pliny.)
ACRIMONY, that quality in bodies which renders ACROMION, in anatomy, the upper part of the
them acrid to the tafte. fcapula. See Anatomy, n° 45, 46.
Acrimony. See Medicine, n° 127,—132, ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM, in poetry, a
and 263. kind of poem, wherein every fubfequent verfe begins
ACRTSIUSjkingof Argos, (fab. hid.) being told by with the letter wherewith the immediately preceding
the oracle he that fhould be killed by his grandchild, fliut one terminated.
up his only daughterDanae in a brazen tower: but Jupi- ACRON, a celebrated phyfician of Agrigentum,
ter coming down in a golden fhower, begot Perfeus upon who firft thought of lighting large fires, and purify-
her : after Perfius had flain the Gorgons, he carried ing the air with perfumes, to put a flop to the pefti-
Medufa’s head to Argos ; which Acrifius feeing, was lence that ravaged Athens, and which was attended
turned into a Jlatue. with fuecefs. He lived about four.hundred and feventy
ACRITAS, (anc. geogr.) a promontory of Meffenia, three years before the Chriftian sera,
near MJfthone, (Ptolemy) ; running into the fea, and Acron, a territory on the gold-coaft of Guinea, in
forming the beginning of the bay of Meffene. Now Africa, bordering on the Fantynean country. The
called Capo di Gallo, between Methone to the weft, Dutch have a fort here, called Fort Patience; and un-
and Corone to the eaft, where the Sinus Coronasus der it is a village, inhabited only by fifhermen. The
begins. other inhabitants are addifted to hufbandry, and fell
ACRIVIOLA. See Tropjeolum. ' their corn to other countries. There is plenty of game,
ACROAMATIC, or Acroatic, in general, de- which is very commodious for the Dutch factory. The
motes a thing fublime, profound, or abftrufe. people are very ignorant, and go naked like the reft of
ACRQAMATICI, a denomination given the dif- the negroes. This is called Little Acron; for Great
Acron
A C R [ 69 1 ACT
Acronical Acron is farther inland, and is a kind of a repu-
! I!. blic.
Rcrofticum. ACRONICAL, Achronycal, or Achronical,
in aftronomy, is a term applied to the rifing of a ftar,
when the fun is fet in the evening ; but has been pro-
mifcuoufly ufed to exprefs a liar’s rifing at funfet, or
fetting at funrife.
ACROPOLIS, (anc. geogr.) the citadel, and one
of the divifions, of Athens; called Palis, becaufe confti-
tuting the firft and original city ; and the Upper Polis,
to diltinguilh it froin the Lower, which was afterwards
built round it in a large open plain, the Acropolis Hand¬
ing on a rock or eminence in the heart of this plain ;
and hence its name: (Paufanias). To the north it had a
wall, built by the Pelafgi, and therefore called Pelafgic;
and to the fouth a wall, by Cymon the fon of Miltia-
des, out of the Perfian fpoils, many ages after the
building of the north wall, (Plutarch). It had nine
gates, and was therefore called Enneapylon ; yet but one
principal gate or entrance, the afcent to which was by
a flight of Heps of white marble, built by Pericles with
great magnificence, (Plutarch).
ACROPOL1TA (George), one of the writers of
the Byzantine hiftory, was born at Conftantinople, in
the year 1220, and brought up at the court of the em¬
peror John Ducas at Nice. He was employed in the
moil important affairs of the empire ; being fent am-
baffador to Lariffa, to eftablilh a peace with Michael
of Epirus; and was conftituted judge to try Michael
Comnenus, fufpefted of engaging in a confpiracy.
Theodorus Lafcaris, the fon of John, whom he had
taught logic, appointed him governor of all the weftern
provinces in his empire. In 1255, he was taken pri-
foner in a war with Michael Angelus ; but gaining his
liberty in 1260, by means of the emperor Palasologus,
he was fent by him ambaffador to Ccnftantine prince of
Bulgaria ; and was employed in feveral other negocia-
tions. He wrote, A Continuation of the Greek Hi¬
ftory, from the taking of Conftantinople by the Latins,
till it was recovered by Michael PaHologus in 1261,
which makes part of the Byzantine hiftory ; A Trea-
tife concerning Faith, Virtue, and the Soul ; An Ex-
pofition upon the Sermons of St Gregory Nazianzen ;
and other pieces. Gregory Cyprian, patriarch of Con¬
ftantinople, in his encomium upon him, prefixed to
Acropolita’s hiftory, is perhaps fomewhat extravagant
in his praife, when he fays he was equal to Ariftotle
in philofophy, and to Plato in the knowledge ofHivine
things and Attic eloquence.
ACROSPIRE, a vulgar term for what botanifts
call theSee Plants, n°5.
ACROSPIRED, in malt-making, is the grain’s
fhooting both at the root and blade end.
ACROSTIC, in poetry, a kind of poetical compo-
fition difpofed in fuch a manner, that the initial letters
of the verfes form the name of fome perfon, kingdom,
place, motto, &c. The word is compounded of the
Greek extremity, and verfe. The acroftic
is confidered by the critics as a fpecies of falfe wit, and
is therefore very little regarded by the moderns.
ACR.OSTICUM, or Rustyback, in botany, a ge-
1 hus of the cryptogamia Slices, of which there are 30
fpecies, but only three of them natives of Britain,
viz. the feptentrionale, or horned fern, which grows on
walls or clifts of rocks; the ilvenfe, or hairy fern, grow¬
ing in clifts of rocks; and the thelypteris, or marfti- Aero ft o-
fern, in turfy bogs. lil1m
ACROSTOLIUM, inancient naval archite£lure,the
extreme part of the ornament ufed on the prows of 
their ftiips, which was fometimes in the ftiape of a
buckler, helmet, animal, &c.; but more frequently cir¬
cular, or fpiral. It was ufual to tear them from the
prows of vanquiftied veffels, and fix them to the con¬
querors, as a fignal of viftory.
ACROTELEUTIC, among ecclefiaftic wn-iters, an
appellation given to any thing added to the end of a
pfalm ; as the Gloria Patri, or Doxology.
ACROTERIA, in archite&ure, fmall pedeftals,
ufually without bafes, anciently placed at the middle
or two extremes of pediments or frontifpieces, ferving
to fupport the ftatues, &c. It alfo fignifies the figures
placed as ornaments on the tops of churches, and the
ftiarp pinnacles that ftand in ranges about flat build¬
ings with rails and ballufters.
Among ancient phyficians, it fignified the larger ex¬
tremities of the body, as the head, hands, and feet. It
has alfo been ufed for the tips of the fingers, and fome¬
times for the eminences or proceffes of bones.
ACROTHYMlON, from extreme, and
thyme. A fort of wart deferibed by Celfus, as hard,
rough, with a narrow bafis, and broad top ; the top is
of the colour of thyme, it eafily fplits and bleeds. This
tumour is alfo called thymus.
ACSOR, a town in the river Nile in Egypt, famed
for its earthen ware.
ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power;
and differs from power, as the effect from the caufe.
Act, in logic, is particularly underftood of an ope¬
ration of the human mind. Thus to difeern and ex¬
amine, are a6ls of the underftanding ; to judge and af¬
firm, are a£ts of the will. There are voluntary and
fpontaneous a£ls ; the former are produced by the
operation of the foul, the latter without its privity or
participation.
Act, in the univerfities, fignifies a thefis maintained
in public by a candidate for a degree, or to fliew the
capacity and proficiency of a ftudent. The candidates
for a degree of bachelor and mafter of arts are to hold
philofophical A£ls ; and thofe for bachelor of divinity,
theological A£ts, &c. At Oxford, the time when ma¬
ilers or dodlors complete their degrees is alfo called the
aft; which is held with great folemnity. At Cam¬
bridge, they call it the commencement.
Act, among lawyers, is an inftrument in writing for
declaring or juftifying the truth of any thing. In which
fenfe, records, decrees, fentences, reports, certificates,
&c. are called atts.
Acts, alfo denote the deliberations and refolutions
of an affembly, fenate, or convention; as a£ls of parlia¬
ment, &c. Likewife matters of faft tranfmitted to
pofterity in certain authentic books and memoirs.
Acts of the fenate, f'Atta Senatus), among the Ro¬
mans, were minutes of what paffed and was debated in
the fenate-houfe. Thefe were alfo called Commentarii,
and by a Greek name They had their bri-
in in the confullhip of Julius Csefar, who ordered them
oth to be kept and publilhed. The keeping them
was continued under Auguftus, but the publication
was abrogated. Afterwards all writings, relating to
the decrees or fentences of the judges, or what paffed
and
A c T [ -,
Ac's. and was done before them, or by their authority, in
any caufe, were alfo called by the name : In
which fenfe we read of civil afts, criminal ads, inter-
venient a£ts; a El a civilia, criminalia, intervenientia, <&c.
Acts of the people, (AElaPopuli), among the Ro¬
mans, were journals or regifters of the daily occurrences;
as affemblies, trials, executions, buildings, births, mar¬
riages, deaths, &c. of illuftrious perfons, and the like.
Thefe were otherwife called A El a Publica, and AEia
Diurna, or limply AEla. The A El a differed from An¬
nals, in that only the greater and more important mat¬
ters were in the latter, and thofe of lefs note were in the
former. Their origin is attributed to Julius Csefar,
who firfl; ordered the keeping and making public the
afts of the people. Some trace them higher, to Servius
Tullius ; who, to difcover the number of perfons born,
dead, and alive, ordered that the next of kin, upon a
birth, Ihould put a certain piece of money into the
treafury of Juno Lucina ; upon a death, into that of
Venus Libitina : the like was alfo to be done upon af-
fuming the toga virilis, &c. Under Marcus Antoni¬
nus, this was carried further: perfons were obliged to
notify the births of their children, with their names,
and furnames, the day, conful, and whether legitimate
or fpurious, to the prasfe&s of the JErarium Saturtii,
to be entered in the public a&s ; though before this
time the births of perfons of quality appear to have
thus been regiftred.
Public Acts. The knowledge of public a£ts forms
* See part of a peculiar fcience, called the diplomatic *,
Diplomatics. 0f great importance to an hiftorian, ftatefman, chro-
nologer, and even critic. The prefervation of them
was the firft occafion of erecting libraries. The ftyle
of a&s is generally barbarous Latin. Authors are di¬
vided as to the rules of judging of their genuinenefs,
and even whether there be any certain rules at all. F.
Germon will have the greater part of the afts of former
ages to be fpurious. Fontanini afferts, that the num¬
ber of forged a61:s now extant is very fmall. It is cer¬
tain there were fevere punilhments inflidled on the for¬
gers and falfifiers of acts.—The chief of the Englifh
acts, or public records, are publifhed by Rymer, under
the title of Fiedera, and continued by Saunderfon ; an
extra6t whereof has been given in French by Rapin, and
tranflated into Englifh under the title of AEia Regia.
Great commendations have been given this work: alfq
fome exceptions made to it; as that there are many fpuri¬
ous afts, as well as errors, in it; fome have even charged
it with falfifications.—The public acts of France fell
into the hands of the Englifh after the battle of Poitiers,
and are commonly faid to have been earned by them
out of the country. But the tradition is not fupported
by any fufEcient teftimony.
Acts of the Apofles, one of the facred books of the
New Teftament, containing the hiftory of the infant-
church, during the fpace of 29 or 30 years, from the
afeenfion of our Lord to the year of Chrift 63.—It was
wrote by St Luke; and addreffed to Theophilus, the
perfon to whom the evangelift had before dedicated his
gofpel. We here find the accompli fhment of feveral of
the promifes made by our Saviour; his afeenfion; the
defeent of the Holy Ghoft; the firft preaching of the a-
_ poftles, and the miracles whereby their dodlrines were
confirmed; an admirable pi6lure of the manners of the
primitive Chriftians; and, in fhort, every thing that
>0 ] ACT
paffed in the church till the difperfion of the apoftlcs, A<fts.
who feparated themfelves incorder to propagate the "
gofpel throughout the world. From the period of that
separation, St Luke quits the hiftory of the other apo-
ftles, who were then at too great a diftance from him,
and confines himfelf more particularly to that of St
Paul, who had chofen him for the companion of his
labours. He follows that apoftle in all his miffions,
arid even to Rome itfelf; for it appears that the Afts
were publilhed in the fecond year of St Paul’s refidence
in that city, or the 36th year of the Chriftian asra, and
in the 9th or 10th year of Nero’s reign. "The ftyle of
this work, which was originally compofed in Greek, is
much purer than that of the other canonical writers ;
and it is obfervable, that St Luke, who was much better
acquainted with the Greek than with the Hebrew lan¬
guage, always, in his quotations from the Old Tefta¬
ment, makes ufe of the Septuagint verfion. The coun¬
cil of Laodicea places the Afts of the Apoftles among
the canonical books, and all the churches have acknow¬
ledged it as fuch without any controverfy.
There were feveral Spurious Acts of the Apo¬
stles; particularly, I. A Els, fuppofed to be writ¬
ten by Abdias*, the pretended bilhop of Babylon, *SeeAldias.
who gave out that he was ordained biftiop by the apo¬
ftles themfelves when they were upon their journey
into Perfia. II. The AEls of St Peter : this book came
originally from the fcljool of the Ebionites. III. The
AEls of St Paul, which is entirely loft. Eufebius, who
had feen it, pronounces it of no authority. IV. The
AEls of St John the Evangelift ; a book made ufe by
the Encratites, Manichseans, and Prifcillianifts. V. The
AEls of St Andrew ; received by the Manichaeans, En¬
cratites, and Apotaftics. VI. The AEls of St Thomas
the apoftle; received particularly by the Manichaeans.
VII. The AEls of St Philip. This book the Gnoftics
made ufe of. VIII. The AEis of St Matthias. Some
have imagined, that the Jews for a long time had con¬
cealed the original afts of the life and death of St Mat¬
thias, written in Hebrew; and that a monk of the ab¬
bey of St Matthias at Treves, having got them out of
their hands, procured them to be tranflated into Latin,
and publilhed them. But the critics will not allow them
to be authentic. See Canon.
Acts of Pilate; a relation fent by Pilate to the em¬
peror Tiberius, concerning Jefus Chrift, his death, re-
furredtion, afeenfion, and the crimes of which he was
convifted before him*. It was a cuftom among the * Eufebxi
Romans, that the proconfuls and governors of provin- Ecd'f
ces Ihould draw up a&s, or memoirs, of what happened
in the courfe of their government, and fend them to the
emperor and fenate. The heretics corrupted thefe a&s,
at leaft forged others in imitation of them ; and, in the
reign of the emperor Maximin, the Gentiles,, to throw
an odium on the Chriftian name, fpread about fpurious
Afts of Pilate ; which the emperor, by a folemn edi£t,
ordered to be fent into all the provinces of the empire,
and enjoined the fchool-mafters to teach and explain
them to their fcholars, and make them learn them by
heart. Thefe afts, both the genuine and the fpurious,
are loft. There is indeed extant, in the Pfeudo-Hege-
fippus, a letter from Pilate to the emperor Claudius,
concerning Jefus Chrift f. But it difeovers itfelf at f Cave Hi/?,
firft fight not to be authentic. ^
Act of Faith, Auto da Fe, in the Romilh church, 0'
ACT
[ 7' 3
ACT
is a folemn day held by the inquifition, for the punifli- is Handing at their elbow to receive their fouls, and
ment of heretics, and the abfolution of the innocent ac- carry them with him into the flames of hell. On this
ul- cufed *. They ufually contrive the 4uto to fall on fome a great Ihout is raifed; and the cry is, Let the dogs .
great feftival, that the execution may pafs with the beards be made; which is done by thrufting flaming
more awe and regard; at leaft it is always on a Sunday, furzes faftened to long poles againfl: their faces, till
The Auto da Fe may be called the laft aft of the their faces are burnt to a coal,"which is accompanied
inquifitorial tragedy; it is a kind of goal-delivery, ap- with the loudeil acclamations of joy. At laft, fire is fet
pointed as oft as a competent number of prifoners
the inquifition are convifted of herefy, either by the
own voluntary, or extorted confeffion, or on the
to the furz at the bottom of the flake, over which the
profeffed are chained fo high, that the top of the flame
i- feldom reaches higher than the feat they fit on, fo that
dence of certain witnefles. The procefs is thus: in the they rather feem roafted than burnt. There cannot be
morning, they are brought into a great hall, where a more lamentable fpeftacle ; the fufferers continually
they have certain habits put on, which they are to wear cry out, while they are able, Mifericordia per amor de
in the proceffion. The proceffion is led up by domini- Dios: yet it is beheld by all fexes, and ages, with
can friars; after which come the penitents, fome with tranfpoits of joy and fatisfaftion.
fan-benitoes, and fome without, according to the na- Acr, in dramatic poetry, fignifies a certain divi-
ture of their crimes; being all in black coats without fion, or part, of a play, defigned to give fome refpite
fleeves, and bare-footed, with a wax candle in their both to the aftors and fpeftators. The Romans were
hands. Thefe are followed by the penitents who have the firft who divided their theatrical pieces, into afts ;
narrowly efcaped being burnt, who over their black for no fuch divifions appear in the works of the firft
coats have flames painted with theirpoints turned down- dramatic poets. Their pieces indeed confifted of feve-
wards, Feugo revolto. Next come the negative, and ral parts or divifions, which they called protafis, epita-
relapfed, who are to be burnt, having flames on their fis, catajiafis, and catajirophe; but thefe divifions were
habits pointing upwards. After theft come fuch as pro- not marked by any real interruptions on the theatre,
fefs doftrines contrary to the faith of Rome, who, be- Nor does Ariftotle mention any thing of afts in his Art
fides flames pointing upwards, have their pifture paint¬
ed on their breafts, with dogs, ferpents, and devils, all
open-mouthed, about it. Each prifoner is attended
with a familiar of the inquifition ; and thoft to be burnt
have alfo a Jefuit on each hand, who are continually
of Poetry. But, in the time of Horace, all regular and
finilhed pftces were divided into five afts.
Neuve minor, neu Jit quinto produftior aciu
Fabula, qux pofci vult & fpettata reponi.
The firft aft, according to fome critics, befides in¬
preaching to them to abjure. After the prifoners, comes troducing upon the ftage the principal charafters of the
a troop of familiars on horfeback; and after them the play, ought to propoft the argument or fubjeft of the
inquifitors, and other officers of the court, on mules; piece ; the fecond, to exhibit this to the audience, by
laft of all, the inquifitor-general on a white horfe, led carrying the fable into execution; the third, to raife ob-
by two men with black hats and green hat-bands. A ftacles and difficulties : the fourth to remove thefe, or
fcaffold is erefted in the Terriero de Paio, big enough raift new ones in the attempt; and the fifth, to con-
for two or three thoufar.d people; at one end of which elude the piece, by introducing fome accident that may
are the prifoners, at the other the iqquifitors. After unravel the whole affair. This divifion, however, is
a fermon made up of encomiums of the inquifition, and not effentially neceffary ; but may be varied according
inveftives againft heretics, a prieft afeends a defk near to the humour of the author, or the nature of the fub-
the middle of the fcaffold, and having taken the abjura- jeft. See Poetry, Parti, chap. ii.
tion of the penitents, recites the final fentence of thofe Act of grace. See Grace.
who are to be put to death; and delivers them to the Act of Parliament is a pofitive law, confifting of
fecular arm, earneftly befeeching at the fame time the two parts, the words of the aft, and its true fenfe and
fecular power not to touch their blood or put their meaning; which being joined, make the law. The
lives in danger. The prifoners being thus in the hands words of afts of parliament ftiould be taken in a lawful
of the civil magiftrate, are prefently loaded with chains, fenfe. Cafes of the fame nature are within the inten-
and carried firft to the fecular goal, and from thence in tion, though without the letter, of the aft ; and fome
an hour or two brought before the civil judge, who, afts extend by equity to things not mentioned therein,
after a (Icing in what religion they intend to die, pro- ACTJEA, Aconitum Racemo'sum, Herb Cris-
nounces fentence, on fuch as declare they die in the topher, or Bane-berries ; a genus of the monogynia
communion of the church of Rome, that they (hall be order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants, of
firft ftrangled, and then burnt to afhes; on fuch as die which there are four
in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Both are Species, i. The fpicata, oAcommon herb-chrifto-
immediately carried to the Ribera, the place of execu- pher, is a native in ftveral parts of Britain. It grows
tion; where there are as many flakes ftt up as there are to the height of about two feet and an half; the foot-
prifoners to be burnt, with a quantity of dry furz a- (talks of the leaves arife from the root; theft divide in-
bout them. The (takes of the profeffed, that is, fuch to three fmaller foot-ftalks, each of which are again
as perfift in their herefy, are about four yards high, ha- divided into three, and theft have each three lobes ; fo
ving a fmall board towards the top for the prifoner to that each leaf is compoftd of 27 lobes or fmaller leaves,
be feated on. The negative and relapfed being firft The flowers grow in ramous fpikes, and are of a pure
.ftrangled and burnt, the profeffed mount their flakes white; they grow upon a (lender, jointed, and,furrowed
by a ladder; and the Jefuits, after feveral repeated ex- ftem; appear in May; and are fucceeded by black,
hortations to be reconciled to the church, part with (hining, pulpy berries, about the (ize of peas, which
them, telling them they leave them to the devil, who ripen in the autumn. This plant is a powerful repel-
- - . - . lent..
ACT C 72 ] ACT
Aftra, lent, and the root has been ufed internally in foipe ner-
Aft.-Eon. vous cafes, but muft be adminiftered with caution. The
berries are highly poifonous. It is faid toads refort to
this plant, on account of its fetid fmell. Sheep and
goats eat it; cows, horfes, and fwine, refufe it. 2. The
alba, or American herb-chriftopher, is a native of North
America. The leaves of this fpecies are fomewhat like
the former, but not fo deeply indented in the edges.
The flowers grow in a more compa& fpike, and the
berries are very white and tranfparent when ripe ; the
roots are compofed of thick knobs. This fpecies has
been ufed as an emetic, and fometimes called ipecaco-
anha. 3. The racemofa, or American black or wild
fnake-root, is likewife a native of North America. It
has large compound leaves, rifing immediately from the
root, and branched after the fame manner as the firft,
which grow more than two feet high. The flower-
ftem rifes to the height of four or five; feet; .and carries
a long fpike of white flowers reflexed at the top. Thefe
appear in June or the beginning of July, but the feeds
do not come to maturity in Britain.—The root of this
plant is greatly ufed by phyficians in North America,
in many diforders; and is fuppofed to be an antidote a-
gainft poifon, or the biting of a rattle-fnake. 4. The.
cimicifuga, is a native of Siberia; the leaves refemble
thofe of the feathered columbine ; the ftalks rife little
more than a foot high, fupporting panicles of white
flowers, which appear in May, This fpecies is rare in
Britain.
Culture. The firfl: fpecies hath a perennial root,
but the ftalks annually decay. It may be propagated
either by feeds, or parting the roots, which fhould be
tranfplanted in autumn. The feeds fliould be fown foon
after they are ripe, or they will lie a whole year in the
ground before they vegetate. They Ihould be fown in
a fhady border; and as all the plants do not come up at
the fame time, the border fliould not be difturbed till
the following autumn, when they ftiould be tranfplanted
into a fiiady border, wher£ they may be allowed to re¬
main and flower.—The fecond fpecies may be propaga¬
ted in the fame manner; only the plants ftiould be al¬
lowed three feet every way, an account of their \vide-
fpreading leaves. This fpecies delights in a light moift
foil, and a fhady fituation.—The third is ufually pro¬
pagated by feeds fent annually from North America :
it thrives in the fame kind of foil as the former ; and is
very hardy, requiring no other culture than the com¬
mon flowering fttrubs. The plants fliould not be often
removed, for that will prevent their flowering ftrong.—
The fourth requires a moift loamy foil, and ihady fitua¬
tion. It may be propagated in the fame manner as the
others.
ACTiEON, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Ariftasus
and Autonoe; a great hunter. He was turned by Di¬
ana into a ftag, for looking on her while bathing; and
died by his own dogs.
ACTE, Act-ea, or Atthis, ancient names of At¬
tica. Pliny extends it to the ifthmus of Corinth, fo
as to include Megaris. Others make this laft a di-
ftinft diftrift, becaufe Megara was always the rival
and enemy of the Athenians. If fo, then Attica was
bounded on the weft by Megara; on the north by Bos-
Ctia, feparated from it by high mountains, thro’ which
there was a difficult pafiage; on the fouth by the Saro¬
nic bay, with the Egean fea on the eaft. It was called
A£le from its maritime fituation; hence Attica and Atti-
ca, and the epithets Attanis and Atticus, Of id. Hence A<a*°!
alfo Attias for Athenienjis, Virgil.
ACTIAN Games, in Roman antiquity, were folemn
games inftituted by Auguftus, in memory of his vic¬
tory over Marc Anthony at Aftium, held every fifth
year, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, fince called
Attius. Hence Attian Years, an sera commencing from
the battle of Aftium? called the Mr a of Auguftus.
ACTION, in a general fenfe, implies nearly the
fame thing with a<ft *.—Grammarians, however, ob- * See
ferve fome diftinclion between attion and att; the for¬
mer being generally reftri&ed to the common or ordi¬
nary traniaclions, whereas the latter is ufed to exprefs
thofe which are remarkable. Thus, we fay it is a good
attion to comfort the unhappy; it is a generous att to
deprive ourfelves of what is necefiary, for their fake.
The wife man propofes to himfelf an honeft end in all
his attiom ; a prince ought to mark every day of his life
with fome att of greatnefs. The abbe Girard makes a
further diliinction between the words attion and att.
The former, according to him, has more relation to the
power that afts than the latter; whereas the latter has
more relation to the effeft produced than the former:
and hence the one is properly the attribute of the other.
Thus we may properly fay, “ Be fore to preferve a
“ prefence of mind in all your adtions; and take care
“ that they are all afts of equity.”
Action, in mechanics, implies either the effort which
a body or power makes againft another body or power,
or the effedl itfelf of that effort.
As it is neceffary in works of this kind to have a par¬
ticular regard to the common language of mechanics
and philofophers, we have given this double definition:
but the proper fignification of the term is the motion
which a body really produces, or tends to produce, in
another; that is, fuch is the motion it would have pro¬
duced, had nothing hindered its effedt.
All power is nothing more than a body a&ually in
motion, or which tends to move itfelf; that is, a body
which would move itfelf if nothing oppofed it. The
aftion therefore of a body is rendered evident to us by
its motion only; and confequently we muft not fix any
other idea to the word aftion, than that of aftual mo¬
tion, or a fimple tendency to motion. The famous que-
ftion relating to vis viva, and vis mortua, owes, in all
probability, its exiftence to an inadequate idea of the
word aftion; for had Leibnitz and his followers obfer-
ved, that the only precife and diftindt idea we can give
to the word force or action, reduces it to its effedt, that
is, to the motion it adtually produces or tends to pro¬
duce, they would never have made that curious diftinc-
tion.
Quantity of Action, a name given by M. de Mau-
pertuis, in the Memoirs of the Parifian Academy of Sci¬
ences for 1744, and thofe of Berlin for 1746, -to the
produdt of the mafs of a body by the fpace which it
runs through, and by its celerity. He lays it down as
a general law, “ that, in the changes made in the ftate
“ of a body, the quantity of adhon neceffary to pro-
“ duce fuch change is the leaft poffible.” This prin¬
ciple he applies to the inveftigation of the laws of re-
fradtion, of equilibrium, &c. and even to the ways of
adting employed by the Supreme Being. In this man¬
ner M. de Maupertuis attempts to connedt the meta-
phyfics.
* See Moral
Pbilo/ofhy,
n03J, <£rc.
ACT [73
phyftcs of final caufes with the fundamental truths of
mechanics, to (hew the dependence of the collifion of i
both elaftic and hard bodies upon one and the fame law,
which before had always' been referred to feparate laws;
and to reduce the laws of motion, and thofe of equili¬
brium, to one and the fame principle.
Action, in ethics, denotes the external figns or ex-
preffions of the fentiments of a moral agent *.
Action, in poetry, the fame with fubjeft or fable.
Critics generally diftinguifh two kinds, the principal and
the incidental. The principal aftion is what is gene¬
rally called the fable; and the incidental an epifode *.
Action, in oratory, is the outward deportment of
the orator, or the accommodation of his countenance,
voice, and gefture, to the fubjeft of which he is treat¬
ing. See Oratory, Part IV.
Action, in a theatrical fenfe. See Declamation,
Art. IV.
Action for the Pulpit. See Declamation, Art. I.
Action, in painting and fculpture, is the attitude
or pofition of the feveral parts of the face, body, and
limbs of fuch figures as are reprefented, and whereby
they feem to be really actuated by paffions. Thus we
fay, the adtion of fuch a figure finely expreffes the paf¬
fions wdth which it is agitated : we alfo ufe the fame
exprefiion with regard to animals.
Action, among phyficians, is applied to the func¬
tions of the body, whether vital, animal, or natural.
] ACT
ACTION A RY, orAcTiONiST,a proprietor of flock
in a trading company.
ACTIONS, among merchants, fometimes fignify _
moveable effefts; and we fay the merchant’s creditors
have feized on all his adlions, when we mean that they
have taken poflefllon of all his a£live debts.
ACTIVE, denotes fomething that communicates
action or motion to another; in'which acceptation it
fiands oppofed to paffive.
Active, in grammar, is applied to fuch words as
exprefs aftion; and is therefore oppofed to paffive. The
active performs the adtion, as the paffive receives it *. ’
Active Principles, in chemiftry, fuch as are fuppofed ?
to aft without any affiflance from others; as mercury,
fulphur, &c.
ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of aft-
ing, or the aftive faculty. See Active.
Sphere of Activity, the whole fpace in which the
virtue, power, or influence, of any objeft, is exerted.
ACTIUM, (anc. geogr.) a town fituated on the coafl
of Acarnania, in itfelf inconfiderable, but fafnous for a.
temple of Apollo, a fafe harbour, and an adjoining pro¬
montory of the fame name, in the mouth of the Sinus
Ambracius, over againft Nicopolis, on the other fide of
the bay: it afterwards became more famous on ac¬
count of Auguitus’s" viftory over Antony and Cleopa¬
tra; and for quinquennial games inflituted there, ca lied
udi Aftiaci. Hence the epithet Aciius, gi-
Aflia, or Lttdi s.
The vital funftions, or aftions, are thofe which are ven to Apollo, (Virgil.) ABiaca ara, a computation
abfolutely neceffary to life, and without which there is
no.life, as the aftion of the heart, lungs, and arteries.
On the aftion and reaftion of the folids and fluids on
each other, depend the vital funftions. The pulfe and
refpiration are the external figns of life. Vital difeafes
are all thofe which hinder the influx of the venous blood
into the cavities of the heart, and the expulfion of the
arterial blood from the fame.—The natural funftions
are thofe which are inftrumental in repairing the feveral
of time from the battle of Aftium. The promontory
is now called Capo di Figalo.
ACTIUS, in mythology, a furhame of Apollo, from
Aftium, where he was worlhipped.
ACTON, a tow'n near London, where is a well that
affords a purging water, which is noted for the pun¬
gency of its fait. This water is whitifh, to the tafte it
is fweetifli, with a mixture of the fame bitter which is
the Epfom water. The fait of this water is not quite
Ioffes which the body fuftains; for life is deftruftive of fo foft as that of Epfom, and is more calcareous than
itfelf, its very offices occafioning a perpetual wafte. The
manducation of food, the deglutition and digeftion
thereof, alfo the feparation and diftribution of the chyle
it, being more of the nature of the fait of lime: for a
quantity of the Afton water being boiled high, on be¬
ing mixed with a folution of fubfimate in pure water.
and excrementitious parts, &c. are under the head of threw down, a yellow fedimeht. The fait of the Afton
* See Medi¬
cine, Part I.
(Phyfiol.)
ch.iii. iv. v.
and Anat.
b° 366, ire.
388, ire.
401, ire.
natural funftions, as by thefe our aliment is converted
into our nature. They are neceffary to the continuance
of our bodies.—The animal funftions are thofe which
we perform at will, as mufcular motion, and all the vo¬
luntary aftions of the body : they are thofe which con-
ftitute the ftnfes of touch, tafte,- fmell, fight, hearing;
perception, reafoning, imagination, memory, judgment,
affeftions of the mind. Without any, or all or them,
a man may live, but not fo comfortably as with them *.
Action, in commerce, is a term ufed abroad for a
certain part or {hare of a public company’s capital
ftock. Thus, if a company has 400,000 livres capital
flock, this may be divided into 400 aftions, each con-
fifting of 1000 livres. Hence a man is faid to have two.
water is more nitrous than that of Epfom ; it ftrikes a
deep red, or purple, with the tinfture of logwood in
brandy, as is ufual with nitrous falts; it does not pre¬
cipitate filver out of the fpirit of nitre, as common fait
does : tt> ifs of this water yields 48 grains of fait.
ACTOR, in general, fignifies a perfon who afts or
performs fomething.
Actor, in the drama, is a perfon who reprefents
fome part or charafter upon the theatre: The drama
confifted originally of nothing more than a Ample cho¬
rus, who fung hymns in honour of Bacchus; fo that
the primitive aftors were only fingers and muficians.
Thefpis was the firft that, in order to eafe this un¬
formed chorus, introduced a declaimer, who repeated
four, &c. aftions, according as he has the property of fome heroic or comic adventure. JEchylus, finding
two, four, &c. 1000 livres capital ftock. The tranf-
ferring of aftions abroad is performed much in the fame
f See Lav>, manner as flocks are with us. See Stocks.
n0lxxvii. 1, Action, in law, is a demand made before a judge
6. cii. 4. for obtaining what we are legally entitled to demand,
& cixxxiir' an^ is more commonly known by the name of law-fuit
throughout. or procefs f.
VOL. I.
fingle perfon tirefome, attempted to introduce a fe-
cond, and changed the ancient recitals into dialogues.
He alfo dreffed his aftors in a more majeftic manner,
and introduced the conthurnus or buflein *. Sophocles
added a third, in order to reprefent the various incidents
in a more natural manner: and here the Greeks flopped,
at leaft we do not find in any of their tragedies above
K three
A&ionary
Aftor.
nar, n° 40.
* See
/EJehylu*.
Aftor
II
Aftuate.
ACT [ 74 ] A C tr
three perfons in the fame fcene : perhaps they looked
upon it as a rule of the dramatic poem never to admit
more than three fpeakers at a time on the ftage; a rule
which Horace has expreffed in the following verfe:
• Nec quarta loquiperform laboret.
This however did not prevent their increafmg the
number of actors in comedy. Before the opening of a
play, they named their aftors in full theatre, together
with the parts they were to perform. The ancient ac¬
tors were malked, and obliged to raife their voice ex¬
tremely, in order to make themfelves heard by the innu¬
merable crowd of people who filled the amphitheatres:
they were accompanied with a player on the flute, who
played-a prelude, gave them the tone, and played while
they declaimed. Aftors were highly honoured at A-
thens; and defpifed at Rome, where they were not only
denied all rank among the citizens, but even when any
citizen appeared upon the ftage, he was expelled his
tribe, and deprived of the right of fuflrage by cenfors.
Cicero, indeed, efteems the talents of Rofcius; but he
values his virtues ftill more: virtues which diftinguifhed
him fo remarkably above all others of his profelfion,
that they feemed to have excluded him from the theatre.
The French have, in this refpect, adopted the ideas of
the Romans; and the Englifti thofe of the Greeks.
Actor, the name of feveral perfons in fabulous hi-
ftory. One jiff or among the Aurunci is defcribed by
Virgil,^as an hero of the firft rank. JEn. xii.
ACTORUM tabula, in antiquity, were tables in-
ftituted by Servius Tullius, in which the births of chil¬
dren were regiftered. They were kept in the treafury
of Saturnus.
ACTRESS, a wmman who performs a part upon
the ftage. Women aftors were unknown to the an¬
cients, among whom men always performed the female
character; and hence one reafon for the ufe of mafks
among them.
ACTUAL, fomething that is real and effedtive, or
that exifts truly and abfolutely. Thus philofophers ufe
the terms affual heat, affual cold, &c. in oppofition to
virtual or potential. Hence, among phyficians, a red-
hot iron, or fire, is called an affual cautery; in diftinc-
tion from cauteries, or cauftics, that have the power of
producing the fame effedt upon the animal folids as ac¬
tual fire; thefe laft are called potential cauteries. Boil¬
ing water is a&ually hot; brandy, producing heat in
the body, is potentially hot, though of itfelf cold.
Actual Sin, that which is committed by the pef-
fon himfelf, in oppofition to original fin, or that which
he contracted from being a child of Adam.
ACTUARIAL naves, a kind of flops among the
Romans, chiefly defigned for fwift failing.
ACTUARIES, a celebrated Greek phyfician, of
the 13th century, and the firft Greek author who has
treated of mild purgatives, fuch as caffia, manna, fena,
&c. His works were printed in one volume folio, by
Henry Stephens, in 1567.
Actuarius, or Actarius, a notary or officer ap¬
pointed to write the afts or proceedings of a court, or
the like. In the Eaftern Empire, the aftuarii were pro¬
perly officers who kept the military accounts, received
the corn from the fife cpt ores orftore-keepers, and de¬
livered. it to the fokiiers.
ACTUATE, to bring into aft, to put a thing in
motion, or to ftir up a perfon to aftion.
ACTUS, in ancient architefture, a meafure in length AAi*
equal to 120 Roman feet. In ancient agriculture, the Af]jna
word fignified the length of one furrow, or the diftance
a plough goes before it turns.
Actus Minimus, was a quantity of land 120 feet in
length, and four in breadth.
Actus Major, or Actus Quadratus, a piece of
ground in a fquare form, whofe fide was equal to 120
feet, equal to half the jugerum.
Actus Intervicenalis, a fpace of ground four feet in
breadth, left between the lands as a path or way.
ACULEATE, or Aculeati, a term applied to any
plant or animal armed with prickles.
ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants.
ACULER, in the menage, is ufed for the motion of
a horfe, when, in working upon volts, he does not go
far enough forward at every time or motion, fo that
his ihoulders embrace or take in too little ground, and
his croupe comes too near the center of the volt. Hor-
fes are naturally inclined to this fault in making demi-
volts.
ACUMINA, in antiquity, a kind of military omen,
moft generally fuppofed to have been taken from the
points or edges of darts, fwords, or other weapons.
ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a furgical opera¬
tion amongthe Chinefe and Japanefe, which is performed
by pricking the part affefted with a filver needle. They
employ this operation in head-achs, lethargies, con-
vulfions, colics, &c.
ACUNA (Chriftophero de), a Spanifli Jefuit, born
at Burgos. He was admitted into the fociety in 1612,
being then but 15 years of age. After having devoted
fame years to ftudy, he went to America, where he af-
fifted in making converts in Chili and Peru. In 1640,
he returned to Spain, and gave the king an account
how far he had fucceeded in the commiffion he had re¬
ceived to make difeoveries on the river of the Amazons;
and the year following he publiftied a defeription of
this river, at Madrid. Acuna was fent to Rome, as
procurator of his province. He returned to Spain with
the title of Qualificator of the Inquifition; but foon after
embarked again for the Weft Indies, and was at Lima
in 1675, when father Southwell publiftied at Rome the
Bibliotheque of the Jefuit writers. Acuna’s work is
intitled, Nuevo defeubriwento del gran rio de las Nma-
zonas; i. e. “ A new difeovery of the great river of
the Amazons.” He wtis ten months together upon
this river, having had inftruftions to inquire into every
thing with the greateft exaftnefs, that his majefty might
thereby be enabled to render the navigation more eafy
and commodious. He went aboard a (hip at Quito
with Peter Texeira, who had already been fo far up the
river, and was therefore thought a proper perfon to ac¬
company him in this expedition. They embarked in
February 1639, but did not arrive at Para till the De¬
cember following. It is thought that the revolutions
of Portugal, by which the Spaniards loft all Brafil, and
the colony of Para at the mouth of the river of the A -
mazons, were the catife that the relation of this Jefuit
was fuppreffed ; for as it could not be of any advantage
to the Spaniards, they were afraid it might prove of
great fervice to the Portugefe., The copies of this
work became extremely fcarce, fo that the publifhers of
the French tranflation at Paris aflerted, that there was
not one copy of the original extant, excepting one in.
ADA t 75 ] ADA
the pofTeflion of the tranflator, and, perhaps, that in
the Vatican library. M. de Gomberville was the au¬
thor of this tranflation: it was publiihed after his death,
with a long diflertation. An account of the original
may be fe?n in the Paris Journal, in that of Leipfic,
and in Chevereau’s Hiftory of the World.
ACUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of fyngnathus. See SyNGNATHUs.
ACUTE, an epithet applied to fuch things as ter¬
minate in a fliarp point or edge. And in this fenfe it
ftands oppofed to obtufe.
Acute Angle, in geometry, is that which is lefs
than a right angle.
Acute-angled Triangle, is a triangle whofe three
angles are all acute.
Acute-angled Cone is, according to the ancients,
a right cone, whofe axis makes an acute angle with its
fide.
Acute, in mufic, is applied to a found or tone that
is fliarp or high, in comparifon of fome other tone. In
this fenfe, acute ftands oppofed to grave.
Acute Accent. See Accent.
Acute Difeafes, fuch as come fuddenly to a crifis.
This term is ufed for all difeafes which do not fall un¬
der the head of chronic difeafes.
AD, a Latin prepofition, originally fignifying to,
and frequently ufed in compofition both with and with¬
out the d, to exprefs the relation of one thing to another.
Ad Bejlias, in antiquity, is the puniftiment of cri¬
minals condemned to be thrown to wild beafts.
Ad Hominem, in logic, a kind of argument drawn
from the principles or prejudices of thofe with whom
we argue.
Ad Ludos, in antiquity, a fentence upon criminals
among the Romans, whereby they were condemned to
entertain the people by fighting either with wild beafts,
or with one another, and thus executing juftice upon
themfelves.
Ad Metalla, in antiquity, the punifliment of fuch
criminals as were condemned to the mines, among the
Romans ; and therefore called Metallici.
Ad Valorem, a term chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the
duties or cuftoms paid for certain goods : The duties
on fome articles are paid by the number, weight, mea-
fure, tale, <bc. and others are paid ad valorem, that is,
according to their value.
ADAGE, a proverb, or ftiort fentence, containing
fome wife obfervation or popular faying. Erafmus has
made a very large and valuable collection of the Greek
and Roman adages; and Mr Ray has done the fame
with regard to the Englifli. We have alfo Kelly’s
colleftion of Scotch Proverbs.
ADAGIO, in mufic, an Italian adverb, fignifying
foftly, leifurely ; and is ufed to denote the floweft of all
times, except the grave.
ADAM, the firft of the human race, was formed by
the Almighty on thefixthday of the creation. His body
was made of the duft of the earth; after which, God ani¬
mated or gave it life, and Adam then became a rational
creature.—Hisheavenly Parent did not leave his offspring
in a deftitute ftate to fliift for himfelf; but planted a
garden, in which he caufed to grow not only every tree
that was proper for producing food, but likewife fuch as
were agreeable to the eye, or merely ornamental. In this
garden were aflembled all the brute creation; and, by
their Maker, caufed to pafs before Adam, who gave all
of them names, which were judged proper by the Dei¬
ty himfelf.—In this review, Adam found none for a
companion to himfelf. This folitary ftate was feen by
the Deity to be attended with fome degree of unhappi-
nefs ; and therefore he threw Adam into a deep fleep,
in which ftate he took a rib from his fide, and healing
up the wound, formed a woman of the rib he had ta¬
ken out. On Adam’s awaking, the v/oman was brought
to him; and he immediately knew her to be one of his
own fpecies, called her his bone and his flefti, giving
her the name of ’woman becaufe flie was taken out of
man.
The firft pair being thus created, God gave them
authority over the inferior creation, commanding them
to fubdue the earth, alfo to increafe and multiply, and
fill it. They were informed of the proper food for the
beafts and for them; the grafs, or green herbs, being
appointed for beafts; and fruits, or feeds, for man.
Their proper employment alfo was affigned them;
namely, to drefs the garden, and to keep it.
Though Adam was thus highly favoured and inftruc-
ted by his Maker, there was a fingle tree, which grew
in the middle of the garden, of the fruit of which they
were not allowed to eat; being told, that they Ihould
furely die in the day they eat of it. This tree was
named. The tree of the knowledge of good and evil.
This prohibition, however, they foon broke through.
The woman having entered into converfation with the
ferpent, was by him perfuaded, that by eating of the
tree flie fliould become as wife as God himfelf; and ac¬
cordingly, being invited by the beauty of the fruit, and
its defirable property of imparting wifdom, fhe plucked
the fruit, and eat it; giving her hufliand of it at the
fame time, who did likewife eat.
Before this tranfgreffion of the divine command, A-
dam and his wife had no occafion for clothes, neither
had they any fenfe of fliame ; but immediately on eat¬
ing the forbidden fruit, they were afliamed of being
naked, and made aprons of fig-leaves for themfelves.
On hearing the voice of God in the garden, they were
terrified, and hid themfelves: but being queftioned by
the Deity, they confeffed what they had done, and re¬
ceived fentence accordingly ; the man being condemn¬
ed to labour ; the woman to fubjedtion to her huf-
band, and to pain in childbearing. They were now
driven out of the garden, and their accefs to it pre¬
vented by a terrible apparition. They had clothes
given them by the Deity made of the fldns of beafts.
In this ftate Adam had feveral children ; the names
of only three of whom we are acquainted with,
viz. Cain, Abel, and Seth. He died at the age of 930
years.
Thefe are all the particulars concerning Adam’s life,
that we have on divine authority : but a vaft multitude
of others are added by the Jews, Mahometans, and Pa-
pifts; all of which muft be at beft conjeftural; moft
of them, indeed, appear downright falfehoods or ab-
furdities. Mr Bayle, however, and the authors of
the General Dictionary, have beeen at great pains in
colledting them, and the account fpreads over many
folio pages ; but our readers curiofity, it is prefumed,
will be fufficiently gratified by the few which are here
fubjoined.
According to the Talmudifts, when Adam was
K 2 created.
ADA [ 76 ] ADA
Adam, created, his body was of immenfe magnitude. When
_ jie hjg ftature was reduced to an hundred ells,
according to fome; to nine hundred cubits, according
to others; who think this was done at the requeft of
the angels, who were afraid of fo gigantic a creature.
In the ifland of Ceylon is a mountain, called the Peak
or mountain of Adam, from its being, according to the
tradition of the country, the refidence of our firft pa-
rent. Here the print of his footfteps, above two palms
, in length, are ftill pointed out.
Many reveries have been formed concerning the
perfonal beauty of Adam. That he was a handfome
well-lhaped man, is probable; but fome writers, not
content with this, affirm, that God, intending to create
man, clothed Himfelf with a perfeftly beautiful human
body, making this his model in the formation of the
body of Adam.
Nor has the imagination been lefs indulged con»
cerning the formation of the human fpecies male and
female.— It would be endlefs to recount all the whim-
fies that have been wrote on this fubjeft; but as Mrs
Bourignon has made a confiderable figure in the religi¬
ous, or rather fuperftitious world, we cannot help in-
ferting fome of her opinions concerning the firft man,
which are peculiarly marvellous. According to the
revelations of this lady, Adam before his fall poffeffed
in himfelf the principles of both fexes, and- the vir¬
tue or power of producing his like, without the con¬
current affiftance of woman. The divifion into two
t^re^c® t0 fexes, (he imagined f, was a confequence of man’s fin;
dec?° £"t1' and now, (he obferves, mankind are become fo many
nouveau chi monjlers in nature, being much lefs perfect in this re-
etla nouvelle fpeft than plants octrees, who are capable of producing
terrc,Arntt. their like alone, and without pain or mifery. She even
I<579' imagined^;, that, being in an ecftafy, (he faw the figure
\ Vie continue Gf Adam before he fell, with the manner how, by him-
JSourfnol"1 *"e^’ was caPa^e of procreating other men. “ God,”
die, “ reprefented to my mind the beauty of the
firft world, and the manner how he had drawn it from
the chaos : every thing was bright, tranfparent, and
darted forth light and ineffable glory. The body of
Adam was purer and more tranfparent than cryftal, and
vaftly fleet; through this body were feen veffels and
rivulets of light, which penetrated from the inward to
the outward parts, through all his pores. In fome
veffels ran fluids of all kinds and colours, vaftly bright,
and quite diaphanous. The moft raviffiing harmony
arofe from every motion; and nothing refifted, or could
annoy, him. His ftature was taller than the prefent
race of men; his hair was (hort, curled, and of a colour
inclining to black ; his upper lip covered with (hort
hair: and Inftead of the beftial parts which modefty
will not allow us to name, he was faftiioned as our bo¬
dies (hall be in the life eternal, which I know not whe-
* Viz. of the ther I dare reveal. In that region * his nofe was form-
Iwe^fu *-'S’ ec* a^ter t^e manner °f a facei which diffufed the moft
p'ofe.)1 P* delicious fragrancy and perfumes; whence alfo men were
to iffue, all whofe principles were inherent in him; there
being in his beHy a veffel, where little eggs were form¬
ed; and a fecond veffel filled with a fluid, which impreg¬
nated thofe eggs: and' when man heated himfelf in
the love of God, the defire he had that other creatures
ffiould exift befides himfelf, to praife and love God,
caufed the fluid abovementioned (by means of the fire
®f the love of God) to drop on one or. more of thefe
eggs, with inexpreffible delight; which being thus im- Adam,
pregnated, iffued, fome time after, out of man, by this ~
canal *, in the (hape of an egg, whence a perfect man was * kj-
hatched by infenfible degrees. Woman was formed as
by taking out of Adam’s fides the veffels that con- above de¬
tained the eggs; which (lie ftill poffeffes, as is difeovered feribed.
by anatomifts.”
Many others have believed, that Adam at his firft
creation was both male and female : others, that he had
two bodies joining together at the (houlders, and their
faces looking oppofite ways like thofe of Janus. Hence,
fay thefe, when God created Eve, he had no mor£ to
do than to feparate the two bodies from one another*. See
Of all others, however, the opinion of Paracelfus feems n
the moft ridiculous ||. Negabatprimes parentes ante lap- Ij ^ray^s
fum habuiffe partes generations hominis necejfarias ; ere- ^ pbilo-
debat pojiea accejjijfe, at Jlrumam gutturi. fopbwfc. ix.
Extravagant things are afferted concerning Adam’s p. 71.
knowledge. It is very probable that he was inftru£ted
by the Deity how to accompliffi the work appointed
him, viz. to drefs the garden, and keep it from being
de’ftroyed by the brute creatures; and it is alfo proba¬
ble that he had likewife every piece of knowledge com¬
municated to him that was either neceffary or pleafing i
but that he was acquainted with geometry, mathema¬
tics, rhetoric, poetry, painting, fculpture, &c. is too
ridiculous to be credited by any fober perfon. Some
rabbies, indeed, have contented themfelves with equal¬
ling Adam’s knowledge to that of Mofes and Solomon;
while others, again, have maintained that he excelled
the angels themfelves. Several Chriftians feem to be
little behind thefe Jews in the degree of knowledge they
aferibed to Adam ; nothing being hid from him, ac¬
cording to them, except contingent events relating to
futurity. One writer indeed (Pinedo) excepts politics;
but a Carthufian friar, having exhaufted, in favour of
Ariftotle, every image and comparifon he could think
of, at laft afferted that Ariftotle’s knowledge was as ex-
tenfive as that of Adam.—In confequence of this furpri-
fing knowledge with which Adam was endued, he is
fuppofed to have been a confiderable author. The Jews-
pretend that he wrote a book on the creation, and an¬
other on the Deity. Some rabbies aferibe the 92d pfalm
to Adam; and in fome manuferipts the Chaldee title of
this pfalm exprefsly declares that this is the fong of
praife which the firft man repeated for the fabbath-day.
Various conjectures have been formed concerning the
place where man was firft created, and where the gar¬
den of Eden was fituated; but none of thefe have any
folid foundation. The Jews tell us, that Eden was fe-
parated from the reft of the world by the ocean; and
that Adam, being banilhed therefrom, walked acrofs
the fea, which he found every way fordable,.by reafon
of his enormous ftature *. The Arabians imagined pa- * This is •
radife to have been in the air, and that our firft pa- h'A the P'c*
rents were thrown down from it on their tranfgreffion, Q^n°f
as Vulcan is faid to have been throwm down headlong p.,!yphemus
from heaven by Jupiter. ofthepoets.
Strange ftories are told concerning Adam’s children. JE-ndd. iii.
That he had none in the ftate of innocence, is certain 6<s*^<’4'
from feripture ; that his marriage - with Eve was not '
confummated till after the fall, cannot be proved from
thence. Some imagine, that, for many years after the
fall, Adam denied himfelf the connubial joys by way
penance others, that he cohabited with another wo¬
man..
Adam
Melchior)
l.’Adam.
ADA [ 77 ] ADA
man. The Mahometans tell us, that our firft parents
having been thrown headlong from the celeftial para-
dife, Adam fell upon the ifle of Serendib, or Ceylon,
in the Eaft Indies; and Eve on lodda, a port of the
Red Sea, not far from Mecca. After a feparation of
upwards of 200 years, they met in Ceylon, where they
multiplied: according to fome Eve had twenty, ac¬
cording to others only eight, deliveries ; bringing forth
at each time twins, a male and a female, who after¬
wards married. The Rabbins, imagine that Eve brought
forth Cain and Abel at a birth; that Adam wept for
Abel an hundred years in the valley of tears near He¬
bron, during which time he did not cohabit with his
wife; and that this feparation would probably have con¬
tinued longer, had it not been forbid by the angel Ga¬
briel. The inhabitants of Ceylon affirm, that the fajt
lake on the mountain of Colembo confifts wholly of the
tears which Eve for one hundred years together ffied
becaufe of Abel’s death.
Some of the Arabians tell us, that Adam was bu¬
ried near Mecca on mount Abukobeis; others, that
Noah, having laid his body in the ark, caufed it
to be carried after the deluge to Jerufalem by Mel-
chifedek the fon of Shem : of this opinion are the Ea-
ftern Chriftians; but the Perfians affirm that he was in¬
terred in the ifle of Serendib, where his corps was
guarded by lions at the time the giants warred upon
one another.—St Jerom imagined that Adam was bu¬
ried at Hebron; others, on mount Calvary. Some are
of opinion that he died on the very fpot where Jerufa¬
lem was afterwards built; and was buried on the place
where Chrift fuffered, that fo his bones might be fprink-
fed with the Saviour’s blood ! ! !
Adam (Melchior) lived in the f7th century. He
was born in the-territory of Grotkaw in Sileiia, and
educated in the college of Brieg, where the dukes of
that name, to the utmoft of their power, encouraged
learning and the reformed religion as profeffed by Cal¬
vin. Here he became a firm Proteftant, and was ena¬
bled to purfue his ftudies by the liberality of a perfon
of quality, who had left feveral exhibitions for young
ftudents. He was appointed reftor of a college at
Heidelberg, where he publilhed his firft; volume of il-
luftrious men in the year 1615. This volume, which
confifled of philofophers, poets, writers on polite liter¬
ature, and hiftorians, &c. was followed by three others ;
that which treated of divines was printed in 1619 ;
that of the lawyers came next; and, finally, that of the
phyficiahs: the two laft were publilhed in 1620. All
the learned men, whofe lives are contained in theie four
volumes, lived in the 16th, or beginning of the 17th
century, and are either Germans or Flemings ; but he
publilhed in 1618 the lives of twenty divines of other
countries in a feparate volume. All his divines are Pro-
teftants. The Lutherans were not pleafed with him,
for they thought him partial; nor will they allow his
work to be a proper ftandard, whereby to judge of the
learning of Germany. He wrote other works befides
his lives, and died in 1622.
Adam’s Apple. See Aurantium.
Adam’s Needle. See Yucca.
Adam’s Peak, a high mountain of the Eaft Indies,
in the ifland of Ceylon, on the top of which they be¬
lieve the firft man was created. See Adam.
Adam or Adom, a town in the Peraea, or on the o-
ther fide the Jordan, over-againft Jericho, where the Adama
Jordan began to be dried up on the paffage of the II
Ifraelites; (Jolhua.) am on‘
ADAMA, or Admah, one of the towns that were
involved in the deftru&ion of Sodom ; (Mofes).
ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the dia¬
mond*. It is likewife applied to the fcoria; of gold, * See Dta-
the magnet, &c. mond.
ADAMIC earth, a name given to common red
clay, alluding to that fpecies of earth of which the firft
man is fuppofed to have been made.
ADAMITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name of
a feft of ancient heretics, fuppofed to have been a
branch of the Bafilidians and Carpocratians.
Epiphanius tells us, that they were called Adamites
from their pretending to be re-eftablilhed in the ftate of
innocence, and to be fuch as Adam was at the moment
of his creation, whence they ought to imitate him in
his nakednefs. They detefted marriage; maintaining,
that the conjugal union would never have taken place
upon earth had fin been unknown ; and that the pri¬
vilege of enjoying women in common, was one of the
rights which flowed from their eftablifhment in original
purity.
This obfcure and deteftable fe<ft did not at firft laft
long ; but it was revived in the twelfth century by one
Tandamus, fince known by the name of Tanchelin,
who propagated his errors at Antwerp, in the reign of
the emperor Henry V. He maintained, that there ought
to be no diftinction between priefts and laymen, and
that fornication and adultery were meritorious actions.
Tanchelin had a great number of followers, and was
conftantly attended by 3000 of thefe profligates in
arms. His fe<St did not however continue long after
his death: but another appeared under the name of
Tuflupins, in Savoy and Dauphiny, where they com¬
mitted the moft brutal aftions in open day.
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, one
Picard, a native of Flanders, fpread thefe errors in
Germany and Bohemia, particularly in the army of
the famous Zifca, notwithftanding the fevere difcipline
he maintained. Picard pretended that he was fent into
the world as a new Adam, to re-eftablifli the law of
nature ; and which, according to him, confifted in ex-
pofing every part of the body, and having all the wo¬
men in common. This fedt found alfo fome partizans
in Poland, Holland, and England: they aflembled in
the night; and it is afferted, that one of the funda¬
mental maxims of their fociety was contained in the
following verfe : •
Jura, perjura, fecretum prodere noli.
ADAMSHIDE, a diftridt of the circle of Raften-
burg, belonging to the king of Pruffia,, which, with
Dombrofken, was bought, in 1737, for 42,000 dollars.
ADAMSON (Patrick), a Scottilh prelate, archbi-
fliop of St Andrews. He was born in the year 1536,
in the towa of Perth, where he received the rudiments
of his education; and afterwards ftudied Philofophy,
and took his degree of mafter of arts at the univerfity
of St Andrews. In the year 1566, he fet out for
Paris, as tutor to a young gentleman. In the month of
June of the fame year, Mary queen of Scots being
delivered of a fon, afterwards James VI. .of Scotland,
and Firft of England, Mr Adamfon wrote a Latin poem
on the occafion. This proof of his loyalty involved
him.
ADA [ 78 ] ADA
jAUmfon him in feme difficulties, having been confined in France
(Painck.) £or flx months; nor would he have got oft eafily, had
not queen Mary, and fome of the principal nobility,
interefted themfelves in his behalf. As foon as he re¬
covered his liberty, he retired with his pupil to Bour-
ges. He was in this city during the mafiacre at Paris;
and the fame bloody perfecuting fpirit prevailing among
the catholics at Bourges, as at the metropolis, he lived
concealed for feven months in a public houfe, the ma ■
fter of which, upwards of feventy years of age, was
thrown from the top thereof, and had his brains dafhed
out, for his charity to heretics. Whilft Mr Adam-
fon lay thus in his fepulchre, as he called it, he wrote
his Latin poetical verfion of the Book of Job, and his
Tragedy of Herod in the fame language. In the year
1573, he returned to Scotland; and, having entered
into holy orders, became minifler of Paifley. In the year
1575, he was appointed one of the commiffioners, by
the general affembly, to fettle the jurifdi&ion and po¬
licy of the church; and'the following year he was na¬
med, with Mr David Lindfay, to report their proceed¬
ings to the earl of Mortoun, then regent. About this
time, the earl made him one of his chaplains; and, on
the death of bifhop Douglas, promoted him to the
archiepifcopal fee of St Andrews, a dignity which
brought upon him great trouble and uneafinefs: for now
the clamour of the Prefbyterian party rofe very high a-
gainft him, and many inconfiftent abfurd ftories were
propagated concerning him. Soon after his promo¬
tion, he publifiied his catechifm in Latin verfe, a
work highly approved even by his enemies; but, ne-
verthelefs, they ftill continued to perfecute him with
great violence. In 1578, he fubmitted himfelf to
the general affembly, which procured him peace but
for a very little time; for, the year following, they
brought frelh accufations againft him. In the year 1582,
being attacked with a grievous difeafe, in which the
phyficians could give him no relief, he happened to take
a Ample medicine from an old woman, which did him
fervice. The woman, whofe name was Alifon Pearfon,
was thereupon charged with witchcraft, and commited
to prifon, but efcaped out of her confinement; how¬
ever, about four years afterwards, file was again found
and burnt for a witch. In 1583, king James came to
St Andrews; and the archbifliop, being much reco¬
vered, preached before him, and difputed with Mr.
Andrew Melvil, in prefence of his majefty, with great
reputation, which drew upon him frefh calumny and
perfecution. The king, however, was fo well pleafed
with him, that he fent him embaffador to queen Eli-
fabeth, at whofe court he refided for fome years. His
conduff, during his embaffy, has been varioufly report¬
ed by different authors. Two things he principally
laboured, viz. the recommending the king his mafter
to the nobility and gentry of England, and the pro¬
curing fome fupport for the epifcopal party in Scotland.
By his eloquent preaching, he drew after him fuch
crowds of people, and raifed in their minds fuch a high
idea of the young king his mafter, that queen Elizabeth
forbad him to enter the pulpit during his ftay in her
dominions. In 1584, he was recalled, and fat in the
parliament held in Auguft at Edinburgh. The Prefby¬
terian party was ftill very violent againft the archbi-
ftiop. A provincial fynod was held at St Andrews
h? April 1586: the archbifhop was here accufed and
excommunicRtcd: he appealed to the king and the
States, but this availed him little; for the mob being
excited againft him, he durft fcarce appear in public. .
At the next general affembly, a paper being -pro¬
duced, containing the archbifhop’s fubmiffion, he was
abfolved from the excommunication. In 1588, frefh
accufations were brought againft him. The year fol¬
lowing, he publifhed the Lamentations of the pro¬
phet Jeremiah in Latin verfe ; which he dedicated to
the king, complaining of his hard ufage. In the lat¬
ter end of the fame year, he publifhed a tranflation of
the Apocalypfe, in Latin verfe; and a copy of Latin
verfes, addreffed alfotohis majefty, when he was in great
diftrefs. The king, however, was fo far from giving
him alfiftance, that he granted the revenue of his fee to
the duke of Lennox; fo that the remaining part of this
prelate’s life was very wretched, he having hardly fub-
fiftence for his family. He died in 1591.
ADANA, a town of Afia, in Natolia, and in the
province of Carmania. It is feated on the river Cho-
quen; on the banks of which Hands a ftrong little caftle
built on a rock. It has great numbers of beautiful foun¬
tains brought from the river by means of water-works.
Over the river there is a ftately bridge of fifteen arches,
which leads to the water-works. The climate fs very
pleafant and healthy, and the winter mild and ferene :
but the fummer is fo hot as to oblige the principal in¬
habitants to retire into the neighbouring mountains,
where they fpend fix months among fhady trees and
grottoes, in a moft delicious manner. The adjacent
country is rich and fertile, and produces melons, cu¬
cumbers, pomegranates, pulfe, and herbs of all forts,
all the year round; befides corn, wane, and fruits in their
proper feafon. It is thirty miles eaft of Tarfus, on the
road to Aleppo. E. long. 35. 42. N. lat. 38. 10.
ADANSONIA, Ethiopian Sour-gourd, or
Monkies-bread; a genus of the monodelphia order,
belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. It has its
name from orte Mr Adanfon, a French furgeon, who
brought a curious colleftion of plants and feeds from
Senegal in Africa.
Species. We know but of one fpecies belonging to
this genus at prefent. It is a native of Africa and
South America. The leaves of the young plants are
entire, of an ablong form, about four or five inches
long, and almoft three broad towards the top, having
feveral veins running from the middle rib ; they are of
a lucid green colour. As the plants advance in height,
the leaves alter, and are divided into three p&rts, and
afterwards into five lobes, which fpread out in the (hape
of an hand. The fruit is almoft as large as a man’s
head, the ftiell woody and c'lofe, having a greenilhdowny
coat; it is divided into 10, 12, or 14 cells within,
which contain a good number of kidney-ftiaped feeds,
as large as the tip of a man’s little finger; thefe are
clofely furrounded with a mealy pulp of an acid tafte.
 According to Mr Adanfon’s account, thefe trees
grow in plains of barren moveable fand, which being
continually fhifted by the wind, admit of no tra&s
whereby the traveller can be guided over them. The
fize of the trunks, roots, and branches, is very furpri-
fing, their circumference being fometimes 65 or 70
feet, but their height only from 8 to 12. Thefe
trunks were divided into many horizontal branches,
which touched the ground at their extremities; thefe
were
Adam forv
II
Adanfonia
ADA
l^danforia were from 45 to 55 feet long, and fo large in circum-
I Adda feeence that each branch was equal to a monftrous tree
i 1— in Europe ; and where the water of a neighbouring ri¬
ver had waihed away the earth fo as to leave the roots
of one of thefe trees bare and open to fight, they mea-
fured no feet in length, without including thofe parts
which remained covered with fand.
Culture. This tree is propagated from feeds, which are
brought from the countries where they grow naturally.
Being natives only of hot climates, the plants will not
thrive in the open air in Britain, even in fummer. The
feeds are therefore to be fown in pots, and plunged into
a hot-bed, where the plants will appear in about fix
weeks, and in a flxort time after be lit to tranfplant.
They muft then be planted each in a feparate pot, in
light fandy earth, and plunged into a hot-bed, lhading
them until they have taken root : after which they
fhould have frelh air admitted every day in warm wea¬
ther ; but muft be fparingly watered, as being apt to
rot. They grow quickly for two or three years, but
afterwards make little progrefs ; the lower part of the
Iftem then begins to fwell, and put out lateral branches,
inclining to a horizontal pofition, and covered with a
light grey bark. Some of this kind of plants were
raifed from feeds obtained from Grand Cairo by Dr
William Sherard, in 1724, and were grown to the height
of 18 feet; but were all deftroyed by the fevere froft in
1740; after which they were unknown in Britain till
the return of Mr Adanfon to Paris in 1754.
ADAPTERS, or Adopters. See Chemistry,
tt° 80.
ADAR, the name of a Hebrew month, anfwering
to the end of February and beginning of March, the
12th of their facred, and 6th of their civil year. On
the 7th day of it, the Jews keep a feaft for the death of
Mofes ; on the 13th, they have the fall of Eafter ; and
•, on the 14th, they celebrate the feaft of Purim, for their
, deliverance from Haman’s confpiracy.—As the lunar
year, which the Jews followed in their calculations, is
fhorter than the folar, by about 11 days, which at the
.. end of three years make a month, they then intercalate
a 13th month, which they call Vender, or thefecond Jdar.
ADARCE, a kind of concreted falts found on reeds
and other vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a
remedy in feveral cutaneous difeafes.
ADARCON, in Jewifli antiquity, a gold coin men¬
tioned in feripture, worth about 15 s. fterling.
ADARME, in commerce, a fmall weight in Spain,
which is alfo ufed at Buenos-Aires, and in all Spanifii
America. It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at
Paris is called the demi-gros. But the Spanilh ounce is
feven per cent, lighter than that of Paris. Stephens
renders it in Englilh by a dram.
ADATAIS, Adatsi, or Adatys, in commerce,
a muflin or cotton-cloth, very fine and clear, of which
the piece is ten French ells long, and three quarters
broad. It comes from the Eaft-Indies ; and the fineft
is made at Bengal.
ADCRESCENTES, among the Romans, denoted
a kind of foldiery, entered in the army, but not yet put
' on duty ; from thefe the ftanding forces were recruited*
j See Accensi.
ADDA, in geography, a river of Switzerland and
Italy, which rifes in mount Braulio, in the country of
the Grifons, and, palling through the Valteline, tra-
ADA
verfes the lake Como and the Milanefe, and falls into Addepha";a
the Po, near Cremona. II
ADDEPHAGIA, in medicine, a term ufed by Addifon-
fome phyficians, for gluttony, or a voracious appetite.
ADDER, in zoology, a vulgar name for the Vi¬
per ; which fee.
ADDERS-TONGUE. See Ophioglossum ; and
Materia Medica, n° 504.
ADDER-WORT, or Snakeweed. See Bistor-
ta ; and Materia Medicav n° 170.
ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the
pope’s mitre-bearers, fo called, according to Ducange,
becaufe they walk at the pope’s right-hand when he
rides to vifit the churches.
ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked ax ufed by
Ihip-wrights, carpenters, coopers, &c.
ADDICTI, in antiquity, a kind of Haves, among
the Romans, adjudged to ferve fome creditor whom
they could not otherwife fatisfy, and whofe Haves they
became till they could pay or work out the debt.
ADDICTION, among tbe Romans, was the ma¬
king over goods to another, either by fale, or by legal
fentence ; the goods fo delivered were called bona addic-
ta. Debtors were fometimes delivered over in the fame
manner ; and thence called fervi additti.
ADDICTIO in diem, among the Romans, the ad¬
judging a thing to a perfon for a certain price, unlefs
by inch a day the owner, or fome other, give more for it.
ADDISON (Lancelot), fon of Lancelot Addi¬
fon a clergyman, was born at Mouldifmeaburne, in
the parilh of Crolby Ravenfworth in Weftmoreland, in
the year 1632. He was educated at Queen’s College,
Oxford; and at the Reftoration of king Charles II. ac¬
cepted of the chaplainfhip of the garrifen of Dunkirk :
but that fortrefs being delivered up to the French in
1662, he returned to England, and was foon after
made chaplain to the garrifon of Tangier; where he
continued feven years, and was greatly efteemed. In
1670, he returned to England, and was made chaplain
in ordinary to the king; but hischaplainfliip of Tangier
being taken from him on account of his abfence, he
found himfelf ftraltened in his circumftances, when he
feafonably obtained the re&ory of Million, in Wiltshire,
worth about izol.per annum. He afterwards became '
a prebendary of Sarum ; took his degree of doctor of
divinity at Oxford; and-in 1683 was made dean of
Litchfield, and the next year archdeacon of Coventry.
His life was exemplary; his converfation pleafing, and.
greatly inftrudtive ; and his behaviour as a gentleman,
a clergyman, and a neighbour, did honour to the place
of his refidence. He wrote, 1. A Short Narrative of
the Revolutions of the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco ;
2. The prefent Hiftory of the Jews : 3. A DifcourL
on Catechifing: 4. A Modeft Plea for the Clergy:
5. An Introduftion to the Sacrament: 6. The firft
State of Mahometifm : and feveral other pieces. This
worthy divine died on the 20th of April 1703 and
left three fons: Jofeph, the fubjedl of the next article ;
Gulfton, who died while governor of Fort St George;
Lancelot, mailer of arts, and fellow of Magdalen Col¬
lege in Oxford; and one daughter, firft married to Dr
Sartre prebendary of Weftminifter, and afterwards to
Daniel Combes, Efq.
Addison (Jofeph), one of the brighteft geniufes
that this or any other country has produced, was the
fom
[ 79 1
'
Ad4ifon.
ADD [ 80 ] ADD
fon of dean Addifon, the fubjett of the laft article.
He was born at Milfton, near Ambrefbury, in Wilt-
fhire, on the I Ith of May 1672'; and not being thought
likely to live, was baptized the fame day. He recei¬
ved the firft rudiments of his education at the place of
his nativity, under the reverend Mr Naiih ; but was
. foon removed to Salilbury, under the care of Mr Tay¬
lor ; and from thence to the charter-houfe, where he
commenced his acquaintance with Sir Richard Steele.
About fifteen, he was entered at Queen’s College, Ox¬
ford, where he applied very clofely to the ftudy of
claffical learning, in which he made a furprifing profi¬
ciency. In the year 1687, Dr Lancafter, dean of
Magdalen College, having, by chance, feen a Latin
poem of Mr Addifon’s, was fo pleafed with it, that he
immediately got him elected into that houfe, where he
took up his degrees of bachelor and mailer of arts. His
Latin pieces, in the courfe of a few years, were exceedingly
admired in both univerfities ; nor were they lefs efteem-
ed abroad, particularly by the celebrated Boileau, who is
reported to have faid, that he would not have written a-
gainft Perrault, had he before feen fuch excellent pieces
by a modern hand. He publilhed nothing in Englifh
before the twenty-fecond year of his age; when there
appeared a Ihort copy of verfes written by him, and ad-
dreffed to Mr Dryden, which procured him great re¬
putation from the bell judges. This was foon followed
by a tranflation of the Fourth Georgic of Virgil,
(omitting the {lory of Ariftseus), much commended by
Mr Dryden. He wrote alfo the Eifay on the Geor¬
gies, prefixed to Mr Dryden’s tranfiation. There are
feveral other pieces written by him about this time ;
amongft the rell, one dated the 3 d of April 1694,
addrelfed to H. S. that is, Dr Sacheverel, who be¬
came afterwards fo famous, and with whom Mr Addi¬
fon lived once in the greatefl friendfhip ; but their in¬
timacy was fame time after broken off by their difagree-
ment in political principles. In the year 1695, ^ie
wrote a poem to king William on one of his cam¬
paigns, addreffed to Sir John Somers, lord keeper of
the great feal. This gentleman received it with great
pleafure, took the author into the number of his friends,
and beftowed on him many marks of his favour. Mr.
Addifon had been clofely preffed, while at the univer-
fity, to enter into holy orders ; and had once refolved
upon it: but his great modefty, his natural diffidence,
and an uncommonly delicate fenfe of the importance of
the facred function, made him afterwards alter his re-
folution ; and having expreffedan inclination to travel,
he was encouraged thereto by his patron above-men¬
tioned, who, by his intereft, procured him from the
crowiv a penfion of L. 300 per annum to fupport him
in his travels. He accordingly made a tour to Italy
in the year 1699 > an^’ in. 1701, he wrote a poetical
epiftle from Italy to the earl of Halifax, which has
been univerfally efteemed as a moft excellent perform¬
ance. It was tranflated into Italian yerfe by the abbot
Antonio Maria Salvini, Greek profeffor at Florence.
In the year 1705, he publifhed an account of his tra¬
vels, dedicated to lord Somers; which, though at firft
but indifferently received, yet in a little time met
with its deferved applaufe. In the year 1702, he was
about to return to England, when he received advice
of his being appointed to attend prince Eugene, who
then commanded for the emperor in Italy : but the
death of king William happening foon after, put an Add
end to this affair as well as his penfion ; and he re-
mained for a confiderable time unemployed. But an
unexpedled incident at once raifed him, and gave him
an opportunity of exerting his fine talents to advan¬
tage : for in the year 1704, the lord-treafurer Godol-
phin happened to complain to lord Halifax, that the
duke of Marlborough’s vi&ory at Blenheim had not
been celebrated in verfe in the manner it deferved ;
and intimated, that he would take it kindly, if his
lordffiip, who was the known patron of the poets,
would name a gentleman capable of doing juftice to fo
elevated a fubjedl. Lord Halifax replied, fomewhat
haftily, that he did know fuch a perfon, but would
not mention him ; adding, that long had he feen, with
indignation, men of no merit maintained in luxury at
the public expence^ whilft thofe of real worth and mo¬
defty were fuffered to languiffi in obfeurity. The
treasurer anfwered very coolly, that he was forry there
ffiould be occafion for fuch an obfervation, but that he
would do his endeavour to wipe off fuch reproaches for
the future ; and he engaged his honour, that whoever
his lordffiip'named, as a perfon capable of celebrating
this viftory, ffiould meet with a fuitable recompence.
Lord Halifax thereupon named Mr Addifon; infilling,
however, that the treafurer himfelf ffiould fend to him;
which he promifed. Accordingly he prevailed on Mr
Boyle (afterwards lord Carlton) then chancellor of
the exchequer, to make the propofal to Mr Addifon;
which he did in fo polite a manner, that our author
readily undertook the talk. The lord-treafurer had a
fight of the piece, when it was carried no farther than
the celebrated fimile of the angel; and was fo pleafed
with it, that he immediately appointed Mr Addifon a
commiffioner of appeals, vacant by the promotion of
Mr Locke, chofen one of the lords commiffioners for
trade. The Campaign is addreffed to the duke of
Marlborough ; it gives a ffiort view of the military
tranfadlions in 1704, and contains a noble defeription
of the two great adtions at Schellemberg and Blen¬
heim. The poem will be admired as long as the vic¬
tory is remembered. In 1705, he attended lord Hali¬
fax to Hanover; and the enfuing year was appointed
under-fecretary to Sir Charles Hedges fecretary of
Hate; in which office he acquitted himfelf fo well, that
the earl of Sunderland, who fucceeded Sir Charles in
December, continued Mr Addifon in his employment.
A tafte for operas beginning at this time to prevail in
England, and many perfons having folicited Mr Ad¬
difon to write one, he complied with their requeft,
and compofed his Rofamond. This however, whether
from the defedl of the mufic, for which our language
is faid by fome to be very improper, or from the pre¬
judices in favour of the Italian tafte, did not fucceed
upon the ftage ; but the poetry of it has, and always
will be, juftly admired. About this time. Sir Richard
Steele compofed his comedy of the Tender Huffiand,
to which Mr Addifon wrote a prologue. Sir Richard
furprifed him with a dedication of this play, and ac¬
quainted the public, that he was indebted to him for
fome of the moft excellent ftrokes in the performance.
The marquis of Wharton, being appointed lord lieu¬
tenant of Ireland in 1709, took Mr Addifon with him
as his fecretary. Her majefty alfo made him keeper
of the records of Ireland, and, as a farther mark of
her
ADD [8
Addifon. her'favour, conMerably augmented the falary annexed
   to that place. Whilft he was in this kingdom, the
Tatler was firft publilhed ; and he difcovered his friend
Sir Richard Steele to be the author, by an obfervation
' on Virgil, which he had communicated to him. He
afterwards aflifted confiderably in carrying on this pa¬
per, which the author acknowledges. The Tatler be¬
ing laid down, the Spectator was fet on foot, and Mr
Addifon furnilhed great part of the moll admired pa¬
pers ; thofe which he wrote are diftinguilhed by one of
the letters of the mufe, C, L, I, O. The Speftator
made its firft appearance in March 1711, and was
brought to a conclufion in September 1712. He had
likewife a confiderable lhare in the Guardian, another
paper in the fame talle, which entertained the town in
1713 and 1714. His celebrated Cato appeared in
1713. He formed the defign of a tragedy upon this
fubjeft when he was very young, and wrote it when on
his travels : he retouched it in England, without any
intention of bringing it on the ftage ; but his friends
being perfuaded it would ferve the caufe of liberty, he
was prevailed on by their felicitations, and it was ac¬
cordingly exhibited on the theatre with a prologue by
Mr Pope, and an epilogue by Dr Garth. It was re-
. ceived with the moft uncommon applaufe, having run
thirty-five nights without interruption ; and all parties,
however divided, agreed in giving this play the com¬
mendation it deferred. It was no lefs efteemed abroad,
having been tranflated into French, Italian, and Ger¬
man ; and it was afted at Leghorn, and feveral other
places, with vaft applaufe. The Jefuits at St Omers
made a Latin verfion of it, and the ftudents afted it
with great magnificence. Her majefty queen Anne
fignified an inclination of having the play dedicated to
her ; but the author having propofed to dedicate it
elfewhere, to avoid giving offence, publifhed it with¬
out a dedication. He had formed a defign of writing
another tragedy upon the death of Socrates; but this
he never carried into execution. He intended alfo to
have compofed an Englilh dictionary upon the plan of
the Italian (Della Crufca) ; but, upon the death of the
queen, being appointed fecretary to the lords juftices,
he had not leifure to carry on fuch a work./ When
the earl of Sunderland was appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland, Mr Addifon was again made fecretary for the •
affairs of that kingdom; and, updh the earl’s being
removed from the lieutenancy, he was chofen one of
the lords of trade. In 1715, he began the Free¬
holder, a-political paper, which was much admired,
and proved of great ufe at that jundture. He pu-
blilhed alfo, about this time, verfes to Sir Godfrey
Kneller upon the king’s pidture, and fome to the prin-
cefs of Wales with the tragedy of Cato. In April
1717, his majefty king George appointed our author
one of his principal fecretaries of ftate ; but the fa¬
tigue of his employment having brought upon him an
afthmatic diforder, with which he had been before af-
flidted, he refigned his office, and retired from bufi-
nefs. In his retirement, he applied himfelf to a reli-
* Evidences gious work *, which he had begun long before; part of
8 of the Xian which, fcarce finiftied, has been printed in his works,
religion. pje intended alfo to have given an Englifh paraphrafe
of fome of David’s pfalms ; but a long and painful re-
lapfe cut fhort all his defigns, and carried off this great
man on the 17th of June 1719, in the 54th year of
■VOL. I.
1 ] ADD
his age. He died at Holland-houfe, near Kenfington, Addifon
leaving behind him one daughter by the countefs of J,
Warwick, to whom he w’as married in 1716. After * ‘c ‘
his difeafe, Mr Tickel, by the author’s inftrudtions,
publiftied his works in four volumes in 4t0. In this
edition, there are feveral pieces hitherto unmention¬
ed, viz. The Differtation on Medals; which, though
not publifhed till after his death, yet he had collefted
the materials, and began to put them in order, at
Vienna, in 1702. A pamphlet, entitled, The prefent
State of the War, and the Neceffity of an Augmen¬
tation, confidered. The late Trial and Conviction of
Count Tariff. The Whig Examiner came out on the
14th of September 1716: there were five of thefe
papers attributed to Mr Addifon, and they are the fe-
vereft pieces he ever wrote. The Drummer, or the
Haunted Houfe, a comedy not taken notice of in this
edition, was publiftied afterwards as Mr Addifon’s,
by Sir Richard Steele. He is faid alfo to have been
the author of a performance entitled Dijfertatio de
infignioribus Romanorum Poetis, and of a E)ifcourfe on
Ancient and Modern Learning.
ADD IT AMENT, fomething added to another.
Thus phyficians call the ingredients added to a medi¬
cine already compounded, additaments.
ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting
two or more things, or augmenting a thing by the ac-
ceffion of others thereto.
Addition, in Arithmetic, Algebra, £}c. fee
thefe articles.
Addition, in mufic, a dot marked on the right fide
of a note, fignifying, that it is to be founded or length¬
ened half as much more as it would have been without
fuch mark.
Additions, in heraldry, fome things added to a coat
of arms, as marks of honour; and therefore direftly
oppofite to abatements. Among additions we reckon
Bordure, Quarter, Canton, Gyron, Pile, <&c.
See thefe articles.
ADDRESS, a term often ufed to exprefs the fltill
and propriety with which an affair is conducted.
Games of Address. See Games.-
y/# Address, in a particular acceptation, is a con¬
gratulation, petition, or remonftrance, prefented to a
fuperior, efpeciaMy to the king.
ADDUCENT muscles, or Adductors, in ana¬
tomy, thofe mufcles which pull one part of the body
towards another.
ADEL, a kingdom on the eaftern coaft of Africa,
which reaches as far as the ttraits of Babelmandel,
which unites the Red Sea to the fea of Arabia. This
country produces corn, and feeds a great number, of
cattle. The inhabitants drive a trade in gold, filver,
ivory, oil, frankincenfe, a fort of pepper, and other
merchandizes of Arabia and the Indies. The king was
formerly a vaffal to the grand negus of Abyffinia: but
being Mahometans, and the Abyffinians a fort of Chri-
j^i&ns, they could not7 agree ; and in 1535 came to an
open rupture, when the Adelines threw off the yoke,
feeking proteftion from the Grand Signior. The prin¬
cipal places are, Adela, feated in the centre of the coun¬
try, and is the town where the king refides: Zeila, near
the Arabian Sea, is a rich town, and has a good trade:
Barbora, near the fca-coaft, is an ancient trading town.
It rains very feldom in this country.
ADELA,
ADD [ 82 j ADI
Amelia ADELIA, a genus of the monadelphia order, be-
II knging to the dicecia clafs of plants. Of this genus
 eqUa e' there are three fpecies; the bernardia, the ricinella, and
acidoton, for which we have no proper names in Englifh.
They are natives of Jamaica, and are akin to the ricenus
or croton, and may be propagated in hpt-beds from
feeds procured from Jamaica; but they have little beau¬
ty, and are therefore feldom cultivated.
ADELME, or Aldhelm, fon to Kenred, nephew
to Ina, king of the Weft-Saxons ; after having been
educated abroad, was abbot of Malmftmry 30 years.
He was the firft Engliftiman who wrrote in Latin, the
firft who brought poetry into England, and the firft
bilhop of Sherburn. He lived in great efteem till his
death, wdiich happened in 709. He was canonzied, and
many miracles were told of him. He is mentioned
with great honour by Camden and Bayle, and his life
was written by William of Malmfbury.
ADELPHIANI, in church-hiftory, a fe& of an¬
cient heretics, who fafted always on Sundays.
ADEMPTION, in the civil law, implies the re¬
vocation of a grant, donation, or the like.
ADEN, formerly a rich and confiderable town of
Arabia the Happy. It is feated by the fea-fide, a
little eaftward of the ftraits of Babelmandel.
ADENANTHERA, bastard flower-fence, a
genus ofthe monogy nia order, belonging to the decandria
clafs of plants. Only one fpecies of this plant is known
in Britain : but there is a variety, with fcarlet feeds;
which, however, is rare, and grows very flowly. It is
a native of* India, and rifes to a confiderable height.
It is as large as the tamarind tree; fpreads its branches
wide on every fide, and makes a fine ftiade ; for which
reafon, it is frequently planted by the inhabitants in
their gardens or near their habitations. The leaves of
this tree are doubly winged, the flowers of a yellow co¬
lour, and difpofed in a long bunch. Thefe are fucceed-
ed by long twifted membranaceous pods, inclofing fe-
veral hard comprefled feeds, of a beautiful fcarlet, or
fhining black, colour. This plant muft be raifed in a
hot-bed, and kept during winter in a ftove.
ADENBURG, or Aldenburg, a town of Weft-
phalia, and in the duchy of Burg, fubjedf to the Elec¬
tor Palatine. It is 12 miles N. E. of Cologne, and
17 W. of Bonn; E. long. 7.25. lat. 51. 2.
c ADENOGRAPHY, that part of anatomy which
• See treats of the glandular parts *.
ADENOIDES, glandulous, or of a glandular form;
t Toii. an epithet applied to the proftatse f.
n° 371* ADENOLOGY, the fame with Adenography.
ADENOS, akind of cotton, otherwife called marine
cotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Mar-
feilles, where it pays 20 per cent. duty.
ADEONA, in mythology, the name of a goddefs
invoked by the Romans when they fet out upon a
journey.
ADEPHAGIA, inmythology, thegoddefs of glut¬
tony, to whom the Sicilians paid religious worftiip.
ADEPS, in anatomy, the fat found in the abdo-
* Jl. n° 82. men. It alfo fignifies animal fat of any kind*.
ADEPTS, a term among alchemifts for thofe who
pretended to have found the panacea or philofophers-
fione. See Chemistry, n° 5, 6.
ADEQUATE, fomething equal to or exactly cor-
refponding with another.
Adequate Idea, fignifies a diftinft or perfedl con- Adequate
ception of all the equalities of any objedt. I
ABERBIJAN, a province of Perfia, bounded on thium.*
the N. by Armenia Proper, on the S. by Irac-Agemi,  ——-
on the E. by Ghilan, and on the W. by Curdiftan.
The principal town is Tauris; from 42. to 48. long,
from 36. to 39. lat.
ADERNO, a fmall place in the Val di Demona in
the kingdom of Sicily: E. long. 15. 25. lat. 28. 5.
The ancient Adranum : See Adranum.
ADESSENARIANS, Adessenarii, in church-
hiftory, a fed! of Chriftians, who hold the real prefence
of Chrift’s body in the eucharift, though not by way
of tranfubftantiation. They differ confiderably as to
this prefence; fomc holding that the body of Chrift is
in the bread ; others, that it is about the bread; and
others that it is under the bread.
ADFILIATION, a Gothic cuftom, whereby the
children of a former marriage are put upon the fame
footing with thofe of the fecond. This is alfo called undo
prolium, and ftill retained in fome parts of Germany.
AD FINES, (Antonine), a town of Swifferland,
fuppofed to be the modern Pfin, in the north of
the diftridt of Turgow, on the rivulet Thur, not
far from the borders of Suabia, about half-way be¬
tween Conftance and Frauenfield. So called, becaufe
when Cecinna, general of the emperor Vitellius, with
the auxiliary Rhetians, defeated the Helvetii, the for¬
mer extended their borders thus far, their territory
ending here; and, in time of the Romans, it was the
laft town in this quarter, and of fome repute.
ADHA, [Arab.) Afeftival, which the Mahometans
celebrate on the tenth day of the month Dhoulhegiat,
which is the twelfth and laft of their year. This month
being particularly deftined for the ceremonies which
the Pilgrims obferve at Mecca, it takes its name from
thence, for the word fignifies the month of Pilgrimage.
On that day they facrifice with great folemnity, at
Mecca, and nowhere elfe, a ftieep, which is called by
the fame name as the feftival itfelf. The Turks com¬
monly call this feftival the Great Beiram, to diftin-
guifti it from the leffer, which ends their fall, and which
the Chriftians of the Levant call the Eajier of the Turks,
The Mahometans celebrate this feftival, out of the city
of Mecca, in a neighbouring valley; and fometimes
they facrifice there a camel. See Beiram.
ADHATODA, in botany. See Justicia.
Action of ADHERENCE, in Scots law; anaftion
competent to a hufband or wife, to compel either party
to adhere, in cafe of defertion *. * See Law,,
ADHESION, in a general fenfe, implies the ftick- p^rt HI.
ing or adhering of two bodies together.
Adhesion, in philofophy. See Attraction of
Cohefon.
Adhesion, in anatomy, a term for one part flicking
to another, which in a natural ftate are feparate. For
the moft part, if any of thofe parts in the thorax or
belly lie in contact, and inflame, they grow together.
The lungs very frequently adhere to the pleura.
ADJACENT, an appellation given to fuch things
as are fituated near, or adjoining to, each other.
ALIANTHUM, maiden-hair; a genus of the
order oi filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants.
Species, Of this genus botanical writers enume¬
rate
Adiapho-
rifts
.11
Adjunft.
* See
alfo Mate¬
ria Medica,
n°73.
* See Law,
Part III.
n0 clxxii. 6,
&c.
A D J [ 83 j A D L
rate fifteen fpecies ; the moft remarkable are the fol¬
lowing. I. The capillus veneris, or true maiden¬
hair, is a native of the fouthern parts of France, from
whence it is brought to Britain ; though it is likewife
faid to grow plentifully in Cornwall, and the Tricho-
manes has been almoft univerfally fubftituted for it.
2. The pedatum, or American maiden-hair, is a na¬
tive of Canada; and grows in fuch quantities, that the
French fend it from thence in package for other goods,
and the apothecaries at Paris ufe it for maiden-hair in
the compofitions wherein that is ordered. 3. The
trapeziforme, or black American maiden-hair, is a
native of Jamaica; and has finning black ftalks, and
leaves of an odd ftiape, which make an agreeable va¬
riety among other plants, fo is fometimes cultivated in
gardens.
Culture. The firft fpecies grows naturally out of
the joints of walls, and fiflures of rocks. It ought
therefore to be planted in pots filled with gravel and
lime-rubbifii; where it will thrive much better than in
ood earth. It muft alfo be flieltered under a frame
uring the winter.—The fecond is to be treated in
the fame manner; but the third will not thrive in Bri¬
tain, unlefs kept in a ftove during the winter*.
ADIAPHORISTS, in church-hiftory, a name im-
’ porting lukewarmnefs, given, in the 16th century, to
the moderate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions
of Melanfthon, whofe difpofition was vaftly more paci¬
fic than that of Luther.
ADJAZZO, Adrazzo, or Ajaccio, in geography,
a handfome town and caftle of Corfica in the Mediter¬
ranean, with a bifliop’s fee,- and a good harbour. It
is populous, and fertile in wine. It is 27 miles S. W.
of Corte. E. long. 41. 54. lat. 38. 5.
ADJECTIVE. See Grammar, n° 50, 51.
ADIGE, a river in Italy, which taking its rife fouth
of the lake Glace among the Alps, runs fouth byTrent,
then call by Verona in the territory of Venice, and falls
into the gulph of Venice, north of the mouth of the Po.
ADJOURNMENT, the putting off a court, or o-
ther meeting, till another day. There is a difference
between the adjournment and the prorogation of the
parliament; the former not only being for a fhorter
time, but alfo done by the houfe itfelf; whereas the
latter is an aft of royal authority.
ADIPOSE, a term ufed by anatomifts for any cell,
membrane, &c. that is remarkable for its fatnefs.
ADIRBEITSAN, in geogr. a province of Perfia,
in Afia, and part of the ancient Media. It is bounded
on the N. by the province of Shirvan, on the S. by
Irac-Agemi and Curdiftan, on the E. by Gilan and
the Cafpian fea, and on the W. by Turcomania.
ADIT, the paffage to, or entrance of, any thing; as
the adit of a mine, &c.
ADJUDICATION, implies the aft of adjudging,
or determining, a caufe in favour of fome perfon.
Adjudication, in Scots law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor attaches the heritable eftate of
his debtor, or his debtor’s heir, in order to,appropriate
it to himfelf, either in payment or fecurity of his debt;
or, that aftion by which the holder of an heritable
right, labouring under any defeft in point of form,
may fupply that defeft *.
ADJUNCT, among philofophers,fignifies fomething
added to another, without being any ueceffary part of
it. Thus water abforbed by cloth or a fpunge, is an
adjunft, but no neceffary part of either of thefe fub-
itances.
Adjunct, in metaphyfics, fome quality belonging
to either the body or mind, whether natural or acqui¬
red. Thus thinking is an adjunft of the mind, and
growth an adjunft of the body.
Adjunct, in mufic ; a word which is employed to
denominate the conneftion or relation between the prin¬
cipal mode and the modes of its two-fifths, which, from
the intervals that conftitute the relation between them
and it, are called its adjunfts.
Adjunct is alfo ufed to fignifya colleague, or fome
perfon afibciated with another as an afliftant.
Adjunct Gods, or Adjuncts of the Gods, among
the Romans, were a kind of inferior deities, added as
affiftants to the principal ones, to eafe them in their func¬
tions. Thus, to Mars was adjoined Bellona and Ne-
mefis; to Neptune, Salacia; to Vulcan, the Cabiri;
to the Good Genius, the Lares; to the Evil, the Le-
mures, Sec.
Adjuncts, in rhetoric and grammar, fignify certain
words or things added to others, to amplify or augment
the force of the difeourfe.
Adjuncts, or Adjoints, in the royal academy of
fciences at Paris, denote a clafs of members, attached
to the purfuit of particular fciences. The clafs of sdd-
junfts was created in 1716, in lieu of the Eleves : they
are twelve in number; two for geometry, two for me¬
chanics, two for aftronomy, two for anatomy, two for
chemiftry, and two for botany. The Eleves not ta¬
ken into this eftablifhment were admitted on the foot
of fupernumerary Adjunits*.
ADJUTANT, in the military art, is an officer
whofe bufinefs it is to afiift the major. Each battalion ,
of foot and regiment of horfe has an adjutant, who re¬
ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major ;
which, after carrying them to the colonel, he delivers
out to the ferjeants. When detachments are to be
made, he gives the number to be furniftied by each
company or troop, and affigns the hour and place of
rendezvous. He alfo places the guards; receives, and
diftributes the ammunition to the companies, &c.; and,
by the major’s orders, regulates the prices of bread,
beer, and other provifions. The word is fometimes
ufed by the French for an aid-du-camp.
AnjUTANTs-.gTwrtf/, among the Jefuits, a feleft
number of fathers, refiding with the general of the or¬
der, each of whom has a province or country affigned
him, as England, Holland, &c. and their bufinefs is to
inform the father-general of ftate-occurrences in fuch
countries. To this end they have their correfpon-
dents delegated, emifiaries, vifitors, regents, provin¬
cials, &c.
ADJUTORIUM, a term ufed by phyficians for
any medicine in a prefeription but the capital one.
ADLE-EGGS, fuch as have not received an im¬
pregnation from the femen of the cock.
ADLOCUTION, Adlocutio, in antiquity, is
chiefly underftood of fpeeches made by Roman gene¬
rals to their armies, to encourage them before a battle.
We frequently find thefe adlocutions exprefied on me¬
dals by the abbreviature Adlocut. Com.—The ge¬
neral is fometimes reprefented as feated on a tribunal,
often on a bank or mount of turf, with the cohorts
L 2 ranged
Adjunft
II
Adlocution
* See
Academy,
NyV. par. 8
etfei.
ADM [ 84 ] ADM
Adminicle ranged orderly round him, in manipuli and turm<e. The
I!, ufual formula in adlocutions was, Fortis effet ac fidus.
-Admiral- ADMINICLE, a term ufed, chiefly in old law-
books, to imply an aid, help, afixftance, or fupport.
The word is Latin, adminiculum; and derived from ad¬
minicular, to prop, or fupport.
Adminicles, in Scots law, fignifies any writing or
deed referred to by a party, in an action of law, for
proving his allegations.
ADMINICULATOR, an ancient officer of the
church, whofe bufinefs it was to attend to and defend
the caufe of the widows, orphans, and others deftitute
of help.
ADMINISTRATION, in general, the govern¬
ment, diredtion, or management of affairs, and parti¬
cularly the exercife of diftributive juftice ; among ec-
clefiaftics, it is often ufed to exprefs the giving or dif-
penfing the facraments, &c.
Administration, is alfo the name given by the
Spaniards in Peru to the ftaple magazine, or warehoufe,
eftabliffied at Callao, a fmall town on the S. Sea, which
is the port of Lima, the capital of that part of South
America, and particularly of Peru. The foreign fhips,
which have leave to trade along that coaft, are obliged
to unload here, paying 13 per cent, of the price they
fell for, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 per cent.
if otherwife ; befides which, they pay 3 per 1000,
duty, for confulfhip and fome other fmall royal rights
and claims.
ADMINISTRATOR, inlaw. See there, N°xciv.
3, 7, 8. and clxi. 6.
Administrator, is fometimes ufed for the prefi-
dent of a province; for a perfon appointed to receive,
manage, and diftribute, the revenues of an hofpital or
religious houfe ; for a prince who enjoys the revenues
of a fecularized bilhopric ; and for the regent of a king¬
dom, during a minority of the prince, or a vacancy of
the throne
ADMIRABILIS sal, the fame with Glauber’s
fait. See Chemistry, n° 124.
ADMIRAL, a great officer, or magiftrate, who has
the government of a navy, and the hearing of all ma¬
ritime caufes..
Authors are divided with regard to the origin and
denomination of this important officer, whom we find
eftablifhed in moft kingdoms that border on the fea.
But the moft probable opinion is that of Sir Henry
Spelman, who thinks, that both the name and dignity
were derived from the Saracens, and, by reafon of the
holy, wars, brought amongft us; for admiral, in the
Arabian language, fignifies a prince, or chief ruler,
and was the ordinary title of the governors of cities,
provinces,^&c. and therefore they called the com¬
mander of the navy by that name, as a name of dignity
and honour. And indeed there are no inftances of
admirals in this part of Europe before the year 1284,
when Philip of France, who had attended St Lewis in
the wars againft the Saracens, created an admiral. Du
Cange aflures us, that the Sicilians were the firft, and
the Genoefe the next, who gave the denomination of
Admiral to the commanders of their naval armaments;
and that they took it from the Saracen or Arabic E-
mir, a general name for every commanding officer. As
for the exaft time when the word was introduced among
as, it is uncertain; fome think it was in the reign of
Edward I. Sir Henry Spelman is of opinion that it Admiral,
was firft ufed in the reign of Henry HI. becaufe nei- ' —
ther the laws of Oleron made in 1266, nor Bra&on,
who wrote about that time, make any mention of it;
and that the term admiral was not ufed in a charter in
the eighth of Henry III. wherein he granted this of¬
fice to Richard de Lacey, by thefe words Maritimam
Anglix ; but in the 56th year of the fame reign, not only
the hiftorians, but the charters themfelves, very fre¬
quently ufe the word admiral.
Anciently there were generally three or four admi¬
rals appointed in the Engliffi feas, all of them holding
the office durante beneplacito ; and each of them having
particular limits under their charge and government;
as admirals of the fleet of Ihips, from the mouth of the
Thames northward, fouthward, or weftward. Befides
thefe, there were admirals of the Cinque Ports, as in the
reign of Edward III. when one Willian Latimer was
ftyled admiralis quinque portuum; and we fometimes
find that one perfon has been admiral of the fleets to
the fouthward, northward, and weftward : but the title
of admiralis Angl'ue was not frequent till the reign of
Henry IV. when the king’s brother had that title gi¬
ven him, which in all commiffions afterwards was grant¬
ed to the fucceeding admirals. It may be oblerved,
that there was a title above that of admiral of England,
which was, locum-tenens regis fuper mare, the king’s lieu¬
tenant-general of the fea; this title we find mentioned
in the reign of Richard II.—Before the ufe of the
word admiral was known, the title of cujlos maris was
made ufe of.
Lord High Admiral of England, in fome ancient re¬
cords called capitanus maritimarum, an officer of great
antiquity and truft, as appears by the laws of Oleron,
fo denominated from the place they were made at by
Richard I. The firft title of Admiral of England, ex-
prefsly conferred upon a fubjeft, was given by patent
of Richard II. to Richard Fitz-Allen, junr. earl of Arun¬
del and Surrey; for thofe who before enjoyed this of¬
fice were Amply termed admirals, though their jurif-
diftion feems as large, efpecially in the reign of Edward
III. when the court of admiralty was firft erefted.
This great officer has the management of all mari¬
time affairs, and the government of the royal navy, with
power of decifion in all maritimes cafes, both civil and
criminal: he judges of all things done upon or beyond
the fea, in any part of the world: upon the fea-coafts,
in all ports and havens, and upon all rivers below the
firft bridge from the fea. By him, vice-admirals, rear-
admirals, and all fea-captains, are commiffioned; all de¬
puties for particular coafts, and coroners to view dead
bodies found on the fea-coafts, or at fea: he alfo ap¬
points the judges for his court of admiralty, and may
imprifon, releafe, &c. All ports and havens are infra
corpus comitatus, and the admiral hath no jurifdiction
of any thing done in them. Between high and low wa¬
ter- mark, the common-law and the high-admiral have
jurifdiftion by turns, one upon the water, and the other
upon the land.
The lord-admiral has power, not only over the fea-
men ferving in his fliips of war, , but over all other fea-
men, to arreft them for the fervice of the ftate; and,
if any of them run away, without leave of the admiral,
he hath power to make a record thereof, and certi¬
fy the fame to the ftieriffs, mayors, bailiffs, &c. who
fhair.
ADM t Sc ] ADO
Admiral (hall caufe them to be apprehended and Imprifoned.
P To the lord high-admiral belong all penalties and
i miralty‘ amercements of all tranfgreffions at fea, on the fca-fhore,
in ports and havens, and all rivers below the £rft bridge
from the fea; the goods of pirates and felons condemn¬
ed or enflaved, fea-wrecks, goods floating on the fea,
1 or call on the fhore (not granted to lords of manors
adjoining to the fea), and a (hare of lawful prizes; alfo
all great fifhes, commonly called royal fifties, except
whales and fturgeons: to which add, a falary of 7000/.
a-year.
In ftiort, this is fo great an office, in point of truft,
honour, and profit, that it has been ufually given to
princes of the blood, or the moft eminent perfons among
the nobility. We have had no high admiral for fome
years; the office being put in commiffion, or under the
adminiftration of the lords commiffioners of the admi¬
ralty, who by ftatute have the fame power and autho¬
rity as the lot-d high admiral.
High Admiral in Scotland, a judge invefted with
fupreme jurifdidlion in all maritime cafes within that
part of Britain.
Admiral, alfo implies' the commander in chief of
any fingle fleet or fquadron; or, in general, any flag-
officer whatever. The commander of a fleet carries his
i; flag at the main-top-mafl: head.
Vice Adm 1 ral, is the commander of the fecond fqua-
I dron, and carries his flag at the fore-top-mafi; head.
Rear Admiral, is the commander of the third fqua¬
dron, and carries his flag at the mizzen-top-maft head.
Vice Admiral, is alfo an officer appointed by the
lords commiffioners of the admiralty. There are feveral
of thefe officers eftablifhed in different parts of Great
Britain, with judges and marfhals under them, for ex¬
ecuting jurifdidtion within their refpeftive limits. Their
Ij decrees, however, are not final, an appeal lying to the
I court of admiralty in London.
Admiral is alfo an appellation given to the mofi:
confiderable fhip of a fleet of merchant-men, or of the
j vefiels employed in the cod-fifhery of Newfoundland.
This laft has the privilege of chufing .what place he
pleafes on the ftiore to dry his fifh; gives proper orders,
and appoints the fifhing-places to thofe who come after
him; and as long as the fifhing-feafon continues, he
carries a flag on his main-maft.
Admiral, in zoology, the'Englifti name of a fpe-
cies of the voluta, a fhell-fifti belonging to the order of
vermes teftacea. See Voluta.
ADMIRALTY properly fignifiesthe office of lord
high-admiral, whether difeharged by one fingle perfon,
or by joint commiffioners called lords of the admiralty.
Court of Admiralty, is a fovereign court, held by
d the lord high-admiral, or lords of the admiralty, where
cognizance is taken in all maritime affairs, whether ci¬
vil or criminal.—All crimes committed on the high-
feas, or on great rivers below the firft bridge next the
1 ■ fea, are cognizable in this court only, and before which
they muft be tried by judge and jury. But in civil ca¬
ll1 fes the mode is different, the decifions being all made
according to the civil law. From the fentences of the
jadmiralty-judge an appeal always lay, in ordinary
courfe, to the king fin chancery, as may be collected
from ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 19. which diredts the
appeal from the archbifhop’s courts to be determined by
; ! perfons named in the king’s commiffion, “ like as in
“ cafe of appeal from the admiral-court.” But this is
alfo exprefsly declared by ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 5. which
enafts, that upon an appeal made to the chancery, the
fentence definitive of the delegates appointed by com¬
miffion (hall be final.
Appeals from the vice-admiralty courts in Ameri¬
ca, and our other plantations and fettlements, may be
brought before the courts of admiralty in England, as
being a branch of the admiral’s jurifdidtion, tho’ they
may alfo be brought before the king in council. But
in cafe of prize-veffels, taken in time of war, in any
part of the world, and condemned in any courts of ad¬
miralty or vice-admiralty as lawful prize, the appeal lies
to certain commijfioners of appeals confifting chiefly of
the privy council, and not to judges delegates. And
this by virtue of divers treaties with foreign nations,
by which particular courts are eftabliflied in all the
maritime countries of Europe for the decifion of this
queftion. Whether lawful prize or not: for this being
a queftion between fubjedts of different ftates, it belongs
entirely to the law of nations, and not to the munici¬
pal laws of either country, to determine it.
Court of Admiralty ifl Scotland. See Law,
Part III. N° clvii. 1 J.
ADMIRATION, in general, denotes furprife, won¬
der, or aftoniftiment, at any extraordinary event. Some¬
times alfo it fignifies the expreffion of wonder. The
point of admiration, in grammar, is marked.thus [! j.
ADMONITION, in ecclefiaftical affairs, a part of
difeipline much ufed in the ancient church. It was the
firft act, or ftep; towards the punifhment or expulfion
of delinquents. In cafe of private offences, it was per¬
formed according to the evangelical rule, privately:
in cafe of public offence, openly, before the church.
If either of thofe fufficed for the recovery of the fallen
perfon, all further proceedings in the way of cenfure
ceafed : if they did not, recourfe was had to excommu¬
nication.
Admonitio Fufium, among the Romans, a mi¬
litary puniftiment, not unlike our whipping, only it was
performed with vine-branches.
ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal cuftoms, the
redudtion of the property of lands or tenements to mort¬
main. See Mortmain.
ADNATA, in anatomy, one of the coats of the
eye, which is alfb called conjunctiva and albuginea *.
Adnata, is alfo ufed for any hair, wool, or the like,
which grows upon animals or vegetables,
ADNOUN, is ufed by fome grammarians to ex-
prefs what we more ufually call an Adjeftive. The
word is formed by way of analogy, to adverb; in re¬
gard adjectives have much the fame office and relation
to nouns, that adverbs have to verbs, Biftiop Wilkins
ufes the word adname in another fenfe, viz. for what we
otherwife call a prepofition.
ADOLESCENCE, the ftate of growing youth ;
or that period of a perfon’s age commencing from
his infancy, and terminating at his Lull ftapire or man¬
hood. The word is formed of the Latin adolefcere,
to grow.—The ftate of adolefcence lafts fo long as
the fibres continue to grow, either in magnitude or
firmnefs. The fibres being arrived at the degree of
firmnefs and tenfion fufficient to fuftain the parts, no
longer yield and give way to the efforts of the nutri¬
tious matter to extend them ; fo that their farther ac-
1 , - cretion
Admiralty
II
Adollam.
* See
Anatomy,
n° 406. b'j i, -
ADO [ 86 ] ADO
Adon cretion is flopped, from the very law of their nutrition.
I! . ADOLLAM, or Odollam, (anc. geogr.) a town
- °aiS' in the tribe of Judah, to the eaft of Eleutheropolis.
David is faid to have hid himfelf in a cave near this
town, (Bible.)
ADON, a populous village in the province of Stuhl-
WeHTemberg, belonging to Hungary. It lies in a
fruitful country, towards the river Danube. Long. 19.
20. Lat. 47. 30.
ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being
in the fcriptures. The proper meaning of the word is
my lords, in the plural number; as Adoni is my lord, in
the Angular.
ADONIA, in antiquity, folemn feafts in honour
of Venus, and in memory of her beloved Adonis. The
Adonia were obferved with great folemnity by moft na¬
tions; Greeks, Phoenicians, Lycians, Syrians, Egyp¬
tians, &c. From Syria, they are fuppofed to have
•Ch.viii.14. paired into India. The prophet Ezekiel * is underflood
to fpeak of them. They were ftill obferved at Alexan¬
dria, in the time of St Cyril; and at Antioch in that
of Julian the apoftate, who happened to enter that city
during the folemnity, which was taken for an ill omen.
The Adonia lafted two days: on the firft of which cer¬
tain images of Venus and Adonis were carried, with all
the pomp and ceremonies praftifed at funerals; the wo¬
men wept, tore their hair, beat their breafts, &c. imi¬
tating the cries and lamentations of Venus for the death
of her paramour. This lamentation they called AJaviao-^of.
The Syrians were not contented with weeping, but gave
themfelves difcipline, fhaved their heads, &c. Among
the Egyptians, the queen herfelf ufedto carry the image
of Adonis in proceflion. St Cyril mentions an extraordi¬
nary ceremony praftifed by the Alexandrians: A letter
was written to the women of By blus, to inform them that
Adonis was found again: this letter was thrown into the
fea, which (it was pretended) did not fail punctually to
convey it to Byblus in feven days; upon the receipt of
which, the Byblian women ceafed their mourning, fung
his praifes, and made rejoicings as if he were railed to
life again : Or rather, according to Meurfius, the two
offices of mourning and rejoicing made two diftindt
feafts, which were held at different times of the year,
the one fix months after the other; Adonis being fup¬
pofed to pafs half the year with Proferpine, and half
with Venus.—The Egyptian Adonia are faid to have
been held in memory of the death of Ofiris; by others,
of his ficknefs and recovery. Biftiop Patrick dates their
origin from the flaughter of the firft-born under Mofes.
ADONIDES, in botany, a name given to botanifts
who deferibed or made catalogues of plants cultivated
in any particular place.
ADONIS, fon to Cinyras king of Cyprus, the dar¬
ling of the goddefs Venus: being killed by a wild boar
in the Idalian woods, he was turned into a flower of a
blood-colour, fuppofed to be the Anemone. Venus
was inconfolable; and no grief was ever more celebrated
than this, moft nations having perpetuated the memory
*SeeAdinia. of it by a train of anniverfary ceremonies *. Among
Shakefpeare’s poems, is a long one on the fubjeft of
Venus’s affeCtion for Adonis. See Myrrha.
Adonis, in zoology. See Excocoetus.
Adonis, or Birds-eye, or Pheasants-eye ; a
genus of the polyandria order, belonging to the poly-
gynia clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are four different fpecies Adonir
enumerated; the moft remarkable are the following. II.
1. The annua, or common adonis, is a native of Kent, A °Ptlon
where it is found in great plenty in the fields fown with
wheat. Its flowers are of a beautiful fcarlet colour,
and appear in the beginning of June; the feeds ripen¬
ing in Auguft and September. Great quantities of
thefe flowers are fold in London, under the name of
Red Morocco. 2. The aeftivalis, or annual adonis, with
yellow flowers, grows much taller than the firft, has its
leaves thinner fet, and of a lighter colour. 3. The
vernalis, or perennial adonis, grows naturally on the
mountains of Bohemia, Pruffia, and other parts of J
Germany. It flowers the latter end of March, or be¬
ginning of April; the ftalks rife about a foot and a
half high; and when the roots are large, and have flood
unremoved for fome years, they will put out a great
number of ftalks from each root; on the top of each of
thefe grows one large yellow flower. 4. The apennina,
reprefented on Plate III. fig. 1. is a native of Siberia
and the Appenines.
Culture. The firft two fpecies, being annual, mull
be propagated from feeds, which ought to be fown in
autumn, foon after they are ripe, or they will be in
danger of not growing up that year. They thrive bell
in a light foil. The third and fourth fpecies are like-
wife to be propagated from feeds, which muft be fown
in autumn, or they feldom fucceed. When the plants
come up, they muft be carefully kept clear from weeds;
and in very dry weather their growth will be promoted
by being now and then watered. They fhould remain
in the place where they are fown till the fecond year;
and be tranfplanted thence in autumn, to the place
where they are to remain.
ADOPTIANI, in church-hiftory, a feft of ancient
heretics, followers of Felix of Urgel, and Elipand of
Toledo, who, towards the end of the eighth century,
advanced the notion, that Jefus Chrift, in his human na¬
ture, is the fon of God, not by nature, but by adoption.
ADOPTION, an aft by which any one takes ano¬
ther into his family, owns him for his fon, and appoints
him for his heir.—The cuftom of adoption was very
common among the ancient Romans; yet it was not
praftifed, but for certain caufes expreffed in the laws,
and with certain formalities ufual in fuch cafes: they
firft learnt it from the Greeks, among whom it was
called TioS-ffia. This adoption was a fort of imitation
of nature, intended for the comfort of thofe who had
no children: wherefore he that was to adopt was to
have no children of his own, and to be paft the age of
getting any; nor were eunuchs allowed to adopt, as j
being under an actual impotency of begetting children; J
neither was it lawful for a young man to adopt an el¬
der, becaufe that would have been contrary to the order
of nature ; nay, it was even required that the perfon
who adopted fliould. be eighteen years older than his
adopted fon, that there might at leaft appear a proba¬
bility of his being the natural father.—Among the
Turks, the ceremony of adoption is performed by obli¬
ging the perfon adopted to pafs thro’ the fhirt of the
adopter. Hence, among that people, to adopt, is ex¬
preffed by the phrafe, to draw another through my Jhirt.
It is faid, that fomething like this has alfo been ob¬
ferved among the Hebrews; where the prophet Elijah
adopted Elifha for his fon and fucceffor, and communi¬
cated
option
ADO [ 87 ] ADO
cated to him the gift of prophecy, by letting fall his
cloak or mantle on him. But adoption, properly fo
called, does not appear to have been praftifed among
the ancient Jews : Mofes fays nothing of it in his laws;
and Jacob’s adoption of his two grandfons, Ephraim
and Manaffeh, is not fo properly an adoption, as a kind
©f fubftitution, whereby thofe two fons of Jofeph were
allotted an equal portion in Ifrael with his own fons.
Adoption is alfo ufed, in theology, for a federal
aft of God’s free grace ; whereby thofe who are rege¬
nerated by faith, are admitted into his houfehold, and
entitled to a fhare in the inheritance of the kingdom of
heaven.
ADORATION, the aft of rendering divine ho¬
nours ; or of addrefling a being, as fuppofing it a
god. The word is compounded of ad, to; and os,
oris, mouth ; and literally fignifies, to apply the hand
to the mouth ; Manum ad os admovere, q. d. to kifs
the hand; this being, in the.eaftern countries, one of
the great marks of refpeft and fubmiflion.—The Ro¬
mans praftifed adoration at facrifices, and other fo-
1 enmities ^ in palling by temples, altars, groves, &c.;
at the fight of ftatues, images, or the like, whether
of ftone or wood, wherein any thing of divinity was
fuppofed to refide. ■ Ufually there were images of the
gods placed at the gates of cities, for thofe who went in
or out, to pay their refpefts to.—The ceremony of
adoration among the ancient Romans was thus: The
devotee having his head covered, applied his right hand
to his lips, the fore-finger re fling on his thumb, which
was ereft, and thus bowing his head, turned himfelf
round from left to right. The kifs thus given was
called ofculum labraturn ; for ordinarily they were afraid
to touch the images of their gods themfelves with their
profane lips. Sometimes, however, they would kifs
their feet, or even knees, it being held an incivility to
touch their mouths ; fo that the affair pafled at fome
diftance. Saturn, however, and Hercules, were adored
with the head bare; whence the worfhip of the lalt
was called injiitutum peregrinum, and ritus Groecatri-
cus, as departing from the cuftomary Roman method,
which was to facrifice and adore with the face veiled,
and the cloths drawn up to the ears, to prevent any
interruption in the ceremony by the fight of unlucky
objefts.—The Jewifh manner of adoration was by
proftration, bowing, and kneeling.—The Chriftians
adopted the Grecian rather than the Roman method,
and adored always uncovered. The ordinary pofture
of the ancient Chriftians was kneeling, but on Sundays
ftanding : and they had a peculiar regard to the Eaft,
to which point they ordinarily direfted their prayers.
Adoration is more particularly ufed for the aft of
praying, or preferring our requefts or thankfgivings to
Almighty God.
Adoration is alfo ufed for certain extraordinary
civil honours or refpefts which refemble thofe paid to
the Deity, yet are given to men.
The Perfian manner of Adoration, introduced by
Cyrus, was by bending the knee, and falling on the
face at the prince’s feet, ftriking the earth with the
forehead, and kiffing the ground. This ceremony,
which the Greeks called Conon refufed to
perform to Artaxerxes, and Califthenes to Alexander
the Great, as reputing it impious and unlawful.
The Adoration performed to the Roman and Grecian
emperors confifled in bowing or kneeling at the Adoration,
prince’s feet, laying hold of his purple robe, and pre- J
fently withdrawing the hand and clapping it to the lips.
Some attribute the origin of this praftice to Conftan-
tius. It was only perfons of fome rank or dignity that
were entitled to the honour. Bare kneeling before the
emperor to deliver a petition, was alfo called adoration.
The praftice of adoration may be faid to be ftill fub-
fifting in England, in the ceremony of kifling the king’s
or queen’s hand, and in ferving them at table, both
being performed kneeling.
Adoration is more particularly ufed for kifling
one’s hand in prefence of another, as a token of reve¬
rence.—Phe Jews adored by kifling their hands and
bowing down their heads ; whence, in their language,
kijfing is properly ufed for adoration.
Adoration is alfo ufed among Roman writers for
a high fpecies of applaufe given to perfons, who had
fpoken or performed well in public *. We meet with * See.
adoration paid to orators, aftors, muficians, &c. The AccUmatioK.
method of exprefling it was, by rifing, putting both
hands to their mouth, and then returning them towards
the perfon intended to be honoured.
Adoration is alfo ufed, in the court of Rome, for
the ceremony of killing the pope’s feet.—The intro-
duftion of adoration.among the Romans is.afcribed to
the low flattery of Vitellius, who, upon the return of C.
Caefar from Syria, would not approach him otherwife
than with his head covered, turning himfelf round, and
then falling on his face. Heliogabalus reftored the
praftice, and Alexander Severus again prohibited it.
Dioclefian redemanded it; and it was, in fome meafure,
continued under the fucceeding princes, even after the
eftablilhment of Chriftianity, as Conftantine, Conllan-
tius, &c. It is particularly faid of Dioclefian, that he
had gems faftened to his Ihoes, that divine honours
might be more willingly paid hi pi, by kifling his feet.
The like ufage was afterwards adopted by the popes,
and is obferved to this day. Thefe prelates finding a
vehement difpofition in the people to fall down before
them and kifs their feet, procured crucifixes to be fa¬
ftened on their flippers; by which ftratagem, the ado¬
ration intended for the pope’s perfon is fuppofed to be
transferred to Chrift. Divers afts of this adoration we
find offered even by princes to the pope.
Adoration is alfo ufed for a method of elefting a.
pope. The eleftion of popes is performed two ways;
by adoration, and by fcrutiny. In eleftion by adora¬
tion, the cardinals rufh haftily, as if agitated by fome
fpirit, to the adoration of fome one among them, to
proclaim him pope., When the eleftion is carried by
fcrutiny, they do not adore the new pope till he is pla¬
ced on the altar.
Barbarous Adoration is a term ufed, in the laws of
king Canute, for that performed after the manner of the
heathens who adored idols. The Romifti church is char¬
ged with the adoration of faints, martyrs, images, cru¬
cifixes, relics, the virgin, and the hoft; all which by
Proteftants are generally aggravated into Idolatry, on a
fuppofition, that the honour thus paid to them is ab-
folute and fupreme, called by way of diftinftion Latria,
which is due only to God. Roman-catholics, on the
contrary, explain them, as only a relative or fubordi ■
nate worftiip, called Dulia and Hyperdulia, which ter¬
minates ultimately in -God alone. But may not the
fame
.A do feu-
lacion
Adrinum.
ADR [ 88 ] ADR
fume be fa!d of the idol-woi'fhip of the heathens?
The Phoenicians adored the winds, on account of the
terrible effefts produced by them; the fame was ad¬
opted by molt of the other nations, Perfians, Greeks,
Romans, &c. The Perfians chiefly paid their ado¬
rations to the fun and fire; fome fay alfo to rivers, the
wind, &c. The motive of adoring the fun was the
benefits they received from that glorious luminary,
which of all creatures has doubtlefs the beft preten-
fions to fuch homage.
ADOSCULATION, a term ufed by Dr Grew,
to imply a kind of impregnation, without intromiflion;
■and in this manner he fuppofes the impregnation of
-plants is effe&ed by the falling of the farina foecundans
on the piftil.
ADOSEE, in heraldry, fignifies two figures or
bearings being placed back to back.
ADOUR, the name of a.river of France, which rifes
in the mountains of Bigorre, and running N. by Tarbes
through Gafcony, afterwards turns E. and, palling by
Dax, falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Bayonne.
ADOXA, Tuberous Moschatee, or Hollow-
Root ; a genus of the tetragynia order, belonging to
the oftandria clafs of plants. This is a native of the woods
in Britain, and feveral parts of Europe : it is a very
low plant, feldom riling more than four or five inches
high ; the leaves referable thofe of bulbous fumitory;
the flower-ftalk arifes immediately from the root, on the
top of which grow four or five fmall flowers of an her¬
baceous white colour, which appear in the beginning
of April, and the berries ripen in May; foon after
which, the leaves decay. The herb may be procured
by tranfplanting the roots any time after the leaves de¬
cay, till winter. They mull be planted in the lhade,
under Ihrubs; for they will not thrive if expofed to the
fun. The leaves and flowers fmell like mulk, from
whence it has by fome been called mujk-cro'wfoot.
AD Fundus Omnium, among phyficians, an abbrevia¬
tion in their preferiptions, fignifying that the lull men¬
tioned ingredient is to weigh as much as all the reft to¬
gether.
Ad Quod Damnum, in the Englilh law, a writ direc¬
ted to the Iheriff, commanding him to inquire into the
damage which may befal from granting certain privi¬
leges to a place, as a fair, market, or the like.
ADRAMMELECH, one of the gods of the inha¬
bitants of Sepharvaim, who were fettled in the coun¬
try of Samaria, in the room of thofe Ifraelites who
were carried beyond the Euphrates. The Sepharvaites
made their children pafs through the fire, in honour of
this idol and another called Anamelech. It is fuppo-
fed, that Adrammelech meant the fun, and Anamelech
the moon : the firft fignifies the magnificent king ; the
fecond the gentle king. See Anamelech.
ADRAMYTT1UM, (anc. geogr.) now Andra-
miti; a town of Myfia Major, at the foot of mount
Ida, an Athenian colony, with a harbour and dock near
the Caicus. Adramyttenus the epithet; as, Adramyt-
iemts Sinus, a part of the Egean Sea, on the coaft of
Myfia; Adramyttenus Convenus, feflions or affizes.
The eighth in order of the nine Conventus Juridici of
the province of Alia.
ADRANUM, or Hadranum, (anc. geogr.) now
Aderno, a town of Sicily, built by the elder Dionyfius,
at the foot of mount iEtna, (Diodorus Siculus), four
hundred years before Chrift. So called from the temple AdraflU
of Adranus, or Hadranus, a god much worlhipped by II j
the Sicilians ; with a river of the fame name, (Ste- Adrian.
phahus,) now Fiume d’ Aderno. The inhabitants,
Hadranitani, and Adranjta.
ADR. AST I A, in antiquity, an epithet given to the
goddefs Nemefis, or Revenge. It was taken from
king Adraftus, who firft erected a temple to that deity.
Adrastia Certamina, in antiquity, a kind of Py¬
thian games, inftituted by Adraftus king of Argos, in
the year of the world 2700, in honour of Apollo, at
Sicyon. Thefe are to be diftinguilhed from the Pythian
games celebrated at Delphi.
ADRASTUS, king of Argos, fon of Talaus and
Lyfianifla, daughter of Polybius king of Sicyon, ac¬
quired great honour in the famous war of Thebes, in fup-
port of Polynices his fon-in-law, who had been exclu¬
ded the fovereignty of Thebes by Eteocles his brother,
notwithftanding their reciprocal agreement. Adraftus,
followed by Polynices andTydeus his other fon.-in-law,
by Capaneus and Hippomedon his filler’s fons, by Am-
phiaraus his brother-in-law, and by Parthenopteus,
marched againff the city of Thebes ; and this is the
expedition of the Seven Worthies, which the poets
have fo often fung. They all loft their lives in this
war, except Adraftus, who was faved by his horfe
called Arion. This war was revived ten years after by
the fons of thofe deceafed warriors, which was called
the war of the Epigones, and ended with the taking,
of Thebes. None of them loft their lives, except iE-
gialeus fon of Adraftus; which afflitted him fo much,
that he died of grief in Mfigara, as he was leading back
his viftorious army.
ADRAZZO, or Ajaccio. The fame with Ad-
JAZZO.
ADRIA, or Hadria, (anc. geog.) the name of two
towns in Italy. One in the country of the Veneti, on
the river Tartarus, between the Padus and the Athe-
fis, called Atria by Pliny and Ptolemy, but Adr\as
by Strabo. Another on the river Vomanus, in the ter¬
ritory of the Piceni, (to which Antonine’s Itinera¬
ry from Rome is diredled,) the country of the an-
ceftors of the emperor Adrian. From which of thefe
the Adriatic fea is denominated, is matter of doubt.
A third opinion is, that it is fo called from Adrias
the fon of Joan, of Italian origin; (Euftathius in Dio-
nyfium.)
ADRIANUM (or Adriaticum) mare, (anc.
geog.) now the Gulf of Venice, a large bay in the Me¬
diterranean, between Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Greece, and
Italy. It is called by the Greeks, Afyia? ; and
Adria by the Romans, as Arbiter Adrix Notus, Hor.
Cicero calls it Hadrianum Mare ; Virgil has Hadria-
ticas Undas. It is commonly called TWare Adriaticum,
without an afpiration ; but whether it ought to have
one, is a difpute : if the appellation is from Hadria,
the town of the Piceni, it muft be written Hadriaticum,
becaufe the emperor’s name, who thence derives his ori¬
gin, is on coins aid ilones Hadrianus ; but if from the
town in the territory of Venice, as the more ancient,
and of which that of the Piceni is a colony, this will
juftify the common appellation Adriaticum.
ADRIAN, or Hadrian, (Publius iElius), the
Roman emperor. He was born at Rome the 24rh of
January, in the 76th year of Chrift- His father left him
an
Adrian.
ADR L 89 ] ADR
an orphan, at ten years of age, under the guardian-
rtiip of Trajan, and Ccelius Tatianus a Roman knight.
He began to ferve very early in the armies, having been
tribune of a legion before the death of Domitian.
He was the perfon chofen by the army of Lower Moelia,
to carry the news of Nerva’s death to Trajan, fuccef-
for to the empire. He accompanied Trajan in moft of
his expeditions, and particularly diftinguilhed himfelf
in the fecond war againft the Daci; and having before
been quasftor, as well as tribune of the people, he was
now fucceffively pi-aetor, governor of Pannonia, and
conful. After the fiege of Atra in Arabia was raifed,
Trajan, who had already given him the government of
Syria, left him the command of the army: and at
length, when he found death approaching, it is faid he
adopted him. Adrian, who was then in Antiochia,
as foon as he received the news thereof, and of Tra¬
jan’s death, declared himfelf emperor, on the 11th of
Auguft, 117. No fooner had he arrrived at the im¬
perial dignity, than he made peace with the Perfians,
to whom he yielded up great part of the conquefts of
his predecelfors ; and from generofity, or policy, he
remitted the debts of the Roman people, which, ac¬
cording to the calculation of thofe who have reduced
them to modern money, amounted to 22,500,000 gol¬
den crowns ; and he burnt all the bonds and obliga¬
tions relating to thofe debts, that the people might be
under no apprehenfion of being called to an account
for them afterwards. There are medals in commemo¬
ration of this fact, in which he is reprefented holding
a flambeau in his hand, to fet fire to all thofe bonds
which he had made void. He went to vifit all the pro¬
vinces; and did not return to Rome till the year 1x8,
when the fenate decreed him a triumph, and honoured
him with the title of Father of his country; but he
refufed both, and defired that Trajan’s image might
triumph. No prince travelled more than Adrian;
there being hardly one province in the empire which
he did not vifit. In 120 he went into Gaul; from
thence he went over to Britain, in order to fubdue
the Caledonians, who were making continual in¬
roads into the provinces. Upon his arrival, they re¬
tired towards the north : he advanced however as far as
York, where he was diverted from his intended con-
Vol. I.
quell by the defcription fome old foldiers he found
there, who had ferved under Agricola, gave him of
the country. In hopes, therefore, of keeping them
quiet by enlarging their bounds, he delivered up to
the Caledonians all the lands lying between the two
Friths and the Tyne ; and at the fame time, to fecure
the Roman province from their future incurfions, built
the famous wall which Hill bears his name (a). Having
thus fettled matters in Britain, he returned to Rome,
where he was honoured with the title of Reftorer of
Britain, as appears by fome medals. He foon after
went into Spain, to Mauritania, and at length into
the Fall, where he quieted the commotions raifed by the
Parthians. After having vifited all the provinces of
Afia, he returned to Athens in 125, where he palled
the winter, and was initiated in the mylleries of Eleu-
finian Ceres. He went from thence to Sicily, chiefly to
view mount Aitna, contemplate its phenomena, and en¬
joy the beautiful and extenfive profpeft afforded from its
top. He returned to Rome the beginning of the year
129 ; and, according to fome, he went again, the fame
year, to Africa; and, after his return from thence, to
the call. He was in Egypt in the year 132, revifited
Syria the year following, returned to Athens in 134,
and to Rome in 135. The perfecution againft the
Chriftians was very violent under his reign ; but it was
at length fufpended, in confequence of the remon-
ftrances of Quadrat bifhop of Athens, and Ariftides,
two Chriftian philofophers, who prefented the empe¬
ror with fome books in favour of the Chriftian reli¬
gion. He conquered the Jews; and, by way of infult,
ere&ed a temple to Jupiter on Calvary, and placed a
ftatue of Adonis in the manger of Bethlehem; he
caufed alfo the images of fwine to be engraven on the
gates of Jerufalem. At laft he was feized with a drop-
fy, which vexed him to fuch a degree, that he became
almoft raving mad. A great number of phyficians
were fent for, and to the multitude of them he aferi-
bed his death. He died at Baiae in the 63d year of
his age, having reigned 21 years. The Latin verfes (b)
he addreffed to his foul have been much criticifed and
varioully interpreted. There are fome fragments of
his Latin poems extant, and there are Greek verfes of
his in the Anthology. He alfo wrote the hiftory of
M his
(a) This work, though called by the Roman hiftorians murus, which fignifies a wall of ftone, was only compofed
of earth covered with green turf. It was carried on from the Solway Frith, a little weft of the village of Burgh on the
Sands, in as diredt a line as pofiible, to the river Tyne on the eaft, at the place where the townrof Newcaftle now
ftands ; fo that it muft have been above 60 Englifh, and near 70 Roman miles in length. It conlifted of four parts:
X. The principal a%ger, mound of earth, or rampart, on the brink of the ditch, a. The ditch on the north fide of
the rampart. 3. Another rampart on the fouth fide of the principal one, about five paces diftant from it. 4. A large
rampart on the north fide of the ditch.—This laft was probably the military way to the line of forts on this work: it
was fo to thofe formerly built by Agricola ; and if it did not ferve the famefpurpofe in this, there muft have been no
military way attending it.—The fouth rampart might ferve for an inner defence in cafe the enemy ihould beat them
from any part of the principal rampart, or it might be defigned to protect the foldiers from any fudden attack of the
provincial Britons.—For many ages, this work hath been in fo ruinous a condition, that it is impoffible to difeover its
original dimenfions with certainty. From their appearance its feems probable that the principal rampart was ar leaft
10 or u feet high, and the fouth one not much lefs; but the north one was confiderably lower. From the dimenfions
of the ditch taken as it paffes through a lime -ftone quarry near Harlow hill, it appears to have been 9 feet deep, and ir
wide at the top, but fomewhat narrower at the bottom. The north rampart was about ao feet diftant from the ditch.
(b) The verfes are thefe:
Animula vagula, blandula,
Hofpes, comefque corporis,
Quce nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula,
Nec, ut foies, dabis jocos?
Thus tranfiated by Mr Pope:
Ah! fleeting fpirit! wand’ring fire.
That long haft warm’d my tender breaft,
Muft thou no more this frame infpire ?
No more a pleafxng cheerful gueft ?
Whither, ah whither art thou flying?
To what dark undilcover’d Ihore ?
Thou feem’ft all trembling, Ihiv’ring, dying,
And wit and hum our are no more!
Adrian.
ADR [ 90 ] ADR
Adrian, his own life : to which, however, he did not chufe to
put his name ; but that of Phlegon, one of his freed-
* Vide Spar- men, a very learned perfon, was prefixed to it *.
tmn, m A- fje hacl great wit, and an extenfive memory. He un-
nano. derftood the fciences perfectly well; but was very jea¬
lous of others who excelled in them. He was alfo
cruel, envious, and lafcivious. Antoninus his fucceflbr
obtained his apotheofis ; and prevented the refciffion of
his a6ts, which the fenate once intended.
ADRIAN IV. (Pope), the only Englilhman who
ever had the honour of fitting in the papal chair. His
name was Nicholas Brekefpere; and he was born at
Langley, near St Alban’s, in Hertfordihire. His
father having left his family, and taken the habit of
the monaftery of St Alban’s, Nicholas was obliged to
fubmit to the loweft offices in that houfe, for daily fup-
port. After fome time, he defired to take the habit in
that monaftery, but was rejefted by the abbot Richard.
Upon this, he refolvedtotry his fortune in another coun¬
try, and accordingly went to Paris ; where, though in
very poor circumftances, he appplied himfelf to his
ftudies with great affiduity, and made a wonderful pro¬
ficiency. But having ftill a ftrong inclination to a re¬
ligious life, he left Paris, and removed to Provence,
where he became a regular clerk in the mouaftery of
St Rufus. He was not immediately allowed to take
the habit; but paffed fome time, by way of trial, in re¬
commending himfelf to the monks by a ftrict attention
to all their commands. This behaviour, together with
the beauty of his perfon, and prudent converfation,
rendered him fo acceptable to thofe religious, that af¬
ter fome time they intreated him to take the habit of
the canonical order. Here he diftinguifhed himfelf fo
much by his learning and ftrift obfervance of the mo-
naftic difcipline, that, upon the death of the abbot, he
was chofen fuperior of that houfe; and we are told
that he rebuilt that convent. Pope Eugenius III.
being apprifed of the great merit of Nicholas, and
thinking he might be ferviceable to the church in a
higher ftation, created him cardinal-biftiop of Alba
in 1146. In 1148, his Holinefs fent him legate to
Denmark and Norway; where, by his fervent preach¬
ing and diligent inftru&ions, he converted thofe bar¬
barous nations to the Chriftian faith; and erefted Up-
fal into an archiepifcopal fee. When he returned to
Rome, he was received by the pope and cardinals with
great marks of honour: and Pope Anaftafius, who
fucceeded Eugenius, happening to die at this time,
* Nicholas was unanimoufly cholen to the holy fee, in
November 1154, and he took the name of Adrian.
When the news of his promotion reached England,
king Henry II. fent Robert abbot of St Alban’s, and
three bifhops, to Rome, to congratulate him on his
eletlion ; upon which occafion Adrian granted very
confiderable privileges to the monaftery of St Alban’s,
particularly an exemption from all epifcopal jurifdic-
tion, excepting to the fee of Rome. Adrian, in the
beginning of his pontificate, boldly withftood the at¬
tempts of the Roman people to recover their ancient
liberty under the confuls, and obliged thofe magiftrates
to abdicate their authority, and leave the government
of the city to the pope. In 1155, he drove the he-
'* See retie Arnaud * of Breffe, and his followers, out of
dmaud. Rome. The fame year he excommunicated William
king of Sicily, who ravagedthe territories of the church,
and abfolved that prince’s fubjefta from their allegiance. Adrian,
About the fame time, Frederic king of the Romans, ’
having entered Italy with a powerful army, Adrian
met him near Sutrium, and concluded a peace with
him. At this interview, Frederic confented to hold
the pope’s ftirrup whilft he mounted on horfeback.
After which, his holinefs condufted that prince to
Rome, and in St Peter’s church placed the imperial
crown on his head, to the great mortification of the
Roman people, who aflembled in a tumultuous man¬
ner, and killed feveral of the Imperialifts. The next
year a reconciliation was brought about between the
pope and the Sicilian king, that prince taking an oath
to do nothing farther to the prejudice of the church,
and Adrian granting him the title of king of the two Si¬
cilies. He built and fortified feveral callies, and left the
papal dominions in a more flourilhing condition than he
found them. But notwithftanding all his fuccefs, he was
extremely fenfible of the difquietudes attending fo high
a ftation ; and declared to his countryman John of Sa-
lifbury, that all the former hardftiips of his life were
mere amufement to the misfortunes of the popedom ;
that he looked upon St Peter’s chair to be the moft
uneafy feat in the world ; and that his crown feemed to
be clapped burning on his. head f. He died Septem- f Baronins,
ber 1. 1159, in the fourth year and tenth month of his A"”ax’..
pontificate; and was buried in St Peter’s church, near an. ,,J4’
the tomb of his predeceffbr Eugenius.—There are ex¬
tant feveral letters, and fome homilies, written by Pope
Adrian.
ADRIAN, cardinal prieft, of the title of St Chry-
fogonus, was a native of Cornetto in Tufcany. Inno¬
cent VIII. fent him nuncio into Scotland and into
France; and after he had been clerk and treafurer of
the apoftolic chamber, pope Alexander VI. whofe fe-
cretary he had been, honoured him with the cardinal’s
hat. His life was a continued feene of odd alterations.
He narrowly efcaped death the day AlexanderVI. poi-
foned himfelf by miftake. Afterward he drew upon
himfelf the hatred of Julius II. fo that he was obliged
to go and hide himfelf in the mountains of Trent. Ha¬
ving been recalled by Leo X. he was fo ungrateful, that
he engaged in a confpiracy againft him. The pope par¬
doned his fault: but the cardinal, not caring to truft to
this, made his efcape, and it could never be known
exactly what was become of him. He was one of the
firft that effectually reformed the Latin ftyle. He ftu-
died Gicero with great fuccefs, and made many excel¬
lent obfervations on the propriety of the Latin tongue.
The treatife he compofed De Sermone Latino, is a proof
of this. He had begun a Latin tranflation of the Old
Teftament. He wrote De Vera Pkilofopkia: This trea¬
tife was printed at Cologn 1548.
ADRIAN VI. (Pope), was born atUtrecht in 1459.
His father was not able to maintain him at fchool, but
he got a place at Louvain in a college in which a cer¬
tain number of fcholars were maintained gratis. It is
reported that he ufed to read in the night-time by the
light of the lamps in the churches or ftreets. He made
a confiderable progrefs in all the fciences ; led an ex¬
emplary life; and there never was a man lefs intriguing
and forward than he was. He took his degree of doc¬
tor of divinity at Louvain; was foon after made canon
of St Peter’s, and profeffor of divinity at Utrecht, and
thea dean of St Peter’s and vice-chancellor of the uni-
verfity.
ADR [9
Adrian! yerfity. He was obliged to leave an academical life, to
.11 be tutor to the archduke Charles. This young prince
.runop e. maje no great progrefs under him: however, never was
a tutor more confiderably rewarded; for it was by
Charles V.’s credit he was raifed to the papal throne.
Leo X. had given him the Cardinal’s hat in 1517.
After this pope’s death, feveral cabals in the conclave
ended in the eleftion of Adrian, with which the peo¬
ple of Rome were very much difpleafed. He would
not change his name, and in every thing he Ihewed a
great diflike for all oftentation and fenfual pleafures,
though fuch an averfxon had been long ago out of date.
He was very partial to Charles V. and did not enjoy
much tranquillity under the triple crown. He la¬
mented much the wicked morals of the clergy, and
wilhed to eftablilh a reformation of manners among
them. He died Sept. 14. 1523.
ADRIANI (Joanni Battifta) was born of a patri¬
cian family at Florence, in 1511. He wrote a Hiftory
of his own Times, in Italian; which is a continuation
of Guicciardini, beginning at the year 1536 ; to which
Thuanus acknowledges himfelf greatly indebted: be-
fide which, he compofed fix funeral orations, on the em¬
peror Charles V. and other noble perfonages ; and is
thought to have been the author of a long letter on an¬
cient painters and fculptors, prefixed to the third vo¬
lume of Vafari. He died at Florence in 1579.
ADRIANISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fe& of
heretics divided into two branches; the firft were-dif-
ciples of Simon Magus, and flouriftied about the year
34. Theodoret is the only perfon who has preferved
their name and memory; but he gives us no account
of their origin. Probably this feft, and the fix others
which fprung from the Simonians, took their name
from the particular difciples of Simon. The fecond
were the followers of Adrian Hamftead, the anabaptift;
and held fome particular errors concerning Chrift.
ADRIANOPLE, a city of Turky in Europe, in
the province of Romania, and the fee of an archbifhop
under the patriarch of Conftantinople. It is about fe-
ven or eight miles in circumference, including the old
city and fome gardens. The houfes are low, moftly
built of mud and clay, and fome of brick: and the
ftreets are exceeding dirty. The walls and towers are
in a great meafure fallen to decay. However, there is
a beautiful bazar, or market, half a mile long, called
Ali Baffa. It is a vaft arched building, with fix gates,
and three hundred and fixty-five well-furnilhed ftxops,
kept by Turks, Armenians, and Jews, who pay five
crowns a-month for each Ihop. The number of inha¬
bitants of all nations and religions may be about a hun¬
dred thoufand: but it is dear living here, becaufe the
provifions are brought from diftant places. The air is
wholefome, and the country very pleafant in the fum-
mer time, on account of the river and ftreams that run
near and about the city; the chief of which is the Ma-
riza. Thefe promote and preferve the verdure of the
gardens, meadows, and fields, for a confiderable part
of the year. In the winter there is plenty of game.
Near the principal bazar there is another, about a mile
in length, covered with boards, with holes on each fide
to let in the light. It is full of good (hops, which con¬
tain all kinds of commodities. Sultan Selim’s mofque
ftands on the fide of a hill, in the midft of the city;
and hence this magnificent ftrufture may be feen on all
1 ] A D V
fides. Every thing made of gold and filver, jewels, pi- Adfidella
ftols, fcimetars, &c. are fold in another part of the Ad
city, called by travellers the bizejlein, though it differs trem. '
little from a bazar. This contains about two hundred  
{hops, and is covered like the former: but the cover¬
ing is fupported by two rows of large pillars. The
rand vilxer’s palace is nothing more than a convenient
oufe, after the Turkifh manner of building. The
emperor’s feraglio is a regular ftrufture, in a plain near
the river Tungia. It is two miles in compafs, and has
feven gates, befides thofe of the gardens, which are
feveral miles in circumference. The city is governed
by a mullah cadi, who has an abfolute authority both
in civil and criminal matters. In the time of the plague,
or war, the grand fignior fomctimes refides here. The
Turks took this city from the Greeks in 1362, and
made it the capital of the empire, till Mahomet II.
took Conftantinople in 1453. E. Long. 26. 27. Lat.
41* 45*
ADSIDELLA, in antiquity, the table at which the
flamens fat during the facrifices.
ADSTRICTION, among phyficians, a term ufed
to denote the rigidity of any part.
ADUACA, (Antonine;) or Atuaca, contra&ed
from Atuacua, (Csefar;) anciently a large and famous
city of the Tungri; now a fmall and inconfiderable vil¬
lage, called Tongeren, in the bifhoprick of Liege, to
the north-weft of the city of-Liege, in the territory of
Hafpengow, on the rivulet Jecker, that foon after falls
into the Maefe. E. Long. 5. 22. Lat. 50. 54.
ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftyle, denotes money
paid before goods are delivered, work done, or bufinefs
performed.
ADVANCED, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing polled or fituated before another. Thus,
Advanced Ditch, in fortification, is that which fur-
rounds the glacis or efplanade of a place.
Advanced Guard, or Vanguard, in the art of war,
the firft line or divifion of an army, ranged or march¬
ing in order of battle; or, it is that part which is next
the enemy, and marches firft towards them.
Advanced Guard, is more particularly ufed for a
fmall party of horfe ftationed before the main-guard.
ADVANCER, among fportfmen, one of theftarts,
or branches of a buck’s attire, between the back antler
and the palm.
ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorilh cuftoms, a
kind of ambulatory village, confifting of tents, which
thefe people remove from one place to another, as fuits
their conveniency.
ADVENT, in the calendar, properly fignifies the
approach of the feaft of the Nativity. It includes four
fundays, which begin on St Andrew’s day, or on the
Sunday before or after it. During advent, and to the
end of the Oftaves of Epiphahy, the folemnizing of
marriage is forbid without a fpecial licence. It is ap¬
pointed to employ the thoughts of Chriftians on the
firft advent or coming of Chrift in the flelh, and his
fecond advent or coming to judge the world. The pri¬
mitive Chriftians praftifed great aufterity during this
feafon.
ADVENTITIOUS, an epithet applied to any thing
that is accidental or fortuitous.
AD VENT REM Infpiciendum, in law, a writ by
which a woman is to be fearched whether fhe be with
M 2 child
A D U [ 92 ] A D U
Adventure child by a former hufband, on her with-holding of lands
. , jl from the next, failing iffue of her own body.
ly- ADVENTURE, in a general fenfe, feme extraor-
dinary or accidental event. It alfo denotes a hazardous
or difficult undertaking.
Bill of Adventure, among merchants, a writing
figned by a merchant, teftifying the goods mentioned
in it to be Ihipped on board a certain veffel belonging
to another perfon, who is to run all hazards ; the mer¬
chant only obliging himfelf to account to him for the
produce.
ADVENTURER, in a general fenfe, denotes one
who hazards fomething.
Adventurers, is particularly ufed for an ancient
company of merchants and traders, erefted for the dif-
covery of lands, territories, trades, &c. unknown. The
fociety of adventurers had its rife in Burgundy, and its
firft ellabliihment from John duke of Brabant in 1248,
being known by the name of the The Brotherhood of St
Thomas a Becket. It was afterwards tranflated into
England, and fucceffively confirmed by Edward III.
and IV. Richard III. Henry IV. V. VI. and VII. who
gave it the appellation of Merchant Adventurers.
ADVERB, in grammar. See there, n° 52.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of
accounts, not unlike our journals or day-books. It is
more particularly ufed for a kind of common-place-
book. See Common-place-book.
ADVERSARY, a perfon who is an enemy to or
oppofes another.
ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word expreffing
fome difference between what goes before and what fol¬
lows it. Thus, in the phrafe, he is an honejl man, btit
a great enthuftajl, the word but is an adverfative con-
junftion,
ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a fervant who at¬
tended the rich in returning from fupper, to give them
notice of any obftacles in the way, at which they might
be apt to ftumble.
ADVERTISEMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes
any information given to perfons interefted in an affair;
and is more particularly ufed for a brief account of an
affair inferted in the public papers, for the information
of all concerned.
ADULE, or Adulis, (anc. geogr.) a town of
Egypt built by fugitive flaves, diftant from its port on
the Red Sea twenty ftadia. Pliny calls the inhabitants
Adulitae. The epithet is either Adulitanus; as, Monu-
mentum Adulitanum, or the pompous infeription of the
ftatue of Ptolemy Euergetes, publifhed by Leo Alatius
at Rome in 1631, and to be found in Spon and Theve-
not: Or, Adulicus; as Aduticus Sinus, a part of the Red
Sea.
ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is
arrived at maturity: Thus we fay, an adult perfon, an
adult plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a youth
between 14 and 25 years of age.
ADULTERATION, the aft of debafing, by an
improper mixture, fomething that was pure and ge¬
nuine.
ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one
married perfon and another, or between a married and
unmarried perfon.
Punifhments have been annexed to adultery in moft
ages and nations, though of different degrees of feve-
rity. In many it has been capital; in others venial, and Adulfcry.
attended only with flight pecuniary mulfts. Some of
the penalties are ferious, and even cruel; others of a jo-
cofe and humorous kind. Even contrary things have
been enafted as punifhments for adultery. By fome
laws, the criminals are forbid marrying together, in cafe
they became fingle; by others, they are forbid to marry
any beiides each other; by fome, they are incapacitated
from ever committing the like crime again; by others,
they are glutted with it till it becomes downright nau-
feous.
Among the rich Greeks, adulterers were allowed to
redeem themfelves by a pecuniary fine; the woman’s
father, in fuch cafes, returned the dower he had recei¬
ved from her hufband, which fome think was refunded
by the adulterer. Another punifhment among thofe
people was, putting out the eyes of adulterers.
The Athenians had an extraordinary way of punifh-
ing adulterers, called agaiMwifaiTte, praftifed
at leaf!; on the poorer fort who were not able to pay the
fines. This was an awkward fort of empalement, per¬
formed by thrufting one of the largeft radifhes up the
anus of the adulterer, or, in defeft thereof, a fifh with
a large head, called mugil, mullet. Alcaeus is faid to
have died this way, though it was doubted whether the
punifhment was reputed mortal. Juvenal and Catullus
fpeak of this cuftom, as received alfo among the Ro¬
mans, though not authorized by an exprefs law, as it
was among the Greeks.
There are various conjeftures concerning the anci¬
ent punifhment of Adultery among the Romans. Some
will have it to have been made capital by a law of Ro¬
mulus, and again by the twelve tables. Others, that it
' was firft made capital by Auguftus; and others, not
before the emperor Conftantine. The truth is, the pu¬
nifhment in the early days was very various, much be¬
ing left to the diferetion of the hufband and parents of
the adulterous wife, who exercifed it differently, rather
with the filence and countenance of the magiftrate, than
any formal authority from him. Thus we are told, the
wife’s father was allowed to kill both parties, when
caught in the faft, provided he did it immediately, kill¬
ed both together, and as it were with one blow. The
fame power ordinarily was not indulged the hufband,
except the crime were committed with fome mean or
infamous perfon; tho’, in other cafes, if his rage car¬
ried him to put them to death, he was not punifhed as
a murderer. On many occafions, however, revenge was.
not carried fo far; but mutilating, caftrating, cutting
off the ears, nofes, &c. ferved the turn. The punifh¬
ment allotted by the lex Julia, was not, as many have
imagined, death ; but rather banifhment, or deporta¬
tion, being interdifted fire and water: though Oftavius
appears, in fevefal inftances, to have gone beyond his
his own law, and to have put adulterers to death. Un¬
der Macrinus, many were burnt at a flake. Conftantine
firft by law made the crime capital. Under Conftan-
tius and Conftans, adulterers were burnt, or fewed in
facks and thrown into the fea. Under Leo and Mar-
eian, the penalty was abated to perpetual banifhment,,
or cutting off the nofe. Under Juftinian, a further mi¬
tigation was granted; at kaft in favour of the wife, who
was only to be feourged, lofe her dower, and be fhut up
in a monaftery: after two years, the hufband was at li¬
berty to take her back again; if he refufed, fhe was flia-
venj.
A D V
[ 93 ] ^ A C
(Adultery, vcn, and made a nun for life: But It ftill remained death
|Advocate. jn ^ hufband. The reafon alleged for this difference
Is, that the woman is the weaker veffel. Matthxus de¬
claims againft the emprefs Theodora, who is fuppofed
to have been the caufe of this law, as well as of others
procured in favour of the fex from that emperor.
Under Theodofius, women convi&ed of this crime
were punifhed after a very lingular manner, viz. by a
public conftupration; being locked up in a narrow cell,
and forced to admit to their embraces all the men that
would offer themfelves. To this end, the gallants were
to drefs themfelves on purpofe, having feveral little bells
faftened to their clothes, the tinkling of which gave
notice to thofe without of every motion. This cuftom
was again abolifhed by the fame prince.
In Britain, adultery is reckoned a fpiritual offence,
that is, cognizable by the fpiritual courts. The com¬
mon law takes no farther notice of it, than to allow the
party grieved an aftion and damages. This practice is
often cenfured by foreigners, as making too light of a
crime, the bad confequences of which, public as well
as private, are fo great. But perhaps this penalty, by
civil adtion, is more wifely calculated to prevent the
frequency of the offence, which ought to be the end of
all laws, than a feverer punifhment. He that by a judg¬
ment of law is, according to circumftances, ftripped of
great part of his fortune, thrown into prifon till he can
pay it, or forced to fly his country, will, no doubt, in
ji See Law, moftcafes, own, that he pays dearly for his amufement*.
£3' ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perfon who
ilxvi. 24. undertook the defence of caufes. The term is ftill
kept up in all countries where the civil law obtains.
King’s Advocate, is the principal crown-lawyer in
Scotland. His bufinefs is to aft as a public profecutor,
and to plead in all caufes that concern the crown ; but
particularly in fuch as are of a criminal nature. The
office of king’s advocate is not very ancient: It feems
to have been eftablifhed about the beginning of the 16th
century. Originally he had no power to profecute
crimes without the concurrence of a private party;
but, in the year 1597, he was empowered to profecute
crimes at his own inftance.
I Faculty of Advocates, in Scotland, a refpe&able
body of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before the
Courts of Seffion, Jufticiary, and Exchequer. They
are alfo intitled to plead in the houfe of peers, and o-
ther fupreme courts in England.
In the year 1660, the faculty founded a library
upon a very extenfive plan, fuggefted by that learned
and eminent lawyer Sir George M‘Kenzie of Rofe-
haugh, advocate to King Charles II. and King James
VII. who enriched it with many valuable books. It
has been daily increafing fince that time, and now con¬
tains not only the beft colleftion of law-books in Eu¬
rope, but a very large and feleft colleftion of books on
all fubjefts. Befides, this library contains a great
number of original manufcripts, and a vaft variety of
Jewifti, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Englifh coins
and medals.
A candidate for the office of an advocate undergoes
' three feveral trials : The firft is in Latin, Upon the ci-
> vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities; the fecond,
in Englifti, upon the municipal law of Scotland ; and,
in the third, he is obliged to defend a Latin thefts,
which is impugned by three members of the faculty.
?
Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidate Advocate
' makes a ftiort Latin fpeech to the lords, and then takes II
the oaths to the government and de fideli. .-/t?'5rer>'
The faculty at prefent confifts of above 200 mem¬
bers. As an advocate or lawyer is efteemed the gen-
teeleft profeffion in Scotland, many gentlemen of for¬
tune take the degree of advocate, without having any
intention of praftifing at the bar. This circumftance
greatly increafes their number, gives dignity to the pro¬
feffion, and enriches their library and public fund. It
is from this refpeftable body, that all vacancies on the
bench are generally fupplied.
Fifcal Advocate, fifei advocatus, in Roman anti¬
quity ; an officer of ftate under the Roman emperors,
who pleaded in all caufes wherein the fifeus, or private
treafury, was concerned.
Confjlorial Advocates ; officers of the confiftory at
Rome, who plead in all oppofitions to the difpofal of
benefices in that court: they are ten in number.
Advocate of a City, in the German polity, a ma-
giftrate appointed in the Emperor’s name to adminifter
juftice.
Bill of ADVOCATION, in Scots law, a writing
drawn up in the form of a petition, whereby a party,
in an aftion before an inferior court, applies to the fu¬
preme court, or court of Seffion, for calling the aftion
from the inferior court before itfelf *. * See Law,
Letters of Advocation, in Scots law, the decree or N° c^vi' ,<s»
warrant of the court of Seffion upon cognifance of the
fa£ts fet forth in the bill, drawn up in the form of a
fummons, and palling under the fignet, difeharging the
inferior judge and all others from further procedure in
the caufe, and advocating it to itfelf *. * See the
AD VOW, in law, fignifies the patron of a church,
or he who has a right to prefent to a benefice.
Paramount ADVOWEE, is ufed for the king, as
being the higheft patron.
AD VO WZ ON, in law, is the right of patronage,
or prefenting to a vacant benefice.
ADUST, among phyficians, a term applied to the
blood, (be. when too hot and fiery.
ADY, in natural hiftory, a name given to the palm-
tree of the illand of St Thomas. It is a tall tree, with
a thick, bare, upright Item, growing Angle on its root,
of a thin light timber, and full of juice. The head of
this tree (hoots into a vaft number of branches, which
being cut off, or an incifion being made therein, afford
a great quantity of fweet juice, which fermenting fup-
plies the place of wine among the Indians. The fruit
of this tree is called by the Portuguefe Caryoces and Ca-
riojfe; and by the black natives, Abanga. This fruit
is of the fize and lhape of a lemon, and contains a
kernel, which is good to eat. The fruit itfelf is eat
roafted, and the raw kernels are often mixed with man-
dioc meal. Thefe kernels are fuppofed very cordial.
An oil is alfo prepared from this fruit, which anfwers
the purpofe of oil or butter. This oil is alfo ufed for
anointing ftiff and contracted parts of the body.
ADYTUM, in pagan antiquity, the moft retired
and facred place of their temples, into which none but
the priefts were allowed to enter.
ADZE, or Addice, a cutting tool of the ax kind,
chiefly ufed by coopers.
iEACEA, in Grecian antiquity, folemn feftivals
and games celebrated at iEgina, in honour ofYEacus.
ABACUS*
JEacus
Ml
JE G £ [ 94 ] iE G I
JEACUS, the fon of Jupiter by JEgina. When nus, the firft king of Macedonia, being ordered by the
the ifle of iEgina was depopulated by a plague, his fa- oracle to feck out a fettlement in Macedonia, under the
_ ther, in compaffion to his grief, changed all the ants conduft of a flock of goats, furprifed the town of JE-
upon it into men and women, who were called Myrmi- deffa, during a thick fog and rainy weather, in follow-
dons, from an ant. The foundation of the fa- ing the goats, that fled from the rain ; which goats
ble is faid to be, that when the country had been de- ever after, in all his military expeditions, he caufed al-
populated by pirates, who forced the few that remain- ways to precede his ftandard; and in memory of this
ed to take flicker in caves, iEacus encouraged them to he called iEdefia JEg<ea, and his people JEgeadte.
come out, and by commerce and induftry recover what And hence probably, in the prophet Daniel, the he-
they had loft. His character for juftice was fuch, that, goat is the fymbol of the king of Macedon.
in a time of univerfal drought, he was nominated by AEGEAN SEA, (anc. geogr.) now the Archipe-
the Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his lago, a part of the Mediterranean, feparating Europe
prayer was anfwered. The Pagan.s alfo imagined that from Afia and Africa; walking, on the one hand, Greece
yEacus, on account of his impartial juftice, was cho- and Macedonia; on the other, Caria and Ionia. The
fen by Pluto one of the three judges of the dead; and origin of the name is greatly difputed. Feftusadvan-
.ffigean Se*
^ • 11
^.gimurus.
that it was his province to judge the Europeans.
iECHMALOTARCHA, in Jewilh antiquity, a
title given to the principal leader or governor of the
Hebrew captives refiding in Chaldea, Aflyria, and the
neighbouring countries. This magiftrate was called
by the Jews rofch-galath, i. e. the chief of the capti¬
vity.
iEDES, in Roman antiquity, befides its more or¬
dinary fignification of a houfe, likewife fignified an in¬
ferior kind of temple, confecrated to fome deity.
jfEDICULA, a term ufed to denote the inner part
of the temple, where the altar and ftatue of the deity
flood.
jEDILATE, the office of aedile, fometimes called
lEdility. See the next article.
jEDILE, adilis, in Roman antiquity, a magiftrate
whofe chief bufmefs was to fupefintend buildings of all
kinds, but more efpecially public ones, as temples,
aquaedu&s, bridges, &c. To the aediles likewife be¬
longed the care of the highways, public places, weights
and meafures, &c. They alfo fixed the prices of pro-
vifions, took cognizance of debauches, punilhed lewd
women, and fuch perfons as frequented gaming houfes.
The cuftody of the plebifcita, or orders of the people,
was likewife committed to them. They had the infpec-
tion of comedies and other pieces of wit; and were ob¬
liged to exhibit magnificent games to the people, at
their own expence, whereby many of them were ruin¬
ed. At firft the aediles were only two in number, and
chofen from among the common people; but thefe being
unable to fupport the expence of the public ftiews, two
more were created out of the patrician order : thefe laft
took upon themfelves all the charges of the games, and
were caWz&JEdiles Ctirules or Majores, as the two ple¬
beians were denominated Minores. Julius Casfar, in or¬
der to eafe thefe four, created two others, who were call¬
ed Mdiles Cereaks, as having the infpedlion of all man¬
ner of grain committed to their care. There were alfo
aediles in the municipal cities, who had much the fame
authority as thofe in Rome.
iEDITUUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer be¬
longing to the temple, who had the charge of the of¬
ferings, treafure, and facred utenfils. The female dei¬
ties had a woman officer of this kind called JEditua.
iEGAGROPILA, a ball compofed of a fubftance
refembling hair, generated in the ftomach of the cha¬
mois-goat. This ball is of the fame nature with thofe
found in cows, hogs, &c.
three opinions: one, that it is fo called from the
many iflands. therein, at a diftance appearing like fo
many goats : another, becaufe .Egasa queen of the
Amazons perifhed in it: a third opinion is, becaufe
iEgeus, the father of Thefeus threw himfelf headlong
into it.
jEGEUS, in fabulous hiftory, was king of Athens,
and the father of Thefeus. The Athenians having
bafely killed the fon of Minos, king of Crete, for carry¬
ing away the prize from them, Minos made war upon
the Athenians; -and being viftorious, impofed this fevere
condition on Egeus, that he ftiould annually fend into
Crete, feven of the nobleft of the Athenian youths,
chofen by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur. On
the fourth year of this tribute, the choice fell on The¬
feus ; or, as others fay, he himfelf intreated to be fent.
The king, at his fo-n’s departure, gave orders, that as
the Ihip failed with black fails, it fhould return with the
fame in cafe he periftied; but, if he became vidforious,
he ftiould change them into white. When Thefus re¬
turned to Crete, after killing the Minotaur, and for¬
got to change the fails in token of his viftory, ac¬
cording to the agreement with his father; the latter,
who watched the return of the veflel, fuppofing by
the black fails that his fon was dead, caft himfelf head¬
long into the fea, which afterwards obtained the name
of the Egean Sea. The Athenians decreed Egeus
divine honours ; and facrificed to him as a marine deity,
the adopted fon of Neptune.
EGIAS, among phyficians, a white fpeck on the
pupil of the eye, which occafions a dimnefs of fight.
EGIDA, (Pliny); now Capo d’IJiria, the princi¬
pal town in the north of the territory of Iftria, fituated
in a little ifland, joined to the land by a bridge. In an
infeription, (Gruter,) it is called JEgidis Infula. E.
Long. 14. 20. Lat. 45. 50. It was afterwards called
JaJlinopolis, after the emperor Juftinus.
EGILOPS; the name of atumour in theeye, which
frequently degenerates into a fiftula lacrymalis.
EGILOPS, Wild Festuc, a genus of the mo-
ncecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants,
is a native of Italy and fome other parts of Europe.
The root is compofed of a few ftiort white fibres : the
plant grows to about a foot high : the ftalk is round,
hollow, jointed, and has two or three long, narrow,
grafly leaves on it, hairy at the edges: at the top of
the ftalk grows a ftiort fpike confifting of two or three
little rigid clufters of flowers: the feeds are large; and
EGE, or EGiEA, (anc. geogr.) the name of fomewhat like barley, but flatter.
MdeJJd) fo called from the following adventure; Cara- EGIMURUS, (anc. geogr.) an illand on the bay
JEgina
ij/Egiuchas.
JE G 1 [ 95 ] iE L I
of Carthage, about thirty miles diftant from that city, Jupiter, given him on account of his having been fuck-
(Livy;) now the Galetta: This ifland being after- led by a goat.
wards funk in the fea, two of its rocks remained above iEGIUM, (anc. geogr.) a town of Achaia Propria, .
water, which were called Aree, and mentioned by Vir- five miles from the place where Helice ftood, and fa-
gil, becaufe the Romans and Carthagians entered into mous for the council of the Acheans, \tfhich ufually met
~ agreement or league to fettle their mutual bounda- there, on account either of the dignity, or commodious
ries at thefe rocks.
iEGINA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of iE-
fopus, king of Baeotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who
debauched her in the fimilitude of a lambent flame,
and then carried her from Epidaurus to a defart ifland
called Oenope, which afterwards obtained her own
name.
JEgina, (anc. geogr.) now Engia, an ifland on
the Saronic Bay, or Bay of Engia, twenty miles dif¬
tant from the Piraeus, formerly vying with Athens for
naval power, and at the fea-fight of Salamin difputing
the palm of viftory with the Athenians. It was the
country and kingdom of JEacus, who called it JEgina
from his mother’s name, it being before called Oenopia,
(Ovid.) The inhabitants were called JEginetx., and JE-
ginenjis. The Greeks had a common temple in iEgina.
The foil was gleby underneath, but rocky on the fur-
face; yet yielding plenty of barley. The jEginetse ap¬
plied to commerce; and were the firft who coined mo¬
ney, called Uo/u<Tfici 'Ayiiaiov: hence JEgineticum as, for¬
merly in great repute. The inhabitants were called
Myrmydvnesf or a nation of ants, from their great ap¬
plication to agriculture. See Abacus.
tEGINETA (Paulus), a celebrated furgeon of the
ifland of JEgina, from whence he derived his name.
According to Mr Le Clerc’s calculation, he lived in
the fourth century ; but Abulpharagius the Arabian,
who is allowed to give the bell account of thofe times,
places him with more probability in the feventh. His
knowledge in furgery was very great, and his works
are defervedly famous. Fabricius ab Aquapendente
has thought fit to tranfcribe him in a great variety of
places. Indeed the doctrine of Paulus JEgineta, toge¬
ther with that of Celfus, and Albucafis, make up the
whole text of this author. He is the firft writer who
takes notice of the cathartic quality of rhubarb; and,
according to Dr Mil ward, is the firft in all antiquity
who deferves the title of a man-midwife.
iEGIPAN, in heathen mythology, a denomination
given to the god Pan, becaufe he was reprefented with
the horns, legs, feet, &c. of a goat.
.JEGIS, in heathen mythology, the fliield which Ju¬
piter prefented to Minerva, after his having covered it
with the fldn of Amalthea, the goat who fuckled him.
Afterwards Minerva fixed Medufa’s head in the middlJ
of the aegis, which by this means obtained the power
of turning all who faw it into ftone.
ALGISTHUS, fon of Thyeftes by his own daugh¬
ter Pilopeia, who, to conceal her fliame, expofed him
in the woods: fome fay he was taken up by a fhepherd,
and fuckled by a goat, whence he was called JEgifthus.
He corrupted Clytemneftra the wife of Agamemnon ;
and with her afliftance flew her hulband, and reigned
feven years in Mycenae. He was, together with Cly¬
temneftra, flain by Oreftes. Pompey ufed to call Julius
Caefar JEgifthus, on account of his having corrupted
his wife Mutia, whom he afterward put away, though
he had three children by her.
fituation of the place. It was alfo famous for the wor-
fliip of Oy.u.yv(tio( Stuf, Conventional Jupiter, and of Pa-
nacheean Ceres. The territory of JEgium was watered
by two rivers, viz. the Phoenix and Meganitas. The
epithet is JEgienJis. There is a coin in the cabinet of
the king of Pruffia, with the infcription A in, and the
figure of a tortoife, which is the fymbol of Peloponne-
fus, and leaves no doubt as to the place where it was
ftruck.
iEGLEFINUS, or Haddock, in ichthyology, a
fpecies of the gadus. See Gadus.
JEGOPODIUM, small wild Angelica, or
Goutwort, a genus of the digynia order, belonging
to the pentandria clafs of plants, is very common un¬
der hfedges, and about gardens ; the leaves referable
thofe of Angelica, and it carries fmall white flowers.
Its roots run fo fall, as to render it a very troublefome
weed.
iEGOS POT AMOS, (anc. geogr.) a river in the
Thracian Cherfonefus, falling with a fouth-eaft courfe
into the Hellespont, to the north of Seftos ; alfo a
town, ftation, or road for (hips, at its mouth. Here the
Athenians, under Conon, through the fault of his col¬
league Ifocrates, received fo fatal a blow from the La-
csedemonians under Lyfander, in a fea-engagement, as
to coft them their liberty and their all.
./EGYPT. See Egypt.
./EGYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of feve-
ral detergent ointments. See Pharmacy, n°992,993.
AiGYPTILLA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
ftone defcribed by the ancients, and faid, by fome au¬
thors, to have the remarkable quality of giving water
the colour and tafte of wine. This feems a very ima¬
ginary virtue, as are indeed too many of thofe in for¬
mer ages attributed to ftones. The defcriptions left us
of this remarkable fofiil tell us, that it was variegated
with, or compofed of, veins of black and white, or black
and blueifti, with fometimes a plate or vein of whitifh
red, The authors of thefe accounts feem to have un-
derftood by this name the feveral ftones of the onyx,
fardonyx, and camsea kind, all which we have at pre-
fent common among us, but none of which pofiefs any
fuch ftrange properties.
JEGYPTUS, (fab. hift.) was the fon of Beleus,
and brother of Danaus. See Belides.
JEINATT-/E, in antiquity, a denomination given
to the fenators of Miletus, becaufe they held their de¬
liberations on board a fhip, and never returned to land
till matters had been agreed on.
JELIAN (Claudius), born at Pranefte in Italy. He
taught rhetoric at Rome, according to Perizonius, un¬
der the emperor Alexander Severus. He was firnamed
MiKtyAuira®-^ 'Honey-mouth, on account of the fweet-
nefs of his ftyle. He was likewife honoured with the
title of Sophift, an appellation in his days given only to
men of learning and wifdom. He loved retirement,
and devoted himfelf to ftudy. He greatly admired and
ftudied Plato, Ariftotle, Ifocrates, Plutarch, Homer,
iEGIUCHUS, in heathen mythology, a furname of Anacreon, Archilochus, &c. and, though a Roman,
gives
iE N E [ 96 ] N I
-T.Ht Pons gives the preference to the writers of the Greek nation,
il His two moft celebrated works are, his Various Hi-
JEneas. fory, and Hiftory of Animals. He compofed likewife
a book on Providence, mentioned by Euftathius; and
another on Divine Appearances, or The Declarations
of Providence. There have been feveral editions of his
Various Hiftory.
iELII PONS, (anc. geogr.) one of the fortrefles
near the wall or rampart, or, in the words of the No-
titia, through the line of the hither wall; built, as is
*$teAdrian, thought, by Adrian*. Now Porteland, (Camden),
(emperor.) in Northumberland, between Newcaftle and Morpeth.
jELIUS PONS, now il Ponte S. Angelo-, a ftone-
bridge at Rome, over the Tyber, which leads to the
Burgo and Vatican from the city, along Adrian’s mole,
built by the emperor Adrian.
iELFRED. See Alfred.
jELURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or
god of cats; reprefented fometimes like a cat, and
fometimes like a man with a cat’s head. The Egyp¬
tians had fo fuperftitious a regard for this animal, that
the killing it, whether by accident or defign, was pu-
nifhed with death : and Diodorus relates, that, in the
time of extreme famine, they chofe rather to eat one
another, than touch thefe facred animals.
JEMILIUS (Paulus), the fon of Lucius Paulus,
who was killed at the battle of Cannse, was twice con-
ful. In his firft confulate he triumphed over the Li¬
gurians ; and in the fecond fubdued Perfeus king of
Macedonia, and reduced that countiy to a Roman pro¬
vince, on which he obtained the furname of Macedoni-
cus. He returned to Rome loaded with glory, and
triumphed for three days. He died 168 years before
Chrift.
.Emilius (Paulus), a celebrated hiftorian, born at
Verona, who obtained fuch reputation in Italy, that he
was invited into France by the cardinal of Bourbon, in
the reign of Lewis XII. in order to write the hiftory
of the kings of France in Latin, and was given a ca-
nonry in the cathedral of Paris. He was near 30
years in writing that hiftory, which has been great¬
ly admired; and died at Paris on the 5th of May
1529.
iENARIA, (anc. geogr.) an ifland on the bay of
Cumae, or over-againft Cumae in Italy, (Pliny.) It is
alfo called Inarime, (Virgil); and now Jjchia: fcarce
three miles diftant from the coaft, and the promontory
Mifenus to the weft; 20 miles in compafs; called Pi-
tbecufa by the Greeks. It is one of the Oenotrides,
and fenced round by very high rocks, fo as to be inac-
ceffible but on one fide; it was formerly famous for its
earthen ware. See Ischia.
jENEAS, (fab. hift.) a famous Trojan prince, the
fon of Anchifes and Venus. At the deftruftion of
Troy, he bore his aged father on his back, and faved
him from the Greeks ; but being too felicitous about
his fon and houfehold-gods, loft his wife Creufa in the
efcape. Landing in Africa, he was kindly received by
queen Dido: but quitting her-coaft, he arrived in Italy,
where he married Lavima the daughter of king Lati-
nus, and defeated Turnus, to whom (he had been con-
trafted. After the death of his father-in-law, he was
made king of the Latins, over whom he reigned three
years : but joining with the Aborigines, he was flain
in a battle againft the Tufcans. Virgil has rendered
the name of this prince immortal, by making him the JEreas
hero of his poem. jl
.Eneas Sylvius, (Pope). _ See Pius II. ^Emgma’,
JENEATORES, in antiquity, the muficians in an
army, including thofe who played trumpets, horns, &c.
The word is formed from ceneus, on acount of the bra¬
zen inftruments ufed by them.
JENGINA, one of the iflands of the Archipelago.
It lies in the bay of Engia, and the town of that name
contains about 800 houfes and a caftle ; and near it
are the ruins of a magnificent ftrufture, which was
probably a temple. 3
ENIGMA, denotes any dark faying, wherein fome
well-known thing is concealed under obfure language.
The word is Greek, formed of 0l,.
feure innuere, to hint a thing darkly, and of an
obfeure fpeech or difeourfe. The popular name is riddle;
from the Belgic raeden, or the Saxon araetban, to in¬
terpret. Fa. Bouhours, in the memoirs of Trevoux,
defines an senigma, A difeourfe, or painting, including
fome hidden meaning, which is prppofed to be gueffed.
Painted Enigmas, are reprefentations of the works
of nature, or art, concealed under human figures, drawn
from hiftory, or fable.
A Verbal Enigma, is a witty, artful, and abftrufe
defeription of any thing.—In,a general fenfe, every
dark faying, every difficult queftion, every parable,
may pafs for an ccnigma. Hence obfeure laws are
called JEnigmata Juris. The alchemifts are great
dealers in the aenigmatic language, their proceffes for
the philofophers ftone being generally wrapped up in
riddles: e. g. Fac ex mare et fuemina circulum, inde
quadrangulum, bine triangulum, fac circulum, et habebis
lapideniphilofophorum —F. Meneftrier has attempted to
reduce the compofition and refolution of asnigmas to a
kind of art, with fixed rules and principles, which he
calls the philofophy of enigmatic images.
The Subject of dn Enigma, or the thing to be
concealed and made a myftery of, he juftly obferves,
ought not to be fuch in itfelf; but, on the contrary,
Common, obvious, and eafy to be conceived. It is to
be taken, either from nature, as the heavens, or ftars;
or from art, as painting, the compafs, a mirror, or
the like.
The Form of Enigmas confifts in the words, which,
whether they be in profe or verfe, contain either fome
defeription, a queftion, or a profopopseia. The laft
kind are the moft pleafing, inafmuch as they give life
and.aftion to things which otherwife have them not.
To make an senigma, therefore, two things are to be
pitched on, which bear fome refemblance to each other;
as the fun, and a monarch ; or a Ihip, and a houfe :
and on this refemblance is to be raifed a fuperftrufture
of contrarieties to amufe and perplex. It is eafier
to find great fubjefts for amigmas in figures than in
words, inafmuch as painting attrafts the eyes and ex¬
cites the attention to difeover the fenfe. The fubjefts
of enigmas in painting, are to be taken either from
hiftory or fable: the compofition here is a kind of me-
tamorphofis, wherein, e. g. human figures are chan¬
ged into trees, and rivers into metals. It is effential
to aenigmas, that the hiftory or fable, under which
they are prefented, be known to every body; other-
wife it will be two asnigmas inftead of one; the firft
of the hiftory or fable, the fecond of the fenfe in which
it
Enigma.
$:ni [97] uni
it iEnigma. jt is to be taken. Another eflentlal rule,of the renigma
r is, that it only admit of one fenfe. Every enigma which
, is fufceptive of different interpretations, all equally na¬
tural, is fo far imperfect. What gives a kind of erudi¬
tion to an aenigma, is the invention of figures in fitua-
tions, geftures, colours, authorized by pafiages of
the poets, the cuftoms of artifts in ftatues, baffo relievos,
infcriptions, and medals.—In foreign colleges,
The explication of ./Enigmas makes a confiderable
Iexercife; and that one of the moft difficult and amu-
fing, where wit and penetration have the largeft field.
—By explaining an asnigma, is meant the finding a
motto correfponding to the action and perfons repre-
fented in a picture, taken either from hiftory or my¬
thology. The great art of this exercife confifts in the
choice of a motto, which either by itfelf, or the cir-
cumftances of time, place, perfon who fpeaks, or thofe
before whom he is fpeaking, may divert the fpe&ators,
and furnifh occafion for ftrokes of wit; alfo in fhewing
to advantage the conformities between the figure and
thing figured, giving ingenious turns to the reafons
employed to fupport what is advanced, and in artfully
. introducing pieces of poetry to illuftrate the fubjeft
and awaken the attention of the audience.
As to the folution of aenigmas, it may be obfer-
ved, that thofe exprefled by figures are more difficult
to explain than thofe confifting of words, by reafon
images may fignify more things than words can; fo
that to fix them to a particular fenfe, we muft apply
every fituation, fymbol, fee. and without omitting a
circumftance.—As there are few perfons in hiftory, or
mythology, but have fome particular charadler of vice
or virtue, we are, before all things, to attend to this
charatter, in order to divine what the figure of a per¬
fon reprefented in a painting fignifies, and to find what
agreement this may have with the fubject whereof we
would explain it. Thus, if Proteus be reprefented in
a pifture, it may be taken' to denote inconjlancy, and
applied either to a phyfical or moral fubjedt, whofe
character is to be changeable; e. g. an almanack, which
exprefies the weather, the feafons, heat, cold, ftorms,
and the like. The colours of figures may alfo help to
unriddle what they mean : white, for inftance, is a
mark of innocence, red of modefty, green of hope,
black of forrovv, &c. When figures are accompani¬
ed with Jymbols, they are lefs precarious; thefe be¬
ing, as it were, the foul of aenigmas, and the key that
opens the myftery of them. Of all the kinds of fym-
bols which may be met with in thofe who have treated
Sprofelfedly on the fubjedt, the only truly aenigmatical
are thofe of Pythagoras, which, under dark proverbs,
hold forth leffons of morality; as when he fays, State-
ram ne tranfilias, to fignify. Do no injuftice.
But it muft be added, that we meet with fome aenig¬
mas in hiftory, complicated to a degree which much
tranfeends all rules, and has given great perplexity
to the interpreters of them. Such is that celebrated
ancient one, JElia Leelia Crifpis, about which many of
I the learned have puzzled their heads. There are two
l exemplars of it: one found 140 years ago, on a mar¬
ble near Bolognia; the other in an antient MS. writ-
1 ten in Gothic letters, at Milan. It is controverted be¬
tween the two cities, which is to be reputed the more
1? authentic.
The Bononian Mnigma.
D. M.
JElia Lidia Crifpis,
Nec vir, nec mulier,
Nec androgyna ;
Nec puella, nec juvenis,
Nec anus ;
Nec cajla, nec meretrix,
Nec pudica;
Sed omnia :
Sublata
Neque fame, neque ferro,
Neque veneno ;
Sed omnibus :
Nec coslo, nec terr is,
Nec aquis,
Sed ubique jacet.
Lucius Agatho Prifcius,
Nec maritus, nec amator,
Nec necejfarius ;
Neque mcerens, neque gaudens,
Neque fens;
Hanc,
Nec molem, nec pyramidem,
Nec fepulchrum,
Sed omnia,
Scit et nefeit, cui pofuerit.
That is to fay, To the gods manes, JElia Lalia Crifpis,
tieither man, nor woman, nor hermaphrodite; neither girl,
nor young woman, nor old; neither chafe, nor a whore;
but all thefe : killed neither by hunger, nor feel, nor poi-
fon; but by all thefe: refs neither in heaven, nor on
earth, nor in the waters; but every where. Lucius A-
gatho Prifcius, neither her hujband, nor lover, nor friend;
neither forrowful, nor joyful, nor weeping, certain, or
uncertain, to whom he rears this monument, neither e-
reds her a temple, nor a pyramid, nor a tomb, but
all thefe. In the MS. at Milan, inftead of Z>. M. we
find A. M- P. P. D. and at the end the following ad¬
dition :
Hoc ef fepulchrum intus cadaver non habens.
Hoc eft cadaver fepulchrum extra non habens,
Sed cadaver idem eft fe fepulchrum.
We find near 50 feveral folutions of this aenigma
advanced by learned men. Marius Michael Ange¬
las maintains JElia Lodi a Crifpis to fignify rain-wa¬
ter falling into the fea. Ri. Vitus firft explained it of
Niobe turned to a ftone, afterwards of the rational
foul, and afterwards of the Platonic idea ; Jo. Turrius,
of the materia prima ; Fr. Schottus, of an eunuch ;
Nic. Bernardus, of the philofophers-ftone, in which he
is followed by Borrichius; Zach. Pontinus, of three
human bodies in the fame fituation, and buried by three
different men at the fame time ; Nefmondius, of a
law-fuit; Jo. Gaf. Gerartius, of love; Zu. Boxhor-
nius, of a fhadow; P. Terronus, of mufic ; Fort Li-
cetus, of generation, friendfhip, and privation ; M. Ov.
Montalbanus, of hemp; Car. Csef. Malvafia, of an a-
bortive girl promifed in marriage; Pet. Mengulus, of
the rule of chaftity, preferibed. by the founder of the
military religion of St Mary; M. deCiconia, of pope
Joan; Heumannus, of Lot’s wife ; and laftly, J. C. S.
an anonymous writer in the Leipfic Adis, of the Chri-
ftian church.
Vol. I.
N
.iENIG-
& O L
l 98 ]
A E R
j^siigma- ^NIGMATOGRAPHY, or vEnigmathologyj
tography j.jjg art 0f refolving or making enigmas.
at Regium, in Italy; and others again place him in -£°n j
ail \ji wi tuaxviu^ mao* the liland Lipara* He is reprefented as having autho* ^ 1 I
jEJlus ALOLI^E INSULiE, now Ifole di Lipari, (anc. rity over the winds, which he held enchained in a vaft erograp ‘y
—  — geogr.) ieven iilands, fituated between Sicily and Italy, cavern, to prevent their continuing the devaftations
(Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Mela); fo called from jE- they had been guilty of before they were put under his
olus, who reigned there about the time of the Trojan direction. Mythologifts explain the original of thefe
war. The Greeks call them Hephteftiades; and the
Romans, Vulcanite, from their fiery eruptions. They
are alfo called Lipareeorum Infulte, from the principal
ifland Lipara. Dionyfius Periegetes calls them n^oUi,
becaufe circumnavigable.
iEOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething be¬
longing to .ZEolis.
JEolic Dialed, among grammarians, one of the five
dialefts of the Greek tongue, agreeing in molt things
with the Doric dialed!. See Doric.
.ZEolic Verfe, in profody, a verfe confifling of an
iambus, or fpondee ; then of two anapefts, feparated
by a long fyllable; and, laftly, of another fyllable.
Such as, 0 JlelUferi conditor orbis.
iEOLIPILE, in hydraulics, is a hollow ballofmetal,
generally ufed in courfes of experimental philofophy,'
fables, by faying, that he was a wife and good prince ;
and, being fkilled in aftronomy, was able, by the flux
and reflux of the tides, and the nature of the volcano
in the ifland Strongyle, to foretel ftorms and tempefts.
Harp of ZEolus, or the ZEolian Lyre *. * Set Am
ZEON, a Greek word, properly fignifying the age ^US' n I<:
0£ duration of any thing.
ZEon, among the followers of Plato, was ufed to
fignify any virtue, attribute, or perfection: hence
they reprefented the Deity as an aflemblage of all pof-
fible seons; and called him pleroma, a Greek term
fignifying/a//»<f/r. The Valentinians, who, in the firfl
ages of the church, blended the conceits of the Jewifh
cabalifts, the Platonifts, and the Chaldean philofophers,
with the fimplicity of the Chriftian doctrine, invented
a kind of Theogony, or Genealogy of Gods (not un¬
order to demonftrate the pofiibility of converting water like that of Hefiod), whom they called by feveral glo-
into an elaftic fleam or vapour by heat. The inftrument,
therefore, confifts of a flender neck, or pipe, having
a narrow orifice inferted into the ball by means of a
fhouldered ferew. This pipe being taken out, the
ball is filled almoft full of water, and the pipe being
again ferewed in, the ball is placed on a pan of kind¬
led charcoal, where it is well heated, and there iffues
from the orifice a vapour, with prodigious violence and
great noife, which continues till all the included water
is difeharged. The flronger the fire is, the more ela¬
ftic and violent will be the fleam: but care muft be ta¬
ken that the fmall orifice of the pipe be not, by any
rious names,
and all by the general appellation of
ZEons : among which they reckoned Zan, Life; Ao/if,
Word; Movo/avw, Only-begotten; Fullnefs; and
and many other divine powers and emanations, amount¬
ing in number to thirty: which they fancied to be fuc-
ceffively derived from one another; and all from one
felf-originated deity, named Bythus, i. e. profound
or unfathomable ; whom they called likewife, The mojl
high and ineffable Father. See Valentinians.
^-QUIMELIUM, in antiquity, a place in Rome,
wrhere flood the houfe of Spurius Melius, who, by lar-
geffes corrupting the people, affected the fupreme
accident, flopped up ; becaufe the inftrument would power: refufing to appear before the di&ator Cincin-
in that cafe infallibly burft in pieces, with fuch violence
natus, he was flain by Servilius Ahala, matter of the
s may greatly endanger the lives of the perfons near horfe; his houfe wTas razed to the ground; and the fpot
.c. Another way of introducing the water is to heat on which it flood was called Area JEquimelii. (Livy),
the ball red-hot when empty, which will drive out al- ZERA. The point of time from whence any num-
moft all the air; and then by fuddenly immerging it ber of years is begun to be .counted, is called a period,
in water, the preffure of the atmofphere will force in eera, or epoch. The word ara comes from the Latin as,
the fluid, till it is nearly full. Des Cartes and others becaufe the Romans marked their years with a kind of
have ufed this inftrument to account for the natural fmall brafs nails. The difference between the terms
caufe and generation of the wind: and hence it was eera and epoch is, that the seras are certain points fixed
called JEolopila; q. d. pila Mali, the ball of ZEolus by fome people, or nation; and the epochs are points
or of the god of the winds. fixed by chronologifts and hiftorians. The idea of an
ZEOLIS, or ZEolia, (anc. geogr.) a country of aera comprehends alfo a certain fucceffion of years pro-
the Hither Afia, fettled by colonies of ZEolian Greeks, ceeding from a fixed point of time, and the epoch is
Taken at large, it comprehends allTroas, and the coatt that point itfelf. Thus the Chriflian sera began at
of the Hellefpont to the Propontis, becaufe in thofe the epoch of the birth of Jefus Chrift *
parts there were feveral ZEolian colonies: more ftriZtly,
it is fituated between Troas to the north, and Ionia to
the fouth. The people are called Moles, or Molii.
ZEOLIUM MARE, (anc. geogr.) a part of the
Egean fea, wafhing ZEolis ; called alfo Myfium, from
Myfia. Now called, Golfo di Smyrna.
zT.x.ivjTi.a-,, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething t-'6 7> g,,
partaking of the nature of air ; thus, aerial fubftance, and Aftrono-
aerial particles, &c. my, n° 3141
AERIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians, 3IS'
who, to the do6lrines of that fe£l, added Lome pecu¬
liar dogmas of their own ; as, that there is no diffe-
* SeeChrono^
logy, N°
.ZEOLUS, in heathen mythology, the god of the rence between bilhops and priefts ; a do&rine main-
winds, is faid to be the fon of Jupiter by Acafta, or tained by many modern divines, particularly of the
Sigefia, the daughter of Hippotus ; or, according to prefbyterian and reformed churches.
others, the fon of Hippotus. by Meneclea, daughter of
Hyllus king of Lipara. He dwelt in the ifland
Strongyle, now called Strombolo, one of the feven
iflands called Molian from their being under the do¬
minion of ZEolus. Others fay, that his refidence was
Flos ZERIS, among alchemifts, fmall Leal es procu¬
red from copper melted, by a ftrong heat; it is fome-
times ufed for aerugo or verdigrife.
AEROGRAPHY, fignifies a defeription of the .
AEROLOGY,
.ESC [ 99 ] .ESC
Aerology AEROLOGY, an account of the nature and pro-
iLr-fi- perties of the air.
L ‘ines‘ AEROMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed
by means of air, wind, &c. .See Divination, n° 5.
AEROMETRY, the fcience of meafuring the air.
It comprehends not only the doftrine of the air itfelf,
confidered as a fluid body; but alfo its preflure, elafti-
city, rarefaction, and condenfation. But the term is
at prefent not much in ufe, this branch of natural phi-
Ip See Vneu- lofophy being more frequently called Pneumatics *.
«. AEROPHYLACEA, a term ufed by naturalifts
for caverns or refervoirs of air, fuppofed to exifl: in the
bowels of the earth.
AERSHOT, a town in the Netherlands, intheduchy
of Brabant, and capital of the duchy of Aerfliot. It is
feated on the river Demur, ten miles call of Malines or
Mechlin, and eight north of Louvain. E. Lon. 5. 4.
N. lat. 51. 15.
iERUGINOUS, in ornithology, the trivial name
of a fpecies of falco. See Falco.
vEruginous, an epithet given to fuch things as
Irefemble or partake of the nature of the ruft of copper.
.ZERUGO, in natural hiftory, properly fignifies the
ruft of copper, whether natural or artificial. The
former is found about copper mines, and the latter
made by corroding copper plates with acids j*.
to 74/ Ca> iERUSCATORES, in antiquity, a kind of ftrol-
ling beggars, not unlike gypfies, who drew money from
the credulous by fortune-telling, &c. It was alfo a de¬
nomination given to griping exactors, or collectors of
the revenue. The Galli, or priefts of Cybele, were
called temfcatores magna matris, and ^nrga-yxjfai, on
account of their begging or collecting alms in the
Itreets; to which end they had little bells whereby
to draw peoples attention to them, much like fome or¬
ders of mendicants abroad.
*. AERY, or Airy, among fportfmen. See Airy.
JES, properly fignifies copper, or money coined of
that metal. See Copper.
I-ZEs Flavum, yellow copper, among the Romans,
an appellation given to the coarfer kinds of brafs.
.ZEs Caldarium, a term ufed by the German mineral-
ills, for a fubftance which fometimes occurs to thofe
who work upon cobalt, and is ufed for the making the
fine blue colour called fmalt.
JEs UJlum, a chemical preparation, mace of thin
leaves of copper, fulphur, and nitre, placed Jiratum
fuper Jiratum in a crucible, and fet in a charcoal fire,
till all the fulphur is confumed; after which, the cop¬
per is taken out of the crucible, and reduced to powder.
Some quench the leaves of copper in vinegar, and re¬
peat the calcination.—Its principal ufe is in colouring
glafs, to which it gives a beautiful tin&ure. The fur-
geons ufe it as a deterfive, and fome have given it in¬
ternally ; but it is certainly a very dangerous medicine,
and Ihould be avoided.
iESCHINES, a Socratic philofopher, the fon of
Charinus a faufage-maker. He was continually with
Socrates; which occafioned this philofopher to fay, that
the faufage-maker’s fon was the only perfon who knew
how to pay a due regard to him. It is faid that po-
’ 1 verty obliged him to go Sicily, to Dionyfius the Ty¬
rant ; and that he met with great contempt from Plato,
but was extremely well received by Ariftippus; to whom
he Ihewed fome of his dialogues, and received from him
a handfome reward. He would not venture to profefs
philofophy at Athens, Plato and Ariftippus being in
fuch high efteem; but he fet up a fchool to maintain
himfelf. He afterwards wrote orations for the Forum.
Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks him amongft the beft ora¬
tors, and mentions his orations as the ftandard of the
pure Attic ftyle. Hermogenes has alfo fpoken very high¬
ly of him.—He alfo wrote feveral dialogues, of which
there are only three extant: 1. Concerning Virtue, whe¬
ther it can be taught. 2. Eryxias, or Erafiftratus; con¬
cerning riches, whether they are good. 3. Axiochus ;
concerning death, whether it is to be feared. Mr Le
Clerc has given a Latin tranflation of them, with notes,
and feveraldifiertations, intitled Sylva Philologies.
AtSCHYLUS, the tragic poet, was born at Athens.
Authors differ in regard to the time of his birth, fome
placing it in the 65th, others in the 70th Olympiad;
but according to Stanley, who, relies on the Arunde-
lian marbles, he was born in the 63 d Olympiad. He
was the fon of Euphorion, and brother to Cynegirus
and Aminias, who diftinguiflied themfelves in the battle
of Marathon, and the fea-fight of Salamis, at which en¬
gagements iEfchylus was likewife prefent. In this laft
a£lion, according to Diodorus Siculus, Aminias, the
younger of the three brothers, commanded a fquadron
of fliips, and behaved with fo much conduft and bra¬
very, that he funk the admiral of the Perfian fleet, and
fignalized himfelf above all the Athenians. To this
brother our poet was, upon a particular occafion, obli¬
ged for faving his life : iElian relates, that zEfchylus
being charged by the Athenians with certain blafphe-
mous expreffions in fome of his pieces, was accufed of
impiety, and condemned to be ftoned to death: they
were juft going to put the fentence in execution, when
Aminias, with a happy prefence of mind, throwing afide
his cloak, ftiewed his arm without a hand, which he had
loft at the battle of Salamis, in defence of his country.
This fight made fuch an impreffion on the judges, that,
touched with the remembrance of his valour, and with
the friendlhip he ftiewed for his brother, they pardoned
JEfchylus. Our poet, however, refented the indignity
of this profecution, and refolved to leave a place where
his life had been in danger. He became more deter¬
mined in this refolution when he found his pieces lefs
pleafing to the Athenians than thofe of Sophocles, tho’
a much younger writer. Some affirm, that iEfchylus ne¬
ver fat down to compofebut when he had drank liberally.
He wrote a great number of ,tragedies, of which there
are but feven remaining: and notwithftanding the lharp
cenfures of fome critics, he muft be allowed to have
been the father of the tragic art. In the time of Thefpis,
there was no public theatre to aft upon ; the ftrollers
driving about from place to placedn a cart. zEfchylus
fumiftied his afters with mafques, and dreffed them
fuitably to their charafters. He likewife introduced the
buflein, to make them appear more like heroes.—The
ancients give jEfchylus alfo the praife of having been
the firft who removed murders and ftiocking fights from
the eyes of the fpeftators. He is faid likewife to have
leffened the number of the chorus. M. Le Fevre
has obferved, that zEfchylus never reprefented women
in love, in his tragedies; which, he fays, was notfuited
to his genius ; but, in reprefenting a woman tranfported
with fury, he was incomparable. Longinus fays, that
jEfchylus has a noble boldnefs of expreffion; and that
N 2 his
^fcliines,
JEfchylus.
iE S C [ 100 ] JE $ C
iErchylur, his imagination is lofty and heroic. It muft; be owned,
Jl . however, that he afFeftcd pompous words, and that his
. C,.U .apl.!!l fenfe is too often obfcured by figures : tins gave Sal-
mafius occafion to fay, that he was more difficult to
be underftood than the fcripture itfelf. But notwith-
ftanding thefe imperfections, this poet was held in great
veneration by the Athenians, who made a public de¬
cree that his tragedies fhould be played after his death.
He was killed in the 69th year of his age, by an eagle
letting fall a tortoife upon his head as he was walking in
the fields. He had the honour of a pompous funeral
from the Sicilians, who buried him near the river Gela;
and the tragedians of the country performed plays and
theatrical exercifes at his tomb.—The belt edition of his
* plays is that of London, 1663, fol. with a Latin tranf-
lation and a learned commentary by Tho. Stanley.
iESCHYNOMENE, Bastard sensitive-plant;
a genus of the decandria order, belonging to the diadel-
phia clafs of plants. Of this genus they are reckoned fix
Species. 1. The afpera (as well as the reft of this ge¬
nus) is a native of warm countries. It rifes to the height
of four or five feet, having a fingle herbaceous ftalk,
which is rough in fome parts. The leaves come out on
every fide towards the top, forming a fort of head;
the flowers come out between the leaves, two or three
together upon long footftalks ; they are yellow, and
lhaped like thofe of peafc: after the flower is paft, the
germen becomes a flat jointed pod, which, when ripe,
parts at the joints, and in each divifion is lodged a fingle
kidney-fhaped feed. 2. The Americana, feldom rifes
more than two feet in height. The flowers come out
from the leaves on branching footftalks, five or fix to¬
gether ; thefe are much lefs than the former, and of a
paler yellow colour. The feed is lodged in pods like the
other. 3. The arborea, grows to the height of fix or
feven feet, with a fingle Item; the flowers come out two
or three together, of a copper colour, and as large as
thofe of the afpera. 4. The fefban hath woody ftems, and
branches garnifhed with fmooth leaves. The flowers
are fmall, of a deep yellow colour, and come out in
long fpikes hanging downward. The feed is contain¬
ed in a fmooth pod, not jointed. 5. The pumila, rifes
to the height of about three feet; has flowers of a pale
yellow colour, which come out fometimes fingle, at o-
ther times two or three upon each foot ftalk. The feeds
are contained in a long falcated pod having 13 or 14
divifions, each of which lodges a fingle feed. 6. The
randiflora, rifes fix or eight feet high, with a woody
em, fending out branches towards the top, garnifhed
with obtufe leaves. The flowers are large, yellow, and
fucceeded by large pods containing kidney-fhapedfeeds.
Culture. Thefe plants are propagated by feeds,
which (hould be fown early in the fpring, on a hot¬
bed ; and when the plants have ftrength enough to be
removed, they fhould each be put into a feparate pot
filled with light earth, and plunged into a hot-bed.
As they increafe' in fize, they muft be removed into
larger pots ; but if thefe are too large, the plants will
not thrive. They muft be brought forward early in the
year, otherwife the feeond kind will not perfedt its feed.
jESCULANUS, or jEres, in mythology, a deity
who prefided over the coinage of copper-money.;
-ESCULAPHIS, in the heathen mythology, the
god of phyfic, was the fon of Apollo and the nymph
Coronis. He was educated by the centaur Chiron,
who taught him phyfic ; by which means JEfculapius ^Efeulapfus,
cured the moft defperate difeafes. But Jupiter, enraged -®fculus-
at his reftoring to life Hippolitus who had been torn ~
in pieces by his own horfes, killed him with a thunder¬
bolt. According to Cicero, there were three deities
of this name: the firft, the fon of Apollo, worfhipped
in Acadia, who invented the probe, and bandages for
wounds ; the fecond, the brother of Mercury, killed
by lightning; and the third, the fon of Arifippus and
Arfinoe, who firft taught the art of tooth-drawing
and purging. At Epidaurus, iEfculapius’s ftatue was
of gold and ivory, with a long beard, his head fur-
rounded with rays, holding in one hand a knotty flick,
and the other entwined with a ferpent; he was feated
on a throne of the fame materials as his ftatue, and
had a dog lying at his feet. The Romans crowned him
with laurel, to reprefent his defcent from Apollo; and
the Phaliafins reprefen ted him as beardlefs. The cock,
the raven, and the goat, were facred to this deity. His
chief temples were at Pergamus, Smyrna, Trica a ci¬
ty in Ionia, and the ifle of Coos ; in all which, votive
tablets were hung up, fhewing the difeafes cured by his
affiftance. But his moft famous fhrine was at Epidau¬
rus ; where, every five years, games were inflituted to
him, nine days after the Ifthmian games at Corinth.
./Esculapius’s Serpent) or Coluber .Esculapii.
See Coluber. i
JESCULUS, the Horse-chestnut; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the heptandria
clafs of plants. Of this genus there is but one known
fpecies, viz. the hippocaftanum, or common horfe-
cheftnut. It was brought from the northern parts of
Afia about the year 1550, and fent to Vienna about
1588. It had the name of caftanea from the fhape of
its fruit; and the title of equini was added on account
of its being a proper food, when ground, for horfes.
This tree makes a noble appearance all the month of
May, the extremities of the branches being terminated
by fine fpikes of flowers fpotted with rofe-colours, fo
that the whole tree feems covered with them. It is
quick in its growth; fo that in a few years it arrives at
a fize large enough to afford a good (hade in fummer,
as alfo to produce plenty of flowers. They have how¬
ever this great inconvenience, that their wood is of
no ufe, being unfit even for burning ; and their leaves
beginning to fall in July, foon deprive the trees of
their beauty. There is fomething very Angular iiv
the growth of thefe trees, which is, that the whole
fhoot is performed in lefs than three weeks after
the buds are opened.—The nuts are reckoned good
food for horfes. In Turkey, they are ground, and
mixed with the provender of thefe animals, efpe-
cially thofe which are troubled with coughs or bro-
ken-winded. Deer are alfo very fond of the fruit; and
at the time of their ripening keep much about the
trees, but efpecially in ftrong winds, when the nuts
are blown down, which they carefully watch, and gree¬
dily devour as they fall. A variety of this fpecies
grows naturally in North America, where it rifes to
the height of 20 feet, but does not fpread its branches
to any great extent. The flowers are wholly red,
whence it is called the fcarlet horfe-chejlnut: they are
tubulated, and fmaller than thofe of the other kind
but, for want of brims to expand, make an indifferent
appearance.
Culture.
.SJfculus,
JEfop.
JE S O [ ioi ] iE S O
Culture. Thefe trees are propagated by fowing the
nuts, which ought to be done early in the fpring ; but
the nuts fliould be preferved in fand during the winter,
otherwife they art apt to grow mouldy and rot.—The
tree will thrive in moft foils and lituations, but beft in
a fandy loam ; and, if it inclines to moifture, the leaves
will continue in verdure much longer than in a very
dry ground. ~ When the nuts fucceed, and have a pro¬
per foil, the plants will fhoot near a foot the firft fum-
mer ; fo that where they grow pretty thick together,
it will be proper to tranfplant them the following au¬
tumn. They ought then to be planted in rows three
feet afunder, and one foot diftance from one another in
the rows. In this nurfery they may continue two
years, and then be tranfplanted where they are de-
figned to remain. In tranfplanting them, the roots
ought to be preferved as entire as poffible, and none
of the branches broken on any account. When fuch
an accident happens, the branch is to be cut over clofe
by the ftem, that the wound may heal over. Another
particularity with refpect to this tree, befides its quick-
nefs of growth, is, that as foon as the old leaves fall
off, the new bud for the next year is formed, which
continues fwelling till autumn, at which time the fol¬
ding leaves are covered with a tenacious juice, which
ferves as a pigment to defend the tender bud from the
winter-frofts ; but, upon the firft return of warmth in
the fpring, this melts and runs off, leaving the bud at
full liberty to expand. The fcarlet horfe-cheftnut muft
be propagated from nuts procured from America, for
they do not come to perfection in this country. They
ftiould be planted in pots early in the fpring, and the
pots plunged in a moderate hot-bed to forward their
growth; towards the end of May, the pots Ihould be
put into the earth, in a fouth-eaft border, and duely
watered in diy weather. They muft be fcreened from
the froft during the firft winter or two, being impatient
of cold whilft young ; though when they have attained
ftrength, it feldom hurts them: the following fpring
they fhould.be carefully feparated, and planted a foot
diftance from each other in a flickered fituation.
iESOP, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon,
about the 50th Olympiad, under the reign of Crcefus
the laft king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, he
was greatly indebted to nature; but in other refpeCts
not fo fortunate, being born a flave and extremely de¬
formed. St Jerom, fpeaking of him, fays he was un¬
fortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death;
hinting thereby at his deformity, fervile ftate, and
tragical end. His great genius however enabled him
to fupport his misfortunes; and in order to alleviate the
hardfhips qf fervitude, he compofed thofe entertaining
and inftfuCtive fables which have acquired him fo much
reputation. He is generally fuppofed to have been the
inventor of that kind of writing; but this is contefted
by feveral, particularly Quintilian, whofeems to think
that Hefiod was the firft author of fables. iEfop, how¬
ever, certainly improved this art to a very great degree;
and hence it is that he has been accounted the author
of this fort of productions :
./Efopus an£tor qiiam materiam reperit,
Hanc ego pollivi vcrfibus fenariis.
Phici. Prof, ad lib. i.
If any thoughts in thefe iambics (hine,
Th’ invention’s iEfop’s, and the verfe is mine.”
The firft matter whom j£fop ferved, was one Cara-
fius Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens; and there
in all probability he acquired his purity in the Greek '
tongue. After him he had feveral matters; and at length
came under a philofopher named Idmon orladmon, who
enfranchifed him. After he had recovered his liberty,
he foon acquired a great reputation amongftthe Greeks ;
fo that, according to Meziriac, the report of his wif-
dom having reached Croefus, he fent to inquire after
him, and engaged him in his fervice. He travelled
through Greece, according to the fame authpr; whe¬
ther for his own pleafure, or upon the affairs of Croefus,
is uncertain; and palling by Athens foOn after Pifi-
ftratus had ufurped the fovereign power, and finding
that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he
told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter
for a king. The images made ufe of by iEfop are cer¬
tainly very happy inventions to inftruCl mankind; they
poffefs all that is neceffary to perfeCi a precept, having
a mixture of the ufeful with the agreeable. “ JEfop
the fabulift (fays Aulus Gellius) was defervedly e-
fteemed wife, fince he did not, after the manner of the
philofophers, rigidly and imperioully diClate fuch things
as were proper to be advifed and perfuaded; but, fra¬
ming entertaining and agreeable apologues, he thereby
charms and captivates the human mind.’'—iEfop was
put to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us, that he came
there with a great quantity of gold and filver, being
ordered by Croefus to offer a facrifice to Apollo, and
to give a confiderable fum to each inhabitant: but a
quarrel arifing betwixt him and the Delphians, he fent
back the money to Croefus; for he thought thofe for
whom the prince defigned it, had rendered themfelves
unworthy of it. The inhabitants of Delphi, contrived
an accufation of facrilege againft him; and pretending
they had convidted him, threw him headlong from a
rock. For this cruelty and injuftice, we are told, they
were vifited with famine and peftilence; and confulting
the oracle, they received for anfwer, that the god de¬
figned this as a punilhment for their treatment of iEfop:
they endeavoured to make an atonement, by railing a
pyramid to his honour.
iESOP (Clodius), a celebrated aflor, who flouriflied
about the 670th year of Rome. He'and Rofcius were
cotemporaries, and the beft performers who ever appear¬
ed upon the Roman ftage, the former excelling in tra¬
gedy, the latter in comedy. Cicero put himfelf under
their dire&ion to perfect his action. iEfop lived in a
moft expenfive manner, and at one entertainment is
faid to have had a difli which coft above eight hundred
pounds; this difli, we are told, was filled with finging
and fpeaking birds, fome of which coft near 50/. The
delight which iEfop took in this fort of birds proceed¬
ed, as Mr Bayle obferves, from the expence. He did
not make a difti of them becaufe they could fpeak, this
motive being only by accident, but becaufe of their
extraordinary, price. If there had been any birds that.
could not fpeak, and yet more fcarce and dear than
thefe, he would have procured fuch for his table. iE-
fop’s fon was no lefs luxurious than his father, for he
diifolved pearls for his guefts to fwallow. Some fpeak
of this as a common practice of his; but others mention
his falling into this excefs only on a particular day,
when he was treating his friends. Horace * fpeaks *
only of one pearl of great value, which he diffolved in
vinegar, and drank. iEfop, notwithftanding his expen-
ces,
iEfop.
Sat. ii,
i. ii. J3P*
T N
JEftimatio
aJ!us
* See Bath,
and Hypo-
caujlum.
A E T [ 102 ] &
ces, is faid to have died worth above 160,000/. When followers were called Aetians. Aetius,
he was upon the ftage, he entered into his part to fuch Aetius, a famous phylician, born at Amida in Me- -^tna‘
a degree, as fometimes to be feized with a perfeft ec- fopotamia, and the author of a work intitled Tetrabi-
ftacy: Plutarch mentions it as reported of him, that bios, which is a collection from the writings of thofe
whilft he was reprefenting Atreus deliberating how he phylicians Who went before him. He lived, accord-
Ihould revenge himfelf on Thyeftes, he was fo tranfport- ing to Dr Freind, at the end of the 5 th or the begin-
ed beyond himfelf in the heat of aCtion, that with his ning of the 6th century.
truncheon he fmote one of the fervants croffing the ftage, Aetius, governer of Gallia Narbonenfis in the reign
and laid him dead on the fpot. of Valentinian III. forced the Franks who were paf-
ALSTIMATIO capitis, a term met with in old fing into Gaul to repafs the Rhine. He defeated the
law-books for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for Goths; and routed Attila king of the Huns, who in¬
offences committed againft perfons of quality, accord- vaded Gaul with an army of 700,000 men. But the
ing to their feveral degrees. emperor, jealous of the merit of this great man, killed
A1STIVAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething him in 454 with his own hand, under the pretence
connected with, or belonging to, fummer. Hence that he had permitted the invafion of the Huns, after
seftival fign, aeftival folftice, &c. Attila’s defeat.
JESTUARIA, in geography, denotes an arm of the iETNA, (in the Itineraries flLthna, fuppofed from
fea, which runs a good way within land. Such is the to burn ; according to Bochart, from Athuna, a
Briftol channel, and many of the friths of Scotland. furnace, or Mtuna, darknefs), now Monte Gibello; a
^ESTUARIES, in ancient baths, were fecret paf- vulcano or burning mountain of Sicily, fituated in
fages from the hypocauftum into the chambers*. lat. 38°. N. long. 150.E.
./ESTUARY, among pyficians, a vapour-bath, or This mountain, famous from the remoteft antiquity,
any other inftrument for conveying heat to the body, both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, ftands in the
iESYMNIUM, in antiquity, a monument eredied to eaftern part of the ifland, in a very extenfive plain,
the memory of the heroes, by -ZEfymnus the Megarean. called Val Demons, from the notion of its being inha-
He confulting the oracle in what manner the Megare- bited by devils, who torment the fpirits of the damned
ans might be moft hapily governed, was anfwered, If in the bowels of this vulcano.
they held confultation 'with the more numerous: whom he Concerning the dimenfions of mount /Etna, we can Inconfiftent
taking for the dead, built the faid monument, and a fcarce extract any thing confiftent, even from the ac- acc°untf
fenate-houfe that took within its compafs the monu- counts of the lateft and moft ingenious travellers. Pin-
ment; imagining, that thus the dead would aflift at dar, who lived about 435 years before Chrift, calls it tude of jEt-
their confultations. (Paufanias.) the Pillar of heaven, on account of its great height, na.
jETH, or Ath, a ftrong little town in the Auftrian All modern writers likewife agree, that this mountain
Netherlands and province of Hainault, fituated on the is very high, and very large ; but differ excefiively both
“ ~ ~ " as to its height and magnitude : fome making it no lefs
than twelve miles high, others eight, others fix, fome
four, while Mr Brydone, and Sir William Hamilton,
who lately afcended to its higheft fummit, reduce its
height to little more than two miles; nay, by fome,
it is reduced to 10,036 feet, fomewhat lefs than two
miles. No lefs remarkable are the differences concern¬
ing its circumference : fome making it only 60 miles
river Dender, about twenty miles S. W. of Bruffels.
/ETHER, in natural philofophy. See Ether.
jEther, in chemiftry. See Chemistry, n° 167,
218, 261, 290, 305.
JET HE RIAL. See Etherial.
/ETHIOPIA. See Ethiopia.
/ETHIOPS, Mineral and Antimonial. See Phar¬
macy, n° '752, 804.
* See VLeh-
cine. Part II.
chap. ii. or
n° 72, etfeq-
/ETHUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria round, others 100; and Signior Recupero, from whom
digynia clafs. The volucrum is dimidiated, triphyl- Mr Brydone had his information in this refpect, affirms
lous, and pendulous. There is but one fpecies, viz. the it to be no lefs than 183 miles in circuit,
aethufa fynapium, fools-parfley, or leffer hemlock, (a We are forry to detract from the merit of Mr Bry-
native of Britain,) which grows in corn-fields and gar- done, or to involve in obfcurity what he hath been at
dens. This plant, from its refemblance to common fo much pains to elucidate; but every perfon who com-
parfley, hath fometimes been miftaken for it; and when pares the account of mount /Etna’s circumference, gi-
eaten, it occafions ficknefs. If the curled-leaved par- ven by Signior Recupero, and to which Mr Brydone
fley only was cultivated in our gardens, no fuch mif- feems to have affented, with its apparent circumference
takes would happen in future. Cows, horfes, ftieep, on the map prefixed to that gentleman’s tour through
goats, and fwine, eat it. It is noxious to geefe. Sicily and Malta, muft at once be ftruck with the pro-
AETIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Ariahs digious difparity. Indeed, it is plain, that, in the map,
who maintained, that the Son and Holy Gboft are in the geographer hath not left room for any fuch mountain;
all things difiimilar to the Father. See Aetius. nor can we help thinking, that, by comparing the di-
/Etiology, is that part of Pathology which is em- fiances’ of fome of the Sicilian towns from one another,
: ployed in exploring the caufes of difeafes *. Signior Recupero’s dimenfions will be found enor-
AETIUS, one of the moft zealous defenders of moufly exaggerated.—Certain it is, that there the geo-
Arianifm, was born in Syria, and flouriffied about the grapher hath placed Catania, which ftands at the foot
year 336. After being fervant to a grammarian, of of mount Etna, on one. fide, no more than 28 miles
whom he learned grammar and logic, he was ordained from the moft diftant point of the river Alcantara,
deacon, and at length bifhop, by Eudoxus patriarch which forms the boundary on the oppofite fide; fo that
of Conftantinople. St Epiphanius haspreferved 47 of a circle, whofe radius is 14 or 15 miles, muft encom-
his propofitions againft the Trinity. His followers pafs as much fpace as we can poffibly think is occupied
by
M T N L 103 1 M r N
by the bafis of x-nount iEtna. Thus we will reduce
the circumference of this famous mountain to between
80 and 90 miles ; and even when we do fo, it muft ftill
be acknowledged to be very great.
But if we are embarraffed with the circumference of
JEtna, we are much more fo with the accounts relating
to its height; and one circumftance, particularly, cre¬
ates almoft infurmountable- difficulties. It is agreed
upon byall travellers, and among the reft by SirWilliam
Hamilton, that from Catania, where the afcent firft be-
ins, to the fummit, is not lefs than 30 miles. The
efcent on the other fide we have no account of; But,
■whatever fuppofition we make, the height of the moun¬
tain muft be prodigious. If we fuppofe it likewife to be
30 miles, and that mount iEtna can be reprefented by
an equilateral triangle, each of whofe fides is 30 miles,
we will have an amazing elevation indeed, no lefs than
26 miles perpendicular !—Such a height being beyond
all credibility, we muft contraft the fides of our tri¬
angle, in proportion to its bafis. We {hall begin with
allowing 1 o miles for the difference between a ftraight
line’ from Catania to the fummit, and the length of
• the road, occafionfcd by the inequalities of the moun¬
tain ; .and fuppofing the defcent on the other fide to
be fomewhat fhorter, we may call it 15 miles. Mount
.flitna will now be reprefented by a fcalene triangle,
whofe bafe is 30 miles, its longeft fide 20, and its
ftiorteft 15; from which proportions we will ftill find
Dimenfions its height to be betwixt eight and nine miles.—This
uncertain. js ftjj] incredible ; and when all the various relations
concerning the height of iEtna are compared, we hope
it will not be thought prefumptuous in us to give it as
our opinion, that the true dimenfions of this mountain
are as yet unknown.
Concerning the products and general appearance of
General ap-this vulcano, authors are much better agreed.—The
pearance, journey from Catania to its fummit has been lately
c‘ deferibed by three travellers, M. D’Orville, Mr Bry-
done, and Sir William Hamilton. All thefe agree,
that this Angle mountain affords an epitome of the dif¬
ferent climates throughout the whole world : towards
the foot, it is very hot; farther up^. more temperate;
and grows gradually more and more cold the higher we
afeend. At the very top, it is perpetually covered with
fnow: from thence the whole ifland is fupplied with that
article, fo neceffary in a hot climate, and without which
the natives fay Sicily could not be inhabited. So great
is the demand for this commodity, that the biftiop’s re¬
venues, which are confiderable, arife from the fale of
mount ^Etna’s fnow; and he is faid to draw 1000 /. a-
year from one fmall portion lying on the north fide of the
mountain. Great quantities of fnow and ice are like¬
wife exported to Malta and Italy, making a confiderable
branch of commerce. On the north fide of this fnowy
region, Mr Brydone was affured, that there are feveral
fmall lakes which never thaw; and that the fnow mixed
with the afties and falts of the mountain are accumulated
to a vaft depth. The quantity of falts contained in this
mountain, he, with great probability^ conjeftures to
be one reafon of the prefervation of its fnows ; for fait
* See CoW,.increafes the coldnefs of fnow to a furprifing degree *.
*nd Congela- Jn the middle of the fnowy region ftands the great
tun' crater, or mouth of JEtna.; from which, though con¬
trary to the ufual method of travellers, we {hall begin
our particular account of this mountain. Sir William
Hamilton deferibes the crater as a little mountain,
about a quarter of a mile perpendicular, and very fteep,
fituated in the middle of a gently inclining plain, of Crater d
about nine miles in circumference. It is entirely form- lciibed.
ed of ftones and afties; and, as Mr Hamilton was in¬
formed by feveral people of Catania, had been thrown
up about 25 or 30 years before the time (1769) he
vifited mount vEtna. Before this mountain was thrown
up, there was only a prodigious large chafm, orgulph,
in the middle of the above-mentioned plain ; and it
has been remarked, that about once in 100 years the
top of vEtna falls in; which undoubtedly muft be the
cafe at certain periods, or the mountain behoved conti-
nually to increafe in height. As this little mountain,
though emitting finoke from every pore, appeared fo¬
lk! and firm, Mr Hamilton and his companions went up
to the very top. In the middle is a hollow, about two
miles and a half in circumference, according to Mr
Hamilton ; three miles and a half, according to Mr
Brydone ; and three or four, according to Mr D’Or¬
ville. The infide is crufted over with falts and fulphur
of different colours. It goes {helving down, from the
top, like an inverted cone ; the depth, in Mr Hamil¬
ton’s opinion, nearly correfponding to the height of
the little mountain. From many places of this fpace
iffue volumes of fulphureous fmoke, which being much
heavier than the circumambient air, inftead of amend¬
ing in it, roll down the fide of the mountain, till, co¬
ming to a more denfe atmofphere, it {hoots off horizon¬
tally, and forms a large traft in the air, according to
the direction of the wind; which, happily for our tra¬
vellers, carried it exaftly to the fide oppofite to which
they were placed. In the middle of this funnel is the
tremenduous and unfathomable gulph, fo much cele¬
brated in all ^ges, both as the terror of this life, and
the place of puniftiment in the next. From this gulph
continually iffue terrible and confufed noifes, which in
eruptions are increafed to fuch a degree as to be heard
at a prodigious diftance. Its diameter is probably very
different at different times : for Mr Hamilton obfer-
ved, by the wind clearing away the fmoke from time
to time, that the inverted hollow cone was contracted
almoft to a point; while Mr D’Orville and Mr Bry¬
done found the opening very large. Both Mr Bry¬
done and Mr Hamilton found the crater too hot to
defeend into it; but Mr D’Orville was bolder : and
accordingly he and his fellow-traveller, faftened to
ropes which two or three men held at a diftance for
fear of accidents, defeended as near as poffible to the
brink of the gulph ; but the fmall flames and fmoke
which iffued from it on every fide, and a greenifh ful¬
phur and pumice-ftones, quite black, which covered
the margin, would not permit them to come fo near
as to have a full view. They only faw diftindtly in
the middle, a mafs of matter which rofe, in the ihape
of a cone, to the height of above 60 feet, and which
towards the bafe, as far as their fight could reach, might
be 600 or 800. While they were obferving this fub-
ftance, fome motion was perceived on the north fide,
oppofite to that whereon they flood ; and immediately
the mountain began to fend forth fmoke and aihes.
This eruption was preceded by a fenfible increafe of
its internal roarings ; which, however, did not conti¬
nue ; but after a moment’s dilatation, as if to give it
vent,, the vulcano refumed its former tranquillity ; but
JItna.
Splendor of
the ftars feen
from the top
of jditna.
Extenfive
profpeft.
Divifion in¬
to three
zones.
iE T N [ 104 ] iE T N
as it was by no means proper to make a long flay in
fuch a place, our travellers immediately returned to
their attendants.
On the fummit of mount iEtna, Mr Hamilton ob-
ferves that he was fenfible of a difficulty in refpiration
from the too great fubtilty of the air, independent of
what arofe from the fulphureous fmoke of the moun¬
tain. Mr Brydone takes no notice of this; which pro¬
bably arofe from the air being in a more rarefied ftate
•at the time of Mr Hamilton’s obfervation, than of Mr
Brydone’s; the barometer, as obferved by the former,
{landing at 18 inches and 10 lines, by the latter at 19
inches-64- lines.
In thefe high regions there is generally a very violent
wind, which, as all our travellers found it conftantly
blowing from the fouth, may poffibly be commonly di-
refted from that point. Here Mr Brydone’s thermo¬
meter fell to 270.
The top of JEtna being above the common region
of vapours, the heavens appear with exceeding great
fplendor.—Mr Brydone and his company obferved, as
they afcended in the night, that the number of ftars
feemed to be infinitely increafed, .and the light of each
of them appeared brighter than ufual; the whitenefs of
the milky way was like 3 pure flame which {hot acrofs
the heavens; and, with the naked eye, they could ob-
ferve clufters of liars that were invifible from below.
Had Jupiter been vifible, he is of opinion that fome of
his fatellites might have been difcovered with the naked
eye, or at leall with a very fmall pocket-glafs. He like-
wife took notice of feveral of thofe meteors called fall-
mg Jlars; which appeared as much elevated as when
viewed from the plain: a proof, according to Mr Bry¬
done, that “ tfiefe bodies move in regions much be-
“ yond the bounds that fome philofophers have affign-
“ ed to our atmofphere.”
To have a full and clear profpeA from the fummit
of mount vEtna, it is neceflary to be there before fun-
rife; as the vapours raifed by the fun, in the day-time,
will obfcure every object: accordingly, our travellers
took care to arrive there early enough ; and all agree,
that the beauty of the profpeft from thence cannot be
exprefled.—Here Mr Brydone and Mr Hamilton had a
view of Calabria in Italy, with the fea beyond it; the
Lipari iflands, and Stromboli a vulcano tft about 70
miles diflance, appeared juft under their feet; the whole
ifland of Sicily, with its rivers, towns, harbours, &c.
appeared diftinft, as if feen on a map. Mafia, a Sici¬
lian author, affirms, that the African coaft as well
that of Naples, with many of its iflands, have been dif¬
covered from the top of iEtna. The vifible horizon
here, is not lefs than 8 or 900 miles in diameter. The
pyramidal ftiadow of the mountain reaches acrofs the
whole ifland, and far into the fea on the other fide, form¬
ing a vifible tradl in the air, which, as the fun rifes a-
bove the horizon, is ftiortened, and at laft confined to
the neighbourhood of ./Etna. The moft beautiful part
of the fcene, however, in Mr Brydone’s opinion, is the
mountain itfelf, the ifland of Sicily, and the numerous
iflands lying round it. Thefe laft feem to be clofe to
the Ikirts of .iEtna; the diftances appearing reduced to
nothing.
This mountain is divided into three zones, which
might properly enough be diftinguifhed by the names
of torrid, temperate, and frigid; they are, however,
known by the names of the Piedmontefe, or Regione cul- JEtna,
ta, the cultivated, or fertile region; the Sylvofa, woody,
or temperate zone; and the Regione deferta, the frigid,
or defert zone, or region. All thefe are plainly diftin¬
guifhed from the fummit. The Regione deferta is mark- Regione de¬
ed out by a circle of fnow and ice, which extends on all ler a*.
fides to the diftance of about eight miles, beginning at
the foot of the crater. Greateft part of this region is
fmooth and even. This is immediately fucceeded by
the Sylvofa, or woody region; which forms a circle of
the moft beautiful green, furrounding the mountain on
all fides. This region is variegated with a vaft number
of mountains of a conical form, thrown up by Etna, in
thofe eruptions which burft out from its fides. Mr Ha¬
milton counted 44 on the Catania fide, each having its
crater, many with large trees flourifhing both within
and without the crater. All thefe, except a few of late
date, have acquired a wonderful degree of fertility. The
circumference of this zone, or great circle, according to
Recupero, is not lefs than 70 or 80 miles. It is every¬
where fucceeded by the Regione culta; which is much
broader than the reft, and extends on all fides to the
foot of the mountain. Here terrible devaftations are
fometimes committed by the eruptions; and the whole
region is likewife full of conical mountains thrown up
by them. The circumference of this region, is, by Re¬
cupero, reckoned 183 miles; but we have already gi¬
ven our reafons for rejecting thefe dimenfions.—This
region is bounded by the fea to the fouth and fouth-
eaft; and on all other fides, by the rivers Semetus and
Alcantara, which form the boundaries of mount Etna.
About a mile below the foot of the great crater, are
found the ruins of an ancient ftrufture, called II Torre 11 Torre del;
del Filofofo, by fome fuppofed to have been built by the Filofofo.
philofopher Empedocles, who took up his habitation
here, the better to ftudy the nature of mount Etna.
By others they are fuppofed to be ruins of a temple of
Vulcan. They are of brick, and feem to have been or¬
namented with marble. Somewhere in this region alfo,
Mr D’Orville found a great oblong block of polirtied
marble, eight or ten feet high, and three or four thick;
though how it came there, was quite unaccountable to
him. From Mr D’Orville’s and Mr Brydone’s accounts,
we muft reckon this part of the mountain pretty fteep:
but Mr Hamilton fays, that the afcent was fo gradual,
as not to be in the leaft fatiguing; and had it not been
for the fnows, they might have rode on their mules to
the very foot of the crater.
The woody region defcends eight or nine miles be- Regione \
below the Regione deferta, but differs greatly in the tem- Sylvofa.
perature of its climate. Mr Hamilton obferved a gra¬
dual decreafe of the vegetation as he advanced; the
under part being covered with large timber trees, which
grew gradually lefs as he approached the third region,
at laft they degenerated into the fmall plants of the
northern climates. He alfo obferved quantities of ju¬
niper and tanfey; and was informed by his guide, that
later in the feafon (he vifitedEtnain June 1769) there
are a great many curious plants, and in fome places
rhubarb and faffron in great plenty. In Carrera’s hi-
ftory of Catania, there is a lift of all the plants and
herbs of Etna, in alphabetical order.
This region is extolled by Mr Brydone as one of the
moft delightful fpots on earth. He lodged for a night
in a large cave near the middle, formed by one of the
moft
iE T N [ 105 ] T N
JEtna. moil; ancient lavas. It is called La Spelonca del -Capri-
ote, or the goats cavern; becaufe it is frequented by
thofe animals, which take refuge there in bad weather.
Here his reft was difturbed by a mountain thrown up
in the eruption 1766. It difcharged great quantities
of fmoke, and made feveral explouons like heavy can¬
non fired at a diftance; but they could obferve no ap¬
pearance of fire.
This gentleman likewife vifited the eaftern fide of
the Regione fylvofa, intending to have afcended that way
to the fummit, and defcended again on the fouth fide
to Catania ; but found it imprafticable ; though what
the infurmountable difficulties were, he does not men-
Eruption of t;on_ Qn this fide, part of the woody region was de-
t°r.ln^ Wa* ftroyed, in 1755, by an immenfe torrent of boiling wa¬
ter, which iffued from the great crater. Its traces were
ftill very vifible, about a mile and an half broad, and
in fome places more. The foil was then only begin¬
ning to recover its vegetative power, which it feems this
torrent had deftroyed for x 4 years.—Near this place are
fome beautiful woods of cork, and evergreen oak, grow¬
ing abfolutely out of the lava, the foil having hardly
filled the crevices; and not far off, our traveller obfer-
ved feven little mountains that feemed to have been form¬
ed by a late eruption. Each of thefe had a regular cup,
or crater, on the top; and, in fome, the middle gulph, or
Voragine, as the Sicilians call it, was ftill open. Into
thefe gulphs Mr Brydone tumbled down ftones, and
heard the noife for a long time after. All the fields
round, to a confiderable diftance, were covered with
large burnt ftones difcharged from thefe little vulcanoes.
Overgrown The woody region, efpecially the eaft fide, called
cheftnut- Carpinetto, abounds with very large cheftnut-trees; the
'rc£s' moft remarkable of which has been called, from its fize,
Caftagno de Cento Cavalli, or cheftnut-tree of an hun¬
dred horfe. Mr Brydone was greatly difappointed at
the fight of this tree, as it is only a bufh of five large
ones growing together: but his guides affured him, that
all thefe five were once united into one ftem; and Sig-
nior Recupero told him, that he himfelf had been at
the expence of carrying up peafants with tools to dig
round this bufh of trees, and found all the items united
below ground in one root. The circumference, as mea-
fured by Meffrs Brydone and Glover who accompanied
him, amounted to 204 feet. Another of thefe, about a
mile and a half higher on the mountain, is called Cajlag-
na del Galea: it rifes from one folid ftem to a confide¬
rable height; after which it branches out, and is a much
finer objeft than the other: this was meafured two feet
above the ground, and found to be 76 feet in circum¬
ference. A third, called Cajlagno del Nave, is pretty
nearly of the fame fize; and Maffa, one of the moft
efteemed Sicilian authors, affirms that he has feen folid
oaks there upwards of 40 feet round. All thefe grow on
a thick rich foil, which feems originally to have been
formed of allies thrown out by the mountain. Here the
barometer ftood at 26 inches 5 lines and an half, in¬
dicating an elevation of near 4000 feet.
Regione The Piedmontefe diftrift is covered with towns, vil-
1 u a' lages, monafteries, &c. and is well peopled, notwith-
ftanding the danger of fuch a fituation : but the ferti¬
lity of the foil tempts people to inhabit that country;
and their fuperftitious confidence in their faints, with
the propenfity mankind have to defpife danger which
they do not fee, render them as fecure there as in any 0-
Vol. I.
ther place. Here, Sir Wm Hamilton obferves, they keep
their vines low, contrary to the cuftom of thofe who in¬
habit mount Vefuvius; and they produce a ftronger
wine, but not in fuch abundance: here alfo many ter^
rible eruptions have burft forth; particularly one in
1669. At the foot of the mountain railed by that erup- Subterrane-
tion, is a hole, through which Sir Wm Hamilton defcend- ous caverns*
ed, by means of a rope, into feveral fubterraneous ca¬
verns, branching out, and extending much farther than
he chofe to venture, the cold there being exceffive, and
a violent wind extinguilhing fome of the torches. Many
other caverns are known in this and the other regions -
of ^Etna; particularly one near this place called La Spe¬
lonca della Palomba, (from the wild pigeons building
their nefts there.) Here Mr Brydone was told that fome
people had loft their fenfes, from having advanced too
far, imagining they faw devils and damned fpirits.—
Some of thefe caverns are made ufe of as magazines for
fnow; which they are well adapted for, on account of
their extreme cold. Thefe are with great probability
fuppofed by Sir Wm Hamilton to be the hollows made
by the iffuing of the lava in eruptions.
In this region the river Acts, fo much celebrated by River Acts,
the poets, in the fable of Acis and Galatea, takes its
rife. It burfts out of the earth at once in a large ftream,
runs with great rapidity, and about a mile from its
fource throws itfelf into the fea. Its water is remark¬
ably clear; and fo extremely cold, that it is reckoned
dangerous to drink it: it is faid, however, to have a
poifonous quality, from being impregnated with vitriol;
in confequence of which, cattle have been killed by it.
It never freezes, but is faid often to contrail; a greater
degree of cold than ice.
Having thus given an account of this mountain in Appcaran-
its quiet and peaceable ftate, we muft now defcribe the ccs duxipg
appearance it puts on during the time of an eruption, an eruPtl0D*
when it fpreads deftruition for many miles round, and
is capable of ftriking the boldeft with terror.—Here we
are furprifed to find ourfelves at a lofs; for though there
are many particular accounts of the eruptions of Vefu¬
vius, we cannot, after the moft diligent fearch, find that
any writer hath accurately defcribed the phenomena at¬
tending an eruption of ./Etna.—Borelli, indeed, an Ita¬
lian writer, publiftied a natural hiftory of this mountain
for the year 1669, when a very terrible eruption hap¬
pened ; but as this treatife is not now to be found, in
this part of the world at leaft, we muft fupply the de¬
ficiency in the beft manner we can, by fuch hints as
can be obtained from the writing of Sir Wni Hamilton
and Mr Brydone, together with a very imperfedt ac¬
count given by fome Englilh merchants who happened
to be in Catania at that time, and recorded in the
Philofophical Tran factions N° 51.
Sir Wm Hamilton, who has examined both Vefu¬
vius and ./Etna in a very accurate manner, never had an
opportunity of feeing an eruption of the latter; but
as he is of opinion that the two vulcanoes agree per¬
fectly in all refpedts, only that the latter is on a much
larger fcale than the former, we hope it will not be un¬
acceptable to our readers to give an account of fome of
the general appearances of Vefuvius when in a ftate
of eruption, the better to help their ideas concerning
./Etna.
It has been already obferved, that a fmoke con-
ftantly iffues from the top of .Etna, and that its inter-
O nal
JE T N [ 106 ] M r N
JEtm. naj noifes never ceafe. The cafe 13 the fame with Vefu-
" " vius: and Sir Wm Hamilton obferved, that in bad wea¬
ther the fmoke was more confiderable, as well as the
noifes much louder, than when it was fair; fo that in bad
weather he had frequently heard the inward explofions
of the mountain at Naples, fix miles diftant from Ve-
fuvius. He alfo obfevved the fmoke that ifl'ued from the
mountain in bad weather to be very white, moift, and
not near fo offenfive as the fulphureous fteams from va¬
rious' cracks in the fide of the mountain.
Signs of an The firft fymptom of an approaching eruption is an
approach- increafe of the fmoke in fair weather: after fome time,
ingcmption a pUff Gf black fmoke is frequently feen to fhoot up in
the mid ft of the white, to a confiderable height. Thefe
puffs are attended with confiderable explofions: for
Hamilton’s w'hile Vefuvius was in this ftate, Sir Wm Hamilton went
Obferva- Up to jts tQp^ which was covered with fnow; and per-
S) p‘ 4* ceiving a little hillock of fulphur, about fix feet high,
which had been lately thrown up, and burnt with a blue
flame at the top, he was examining this phenomenon,
when fuddenly a violent report was heard, a column of
black Tmoke fliot up with violence, and was followed
by a reddilh flame. Immediately a ftiower of ftones
fell; upon which he thought proper to retire. Pheno¬
mena of this kind, in all probability, precede the e-
ruptions of ./Etna, in a much greater degree.—-The
fmoke at length appears wholly black in the day-time,
and in the night has the appearance of flame; fhowers
of allies are fent forth, earthquakes are produced, the
mountain difcharges volleys of red-hot ftones to a great
height in the air. The force by which thefe ftones
are projefted, as well as their magnitude, feems to be
in proportion to the bulk of the mountain. Signior
Recupero affured Mr Brydone, that he had feen im-
menfely large ones thrown perpendicularly upwards
to the height of 7000 feet, as he calculated from the
time they took to arrive at the earth after begin¬
ning to defcend from their greateft elevation. The
largeft ftone, or rather rock, that was ever known to be
emitted by Vefuvius, was 12 feet long, and 45 in cir¬
cumference. This was thrown a quarter of a mile; but
much larger ones have been thrown out by mount iEt-
na, almoft in the proportion in which the latter ex¬
ceeds Vefuvius in bulk. Along with thefe terrible
fymptoms, the fmoke that iffues from the crater is
fometimes in a highly electrified ftate. In this cafe,
the fmall afhes which are continually emitted from the
crater, are attracted by the fmoke, and rife with it to
a great height, forming a vaft black, and to appear¬
ance denfe, column; from this column continual flalhes1
Thunder & of forked or zig-zag lightning iffue, fometimes at-
fro'm^th’ tended with thunder, and fometimes not, but equally
feaoke. 6 powerful with ordinary lightning. This phenome¬
non was obferved by Sir Wm Hamilton in the fmoke of
V efuvius, and has alfo been taken notice of in that of
iEtna ; and where this electrified fmoke hath fpread
over a traCt of land, much mifehief. hath been done by
the lightning proceeding from it.
When thefe dreadful appearances have continued
fometimes four or five months, the lava begins to make
its appearance. This is a ftream of melted mineral
matters, which in Vefuvius commonly boils over the
top ; but very feldom does fo in iEtna; owing to the
great weight of the lava, which, long before it can be
railed to the vaft height of mount ./Etna,, burfts out
through fome weak place in its fide. Upon the ap- .Etna,
pearance of the lava, the violent eruptions of the moun- “
tain generally, though not always, ceafe; for if this
burning matter gets not fufficient vent, the commo¬
tions increafe to a prodigious degree.— In the night¬
time the lava appears like a ftream of fire, accompanied
with flame: but in the day-time it has no.fuch appear¬
ance ; its progrefs is marked by a white fmoke, which
by the reflection of the red-hot matter in the night af-
fumes the appearance of flame.
All the abovementioned fymptoms preceded the great Eruptian in
eruption of ./Etna in 1669. For feveral months before i669-
the lava broke forth, the old mouth, or great crater on
the fummit, was obferved to fend forth great quantities
of fmoke and flame; the top had fallen in, fo that the
mountain was much lowered; the Hands alfo of Volcan
and Stromboli, two vulcanoes to the weftward of Sicily,
were obferved to rage more than ufual.—Eighteen days
before the eruption, the iky was very thick and dark,
with thunder, lightning, frequent concufiions of the
earth, and dreadful fubterraneous bellowings. On
the 1 Ith of March, fome time before the lava got vent,
a rent was opened in the mountain twelve miles in
length, into which, when ftongs were thrown down,
they could not be heard to ftrike the bottom. Burning
rocks, 60 palms (15 of our feet) in length, were thrown
to the diftance of a mile ; others of a leffer fize were
carried three miles off; the internal noifes of the moun¬
tain were exceedingly dreadful, and the thunder and
lightning from the fmoke fcarce lefs terrible than
they. When the lava at laft got vent, it burft out of
a vineyard, 20 miles below the great crater, and fprung
up into the air to a confiderable height. Here it form¬
ed a mountain of ftones and afhes, not lefs, as SirWm
Hamilton conjeftures, than half a mile perpendicular
in height, and three miles in circumference. For 54
days, neither fun nor ftars had appeared; but foon af¬
ter the lava got vent, the mountain became very quiet.
The terrible effects of this, fiery ftream maybe imagined
from its amazing extent; being, as Sir Wm Hamil¬
ton obferves, no lefs than 14 miles long, and in many
places fix in breadth. In its courfe, it deftroyed the
habitations of near 30,000 perfons; and meeting with
a lake four miles in compafs, it not only filled it up,
though feveral fathom deep, but made a mountain in
the place of it. Having reached Catania, it deftroyed
part of its walls, and ran for a confiderable length into
the fea, forming a fafe and beautiful harbour; which,
however, was foon filled up by a frefh torrent of the
fame inflamed matter.
It is not eafy for thofe who have never been prefent. Phenomena
at thofe terrible operations of nature, to reprefent to ftthebreak-
their minds the horror which muft attend the breaking 0
forth of a lava; for though the giving vent to this
burning matter generally produces a ceffation of the
violent efforts of the internal fire, yet at the very in-
ftant of its explofion fcarce any thing can be conceived
fo dreadful.—As wc cannot find a particular account
oi what happened at the breaking forth of-the lava in
mount iEtna in 1669, we muft content ourfelves with gi¬
ving the reader fome idea of it from Sir Wm Hamilton’s Hamilton’s
account of the breaking forth of a lava in Vefuvius, no Obferva- •
more than a quarter of a mile’s diftance from the place tions> P- a^»
where he flood. “ I was making my obfervations,”
fays he, “ on the lava, which had already, from the
iE T N [ 107 ] ^ T N
Mina. “ fpot where it firft broke out, reached the valley;
1 ‘ “ when, on a fudden, about noon, I heard a violent
“ noife within the mountain, and about a quarter of a
“ mile off the place where I flood, the mountain fplit,
“ and with much noife, from this new mouth, a foun-
“ tain of liquid fire fhot up many feet high, and then,
“ like a torrent, rolled on directly towards us. The
“ -earth fhook, at the fame time that a volley of pu-
“ mice-ftones fell thick upon us; in an inflant, clouds
“ of black fmoke and afhes caufed almofl a total dark-
“ nefs; the explofions from the top of the mountain
<e were much louder than any thunder I ever heard,
“ and the fmell of fulphur was likewife very offenfive.
<1 My guide, alarmed, took to his heels ; and I mufl
“ confefs I was notatmyeafe. I followed clofe, and
“ we ran near three miles without flopping; as the
“ earth continued to fhake under our feet, I was ap-
“ prehenfive of the opening of a frefh mouth, which
“ might have cut off our retreat. I alfo feared that
“ the violent explofions would detach fome of the rocks
“ off the mountain of Somma, under which we were
“ obliged to pafs; befides, the pumice-flones, falling
s£ upon us like hail, were of fuch a fize as to caufe a
“ difagreeable fenfation upon the part where they fell.
“ After having taken breath, as the earth flill trem-
“ bled greatly, I thought it moft prudent to leave the
“ mountain and return to my villa; where I found my
“ family in a great alarm at the continual and violent
“ explofions of the vulcano, which fhook our houfe to
“ its very foundation, the doors and windows fwing-
“ ing upon their hinges..—The noife and fmell of ful-
“■ phur increafing, we removed from our villa to Naples:
“ and I thought proper, as I puffed by Portici, to
“ inform the court of what I had feen ; and humbly
“ offered it as my opinion, that his Sicilian Majefly
<£ fhould leave the neighbourhood of the threatening
“ mountain. 1 obferved, in my way to Naples,
“ which was in lefs than two hours after I had left the
“ mountain, that the lava had actually covered three
“ miles of the very road through which we had re-
“ treated. It is aflonifhing that it fhould have run fo
“ fall; as I have fince feen, that the river of lava in
“ the Atrio di Cavallo was 60 and 70 feet deep, and in
“ fogae places near two miles broad. When his Sici-
<£ Man Majefly quitted Portici, the noife was greatly
“ increafed; and the concuffion of the air from the ex-
“ plofions was fo violent, that, in the king’s palace,
doors and windows were forced open, and even one
“ door there, which was locked, was neverthelefs burfl
££ open. At Naples, the fame night, many windows
“ and doors flew open: (the windows at Naples open
1“ like-folding doors.) In my houfe, which is not on
<£ the fide of the town next Vefuvius, I tried the ex-
“ periment of unbolting my windows, when they flew
<£ wide open upon every explofion of the mountain.
*£ Befides thefe explofions, which were very frequent,
*e there was a continued fubterraneous and violent
“ rumbling noife, which lafted this night about five
<£ hours.”
No doubt the fame terrible appearances are put on
by iEtna at the time its lavas break forth; but in a
much greater degree, in proportion to the fuperior fize
of the mountain.—The appearance, and indeed the ef-
fe£ls, of the lava itfelf, are very dreadful. When it firft
iffues, the lava appears very fluid, and runs with the ra¬
pidity of a fwiftriver: but even then it furprifingly re¬
fills the impreflion of folid bodies; for Sir Wm Hamil¬
ton could not pierce that of Vefuvius with a flick dri¬
ven againft it with all his force; nor did the' largefl
Hone he was able to throw upon it fink, but made a
flight impreffion, and then floated along. This hap¬
pened almofl at the very mouth, when the lava appear¬
ed liquid as water, and when he faw it running with
a rapidity equal to the river Severn at the paffage
near Briftol.—A defcription of the lava iffuing from
mount iEtna in 1669 was fent to the court of England
by Lord Winchelfea, who at that time happened to be at
Catania in his way home from an embaffy at Conflanti-
nople. His account is not now to be procured; but
Mr Hamilton found a copy in Sicily, and hath given
an extradl, part of which follows. ££ When it was
££ night, I went upon two towers in divers places ;
“ and I could plainly fee, at ten miles diftance, as we
“ judged, the lire begin to run from the mountain in
££ a direct line, the flame to afcend-as high and as big
££ as one of the greatefl fteeples in your Majefty’s
“ kingdoms, and to throw up great Hones into the air;
“ I could difcern the river of fire to defcend the mouh-
“ tain of a terrible fiery or red colour, and ftones of a
“ paler red to fwim thereon, and to be fome as big as
“ an ordinary table. We could fee this fire to move
“ in feveral other places, and all the country covered
“ with fire, afcending with great flames in many pla-
“ ces, fmoking like to a violent furnace of iron melted,
“ making a noife with the great pieces that fell, efpe-
“ dally thofe that fell into the fea. A cavalier of
<£ Malta, who lives there, and attended me, told me,
that the river was as liquid, where it iffues out of the
“ mountain, as water, and came out like -a torrent
“ with great violence, and is five or fix fathom deep,
“ and as broad, and that no ftones fink therein.”
The account given in the Philofophical Tranfadlions
is to the fame purpefe. We are there told, that the la¬
va is “ nothing elfe than diverfe kinds of metals and
“ minerals, rendered liquid by the fiercenefs of the fire
“ in the bowels of the earth, boiling up find gulhing
“ forth as the water doth at the head of fome great ri-
“ ver; and having run in a full body for a ftone’s-caft
“ or more, began to cruft or curdle, becoming, when
“ cold, thofe hard porous ftones which the people call
“ Sciarri.” Thofe, though cold in comparifon of
what firft iffues from the mountain, yet retained fo much
heat as to referable huge cakes of fea-coal ftrongly ig¬
nited, and came tumbling over one another, bearing
down or burning whatever was^ in their way.—In this
manner the lava proceeded flowly on till it came to the
fea, when a moft extraordinary conflift enfued betwixt
the two adverfe elements. The noife was vaftly more
dreadful than the loudeft thunder, being heard thro*
the whole country to an immenfe diftance ; the water
feemed to retire and diminifh before the lava, while
clouds of vapour darkened the fun. The whole fifh on
the coaft were deftroyed, the colour of the fea itfelf
was changed, and the tranfparency of its waters loft for
many months.
While this lava was iffuing in fuch prodigious quan¬
tity, the merchants, whofe account is recorded in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions, attempted to go up to the
mouth itfelf; but durft not come nearer than a furlong,
left they fhould have been overwhelmed by a vaft pil-
O 2 lar
Hamilton’s
Obferva-
tions, p. is.
Lava of
1 <569 defer!-
bed.
iEtna lar of aflies, which to their appvehenfion exceeded twice
II . the bignefs of St Paul’s fteeple in London, and went
A eftion. ^ jnto tjie ajr t0 a par greater height; at the mouth
itfelf was a continual nolle, like the beating of great
waves of the fea againft rocks, or like diliant thunder,
which fometimes was fo violent as to be heard 60, or
even 100 miles off, to which diftance alfo part of the
Diameter albes were carried.—Some time after, having gone up,
of the hole t}iey found the mouth from whence this terrible deluge
lava'iffut'd 6 ifi"ued to t>e only a hole about 10 feet diameter. This
is alfo confirmed by Mr Brydone; and is probably
the fame through which Sir Wm Hamilton defeended
into the fubterranean caverns already mentioned.
Antiquity Mount iEtna, as we have already remarked, has
dons6 C1U*> been a celebrated Vulcano from the remoteft antiqui¬
ty. Diodorus Siculus mentions eruptions of it as
happening 500 years before the Trojan war, or 1693
years before the Chriftian sera. Many others are re¬
corded by hiftorians in different ages, but none are
particularly deferibed. The mountain feems fometimes
to lie dormant for many years, or even centuries; when
it breaks out again with great fury, and will fome¬
times burn for years together. Since 1669 there have
been feveral eruptions, but none of them comparable to
that one. The laft happened in 1766. The lava
fprung up into the air to a confiderable height, twelve
miles below the fummit; but formed a ftream only fix
miles in length, and one mile in breadth.
Thefe are the moft remarkable circumftances we have
been able to collect, that might ferve to give an ade¬
quate idea of this famous mountain.—Many things,
however, concerning the extent, antiquity, &c. of the
lavas, remain to be difculfed, as well as the opinions of
philofophers concerning the origin of the internal fire
which produces fo much mifehief: but the confideration
of thefe belongs to the general article Volcano, to
which the reader is referred.—The fate of Catania and
Hybla, which have often been deftroyed by eruptions,
falls to be mentioned under thefe two words.
iETOLARCHA, in Grecian antiquity, the prin¬
cipal magiftrate or governor of the iEtolians.
AFER (Domitius), born at Nifmes, a famous orator
underTibeiiusandthe threefucceedingemperors. Quin¬
tilian makes frequent mention of him, and commends
his pleadings. But he difgraced his talents, by turn-
ning informer againft fome of the moft diftinguifhed
perlonages in Rome. He died A. D. 59.
AFFECTION, in a general fenfe, implies an at¬
tribute infeparable from its fubjetft. Thus magnitude,
-r .figure, weight, &e. are affe&ions of all bodies; and
Phihfophy ^ove, ^ear’ hatred, &c. are affections of the mind *.
Part I. fee! i. Affection, fignifying a fettled bent of mind toward
iv. a particular being or thing, occupies a middle fpace
between difpofition on the one hand, and pajfion on the
fiiion and ot^er '!'• 11 ’s diftinguilhable from Difpofition, which
PaJJion. being a branch of one’s nature, originally, muft exift
before there can be an oportunity to exert it upon any
particular objeft; whereas Affeftion can never be ori¬
ginal, becaufe, having a fpecial relation to a particular
objeft, it cannot exift till the objeft have.once at leaft
been prefented. It is alfo diftinguilhable from Paffion,
which, depending on the real or ideal prefence of its
obje6I, vanifties With its objeCt: whereas Affedtion is a
lafting connection; and, like other connexions, fubfifts
even when we do not think of the perfon. A familiar
example will illuftrate this. There may be in one per-
fon’s mind a difpofition to gratitude, which, through
want of an objeX, happens never to be exerted; and I
which therefore is never difeovered even by the perfon
himfelf. Another, who has the fame difpofition, meets
with a kindly office that makes him grateful to his bene-
faftor: An intimate connexion is formed between them,
termed affeElion; which, like other connexions, has a
permanent exiftence, though not always in view. The
affeXion, for the moft part, lies dormant, till an oppor¬
tunity offer for exerting it: in that circumftance, it is
converted into paffion of gratitude; and the opportu¬
nity is eagerly feized of teftifying gratitude in the
warmeft manner.
Affection, among phyficians, fignifies the fame
as difeafe. Thus the hyfteric affeftion is the fame with
the hyfteric difeafe.
Affections andPajfions, (non-naturals.) See Me¬
dicine, n° 153,
AFFEERERS, or Affeerors, in law, perfons
appointed in court-leets, courts-baron, &c. to fettle,
upon oath, the fines to be impofed upon thofe who
have been guilty of faults arbitrarily punilhable.
AFFETUOSO, or Con Affetto, in the Italian
mufic, intimates that the part to which it is added ought
to be played in a tender moving way, and cenfequentiy
rather flow than faft.
AFFIANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plighting
of troth between a man and woman to marry each other.
AFFIDAVIT, fignifies an oath in writing, fworn
before fome perfon who is authorifed to take the fame.
AFFINITY, among civilians, implies a relation con-
traXed by marriage; in contradiftinXion to confangui-
nity, or relation by blood.—Affinity does not found
any real kinftiip; it is no more than a kind of fiXion,
introduced On account of the clofe relation between huf-
band and wife. It is even faid to ceafe, when the caufe
of it ceafes: hence a woman who is not capable of be¬
ing a witnefs for her hufband’s brother during his life¬
time, is allowed for a witnefs when a widow, by rea-
fon the affinity is diffolved. Yet with regard to the
contraXing marriage, affinity is not diffolved by death,
though it be in every thing elfe.
Affinity, is alfo ufedto denote conformity or agree¬
ment: Thus we fay, the affinity of languages, the af¬
finity of words, the affinity of founds, &c.
Affinity, in chemiftry, implies that natural im-
pulfe or attraXion which various bodies exert towards
each other. See Chemistry, n° 15, 27, 64.
AFFIRMATION, in logic, the affertingthe truth
of any propofition.
Affirmation, in law, denotes an indulgence allow¬
ed to the people called Quakers; who, in cafes where
an oath is required from others, may make a folemn af¬
firmation that what they fay is true; and if they make
a falfe affirmation, they are fubjeX to the penalties of
perjury. But this relates only to oaths taken to the go¬
vernment, and on civil occafions; for Quakers are
not permitted to give their teftimony in any criminal
cafe, &e.
Affirmation, is alfo ufed for the ratifying or con¬
firming the fentence or decree of fome inferior court;
thus we fay, the Houfe of Lords affirmed the decree
of the lord chancellor, or the decree of the lords of fef-
Lon.
AffifHon
Affirmation.
AFFLATUS,
A F R [ 109 ] A F R
Afflatus AFFLATUS, literally denotes a blaft of wind,
\frica breath, or vapour, ftriking with,force againft another
 ! body. The word is Latin, formed from ad to, and /for<?
to blow. Naturalitls fometimes fpeak of the afflatus
of ferpents. Tully ufes the word, figuratively, for a
divine infpiration ; in which fenfe, he afcribes all great
and eminent accomplifliments to a divine afflatus. The
Pythian prieftefs being placed on a tripod or perforated
ftool, over a hollow cave, received the divine afflatus,
as a late author expreffes it, in her belly ; and being
thus infpired, fell into agitations, like a phrenetic;
during which, file pronounced, in hollow groans and
broken fentences, the will of the deity. This afflatus
is fuppofed, by fome, to have been a fubterraneous
fume, or exhalation, wherewith the prieftefs was lite¬
rally infpired. Accordingly, it had the effects of a
real phyfical difeafe ; the paroxyfm of which was fo
vehement, that Plutarch obferves it fometimes proved
mortal. Van Dale fuppofes the pretended eethufiafm of
the Pythia to have arifen from the fumes of aromatics.
AFFRAY, or Affrayment, inlaw, formerly fig-
nified the crime of affrighting other perfons, by ap¬
pearing in unufual armour, brandiihing a weapon, &c.
but, at prefent, affray denotes a Ikirinilh or fight be¬
tween two or more.
AFFRONTEE, in heraldry, an appellation given
to animals facing one another on an efcutcheon; a kind
of bearing which is otherwife called confrcntee, and
ftands oppofed to adoffee.
AFRANIUS, a Latin poet, who wrote comedies
in imitation of Menander, commended by Tully and
Quintilian : he lived in the 170th olympiad.
AFRICA (according to Bochart, from a Punic
word, fignifying Ears of Corn) one of the four great
divifions, by the moderns called quarters, of the world,
and one of the three called by the Greeks 'ax^pot, or
continents. By them it was alfo called Libya.
Africa lies fouth of Europe, and weft of Afia. It is
bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, which fe-
parates it from the former; on the north-eaft, by the
Red-fea which divides it from Afia, and to which it is
attached by a neck of land called the IJihmus of Suez,
about 60 miles over, feparating the Mediterranean from
the Red-fea. On the weft, fouth, and eaft, it is boun¬
ded by the main ocean: fo that it is properly a vaft
peninfula, bearing fome faint refemblance of a pyra¬
mid, the bafe of which is the northern part, running a-
long the ftiores of the Mediterranean ; and the top of
the pyramid is the moft foutherly point, called the Cape
of Good Hope. Its greateft length from north to fouth is
4300 miles, and its greateft breadth from eaft to weft
is 3500 miles; reaching from Lat. 370 N. to 350 S.
and from Long. 170 W. to 50° E.
Though the greateft part of this continent hath been
in all ages unknown both to the Europeans and Afia-
tics, itsfituation is more favourable than either Europe
or Afia for maintaining an intercourfe with other na¬
tions. It ftands, as it were, in the centre of the three
other quarters of the globe ; and has thereby a much
nearer communication with Europe, Afia, and Ame¬
rica, than any one of thefe has with another. For, (1.)
It is oppofite to Europe in the Mediterranean, for al-
moft 1000 miles in a line from eaft to weft; the dif-
tance feldom 100 miles, never 100 leagues, and fome¬
times not above 20 leagues. (2.) It is oppofite to
Afia for all the length of the Red-fea, the diftance fome- ATr
times not exceeding five leagues, feldom fifty (3^ Its
coaft for the length of about 2000 miles lies oppofite
to America at the diftance of, from 500 to 700 leagues,
including the iflands: whereas America, unlefs where
it may be a terra incognita, is no where nearer Europe
than 1000 leagues; and Afia, than 2500.
As the equator divides this continent almoft in the
middle, the far greateft part of it is within the tro¬
pics; and of confequence the heat in fome places is al¬
moft infupportable by Europeans, it being there great¬
ly increafed by vaft deferts of burning fand.—It can¬
not be doubted, however, that, were the country well
cultivated, it would be extremely fertile; and would
produce iff great abundance not only the neceffaries,
but alfo the luxuries, of life. It has been afferted, that
the fugars of Barbadoes and Jamaica, as alfo the gin¬
ger, cotton, rice, pepper, pimento, cocoa, indigo,
&c. of thefe iflands, would thrive in Africa to as much
perfection as where they are now produced. Nor can
it be doubted, that the Eaft-Indian fpices, the tea of
China and Japan, the coffee of Mocha, &c. would all
thrive in fome parts of the African coaft ; as this con¬
tinent has, the advantage of feeling no cold, the cli¬
mate being either very warm or very temperate.
Whatever may be the cafe with the internal parts of
Africa, it is certain that its coafts are well watered
with many very confiderable rivers. The Nile and the
Niger may be reckoned among the largeft in any part
of the world, America excepted. The firft difeharges
itfelf into the Mediterranean, after a prodigious courfe
from its fource in Abyffinia. The origin neither of
the Nile, nor of the Niger, is certainly known; but that
of the latter is fuppofed to run through a traft of land
little lefs than 3000 miles. Both thefe rivers annually
overflow their banks, fertilizing by that means the
countries through which they pafs. The Gambia and
Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger. Many
vaft ridges of mountains alfo run through different parts
of this continent; but their extent is very little known.
Some of the moft remarkable are, (1.) Thofe called
Atlas, lying between the 20th and 25th degree of north
latitude, and fuppofed almoft to divide the continent
from eaft to weft. (2.) The mountains of the moon, fo
called on account of their great height; fuppofed to
be the boundaries between Abyffinia and fome of the
interior kingdoms. (3.) The mountains of Sierra
Leona, fo called on account of their abounding with
lions, and likewife fuppofed to be the boundaries of
fome of the nations. (4.) Thofe called by the an¬
cients the mountains of God, on account of their be¬
ing fubjeft to perpetual thunder and lightning. Of all
thefe, however, little more is known than their names.
To what we have already faid concerning the pro¬
duce of Africa, we may add, that no part of the world
abounds with gold and filver in a greater degree. Here
alfo are a prodigious number of elephants ; and it is
furprifing, that neither the ancient nor modern Euro¬
peans, notwithftanding their extravagant and infatia-
ble thirft after gold and filver, ftiould have endeavoured
to eftablilh themfelves effectually in a country much
nearer to them than either America or the Eaft Indies;
and where the objects of their defire are found in e-
qual, if not -greater, plenty.
Next to gold and filver, copper is the moft valuable
metal.
A F R [ i
metal; and on this continent is found in great plenty,
infomuch that the mountains of Atlas above mentioned
are faid all to be compofed of copper ore. In fhort,
Africa, though a full quarter of the globe, ftored with
an inexhauftable treafure, and capable of producing al-
moft every neceffary, conveniency, and luxury of life,
within itfelf, feems to be utterly neglefted both by its
own inhabitants and all other nations: the former,
being in a favage ftate, are incapable of enjoying
the bleifings offered them by nature; and the latter
taking no farther notice of the inhabitants, or their
land, than to obtain at the eafieft rate what they pro¬
cure with as little trouble as poffible, or to carry them
off fbr flaves to their plantations in America.
Only a fmall part of this continent was known to
the ancients, viz. the kingdom of Egypt, and the nor¬
thern coafl, comprehending little more than what is
now known by the name of Barbary. It was divided
into Africa Propria, and Africa Interior. Africa Pro¬
pria comprehended only the Carthaginian temtories.
Africa Interior comprehended all other nations to the
fonthward of thefe territories, or thofe at a greater di-
ftanCe from Rome. The only kingdoms, however,
with which the Romans had any connection,^ were the
Numidians, the Mauritanians, and the Gsetuli. All
thefe, as well as Egypt, were fwallowed up by that
enormous power, and reduced to the condition of Ro¬
man provinces. But the Romans never feem to have
penetrated beyond the tropic of cancer. There appears,
indeed, to have been fome intercourfe between them
and the Ethiopians: but the latter always preferred
their liberty; and we find their queen Candace men¬
tioned in the times of the apoftles, when the Roman
power was at its higheft pitch.
Between the tropic of cancer and the equinoftial
line, a multitude of favage nations were fuppofed to
have their refidence, known by the names of Meland-
gaetuli, Nigritas, Blemmyes, Dolopes, Aftacuri, Lo-
tophagi, Ichthyophagi, Elephantophagi,, &c. (which
are taken notice of, as well as the others already men¬
tioned, under their proper names) ; but that Africa
was a peninfula, feems to have been totally unknown
both to the Europeans afid Afiatics for many ages.—
It is probable indeed, that fome of the Pfyenicians, and
their offspring the Carthaginians, were not fo ignorant;
as they carried navigation to a muck greater height
than either the Greeks or Romans : but their difcove-
ries were all concealed with the greateft care, left other
nations fhould reap the benefit of them; and accord¬
ingly we can now find no authentic accounts concern¬
ing them. The navigation round Africa, in particular,
is recorded by the Greek and Roman writers rather as
a ftrange amufing tale than as a real tranfaftion ; and
as neither the progrefs of the Phenician and Carthagi¬
nian difcoveries, nor the extent of their navigation, were
communicated to the reft of mankind, all memorials of
their extraordinary flcill in naval affairs feem in a great
meafure to have perifhed, when the maritime power of
the former was annihilated by Alexander’s conqueft of
Tyre, and the empire of the latter was overturned by
the Romans.
That the peninfula of Africa, however, was in
reality failed round by the Phenicians, we have on
indifputable authority; for fome of that nation un¬
dertook the voyage, at the command of Necho king
io ] A F R
of Egypt, about 604 years before the Chriftian sera.
They failed from a port in the Red-fea, and after
three years returned by the Mediterranean: and the
very objections that were made to the veracity of their
accounts at that time, are unanfwerable proofs to us
that this voyage was really accomplifhed. They pre¬
tended, that, having failed for fome time, the fun be¬
came more and more vertical, after which he appeared
in the north, and feemed to recede from them: that
as they returned, the fun gradually feemed to move
fouthwards ; and, after becoming vertical once more,
appeared then in the fouth fide of them as before they
fet out. This, which we know muftcertainly have been
the cafe, was deemed incredible at that time, and uni-
verfal ignorance concerning the extent of this continent
prevailed till the 15th century. The firft attempts to¬
wards attaining a knowledge of Africa was made by
the Portuguefe in 1412. Notwithftanding their vici¬
nity, they had never ventured beyond CapeiVoK, fituated
in about N. lat. 270.: it had received its name from a
fuppofed impofiibility of paffing it. This year they
proceeded 160 miles farther, to Cape Bojador; which
ftretching a confiderable way into the Atlantic ocean,
with rocky clifts, appeared fo dreadful to the naviga¬
tors, that they returned without any attempt to pafs
it. In an attempt to double this formidable cape,
they difcovered the Madeira iflands in 1419: but Cape
Bojador continued to be the boundary of their conti¬
nental difcoveries till 1433 ; when they penetrated
within the tropics, and in a few years difcovered the
river Senegal, Cape de Verd, and the iflands which lie
off that promontory. In 1449, the weftern iflands,
called the Azores, were difcovered : and in 1471, they
firft penetrated beyond the line ; and were furprifed to
find, that the torrid zone, contrary to the opinion of
the ancients, who imagined it to be burnt up with
heat, was not only habitable, but fertile and populous.
In 1484, they proceeded 1500 miles beyond the line ;
fo that they began to entertain hopes of finding that
way a paffage to the Eaft Indies : and two years after¬
wards, the Cape of Good Hope was difcovered by Bar¬
tholomew de Diaa; but it was not till the year 1497,
that the Portuguefe, under Vafquez de Gama, actually
doubled this cape, and difcovercd the true ihape of the
Continent. Thus the coafts of Africa were made per-
fedtly known; and probably the knowledge concerning
its interior parts would have been much greater than it
is, had not the general attention been called off from
this continent by the difcovery of America in 1492.
The Romans for a long time maintained their power
in Africa: but in the year 426, Bonifacius, fupreme
ovefhor of all the Roman dominions in this quarter,
eing compelled to revolt by the treachery of another
general called Aetius, and finding himfelf unable to
contend with the whole ftrength of the Roman em¬
pire, called in Genferic king o\ the Vandals to his aid;
who thereupon abandoned the provinces he had feized
in Europe, and paffed over into Africa. Bonifacius,
however, being foon after reconciled to his empreis
Placidia, endeavoured in vain to perfuade the Vandals
to retire. Hereupon a war enfued, in which the bar¬
barians proved victorious, and quickly over-ran all the
Roman provinces in Africa. In the year 435, a peace
was concluded; when Numidia and fome other coun¬
tries were ceded to the Vandals, who foon after feized
all
A F R [ i
Africa‘ all tlie reft. Thefe barbarians did not long enjoy their
' ill-gotten pofl'effions : for, about the year 533, Be-
lifarius drove them out, annexing the provinces to
the eaftern empire ; and in 647, the Saracens, having
conquered Mefopotamia, Egypt (which anciently was
not included in the meaning of the word Africa.,)
Phoenicia, Arabia, and Paleftine, broke like a torrent
into Africa, which they quickly fubdued. Their vaft
empire being in 936 divided into feven kingdoms, the
African ftates retained their independency long after
the others were fubdued by the Turks : but in the be¬
ginning of the 16th century, being afraid of falling un¬
der the yoke of Spain, they invited the Turks to their
affiftance ; who firft protefted, and then enflaved, them.
They Hill continue in a kind of dependence on the Ot¬
toman empire. They are not, however, properly fpeak-
ing, the fubjefts of the grand Signior, but call him their
proteflor, paying him an annual tribute. On the coafts,
the natives are ahnoft all addifted to piracy; and with
fuch fuccefs have they carried on their employment,
that the greateft powers in Europe are become their
tributaries, in order to procure liberty to trade on the
Mediterranean.
Concerning even thefe ftates, which are neareft to
Europe, very little is known ; but the interior nations
are fcarce known by name; nor do almoft any two of
the moft learned moderns agree in their divifion of A-
frica into kingdoms; and'the reafon is, that no travel¬
ler hath ever penetrated into thefe inhofpitable regions.
In the year 1774, indeed, an account appeared in our
news-papers and magazines, of a Mr Bruce, who had
entered Abyfiinia, probably the ancient Ethiopia,
where he remained upwards of two years ; after which
he found means to return, bringing along with him
many great curiofities : but this gentleman, contrary
to the general difpofition of travellers, could never be
( prevailed upon to make his difcoveries public, and dif-
claimed what was publifhed by others concerning his
travels ; and indeed none of thofe vague accounts con¬
tained any thing very Angular, except the horrible cuf-
tom afcribed to the Abyflinians of eating living ani¬
mals ; which, however problematical, we fubjoin in the
note f. According to the beft accounts we have been
able to procure concerning thofe regions of Africa ly¬
ing beyond Egypt and Barbary, they are divided in
the following manner^ On the weftern coaft, to the fouth
of Barbary, lie the kingdoms of Bildulgerid, Zaara,
Negroland, Loango, Congo, Angola, Benguela, and
Terra de Natal. On the eaftern coaft beyond Egypt,
are thofe of Nubia, Adel, Ajan, Zanguebar, (between
thefe two a huge defert is interpofed), Monomatapa,
and Sofola. In the interior parts, the kingdoms of
Lower Ethiopia, Abex, Monemuge, and Matanan, are
made mention of. The fouthermoft part, called Cafra-
ria, is well known for the habitation of the Hottentots,
the moft degenerate of all the human fpecies.
The chief trade carried on by the Europeans with
ji ] AFT
the more favage African nations, is the purchafing, or Africa
carrying off by force when it is in their power, flaves
for their colonies in other countries; and becaufe they t>jrth_
have been remarkably fuccefsful in this iniquitous trade,
it hath been gravely afferted, that thefe barbafous na¬
tions are defcended from Canaan the fon of Ham,
whom Noah curfed, and prophefied that he ftiould be a
fervant of fervants to his brethren : but, not to infift
on the abfurdity of fuppofing the villany of any na¬
tion a punifhment fentfrom God, it may juftly be que-
ftioned whether the term “ fervant of fervants” will
not apply to ourfelves rather than to them. Certain it
is, that the interior parts of Africa have never been
conquered by any nation. A fet of lawlefs banditti,
pretending to be defcended from other vagabonds driven
out of Troy by the Greeks, enflaved the greateft part
of the known world, and this ifland among the reft.
After a number of ages, the Romans were driven out
by other banditti, and thefe again by others ; fo that
for a fpace of time much longer than the flave-trade
hath yet exifted, the European and moft Afiatic na¬
tions were fervants to thofe who had themfelves been
accounted the moft contemptible of the human race ;
but during all this time the Africans enjoyed liberty,
and do ftill enjoy it, notwithftanding the wicked ad¬
vantages the Europeans take of the barbarifm of the
negroes to make them fell one anotker. No European
nation hath ever made a nation of negroes yield up
their country to them, or pay them an annual tribute;
nor have they even been able to introduce their cuf-
toms among them ; fo that, on the whole, inftead of
being the greateft flaves, we cannot help thinking the
barbarous nations in Africa are the only people on
earth that have never yet been enfiaved by others.—
The moft probable conjectures concerning the peo¬
pling, &c. of thofe kingdoms of Africa concerning which
we have any credible accounts, are mentioned under
their proper names, as they occur in the order of the
alphabet.
AFRICAN Company, a fociety of merchants, efta-
bliflied by King Charles II. for trading to Africa;
which trade is now laid open to all his majefty’s fub-
jeCts, paying 10 per cent, for maintaining the forts.
AFRICANUS (Julius), an excellent hiftorian of the
third century, the author of a chronicle which was
greatly efteemed, and in which he reckons 5500 years
from the creation of the world to Julius Csefar. This
work, of which we have now no mite than what is to
be found in Eufebius, ended at the 221st year of the
vulgar sera. Africanus alfo wrote a letter to Origen
on the hiftory of Sufanna, which he reckoned fuppo-
fititious ; and we have ftill a letter of his to Ariftides,
in which he reconciles the feeming contradictions in
the two genealogies of Chrift recorded by St Matthew
and St Luke.
AFT, in the fea-language, the fame with abaft.
AFTER-BIRTH, in midwifery, fignifies the mem-
hranes
t “ Not fatisfied (fay thefe accounts) with devouring raw flefh, their cuftom is to cut collops from live animals,
which they tear to pieces with their teeth while warm and palpitating with vital motion. Theflelh of an animalafteritis
dead they account quite unfavory. The moft expert butcher among them is be who can cut moft flefl) from a beaft be¬
fore it is deprived of its life ; for doing which the utmoft attention is neceflary to avoid the great arteries, or thofe parts
the deftrinftion of which will foon bring on death. A company of Abyflinians at dinner is a horrible fpedtacle: they
are feated, each with a cake of flour in his hand ; live cattle are brought to the door, and the inhuman butcher cuts
morfels off them, which are inftantly carried in to'the company, who lay them upon their cakes, and eat them direct¬
ly, all bathed in the tepid blood of the miferable animals, whofe lowings and groanings, through violence of angufth,,
ferve for a dinner-bell, ormufic, to the Ihocking barbarians.”
A G A [ i
After- branes which furround theinfant in the womb, generally
called the fecundines.
Asnmem- AFTER-MATH, in hufbandry, fignifies the grafs
non. which fprings or grows up after mowing.
——  AFTER-NOON, the latter half of the artificial day,
or that fpace between noon and night.
AFTER-PAINS, in midwifery, exceffive pains felt
in the groin, loins, &c. after the woman is delivered.
AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees,
are thofe which leave the hive fome time after the firft
has fwarmed. See Apis.
AFWESTAD, a large copper-work belonging to
the crown of Sweden, vmich lies on the Dala, in the
province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden. It looks like a
town, and has its own church. Here they make cop¬
per plates; and have a mint for fmall filver coin, as well
as a royal poft-houfe. W. Long. 14.10. N. Lat.58.10.
AGA, in the Turkiih language, fignifies a great lord
or commander. Hence the Aga of the Janiffaries is
the commander in chief of that corps; as the general
of horfe is denominated fpahiclar aga. The aga of
the janiffaries is an officer of great importance. He is
the only perfon who is allowed to appear before the
Grand Signior without his arms acrofs his breaft in the
pofture of a llayg. Eunuchs at. Conftantinople are in
poffeffion of moft of the principal polls of the feraglio:
The title aga is given to them all, whether in employ¬
ment or out. We find alfo agas in other countries.
The chief officers under the Khan of Tartary are called
by this name. And among the Algerines, we read
of agas ehofen from among the boluk lajhis' (the firft
rank of military officers), and fent to govern in chief
the towns and garrifons of that ftate. The aga of Al¬
giers is the prefident of the divan, or fenate. For fome
years, the aga was the fupreme officer j and governed
the ftate in the place of bafhaw, whole power dwindled
to a lhadow. But the foldiery rifing againft the boluk
lajhis, or agas, maffacred moft of them, and transfer¬
red the fovereign power to the calif, with the title of
Dey, or King.
AGADES, a kingdom and city of Negroland in A-
frica. It lies nearly under the tropic of Cancer, be¬
tween Gubur and Cano. The town Hands on a river
that falls into the Niger; it is walled, and the king’s
palace is in the midft of it. The king has a re¬
tinue, who ferve as a guard. The inhabitants are
not fo black as -other Negroes, and confift of mer¬
chants and artificers. Thofe that inhabit the fields are
fhepherds or herdfmen, whofe cottages are made of
boughs, and are carried about from place to place on
the back of oxen. They are fixed on the fpot of ground
where they intend to feed their cattle. The houfes in
the city are ftately, and built after the Barbary fafhion.
This kingdom was, and be may ftill, tributary to the
king of Tombut. It is well watered; and there is great
plenty of grafs, cattle, fenna, and manna. The pre¬
vailing religion is the Mahometan, but very loofely
profeffed. N. Lat. 26. 10. E. Long. 9. 10.
AGALOCHUM. See Materia M edica, n° 75.
AGALMATA, in antiquity, a term originally ufed
to fignify any kind of ornaments in a temple; but after¬
wards for the ftatues only, as being moft confpicuous.
AGAMEMNON, the fon of Atreus by Erope, was
captain-general of the Trojan expedition. It was fore¬
told to him by Caflandra, that his wife Clytemneftra
12 ] AGA
would be his death : yet he returned to her; and ac- Aganip.
cordingly was llain by iEgifthus, who had gained up- P1^6*
on his wife in his abfence, and by her means got the Agaricus.
government into his own hands.  
AGANIPPIDES, in ancient poetry, a defignation
given to the mufes, from a fountain of mount Helicon
called Aganippe.
AGANIPPE, in antiquity, a fountain of Bceotia
at mount Helicon, on the borders between Phocis and
Bceotia, facred to the' mufes, and running into the river
Permefleus; (Pliny, Paufanias.) Ovid feems to make
Aganippe and Hippocrene the fame. Solinus more truly
diftinguiffies them, and afcribes the blending them to
poetical licenfe.
AGAPE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the love-feaft, or
feaftof charity, in ufe among the primitive Chriftians;
when a liberal contribution was piade by the rich to
feed the poor. The word is Greek, and fignifies love.—
St Chryfoftom gives the following account; of this feaft,
which he derives from the apoftolical 'practice. He
fays, “ the firft Chriftians had all things in common,
as we read in the A.6ls of the Apbftles; but when that
equality of pofieffions ceafed, as it did even in the A-
poftles time, the agape, or love-feaft, was fubftituted
in the room of it. Upon certain days, after partaking
of the Lord’s fupper, they met at a common feaft; the
rich bringing provifions, and the poor who had nothing
being invited.” It was always attended with receiving
the holyfacrament; but there is fome difference between
the ancient and modern interpreters as to the circum-
ftance of time, viz. Whether this feaft was held before
or after the communion. St Chryfoftom is of the lat¬
ter opinion; the learned Dr Cave of the former.—Thefe
love-feafts, during the three firft centuries, were held
in the church; but at length fuch abufes were com¬
mitted at them, that the councils of Laodicea and Car¬
thage prohibited the practice for the future.
AGAPETJE, in church-hiftory, a name given to
thofe young maidens who frequented the company of
ecclefiaftics out of a motive of piety and charity. This
practice afterwards degenerated into an occafion of li-
bertinifm, infomuch that agapetee became a term of re¬
proach.
AGARD (Arthur), a learned Engliffi antiquarian,
born at Tofton in Derbyffiire in the year 1540. His
fondnefs for Engliffi antiquities induced him to make
many large colle&ions; and his office as deputy pham-
berlain of the exchequer, which he held 45 years, gave
him great opportunities of acquiring flcill in that ftudy.
Similarity of tafte brought him acquainted with Sir
Robert Cotton, and other learned men, who affociated
themfelves under the name of The Society of Antiquarians,
of which fociety Mr Agard was a confpicuous member.
He made the doomfday-book his peculiar ftudy; and
compofed a work purpofely to explain it, under the title
of Traflatus de ufu et ohfcurioribus verbis libride Do??ief~
day: he alfo compiled a book for the fervice of his fuc-
cefibrs in office, which he depofited with the officers
of the king’s receipt, as a proper index for fucceeding
officers. All the reft of his collections, containing at
leaft twenty volumes, he bequeathed to Sir Rober Cot¬
ton ; and died in 1615.
AGARICUS, or Mushroom, a genus of the order
of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
Species. Botanical writers enumerate 55 fpecies be-
4 longing
Agaricas,
Mufhroom.
A G A [ ii
longing to this genus; of which the moil remarkable
are the following, i. The chantarellus, or champig¬
non mufhroom, has a turban-fhaped hat, rather flat;
with branched yellow gills running down the pillar; the
pillar fliort and naked, moftly of a pale yellow, but
fometimes of a deep and even faffron colour. They
are excellent food, and have a fine flavour. Of this fpe-
cies there are two varieties; one called the common, and
the other the_CK/>, mujhroom: thefe have the border of
the hat not circular, but running into angles; refle&ed
upwards, in form of an inverted cone, ordrinking-glafs;
yellow, and when full grown with a tinge of red; the
ftalk very fliort and thick. They are found in the mea¬
dows and paftures, and in woods. The French and Ita¬
lians eat them.—2. The variegatus, or variegated mufh-
room, has a very long variegated ftalk and broad hat.
It is of a finer flavour than the common muftiroom.—
3. The mufcarius, or reddifli muftiroom, has a large hat
almoft flat, either white, red, or crimfon, fometimes befet
with angular red warts; the gills white, flat, andinverfely
fpear-ftiaped; the pillar hollow, the cap fixed to the mid¬
dle of the pillar, limber, and hanging down. This fpe-
cies grows in paftures, and is faid to deftroy bugs effec¬
tually if the juice is rubbed upon the walls and bed-pofts.
The inhabitants of the north of Europe, whofe houfes
are greatly infefted with flies at the decline of fummer,
infufe it in milk, and fet it in their windows, and the
flies upon tailing the leaft drop are inftantly poifoned,
An infufion of common pepper in milk anfwers the
fame purpofe, but the flies through time become wife
enough not to tafte it; and though vaft numbers are at
firft deftroyed, it is impoflible to clear a houfe of thefe
infe&s by this means.—4. The campeftris, or common
muftiroom, has a fcaly, whitifti, and convex hat; the
gills of a brownilh red; the pillar cylindrical, above
the cap fmooth and white, below it alh-coloured. The
degree of convexity and colour of the gills of this mufti¬
room depend upon its age. At its, firft appearance it is
fmooth, and almoft globular; the edges of the hat prefs
upon the pillar; and the gills, which are then almoft
white, are covered with a white membrane extending
from the edge of the hat to the fummit of the pillar.
In this ftate it is called a button: by degrees it ex¬
pands, the membrane burfts, the edges of the hat re¬
move from the pillar, and the gills are expofed to view,
of a bright flefh colour; this, however, foon fades, and
finks at length into a dark brown or chocolate. The
hat now lofes its convexity, and becomes almoft. flat,
rough, and fi&ly. Of this fpecies there are feveral va¬
rieties ; particularly one with a broad hat, white above;
the gills very numerous, and of a pale red or flefli co¬
lour ; the ftalk ftiort, and pretty thick. It is found in
parks and lands that have been long unploughed, com¬
mons and poor lands, in paftures, and in woods. This
fpecies conftitutes one of the corner-ftones of modern
luxury; either dreffed in fubftance, or boiled up with
wine and fpices under the name of catchup. The feeds
are contained in the fubftance of the gills; each of
which is compofed of two layers, and betwixt thefe lay¬
ers are the feeds, which fall to the ground when ripe.
Some of them in their fall are catched upon the cup,
and detained on its woolly furface, where, by the aflift-
ance of a microfcope, they maybe eafily found.—5. The
viridis, or green muftiroom, is large, and of a whitifti
green ; the flelh is of a fine flavour. It grows in woods.
Vol. I.
3 ] A. G A
—6. The asruginofus or verdigrife mufliroom, is of a mo¬
derate fize, and covered with a mucus of a verdigrife
colour. It is only to be found in the garden belong¬
ing to the company of apothecaries at London, and m
St James’s park. It has alfo been obferved in a gravel-
pit in the middle of September.—7. The clypeatus, or
long-ftalked muftiroom, has an hemifpherical hat taper¬
ing to a point, and clammy; the pillar long, cylindrical,
and white; the gills white, and not concave ; dufted
with a fine powdery fubftance on each fide; the root
bulbous, long, and hooked at the end. It is found in
September, in woodlands and paftures. This fpecies
is thought to be poifonous ; and we have the following
account of the fymptoms produced by eating it, in
Dr Percival’s Effays. “ Robert Uftierwood, of Mid¬
dleton, near Manchefter, a ftrong healthy man, aged
70 years, early in the morning gathered and eat what
he fuppofed to be a muftiroom. He felt no fymptoms of
indifpofition, till five o’clock in the evening ; when, be¬
ing very thirfty, he drank near a quart of table-beer.
Soon afterwards he became univerfally fwoln, wasfick,
and in great agonies. A fevere vomiting and purging
fucceeded, with violent cramps in his legs and thighs.
He difcharged feveral pieces of the fungus, but with
little or no relief. His pains and evacuations continued,
almoft without intermiffion, till the next night; when
he fell into a found fleep, and awaked in the morning
perfectly eafy, and free from complaint.”—Many of
the different fpecies of this genus grow on cows or
horfes dung, on dunghills, on rotten wood, in cel¬
lars, or’ on the trunks of trees; of which the molt
remarkable is, 8. The quercinus, or agaric of the
oak. This is of various fizes, fometimes not ex¬
ceeding the bignefs of the fill, fometimes as large as a
man’s head. It takes at leaft an year or two to grow
to its full fize. There are two kinds of it, called by
the ancients mas and femina: the male is dark colour¬
ed, hard, heavy, and woody; it is fometimes ufed by
the dyers, as an ingredient in the black dye. The fe¬
male, or officinal agaric, is covered with a hard blackilh
rind like the other; but when the cortical part is pared
off, the internal fubftance appears quite white ; by age
it changes a little yellowilh. It ftiould be very light,
porous, eafy to break, and free from any hard pieces
or compafil veins. It taftes at firft fweetifh in the mouth,
but prefently becomes very bitter and naufeous. It is
an article in the Materia Medica *; but deferves the
name of a poifon, rather than of a medicine.
Culture. Only the efculent kinds of mulhrooms are
cultivated; and the following method is ufed by the
gardeners who raife them for fale.—If the young mufn-
rooms cannot be procured from gardens, they mull be
looked for in rich paftures during the months of Au-
guft and September: the ground muft be opened about
their roots, where it is frequently found full of fmall
white knots; which are the off-fets, or young mufti-
rooms. Thefe muft be carefully gathered in lumps,
with the earth about them : but as this fpawn cannot
be found in the pafture, except at that feafon when the
muftirooms are naturally produced, it may be fearched
for at any time in old dung-hills, efpecially where there
has been much litter, and it hath not been penetrated
by wet fo as to rot: it may alfo be found very often
in old hot-beds ; or it may be procured by mixing
fome long dung from the liable, which has not been
P thrown
AgaricuS,
Mufhroom.
* See Mate¬
ria Medica,
n° 76.
t
A G A [ i
Agaricus, thrown on a heap to ferment, with ftrong earth, and
Mulhroom Put unc^er cover to prevent wet getting to it. The
 {pawn commonly appears in about two months after
the mixture is made ; but proportionably fooner the
more effeftually the air is excluded, provided the mix¬
ture is not kept fo clofe as to heat. Old thatch, or
litter which has lain long abroad fo as not to ferment,
is the belt covering. The fpawn has the appearance
of white mould fhooting out into long Airings, by which
it may be eafily known wherever it is met with.—The
beds for receiving the fpawn are now to be prepared.
Thefe Aiould be made of dung in which there is plenty
of litter, but which Ihould not be thrown on a heap to
ferment: that dung which has lain fpread abroad for a
month or longer, is bed. The beds Ihould be made on
dry ground, and the dung laid on the furface; the
width at the bottom Ihould be two and a half or three
feet, the length in proportion to the quantity of mulh-
rooms defired ; then lay the dung about a foot thick,
covering it with ftrong earth about four inches deep.
Upon this lay more dung, about 10 inches thick; then
another layer of earth, ft ill drawing in the fides of the
bed,fo as to form it like the roof of a houfe; which may
be done by three layers of dung, and as many of earth.
When the bed is finilhed, it mull be covered with litter
or old thatch, both to prevent its dying too fall, and
to keep out wet. In this fituation it ought to remain
eight or ten days, when it will be in a proper tempe¬
rature to receive the fpawn ; for this is deftroyed by
too much heat; though, before planting, it may be kept
very dry, not only without detriment, but with con-
fiderable advantage.—The bed being in a proper tem¬
perature for the fpawn, the covering of littej-ftiould be
taken off, and the fides of the bed fmoothed; then a
covering of light rich earth, about an inch thick,
fhould be laid all over the bed ; but this ftiould not be
wet. Upon this the fpawn muft be thruft, laying the
lumps two or three inches afunder : then gently cover
this with the fame light earth, above half an inch
thick; and put the covering of litter over the bed, lay¬
ing it fo thick as to keep out wet, and prevent the
bed from drying. In fpring or autumn the muflirooms
will begin to appear, perhaps in a month after making;
but when the beds are made in fummer or winter, they
are much longer before they produce. In any feafon,
however, they ought not to be haftily deftroyed ; fince
muftiroom-beds have been known to produce very
plentifully, even after the fpawn has lain in them five
or fix months. When the beds are deftroyed, the
fpawn ftiould be carefully preferved, and laid up in a
dry place, at leaft five or fix weeks before it is again
planted.—The difficulty of managing muftiroom-beds
is, to keep them always in a proper degree of moifture.
In the fummer feafon they may be uncovered to re¬
ceive gentle fhowers of rain at proper times; and in
long dry feafons the beds fliould now and then be
watered, but much wet ought by no means to be fuf-
fered to come to them. During the winter feafon they
muft be kept as dry as poffible, and fo clofely covered
as to keep out cold. In frofty, or very cold weather,
if feme warm litter, fhaken out of a dung-heap, is laid
on, the growth of the muftirooms will be promoted :
but betwixt this and the bed, a covering of dry litter
muft be interpofed ; which ftiould be renewed as it de¬
cays ; and, as the cold increafes, the covering muft be
14 ] A G A
thickened. By attending to thefe direftions, plenty Agaricus,
of muftirooms may be produced all the year round. Mu(h°rrootT|
One bed will continue good for many months. ‘
In the Ephemerides of the Curious we find mention
made of a ftone, called by Dr John George Wolcka-
merus, who faw one in Italy, Lapis Lyncurius, which ne¬
ver ceafes to produce in a few days muftirooms of an ex¬
cellent flavour by the moll Ample and eafy procefs ima¬
ginable. “ It is (fays he) of the bignefs of an ox’s head,
rough and urteven on its furface, and on which alfo are
perceived fome clefts and crevices. It is black in fome
parts, and in others of a lighter and greyilh colour.
Internally it is porous, and nearly of the nature of the
pumice-ftone, but much heavier; and it contains a
fmall piece of flint, which is fo incorporated with it as
to appear to have been formed at the fame time the
ftone itfelf received its form. This gives room to judge,
that thofe ftones have been produced by a fat and vifeid
juice, which has the property of indurating whatever
matter it filtrates into. The ftone here fpoken of, when
it has been lightly covered with earth, and fprinkled
with warm water, produces muftirooms of an exquifite
flavour,- which are ufually round, fometimes oval, and
whofe borders, by their inflexions and different curvi-
ties, reprefent in fome meafure human ears. The prin¬
cipal colour of thefe muftirooms is fometimes yellowilh,
and fometimes of a bright purple; but they are always
diffeminated with different fpots, of a deep orange co¬
lour, or red brown ; and when thefe fpots are recent,
and ftill in full bloom, they produce a very agreeable
effeft to the fight. But what appears admirable is,
that the part of the ftalk which remains adhering to the
ftone, when the mulhroom has been feparated from it,
grows gradually hard, and petrifies in time, fo that.it
teems that this fungites reftores to the ftone the nutri¬
tive juice it received from k, and that it thus contri¬
butes to its increafe.” John Baptift Porta pretends,
that this ftone is found in feveral pa'rts of Italy; and that
it is not only to be met with at Naples, taken out of
mount Vefuvius; but alfo on mount Pantherico, in the
principality of Arellino ; on mount Garganus, in Apu¬
lia; and on the fummit of fome other very high moun- '
tains. He adds, that the muflirooms which grow on
tbofe forts of ttones, and are ufually called fungi lyncu-
rii, have the property of diffolving and breaking the
ftone of the kidneys and bladder; and that, for this
purpofe, nothing more is required than to dry them in
the ftiade, and being reduced to powder, to make the
patient, falling, take a fufficient quantity*of this pow¬
der, in a glafs of white-wine, which will fo cleanfe the
excretory dufts of the urine, that no ftones will ever
after be collefted in them. As to the form of thofe
muftirooms, their root is ftony, uneven, divided accord¬
ing to its longitudinal diredlion, and compofed of fi¬
bres as fine as hairs, interwoven one with another.
Their form on firft (hooting out refembles a fmall blad¬
der fcarce then larger than the bud of a vine; and, if in
this ftate they are fqueezed between the fingers, an a-
queous fubacid liquor iffues out. When they are at
their full growth, their pedicle is of a finger’s length,
larger at top than at bottom, and becomes infenlibly
flenderer in proportion as it is nearer the earth. Thefe
muftirooms are alfo formed in an umbella, and variega¬
ted with an infinity of little fpecks fituate very near one
another. They are fmooth and even on the upper part.
-Agaric,
Agate.
* See Den-
drachates.
f See Phaf-
fachates.
| See Htema-
chates.
U See Sarda-
chates.
§ See Coral-
io-ochaku
A G A [ 115 ] A G A
but underneath leafy like the common mufhrooms, low-wax, called cerachates by the ancients; the other Agate.
_ Their tafte is likewife very agreeable, and the fick are a very elegant ftone, of a yellow ground, variegated "
not debarred eating of them when they have been drefs- with white, black, and green, called the leonina, and
ed in a proper manner. Curiofity having prompted leonteferes f, by the ancients. t See Leon-
fome naturalifts and phyficians to fubmit thefe ftones to Laftly, Of the agates with a greeni/b ground, there teJereSm
a chemical analyfis, in order to be more competent is only one known fpecies^ called by the ancients jaf-
judges of the ufes. they might be put to in medicine, pachates %. \bate^^a’
there firft came forth, by diftillation, an infipid water. Of all thefe fpecies there are a great many varieties;
and afterwards a fpirituous liquor. The retort having fome of them having upon them natural reprefentations
been heated to a certain point, there arofe an oil, which of men and different kinds of animals, &c. Thefe re-
had nearly the fmell and tafte of that of guaiacum; prefentations are not confined to the agates whofe
and a very acrid fait was extrafted from the afhes. ground is of any particular colour, but are occafional-
Mineral Agaric, a marley earth refembling the ly found on all the different fpecies. Velfchius hadin
vegetable of that nam.e in colour and texture. It is his cuftody a flefh-coloured agate, on one fide of which
found in the fiffures of rocks, and on the roofs of ca- appeared a half-moon in great perfe&ion, reprefented
verns; and is fometimes ufed as an aftringent in fluxes, by a milky femicircle; on the other fide, the phafes of
haemorrhages, &c. vefper, or the evening-ftar; whence he denominated it
AGATE, or Achat, (among the Greeks and La- an aphrodifian agate. An agate is mentioned by Kir-
tins, a^oitb?, and Achates, from a river in Sicily, on the cher *, on which was the reprefentation of a heroine * Ephem.
banks of which it was firft found), a very extenfivege- armed ; and one in. the church of St Mark in Venice ^.r^a"n'
nus of the femipellucid gems. has the reprefentation of a king’s head adorned with a 0bf] , ji.
Thefe ftones are variegated with veins and clouds, diadem. On another, in the mufasum of the prince
but have no zones like thofe of the onyx. They are of Gonzaga, was reprefented the body of a man with
compofed of cryftal debafed by a large quantity of earth;, all his clothes in a running pofture. A ftill more cu-
and not formed, either by repeated incruftations i-ound riousone is mentioned by de Bootf, wherein appears a f De Gem.
a central nucleus, or made up of plates laid evenly on circle ftruck in brown, as exadlly as if done with a pair “• Ct
one another; but are merely the effedl of one Ample of compaffes, and in the middle of the circle the exadl
concretion, and variegated only by the difpofition gi- figure of a biftiop with a mitre on : but inverting the
yen, by the fluid they were formed in, to their differ- ftone a little, another figure appears; and if it is tur-
ently coloured veins or matters. ned yet further, two others appear, the one of a man.
Agates are arranged according to the different co- and the other of a woman. But the moft celebrated
lours of their ground. Of thofe with a ’white ground agate of this kind is that of Pyrrhus, wherein were re-
thereare three fpecies. (1.) The de?idrachates *, mocca prefented the nine mufes, each with their proper attri-
Jlone, or arborefeent agat. This feems to be the fame butes, and Apollo in the middle playing on the harp ||. I! Pliny,
with what fome authors call the achates withrofemary In the emperor’s cabinet is an oriental agate of a fur- ^xxxvii-r-3
in the middle, and others achates with little branches prifing bignefs, being falhioned into a cup, whofe dia-
of black leaves. (2.) The dull milky-looking agate, meter is an ell, abating two inches. In the cavity is
This, though greatly inferior to th? former, is yet a found delineated in black fpecks, b. xristor. s. xxx.
very beautiful ftone. It is common on the fhores of Other agates have alfo been found, reprefenting the
rivers in the Eaft Indies, and alfo in Germany and numbers 4191, 191; whence they were called
fome other parts of Europe. Our. lapidaries cut it in- tical agates, as thofe repi-efenting men or women have
to counters for card-playing, and other toys of fmall obtained the name of arithropomorphous,.
value. (3.) T\ie lead-coloured agate, called the phajfa- Great medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to
chutes f by the ancients. the agate, fuch as refifting poifons, efpecially thofe of
Of the agates with a reddifh ground there are four the viper, fcorpion, and fpider; but they are now very
fpecies. (1.) An impure one of a flefh-coloured white, juftly reje<ffed from medicinal practice. The oriental
which is but of little beauty in comparifon with other ones are all faid to be brought from the river Gambay.
agates. The admixture of flefti-colour is but very A mine of agates was fome time ago difeovered in
flight; and it is often found without any clouds, veins, Tranfylvania, of divers colours; and fome of a large
or other variegations; but fometimes it is prettily vein- fize, weighing feveral pounds.
ed or variegated with fpots of irregular figures, ha- Agates may be ftained artificially with folution of
ving fimbriated edges. It is found in Germany, Italy, filver' in fpirit of nitre, and afterwards expofing the
and fome other parts of Europe; and is wrought into place to the fun J; and though thefe artificial colours | See Chemi-
toys of fmall value, and often into the German gun- difappear on laying the ftone for a night in aquafortis, n°iS7«
flints. It has been fometimes found with evident fpeci- yet a knowledge of the practicability of thus ftaining
mens of the perfeCt moffes bedded deep in it. (2.) agates, muft render thofe curious figures above-men-
That of a pure blood colour, called hamachates J, or tioned ftrongly fufpeded of being the work not of na-
the bloody agate, by the ancients. (3.) The clouded ture, but of art. Some account for thefe phenome-
and fpo.tted agate, of a pale flefh colour, called by the na from natural caufes. Thus, Kircher, who had feen
ancients the carnelian agate, or fardachates ||. (4.) a ftone of this kind in which were depicted the four
The red-lead-coloured one, variegated with yellow, letters ufually inferibed on crucifixes, I. N. R. I. ap-
called the coral agate, or corallo-achates §, by the an- prehends that fome real crucifix had been buried un¬
dents. der-grou’nd, among ftones and other rubbifti, where the
Of the agates with z yello’wi/h ground there are on- infenption happening to be parted from the crofs, and
ly two known fpecies : the one of the colour of yel- to be received among a foft mould or clay fufceptible
P 2 of-
A G A [ i
Agate, of the impreffion of the letters, came afterwards to be
— petrified. In the fame manner he fuppofes the agate
of Pyrrhus to have been formed. Others vefolve much
of the wonder into fancy, and fuppofe thofe ftones
* See Ca- formed in the fame manner with the camieux * or Flo-
maiettx. rentine ftones.
The agate is ufed for making cups, rings, feals, han¬
dles for knives and forks, hilts for fwords and hangers,
beads to pray with, fmelling-boxes, patch-boxes, &c.
being cut or fawed with no great difficulty. At Paris,
none have a right to deal in this commodity except the
whglefale mercers and goldfmiths. The fword-cutlers
are allowed to fell it, but only when made into handles
for conteaux de chaffe, and ready fet in. The cutlers
have the fame privilege for their knives and forks.
Confiderable quantities of thefe ftones are ftill found
near the river Achates in Sicily. There are found in
fome of thefe the furprifing reprefentations above-
mentioned, or others fimilar to them. By a dextrous
management of thefe natural ftains, medals have been
produced, which feem mafter-pieces of nature: for this
ftone bears the graver well; and as pieces of all mag¬
nitudes are found of it, they make all forts of work it.
The high altar of the cathedral of Meffina is all over
encrufted with it. The lapidaries pretend that the In¬
dian agates are finer than the Sicilian ; but father La-
Ttal0^3^ ** kat * inf°rms us> that *n the fame quarries, and even in
ptYj$0ni V' the fame block, there are found pieces much finer than
others, and thefe fine pieces are fold for Indian agates
in order to enhance their price.
Agate, among antiquaries, denotes a ftone of this
kind engraven by art. In this fenfe, agates make a fpe-
cies of antique gems, in the workmanfttip whereof we
find eminent proofs of the great fldll and dexterity of
the fculptors. Several agates of exquifite beauty are
preferved in the cabinets of the curious; but the fafts
or hiftories reprefented on thefe antique agates, however
well executed, are now become fo obfcure, and their
explications fo difficult, that feveral diverting miftakes
and difputes have arifen among thofe who undertook
to give their true meaning.
The great agate of the apotheofis of Auguftus, in
the treafury of the holy chapel, when fent from Con-
ftantinople to St Lewis, pafled for a triumph of Jofeph.
An agate now in the French king’s cabinet, had been
kept 700 years with great devotion, in the Benedidtine
Hift. Acad, abbey of StEvre at Toul, where it paired for St John
R. Infcnpt. evapgelJft cam‘ed away by an eagle, and crowned
—YYf'^’by an angel; but the heathenifm of it having been
lately detected, the religious would no longer give it
a place among them relidts, but prefented it in 1684
to the king. The antiquaries found it to be the apo¬
theofis of Germanicus. In like manner the triumph
of Jofeph was found to be a reprefentation of Germa¬
nicus and Agrippina, under the figures of Ceres and
Triptolemus. Another was preferved,, from time, im¬
memorial, in one of the moft ancient churches of
France, where it had pafted for a reprefentation of pa-
radife and the fall of man there being found on it two
figures reprefenting Adam and Eve, with a tree, a fer-
pent, and an Hebrew infcription round it, taken from
the third chapter of Genefis, “ The woman faw that
the tree was good, &cd’ The French academifts, in-
ilead of our firft parents, found Jupiter and Minerva
reprefented by the two figures: the infcription was of
16 ] A G A
a modern date, written in a Rabbinical character, very Agate
incorteft, and poorly engraven. The prevailing opi- II
nion was, that this agate reprefented Amply the worlhip SiU c'
of Jupiter and Minerva at Athens.
Agate, is alfo aname of an inftrument ufed by gold-
wire-drawers ; fo called from the agate in the middle of
it, which forms its principal part.
AGATHIAS, or, as he calls himfelf in his epi¬
grams, Agathius, diftinguilhed by the title of Scbo-
lajiicus, a Greek hiftorian in the 6th century under Ju-
ftinian. He was born at Myrina, a colony of the an¬
cient iEolians, in Alia the lefs, at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Phythicus. He was an advocate at Smyrna. Tho’
he had a tafte for poetry, he was yet more famous for
his hiftory, which begins with the 26th year of Jufti-
nian’s reign, where Procopius ends. It was printed in
Greek and Latin, with Bonaventure Vulcanius’s, at
Leyden, 1594, in 4^0; and in Paris at the king’s print-
ing-houfe, 1660, in folio.
AGATHO, a tragic and comic poet, difciple to
Prodicus and Socrates, applauded in Plato’s dialogues
for his virtue and beauty. His firft tragedy obtained
the prize; and he was crowned in the prefence of up-,
wards of 30,000 men, the 4th year of the 90th Olym¬
piad. There is nothing now extant of his, except a
few quotations in Ariftotle, Athenasus, and others.
AGATHOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, fon
of a potter at Reggio. He was a thief, common foldier,
centurion, general, and a pirate, all in a regular fuc-
ceffion. He defeated the Carthaginians feveral times
in Sicily, and was once defeated himfelf. He firll
made himfelf tyrant of Syracufe, and then of all Si¬
cily ; after which, he vanquished the Carthaginians a-
gain both in Sicily and Africa. But at length having
ill fuccefs, and being in arrears with his foldiers, they
mutinied, forced him to fly his camp, and cut the
throats of his children, whom he left behind. Reco-
vering himfelf again, he relieved Corfou, befieged by
Caflander; burnt the Macedonian fleet; returned to Si¬
cily, murdered the wives and children of thofe who had
murdered his ; afterwards meeting with the foldiers
themfelves, he put them all to the fvvord; and ravaging
the fea-coaft of Italy, took the city of Hipponium.
He was at length poifoned by his grandfon Archaga-
thus, in the 7211 year of his age, 290 years beforeChrift,
having reigned 28 years.
AGATHYRNA, or Agathyrnum, Agathyr-
sa, (Polybius;) Agathyrsum, (Strabo;) atownof
Sicily; now S. Marco; as old as the war of Troy, be¬
ing built by Agathyrnus, fon of ^Eolus, on an emi¬
nence. The gentilitious name \s Agathyrnccus; or, ac¬
cording to the Roman idiom, Agathyrnenjis.
AGAVE, the common American aloe; a genus of
the monogynia order belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. Of this genus, botanical writers enumerate eight
Species. I. The Americana, or great American aloe.
The ftems of this, when the plants are vigorous, gene¬
rally rife upwards of 20 feet high, and branch out on
every fide towards the top, fo as to form a kind of py¬
ramid : the flender ftioots being garnilhed with greenifh
yellow flowers, which Hand erect, and come out m thick
clutters at every jointthefe make a fine appearance;
and continue long in beauty; a fucceffion of new flowers
being produced for near three months in favourable-
feafons, if the plant is protected from the autumnal
colds.
-Agave,
Ague.
A G D [ i
colds. The feeds do not ripen in England. It has
been generally thought, that thefe plants do not flower
till they are ioq years old : but this is.a mi flake ; for
the time of their flowering depends on their growth:
fo that in hot countries where they grow fall, and ex¬
pand many leaves every feafon, they will flower in a
few years; but in colder climates, where their growth
is flow, it will be much longer before they Ihoot up
their ftem. There is a variety of this fpecies with
ftriped leaves, which are pretty common in the Englifh
gardens. 2. The Virginia, or American aloe, with a
Ample ftalk. This fo much refembles the laft, as to
be diftinguilhable only by good judges. The principal
difference is, that the leaves of this are narrower toward
their extremity, and of a paler colour : the ftems of
this fort do not rife fo high as the firft, nor do they
branch in the fame manner, but the flowers are collett-
ed into a clofe head at the top ; they are, however, of
the fame (hape and colour. 3. The fetida, or piet, hath
long, narrow, ftifF leaves, of a pale green colour : the
plants rarely grow above three feet in height, but
the flower-ftem rifes to near 20, and branches out
much like that of the firft, but more horizontally: the
flowers are of the fame fliape, but fmaller, and of a
greener colour. After the flowers are paft, inftead of
feed-veffels, young plants fucCeed them ; which, falling
off, are to be received in pots, where they foon take
root, and become perfedt. This fort never fends out
off-fets from the roots ; fo that it can only be multi¬
plied when it flowers; and prefently after the young
plants have dropped off, the old one dies. 4. The
tuberofa, or American aloe with a tuberous root, a-
grees with the laft in its general characters; only that
the leaves are indented, and each of them terminates in
a ftrong thorn. 5. The vivipara, fo called from its
producing young plants after the flowers are fallen
off, never grows to a large fize ; the flower- ftem rifes
to about 12 feet-in height, and branches out in the
fame manner as the third fort, with which it agrees in
rnoft of its other properties. 6. The karratto is as
yet fo little known in Britain, that no particular de-
feription of it can be given. 7. The Vera Cruz fo
greatly refembles the firft as to be fcarce diftinguifli-
able. 8. The rigida hath long narrow ftiff leaves,
which are entire, and terminated by a ftiff black fpine.'
It is very little known.
Culture. The third, fourth, fifth, fixth, and eighth
forts are fo tender, that they cannot be preferred thro’
the winter in England unlefs they are placed in a warm
ftove ; nor will they thrive when fet abroad in fummer,
and therefore muft conftantly remain in the ftove, ob-
ferving to let them enjoy a large fhare of free air in
warm weather. They require a light fandy earth, and
ftiould have little wet in winter; but, in warm weather,
may be gently watered twice a-week. They fhould
be ftiifted every fummer into frefh pots: but thefe muft
not be too large ; for if their roots are not confined,
they will not thrive. Such as fend out off-fets from
their roots may be propagated by them ; the others,
from feeds obtained from the countries where they
grow, or the young plants produced at flowering
time.
AGDE, a city of France, in Lower Languedoc,
in the territory of Agadez, with a bifhop’s fee. The
diocefe is fmall, but it is one of the richeft countries in
17 ] AGE
the kingdom. It produces fine wool, wine, oil, corn,
and filk. It is feated on the river Eraut, a mile and a
quarter from its mouth, where it falls Into the gulph
of Lyons, and where there is a fort built to guard its
entrance. It is well peopled; the houfes are built of
black ftone, and there is an entrance into the city by
four gates. The greateft part of the inhabitants are
merchants or feamen. The public buildings are but
mean: the cathedral is fmall, and not very handfome:
the biftiop’s palace is an old building, but convenient
enough. The city is extended along the river, where*-
it forms a little port, wherein fmall craft may enter.
There is a great concourfe of pilgrims and other devout
people to the chapel of Notre Dame de Grace. It is
a little without the city, between which and the chapel
there are about 13 or 14 oratories, which they vifit
with naked feet. The convent of the Capuchins is well
built, and on the outfide are lodgings and apartments
for the pilgrims who come to perform their neuvains
or nine days devotion. The chapel, which contains
the image of the Virgin Mary, is diftin& from the con¬
vent. E. Long. 3. 20. Lat. 43. 19.
AGE, in the raoft general fenfe of the word, figni-
fies the duration of any being, from its firft coming
into exiftence to the time of fpeaking of it, if it ftm
continues; or to its deftrudtion, if it has ceafed to exift
fome time before we happen to mention it.
Among the ancient poets, this word was ufedforthe
fpace of thirty years; in which fenfe, age amounts to
much the fame with generation. Thus, Neftor is faid
to have lived three ages, when he was 90 years old.—
By ancient Greek hiftorians, the time elapfed fince the
beginning of the world is divided into three periods,
which they called ages. The lirft reaches from the crea¬
tion to the deluge which happened in Greece during
the reign of Ogyges ; this they called the obfeure or
uncertain age, becaufe the hiftory of mankind is.alto¬
gether uncertain during that period. The fecond they
call the fabulous or heroic age, becaufe it is the pe¬
riod in which the fabulous exploits of their gods and
heroes are faid to have been performed. It began with
with the Ogygian deluge, and continued to the firft
Olympiad; where the third, or htflorical, age commen¬
ced.—-This divifion, however, it muft be obferved,
holds good only with regard to the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, who had no hiftories earlier than the firft Olym¬
piad ; the Jews, Egyptians, Phenieians, and Chaldees,
not to mention the Indians and Chinefe who pretend
to much higher antiquity, are not included in it.
The interval fince the firft formation of man has been
divided by the poets into four ages, diftinguiftied by the
epithets of golden, ftlvcr, brazen, and iron. During
the golden age, Saturn reigned in heaven, and juftice
and innocence in this lower world. The earth then
yielded her productions without culture; men held all
things in common, and lived in perfeCt friendlhip.
This period is fuppofed to havelafted till the expulfion
of Saturn from his kingdom. The fiver age commen¬
ced when men began to deviate from the paths of vir¬
tue ; and in confequence of this deviation, their lives
became lefs happy. The brazen age commenced on a
farther deviation, and the iron age took place in confe¬
quence of one7 ftill greater.—A late author, however,
reflecting on the barbarifm of the firft ages, will have
the order which the poets aflign to the four ages invert-
AGE [n
Aje. ed; the firft being a time of rudenefs and ignorance,
““ more properly denominated an iron, than & golden age.
When cities and ftates were founded, the ftlver age
commenced; and' fmce arts and fciences, [navigation
and commerce, have been cultivated, the golden age has
taken place.
In fome ancient northern monuments, the rocky or
fiony age correfponds to the brazen age of the Greeks.
It is called rocky, on account of Noah’s ark, which
refted on mount Ararat; whence men were laid to be
defcended or fprung from mountains : or from Deu¬
calion and Pyrrha, reftoring the race of mankind, by
throwing ftones over their heads. The northern poets
alfo ftyle the fourth age of the world the ajhen age, from
a Gothic king Madenis, or Mannus, who on account
of his great ftrength was faid to be made of afh, or be -
caufe in his time people began to make ufe of weapons
made of that wood.
Among the Jews, the duration of the world is alfo di¬
vided into three ( I.) The feculuth inatie, or void
age, was the fpace of time from the creation to Mofes;
(2.) Tlbit prefent age, denotes all the fpace of time
from Mofes to the coming of theMeffiah;,and, (3.) The
age to come, denotes the time from the coming of the
Meffiah to the end of the world.
Various other divifions of the duration of the world
into ages have been made by hiftorians.—The Sibyl¬
line oracles, wrote, according to fome, by Jews ac¬
quainted with the prophecies of the Old Teftament,
divide the duration of the world into ten ages ; and ac¬
cording to Jofephus, each age contained fix hundred
years. It appears, by Virgil’s fourth eclogue, and
other teftimonies, that the age of Auguftus wras repu¬
ted the end of thefe ten ages, confequently as the period
the world’s duration.
By fome, the fpace of time'commencing from Con-
ftantine, and ending with the taking of Conftantinople
by the Turks, in the 15 th century, is called the mid¬
dle age: but others chufe rather to date the middle
age from the divifion of the empire made by Theodo-
fius at the clofe of the 4th century, and extend it to
the time of the emperor Maximilian I. in the be¬
ginning of the 16th century, when the empire was firft
divided into circles.—The middle is by fome denoted
the barbarous age, and the latter part of it the lo’wejl
age. Some divide it into the non-academical and aca-
demical ages. The firft includes the fpace of time from
the 6th to the 9th centuries, during which fchools or
academies were loft in Europe. The fecond from the
9th century, when fchools were reftored, and univerfi-
ties eftablifhed, chiefly by the care of Charlemagne.
Age is alfo frequently ufed in the fame fenfe with
century, to denominate a duration of 100 years.
Age likewife fignifies a certain period of the du¬
ration of human life: by fome divided into four.ftages,
namely, infancy, youth, manhood, and old age ; the
firft extending to the 14th year, the fecond to the
25th, the third to the 50th, and the fourth to the end
of life: by others divided into infancy, childhood,
* See the ar-y0uth, manhood, and old age *.
and Mora/ ■^lGE» law> fignifies a certain period of life, when
Philojofhy, Perf°ns of both fexes are enabled to do certain a£ts.
Seft. I. n° Thus, one at twelve years of age ought to take the
oath of allegiance to the king in a leet; at fourteen
he may marry, chufe his guardian, and claim his lands
8 ] AGE
held in foecage. Twenty-one is called full age, a man Age
or woman being then capable of afting for themfelves, of II
managing their affairs, making contra&Sj difpofing of ° V
their eftates, and the like.
Age-prier, in law, is when an a&ion being brought
againft a perfon under age, for lands defcended to him,
he, by motion or petition, fliews the matter to the
court, praying the a&ion may be ftaid till his full age;
which the court generally agrees to.
AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a body of
foldiery, not unlike the Roman legion. _
AGEMOGLANS, Agiamoglans, or Azamo-
glans, in the Turkifh polity, are children purchafed
from the Tartars, or raifed every third year, by way
of tribute, from the Chriftians tolerated in the Turkifh
empire. Thefe, after being circumcifed and inftrutted
in the religion and language of their tyrannical matters
are learnt the exercifes of war, till they are of a pro¬
per age for carrying arms; and from this corps the Ja-
niffaries are recruited. With regard to thofe who are
thought unfit for the army, they are employed in the
loweft offices of the feraglio. Their appointments alfo
are very fmall, not exceeding feven afpers and a half
per day, which amount to about threepence-halfpenny
of our money.
AGEN, a city of France, on the river Garonne, the
capital of Agenois in Guienne, and the fee of a bifhop.
The gates and old walls, which are yet remaining, fhow
that this city is very ancient, and that its former cir¬
cuit was not fo great as the prefent; but there is no
trace remaining of the cattle fo famous in hiftory.' The
palace, wherein the prefidial holds his feffions at this
day, was heretofore called the cattle of Montravel; and
is feated without the walls of the old city, and on the
fide of the foffe. There are likewife the ruins of ano¬
ther caftle called La Sagne, which was without the
walls clofe by a brook. Though the fituation of Agen
is very convenient for trade and commerce, the inha¬
bitants are fo very indolent that there is very little, of
which the neighbouring cities take the advantage. It
is feated on the bank of the river Garonne, in a plea-
fant country. E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 44.12.
AGENDA, among philofophers and divines, figni¬
fies the duties which a man lies under an obligation to
perform: thus, we meet with the agenda of a Chri-
ftian, or the duties he ought to perform; in oppofition
to the credenda, or things he is to believe.
Agenda, among merchants, a term fometimes ufed
for a memorandum-book, in which is fet down all the
bufinefs to be tranfafted during the day, either at home
or abroad.
AGENORIA, in mythology, the goddefs of cou¬
rage and induftry, as Vacuna was of indolence.
AGENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any a&ive
power or caufe. Agents are either natural or moral.
Natural agents are fuch inanimate bodies as have a
power to aft upon other bodies in a certain and deter¬
minate manner; as, gravity, fire, &c. Moral agents, on
the contrary, are rational creatures, capable of regula¬
ting their aftions by a certain rule.
Agent, is alfo ufed to denote a perfon intrufted with
the management of an affair, whether belonging to a
fociety, company, or private perfon.
AGER, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of
land allowed to each citizen. See Agrarian Law.
AGER
AGE
Ager AGERPICENUS, (Cicero, Sailuft, Livy ;) and
Picenus fomet;mCs Picenum, (Caefar, Pliny;) a territory of Italy
AgeGIaus. to t^ie fouth-eall of Umbria, reaching from the Apen-
   nine to the Adriatic. The people are called Picentes,
(Cicero, Livy,) diftinft from the Picentini ontheTuf-
can fea, though called by Greek writers n/*evrmi. This
name is faid to be from the bird Picus, under whofe
conduft they removed from the Sabines, of whom they
were a colony. *
AGERATUM, bastard hemp-agrimony; a ge¬
nus of the polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants. Of this genus there arethree
Species; the conyzoides, the houftonianum, and the
altiffimum. All thefe are natives of warm climates.
The firft grows to a foot high; the ftalks are round
and firm; the leaves two inches long, broadeft at the
bafe, and ferrated round the edges ; the flowers are
white, and Hand on the extremities of the branches.
They appear in July, and continue flowering till the
frofts deftroy them. The third fort is a native of Ca¬
rolina, has a perrennial root, and an annual ftalk,
which grows to the height of five or fix feet, putting
out fide-branches at the top; the leaves are lhaped like
an heart. At the end of the flioots the flowers are
. produced in large tufts, are of a pure white, and ap¬
pear in Odbcber.
Culture. The two firft are annual plants, and con-
fequently can be propagated only by feeds ; which,
however, come to perfection in this country. They
muft be fown in a hot-bed in the fpring; and when the
plants are come up, and ftrong enough to remove, they
muft be tranfplanted to another moderate hot-bed, ob-
ferving to water and ftiade them until they have taken
root; after which time they muft have a good fhare of
air in warm weather, oherwife they will grow up very
weak. In fummer, the plants will thrive in the open
air. The feeds ripen in September and OCtober.—
The third fpecies will bear the fevereft cold in this cli¬
mate, but its feeds do^not-ripen in this country. It
puts out off-fets, however, from its roots, by which it
may be propagated, as well as by feeds, which are
very frequently brought from America. The plants
fpread their roots very much, and cannot bear a cramp¬
ed fituation; for which reafon, they muft be allowed
three feet every way. They delight in a rich moift foil
and open fituation, where they will produce fo many
ftalks from each root as to form a confiderable buftu
Ageratum, or Maudlin. See Achillea.
Ageratum Purpureum. See Erinus.
AGGA, or Aggonna, a Britifh fettlement on the
gold-coaft of Guiney, It is fituated under the meri¬
dian of London, in 6 degrees of N. lat.
Agger, in the ancient military art, a bank or ram¬
part, compofed of various materials, as earth, boughs
of trees, &c.—The agger of the ancients was of the
fame nature with what the moderns call lines.
AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the
province of the fame name. It is fubjeft to Denmark,
and fituated in E. long. 28.35. and N. lat.59. 30.
AGGERS-HERRED, a diftrift of Chriftianfand
and a diocefe of Norway. It confifts of three juridical
places; namely, Afeher, Weft Barum, and Ager.
AGESILAUS, king of the Lacedaemonians, the
fon of Archidamus, was raifed to the throne notwith-
ftanding the fuperior claim of Leotychides, As foon
AGE
as he came to the throne, he advifed the Lacedaemo- Agefilaus.
nians to be beforehand with the king of Perfia, who
was making great preparations for war, and to attack
him in his own dominions. He was himfelf chofen for
this expedition; and gained fo many advantages over
the enemy, that if the league which the Athenians and
the Thebans formed againft the Lacaedemonians had
not obliged him to return home, he would have car¬
ried his viAorious fcrms into the very heart of the Per-
fian empire. He gave up, however, all thefe triumphs
readily, to come to the fuccour of his country, which
he happily relieved by his vi&ory over the allies in Bce-
otia. He obtained another near Corinth ; but to his
great mortification, the Thebans afterward gained fe-
veral over the Lacedaemonians. Thefe misfortunes at
firft raifed fomewhat of a clamour againft him. He had
been fick during the firft advantages which the enemy
ained; but as foon as he was able to aft in perfon,
y his valour and prudence he prevented the Thebans
from reaping the advantages of their viftories; infomuch
that it was generally believed, had he been in health at
the beginning, the Lacedemonians would have fuftained
no lofies, and that all would have been loft had it not
been for his affiftance. It cannot be denied but he loved
war more than the intefeft of his country required; for
if he could have lived in peace, he had faved the Lace¬
daemonians feveral Ioffes, and they would not have been
engaged in many enterprizes which in the end contri¬
buted much to weaken their power. He died in the
third year of the 104th Olympiad, being the 84th year
of his age, and 41st year of his reign. Agefilaus would
never fuffer any pifture or fculpture to be made of him,
and prohibited it alfo by his will: this he is fuppofed
to have done from a confcioufhefs of his own deformity;
for he was of a fhort ftature, and lame of one foot, fo
that ftrangers ufed to defpife him at the firft fight. His
fame went before him into Egypt, and there they had
formed the higheft idea of Agefilaus ; when he landed
in that country, the people ran in crowds to fee him:
but great was their furprife when they faw an ill-dreffed,
flovenly, mean-looking little fellow lying upon the
grafs; they could not forbear laughing, and applied to
him the fable of the mountain in labour. He wa^,
however, the firft to jeft upon his own perfon; and fuch
was the gaiety of his temper, and the ftrength with
which he bore the rougheft exercifes, that thefe qua¬
lities made amends for his corporal defefts. He was
extremely remarkable for plainnefs and frugality in his
drefs and way ofiliving. “ This (fays Cornelius Nepos).
is efpecially to be admired in Agefilaus: when very
reat prefents were fent him by kings, governors, and
ates, he never brought any of them to his own houfe ;
he changed nothing of the diet, nothing of the apparel
of the Lacedaemonians. He was contented with the
fame houfe in which Eurifthenes, the founder of his
family, had lived: and whoever entered there, could fee
no fign debauchery, noneof luxury; but, on the contrary,
many of moderation and abftinence; for it was furnilh-
ed in fuch a manner, that it differed in nothing from
that"of any poor or private perfon.” Upon his arrival
into Egypt, all kind of provifions were fent to him;
but he chofe only' the moft common, leaving the per¬
fumes, the confeftions, and all that was efteemed moft
delicious, to his fervants. Agefilaus was extremely
fond of his children, and would often amufe himfelf by
joining
[ I19 ]
AG I [120] AGL
Agefipoli*- joining in their diverfions: one day when he was fur-
. jj. prized riding upon a ftick with them, he faid to the
perfon who had feen him in this pofture, “ Forbear
talking of it till you are a father.”
AGESIPOLIS I. king of Lacedsemon, fucceeded
his father Paufanias, colleague of Agefilaus II. He
ravaged the country of Mantinea, fubdued that city,
and pillaged Olynthia. He died about 380 years be¬
fore Jefus Chrift, and was embalmed in honey, accord¬
ing to the cuftom of the Lacedaemonians. He died
without iffue, and was fucceeded by Cleombrotus his
brother, the father of Agefipolis II. who was more re¬
markable for his apophthegms than his adlions.
AGGLUTINANTS, in pharmacy, a general name
for all medicines of a glutinous or vifcid nature; which,
by adhering to the folids, contribute greatly to repair
their lofs.
AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfe, denotes
the joining two or more things together, by means of a
proper glue or cement.
Agglutination, among phylicians, implies the ac¬
tion of reuniting the parts of a body, feparated by a
wound, cut, &c. It is alfo applied to the aftion of
fuch internal medicines as are of an agglutinating qua¬
lity, and which, by giving a glutinous confiftence to
the animal-fluids, render them more proper for nourifh-
ing the body.
AGGRAVATION, a term ufed to denote what¬
ever heightens a crime, or renders it more black.
AGGREGATE, in a general fenfe, denotes the fum
of feveral things added together, or the colledtion of
them into one whole. Thus, a houfe is an aggregate
of ftones, wood, mortar, &c. It differs from a mixed
or compound, inafmuch as the union in thefe laft is
more intimate than between the parts of an aggregate.
AGGRESSOR, among lawyers, denotes the per¬
fon who began a quarrel, or made the firft afiault.
AGHER, a town of Ireland, which fends two mem¬
bers to parliament. It is fituated in the fouthern part
of Ulfter, not far from Clogher.
AGHRIM, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Wicklow, and province of Leinfter, fituated about
thirteen miles fouth-weft of Wicklow.
AGIADES, in the Turkifh armies, a kind of pio¬
neers employed in fortifying camps, fmoothing of
roads, and the like offices.
AGILITY, an aptitude of the feveral parts of the
body to motion ; or it may be defined, The art or talent
of making the beft ufe of our ftrength.—The impro¬
ving of agility was one of the chief objefts of the in-
ftitution of games and exercifes. The athletse made par¬
ticular profdlion of the fcience of cultivating and im¬
proving agility. Agility of body is often fuppofed
peculiar to fome people ; yet it feems not owing to any
thing in their frame and ftmdture different from others,
but entirely to practice.
AGINCOURT, a village of the French Nether¬
lands ; famous on account of the victory obtained by
Henry V. of England over the French, in 1415.
E. long. 2. 10. N. lat. 50. 35.
AGIO, in commerce, is a term chiefly ufed in Hol¬
land, and at Venice, to fignify the difference between
the value of bank-ftock and the current coin. The
agio in Holland is generally three or four per cent.
and at Rome it is from x j to 25 per cent, but at Venice1"
the agio is fixed at 2Q per cent. Agtofy-
AGIOSYMANDRUM, a wooden inflrument ufed manj[ru»»
by the Greek and other churches under the dominion Aelionbv
of the Turks, to call together affemblies of the people.   
The agiofymandrum was introduced in the place of bells,
which the Turks prohibited their Chriftian fubje&s
the ufe of, left they fliould make them fubfervient to
fedition.
AGISTMENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in
law, the taking in other people’s cattle to graze at fo
much per week. The term is peculiarly ufed for the
taking cattle to feed in the king’s forefts, as well as
for the profits arifing from that practice.—It is alfo
ufed, in a metaphorical fenfe, for any tax, burden, or
change; thus, the tax levied for repairing the banks of
Romney-marfh was called agijiamentum.
AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging
to forefts, who has the care of cattle taken in to be
grazed, and levies the moneys due on that account.
They are generally called quejl-takers or gift-takers,
and are created by letters-patent. Each royal foreft
has four agiftors.
AGISYMBA, (anc. geogr.) adiftridt of Libya In¬
terior, according to Agathemerus, fituated to the fouth-
eaft of the ^Ethiopes Anthropophagi; the parallel paf-
fing through which, at 160 to the fouth of the equator,
was the utmoft extent of the knowledge of the ancients
to the fouth, (Ptolemy.)
AGITATION, the ad of fhaking a body, or toffing
it backwards and forwards.
Agitation, in phyfics, is often ufed for an inteftine
commotion of the parts of a natural body. Fermen¬
tation and effervefcence are attended with a brifk agi¬
tation of the particles.
Agitation is one of the chief caufes or inftruments
of mixtion : by the agitation of the parts of the blood
and chyle, in their continual circulation, fanguification
is in a good meafure effeded. Butter is made out of
milk by the fame means : in which operation, a fepa-
ration is made of the oleous parts from the ferous, and
a conjundion of the oleous together. Digeftion itfelf
is only fuppofed to be an infenfible kind of agitation.
Agitation is reputed one of the fymptoms of in-
fpiration. Petit informs us f, that, in the laft century, f Petit de
there arofe in a church in Italy, for the fpace of a year, syb'^a> 1* '•
a vapour of an extraordinary kind, which put all the Lett^ tom*
people into trembling and agitations, and unlefs they viii.p.tnj.
got away betimes, fet them a dancing, with ftrange
contortions and gefticulations. This feems to verify
what has been related of the temple of Delphi.
Agitation is alfo ufed in medicine, for a fpecies
of exercife popularly called Swinging. Maurice prince
of Orange found this method a relief againft the fevere
pains of the gout and ftone. Bartholine mentions fits
of the tooth-ach, deafnefs, &c. removed by vehement
agitations of the body.
AGITATOR, in antiquity, a term fometimes ufed
for a charioteer, efpecially thole who drove in the cir¬
cus at the curule games.
Agitators, in the Englifh hiftory, certain offi¬
cers fet up by the army in 1647, to take care of its inte-
refts.—Cromwell joined the agitators, only with a view
to ferve his own ends; which being once accomplilhed,
he found means to get them abolilhed.
AGLIONBY (John) an Englilh divine, chaplain
Agmen
Agnus.
A G N [ 121 ] AGO
in ordinary to king James I. a man of univerfal learn- as a fpecific for the prefervation of chaftity. The Athe-
ing, who hada verycofiderable hand in the tranflation of nian ladies, who made profeffion of chaftity, lay upon
. the New Teftament appointed by king James I. in 1604. leaves of agnus cajius during the feafts of Ceres.—Being
AGMEN, in antiquity, properly denotes a Roman reputed a cooler, and particularly of the genital parts, •
army in march : in which fenfe, it.ftands contradi- it was anciently ufed in phyfic to allay thofe inordinate
ftinguifhed from acies, which denoted the army in bat- motions arifing from feminal turgefcences : but it is
tie array ; though, on fome occafions, we find the two out of the prefent pra&ice.
words ufed indifferently for each other. The Roman Agnus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax
armies, in their marches, were divided into pritnum ag- ftamped with the figure of a lamb fupporting a crofs.
men, anfwering to our vanguard; medium agmen, our Thefe being confecrated by the pope with great fo-
rnain-battle ; and pojlremum agmen, the rear-guard, lemnity, and diftributed among the people, are fuppo-
The order of their march was thus : After the firft fig- fed to have great virtues; as, to preferve thofe who
nal with the trumpets, &c. the tents were taken down, carry them worthily, and with faith, from all manner
and the baggage packed up ; at the fecond fignal, the of accidents; to expel evil fpirits, isc.—It is alfo a
baggage was to be loaden on the horfes and carriages ; popular name for that part of the mafs, where the
and at the third fignal, they were to begin their march, prieft ftrikes his breaft thrice, and fays the prayer be-
Firft came the extraordinarii; then the auxiliaries of ginning with the words Agnus Dei.
the firft v
, with their baggage ; thefe were follow-
Agnus Scytbicus. See Scythian Lamb.
AGOGE, amongancient muficians, a fpecies of modu¬
lation, wherein the notes proceed by contiguous degrees.
AGON, among the ancients, implied any difpute
conteft, whether it had regard to bodily exercifes,
ed by the fegions. The cavalry marched either on
each fide, or behind.
AGNATE, in law, any male relation by the fa¬
ther’s fide. w
AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its rife or the accomplifhments of the mind; and therefore
in the mountainous parts of Terra di Lavoro, waflies poets, muficians, painters, &c. had their agones, as
the town of Acerra; and, palling between Capua and well as the athletce. Games of this kind were celebra-
Averfa, falls into the Mediterranean, about feven miles ted at mqftof the heathen feftivals, with great folemnity,
north of Puzzuoli. - either annually, or at certain periods of years. Among
AGNOETJE, (from ctyww, to be ignorant of), in the latter were celebrated at Athens, the agotigymnicus,
church-hiftory, a fe£t of ancient heretics, who main- the agon nemeus inftituted by the Argives in the 53J
tained that Chrift, confidered as to his human nature, Olympiad, and the agon Olympius inftituted by Her-
was ignorant of certain things, and particularly of the cules 430 years before the firft Olympiad. The Ro-
time of the day of judgment. Eulogius, patriarch of mans alfo, in imitation of the Greeks, inftituted contefts
Alexandria, afcribes this herefy to certain folitaries in of this kind. The emperor Aurelian eftablifhed one
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem, who built their opi- under the name of agon folis, the conteft of the fun ;
nion upon the text Mark xiii. 32. “ Of that day and Dioclefian another, which he called agon Capitolinas*
“ hour knoweth no man, no not the angels who are which was celebrated every fourth year, after the man-
“ in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only.”— ner of the Olympic games. Hence the years, inftead
The fame paffage was made ufe of by the Arians ; and of lujlra, are fometimes numbered by agones.
hence the orthodox divines of thofe days were induced Agon alfo fignified one of the minifters employed in
the heathen facnfice's, and whofe bufinefs it was to ftrike
the viftim. The name is fuppofed to have been derived
from hence, that Handing ready to give the ftroke he
afked Agon' ? or A gone? fhall I ftrike?
Agonales, an epithet given to the Salji.
AGONAL I A, in Roman antiquity, feftivals cele¬
brated in honour of Janus; or of the god Agonius,
to give various explications thereof. Some allege,
that our Saviour here had no regard to his divine na¬
ture, but only fpoke of his human. Others under¬
hand it thus, That the knowledge of the day of judg¬
ment does not concern our Saviour confidered in his
quality of Meffiah, but God only : which is the moft
natural folution. - ^ .
AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth whom the Romans invoked before undertaking any
or honorary name, given to a perfon on account of affair of importance.
fome extraordinary aftion, virtue, or other accompliih- AGONISMA, in antiquity, denotes the prize given
ment. Thus, the agnomen Africams was beftowed to the viftor in any combat or difpute.
upon Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great AGONISTJC1, in church-hiftory, a name given by
atchievements in Africa.—The agnomen was the third Donatus to fuch of his difciples as he fent to fairs,
in order of the three Roman names: thus, in Marcus markets, and other public places, to propagate his
Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the praenomen, Tullius the doftrine ; for which reafon they were alfo called Cir-
nomen, and Cicero the agnomen. cuitores, Circeltiones, Catropitsc, Goropitce, and at Rome
AGNON, a fmall river of Bourgogne in France, Montenfes. They were cdAcAAgoniJlici, from the Greek
otherwife called Ignon. ' ayov, combat; in regard they were fent, as it were, to
AGNONE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the fight, and fubdue the people to their opinions,
province of the Hither Abruzzo, calledby fome AGONISTICON, a term ufed by phyficians for
AGNUS, or Lamb, in zoology, the young of the cold water, as being fuppofed to combat the febrile heat,
ovis orftieep. See Ovis. AGONIUM, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the
Agnus Cajius, in botany, the trival name of a fpe- day on which the rex facrorum facrificed a victim, as
See Vittx. cies of the vitex *. The Greeks call it ayv®-, chafte; well as for the place where the games were celebrated
to which has fince been added the reduplicative cajius, otherwife called agon.
q. d. chafte chafte. It was famous among the ancients AGONOTHETA, or Ag.onothetes, in Grecian
You. L antiquity.
Agnus
Agono-
thcta.
A G R [ 122 ) A G R
Agony antiquity, was the prefident or fuperintendant of the
A Ida ^acre^ games 5 not on^y defrayed the expences at-
glc a' tending them, but inipefted the manners and difcipline
of the athlet3e, and adjudged the prizes to the victors.
AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alfo ufed for
the pangs of death. Much of the terror of death con-
, fifts in the pangs and convulfions wherewith the agony
fee ms attended; tho’ we have reafon to believe, that
the pain in fuch cafes is ordinarily not extremely
acute; a courfe of pain and ficknefs having ufually
llupified and indifpofed the nerves for any quick fenfa-
tions. However, various means have been thought of
for mitigating the agony of death. Lord Bacon con-
fiders this as part of the province of a phyfician; and
that not only when fuch a mitigation may tend to a
recovery, but alfo when, there being no further hopes
of a recovery, it can only tend to make the paflage out
of life more calm and eafy.’ Complacency in death,
which Auguftus fo much defired, is certainly no fmall
part of happinefs. Accordingly the author laft cited
ranks e nth an aft a, or the art of dying eafily, among the
deliderata of fcience; and does not even feem to difap-
prove of the courfe Epicurus took for that end,
 Hinc ftygias ebrius baujit aquas.
Opium has been applied for this purpofe, with the ap-
plaufe of fame, but the condemnation of more.
AGONYCLITiE, or Agonycljtes, in church-
hiftory, a feft of Chriftians, in the 7th century, who
prayed always {landing, as thinking it unlawful to kneel.
AGORiEUS, in heathen antiquity, an appellation
given to fuch deities as had ftatues in the market¬
places ; particularly Mercury, whole ftatue was to be
feen in almoft every public place.
AGORANOMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a magi-
ftrate of Athens, who had the regulation of weights
and meafures, the prices of provifions, &c.
AGOUTI, or Aguti. See Mus.
AGRA, the capital town of a province of the fame
name, in Indoftan, and in the dominions of the Great
Mogul. It is looked upon as the largeft city in thefe
parts, and is in the form of a half-moon. A man on
horfeback can hardly ride round it in a day. It is
furrounded with a wall of red ftone, and with a ditch
100 feet wide. The Great Mogul fometimes refides
here: his palace is prodigioufly large, and the feraglio
commonly contains above 1000 women. There are
upwards of 800 baths in this town ; but that which
travellers moft admire, is the maufoleum of one of the
Mogul’s wives, which was 20 years in building. The
indigo of Agra is the moft valuable of all that comes
from the Eaft-Indies. It is feated on the river Jemma,
about 50 miles above its confluence with the Tehemel,
and is 300 miles N. E. of Surat. E. Long. 79. 12.
N. Lat. 26. 29.
AGRARIAN laws, among the Romans, thofe
relating to the divifion and diftribution of lands; of
which there were a great number; but that called the
Agrarian Law, by way of eminence, was publifliedby
Spurius Caffius, about the year of Rome 268, for di¬
viding the conquered lands equally among all the citi¬
zens, and limiting the number of acres which each
citizen might enjoy.
AGREDA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, near
the frontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues
fouth-weft of Taracon.
AGREEMENT, in law, fignifies the confent of Agreement
feveral perfons to any thing done or to be done. P i
AGRESTtE, among phyficians, denotes unripe g‘'C0 a*,
grapes, faid to be of a cooling nature.
AGRI, or Acri, a river of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, which arifmg in the Apennine mountains, not far
from Marfico Nuovo, falls into the gulph of Tarento.
AGR1A, called by the Germans Eger, is a fmall
but ftrong town in Upper Hungary, and is a bifliop’s
fee. It is fituated on a river of the fame name, and
has a citadel called Erlaw. It was befieged by the
Turks in 1552,-with 70,000 men: but they loft 8000
in one day; and were obliged to raife the fiege, though
the garrifon confifted only of 2000 Hungarians, af-
fifted by the women, who performed wonders on this
occafion. However, it was afterwards taken by Ma¬
homet III. imyqd ; but was re-taken by the empe¬
ror in 1687, fince which time it has continued under
the dominion of the houfe of Auftria. It is 47 miles
north-eaft of Buda, and 55 fouth-weft of Caflbvia.
E. Long. 20. 10. N. Lat. 48. 10.
AGRICOLA (Cneus Junius), born at Frejus in
Px-ovence, was made lieutenant in Vefpafian’s time to
Vettius Bolanus in Britain; and, upon his return, was
ranked by that emperor among the patricians, and
made governor of Aquitania. This poft he held three
years; and upon his,return was.chofen conful, and after¬
ward appointed governor of Britain, where he greatly
diftinguiflxed himfelf. He reformed many abufes oc-
cafioned by the avarice or negligence of former gover¬
nors ; put a flop to extortion ; and caufed juftice to
be impartially adminiftered. Vefpafian dying about
this time, his fon Titus, knowing the great merit of
Agricola, continued him in the govrnment. In the
fpring, he marched towards the north, where he made
fome new conquefts, and ordered forts to be built for
the Romans to winter in. He fpent the following win¬
ter in concerting fchemes to bring the Britons to con¬
form to the Roman cuftoms: he thought the bell way
of diverting them from rifing and taking arms, was to
foften their rough manners, by propofmg to them new
kinds of pleafure, and infpiring them with a defire of
imitating the Roman manners. Soon after this, the
country was adorned with magnificent temples, porticos,
baths, and many other fine buildings. The Britifli no¬
bles had at length their fons educated in learning ; and
they who before had the utmoft averfion to the Roman
language, now began to ftudy it with great afliduity:
they wore likewife the Roman habit; and, as Tacitus
obferves, they were brought to confider thofe things as
marks of politenefs, which were only fo many badges
of flavery. Agricola, in his third campaign, advan¬
ced as far as the Tweed; and in his fourth, he fub-
dued the nations betwixt the Tweed and the friths of
Edinburgh and Dumbritton, into which the rivers
Glotta and Bodotria difcharge themfelves ; and here he
built fortrefles to fhut up the nations yet unconquered.
In his fifth, he marched beyond the friths ; where he
made fome new acquifitions, and fixed garrifons along
the weftern coafts, over againft Ireland. In his fixth
campaign he pafled the river Bodotria, ordering his
fleet, the firft which the Romans ever had in thofe
parts, to row along the coafts, and take a view of the
northern parts. In the following fpring, the Britons
raifed an army of 30,000 men; and the command was
Agricola.
A G R [ 123 ] A G R
Agricola, given to Galgacus, who, according to Tacitus, made
~~ an excellent.ipeech to his countrymen on this occalion.
Agricola likewife addreffed his men in very ftrong and
eloquent terms. The Romans gained the victory, and
10,000 of the Britons are faid to have been killed.
This happened in the reign of the emperor Domitian ;
who, growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, recal¬
led him, under pretence of making him governor of
Syria. Agricola died foon after, and his death is
fufpefted to have been occafioned by poifon given him
by that emperor. Tacitus the hiftorian married his
daughter, wrote his life, and laments his death in the
moft pathetic manner.
Agricola (George), a German phyfician, famous
for his Ikill in metals. He was born at Glaucha,
in Mifnia, the 24th of March 1494. The difcoveries
which he made in the mountains of Bohemia gave
him fo great a defire of examining accurately into e-
very thing relating to metals, that though he had en- i
gaged in the practice of phyfic at Joachimftal by ad¬
vice of his friends, he ftill profecuted his ftudy of fof-
fils with great affiduity ; and at length removed to
Chemnitz, where he entirely devoted himfelf to this
ftudy. He fpent in purfuit of it the penfion he had of
Maurice duke of Saxony, and part of his own eftate;
fo that he reaped more reputation than profit from his
labours. He wrote feveral pieces upon this and other
fubje£ts; and died at Chemnitz the 21st of November,
1555, a very firm Papift. In his younger years he
feemed not averfe to the Proteftant doftrine; and he
highly difapproved of the fcandalous traffic of indul-
gencies, and feveral other things in the church of
Rome. The following lines of his were polled up in
the ftreets of Zwickaw, in the year 1719 :
Si nos injeBo falvabit ciftula nummo,
Heu nimium infelix tu mihi, pauper, eris!
Si nos, Chrijie, tunfcrvatos morte bcajii,
Tam nihil infelix tu mill, pauper, eris.
If wealth alone falvation can procure.
How fad a fate for ever waits the poor!
But if thou, Chrift, our only faviour be.
Thy merits ftill may blefs ev’n poverty!
In the latter part of his life, however, he had attacked
the Proteftant religion; which rendered him fo odious
to the Lutherans, that they fuffered his body to re¬
main unburied for five days together; fo that it was
obliged to be removed from Chemnitz to Zeits, where
it was interred in the principal church.
Agricola (John), a Saxon divine born at Illebe
in 1492. He went as chaplain to count Mansfield, when
that nobleman attended the Elector of Saxony to the
diet of Spire in 1526, and that of Aulburg in 1530.
He was of a reftlefs ambitious temper, rivalled and
wrote againft Melandthon, and gave count Mansfield
occafion to reproach him feverely. He obtained a pro-
feflbrlhip at Wittemberg, where he taught particular
dodtrines, and became founder of the fedt of Antino-
mians; which occafioned warm difputes between him
and Luther, who had before been his very good friend.
But though he was never able to recover the favour ei¬
ther of the eledtor of Saxony, or of Luther, he recei¬
ved fome confolation from the fame he acquired at Ber¬
lin: where he became preacher at court; and was cho-
fen in 1548, in conjundtion with Julius Phlug, and
Michael Heldingus, to compofe the famous Interim,
which made fo much noife in the world.' He died at
Berlin in 1566.
AGRICULTURE
Definition. TV yrAY be defined, The art of difpofing. the earth in
fuch a manner as to produce whatever vegetables
we defire, in large quantity, and in the greateft perfec¬
tion of which their natures are capable.—But though,
by this definition, agriculture, ftridtlyfpeaking, includes
in it the cultivation of every fpecies of vegetable what¬
ever, and confequently comprehends all that is under-
ftood of gardening and planting, we mean here to con¬
fine ourfelvfcs to the cultivation of thofe fpecies of grain,
grafs, &c. which, in this country, are generally ne-
ceffary as food for men and beafts.
History. That the antiquity of this art is beyond all others,
cannot well be doubted; feeing we are informed by
Scripture, that Adam was fent from the garden of Eden
to till the ground; and, this being the cafe, he certain¬
ly mull have known how to do fo.—It would be ridi¬
culous, from this, to imagine that he was acquainted
with all the methods of ploughing, harrowing, fallow¬
ing, &c. which are now made ufe of; and it would be
equally fooliffi to imagine, that he ufed fuch clumfy and
unartful inftruments as wooden hooks, horns of oxen,
&c. to dig the ground, which were afterwards employ¬
ed for this purpofe by certain favages: but as we know
nothing of the particular circumftances in which he was
fituated, we can know as little concerning his method
of agriculture.
The prodigious length of life which the antedilu¬
vians enjoyed, mu ft have been very favourable to the
advancement of arts and fciences, efpecially agriculture,
to which they behoved to apply themfelves in a parti¬
cular manner, in order to procure their fubfiftence. It
is probable, therefore, that, even in the antediluvian
world, arts and fciences had made great progrefs, nay,
might be farther advanced in fome things than they are
at prefent. Of this, however, we can form no judg¬
ment, as there are no hiftories of thofe times, and the
fcripture gives us but very flight hints concerning thefe
matters.
No doubt, by the terrible cataftrophe of the flood,
which overwhelmed the whole world, many fciences
would be entirely loft, and agriculture would fuffer; as
it was impoffible that Noah or his children could put
in practice, or perhaps, know, all the different methods
of cultivating the ground that were formerly ufed. The
common methods, however, we cannot but fuppofe to
have been known to him and his children, and by them
tranfmitted to their pofterity; fo that as long as man¬
kind continued in one body without being dilperfed in¬
to different nations, the arts, agriculture efpecially, be¬
hoved to advance; and that they did fo is evident from
the undertaking of the tower of Babel. It is from the
difperfion of mankind confequenf upon the confufion
of tongues, that we muft date the origin of favage na¬
tions. In all focieties where different arts are cultiva¬
ted, there are fome perfoas who have a kind of gene-
Q_2 ral
124
A G R I C U
ral knowledge of moft of thofe praftifed through the
whole fociety, while others are in a manner ignorant
of every ope of them. If we fuppofe a few people of
underftanding to feparate from the reft, and become
the founders of a nation, it will probably be a civilized
one, and the arts will begin to flourilh from its very
origin; but, if a nation is founded by others whofe in¬
tellects are in a manner callous to every human fcience,
(and of this kind there are many in the moft learned
countries), the little knowledge or memory of arts that
were among the original founders will be loft, and fuch
nations will for many ages be a favage and degenerate
race, till at laft they will either begin to improve of
themfelves, or the arts will be brought to them from
other nations.
From this, or fimilar caufes, all nations of equal an¬
tiquity have not been equally favage, nor is there any
folid reafon for concluding that all nations were origi¬
nally ui.(killed in agriculture; though as we know not
the original inftruments of hufoandry ufed by mankind
when living in one fociety, we cannot fix the date of
the improvements in this art. Different nations have
always been in a different ftate of civilization; and agri¬
culture, as well as other arts, has always been in differ¬
ent degrees of improvement among different nations at
the fame time.
From the earlieft accounts of the eaftern nations, we
have reafon to think, that agriculture has at all times
been underftood by them in confiderable perfection ;
feeing they were always fupplied not only with the ne-
ceflaries, but the greateft luxuries, of life. The Egyp¬
tians never appear to have been deftitute of it, feeing
they were capable of fupplying other nations with corn
upwards of 2400 years before the Chriftian asra. The
accounts of Herodotus, concerning the judicious con-
dud of this nation in the difpofition of their country
with refpeft to the inundations of the Nile, likewife
evince their knowledge of agriculture to have been very
confiderable.
The Greeks, who were at firft a fet of barbarous fa-
vages, appear to have received their knowledge of agri¬
culture from the eaftern nations. Some few fragments
of theirs are the moft ancient rudiments of hufbandry
upon record. The elder Cato is the moft ancient La¬
tin author whofe writings upon this fubjed have reach¬
ed the prefent time. An improved treatife on agricul¬
ture was written by Varro, who has embelliftied his fub-
jed with elegant language: foon after him, Virgil pu-
blifhed his juftly admired Georgies, by far the moft
laboured and highly finilhed of any of his works. Co¬
lumella afterwards colleded with great judgment what¬
ever was valuable in the writings of his predeceffors,
and enriched them with his own obfervations on the
fubjed. His work is one of the choiceft remains of
antiquity, and has fcarcely been equalled by any author
fince his time.—Valuable treatifes on agriculture were
alfo publiftied by Attalus, king of Pergamus; Arehe-
laus, king of Cappadocia; Valerius Afiaticus, who was
judged worthy of the empire after Caligula; and by the
emperor Albinus.
The irruptions of the barbarous nations of the north
foon aboliftied any improved agriculture. Thefe innu¬
merable and enterprifing barbarians, who over-ran all
Europe, were originally (hepherds or hunters, like the
-grefent Tartars and the favages of America. They coa-
L T U R E. Hiftory.
tented themfelves with pofleffing thofe vaft deferts made
by their own ravages, without labour or trouble, cul¬
tivating only a very fmall fpot near their habitations ;
and in this trifling hufbandry, only the meaneft flaves
were employed: fo that the art itfelf, which formerly
was thought worthy of the ftudy of kings, was now
looked upon as mean and ignoble; a prejudice which
is fcarcely effaced at prefent, or at leaft but very lately.
At what time agriculture was introduced into Bri¬
tain, is uncertain. When Julius Caefar firft invaded this
ifland, it was not wholly unknown. That conqueror
was of opinion, that agriculture was firft introduced by
fome of thofe colonies from Gaul which had fettled in
the fouthern parts of Britain, about 100 years before
the Roman invafion*. b?1*g'd
It is not to be expe&ed that we can now be acquaint- ^ ^ ^ ‘I3
ed with many of the pradices of thefe ancient huf-
bandmen. It appears, however, that they were not
unacquainted with the ufe of manures, particularly
marie. This we have on the authority of Pliny j-, who t PI'1)* Nat.
tells us, that it was peculiar to the people of Gaul and
of Britain; that its effedls continued 80 years ; and
that no man was ever known to marie his field twice,
&c.—It is highly probable, too, that lime was at this
time alfo ufed as a manure in Britain, it being.certain-
ly made ufe of in Gaul for this purpofe at the time of
Julius Csefar’s invafion.
The eftablifhment of tjie Romans in Britain produ¬
ced great improvements in agriculture, infomuch that
prodigious quantities of corn were annually exported
from the ifland; but when the Roman power began to
decline, this, like all the other arts, declined alfo, and
was almoft totally deftroyed by the departure of that
people. The unhappy Britons were now expofed to
frequent incurfions of the Scots and Pifts, who deftroy¬
ed the fruits of their labours, and interrupted them in
the exercife of their art. After the arrival of the Sax¬
ons in the year 449, they were involved in fuch long
wars, and underwent fo many calamities, that the hus¬
bandmen gradually loft much of their (kill, and were at
laft driven from thofe parts of their country which were
moft proper for cultivation.
After the Britons retired into Wales, though it ap¬
pears from the laws made relative to this art, that agri¬
culture was thought worthy of the attention of the le-
giflature, yet their inftruments appear to have been very
unartful. It was enabled that no man (hould undertake
to guide a plough who could not make one; and that
the driver ftiould make the ropes of twifted willows,
with which it was drawn. It was ufual for fix or eight
perfons to form themfelves into a fociety for fitting out
one of thefe ploughs, providing it with oxen and e-
very thing neceflary for ploughing ; and many minute
and curious laws were made for the regulation of fuch
focieties. If any perfon laid dung on a field with the
confent of the proprietor, he was by law allowed the
ufe of that land for one year. If the dung was carried
out in a cart in great abundance, he was to have the
ufe of the land for three years. Whoever cut down a
wood, and converted the ground into arable, with the
eonfent of the owner, was to have the ufe of it for five
years. If any one folded his cattle, for one year, up¬
on a piece of ground belonging to another, with the
owner’s confent, he was allowed the ufe of that fieldr
for four, years,.
Thus*
AGRICULTURE.
Hiftory.
Thus, though the Britons had in a great meafui'b
loft the knowledge of agriculture, they appear to have
been very affiduous in giving encouragement to fuch as
would attempt a revival of it; but, among the Anglo-
Saxons, things were not at prefent in fo good a ftate.
Thefe reftlefs and haughty warriors, having contrac¬
ted a diftafte and contempt for agriculture, were at
pains to enacl laws to prevent its being followed by any
other than women and flaves. When they firft arri¬
ved in Britain, they had no occafion for this art, being
fupplied by the natives with all the neceflaries of life.
After the commencement of hoftilities, the Saxons
fubfifted chiefly by plunder; but having driven out or
extirpated moft of the ancient Britons, and divided
their lands among themfelves, they found themfelves in
danger of ftarving, there being now no enemy to plun¬
der; and therefore they were obliged to apply to agri¬
culture.
The Saxon princes and great men, who, in the divi-
fionof the lands, had received the greateft (hares, are faid
to have fubdivided their eftates into two parts, which
were called the in-lands and the out-lands. The in¬
lands were thofe which lay moft contiguous to the
manfion-houfe of their owner, which he kept in his
own poffeflion, and cultivated by his flaves, under the
direction of a bailiff-, for the purpofe of raifing provi-
fions for the family. The out-lands were thofe at a
greater diftance from the houfe, and were let to the
ceorls, or farmers of thofe times, at very moderate
rents. - By the laws of Ina king of the weft Saxons,
w'ho reigned in the end of the feventli and begin¬
ning of the eight century, a farm, confifting of ten,
hides, or plough-lands, w'as to pay the following rent:
“ Ten calks of honey ; three hundred loaves of bread;
“ twelve calks of ftrong ale; thirty calks of fmall ale;
“ two oxen; ten wedders: ten geefe; twenty hens ;
“ ten cheefes ; one calk of butter; five falmon ; twen-
“ ty pounds of forage; and one hundred eels.” From
this low rent the imperfection of agriculture at that
time is eafily difcoverable ; but it is ftill more fo from
the low prices at which land was then fold. In the
ancient hiftory of the church of Ely, publilhed by
Dr Gale, there are accounts of-many purchafes of
lands by iEdel wold the founder of that church, and by
other benefaCtors, in the reign of Edgar the Peaceable,
in the tenth century. By a comparifon of thefe ac¬
counts it appears, that the ordinary price of an acre of
the beft land in that part of England, in thofe times,
was no more than 16 Saxon pennies, or about four
Ihillings of our money ; a very trifling price, even in
comparifon of that of other commodities at the fame
time: for, by comparing other accounts, it appears,
that four Iheep were then equal in value to an acre of
the beft land, and one horfe of the fame value with
three acres. The frequent and deplorable famines
which afflifted England about this time, are further
Inftances of the wretched ftate of agriculture. In 1043,
a quarter of wheat fold for 60 Saxon pennies, (15 of
our Ihillings) and at that time equal in value to feven
or eight pounds of our money now.
The invalion of the Normans, in 1066, contributed
very much to the improvement of agriculture ; for, by
that event, many thoufands of hulbandmen from Flan¬
ders, France, and Normandy, fettled in Britain, ob¬
tained eftates or farms, and cultivated them after the
manner of their country. The implements of hulban-
dry, ufed at this time, were of the fame kind with thofe
employed at prefent; but fome of them were lefs per-
feCl in their conftruftion. The plough, for example,
had but one ftilt, or handle, which the ploughman
uided with one hand, having in his other hand an in-
rument which ferved both for cleaning and mending
the plough, as well as for breaking the clods. The
Norman plough had two wheels ; and in the light foil
of Normandy was commonly drawn by one or two
oxen; but, in England, a greater number was often
neceflary. In Wales, the perfon who conduCled the
oxen in the plough walked backwards. Their carts,
harrows, fcythes, fickles, and flails, from the figures
of them ftill remaining, appear fo have been nearly of
the fame conftruClion with thofe that are now ufed. In
Wales, they did not ufe a fickle for reaping their corns,
butaninftrumentlikethe blade of a knife, with a wooden
handle at each end.—Their chief manure, next to dung,
feems ftill to have been marie. Summer fallowing of
lands defigned for wheat, and ploughing them feveral
times, appear to have been frequent praftices of the
Englilh farmers in this period.
All this time, agriculture feems to have been in a
very imperfed ftate in Scotland. Though we are cer¬
tain that the knowledge of it in this country proceeded
originally from England, we know not when it was in¬
troduced. In 1214, the legiflature feem to have di¬
rected their attention towards the improvement of this
art; for by an aCl of Alexander II. dated this year,
all farmers that had four oxen or cows, or upwards,
were commanded to till their land by ploughing, and to
begin to-till fifteen days before Candlemas; that fuch
farmers as had not fo many oxen, Ihould delve with
hand and foot as much land as would produce a fuffi-
cient quantity of corn to fupport themfelves and their
families. It is probable, however, that this law was
defigned for the Highlands, and moft uncultivated parts
of the kingdom; for, in the lame parliament, a very
fevere law was made againft thofe farmers who did not
extirpate a pernicious weed called guilde out of their
lands, which feems to indicate a more advanced ftate of
cultivation.
The moft eonfiderable improvements in agriculture,
however, have taken place in Britain fince the reign of
Queen Elizabeth. The reformation was no lefs favour- '
able to the arts than to religion. Improvements were
firft begun by fome natives of Switzerland who fettled
in England ; and the liberal fpirit of inquiry fucceed-
ing this remarkable period, hath in a manner entirely
put an end to that flavilh attachment to the cuftoms of
preceding ages, which, under the dominion of popery,
proved an unfurmountable bar to the progrefs of every
fcience. Societies for the improvement of this moft
ufeful art have been inftituted both in England and
Scotland; and though the agriculture of Scotland hath
hitherto fcarcely equalled that of England,yet the im¬
provements that are daily making in the former, and
the univerfal increafe of the knowledge of the art among
her inhabitants, leave no room to doubt, that in a few
years fhe will Ihow every mark of equality that foil, cli¬
mate, and other natural differences, will allow.
125
Part
AGRICULTURE.
Part I.
Th e or y.
THEORY of AGRICULTURE.  
126
Part I.
IN an art fo extenfively ufeful to mankind, and which
has been fo univerfally praftifed fince the creation
of the world, it is natural to expe& the moft ex aft and
perfeft theory; but in this we are not only totally dif-
appointed, but likewife find the greateft difagreement
among thofe who praftife it, new fchemes ftarting up
and receiving the higheft applaufe to day, and finking
j into total negleft and oblivion to-morrow.
Ignorance of One reafori of this want of a diftiiift theory of agri-
the food of cu]ture is, the ignorance of what is properly the food
thereafonof vegeta^)^es > f°r as the whole art of agriculture con-
imperfec- ° fifts onty in fupplying them with a proper quantity of
tion in the food, in the moft favourable circumftances, it is evi-
theory of a- dent, we could proceed upon a much more fure foun-
griculture. ^at{on if we could afcertain what their proper nou-
riftiment is, than we can do without this knowledge.
—The reafon of the great differences regarding the
praftice, probably, is the difficulty of making experi¬
ments in agriculture. It is not in this art as in Me¬
chanics, Chemiftry, &c. where an experiment can be
made in an hour, or a day or two at fartheft : an ex¬
periment in agriculture cannot be properly made in lefs
than feveral years. Some favourable unobferved cir¬
cumftances, quite foreign to the experiment itfelf, may
concur to produce plentiful crops for a year or two ;
and thus the farmer may be induced to publifti his
fancied improvements, which failing in the hands of o-
thers, or perhaps even in his own on a repetition of
the experiment, the new improvements are totally ne-
lefted, and things continue in their old way. Was
e, however, capable of feeing and handling the food
of vegetables, as well as he can do that of a horfe or an
ox, and procuring it in any imaginable quantity, it is
plain, that he would be able to caufe vegetables grow
in their utmoft luxuriancy, or, if we may be allowed
the expreffion,/«We« them, with as great certainty as
he can fatten a horfe or an ox, when he hath plenty of
proper food to give them.—To afcertain what this food
is, therefore, miift be a ftep towards the perfeftion of
agriculture; and to this we ftrall contribute our endea¬
vour.
a Sect. I. Of the proper Food of Plants.
Various fup- We fhall not here fpend time in refuting the theories
concerning t^°^e w^° imagined the vegetable food to confift of
the food of °ily and falinefubftances. Thefe will be confidered when
plants. fpeaking of the different kinds of manures. The theory
which feems to gain moft credit at prefent is, that Water
and Air are the proper vegetable food, to which alone
they owe their increafe in bulk and weight.—That
plants cannot be fupported without both thefe, is very
certain : but we know, that air is a compound fluid;
and water is never without fome impurities, fo may al-
fo be confidered as a compound.—Dr Prieftley hath
fhewn, that our atmofphere is compofed of earth, of
See Atr. ph]0g;ft0n> ancl the nitrous acid *. To thefe we may
add water; for whether that is an ingredient in the Doc¬
tor’s pure dephlogifticated air or not, we are very fure
that it is fo in that air which has accefs to all vegetables,
and contributes fo much to their growth. Is it then the
aqueous, the earthy, the acid, or the phlogiftic part of
the air, which nourilhes plants ? In like manner, is it
the pure elementary part of water, which nourilhes
them ? or does it contribute to their growth only by the
heterogeneous fubftances which it contains ? 3
From Dr-Prieftley’s experiments on different kinds of Vegetables,
air, it appears that the pureft kind of that fluid is not th rive in pa¬
th e fitteft for the purpofes of vegetation. On the con- tn air*
trary, vegetables flourilhed in a furprifing degree when
confined in a fmall quantity of air made perfeftly nox¬
ious by the putrid effluvia of animal bodies. In thefe
circumftances, a fprig of mint extended itfelf, in feven
days, three inches in length, and put forth feveral new
(hoots’; the putrid air, in the mean time, being deprived
of its noxious quality, and becoming fo wholefome that
animals might breathe it with fafety. This property
of abforbing fuch noxious effluvia, he found to belong
not only to mint, but indifcriminately to every vege¬
table fubftance ; and hence he concludes, that one ufe
of the vegetable creation is to purify the air from that
immenfe quantity of putrid effluvia which is continually
abforbed by it from the breath of living creatures, and
the putrefaftion of animal and vegetable bodies. By
the abforption of thefe effluvia from the air we find that
vegetables are remarkably increafed in bulk. We are
allured, therefore, that they conftitute at leaft one fpe-
cies of vegetable food; and when vegetables are put in¬
to fuch circumftances that the fteams of putrefying bo¬
dies can have accefs to them, we are fure they will
thrive the better. 4
Befides this method of reftoringthefalubrity of putrid Water capa-
air by growing vegetables, the Doftor found another; bleof imbi-
namely, by agitating it in water, part of which was ex- putrid
pofed to the atmofphere. In this cafe, the water ac- e uvu"
quired a very putrid noxious fmell; which Ihews, that
water, as well as air, is capable of abforbing thofe ef¬
fluvia which are found proper food for vegetables. We
cannot help concluding, therefore, that in the continual
afcent of water in vapour, and its defcent again in rain, *
which is a much more effectual agitation than could be
made by Dr Prieftley, the water muft be very intimate¬
ly combined with the phlogijlic or putrid effluvia which
are contained in the air. To this union we are led
ftrongly to fufpeft that rain-water owes its fertilizing
qualities; for the pureft fpring waters, though moft
wholefome for animals, are not found to be fitteft for
promoting the growth of vegetables.—As, therefore, putridefflu-
vegetables evidently receive nourilhment both by their via the pro¬
leaves and roots, and increafe remarkably in bulk per food of
by abforbing the putrid effluvia from the air; and as plants*
they likewife increafe in bulk by admitting water to
their roots, and more fo when the water contains much
of that kind of effluvium, than when it contains lels ;
we muft neceffarily conclude, that the nourilhment re¬
ceived by the roots of plants is of the fame kind with
that received by their leaves; and that this food may be
given them in greater plenty, than they naturally re¬
ceive it, by impregnating the air which furrounds them,
or the water which moiftens them, with a greater quan¬
tity of putrid matter than what they contain in a natu¬
ral ftate.
Some will perhaps laugh at this fcanty proviiion we obje£tions
are making for the immenfe quantity of vegetables with anfwered.
which the whole furface of the earth is covered; for
the
Part I.
A G R I C U
Theory, the food we have juft now affigned them is naturally
and confequently will be looked upon by many
aS a kind of non-entity. Its invifibility, however, is no
argument for its exifting only in a fmall quantity; for
the fubtile matter which increafes the weight of calci¬
ned metals is equally invifible with what we have juft
now affigned for the fupport of the vegetable creation;
neverthelefs, it isfo far from being in fmall quantity, that
any imaginable weight of it may be abforbed from the
'r in a ffiort time. It is faid by fome, that lead, by
L T U R E. 127
Chemifts have diftinguifhed the different kinds of Theory,
earths into particular claffes *, from whence we might  
expedt feme infight into the nature of different foils ; ftry^no 33”'
but fo far from this, that fpecies of earth, which alone ’ 8 J ■
is capable of fupplying the vegetable kingdom with 0f tJie true
nouriffiment in the greateft plenty, feerns entirely over-
looked, and is fcarce ever mentioned. This kind of Car
earth-is the moft common of any, and is found in its
greateft perfeftion in well cultivated gardens. It is not
however, even in thefe, found-in perfecl purity'; being
being converted into the fubftance called minium or red conftantly mixed with greater or lefs proportions of
lead, gains one fourth, by others only one tenth, in
•See Chemi- weight from the air* : as a medium, we ftiall fupppofe
firy, n°402. that it gains 4-th. If feven tons of lead, then, were con¬
verted into minium at once, it would gain one ton, or
2000lb. from the air, in three or four days at moft, for
that is the longeft time required for the calcination.
We fhould be furprifed at finding a vegetable increafe
fo much in fuch a (hort time, though it receives food
both from the air and earth; but if the air contains
fuch a quantity of mineral food, if we pleafe to call it
fo, why fhould it not contain an equal quantity of matter
for the fupport of vegetables alfo, even fuppofing them
to have no other fource of nourifhment ?
fand, fmall ftones, &c. It can be had by itielf, and
entirely feparated from all other fubftances, only by
fuffering vegetable or animal bodies to putrify. By
undergoing this operation, they are at laft refolved in¬
to a kind of earth, which appears perfe&ly the fame,
from whatever fubftance it is produced. Of this earth
Dr Lewis gives us the following characters. It is in-
diffoluble in acids, fomewhat tenacious when moiftened
with water, friable when dry, and acquires no addition¬
al hardnefs in the fire.—The chemiftry of nature, and
of art, however, are fo very diffimilar, that an account
of the chemical properties of this earth can be but of
very little fervice to the practice of agriculture; .how-
Sect. II. The foregoing Theory confirmedfrom cm- f t°th°fe a?30ve ntI°ned we mf Y *dd> ^ when it
y.. . ^ ~ J ^ i HifhllpH with si violent hrp. a vnmtilp alrsmnp fnint
ri Ihing
getables.
fiderations on the nature of vegetable Mould, and
the different kinds of Manure found proper for
fertilizing the Soil.
All kinds of Though plants will grow on any kind of earth, and
earth not flourifh vigoroufly, if plentifuly fupplied with water; yet
tier f!!^ Pr°' ^ome hinds of foils are found much more proper for fup-
oer ornmi- piy.;ng them w;th nouriftiment than others.—We can¬
not, indeed, allow the inferences to be quite fair which
fome would draw from experiments on plants fet in
mere fand, &c.; viz. that the earth is of no other ufe to
vegetation than to afford a proper fupport to the plant,
that it be not eafily moved out of its place; becaufe the
experiments made on Angle vegetables are always per¬
formed in or very near houfes, where the air is by no
means fo pure as in the open fields, and confequently
where they have an opportunity of receiving as much
nouriftiment from the air as may compenfate the want
of what they would have derived from the earth if
planted in a rich foil. Lord Kaimes, in the Gentleman
Farmer, mentions an experiment wherein a pea was
planted on fome cotton fpread on water, in. a vial.
It fprung, arid puftied roots through the cotton into the
water. The plant grew vigoroufly, and, at the time
of his writing the experiment, carried large pods full
of ripe feed.—From this experiment, or others of a
fimilar kind, however, a farmer would not be thought
to a<ft very judicioufly, who ftiould conclude that no¬
thing more was requifite to produce a plentiful crop,
than to keep his fields conftantly foaking with water,
and apply his labour only for that purpofe, without re¬
garding either tillage, manure, or the difference of foils.
Experience has abundantly (hewn, that by certain ope¬
rations performed on the earth itfelf, it is rendered much
is diftilled with a violent fire, a volatile alcaline fpirit,
and foetid oil, fimilar to thofe of hartfliorn or other a-
nimal fubftances, are obtained. 9
As the volatile alcali is known to be .produced in This earth
great plenty by diftilling putrid fubftances either ani- impregna-
mal or vegetable, the obtaining an alcaline fpirit from
this kind of earth is a ftrong argument of its being n e UTla"
much impregnated with the putrid effluvium, which we
have already mentioned as the proper vegetable food
contained in the air and water. Indeed, confiderinj
ig
that this kind of earth is produced by putrefaction, it
is next to an impoffibility that it ftiould not be impreg¬
nated with putrid fleams, as much as earth can be; and
if the earth which is moft impregnated with thefe fleams
is found to afford the greateft quantity of nouriftiment
to vegetables, we have from thence an additional proof
that they live on the putrid matter emitted from dead
animals and vegetables like themfelves. * i®
That we may be the more afeertained of this, it Earth is ca-
muft be confidered, that the earth, which undoubtedly ah'
is the great fource of nourifhment to vegetables, is ca- tr;rd
pable of abforbing putrid effluvia more powerfully, or in prodigi-
at leaft in much greater quantity, before it is faturated, ous quanci-
than either the air or water. The praftice of bury- tics*
ing dead bodies is an undeniable proof of this. They
are laid but a fmall depth uhder ground; yet the abo¬
minable flench emitted by the dead carcafe is retained
in the earth, fo that it never penetrates in fuch a man¬
ner as to be offenfive. That earth may be faturated
with this putrid matter, as well as air or water, is very
certain; and, in cafe of fuch a faturation, no doubt either
of thefe will take up the fuperfluous quantity, and be¬
come noxious: but unlefs the earth is fully faturated,
both of them will depofit part of what they themfelves
more capable of fupplying vegetables with plenty of contain in the earth, and by that means become more
nourifhment than if fuch operations were omitted; and falutary than they were before. tJ
that fome kinds of foils cannot without certain additions That earth is capable of attracting putrid effluvia from Agreeable
be rendered fo fit for this purpofe as others; and this the air, perhaps, may not be fo readily granted; and in- odour emie-
is what conftitutes the difference between a rich and a deed we know of no experiment whereby it can be moift
poor foil. fhewn that putrid air is made falutary by having any earn‘
kind
A G R I C U
v. kind of earth agitated in it: but if we confider the ex¬
ceeding great kuubrity of the air in the country, and
the healthinefs of thofe who follow the plough or are
employed in digging the ground, we muft at leaft al¬
low, that when the ground is turned up, it communi¬
cates no kind of noxious quality to the air; which it
moft certainly would do, if it emitted a putrid effluvium.
So far from this, the fmell of moift earth is always a-
greeable and wholefome; and here we have the fatisfac-
tion to find our theory fomewhat confirmed by the ce¬
lebrated Baron van Swieten, late phyfician to the em-
prefs of Hungary.
“ Phyficians” fays he “ ufually advife their patients
to rufticatkm, not only that they may enjoy a pure and
freely circulating air, but that, as their ftrength in-
creafes, they may, difengaged from all care, exercife
their body by the (lighter labours of agriculture, and
other country amufements.
“ There may perhaps be another caufe why ruftica-
tion will be of benefit in confumptions. It is well
known, that, after fome days drought, on the falling
of rain that moiftens the earth, there arifes a grateful
fmell, which we all are fenfible of; and this is common¬
ly attributed to the vegetables, which before faplefs, but
now refrefhed by rain, perfpire more copioufly. But
Reaumur obferved, that a like fragrancy is alfo per¬
ceptible after rain when the corn has been cut down in
the fields, where there only remains dry ftubble; and
examining the matter more particularly, he found that
dry earth is without fmell, but as foon as it is moiften-
ed to the degree of having the confiftence of foftifh pap,
it then diffufes a ftrong fmell ; but if more water is
added, the fmell is diminifhed, nay even quite diffipated.
Neither does it feem an eafy matter to exhauft that power
of producing fmells which the earth is poffeffed of. E-
very day, during a fortnight, he-made cakes of moiftened
earth; and having dried and wetted them over again, he
could not perceive that the earth was lefs fragrant after
all thefe repeated experiments, if it was again wetted.
He further obferved, that this fragrancy does not diffufe
itfelf to any thing atagreat diftance, without being much
diminiflied, and foon entirely gone.—It has been ob¬
ferved, that this exfpiration of the earth ceafes if thun¬
der and ftorms foon follow : while they continue, it be¬
gins to return ; and when over, the fame fragrancy of
the earth for fome hours affedts the fmell of a man as
he walks along over a confiderable traft of ground.
There is no one, I believe, but has fometimes made
this obfervation ; and hence the earth, when moiftened
to a certain degree, feems to exhale fragrant odours,
and indeed various in various places, as we are fenfible
of from their diverfity. They are for the moft part of
a falubrious quality; as fome perfons quite faint and
languid in the fummer-heats perceive themfelves won¬
derfully refreftied, whilft, after rain, they fnuff up the
fragrant odour. In fome places thofe effluvia are per¬
haps bad, and may be the caufes of difeafes.”
This property of emitting a fragrant fmell is like-
wife taken notice of by Dr Home in his Principles of
Agriculture and Vegetation. Some phyficians have
prefcribed a bath of earth for the cure of confump-
tive patients ; and Dr Solano de Luque was of opinion,
that the earth had the property of abforbing conta¬
gious miafmata into it: and we are certain, that whe¬
ther it can abforb thefe miafmata from living bodies
L T U R E. Part I.
or not, it certainly can abforb them from dead ones; Theory.
for a piece of putrid meat wrill be much fweetened by ’
lying for a fhort time in the ground. J2
From all this we cannot indeed infer, that putrid Power of
air is fweetened by mere earth; but we difcover what tranfmuta-
is perhaps more important, namely, that though earth don in the
is the common receptacle of all putrid matters both ^rt“ a‘icrt*
animal and vegetable, there is a change made on them
when in it, which cannot be made either by air or wa¬
ter. Thus, if the carcafe of a fmall animal is left to
putrefy in the air, it becomes exceedingly offenfive,
and continues fo from firft to laft. The fame thing
happens if it is left to putrefy in water. But, in earth,
the cafe is quite different. After the carcafe is con-
fumed, the earth which has imbibed all the putrid
fteams, inftead of exhaling an offenfive odour, diffufes
an agreeable one ; and thus we may fee that it is en¬
dued with a power no lefs remarkable than that of at-
tra&ion or repulfion, and which we may diftinguifti by
the name of tranfmutation. With regard to water,
the cafe is more evident; for the moft putrid water will
be fweetened by percolation through earth, or even
running in a channel for fome time on its furface ; but
if it contains any impurities of the faline kind, they
will not be feparatedj or at leaft in very fmall quan-
tity- . x,
The exiftence of fuch a power as that of tranfmuta- Attraffton1
tioh we will be obliged to own, whatever we imagine infufficient
the vegetable food to confift of; for it is impoflible to t0 f°lve the
fblve the phenomena of vegetation by attraftions and P^”°^na
repulfions. If we fuppofe the vegetable food to be tion. *
fait, let us attract and repel fait as we will, it remains
fait from firft to laft. Let us fuppofe it water, the
cafe is the fame; and, by mere attraction, nothing but
maffes of fait, or pools of water, could be produced.
The cafe is the fame on our own hypothefis; for, fup-
pofing plants compofed of the putrid effluvia of others,
and of dead animals, if nature was endued with no
other power than attraction or repulfion, the vegetable
behoved to be a corrupted mafs like that of which it
was compofed.—This power, as we have already feen,
refides only in the earth, and in the vegetables them¬
felves ; air and water can indeed a£t as powerful fol-
vents, but cannot transform or compound.
We muft next confider the nature of thofe different Confi^a_
operations, which, from time immemorial, have been tion of the a-
performed on the earth, in order to caufe it produce hove theory
the greateft crops of vegetables. If all of thefe (hall fr,om the
be found confpiring to one general purpofe, then the
fhorteft and moft eafy method of attaining that pur- agriculture,
pofe is undoubtedly the moft proper to be pra&ifed in
agriculture, whether it hath been as yet put in execu¬
tion or not. Thefe are,
i. Frequent ploughing, or fallonuing. Tire imme- _ ,y.
diate confequences of this is to expofe different quan- W **
tities of the foil to the aCtion of the air and fun, which
will not fail to exert their folvent powers upon it. In
confequence of this aftion, the earth is partly reduced
to powder; many of the roots of vegetables, with which
it always abounds, are diffolved and putrified; and the
earth produced from them mixes with the reft, as well
as the effluvia they emit during their diffolution. The
earth foon begins again to exert its prolific quality,
and a crop of vegetables is produced. By a repetition
of the ploughing, thefe are turned with their roots up¬
wards.
Part. I.
AGRICULTURE.
129
Theory, wards, are expofed to the folvent powers of the air and
light, in confequence of which they die, are putrefied,
and more of the native foil is reduced to powder, and
mixed with them. By a frequent repetition of this
procefs, the foil becomes vaftly more tender, and ap¬
proaches to the nature of garden-mould, and its fertili¬
ty is confiderably increafed.
16 . Lord Kaimes is of opinion, that the reafon of the
7hofCaaPfoii futility of any foil being increafed by fallowing, is,
to retain wa- that its capacity of retaining water is increafed. But
- ter not in- this we abfolutely deny ; for fo far from being more
created by difpofed to retain water by its pulverifation, the foil is
fallowing. €vident}y more dffpofed to part v/ith it, either by eva¬
poration, or by fuffering the moifture to percolate thro’
it. In this refpedt it is far inferior to clay ; for thoJ
dry garden-mould abforbs water much more quickly
tha n clay, it alfo dries much fooner, and thus all the
advantage is loft.
17 To thofe who reckon the food of vegetables tocon-
ftlts nof the ^ OI^s cr the operation of fallowing ground
true vet>e- muft appear an nfelefs one, as it can tend neither to
table food, prpduce oils nor falts, but to deftroy them. As its
utility, however, cannot be denied, the favourers of
this theory imagine, that the ground, by repeated ope¬
rations of this kind, is fitted for attracting the nitrous
falts from the air: but it is found, that thefe falts can¬
not be attracted by earth, or any other fubftance, even
when expofed for a great length of time to the air
with a view to produce falt-petre; which gives a ftrong
* Sec Chemi- fufpicion againft their exiftence*; and even if nitre is
fry, n° 177. jpJxej with the foil, it is found to be detrimental, and
will kill or poifon plants inftead of nouriftung them.
18 2. Overflowing the ground with water.—This is
Overflowing found prodigioully to increafe the fertility of any foil,
the foil with jt js wejj kow much Egypt owes to the annual
overflowing of the Mile ; and even in this country the
overflowing of any ground is found to be attended with
great advantage. This is praCtifed by Mr Bakewell
of Leicefterfhire, famous for his improvements in the
breed of cattle; and he finds it fully to anfwer an annual
manuring of any other fort. It is alfo recommended
by Mr Anderfon of'Monkftnil, in his effays on agri¬
culture,
19 The fertilizing quality of water will Cafily be ac-
Reafons of counted for on the fame principles. When grown ve-
0f4 ferity getables are covered with water, their growth, however
by the over- vigorous before, is immediately ftopt, unlefs they be
flowing. of the aquatic kind; they die; are diffolved, and putre¬
fied; in which cafe, their finer parts are undoubtedly
abforbed by the earth : and thus the floating, as it is
called, of fields with water, anfwers the purpofe of fal¬
lowing, with very little trouble. This is not all: for
ftagnating water always depofits a fediment, which,
mixing with the diffolved parts of the vegetables all over
the field, forms an excellent manure; and when the
water is allowed to run off, the heat of the fun foon
brings the higheft degree of putrefa&ion on the dead
vegetables, the effluvia of which, mixing with the mud
depofited from the water, makes it exceedingly rich.
40 Upon the fuppofition of oily and faline food for ve-
Oils & falts getables, this operation muft certainly be prejudicial;
the"vegeta- :tor not^*ng can f° effe&ually deprive any fubftance of
Jfle food. fait, as fteeping it in water. Neither will water either
depofit oil from itfelf, or fuffer it to mix with the ground
if accidentally brought to it; nay, though a field were
Vol. I.
previoufly impregnated with oil, upon overflowing it Theory.
with water, great part of the oil would be feparated,
and rife to the top: fo that, in either cafe, this opera¬
tion behoved to impoverifti land, rather than enrich it;
and as vegetables are found to be fupplied with food in
plenty, by an operation which muft undoubtedly tend
to take away both oils and falts from them, we cannot
help thinking this a demonftration that their food is
compofed neither of oil nor fait.
3. Manuring, or mixing the foil with different fub- 21
ftances.—We fhall here confine ourfelves to thofe which addl'dro*’
are of undoubted efficacy, and have their credit efta- peration.
bliftied by long experience. Thefe are, x. lime, chalk,
marie, fhells, or other earths called by the chemifts
calcareous earths ; 2. foot; 3. allies; 4. dung of dif¬
ferent kinds.— (1.) The lime, chalk, marie, and fhells,
are all found to be of the fame nature. The marie
differs from the reft, only in having a mixture of clay
along with its calcareous part. Thefe contain neither
fiilt nor oil of any kind; they readily imbibe water,
and as readily part with it. Quicklime, indeed, retains
water very obftinately ; but Inch lime as is laid upon
the ground foon returns to the fame. ftate in which it
originally was, and powdered limeftone is found to
anfwer as well for the purpofes of manure as that which
has been burnt; fo that here we may confider them
all as fubftances of the fame clafs.—If any of thefe
fubftances are mixed with dead animal or vegetable
bodies, they remarkably quicken their diffolution and
corruption, as appears from Sir John Pringle’s expe¬
riments on putrefa&ion. When mixed with the foil,
therefore, they muft undoubtedly exert their powers on
fuch fubftances as they find there, in the fame manner
as they do on others ; that is, they muft haften their
diffolution and putrefa&ion, and give the pure vege¬
table mould an opportunity of abforbing their putrid
tteams, and confequently of being fertilized by it in
the fame manner as by putrid fubftances of any kind.
(2.) Thofe who contend for oily and faline principles
in the vegetable food, avail themfelves of the ufefulnefs
of foot as a manure ; which is not only oily of itfelf,
but affords a great quantity of volatile fait, along with
fome neutral fal-ammoniac. It muft be remembered,
however, that not an atom either of volatile fait or fal-
ammoniac can be extrarited from foot without a confi-
derable heat, which no foil can give, nor could any
vegetable bear. Neither doth its oil appear without
a great degree of heat: and though it feels fomewhat
unftuous to the touch, this is but a mere deception; for
no true oil, capable of floating on water, can be ob¬
tained from foot without diftillation. It is impoffible,
therefore, that foot can aft upon the foil either as an
oily or a faline fubftance; how far it is capable of dif¬
folution by putrefaftion, or being otherwife converted
into an earth, hath not yet been determined by expe¬
riments ; but as it yields, on diftillation, the fame
principles which are obtained from animal or putrefied
vegetable fubftances, it is probable that foot enriches
the ground in the fame manner that they do. (3.) The
ufe of allies in manure is likewife urged as an argument
for the food of vegetables being of a faline nature ; as
it is known, that the common alcaline falts are procured
by lixiviating the alhes of wood and other vegetables.
Experience, however, fhews us, that allies are no lefs
fit for manure after the fait is extrafted from them than
R before.
130
The or y.
* See Chsmi-
Jlry, n° 103.
* Sec Chant-
ftry, n° 319,
E fleas of fa-
line fohfian
ces on grow-
ing vegeta
bles.
AGRICULTURE.
Part. I.
before. Indeed, if there is any difference, it is in fa¬
vour of the waftied afhes. The alcalx itfelf, though in
Sir John Pi-ingle’s experiments it was found to be anti-
feptic, or a refifter of putrefaction, is neverthelefs a
powerful diffolvent; and as it muft foon lofe its alcaline
properties when mixed with the earth, in confequence
of the univerfal exiftence of the vitriolic acid *, thofe
fubftances which it has diffolved will be more difpofed
to putrefaCtion than before, and confequently tend to
fertilize the ground in the manner we have already de-
fcribed. The wafhed afhes are feptics, or promoters
of putrefaCtion, and confequently aCt in the fame man¬
ner as chalk or limeftone. (4.) All kinds of dung are
fo much difpofed to putrefaCtion, that it is difficult to
imagine any other way in which they can be fei-viceable
to vegetation than by their putrid effluvia.—People in¬
deed may dream of imaginary falts in dung ; but if
they confidered, or even knew the difficulty of procu¬
ring fait of any kind from dung, they would probably
alter their fentiments. The volatile falts procured from
this as well as other animal-matters are mere creatures
of the fire : putrid urine produces them indeed without
heat, but fcarce any other animal-fubftance *. Never-
' thelefs other putrid fubftances will fertilize the ground
as well as urine, and therefore muft aCf in fome other way
than by their falts. Tho’ Dr Prieftley’s experiments had
never been made, we could have formed no other rational
fuppofition concerning the manner in which putrid fub¬
ftances fertilize the earth than what we have already
-done ; but as he has (hewn that vegetables are prodigi-
oufly increafed in bulk by the mere contaCf of thefe
putrid fteams, where no faline fubftance could have ac-
cefs to them, we cannot help thinking this a decifive
experiment concerning the manner in which the ground
is fertilized by manuring with dung or other putrid
fubftances.
We ftiall conclude this part of the fubjeft with an ac-
■ count of fome experiments concerning the effefts of fa-
' line fubftances on the growth of vegetables. The fol¬
lowing are related by Lord Kaimes, in his Gentleman
Farmer.—“ A number of Jerufalem artichokes were fet
in pots filled with pure fand. One plant was kept as
a ftandard, being nourilhed with water only. Other
plants of the fame kind were nouriftied with water in
which fait of tartar, a fixed alcali, was diffolved.
Thefe grew more vigoroufly than the ftandard plant ;
but, by reiterated waterings, there came to be fuch an
accumulation of the fixed alcali among the fand, as to
make the plants decay, and at laft to die. Some plants
were nouriftied with water in which fal-ammoniac, a
volatile alcali, was diffolved. Thefe grew a}fo well
for fome time ; but, like the former, were deftroyed by
frequent reiterations of it. Weak lime-water promo¬
ted the growth of its plants more than common water.
But water, completely faturated with quicklime, proved
more noxious than that which contained a fixed alcali;
though lefs than that which contained a folution of vo¬
latile alcali.—Urine promoted^ for a long time, the
growth of its plants ; and the moji putrid appeared to
have thejlrongejl effed ; but at laft it totally deftroyed
them. Water impregnated with putrid animal and ve¬
getable fubjlances did more effedually promote the growth
of its plants than any other folution; and in every Jlage
of the procefs appeared to be falutary”
With regard to other faline fubftances there are not
many experiments which can be depended upon con- Theory.
cerning their qualities as a manure. Mr Anderfon re- ;
lates an experiment made with common fait, thefuccefs Common
of which, we apprehend, may juftly enough be taken fait intflee-
as a fpecimen of what is to be expe&ed from manures tnalasama-
of a fimilar kind.—He marked out a circle of fix feet nuie‘
diameter in the middle of a grafs-field, which he di-
ftinguiftied by driving a ftake in its centre. All over
this circle he ftrewed common fait, which, about the
ftake, lay near an inch thick on the ground. In this
ftate he left it to the operations of nature. The grafs
fprung up as ufual, neither better nor worfe about the
ftake than in the reft of the field, and the place where
the circle was could be diftinguifhed only by the ftake,
which was left there for fome years.
Upon thefe experiments we need make very few ob-
fervations. They are fo much in favour of our theory,
that they feem made on purpofe to confirm it. The
fixed alcali employed in Lord Kaimes’s experiments
would firft exert its folvent powers on fuch heteroge¬
neous fubftances as it met with among the fand; for no
fand can be fuppofed to be perfeftly free of thefe. As
long as it exerted its ftrength on thefe only, the plant
would thrive, for the reafons we have already mentioned;
but, having exhaufted the fmall quantity of fubftances
contained in the fand, it would next attack the plant
itfelf, which confequently would decay and die. The
fame effedfs behoved to follow in a greater degree from
ftrong lime-water which contains lime in its cauftic
ftate ; for this is a more powerful folvent than fixed al¬
cali itfelf, and would not fail to deftroy every thing it
touched; nor is it at all improbable that the plant
would feem to grow vigoroufly by the diffolution of
part of its own roots, more nouriftiment being by this
means given to thofe which remained found.—Volatile
alcali is likewife a powerful folvent; but, by reafon of
its volatility, would exert its cauftic power on the plant
fooner than either lime, or fixed alcali ; and according¬
ly it feems to have been the moft deftruftive of any
thing that was tried. It feems owing to this, that pu¬
trid urine at laft deftroyed the plants whofe growth it
fo long promoted; while water impregnated with other
putrid matters which yield no volatile alcali without
heat, proved always falutary. *4
From all this we may draw the following general End to be
conclufion, viz. That the principal end which a farmer jcePt]nviev,r
, t . . • T • r , - , bya farmer*
ought to keep in view, is to impregnate his ground as
much as poffible, with fubftances which either actually
contain putrid matter, or which are in their own na¬
ture feptky or promoters of putrefaction. To im¬
pregnate the air with putrid effluvia is impoffible ; and
though it could be done, would be highly dangerous;.
for however falutary fuch effluvia may be to vegetables,
nothing can be more fatal to mankind. The putrid fub¬
ftances therefore can only be ufed by mixing them with
the earth; and in whatever manner they can be moft
perfectly, and in the greateft quantity, mixed with the
foil, there the belt crops may be expected.
Sect. III. Of the different Soils, and the Ma¬
nures moft proper for each.
According to the theory we have juft now laid Richeftfoils
down, the richeft foil muft be that which contains, the muft at laft ;
greateft quantity of putrid matter, either animal or ve- P°VC"
getable ; and fuch is the earth into which animal and n e *
vegeta-
Part. I. A G R I C U
Theory, vegetable fubftances refolve themfelves. Was this earth
to be had in perfeftion, it is evident it could not ft and
in need of manure of any kind, or be in the leaft enrich¬
ed by it; for containing an immenfe quantity of putrid
matter, it would freely communicate it to the vegetables
planted in it, which would grow in the moft luxuriant
manner, without requiring any other care than that of
keeping them conftantly fupplied with water. If we
fuppofe the crop left upon the ground to putrefy and
mix with the earth as before, the foil will contain the
fame quantity of putrid matter the fecond year that it
did the firft, and be equally prolific: but if the crop
is removed to another place, and nothing is brought
back to enrich the ground in its ftead, it is evident that
it will contain lefs of the true vegetable food the fecond
year than it did the. firft, and confequently be lefs
prolific. For fome time, however, the difference will
hot be perceptible, and people who are in pofieflion of
fuch ground may imagine that they enjoy a foil which
will be perpetually fertile; but long experience has
taught us, that the richeft foils will at laft be exhaufted
by repeated croping without manure, as according to
our theory they ought to ke.
Where the ground has been fuffered to remain un¬
cultivated for many ages; producing all that time fuc-
culent plants which are. eafily putrefied, and trees, the
leaves of which likewife contribute to enrich the ground
by their falling off and mixing with it, the foil will in
a manner be totally made up of pure vegetable earth,
and be the richeft, when cultivated, that can be imagi¬
ned. This was the cafe with the lands of America.
They had remained uncultivated perhaps fince the crea¬
tion, and were endowed with an extraordinary degree
of fertility; neverthelefs we are aflured by one who went
to America in order to purchafe lands there, that fuch
rounds as had been long cultivated were fo much ex-
aufted, as to be much worfe than the generality of cul-
1(J tivated grounds in this country. Here, then, we have
One fpecks an example of one fpecies of poor foil, namely, one
of poor foil that has been formerly very rich, but has been deprived,
deftroyedby foy repeated cropping, of the greateft part of the vege-
me‘ table foo"d it contained. The farmer who is in poffef-
fion of fuch ground would no doubt willingly reftore it
to its former ftate; the prefent queftion is, What muft
be done in order to obtain this end? We have men¬
tioned feveral kinds of manures which long practice has
recommended as fervieeable for improving ground: we
ftiall fuppofe the farmer tries lime, or chalk; for, as
we have already feen, their operations upon the foil
muft be precifely the fame. This fubftance, being of
a feptic nature, will act upon fuch parts of the foil as
are not putrified, or but imperfeftly fo; in confequence
of which, the farmer will reap a better crop than for¬
merly. The feptic nature of the lime is not altered by
any length of time. In ploughing the ground, the lime
is more and more perfectly mixed with it, and gradually
exerts its power on every putrefcible matter it touches.
As long as any matter of this kind remains, the far¬
mer will reap good crops: but when the putrefcible
matter is all exhaufted, the ground then becomes per-
fe&ly barren; and the cauftic qualities of the lime are
moft unjuftly blamed for burning the ground, and re¬
ducing it to a caput mortuum; while it is plain, the
lime has only done its office, and made the foil yield
all that it was capable of yielding.
L T U R E. 131
When ground has been long uncultivated, producing Theory.
all the time plants, not fucculent, but fuch as are very 27
difficultly difiblved, and in a manner incapable of putre- A fpecies of
faction; there the foil will be exceffively barren, and yield £,°e°[0f
very fcanty crops, though cultivated with the greateft by ijme>
care. Of this kind are thofe lands covered with heath,
which are found to be the moft barren of any, and the
moft difficultly brought to yield good crops. In this
cafe, lime will be as ferviceable as it was detrimental
in the other: for, by its feptic qualities, it will con¬
tinually reduce more and more of the foil to a putrid
ftate; and thus there will be a conftant fucceffion of bet¬
ter and better crops, by the continued ufe of lime,
when the quantity firft laid on has exerted all its force.
By a continued ufe of this manure, the ground will be
gradually brought nearer and nearer the nature of gar-
den-mould; and, no doubt, by proper care might be
made as good as any: but it will be as great a miftake
to imagine, that, by the ufe of lime, this kind of foil
may be rendered perpetually fertile, as to think that
the other was naturally fo; for though lime enriches
this foil, it does fo, not by adding vegetable food tcx
it, but by preparing what it already contains ; and
when all is properly prepared, it muft as certainly be
exhaufted as in the other cafe. 28
Here then we have examples of two kinds of poor Poor fo''s
foils, the one of which is totally deftroyed, the other ^
greatly improved, by lime, and which therefore require
very different manures; lime being more proper for the
laft than dung; and dung, being more proper to reftore
an exhaufted foil than lime, ought only to be ufed for
the firft. Befides dunging land which has been ex¬
haufted by long cropping, it is of great fervice to let
it lie fallow for fome time ; for to this it owed its ori¬
ginal fertility, and what gave the fertility originally
cannot fail to reftore it in fome degree.
By attending to the diftinftion between the reafons
fot the poverty of the two foils juft now mentioned, we
will always be able to judge with certainty in what cafes
lime is to be ufed, and when dung is proper. The
mere poverty of a foil is not a criterion whereby we can
judge; we muft confider what hath made it poor. If
it is naturally fo, we may almoft infallibly conclude that
it will become better by being manured with lime. If
it is artificially poor, or exhaufted by continual crop¬
ping, we may be as certain that lime will entirely de-
ftroy it.—We aprehend that it is this natural kind of
poverty only which MrAnderfon fays, in hisEflays on
Agriculture, may be remedied by lime; for we canfcarce
think that experience would direft any perfon to put
lime upon land already exhaufted. His words are. 23
“ Calcareous matters a6l as powerfully upon land ^r; An<ier-
that is naturally poor, as upon land that is more ^on 5
richly impregnated with thofe fubftances that tend ;ng iime<
to produce a luxuriant vegetation.”
“ Writers on agriculture have long been in the cuf-
tom of dividing manures into two claffes, viz. Enriching
manures, or thofe that tended direftly to render the
foil more prolific, however fterile it may be; among the
foremoftof which was dung : Exciting manures, or thofe
that were fuppofed to have a tendency to render the
foil more prolific, merely by acting upon thofe enrich¬
ing manures that had been formerly in the foil, and
giving them a new ftimulus, fo as to enable them to
operate anew upon that foil which they had formerly
R 2 fertilized.
132
Thoery. fertilized. In which clafs of ftimulating manures, lime
was always allowed to hold the foremoft: place.”
“ In confequence of this theory, it would follow, that
lime could only be of ufe as a manure when applied
to rich foils,—and, when applied to poor foils, would
produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful, effefts.’ ’
“ I will frankly acknowledge that I myfelf was fo
far impofed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to
be hurried along with the general current of mankind,
in the firm perfuafion of the truth of this obfervation,
and for many years did not fufficiently advert to! thofe
fafts that were daily occurring to contradict this
theory.—I am now, however, firmly convinced, from
repeated obfervations, that lime, and other calcareous
manures, produce a much greater proportional improve¬
ment upon poor foils, than on fuch as are richer.—And
that lime alone, upon a poor foil, will, in many cafes,
produce a much greater and more lafting degree of
fertility than dung alone.”
Thus far Mr Anderfon’s experience is exactly con¬
formable to the theory we have laid down, and what
ought to happen according to our principles. He men-
. tions, however, fome fadts which feem very ftrongly to
militate againft it; and indeed he himfelf feems to pro¬
ceed upon a theory altogether different.
30 “ Calcareous matter alone” (fays he) “ is not ca-
Query com pable of rearing plants to perfection ;—mould is
nature*of a neceffary to be mixed with it in certain propor-
proper foil. tions, before it can form a proper foil. It remains,
however, to be determined what is the due propor¬
tion of thefe ingredients for forming a proper foil.
“ We know that neither chalk, nor marie, nor lime,
can be made to nourifh plants alone ; and foils are
fometimes found that abound with the two firft of thefe
to a faulty degree. But the proportion of calcareous
matter in thefe is fo much larger than could ever be
produced by art, where the foil was naturally deftltute
of thefe fubftances, that there feems to be no danger of
erring on that fide. Probably it would be much eafier
to corredt the defedts of thofe foils in which calcareous
matters fuper-abound, by driving earth upon them as
a manure, than is generally imagined; as a very fmall
proportion of it fometimes affords a very perfedt foil.
I fiiall illuftrate my meaning by a few examples.
31 “ Near Sandfide, in the county of Caithnefs, there
of^ foil er *s a Prett7 extenfive plain on the fea-coaft, endowed
petually fer- a m°ff Angular degree of fertility. In all feafons
tile. it> produces a moil luxuriant heritage, altho’ it nevergot
any manure fince the creation; and has been, for time
immemorial, fubjedted to the following courfe of crops.
“ 1. Bear, after once ploughing from grafs,
, ufually a good crop.
“ 2. Bear, after once ploughing, a better crop
than the firfl.
“ 3. Bear, after once ploughing, a crop equal
to the firft.
“ 4. 5. and 6. Natural-grafs, asclofe and rich
as could be imagined, might be cut, 'if
the poffefibr fo inclined, and would yield'
an extraordinary crop of hay each year.
“ After this the fame courfe of cropping is renewed.
The foil that admits of this Angular mods of farming,;
appears to be a pure incoherent fund, ddlitute of the
fmalleft particle of vegetable mould ; but, upon exa¬
mination, it is found to confift almoft entirely of broken
Part I.
(hells : the fine mould here bears fiich a fmall propor- Theory.
tion to the calcareous matter, as to be fcarce percepti-
ble, and yet it forms the moft fertile foil that ever I
yet met with.
“ I have feen many other links (downs) upon the
fea-(hore, which produced the moft luxuriant herbage,
and the clofeft and fweeteft pile of grafs, where they
confifted of fhelly fand, which, without doubt, derive
their extraordinary fertility from that caufe.
“ A very remarkable plain is found in the ifland of
Jir-eye, one of the Hebrides. It has been long em¬
ployed as a common ; fo that it has never been difturb-
ed by the plough, and affords annually the moft luxu¬
riant crop of herbage, confiding of white clover, and
other valuable pafture-graffes, that can be met with
any where. The foil confifts of a very pure (helly fand.
“ From thefe examples I think it is evident, that a
very fmall proportion of vegetable mould is fufficient to
render calcareous matter a very rich foil. Perhaps,
however, a larger proportion may be neceffary when it
is mixed with clay than with fand; as poor chalky
foils feem to be of the nature of that compofition.”
To thefe examples brought by Mr Anderfon, we
may add fome of the fame kind mentioned by Lord
Kaimes. His Lordfiiip having endeavoured to eftabli/h
the theory of water being the only food of plants, tho*
he himfelf frequently deviates from that theory, yet
thinks it poffible, upon fuch a principle, to make a foil
perpetually fertile.
“ To recruit,” (fays he,) “ with vegetable food, a
foil impoveriihed by cropping, has hitherto been held
the only object of agriculture. But here opens a gran¬
der object, worthy to employ our keeneft induftry, that
of making a foil perpetually fertile. Such foils actu¬
ally exift ; and why (hould it be thought, that imita¬
tion here is above the reach of art ? Many are the in-
ftances of nature being imitated with fuccefs. Let us
not defpair, while any hope remains ; for invention
never was exercifed upon a fubjeft of greater utility.
The attempt may fugged proper experiments: it may
open new views : and if we fail in equalling nature,
may we not, however, hope to approach it ? A foil
perpetually fertile muft be endowed with a power to
retain moifture fufficient for its plants ; and at the
fame time muft be of a nature that does not harden by
moifture. Calcareous earth promifes to anfwer both
ends : it prevents a foil from being hardened by wa¬
ter ; and it may probably alfo invigorate its retentive
quality. A field that got a fufficient dofe of clay-
marle, carried above 30 fucceffive rich crops, without
either dung or fallow. Doth not a foil fo meliorated
draw near to one perpetually fertile ? Near the eaft
fide of Fife, the coaft for a mile inward is covered with
fea-fand, a foot deep or fo ; which is extremely fertile,
by a mixture of fea-fhells reduced to powder by attri¬
tion. The powdered (hells, being the fame with (hell-
rnarle, make the fand retentive of moifture ; and yet
no quantity- of moifture will unite the fand into a folid
body. A foil fo mixed, feems to be not far diftant
from one perpetually fertile. Thefe, it is true, are but
faint effays ; but what will not perfeverance accom-
plifh in a good caufe ?”
Having thus, in a manner, pofitively determined,
with Mr Anderfon, that no dofe of calcareous matter
can poffibly be too great, we cannot help owning our-
felvea
AGRICULTURE.
Part. I. A G R I C U
Theory, felves furprifed on finding his Lordfhip exprefiing him-
' “ ‘ felf as follows.
Jnconfiften- “ An over-dofe of fhell-mark, laid perhaps an inch,
cy in I.ord and an inch and a half, or two inches thick, produces,
Kaimes’s for a time, large crops : but, at laft, it renders the foil
or^‘ a caput mortuum, capable of neither corn nor grafs; of
which there are too many inftanees in Scotland: the
fame probably would follow from an over-dofe of clay-
marle, ftone-marle, or pounded lime-ftone.”—To ac¬
count for this, he is obliged to make a fuppofition di-
redtly contrary to his former one ; namely, that calca¬
reous matter renders the foil incapable of retaining wa¬
ter. This phenomenon, however, we think is lolved
upon the principles above laid down, in a fatisfactory
manner, and without the leafl: inconfiftency.
3? As to rendering foils perpetually fertile, we cannot
keip thinking the attempt altogether chimerical and
foils chime- v^n* There is not one example in nature of a foil
deal, perpetually fertile, where it has no fupply but from the
air, and the rain which falls upon it. The above re¬
cited examples can by no means be admitted as proofs
of perpetual fertility. We know, that the grafs on the
banks of a river is much more luxuriant than what
grows at a diftance: the reafbn is, that the water is at¬
tracted by the earth, and communicates its fertilizing
qualities to it; but was the river'to be dried up, the
grafs would foon become like the reft. Why fhould
not the ocean have the fame power of fertilizing plains
near its ftiores, that rivers have of fertilizing fmall fpots
near their banks f We fee, however, that it hath not;
for the fea-fhores are generally fandy and barren. The
reafon of this is, that the waters of the ocean contain a
*S'ee Water, quantity of loofe acid *; and this acid is poifonous to
plants; but, abftra&ing this acid part, we hefitate not
to affirm, that fea-water is more fertilizing than river-
water. It is impoffible to know how far the waters of
the ocean penetrate under ground, through a fandy
foil. Where they meet with nothing to abforb their
acid, there the ground is quite barren : but, inpaffing
through an immenfe quantity of broken Ihells, the cal¬
careous matter, we are very certain, will abforb all the
acid; and thus the foil will be continnally benefited by
its vicinity to the ocean. All the above fields, there¬
fore, are evidently fupplied with nourifhment from the
ocean : for, if the falt-water has fufficient efficacy to
render fields which are in its neighbourhood barren,
why fhould it not render them fertile when the caufe
of barrennefs is removed from its waters ?
After all, the field in Caithnefs, mentioned by Mr
Anderfort, feems to have been perpetually fertile only
in grafs: for though, the fecond year, it carried a better
crop of bear than it did the firft; yet, the third year,
the crop was worfe than the fecond, and only equal to
the firft. Had it been ploughed a fourth time, the crop
would probably have been worfe than the firft. Ground
is not near fo much exhaufted by grafs as corn, even
though the crop be cut, and carried off; and ftill lefs,
if it only feeds cattle, and is manured by their dung ;
which appears to have' been the Cafe with this field. .
Lord Kaimes, indeed, mentions fields in Scotland, that,
pall memory, have carried fucceflive crops of wheat,
peafe, barley, oats, without a fallow, and without a ma¬
nure ; and particularizes one on the river Carron, of
nine or ten acres, which had carried 103 crops of oats
without intermiffidii, and without manure : but as we
L T U R E. 133
are not acquainted with any fuch fields, nor know’ any Theor y.
thing about their particular fituation, we can form no
judgment concerning them.
Befides the two kinds of foils abovementioned, there £]
are others, the principal ingredient of which is clay, fandy foils,
or fand. The firft of thefe is apt to be hardened by
the heat of the fun, fo that the vegetables can fcarce
penetrate it in fuch a manner as to receive proper nou-
rifhment. The fecond, if it is not fituated fo as to re¬
ceive a great deal of moifture, is very apt to be parch¬
ed up in fummer, and the crop deftroyed; nor has it
fufficient adhefion to fupport plants that have few roots
and grow high. From thefe oppofite qualities, it is
evident, that thefe two foils would be a proper manure
for one another; the clay would give a fufficient de¬
gree of firmnefs to the fand, and the fand would break
the too great tenacity of the clay. According to Dr
Home’s experiments, however, fand is the worft manure
for clay that can be ufed. He recommends marie moft.
To reduce clay-ground as near as poffible to the form
of pure vegetable mould, it muft firft be pulverized.
This is moft effe&ually performed by ploughing and
harrowing; but care muft be taken not to plough it
whilft too wet, otherwife it will concrete into hard clots,
which can fcarcely be broke;?. After it is pulverized,
however, fome means muft be taken to keep it from
concreting again into the fame hard maffes as before.
According to Lord Kaimes, though clay, after pulve¬
rization, wall concrete into as hard a mafs as before, if
mixed with water; yet if moiftened with dunghill juice,
it will not concrete any more. Lime alfo breaks its
tenacity, and is very ufeful as a manure for this kind of
foil.
The conclufion wre wifti the practical farmer to draw 3S
from our theory is, That there is a certain limit to the Jjie earth°li-
fertility of the earth, both as to duration, and to de- mited.
gree, at any particular time: that the nearer any foil
approaches to the nature of pure garden-mould, the
nearer it is to the moft perfect degree of fertility; but
that there are no hopes of .keeping it perpetually in fuch
a ftate, or in any degree of approximation to it, but
by conftant and regular manuring with dung. Lime,
chalk, marie, &c. may be proper to bring it near to
this ftate, but are abfolutely unfit to keep k continu¬
ally fo. They may indeed for feveral years produce
large crops : but the more they increafe the fertility
for fome years, the fooner will they bring on an abfo-
lute barrennefs; while regular manuring with plenty of
dung, will always enfure the keeping up the foil in
good condition, without any occafion for fallow. What
we have faid concerning the ufe of lime, &c. applies
likewife to the practice of frequent ploughing, though
in a lefs degree. This tends to meliorate ground that
is naturally poor, by giving an opportunity to the ve¬
getable parts to putrefy ; but, when that is done, it
tends to exhauft, though not fo much as lime. A ju¬
dicious farmer will conftantly ftrive to keep his lands
always in good condition, rather than to make them
fuddenly much better ; left a few years fliould convince
him that he was in reality doing almoft irreparable mif-
chief, while he fancied himfelf making improvements.
As for the ridiculous notions of ftimulating the ground i
by faline manures, wre hope they will never enter the
brain of any rational pradlitioner of agriculture.
Sect, .
134 A G R I C U
   Sect. IV. Of the different kinds of Vegetables
proper to be raifed •with a view to the Meliora¬
tion of Soil.
. 36 .
Soilpulveri- The methods of meliorating foils, which we have
tafn CCr* menti°ned above, confifting of tedious and laborious
bks. VC^eta' Operations that yield no return at firft, it is natural for
a farmer to with for fome method of meliorating his
ground, and reaping crops at the fame time. One very
confiderable ftep towards the melioration of ground, is
its pulverifation. This is accompliihed by repeated
ploughings, as already mentioned; efpecially if per¬
formed in autumn, that the ground may be expofed to
the winter’s froft; but thefe ploughings yield no crop,
as long as the field is not fown. By planting in the
field, however, thofe vegetables whole roots fwell to a
confiderable bulk, the ground muft conftantly be adted
upon by the fwelling of their roots in all directions; and
thus the growing of the crop itfelf, may be equal, or fupe-
rior, in efficacy to feveral ploughings, at the fame time
that the farmer enjoys the benefit of it. The plant moll
remarkable for the fwelling of its roots, is the potatoe;
and by none is the ground meliorated more, or even fo
much. They are not, however, equally proper for all
foils. In clay they do not thrive, nor are palatable;
but in hard gravelly or fandy foils, they grow to a large
■fize, and are of an excellent quality. Turneps likewife
contribute to meliorate the ground, by the fwelling of
their roots, though not fo much as potatoes. They
have this advantage, however, that they will thrive in
almoft any foil. In clay ground, peafe and beans thrive
exceedingly well, and therefore are proper in this kind
of foil as a preparatory for other kinds of grain. Thefe
pufh their roots deep into the ground, and cover it
with their leaves more than other crops ; fo that the
fun has not fo much accefs, as when it is covered with
other kinds of grain. Where-ever any of thefe kinds
of vegetables are raifed, it is obfervable that more or
lefs blacknefs is communicated to the foil: an evident
fign of its melioration ; this being the colour of the
true vegetable mould, or loamy foil, as it is called.
Befidesthe above-mentionedplants, carrots, parfnips,
cabbages, and all thofe vegetables which fink their
roots deep in the ground, anfwer the fame purpofe of
loofening and pulverizing the earth ; but as they will
not thrive but on ground already well cultivated, they
cannot be raifed to any advantage for the purpofe of
meliorating a poor foil.
It hath been cuftomary in many places, particular¬
ly in England, to fow turnip, peafe, buck-wheat, &c.
and then to plough them down for manuring the land.—
This, being fimilar to that operation of nature by
which Ihe renders the uncultivated foils fo exceedingly
fertile, cannot fail of being attended with Angular ad¬
vantages ; and might be looked upon as preferable even
to driving dung on the land to fatten it, was it not
attended with the entire lofs of a crop for that year.
Sect. V. Of defraying Weeds.
What we have already faid regarding the cultivation
of the foil, refpefts only the fitting it for producing
all kinds of vegetables indifcriminately. Experience,
however, thews, that the ground is naturally much
more difpofed to produce and nourifh fome kinds of
vegetables than others; and thofe which the earth
L T U R E. Part. I.
feems moft to delight in, are commonly fuch as are of Theory-
very little ufe to man; but if neglected, will increafe to
fuch a degree as entirely to deftroy the plants intended
to be raifed, or at leaft hinder them from coming to
perfection, by depriving them of nourifiiment. The
clearing the ground of weeds, therefore, is an article
no lefs neceffary in agriculture, than the difpofing it to
produce vegetables of any kind in plenty. 37
The weeds may be divided, according to the time of Weeds divi- *
their duration, into annual, or fuch as fpring from a .
feed, and die the fame year; and perennial, that is, fuch pe :
as are propagated by the roots, and laft for a number
of years. The firll kind are the leaft noxious, and moft
eafily deftroyed. For this purpofe it will be fufficient
to let them fpring up till near the time of ripening their
feed, and then plough them down before it comes to
maturity. It is alfo of fervice to deftroy fuch weeds
as grow in borders, or neglefted corners, and frequent¬
ly matter their feeds to a great diftance; fuch as the
thiftle, dandelion, rag-weed, &c. for thefe are fufficient
to propagate their fpecies through a deal of ground;
as their feeds are carried about with the wind to very
confiderable diftances. A farmer ought alfo to take
care, that the fmall feeds of weeds, feparated from corn
in winnowing, be not fown again upon the ground;
for this certainly happens, when they are thrown upon
a dunghill; becaufe, being the natural offspring of the
earth, they are not eafily deftroyed. The bell method
of preventing any mifchief from this caufe, would be
to burn them.
Perennial weeds cannot be effectually deftroyed, but Perennial :
by removing the roots from the ground, which is often weeds how ,
a matter of fome difficulty. Many of thefe roots ftrike dc^r°yed*
fo deep in the ground, that they can fcarcely be got
out. The only method that can be depended upon in
this cafe, is frequent ploughing, to render the ground
as tender as poffible; and harrowing with a particular
kind of harrow which (hall hereafter be defcribed, in
order to colled thefe pernicious roots. When collec¬
ted, they ought to be dried and burnt, as the only ef¬
fectual method of infuring their doing no further mif¬
chief.
There is a particular fpecies of weed, peculiar only
to grafs-lands, of a foft fpungy nature, called fog, which
it is found very difficult to exterminate. Where the land
can be conveniently tilled, this weed may be deftroyed
by covering it with a crop of peafe, potatoes, &c.: or,
palling a heavy roller over the ground will be of great
fervice; for fog owes its origin to too great a laxity of
the foil, and will not grow upon firm ground. 3p
Befides thefe kinds of weeds wl?ich are of an herba- Broom,
ceous nature, there are others which are woody, and furze, &c. •
grow to a very confiderable fize; fuch as broom, furze 1
or whins, and thorns. Broom is an evergreen Ihrub, ‘
that thrives beft in fandy foil; and there it grows fo vi-
goroufly, as fcarce to admit any grafs under it. It pro-
Sates by feed which grows in pods; and thefe, when
l ripe, break with violence, fcattering the feeds all
around. Thus, a field which is overgrown with
broom, befides the old plants, always contains an in¬
finite number of young ones; fo that though the old
plants die when cut over, a frefh crop conftantly fprings
up. It may, however, be deftroyed by frequent plough¬
ing and harrowing, in the fame manner as other peren¬
nial weeds are; for it does not for fome time carry any
Part. I. A G R I C U
Theoky. feed, and the frequent ploughing encourages the vege¬
tation of all thofe that are already in the ground, which
cannot fail of being deftroyed by frequent repetitions of
the operation. Another method of defiroying broom,
is, by pafturing the field where it grows, with flieep. A
few of the old buihes may be left as a ftielter, and thefe
will be in a good meafure prevented from fpreading by
the cropping of the (heep. Thefe animals are very fond
of broom, and greedily devour every young (hoot; fo
that if any remain after the firft year, there will not be
a veftige the fecond. If this method of extirpating
broom is equally effe&ual with that of frequent plough¬
ing, it is certainly much more profitable, as there is
no food more nourifhing to ftieep than young broom.
Broom, however, is faid to have a fingular efreft upon
fheep : it makes them drunk fo effectually, that, when
heated with a little driving, they tumble over, and lie
without motion.
The whin is a fine evergreen fhrub, carrying a fweet-
fmelling flower all the year round. It propagates both
by feed, and by its roots, which fpread fometimes to the
diftance of ten or twelve feet; and hence, when once
eftablifhed, it is very difficultly extirpated. The beft
method is to fut fire to the whins in frofty weather; for
froft has the effeCt to wither whins, and make them
burn readily. The flumps muft then be cut over with
a hatchet; and when the ground is well foftened by
rain, it may be ploughed up, and the roots taken out
by a harrow adapted to that purpofe.—If the field is
foon laid down to grafs, the whins will again fpring
up in great abundance, from the feeds, and fmall parts
of the roots left in the ground. In this cafe, pafturing
with flieep is an effectual remedy; as they are no lefs
fond of young whins than of young broom; and if there
are a fufficient number, they will not leave a fingle
plant above ground. But if grafs is not immediately
wanted, the moft effectual method of clearing a field of
whins, is by reiterated ploughings.
The thorn, or bramble, fpreads its roots very wide,
and at the fame time finks them deep in the earth.
Though cut in the winter, it rifes, and comes to fuch
perfection as to carry fruit in fummer. It can only
be extirpated by ploughing up the ground, and collec¬
ting the roots.
Sect. VI. Of the moji proper kinds of Vegetables to
be raifed for the purpofes of feeding Cattle.
Though this muft be an article of the utmoft con-
fequence to every farmer, we do not find that it has been
much confidered. Mr Anderfon feems to have been the
firft writer on agriculture who hath properly attended to
this fubjeCt; and what he hath wrote upon it, is rather
a catalogue of defiderata, than any thing elfe : and
indeed the defiderata on this fubjeCl are fo many and fo
great, that we muft acknowledge ourfelves very un-
40 able to fill them up To attain to a competent
Qffood'rf knowledge in this refpeCt, the following things muft be
<\u\Skc fox' ta^en *nto confideration. (i.) The wholefomenefs of
eat tic. the food for cattle, with regard to health and ftrength,
or fatnefs. (a.) The quantity that any extent of
ground is capable of yielding. (3.) The quantity ne-
ceffary to feed the different kinds of cattle. (4.) The
labour of cultivation ; and, (5.) The foil they require
to bring them to perfedion, and the effeft they have
upon it.
L T U R E. .13^
With regard to the wholefomenefs, it is plain, that Theory.
as the natural food of wild cattle is the green fucculent
plants they meet with all the year round, food of this
kind, could it be had, muft be preferable to hay ; and
accordingly we find that cattle will always prefer fuc¬
culent vegetables where they can get them. To find
plants of this kind, and having proper qualities in other
refpeCts, we muft fearch among thofe which continue
green all the year round, or come to their greateftper-
fedtion in the winter-time.—Of thefe, cabbages bid r , ,41
fair for holding the firft place; both as being very fuc- their pro-'
culent, and a very large-quantity of them growing up- perties.
on a fmall fpace of ground. In Mr Young’s Six
Months Tour, we have an account of the produce of
cabbages in many different places, and on a variety of
foils. The produce by Mr Crow at Keplin, on a clay
foil, was, on an average of fix years, 3 5 tons per acre;
by Mr Smelt at the Leafes, on a fandy gravel, 18 tons
per acre ; by Mr Scroop at Danby, on an average of
fix years, 37 tons per acre : and the general average of
all the accounts giving by MrYoung, is 36tons per acre.
Cabbages, however, have the great inconveniency
of fometimes imparting a difagreeable flavour to the
milk of cows fed with them, and even to the flelh of
other cattle. This, it is faid, may be prevented by
carefully picking off the decayed and withered leaves:
and very probably this is the cafe; for no vegetable
inclines more to putrefaftion than this; and therefore
particular care ought to be taken to pull off all the
leaves that have any fymptoms of decay. Dr Prieftley .
found that air was rendered noxious by a cabbage-leaf ^j'r ^n^er*
remaining in it for one night, though the leaf did not by them,
ftiew any fymptom of putrefaction.—For milk-cows,
probably the cabbages might be rendered more proper
food by boiling them. 43
Turnips likewife produce very bulky crops, though Turnips,
far inferior to thofe of cabbages. According to Mr
Young’s calculation, the fineft foil does not produce up-
above five tons of turnips per acre; which is indeed
a very great difproportion : but poffibly fuch a quan¬
tity of turnips may not be confumed by cattle as of
cabbages; an ox, of 80 ftone weight, eat 21 o lb of cab¬
bages in 24 hours, befides feven tb of hay.
Carrots are found to be an excellent food for cattle Carrots,
of all kinds, and are greatly reliftied by them. In a
rich fand, according to Mr Young’s account, the pro¬
duce of this root was 200 buftiels per acre. In a finer
foil, it was 640 buftiels per acre. A lean hog was fat¬
ted by carrots in ten days time : he eat 196 lb; and
his fat was very fine, white, firm, and did not boil a-
way in the dreffing. They were preferred to turnips
by the cattle ; which having tafted the carrots, foon
became fo fond of them as difficultly to be made to
eat the turnips at all. It is probable, indeed, that
carrots will make a more wholefome food for cattle
than either cabbages or turnips, as they are ftrongly an-
tifeptic; infomuch as to be ufed in poultices for correc¬
ting the fanies of cancers. It is probably owing to
this, that the milk of cows fed on carrots is never found
to have anybadtafte. Six horfes kept on them thro’
the winter without oats, performed their work as ufual,
and looked equally well. This may be looked upon
as a proof of their falubrity as a food; and it certain¬
ly can be no detriment to a farmer to be fo much ver-
fant in medical matters as to know the impropriety of
giving
136 A G R I C TJ
Theorv. giving putrefcent food to his cattle. It is well known,
what a prodigious difference there is in the health of
the human fpecies when fed on putrid meats, in com-
parifon of what they enjoy when fupplied with food of
a contrary nature ; and why may there not be a dif¬
ference in the health of beads, as well as of men,
when in fimilarcircumftanees?—It is alfo very proba¬
ble, that as carrots are more folid than cabbages or
turnips, they will go much farther in feeding cattle than
either of them. The above-mentioned example of the
hog, feems fome kind of confirmation of this ; he being
fed, for ten days together, with 21 lb lefs weight of
carrots, than what an ox devoured of cabbages and
hay in ope day. There is a great difproportion, it
muff be owned, between the bulk of an ox, and that of
a hog; but we can fcarce think that an ox will eat as
much at a time as ten hogs. At Parlington in York-
ftiire, 20 work horfes, four bullocks, and fix milk-
cows, were fed on the carrots that grew in three acres,
from the end of September till the beginning of May;
and the animals never tafted any other food but .a little
hay. The milk was excellent, and thirty hogs were
45 fattened upon what was left by the other cattle.
Potatoes. Potatoes likewife appear to be a very palatable food
for all kinds of cattle ; and not only oxen, hogs, <bc.
are eafily fed by them, but even poultry. The cheap-
nefs of potatoes compared with other kinds of food for
cattle, cannot well be known, as, befides the advantage
of the crop, they improve the ground more than any
other known vegetable. The quantities of this root re¬
quired to feed different kinds of cattle are not known,
nor how far the food itfelf is falutary; though it is pro¬
bable, that as the human fpecies find no detriment from
the ufe of potatoes, neither will cattle of any kind.
The above-mentioned vegetables have all of them the
property of meliorating, rather than exhaufting the foil;
and this is certainly a very valuable qualification : but
carrots and cabbages will not thrive except in foils that
are already well cultivated ; while potatoes and tur¬
nips may be ufed as the firft crops of a foil with great
advantage. In this refpeft, they are greatly fuperior to
the others; as it may be difagreeable to take up the
bell grounds of a farm with plants defigned only for
4(J food to cattle.
Whins an Whins have lately been recommended as a very pro-
excdlent per food for cattle, efpecially horfes ; and are recom-
Jjorfes^ mencffd by Mr Anderfon, in a particular manner.
They have this advantage, that they require no culture,
and grow on the very worft foil; but they are trouble-
fome to cut, and require to be bruifed in a mill con-
ftru&ed for this purpofe ; neither is the ground at all
meliorated by letting whins grow upon it for any length
of tinw. NotwithHanding thefe difadvantages, how¬
ever, as whins continue green all the year round, and
when bruifed will afford an excellent fucculent food,
which feems poffeffed of ftrongly invigorating qualities,
they may be looked upon as the cheapeft winter-food
that can poffibly be. given to cattle.—According to the
calculations of Mr Eddifon of Gateford, a fingle acre,
well cropped with whins, will winter fix horfes : at
three or four years growth, the whole crop Ihould be
taken, cut clofe to the ground, and carried to the
mill; in which the whins are to be bruifed, and then
given to the horfes. Four acres ought to be planted,
that one may be ufed each year, at the proper age to
• L T U R E. Part. I.
be cut; and he reckons the labour of one man fuffi- Theory.
cient for providing food to this number of horfes. He ’
fays they all prefer the whins to hay, or even to corn.
The herb called bumet hath likewife been recom- 47
mended as proper food for cattle, on account of its Burnet«
beingan evergreen, and further recommended, by grow¬
ing almoft as faff in winter as in fummer. Of this
herb, however, we have very various accounts. In a
letter addreffed by Sir James Caldwell F. R. S. to the
Dublin Society, the culture of this plant is ftrongly re¬
commended on the authority of one Bartholomew Roc-
que, farmer at Walham-Green, a village about three
miles fouth-weft of London.
What gave occafion to the recommendation of this 48
plant, was, that, about the year 1760, Mr Wych, chair- Recom-
man of the Committee of Agriculture of the London sir'jarnes^^
Society, for the encouragement of arts, manufaftures, Caldwell,
and commerce, came to Rocque (who was become very
eminent by the premiums he had received from the fo-
ciety), and told him, he had been thinking, that as
there are many animals which fubfift wholly upon the
fruits of the earth, there muft certainly be fome plant
or herb fit for them, that naturally vegetates in winter;
otherwife we muft believe the Creator, infinitely wife
and good, to have made creatures without providing
for their fubfiftence ; and that if there had been no
fuch plants or herbs, many fpecies of animals would
have perilhed before we took them out of the hands of
nature, and provided for them dry meat at a feafon,
when, indigenous plantshavingbeenindifcriminately ex¬
cluded, under the name of weeds, from cultivated fields
and places fet apart for natural grafs, green or frefh
meat was no longer to be found.
Rocque allowed the force of this reafoning; but faid,
the knowledge of a grafs, or artificial pafture, that
would vegetate in winter, and produce green fodder for
cattle, was loft; at leaft, that he knew of no fuch
plant.—Mr Wych, however, knowing how very great
the advantage would be of difeovering a green fodder
for winter, and early in the fpring, wrote to Bern, and
alfo to fome confiderable places in Sweden, ftatingthe
fame argument, andafiting the fame queftion. His an-
fwers to thefe letters were the fame that had been given
by Rocque. They owned there muft be fuch a plant,
but declared they did not know it.
Mr Wych then applied again to Rocque; and defi-
red him to fearch for the plant fo much defired, and fo
certainly exifting. Rocque fet about this fearch with
great afliduity, and finding that a pimpernel, called
burnet, was of very fpeedy growth, and grew near as
faft in winter as in fummer, he took a handful of it
and carried it into his {table, where there were five hor¬
fes, every one of which eat of it with the greateft eager-
nefs; fnatching it even without firft fmelling it. Upon
the fuccefs of this experiment he went to London, and
bought all the burnet-feed he could get, amounting to
no more than eight pounds, it having been only ufed in
fallads; and he paid for it at the rate of 4/. a pound.
Six of the eight pounds of feed he fowed upon half an
acre of ground, in March, in the year 1761, with a
quarter of a peck of fpring-wheat, both by hand. The
feed being very bad, it came up but thin. However, he
fowed the other two pounds in the beginning of June,
upon about fix rood of ground : this he mowed in the
beginning of Auguft ; and at Michaelmafs he planted
Parti. AGRICULTURE.
*37
Thkory. off the plants on about 20 rood of ground, giving each
5 __ p]an1. a f00t every and taking care not to bury
the heart. Thefe plants bore two crops of feed the
year following; the firft about the middle of June, the
fecond about the middle of September ; but the June
crop was the belt. The year after, it grew very rank,
and produced two crops of feed, both veiy good. As
it ought not to be cut after September, he let it ftand
till the next year; when it fheltered itfelf, and grew
very well during all the winter, except when there was
ahard.froft; and even during the froft it continued
green, though it was not perceived to grow. In the
March following it covered the ground very well, and
was fit to receive cattle.
If the winter is not remarkably fevere, the burnet,
though cut in September, will be 18 inches long in
March; and it may be fed from the beginning of Fe¬
bruary till May : if the cattle are taken off in May,
there will be a good crop of feed in the beginning of
July. Five weeks after the cattle are taken off, it may
be removed, if that is preferred to its Handing for feed;
it grows at the rate of am inch a-day, and is made into
hay like other grafs. It may be mown three times in
one fummer, and fhould be cut juft before it begins to
flower. Six rood of ground has produced 1150 pounds
at the firft cutting of the third year after it was fowed;
and, in autumn 1763, Rocque fold no lefs than 300
bufhels of the feed.
According to Rocque, the foil in which burnet flou-
rifties beft is a dry gravel; the longeft drought never
hurts-it: and Sir James Caldwell afferts, that he faw a
very vigorous and exuberant plant of this kind, growing
from between two bricks in a wall in Rocque’s ground,
without any communication with the foil; for he had
cut away all the fibres of the root that had ftretched
downward, and penetrated the earth, long before.
Burnet was found equally fit for feeding cows, fheep,
and horfes; but the iheep muft not be fuffered to crop
it too clofe. Though no feed was left among the hay,
yet it proved nouriihing food; and Rocque kept a
horfe upon nothing elfe, who, at the time of writing
the account, was in good heart, and looked well. He
affirmed alfo, that it cured horfes of the diftemper call¬
ed the greafe., and that by its means he cured one
which was thought incurable ; but fays it is only the
^ firft crop which has this effedt.
Burnet rec- This is the fubftance of Sir James Caldwell’s letter
koned an to the Dublin fociety, at leaft as to what regards the
improper culture of burnet; and it might reafdnably be expeft-
Mifler ^ and e^’ t^at a P^ant> whofe life was recommended to the
Mr Ander- public with fo much parade, would foon have come into
Ion. univerfal efteem. We were furprifed, therefore, on look¬
ing into Mr Miller’s Diftionary, to find the following
words, under the article Poterium:—“ This plant has
of late been recommended by perfons of little /kill, to be
fown as a winter pabulum for cattle: but whoever will
give themfelves the trouble to examine the grounds
where it naturally grows, will find the plants left uneaten
by the cattle, when the grafs about them has been
cropped to the roots ; befides, in wet winters, and in
ftrong land, the plants are of ftiort duration, and there¬
fore very unfit for that purpofe: nor is the produce
fufficient to tempt any perfon of fkill to engage in its
culture ; therefore I wifh thofe perfons to make trial
of it in fmall quantities, before they embark largely in
Vou I.
thefe new fchemes.”—Mr Anderfon, too, in his Effays Theory.
on Agriculture, mentions the produce of burnet being “
fo fmall, as not to be worth cultivating. io
Upon the authority of Mr Rocque, likewife, the White beet
white beet is recommended as a moft excellent food recom-
for cows ; that it vegetates during the whole winter, uiended.
confequently is very forward in the fpring ; and that
the moft profitable way of feeding cows is, to mow this
herb, and give it to them green all the fummer. It
grew in Rocque’s garden, during a very great drought,
no lefs than four feet high, from the 30th of May to
the 3 d of July ; which is no more than one month and
four days. In fummer it grows more than an inch a-
day, and is beft fo\vn in March: a bufhel is enough
for an acre, and will not coft more than 10 (hillings-
It thrives beft in a rich, deep, light foil: the ftalks
are very thick and fucculent; the cows ftiould therefore
eat them green.
In Mr Anderfon’s effays, we find it recommended to Sheeps fef-
make trial of fome kinds of graffes, which probably cue-grafs.
would not only anfwer for frelh fodder during the win¬
ter, but might alfo be cut for hay in fummer. This
is particularly the cafe with that fpecies called fieep's
fefcue-grafs. “ I had,” (fays he) “ a fmall patch of
this grafs in winter 1773 ; which, having been cut in
the month of Auguft or September preceding, was
faved from that period, and had advanced before win¬
ter to the length of five or fix inches ; forming the
clofeft pile that could be imagined. And although we
had about fix weeks of very intenfe froft, with fnow;
and about other fix weeks, immediately fucceeding
that, of exceeding keen froft every night, with frequent
thaws in the day-time without any fnow, during which
time almoft every green thing was deftroyed; yet this
little patch continued all along to retain as fine a ver¬
dure as any meadow in the month of May ; hardly a
point of a leaf having been withered by the uncommon
feverity of the weather. And as this grafs begins to
vegetate very early in the fpring, I leave the reader to
judge what might be the value of a field of grafs of
this kind in thefe circumftances.” ^
Of another kind of grafs, called purple fefcue, Mr Purple fef-
Anderfon gives the following charader. “ It retain- cuc-
ed its verdure much better than rye-grafs during the
winter-feafon ; but it had more of its points killed by
the weather than the former. It likewife rifes in the
fpring, at leaft as early as rye-grafs.”
This ingenious farmer has alfo made experiments
on the culture of thefe and feveral other kinds of graf¬
fes ; which being very well worthy of attention, we
(hall here infert.
1. Purple fefcue-grafs. “Although this grafs is very
often found in old paftures, yet as it has but few flower-
ftalks, and as it is greedily eat by all domeftic animals,
thefe are feldom fuffered to appear ; fo that it ufually
remains there unperceived. But it feems to be better
able to endure the peculiar acrimony of the dung of
dogs than almoft any other plant; and is therefore of¬
ten to be met with in dog-hills, as I call the little hills
by road-fides where dogs ufually pifs and dung : and
as it is allowed to grow there undifturbed, the farmer
may have an opportunity of examining the plant, and
becoming acquainted with its appearance.
“ The leaves are long and fmall, and appear to be
roundifh, fomething like a wire; but, upon examina-
S ticn.
138 A G R I C U
Theory, tion, they are found not to be tubulated like a reed or
rufh ; the fides of the leaf being only folded together
from the middle rib, exa&ly like the ftrong bent-grafs
on the'fea-fhore. The flower-ftalk isfmall, and branches
out in the head, a little refembling the wild-oat; only
the grains are much fmaller, and the ear does not
fpread full open, but lies bending a little to one fide.
The ftalks are often fpotted with reddifh freckles, and
the tops of the roots are ufually tinged with the fame
colour; from whence it has probably obtained its di-
ftindtive name of fejhica rubra, or red (purple) fefcue.
“ It is often to be met with in old garden-walks; and,
as its leaves advance very quickly after cutting, it may
ufually be difcovered above the other graffes, about a
week or fortnight after the walks are cut. Nor do
they feem to advance only at one feafon, and then flop
■ and decay, like the rye-grafs; but continue to advance
during the whole of the fummer, even where they are not
cut; fo that they fometimes attain a very great length.
Laft feafon, (1774,) I meafured a leaf of this grafs, that
fprung up in a neglefted corner, which was four feet
and four inches in length, although not thicker than
a fmall wire. It is unneceffary to add, that thefe leaves
naturally trail upon the ground, unlefs where they meet
with fome accidental fupport; and that if any quan¬
tity of it is fuffered to grow for a whole feafon, with¬
out being eat down or cut, the roots of the leaves are
almoft rotted, by the overlhadowing of the tops of the
other leaves, before the end of the feafon.
Appearance “ This is the appearance and condition of the plant
in its culti- Jn its native fituation : as it is feldom that it is difco-
vated ftate. veretj but in pretty old paftures, and as in that ftate
it carries only a very few feed-ftalks, it was with fome
difficulty that I could collect a fmall handful of the feed,
which I carefully fowed in a fmall patch of garden-
mould, to try if it could be eafily cultivated. It came
up as quickly as any other kind of grafs, but was at
firft as fmall as hairs: the leaves, however, advanced a-
pace ; and were, before autumn, when the grain with
which they had been fowed was cut down, about 16
or 18 inches in length : but having been fown very
thin, it was neceffary to pick out fome other kinds of
grafs that came up amongft it, left it might have
been choaked by them. Early next fpring it advanced
with prodigious vigour, and the tufts that were form¬
ed from every feed became exceeding large ; fo that it
quickly filled the whole ground. But now the leaves
were almoft as broad as thofe of common rye-grafs,
and the two fides only inclined a little towards one
another from the mid-rib, without any appearance of
roundnefs. In due time a great many feed-ftalks fprung
out, which attained very nearly to the height of four
feet, and prpduced feeds in abundance ; which may be
as eafily faved as thofe of common rye-grafs.
“ The prodigious difference between this plant in its
native and cultivated ftate amazed me ; but it was with
a good deal of fatisfaftion that I found there would be
no difficulty of procuring feeds from it, which I had
much doubted of at firft. It would feem, that nature
hath endowed this plant with a ftrong generative power
during its youth, which it gradually lofes as it advan¬
ces in age, (for the difference perceived in this cafe
could not be attributed to the richnefs of the foil);
and that, on the contrary, when it was old, the leaves
advanced with an additional vigour, in proportion to
L T U R E, Part I,
the declining ftrength of the flower-ftalks : for the Theory.
leaves of the young plant feldom exceed two feet, ‘
whereas numbers of the old leaves were near four feet
in length.
“ From thefe peculiarities in the growth of this plant,
it would feem to promife to be of great ufe to the far¬
mer ; as he could reap from a field of it, for the firft two
or three years, as great a weight of hay as he could
obtainfrom anyof theculmiferousgraffes, (thofebearing
a long jointed ftalk); and, if he meant afterwards to
pafture it, he would fuffer no inconveniencies from the
flower-ftalks; and the fucculent leaves that continue to
vegetate during the whole fummer, would at all times
furnifli his cattle with abundance of wholefome food.
It has alfo been remarked, that this grafs rifes as early
in the fpring as rye-grafs; and continues green for the
greateft part of winter, which the other does not.
It is moreover an abiding plant, as it feems never to
wear out of the ground where it has once been efta-
blifhed. On all which accounts, it appears to me high¬
ly to merit the attention of the farmer ; and well de-
ferves to have its feveral qualities, and the culture that
beft agrees with it, afcertained by accurate experiments. J4
2. “ Sheeps fefcue-grafs, or fejhica ovina, is much Sheeps fef-
praifed by the Swedifh naturalifts for its Angular value as £ue defcri-
a pafture-grafs for (heep ; this animal being reprefent- e
ed as fonder of it than of any other grafs, and fatten¬
ing upon it more quickly than on any other kind of
food whatever. And indeed, the general appearance
of the plant, and its peculiar manner of growth, feems
very much to favour the accounts that have been given
us of it.
“ This plant is of the fame family with the former,
and agrees with it in feveral refpefts; although they
may be eafily diftinguiflied from one another. Its
leaves, like the former, in its natural ftate, are always
rounded, but much fmaller; being little. bigger than
large horfe-hairs, or fwines-briftles, and feldom exceed
fix or feven inches in length. But thefe fpring out of
the root in tufts, fo clofe upon one another, that they
refemble, in this refpeft, a clofe hair-brufli more than
any thing elfe I know : fo that it would feem natural¬
ly adapted to form that thick fliort pile of grafs in
which fheep are known chiefly to delight. Its flower-
ftalks are numerous, andffometimes attain the height
of two feet; but are more ufually about 12 or 15
inches high.
“ Upon gathering the feeds of this plant, and fowing Its appear-
them as the former, it was found that they fprung up when
as quickly as any other kind of grafs; but the leaves cu tivate“*
are at firft no bigger than a human hair. From each
fide fprings up one or two of thefe hair-like filaments,
that in a fhort time fend out new off-fets, fo as quickly
to form a fort of tuft, which grows larger and larger,
till it at length attains a very large fize, or till all the
intervals are clofed up, and then it forms the clofeft
pile of grafs that it is poffible to imagine. In April
and May it puftied forth an innumerable quantity of
flower-ftalks, that afforded an immenfe quantity of
hay ; it being fo clofe throughout, that the fcythe
could fcarcely penetrate it. This was allowed to ftand
till the feeds ripened; but the bottom of the ftalks
were quite blanched, and almoft rotted for want-of air
before that time.
“ This was the appearance that it made the firft year
after
Part I.
Theory, after it was fowed: but I have reafon to think, that, af-
ter a few years, it like\vife produces fewer feed-ftalks,
and a greater quantity of leaves than at firft. But
however that may be, it is certain, that if thefe are eat
down in the fpring, it does not, like rye-grafs, perfift
in a continued tendency to run to feed ; but is at once
determined to pufh forth a quantity of leaves without
almoft any ftalks at all: and as all domeftic animals,
but more efpecially iheep, are extremely fond of this
grafs, if they have liberty to pafture where it grows,
they bite it fo clofe as never to fuffer almoft a fingle feed-
ftalk to efcape them; fo that the botanift will often
fearch in vain for it, when he is treading upon it with
his feet. The bell way to difcover it in any pafture,
is to fearch for it in winter, when the tufts of it may
be eafily diftinguilhed from every other kind oft grafs,
by their extraordinary clofenefs, and the deep green
S5 colour of the leaves.
What foil (( Jt feems to grow in almoft’any foil; altho’ it is ima-
xno proper gjne(j tjlat would flourilh bell in a light fandy foil,
as it can evidently live with lefs moifture than almoft
any other kind of grafs ; being often feen to remain in
the fods that have been employed in coping for ftone-
' dykes, after all the other graffes that grew in them-
have difappeared. It is likewife found in poor barren
foils, where hardly any other plant can be made to grow
at all; and on the furface of dry worn-out peat-mofs,
where no moifture remains. fufficient to fupport any o-
ther plant whatever : but in neither of thefe fituations
does it thrive ; as it is there only a weak and unfightly
plant, very unlike what it is when it has the good for¬
tune to be eftablilhed upon a good foil; although it is
feldomer met with in this laft ftate than in the former.
“ I will not here repeat what has been already faid
about the particular property that this plant pofTefles of
continuing all winter ; nor point' out the benefits that
the farmer may reap from this valuable quality.—He
need not, however, expert to find any verdure in win¬
ter on fuch plants as grow upon the loofe mofly foil
above-mentioned; for, as the froft in winter always
hoves up the furface of this foil, the roots of the plants
are fo lacerated thereby, as to make it, for fome time
in,the fpring, to all appearance dead. Nor will he of¬
ten perceive much verdure in winter upon thofe plants
that grow upon poor hungry foils, which cannot afford
abundant nourifhment to keep them in a proper ftate
of vegetation at all times : but fuch plants as grow
on earthen dykes, which ufually begin to vegetate with
^ vigour when the autumnal rains come on, for the moft
part retain their verdure at that feafon almoft as well as
if they were in good garden-mould.
“ I have been very particular in regard to this plant;
becaufe, in as far as my obfervations have yet gone, it
promifes on many accounts to make a moft valuable ac-
quifition to the farmer, and therefore juftly demands
a very particular {hare of his attention.”
Holcuslam- 3’ The holcus lanatus, or creeping foft-grafs of Hud-
tus.^ fon.—This is confidered by our author as one of the
moft valuable kinds of meadow-graffes; its pile being
exceedingly clofe, foft, and fucculent. It delights
much in moifture, and is feldom found on dry ground,
unlefs the foil is exceeding rich. It is often found on
thofe patches near fprings, over which the water fre¬
quently flows ; and may be known by the uncommon
ioftnefs and fucculence of the blade, the lively light
139
green colour of the leaves, and the matted intertexture Theory.
of its roots. But, notwithftanding the foftnefs of its —~ "
firft leaves, when the feed-ftalks advance, they are
rough to the touph, fo that the plant then affumes a
very different appearance from what we would have
expelled. The ear is branched out into a great num¬
ber of fine ramifications fomewhal like the oat, but
much fmaller.—This kind of grafs, however, would
not be eafily cultivated, on account of a kind of foft
membrane that makes the feeds adhere to the ftalk,
and to one another, after they are feparated from it, as
if they were intermixed with cobweb, fo that it is dif¬
ficult to get them feparated from the ftalk, or to fpread
readily in fowing. It fpreads, however, fo faft by its
running roots, that a fmall quantity fowed very thin,
would be fufficient to flock a large field in a ftiort time.
Thefe are the kinds of grajfes, properly fo called,
which have not as yet been cultivated, that Mr An-
derfon thinks the moft likely to be of value; but, be-
fides thefe, he recommends the following, of the pea-
tribe. 58
1. Milk-vetch, liquorice-vetch, or milkwort. This Milk-vetch,
plant, in fome refpe^ls, very much refembles the com¬
mon white clover; from the top of the root a great
number of {hoots come out in the fpring, fpreading a-
long the furface of the ground every way around it;
from which arife a great many clutters of bright yel¬
low flowers, exactly refembling thofe of the common
broom. Thefe are fucceeded by hard round pods, fil¬
led with fmall kidney-ftiaped feeds. From a fuppofed
refemblance of a duller of thefe pods to the fingers of
an open hand, the plant has been fometimes called
ladies-fingers. By others it is called crow-toes, from a
fancied refemblance of the pods to the toes of a bird.
Others, from the appearance of the bloffom, and the
part where the plant is found, have called it feal, im¬
properly fell-broom. It is found plentifully almoft e-
very where in old grafs-fields; but as every fpecies of
domeftic animal eats it, almoft in preference to any o-
ther plant, it is feldom allowed to come to the flower
in pafture-grbunds, unlefs where they have been acci¬
dentally faved from the cattle for fome time; fo that
it is only about the borders of corn-fields, or the fides
of inclofures to. which cattle have not accefs, that we
have an opportunity of obferving it. As it has been
imagined that the cows which feed on thefe paftures,
where this plant abounds, yield a quantity of rich milk,
the plant has, from that circumftance, obtained its
moft proper Englifti name of milk-vetch.
One of the greateft recommendations of this plant It* good
is, that it grows in poor barren ground, where almoft <lua^t‘es‘
no other plant can live. It- has been obferved in ground
fo poor, that even heath, or ling, (Erica Communis)
would fcarcely grow ; and upon bare obdurate clays,
where no other plant could be made to vegetate ; in-
fomuch that the furface remained entirely uncovered,
unlefs where a plant of this kind chanced to be efta-
bliftied ; yet even in thefe unfavourable circumftances.,
it flouriftied with an uncommon degree of luxuriance,
and yielded as tender and fucculent, though not fuch
abundant {hoots, as if reared in the richeft manured
fields. In dry, barren fands alfo, where almoft no o-
ther plant could be made to live, it has been found to
fend out fuch a number of healthy {hoots all round, as
to cover the earth with the clofeft and molt beautiful
S 2 * carpet
AGRICULTURE.
140
Theory.
60
Yellow
vetch Bog.
6r
Blue tare.
AGRICULTURE. Parti.
carpet that can be defired.
The ftalks of the milk-vetch are weak and llender,
fo that they fpread upon the furface of the ground, un-
lefs they are fupported by fome other vegetable. In
ordinary foils they do not grow to a great length, nor
produce many flowers ; but in richer fields the ftalks
grow to a much greater length, branch out a good
deal, but carry few or no-flowers or feeds. From thefe
qualities our author did not attempt at firft to cultivate
it with any other view than that of pafture ; and, with
this intention, fowed it with his ordinary hay-feeds,
expecting no material benefit from it till he defiiled
from cutting his field. In this, however, he was a-
greeably difappointed; the milk-vetch growing, the
firft feafon, as tall as his great clover, and forming ex¬
ceeding fine hay ; being fcarce diftinguilhable from lu¬
cerne, but by the flendernefs of the ftalk, and pro¬
portional fmallnefs of the leaf.
Another recommendation to this plant is, that it is
perennial. It is feveral years after it is fowed before
it attains to its full perfection ; but, when once efta-
blilhed, it probably remains for a great number of
years in full vigour, and produces annually a great
quantity of fodder. In autumn 1773, Mr Anderfon
cut the ftalk from an old plant that-grew on a very in¬
different foil; and after having thoroughly dried it, he
found that it weighed 14 ounces and an half.
The ftalks of this plant die down entirely in winter,
and do not come up in the fpring till the fame time
that clover begins to advance ; nor does it advance ve¬
ry fall, even in fummer, when once cut down or eat
over: fo that it feems much inferior to the abovemen-
tioned graffes ; but might be of ufe to cover the worft
parts of a farm, on which no other vegetable could
thrive.
2. The common yellow vetchling, lathyrus praten-
Jts, or everlajling tare^ grows with great luxuriance in
ftiff clay foils, and continues to yield annually a great
weight of fodder, of the very beft quality, for any
length of time. This is equally fit for pafture, or
hay; and grows with equal vigour in the end of fum¬
mer, as in the beginning of it; fo would admit being
paftured upon in the fpring, till the middle, or even
the end of May, without endangering the lofs of the
crop of hay. This is an advantage which no other
plant except clover poffeffes ; but clover is equally un¬
fit for early pafture, or for hay. Sain-foin is the only
plant whofe qualities approach to it in this refpedt, and
the yellow vetchling will grow in fuch foils as are ut¬
terly unfit for producing fain-foln.—It is alfo a peren¬
nial plant; and increafes fo fall by its running roots,
that a final] quantity of the feed would produce a fuf-
ficient number of plants to fill a whole field in a very
Ihort time. If a final! patch of good ground is fowed
with the feeds of this plant in rows, about a foot dif-
tance from one another, and the intervals kept clear of
weeds for that feafon, the roots will fpread fo much as
to fill up the whole patch next year ; when the ftalks
may be cut for green fodder or hay. And if that
patch were dug over in the fpring following, and the
roots taken out, it would furnifh a great quantity of
plants, which might be planted at two or three feet
diftance from one another, where they would probably
overfpread the whole field in a Ihort time.
3. The common blue tare, feems more likely than
the former to produce a more nouriftiing kind of hay, Theory.
as it abounds much more in feeds; but as the ftalks
come up more thinly from the root, and branch more
above, it does not appear to be fo well adapted for a
pafture-grafs as the other. The leaves of this plant
are much fmaller, and more divided, than thofe of the
other; the ftalks are likewife fmaller, and grow to a
much greater length. Though it produces a great
quantity of feeds, yet the finall birds are fo fond of
them, that, unlefs the field was carefully guarded, few
of them would be allowed to ripen. 62
4. The viciafepium, purple everlajling, or bujh-vetch. Bufli-vctch.
Our author gives the preference to this plant beyond
all others of the fame tribe for pafture. The roots
of it fpread on every fide a little below the furface
of the ground, from which, in the fpring, many ftems
arife quite clofe by one another; and as thefe have a
broad tufted top covered with many leaves, it forms as
clofe a pile as could be defired. It grows very quick¬
ly after being cut or cropt, but does not arrive at any
great height; fo that it feems more proper for paftur-
age than making hay; altho’, upon a good foil, it will
grow fufficiently high for that purpofe ; but the ftalks
grow fo clofe upon one another, that there is great dan¬
ger of having it rotted at the root, if the feafon fhould
prove damp. It feems to thrive beft in a clay foil. j
Beiides thefe, there are a variety of others of the fame Everlafting
clafs, which he thinks might be ufeful to the farmer. Pea*
The common garden everlafting pea, cultivated as a
flowering plant, he conje&ures, would yield a prodi¬
gious weight of hay upon an acre ; as it grows to the
height of ten or twelve feet, having very ftrong ftalks,
that could fupport themfelves without rotting, till they
attained a great height. <j4
One other plant, hitherto unnoticed, is recommend- Achillea
ed by our author to the attention of the farmer; it millefolium,
is the common yarrow, achillea millefolium, or hundred¬
leaved grafs. Concerning this plant, he remarks, that,
in almoft every fine old pafture, a great proportion of
the growing vegetables with which the field is covered,
confifts of it; but the animals which feed there are fo
fond of the yarrow, as never to allow one feed-ftalk of
it to come to perfection. Hence thefe feed-ftalks are
never found but in neglefted corners, or by the fides of
roads; and are fo difagreeable to cattle, that they are
never tafted ; and thus it has been erroneoufly thought
that the whole plant was refufed by them.—The leaves
of this plant have a great tendency to grow very thick
upon one another, and are therefore peculiarly adapted
for pafturage. It arrives at its greateft perfection in
rich fields that are naturally fit for producing a large
and fucculent crop of grafs. It grows alfo upon clays;
and is among the firft plants that ftrike root in any
barren clay, that has been lately dug from any confi-
derable depth; fo that this plant, andthiftles, are ufual-
ly the firft that appear on the banks of deep ditches
formed in a clayey foil. All animals delight to eat it;
but, from the dry aromatic tafte it poffeffes, it would.
feem peculiarly favourable to the conftitution of Iheep.
It feems altogether unfit for hay. gs
Befides thefe plants, which are natives of our own Lucerne,
country, there are others, which, though natives of a
foreign climate, are found to thrive very well in Bri¬
tain ; and have been raifed with fuch fuccefs by indi¬
viduals, as highly to, merit the attention of every far-
meri.
Part I
Theory.
Timothy-
grafs.
Effefts of
too great an
abundance
of juices.
68
Smut in
grain.
AGRICULTURE.
mer. Among thefe the firft place is claimed by lucerne.
This plant hath a perennial root, and annual ftalks,
which, in good foil, rife to three feet; or fometimes
more in height; but for a particular defcription of the
whole plant, fee the article Medica. All forts of do-
meftic cattle are fond of this plant, efpecially when al¬
lowed to eat it green, and black cattle may be fed very
well with the hay made from it; but an excefs of this
food is faid to be very dangerous.
Lucerne has the property of growing very quickly
after it is cut down, infomuch that Mr Rocque has
mowed it five times in a feafon, and Mr Anderfon af¬
firms he has cut it no lefs than fix times. It is, how¬
ever, not very eafily cultivated; in confequence of which
it fometimes does not fucceed; and as it dies entirely
in the winter, it is perhaps inferior to the fefcue grafles
already mentioned, which, tho’ defpifed and negledled,
might probably yield as rich a crop as lucerne, with¬
out any danger of a mifc'arriage.
I4I
are only wanted, this over-luxuriancy cannot be called Theq
a difeafe, but is a very defirable property ; but in any
kind of grain, it is quite otherwife. Dr Home, in his
Principles of Agriculture and Vegetation, claffesthe f7tiut
in grain among the difeafes arifing from this caufe. Pie
is of opinion, th at too great an abundance of juices in a
vegetable will produce difeafes fimilar to thofe occa-
fioned by repletion in animal-bodies ; viz. ftagnations,
corruptions, varices, cariofities, fee. along with the
too great luxuriancy we have juft now mentioned,
which he expreffes by “ too great an abundance of wa-
ter-fhoots.” Hence he is induced to clafs the fmut a-
mong difeafes arifing from this caufe; it being a cor¬
ruption happening moft in rainy feafons, and to weak
grain.—Like other contagious difeafes, he tells us, the
fmut may be communicated from the infedted to health- <rp
ful grain. As a preventative, he recommends fteeping How pre •
the grain in a ftrong pickle of fea-falt. Befides the ef- TCnted*
feci which this has upon the grain itfelf, it i
Another grafs was brought from Virginia, where it feparating the good from the bad ; the beft feed falling
is a native, and fown by Rocque in 1763. This grafs
is called Timothy, from its being brought from New-
York to Carolina by one Timothy Hanfon. It grows
beft in a wet foil ; but will thrive in almoft any. If it
is fown in Auguft, it will be fit for cutting in the latter
end of May or beginning of June. Hprfes are very
fond of it, and will leave lucerne to eat it. It is alfo
preferred by black cattle and ftieep; for a fquare piece
to the bottom, and the faulty fwimming on the top of
the liquor. — For the fame purpofe, a ley of wood-alhes
and quicklime is recommended by fome; and, by others,
a folution of falt-petre or copperas; after which the
grain is to be dried with flacked lime, or dry turfafties.
This folution, however, we can by no means recom¬
mend, as it feems moft likely to kill the grain entirely. -
According to Dr Home, dung is a preventative of Difeafes
of land having been divided into four equal parts, and difeafes arifing from too great moifture; in confirmation from too
of which, he relates the following experiment. “ Two
acres of poor ground, which had never got any ma-
nure, were fallowed with a defign to be fown with
wheat; but the fcheme being altered, fome dung was
laid on a fmall part of it, and the whole fowed, after it
had got five furrows, with barley. A great quantity
of rain fell. The barley on that part which was dung¬
ed, was very good ; but what was on the reft of the
field turned yellow after the rains, and, when ripe, was
not worth the reaping.” ^ j
^ The want of nouriftiment in plants may be eafily Difeafe pe-
fore, fo as to prevent their being poached with the feet known by their decay; in which cafe, the only remedy culiar to fsf~
of cattle, Mr Anderfon recommends the cultivation of is, to fupply them with food, according to the methods fron*
we have already direbt^d; or to remove from their neigh¬
bourhood fuch other plants as may draw off the nou-
rifhment from thofe we wifti to cultivate.—In the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1728, Mr Du
Hamel mentions a difeafe, which he calls le mart, that
attacks faffron in the fpring. It is owing to another
plant, a fpecies of trefoil, fixing fame violet-coloured
mequal diftribution ; and threads, which are its roots, to the roots of the faffron,
and fucking out its juice. This difeafe is prevented
by digging a trench, which faves all the unaffedted. ^*
The bad qualities, or unequal diftributions, of the Vegetables
one part fowed with lucerne, another with fain-foin, a
third with clover, and the fourth with timothy, fome
horfes, black cattle, and ftieep, were turned into it,
when the plants were all in a condition for pafturage ;
and the timothy was eaten quite bare, before the clover,
lucerne, or fain-foin, was touched.
One valuable'property of this grafs is, that its roots are
fo ftrong and interwoven with one another, that they
render the wetteft and fofteft land, on which a horfe
could not find footing, firm enough to bear the heavieft
cart. With the view of improving boggy lands, there-
this kind of grafs, from which he has little expectation
in other refpe&s.
Sect. VII. Of the Difeafes of Plants.
These are divided by Tournefort into the following
claffes. 1. Thofe which arife from too great an abun¬
dance of juice ; 2. from having too little ; 3. From its
bad qualities; 4. From its
5. From external accidents.
Too great an abundance of juices caufes at firft
prodigious luxuriant growth of the vegetable ; fo that
it does not come to the requifite perfection in a due juices of plants, are the occafion of fo few of the difeafes
time. Wheat is fubjeft, in fome climates, to a difeafe
of this kind ; it vegetates exceffively, without ever car¬
rying ripe grain ;• and the fame difeafe may be artifi¬
cially produced in any grain, by planting it in too rich
a foil. Too much rain is apt likewife to do the fame.
When a vegetable is fupplied too abundantly with jui-
to which vegetables in this country are fubjeft, that
we forbear to mention them at prefent. Moft of the
difeafes of our plants arc owing to external accidents,
particularly to the depredations of infe&s.—The infe&e
by which the greateft devaftations are committed in
this country are, fnails, caterpillars, grubs, and flies.
ces, it is very apt to rot; one part of it overftiadowing The faails and caterpillars feed on the leaves and young T ^
another in fuch a manner as to prevent the accefs of frem fhoots ; by which means they often totally deftroy the infeas de-
sir ; upon which, putrefaCtion foon enfues, as has been vegetable. Where the plants are of eafy accefs, thefe ver- fti oyedby
already obferved with regard to the fefcue graffes. min may be deftroyed by fprinkling the vegetable with lime-water;
In grafs, or any herbaceous plant, where the leaves lime-water, for quick-lime is a mortal poifon to crea-
r
142
Theory, tures of this kind, and throws them into the greateft
agonies the moment they are touched with it. On trees,
however, where this method cannot fo well be followed,
fumigation is'the moft proper; and, for this purpofe, no¬
thing is better than the fmoke of vegetables not perfectly
dry. In fome cafes the eggs of thefe deilroying creatures
may be obferved, and ought without doubt immediately
to' be taken away. On the fruit-trees, as apples, pears,
medlars, on fome foreft-trees, the oak and dwarf-maple
efpecially, and the white and black thorn in hedges,
a kind of little tufts are to be obferved, refembling, at
firft: fight, withered leaves twifted, by a cobweb, about
the uppermoft twigs or branches. Thefe contain a vaft
number of little black eggs, that.inthe fpring produce
fwarms of caterpillars which devour every thing. To
prevent this, all the twigs on which thefe cobwebs ap¬
pear Ihould be taken off and burnt as foon as poflible.
This ought to be done before the end of March, that
none of the eggs be allowed fufficient time for hatch-
Grubs. T'he grubs are a kind of worms which deftroy the
corn by feeding upon its roots; they are transformed
every fourth year into the beetles called cock-chafers,
may-bugs, &c. they are very deftrudiive when in their
vermicular ftate, and cannot then be deftroyed becaufe
they go .deep in the ground. When become beetles,
they conceal themfelves under the leaves of trees, where
they feem afleep till near funfet, when they take their
flight. It is only now that they can be deftroyed, and
that by a very laborious method; namely, by fpreading
pack-iheets below the trees in the day-time when the
beetles are in their torpid ftate, then fliaking them off
and burning them. Some tithe ago, they made fuch
devaftations in the county of Norfolk, that feveral far¬
mers were entirely ruined by them ; one gathered, 80
bulhels of thefe infe&s from the trees which grew on
Part I.
his farm. It isfaidthat, in 1574there fell fuch amul- Theory,
titude of thefe infefts into the river Severn, that they
flopped and clogged the wheels of the water-mills.
Turnips, when young, are apt to be totally deftroyed Turnip-fly,
by a multitude of little black flies, from thence called
the turnip-fly. As a preventative of thefe, fome ad-
vife the feed to be mixed with brimftone; but this is
improper, as brimftone is found to be poifonous to ve¬
getables. The beft method feems to be the fumigation
of the fields with fmoke of half-dried vegetables. For
this purpofe weeds will anfwer as well as any. This
fumigation muft no doubt be often repeated, in order
to drive away the innumerable multitudes of thefe infers
which are capable of deftroying a large field of turnip. ^
Some time ago an infect, called the corn-btitterfly. Corn but-
committed fuch ravages while in its vermicular ftate, terfly.
in France, that upwards of 200 parilhes were ruined
by itj and the miniftry offered a reward to the difco-
verer of an effectual remedy againft this deftroying
worm. The cure which was at laft difcovered, was
to heat the corn, in an oven, fo much as not to de-
ftroy its vegetative power, but fufficiently to deftroy
the fmall worms, which made their neft in the fubftance
of the grain, and at laft eat out the fubftance fo com¬
pletely that nothing could be got from the hulk, even
by boiling it in water. It is certain, that though in¬
fers can bear a great deal of cold, they are eafily de¬
ftroyed by a flight degree of heat; nor is the vegeta¬
tive power of corn eafily deftroyed, even when kept for
a long time in a pretty ftrong heat. This method muft
therefore be very effectual for deftroying all kinds of
infedts with which grain is apt to be infeded: but care
muft be taken not to apply too great a heat; and the
adjufting of the precife degree neceffary to deftroy the
infed, without hurting the corn, will be attended with
fome difficulty.
AGRICULTURE.
Part II. P R A CTIC E of AG RI C U L TU R E.
Sect. I. Inftruments of Hujbandry. *
THE inftruments employed in agriculture are vari¬
ous; as the plough, the harroV, the roller, &c.
which are again greatly diverfified by differences arifing
from their conftrudion, and particular ufes.
1. Of Ploughs.
yj The plough conftruded in the folowing manner is
ftill the moft common and the moft generally underftood
in Scotland; and, if properly made, is thebeftfor anfwer-
ing all purpofes, when only one is ufed; though others
y8 are, perhaps, more proper on fome particular occafions.
Defcription The parts of which this plough is compofed, are, the
of the Scots head, the beam, the (heath, the wreft, the mould-board,
plough. the two handles, the two rungs, the fock, and the coul¬
ter ; the two laft are made of iron, and all the reft of
wood.
Plate IV. The Head, is defigned for opening the ground be-
fig. 1. ' low. The length of the head from A to B is about 20
inches, and the breadth from A to D about five inches;
C is the point upon which the fock is driven, and the
length from B to C is about fix inches; a is the mor-
toife into which the larger handle is fixed, and b is the
mortoife into which the (heath is fixed.
The head is that part of the plough which goes in
the ground; therefore the (hotter and narrower it is,
the fridtion will be the lefs, and the plough more eafily
drawn ; but the longer the head is, the plough goes
more fteadily, and is not fo eafily put out of its direc¬
tion by any obftrudtions that occur. Twenty inches is
confidered as a mean length; and five inches as the moft
convenient breadth.
The Sheath, E, is driven into the mortoife 3, and Fig. *.
thus fixed to the head A B. It is not perpendicular1 to
the head, but placed obliquely, fo as to make the angle
formed by the lines A B and E B about 60 degrees.
The (heath is about 13 inches long, befides what is dri¬
ven into the mortoife b; about three inches broad, and Fig. 1.
one inch thick.
The (heath is fixed to the mould-board, as in fig.i 1.
E, in the fame manner as the wreft is fixed to the head
in fig. 7.
The Mould-board, is defigned to turn over the
earth of the furrow made by the plough; and it is ob¬
vious, that, according to the pofition of the (heath, the
mould-board will turn over the earth of the furrow more
or lefs fuddenly. Bolides, when it forms a lefs angle
with the head than 60 degrees, the plough is in great
danger of being choked, as the farmers term it.
The Larger Handle, F A, is fixed to the head, by Fig. 3.
driving it into the mortoife a. It is placed in the fame Fig. 1.
plane
Part
PrACTII
II.
AGRICULTURE.
fig- 3’
Fig- $•
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
e plane with the head; and its length from AF is about
— five feet four inches, and its diameter at the place
where it is fixed to the beam is about two inches and
an half, and tapers a little to the top F. About ten
inches from A, there is a curve in the handle, which,
when F is raifed to its proper height, makes the lower
part of it nearly parallel to the {heath E B. This curve
is defigned to ftrengthen the handle. The proper po-
fition of the handle is, when the top F is about three
feet two inches higher than the bottom of the head A B.
The longer the handles, the plough is the more eafily
managed, becaufe the levers are more diftant from the
centre of motion. The higher the top of the handles,
the plough is more eafily raifed out of the ground, pro¬
vided they be no higher than the lower part of a man’s
breaft.
The Beam, is fixed to the larger handle and the
{heath, all of which are placed in the fame plane with
the head. The length of it, from H to I, is about fix
feet; its diameter is about four inches. When the
plough is in the ground, the beam {hould be juft high
enough not to be incommoded by any thing on the fur-
face.
The pofition of the beam depends on the number'bf
cattle in the plough. When two horfes are yoked, the
beam {hould be placed in fuch a manner as to make the .
perpendiculardiftance betwixt the bolt-hole of the beam
and the plane of the head about 21 inches; when four
horfes are yoked, two a-breaft, this diftance {hould only
be about 18 inches. j,
The Sock, BP, is fixed to the end of the head, and
is about two feet long. In fitting the fock to the head,
the point ought to be turned if little to the land or left
fide ; becaufe otherwife it is apt to come out- of the
land altogether. When turned to the left, it likewife
takes off more land; when turned upwards, the plough -•
goes {hallow; and when downwards, it goes deeper.
The Coulter, is fixed to the beam, and is about
two feet ten inches long, two inches and a half broad,
{harp at the point and before, and thick on the back,
like a knife. It is fixed and directed by wedges, fo as
to make the point of it equal to, or rather a little be¬
fore the point of the fock, and upon a line with the left
fide of the bead. This oblique pofition enables it to
throw roots, See. out of the land, which requires lefs
force than cutting or pufliing them forward.
The Wrest, BD, is fixed to the head, and isabout
26 inches long, two broad, and one thick. It is fixed
to the head at B, in fuch a manner as to make the *
angle contained between the lines A B and BD about
25 degrees. The wreft is feldom or never placed in
the fame plane with the head, but gradually raifed from
the place where it is fixed to it; that is, from B to K,
as in fig. 8. The pofition of the wreft determines the
nature of the furrow. When the wreft is wide and low
fet, the furrow is wide; and when it is narrow and high
fet, the furrow is narrow.
Fig. 9. reprefents the two Handles, fixed together
by the two rungs. The larger handle has already been
deferibed; the leffer one is a few inches ihorter, and
ddes not require to be quite fo ftrong. The diftance of
the handles at the little rung depends on the pofition of
the wreft. Their diftance at M and P is about two
feet fix inches. The leffer handle is fixed to the mould
board at M, fig 10. and to the wreft K B, atL.
143
"Fig II. reprefents the plough complete, by joining Practice
together figures 6. and 10. in the {heath E B. The -T 
wreft B K is fuppofed to make an angle with the head
A B as in fig. 7. and the handles joined together as in
fig. 9.
After having given fuch a particular defeription of
all the parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it
will eafily appear how it feparates, raifes, and turns over
the earth of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earth
would open above the middle of the fock, and in a line
before- the {heath ; but as the coulter opens the earth
in a line with the left fide of the head, if the foil has
any cohefion, the earth of the furrow will be wholly rai¬
fed from the left fide, and, as the fock moves forward,
will be thrown on the right fide of the {heath, and by
the calling out of the mould-board, or the railing of
the wreft, will be turned over.
The Bridle, or Muzzle, is another article belong¬
ing to the plough. It is fixed to the end of the beam,
and the cattle are yoked by it. The muzzle commonly
ufed is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam by a
bolt through it. ABC is the muzzle, A C the bolt Fig- 12.
by whichdt is fixed to the beam; D is the fwingle-tree
or crofs-tree, to which the traces are fixed; and B is a
hook, or cleek, as it is commonly called, which joins
the muzzle and fwingle-tree.
Some ufe another kind of muzzle, ABCD. It is Fig. 13.
fixed to the beam by two bolts, and has notches by
which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed ei¬
ther to the right or the left of the beam. There are
alfo different holes for the hind-bolt to pafs thro’, by
which the draught may be fixed either above or below
the beam. A D is the fore-bolt upon which the
muzzle turns ; on B C are four notches, betwixt any
two of which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed.
When the cleek is fixed at B, the plough is turned to¬
wards the firm land, and takes off a broader furrow;
and when fixed at C, it is turned towards the plough¬
ed land, and takes of a narrower furrow. E and F
are the holes on each fide thro’ which the hindmoft bolt
paffes. When the bolt is put thro’ the higheft two, thefe
holes being thereby brought to the middle of the beam,
the fore-part of the muzzle is raifed above the beam,
and the plough is made to go deeper; and when put
through the loweft two, the fore-part of the muzzle is
funk below the beam, and the plough is made to go
Ihallower. This muzzle may be fo conftrudled as to
have the fame play with the common one. A is the p;™. 1(Sr
end of the beam ; B a plate of iron funk into it, and,
with a fimilar one in the other fide, is rivetted into it
by bolts ; C is the muzzle fixed to thefe plates of iron
by the bolt D, which bolt may be put through any of
the holes E E. From the conftruftion of this muzzle
it is plain, that it has the fame play with the common
one, and that by it the land of the plough may be al¬
tered at pleafure. - ^
Of all forms, that of the Scotch plough is the fit- Properties
teft for breaking up ftiff and rough land, efpecially of the Scots
where ftones abound ; and no lefs fit for ftrong clays pl°u2l1-
hardened by drought. The length of its head gives it
a firm hold of the ground; its weight prevents it from
being thrown out by ftones ; the length of the handles
gives the ploughman great command to direct its mo¬
tion ; and by the length of its head, and of its mould-
board, it lays the furrow-flice cleverly over. This
plough
H4
AGRICULTURE. Part II.
P r act i c e plough was contrived during the infancy of agriculture,
and was well contrived: in the foils above defcribed,
8o . it has not an equal. *
In what foil But in tender foil it is improper, becaufe it adds
improper, greatly to the expence of ploughing, without any coun¬
terbalancing benefit. The length of the head and
mould-board increafes the fridtion, and confequently it
requires a greater number of oxen or horfes than are
necdfary in a fhorter plough. There is another par¬
ticular in its form, that refifts the draught: the mould-
board makes an angle with the fock, inftead of making
a line with it gently curving backward. There is an
objection againft it no lefs folid, that it does not ftir
the ground perfectly : the hinder part of the wreft
rifes a foot above the foie of the head ; and the earth
that lies immediately below that hinder part, is left
unftirred. This is ribbing land below the furface, fi-
milar to what is done by ignorant farmers on the fur-
face.
Thefe defects mult be fubmitted to in a foil that re¬
quires a ftrong heavy plough ; but may be avoided in
a cultivated foil by a plough differently conftrudted.
Of all the ploughs fitted for a cultivated foil free of
Hones, that introduced into Scotland about 12 years
ago, by James Small in Blackadder Mount, Berwick-
g0 fhire, is the belt. It is now in great requeft ; and with
Chain- reafon, as it avoids all the defeats of the Scotch plough,
plough. The fhortnefs of' its head and of its mouldboard leffen
Plate V. friction greatly : from the point of the fock to the
I* back part of the head it is only 30 inches; and the
whole length, from the point of the beam to the end
of the handles, between eight and nine feet. The
fock and mouldboard make one line gently curving ;
and confequently gather no earth. Inllead of a wreft,
the under, edge of the mouldboard is in one plain with
the foie of the head; which makes a wide furrow, with¬
out leaving any part unftirred. It is termed the chain-
plough, becaufe it is drawn by an iron chain fixed to
the back part of the beam immediately before the
coulter. This has two advantages : firft, by means of
a muzzle, it makes the plough go deep, or (hallow;
and, next, it ftrefles the beam left than if fixed to the
point, and therefore a flenderer beam is fufficient.
This plough may well be confidered as a capital im¬
provement ; not only by faving expence, but by making
better work. It is proper for loams; for carfe-clays;
and, in general, for every fort of tender foil free of
ftones. It is even proper for opening up pafture-ground,
81 where the foil has been formerly well cultivated.
OftheSock. fpiked fock is ufed in the Scotch plough. The
IV. difference between it and the feathered fock will be beft
underftood by comparing their figures. Fig. 14. is the
common fock, and fig. 15. the feathered one.
From the conftruftion of the feathered fock, it is
obvious, that it muft meet with greater refiftance than
the common fock. However, when the plough takes
off the earth of the furrow broader than that part of
the fack which goes upon the head, it is more eafily
drawn than the plough with the common fock; for the
earth which the common fock leaves to be opened by
the wreft, is more eafily opened by the feather of the
other fock. In lea, the feathered fock makes the
plough go more eafily, becaufe the roots of the grafs,
which go beyond the reach of the plough, are more
eafily cut by the feather, than they can be torn afunder
by the common fock. The feathered fock is alfo of Practice
great ufe in cutting and deftroying root-weeds. The ‘
common fock, however, anfwers much better in ftrong
land.
It is proper here to add, that in fitting the feathered
fock to the head, the point of it fhould be turned a
little from the land, or a little to the right hand. 83
Some ploughs are made with two fmall wheels run- Wheel- 1
ning in the furrow, in order to take off the friftion of Illou£h‘
the head ; and this plough is recommended in a book,
intitled, The complete Farmer. But all complicated
ploughs are baubles; and this as much as any. The
pivots of fuch wheels are always going wrong ; and,
befide, they are choked fo with earth, as to increafe
the fri&ion inftead of diminilhing it. 84 |
If we look back 30 years, ploughs of different con- Ignoranceof I
ftruftions did not enter even into a dream. The Scotch £irm,ers iI’ j
plough was univerfally ufed; and no other was known. aCfew"years !
There was no lefs ignorance as to the number of cattle ago.,
neceffary for this plough. In the fouth of Scotland,
fix oxen and two horfes were univerfal; and in the
north, 10 oxen, fometimes 12. The firft attempt to
leffen the number of oxen, was in Berwicklhire. The
low part of that county abounds with ftone, clay, and
marl, the moft fubftantial of all manures, which had
been long ufed by one or two gentlemen. About 25
years ago it acquired reputation, and fpread rapidly.
As two horfes and two oxen were employed in every
marl-cart; the farmer, in fummer-fallowing, and in
preparing land for marl, was confined to four oxen and
two horfes. And as that manure afforded plenty of
fucculent ftraw for oxen, the farmer was furprifed to
find that four oxen did better now than fix formerly.
Marling, however, a laborious work, proceeded flow-
ly, till people were taught by a noted farmer in.that
country, what induftry can perform by means of power
properly applied. It was reckoned a mighty talk to
marl five or fix aeres in a year. That gentleman, by
plenty of red clover for his working-cattle, accom-
plifhed the marling 50 acres in a fummer, once 54.
Having fo much occafion for oxen, he tried with fuc-
cefs two oxen and two horfes in a plough; and that
practice becam©.general in Berwickfhire.
Now here appears with luftre the advantage of the Advantages
chain-plough. The great friftion occafioned in the offta chain- I
Scotch plough by a long head, and by the angle it P'ft*
makes with the mould-board, neceffarily requires two luxated.1"
oxen and two horfes, whatever the foil be. The fric¬
tion is fo much lefs in the chain-plough, that two good
horfes are found fufficient in every foil that is proper
for it. Befides, the reducing the draught to a couple
of horfes has another advantage, that of rendering a
driver unneceffary. This faving on every plough, where
two horfes and two oxen were formerly ufed, will, by
the ftrifteft computation, be ^ 15 fterling yearly; and
where four horfes were ufed, no lefs than £ 20 fterl.
There is now fcarce to be feen in the low country of
Berwicklhire a plough with more than two horfes ;
which undoubtedly in time will become general. We
know but of one further improvement, that of ufing
two oxen inftead of two horfes. That draught has
been employed with fuccefs in feveral places ; and the
faving is fo great, that it muft force its way every
where. It may be confidently affirmed, no foil ftirred
in a proper feafon, can ever require more than two
horfc
Part II. AGRICULTURE.
Practice horfes and two oxen, in a plough, even fuppoflngthe
ftiffeft clay. In all other foils, two good horfes, or
two good oxen ahreaft, may be relied on for every o-
peration of the chain-plough.
A chain-plough of a mialler fize than ordinary,
' drawn by a fingle horfe, is of all the moft proper
for horfe-hoeing, fuppofing the land to be mellow,
which it ought to be for that operation. It is fuffi-
cient for making furrows to receive the dung, for
ploughing the drills after dunging, and for hoeing the
Afmall crop.
A Hill fmaller plough of the fame kind may be re¬
commended commended for a kitchen-garden. It can be reduced
for various to the fmalleft fize, by being made of iron ; and where
purpofes. the land is properly drelfed for a kitchen-garden, an
iron plough drawn by a horfe of the fmalleft fize will fave
much fpade-work.—In Scotland, thirty years ago, a kit¬
chen-garden was an article of luxury merely, becaufe
at that time there could be no cheaper food than oat¬
meal. At prefent, the farmer maintains his fervants at
double expence, as the price of oat-meal is doubled;
and yet he has no notion of a kitchen-garden, more
than he had thirty years ago. He never thinks, that
living partly on cabbage, kail, turnip, carrot, would
fave much oat-meal: nor does he ever think, that
change of food is more wholefome, than vegetables
alone, or oat-meal alone. We need not recommend
potatoes, which in fcanty crops of corn have proved
a great blelfing: without them, the labouring poor
would frequently have been reduced to a ftarving con¬
dition. Would the farmer but cultivate his kitchen-
garden with as much induftry as he beftows on his
potatoe-crop, he needed never fear want; and he can
cultivate jt with the iron plough at a very fmall ex¬
pence. It may be held by a boy of 12 or 13; and
would be a proper education for a ploughman. But it
is the landlord who ought to give a beginning to the
improvement. A very fmall expence would inclofe an
acre for a kitchen-garden to each of his tenants ; and
it would excite their induftry, to bellow an iron plough
on thofe who do bell.
Nor is this the only cafe where a fingle-horfe plough
may be profitably employed. It is fufficient for feed¬
furrowing barley, where the land is light and well-
dreffed. It may be ufed in the fecond or third plough¬
ing of fallow, to encourage annual weeds, which are
deftroyed in fubfequent ploughings.
2. The Brake.
*?
Brake tie- The brake is a large and weighty harrow, the pur-
Pkte V P°^ which is to reduce a ftubborn foil, where an
' ordinary harrow makes little impreffion. It confifts of
four fquare bulls, each fide five inches, and fix feet and
a half in length. The teeth are 17 inches long, bend¬
ing forward like a coulter. Four of them are infert-
ed into each bull, fixed above with a ferew-nut, ha¬
ving 12 inches free below, with a heel clofe to the un¬
der part of the bull, to prevent it from being pufhed
back by ftones. The nut above makes it eafy to be
taken out for (harping. This brake requires four horfes
or four oxen. One of a lefler fize will not fully anfwer
the purpofe : one of a larger fize will require fix oxen ;
in which cafe the work may be performed at lefs ex-
83 pence with the plough.
Ufes. This inftrument may be applied to great advantage
VOL. I.
in the following circumftances. In the fallowing ftrong
clay that requires frequent ploughings, a brakeing be¬
tween every ploughing will pulverize the foil, and
render the fubfequent ploughings more eafy. In the
month of March or April, when ftrong ground is
ploughed for barley, efpecially if bound with couch-
grafs, a crofs brakeing is preferable to a crofs-plough-
ing, and is done at half the expence. When ground
is ploughed from the ftate of nature, and after a com¬
petent time is crofs-ploughed, the brake is applied with
great fuccefs, immediately after the crofs-ploughing,
to reduce the whole to proper tilth.
Let it be obferved, that a brake with a greater
number of teeth than above-mentioned, is improper
for ground that is bound together by the roots of
plants, which is always the cafe of ground new broken
up from its natural ftate. The brake is foon choked,
and can do no execution till freed from the earth it
holds. A lefs number of teeth would be deficient in
pulverizing the foil.
3. The Harrow.
Harrows are commonly confidered as of no ufe
but to cover the feed. But they have another ufe
fcarce lefs eflential, which is to prepare land for the
feed. This is an article of importance for producing
a good crop. But how imperfeftly either of thefe pur¬
pofes is performed by the common harrow, will ap¬
pear from the following account of it.
The harrow commonly ufed is of different forms.
The firft we (hall mention has two bulls, four feet long
and 18 inches afunder, with four wooden teeth in each.
A fecond has three bulls and 12 wooden teeth. A
third has four bulls, and 20 teeth, of wood or iron,
10, 11, or 12 inches afunder. Now, in fine mould,
the laft may be fufficient for covering the feed ; but
none of them are fufficient to prepare for the feed any
ground that requires fubduing. The only tolerable
form is that with iron teeth ; and the bare deferip-
tion of its imperfections will fticw the neceffity of a
more perfect form. In the firft place, this harrow is
by far too light for ground new taken up from the
ftate of nature, for clays hardened with fpring-drought,
or for other ftubborn foils : it floats on the furface;
and after frequent returns in the fame tra6l, nothing
is done effectually. In the next place, the teeth are
too thick fet, by which the harrow is apt to be choked,
efpecially where the earth is bound with roots, which
is commonly the cafe. At the fame time, the lightnefs
and number of teeth keep the harrow upon the furface,
and prevent one of its capital purpofes, that of divi¬
ding the foil. Nor will fewer teeth anfwer for covering
the feed properly. In the third place, the teeth are
too ftiort for reducing a coarfe foil to proper tilth; and
yet it would be in vain to make them longer, becaufe
the harrow is too light for going deep into the ground.
Further, the common harrows are fo ill conftru&ed, as
to ride at every turn one upon another. Much time is
loft in difengaging them. Laftly, it is equally unfit
for extirpating weeds. The ground is frequently fo
bound with couch-grafs, as to make the furrow-flice
Hand upright, as when old lea is ploughed: notwith-
ftanding much labour, the grafs-roots keep the field,
and gain the viClory.
A little reflexion, even without experience, will
T make
145
Practice
89
Imperfec¬
tion of the
common
harrow.
146
Practice
90
Improved
harrows.
Plate V.
fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig.
91
Properties
of thefe har
lows.
AGRICULTURE. Part II.
make it evident, that the fame harrows, whatever be per for harrowing land that has lain long after plough- Practice
the form, can never anfwer all the different purpofes of ing, as where oats are fown on a winter-furrow, and in
harrowing, nor can operate equally in all different foils, general for harrowing ftiffland : it pierces deep into the
rough or fmooth, firm or loofe. The following, there- foil by its long teeth, and divides it minutely. The fe-
fore, have been recommended ; which are of three dif- cond is intended for covering the feed : its long teeth
ferent forms, adapted for different purpofes. They lays the feed deeper than the common harrow can do;
are all of the fame weight, drawn each by two horfes. which is no flight advantage. By placing the feed
Birch is the beft wood for them, becaufe it is cheap, confiderably under the furface, the young plants are,
and not apt to fplit. The firft is compofed of four on the one hand, prote6ted from too much heat, and,
bulls, each four feet ten inches long, three and a quar- on the other, have fufficiency of moifture. At the
ter inches broad, and three and a half deep ; the in- fame time, the feed is fo well covered that none of it is
terval between the bulls 11 and three-fourths inches ; loft. Seed (lightly covered by the common harrows,
fo that the breadth of the whole harrow is four feet, wants moifture, and is burnt up by the fun ; befide.
The bulls are connefted by four fheths, which go thro’ that a proportion of it is left upon the furface unco-
each bull, and are fixed by timber-nails driven through vered. The third harrow fupplies what may be defi-
both. In each bull five teeth are inferted, ten inches cient in the fecond, by fmoothing the furface, and co¬
free under the bull, and ten inches afunder. They are vering the feed more accurately. The three harrows
of the fame form withthofe of the brake, and inferted make the ground finer and finer, as heckles do lint;
into the wood in the fame manner. Each of thefe teeth or, to ufe a different comparifon, the firft harrow makes
is three pounds weight; and where the harrow is made the bed, the fecond lays the feed in it, the third
of birch, the weight of the whole is fix ftone 14 pounds fmooths the cloaths. They have another advantage
Dutch. An erecl bridle is fixed at a corner of the not inferior to any mentioned : they mix manure with
harrow, three inches high, with four notches for draw- the foil more intimately than can be done by common
ing higher or lower. To this bridle a double tree is harrows ; and upon fuch intimate mixture depends,
fixed for two horfes drawing abreaft, as in a plough, greatly the effeft of manure, as has already been explain-
And to ftrengthen the harrow, a flat rod of iron is ed. To conclude, thefe harrows are contrived to an-
nailed upon the harrow from corner to corner in the fwer an eftablilhed principle in agriculture. That ferti-
line of the draught. lity depends greatly on pulverizing the foil, and on an
The fecond harrow confifts of two parts, connefted intimate mixture of manure with it, whether dung,
together by a crank or hinge in the middle, and two lime, marl, or any other,
chains of equal length, one at each end, which keep
the two parts always parallel, and at the fame diftance 4’ Roller. ^
from each other. The crank is fo contrived, as to al- The roller is an inftrument of capital ufe in huf- The roller,
low the two parts to ply to the ground like two un- bandry, tho’ fcarcely known in ordinary praftice; and,
conne&ed harrows ; but neither of them to rife above where introduced, it is commonly fo flight as to have
the other, more than if they were a Angle harrow very little effeft.
without a joint. In a word, they may form an angle Rollers are of different kinds; ftone, yetling, wood,
downward, but not upward. Thus they have the ef- Each of thefe has its advantages. We would recom-
fe<ft of two harrows in curved ground, and of one mend the laft, conftru&ed in the following manner,
weighty harrow in a plain. This harrow is compofed Take the body of a tree, fix feet ten inches long, the
of fix bulls, each four feet long, three inches broad, larger the better, made as near a perfedt cylinder as
and three and a half deep. The interval between the poflible. Surround this cylinder with three rows of fil-
bulls nine and a half inches ; which makes the breadth lies, one row in the middle, and one at each end. Line
of the whole harrow, including the length of the thefe fillies with planks of wood equally long with the
crank, to be five feet five inches. Each bull has five roller, and fo narrow as to ply into a circle. Bind
teeth, nine inches free under the wood, and ten inches them faft together with iron rings. Beech-wood is the
afunder. The weight of each tooth is two pounds; beft, being hard and tough. The roller thus mount-
the reft as in the former. ed, ought to have a diameter of three feet ten inches.
The third confifts alfo of two parts, conne&ed to- It has a double pair of ftiafts for two horfes abreaft.
gether like that laft mentioned. It has eight bulls, Thefe are fufficient in level ground: in ground not le-
each four feet long, two and a half inches broad, and vel, four horfes may be neceffary. The roller without
diree deep. The interval between the bulls is eight the ftiafts ought to weigh two hundred ftone Dutch ;
inches; and the breadth of the whole harrow, inclu- and the large diameter makes this great weight eafy to
ding the length of the crank, is fix feet four inches, be drawn.
In each bull are inferted five teeth, feven inches free un- Rolling wheat in the month of April, is an impor- Seafon*for
der the wood, and ten and a half inches afunder, each tant article in loofe foil; as the winter-rains preffing rolling,
tooth weighing one pound. The reft as in the two for- down the foil leave many roots in the air. Barley
Baer harrows. ought to be rolled immediately after the feed is fown ;
Thefe harrows are a confiderable improvement. They efpecially where grafs-feeds are fown with it. The
- ply to curved ground like two unconnefted harrows; and beft time for rolling a gravelly foil, is as foon as the
when drawn in one plain, they are in effeft one harrow mould is fo dry as to. bear the roller without clinging to
of double weight, which makes the teeth pierce deep it. A clay foil ought neither to be tilled, harrowed,
into the ground. The imperfection of common- har- nor rolled, till the field be perfectly dry. And as
rows, mentioned above, will fuggeft the advantages of rolling a clay foil is chiefly intended for fmoothing the
&e fet of harrows here recommended.. The firft is pro- furface, a dry feafon may be patiently waited for, even
Part II. AGRICULTURE.
147
Practice till the crop be three inches high. There is the greater
~~ reafon for this precaution, becaufe much rain imme¬
diately after rolling is apt to cake the furface when
drought follows. Oats in a light foil may be rolled
immediately after the feed is fown, unlefs the ground
be fo wet as to cling to the roller. In a clay foil, de¬
lay rolling till the grain be above ground. The pro¬
per time for fowing grafs-feeds in an oat-field, is when
the grain is three inches high; and rolling Ihould im¬
mediately fucceed, whatever the foil be. Flax ought
to be rolled immediately after lowing. This ftiould ne¬
ver be negledled ; for it makes the feed pufh equally,
and prevents after-growth, the bad effeft of which is
vifible in every ftep of the procefs for dreffing flax. The
firft year’s crop of fown grafles ought to be rolled as
early the next fpring as the ground will bear the hor-
fes. It fixes all the roots preeifely as in the cafe of
wheat. Rolling the fecond and third crops in loofe
foil is an ufeful work; though not fo effentialas rolling
94 the firft crop.
Effects of Inthefirft place, rolling renders a loofe foilmore corn-
rolling. pact and folid; which encourages the growth of plants,
by making the earth clap clofe to every part of every'
root. Nor need we be afraid of rendering the foil too
compact; for no roller that can be drawn by two or
four horfes will have that effedt. In the next place,
rolling keeps in the moifture, and hinders drought to
penetrate. This effedt is of great moment. In a dry
feafon, it may make the difference of a good crop, or
no crop, efpecially where the foil is light. In the third
place, the rolling grafs-feeds, befide the foregoing ad¬
vantages, facilitates the mowing for hay; and it is to be
hoped, that the advantage of this pradtice will lead far¬
mers to mow their corn alfo, which will increafe the
quantity of ftraw, both for food and for the dunghill.
There is a fmall roller for breaking clods in land in¬
tended for barley. The common way is, to break
clods wuth a mell; which requires many hands, and is a
laborious work. This roller performs the work more
effectually, and at much lefs expence: let a harrowing
precede, which will break the clods a little ; and after
lying a day, or a day and a half to dry, this roller will
diffolve them into powder. This however does not fu-
perfede the ufe of the great roller after all the other ar¬
ticles are finiflied, in order to make the foil compadt,
and to keep out the fummer-drought. A ftone roller
four feet long, and fifteen inches diameter, drawn by
one horfe, is fufficient to break clods that are eafily dif-
folved by preffure. The ufe of this roller in preparing
land for barley is gaining ground daily, even among
ordinary tenants, who have become fenfible both of the
expence and toil of ufing wooden mells. But in a clay
foil, the clods are fometimes too firm, or too tough, to
be fubdued by fo light a machine. In that cafe, a
roller of the fame fize, but of a different conftruftion, is
neceffary. It ought to be furrounded with circles of
iron, fix inches afunder, and feven inches deep; which
will cut even the moft ftubborn clods, and reduce them
to powder. Let not this inftrument be confidered as
a finical refinement. In a ftiff clay, it may make the
difference of a plentiful or fcanty crop.
The Fanner.
Practice
This inftrument for winnowing corn was introduced The fanner,
into Scotland not many years ago. Formerly wind
being our only refource, the winnowing of corn was
no lefs precarious than the grinding it at a wind¬
mill : people often were reduced to famine in the midft
of plenty. There was another bad effeft : it was ne-
ceffary to place a barn open to the weft wind, however
irregular or inconvenient the fituation might be with
regard to the other buildings. But it is needlefs to be
particular upon that ufeful inftrument; becaufe every
farmer confiders it now as no lefs effential than a plough
or a harrow.
Sect. II. Preparing Land for Cropping.
1. Obstructions to Cropping.
In preparing land forcropping, the firft thingthatoc- ob(lr50^.
curs, is to confider the obftrudlions to regular ploughing. tjons
The moft formidable of thefe, are Jlones lying above or 97
belowthe furface, which are an impediment to a plough, Stones,
as rocks are to a (hip. Stones above the furface may be
avoided by the ploughman, though not without lofs of
ground; but ftones below the furface are commonly not
difcovered till the plough be ftiattered to pieces, and
perhaps a day’s work loft. The clearing land of ftones
is therefore neceffary to prevent mifchief. And to en¬
courage the operation, it is attended with much attual
profit. In the firft place, the ftones are ufeful for fen¬
ces : when large they muft be blown, and commonly
fall into parts proper for building. And as the blow¬
ing, when gunpowder is furnifhed, does not exceed a
halfpenny for each inch that is bored, thefe ftones come
generally cheaper than to dig as many out of the quar¬
ry. In the next place, as the foil round a large ftone
is commonly the beft in the field, it is purchafed at a
low rate by taking out the ftone. Nor is this a trifle;
for not only is the ground loft that is occupied by a
large ftone, but alfo a confiderable fpace round it, to
which the plough has not accefs without danger. A
third advantage is greater than all the reft ; which is,
that the ploughing can be carried on with much expe¬
dition, when there is no apprehenfion of ftones : in fto-
ny land, the plough muft proceed fo flow, as not to
perform half of its work.
To clear land of ftones, is in many inftances an un¬
dertaking too expenfive for a tenant who has not a
very long leafe. As it is profitable both to him and to
his landlord, it appears reafonable that the work fliould
be divided, where the leafe exceeds not nineteen years.
It falls naturally upon the landlord to be at the expence
of blowing the ftones, and upon the tenant to carry
them off the field. 98
Another obftru&ion is wet ground. Water may Wctnefs.
improve gravelly or fandy foils ; but it fours (A ) a clay
foil, and converts low ground into a morafs, unfit for
any purpofe that can intereft' the hulbandman.
A great deal has been written upon different me¬
thods of draining land, moftly fo expenfive as to be
fcarce fit for the landlord, not to mention the tenant.
T 2 One
( a) By this expreffion it is not meant that the ground really becomes acid, but only that it becomes unfit for the pur-
pofes of vegetation. The .natural products of fuch a foil arerufbes, and four grafs: which laft appears in the fur¬
rows, but feldom in the crown of the ridge; is dry, and taftelefs, like a chip of wood; and feels rough when ftroked
backwards.
143
rActic
AGRICULTURE.
e One way of draining without expence when land is
to be inclofed with hedge and ditch, is to diredt the
ditches fo as to carry off the water. But this method is
not always prafticable, even where the divifions lie con¬
venient for it. If the run of water be confiderable, it
will deftroy the ditches, and lay open the fences, Spe¬
cially where the foil is loofe or fandy.
If ditches will not anfwer, hollow drains are fome-
times made, and fometimes open drains, which muft be
made fo deep as to command the water. The former
is filled up with loofe Hones, with brufh-wood, or with
any other porous matter that permits the water to
pafs. The latter is left open, and not filled up. To
make the former effe&ual, the ground muft have fuch
a flope a* to give the water a briflc courfe. To execute
them in level ground is a grofs error : the paffages are
foon flopped up with fand and fediment, and the work
is rendered ufelefs. This inconvenience takes not place
in open drains ; but they are fubjecl to other inconve¬
niences : They are always filling up, to make a yearly
reparation necefiary; and they obftruft both plough¬
ing and pafturing.
The following is the beft in all views. It is an open
drain made with the plough, cleaving the fpace in¬
tended for the drain over and over, till the furrow be
made of a fufficient depth for carrying off the water.
The flope on either fide may, by repeated ploughings,
be made fo gentle as to give no obftruftion either to
the plough or to the harrow. There is no occafion for
a fpade, unlefs to fmooth the fides of the drain, and to
remove accidental obftru&ions in the bottom. The
advantages of this drain are manifold. It is executed
at much lefs expence than either of the former; and
it is perpetual, as it never can be obftru&ed. In level
ground, it is true, grafs may grow at the bottom of
the drain ; but to clear off the grafs once in four or five
years, will reftore it to its original perfeftion. A hol¬
low drain may be proper between the fpring-head and
the main drain, where the diftance is not great; but
in every other cafe the drain recommended is the beft.
Where a level field is infefted with water from
higher ground, the water ought to be intercepted by
a ditch carried along the foot of the high ground, and
terminating in fome capital drain.
The only way to clear a field of water that is hol¬
low in the middle, is to carry it off by fome drain ftill
lower. This is commonly the cafe of a morafs fed
with water from higher ground, and kept on the fur-
face by a clay bottom.
A clay foil of any thicknefs is never peftered with
fprings; but it is peftered with rain, which fettles on
the furface as in a cup. The only remedy is high nar¬
row ridges, well rounded. And to clear the furrows,
the furrow of the foot-ridge ought to be confiderably
lower, in order to carry off the water cleverly. It can¬
not be made too low, as nothing hurts clay foil more
than the ftagnation of water on it; witnefs the hollows
at the end of crooked ridges, which, are abfolutely bar¬
ren. Some gravelly foils have a clay bottom; which is
a fubftantia! benefit to a field when in grafs, as it re¬
tains moifture. But when in tillage,, ridges are necef-
fary to prevent rain from fettling at the bottom ; and
this is the only cafe where a gravelly foil ought to be
ridged.
Clay foils that have little or no level, have fometimes
Part II.
a gravelly bottom. For difcharging the water, the beft Pracuck
method is, at the end of every ridge to pierce down to
the gravel, which will abforb the water. But if the
furrow of the foot-ridge be low enough to receive all
the water, it will be more expeditious to make a few
holes in that furrow. In fome cafes, a field may be
drained, by filling up the hollows with earth taken from
higher ground. But as this method is expenfive, it
will only be taken where no other method anfwers.
Where a field happens to be partly wet, partly dry,
there ought to be a reparation by a middle ridge, if it
can be done conveniently. And the dry part may be
ploughed, while the other is drying.
The low part of Berwickftiire is generally a brick clay
extremely wet and poachy during winter. This in a
good meafure may be prevented by proper inclofing,
as there is not a field but can be drained into lower
ground, all the way down to the river Tweed. But
as this would leffen the quantity of rain in a dry cli¬
mate, fuch as is all the eaft-fide of Britain, it may ad¬
mit of fome doubt whether the remedy would not be
as bad as the difeafe. (See the article Draining.)
2. Bringing into culture, Land from the
STATE of NATURE.
To improve a moor, let it be opened in winter when Moorifh
it is wet; which has one convenience, that the plough ground,
cannot be employed at any other work. In fpring, after
froft is over, a flight harrowing will fill up the feams
with mould, to keep out the air, and rot the fod. In
that ftate let it lie the following fummer and winter,
which will rot the fod more than if laid open to the air
by ploughing. Next April, let it be crofs-ploughed,
braked, and harrowed, till it be fufficiently pulverized.
Let the manure laid upon it, whether lime or dung,
be intimately mixed with the foil by repeated harrow-
ings. This will make a fine bed for turnip-feed if fown
broad-caft. But if drills be intended, the method muft
be followed that is direfted afterward in treating more
direftly of the culture of turnip.
A fuccefsful turnip-crop, fed on the ground with
fheep, is a fine preparation for laying down a field with
grafs-feeds. It is an improvement upon this method,
to take two or three fucceffive crops of turnip, which
will require no dung for the fecond and following crops.
This will thicken the foil, and enrich it greatly. ,0(>
The beft way of improving fwampy ground after Swampy
draining, is paring and burning. But where the ground groim^*
is dry, and the foil fo thin as that the furface cannot
be pared, the beft way of bringing it into tilth from,
the ftate of nature, as mentioned above, is to plough
it with a feathered fock, laying the graffy furface un¬
der. After the new furface is mellowed with froft,
fill up all the feams by harrowing crofs the field, which,
by excluding the air will effectually rot the fod. In.
this ftate let it lie fummer and winter. In the begin-
ing of May after, a crofs-ploughing will reduce all to
fmall fquare pieces, which muft be pulverized with the
brake, and make it ready for a May or June crop. If
thefe fquare pieces be allowed to lie long in the fap<
without breaking, they will become tough and not be
eafily reduced.
3. Forming Ridges.
The firft thing that occurs on this head, is to con- of ridges,
fider
I Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
149
e fider what grounds ought to be formed into ridges, and
” what ought to be tilled with a flat furface. Dry foils,
which fuffer by lack of moifture, ought to be tilled flat,
which tends to retain moifture. And the method for
fuch tilling, is to go round and round from the cir¬
cumference to the centre, or from the centre to the
circumference. This method is advantageous in point
of expedition, as the whole is finiftied without once
But what could tempt them to make their ridges crook- Pa act i c
ed ? Certainly this method did not originate from de-
lign; but from the lazinefs of the driver fuffering the
cattle to turn too haftily, inftead of making them finifti
the ridge without turning. There is more than one
difadvantage in this flovenly pradtice. Firft, the wa¬
ter is -kept in by the curve at the end of every ridge,
and fours the ground. Next, as a plough has the leaft
turning the plough. At the fame time, every inch of fridtion poffible in a ftraight line, the frittion muft be
the foil is moved, inftead of leaving either the crown or
the furrow unmoved, as is commonly done in tilling
ridges. Clay foil, which fuffers by water Handing on
it, ought to be laid as dry as poffible by proper rid¬
ges. A loamy foil is the middle between the two men¬
tioned. It ought to be tilled flat in a dry country,
efpecially if it incline to the foil firft mentioned. In a
moift country, it ought to be formed into ridges, high
or low according to the degree of moifture and ten¬
dency to clay.
In grounds that require ridging, an error prevails,
that ridges cannot be raifed too high. High ridges
labour under feveral difadvantages. The foil is heap¬
ed upon the crown, leaving the furrows bare : the
crown is too dry, and the furrows too wet: the crop,
which is always beft on the crown, is more readily ftia-
ken with the wind, than where the whole crop is of an
equal height: the half of the ridge is always covered
from the fun, a difadvantage which is far from being
flight in a cold climate. High ridges labour under
another difadvantage in ground that has no more level
than barely fufficient to carry off water : they fink the
furrows below the level of the ground; and confe-
quently retain water at the end of every ridge. The
furrows ought never to be funk below the level of the
ground. Water will more effectually be carried off,
by leffening the ridges both in height and breadth : a
narrow ridge, the crown of which is but 18 inches
increafed in a curve, the back part of the mouldboard
preffing hard on the one hand, and the coulter preffing
hard on the other. In the third place, the plough
moving in a ftraight line, has the greateft command in
laying the earth over. But where the ftraight line of
the plough is applied to the curvature of a ridge in
order to heighten it by gathering, the earth moved by
the plough is continually falling back, in fpite of the
moft ikilful ploughman.
The inconveniencies of ridges high and crooked are fa
many, that one would be tempted to apply a remedy at
any rifle. And yet, if the foil be clay, it would not be
advifeable for a tenant to apply the remedy upon a leafe
ftiorter than two nineteen years. In a dry gravelly
foil, the work is not difficult, nor hazardous. When
the ridges are cleaved two or three years fuccef-
fively in the courfe of cropping, the operation ought
to be concluded in one fummer. The earth, by reite¬
rated ploughings, fhould be accumulated upon the fur¬
rows, fo as to raife them higher than the crowns: they
cannot be raifed too high, for the accumulated earth.
will fubfide by its own weight. Crofs-ploughing once
or twice, will reduce the ground to a flat furface, and
give opportunity to form ridges at will. The fame
method brings down ridges in clay foil: only let care
be taken to carry on the work with expedition ; be-
caufe a hearty fhower, before the new ridges are form¬
ed, would foak the ground in water, and make the far-
higher than the furrow, has a greater flope than a very mer fufpend his work for the remainder of that year at
broad ridge where the difference is three or four feet. T~ " a 
Next, of forming midges where the ground hangs
confiderably. Ridges may be too fteep as well as too
horizontal; and if to the ridges be given all the fteep-
nefs of a field, a heavy flrower may do irreparable mif-
chief. To prevent fuch mifehief, the ridges ought to
be fo directed crofs the field, as to have a gentle flope
for carrying off water flowly, and no more. In that ving his fields level, has produced many new inventions methods o£
refped, a hanging field has greatly the advantage of of ploughs, harrows, drags, &c. calculated for fpeedily ^veiling,
one that is nearly horizontal; becaufe in the latter, reducing the fields to that ftate; none of which have
there is no opportunity of a choice in forming the as yet been found fully to anfwer the purpofe for
ridges. A hill is of all the beft adapted for directing which they were intended, as they all indifcriminately
leaft. In a ftrong clay, we would not venture to alter * E/Jays on
the ridges, unlefs it can be done to perfedrion in one ^gricul-
feafon.—On this fubjeft Mr Anderfon has the follow- tur\^6 ° ‘ ‘
ing obfervations *.
“ The difficulty of performing this operation pro- T 103 .
perly with the common implements or hulbandry, and encies jn
the obvious benefit that accrues to the farmer from ha- common
the ridges properly. If the foil be gravelly, it may be
ploughed round and round, beginning at the bottom
and afeending gradually to the top in a fpiral line.
This method of ploughing a hill, requires no more
force than ploughing on a level; and at the fame time
removes the great inconvenience of a gravelly hill, that
rains go off too quickly; for the rain is retained in
every furrow. If the foil be fuch as to require ridges,
they may be direfted to any flope that is proper.
In order to form a field into ridges, that has not been
formerly cultivated, the rules mentioned are eafily put
in execution. But what if ridges be already formed,
that are either crooked or too high ? After feeing the
advantage of forming a field into ridges, people were
naturally led into an error, that the higher the better.
carry the earth that was on the high places into thofe
that were lower; which, although it may, in fome ca¬
fes, render the furface of the ground tolerably fmooth
and level, is ufually attended with inconveniencies far
greater, for a confiderable length of time, than that
which it was intended to remove.
“ For experience fufficiently fhows, that even the ye
heft vegetable mould, if buried for any length of time mould be-
fo far beneath the furfaee as to be deprived of the be- comes inert
nign influences of the atmofphere, lofes its vis vita, if be‘n8
I may be allowed that expreffion ; becomes an inert, on£ UIied“-
lifelefs mafs, little fitted for nouriftiing vegetables; and
conftitutes a foil very improper fin- the purpofes of the
farmer. It therefore behoves him, as much as in him
lies, to preferve, on every part of his fields, an equal
covering
150
Practice
104.
Levelling
fometimes
not to be
attempted.
AGRICULTURE.
Part IL
covering of that vegetable mould that has long been
uppennoft, and rendered fertile by the meliorating in¬
fluence of the atmofphere. But, if he fuddenly levels
his high ridges by any of thefe mechanical contrivan¬
ces, he of neceffity buries all the good mould that was
on the top of the ridges, in the old furrows ; by which
he greatly impoveriihes one part of his field, while he
too much enriches another; infomuch that it is a mat¬
ter of great difficulty, for many years thereafter, to get
the field brought to an equal degree of fertility in dif¬
ferent places; which makes it impoffible for the far¬
mer to get an equal crop over the whole of his field by
any management whatever : and he has the mortifica¬
tion frequently, by this means, to fee the one half of
his crop rotted by an over-luxuriance, while other parts
of it are weak and fickly, or one part ripe and ready
for reaping, while the other is not properly filled ; fo
that it were, on many occafions, better for him to have
his whole field reduced at once to the fame degree of
poornefs as the pooreft of it, than have it in this Hate.
An almoft impra&icable degree of attention in fpread-
ing the manures may indeed in fome meafure get the
better of this; but it is fo difficult to perform this pro¬
perly, that I have frequently feen fields that had been
thus levelled, in which, after thirty years of continued
culture and repeated dreffings, the marks of the old
ridges could be diftinftly traced when the corn was
growing, altho’ the furface was fo level that no traces
of them could be perceived when the corn was off the
ground.
“ But this is a degree of perfection in levelling that
cannot be ufually attained by following this mode of
practice ; and, therefore, is but feldom feen. For all
that can be expected to be done by any levelling ma¬
chine, is to render the furface perfectly fmooth and
even in every part, at the time that the operation is
performed: but as, in this cafe, the old hollows are
fuddenly filled up with loofe mould to a great depth,
while the earth below the furface upon the heights of
•the old ridges remain firm and compact, the new-raifed
earth after a fhort time fubfides very much, while the
other parts of the field do not fink at all; fo that, in
a. fhort time, the old furrows come to be again below
the level of the other parts of the field, and the water
of courfe is fuffered in fome degree to ftagnate upon
them; in fo much that, in a few years, it becomes ne-
ceflary once more to repeat the fame levelling procefs,
and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuftains by
this pernicious operation.
“ On thefe accounts, if the farmer has not a long
leafe, it will be found in general to be much his intereft
to leave the ridges as he found them, rather than to
attempt to alter their direction: and, if he attends with
due caution to moderate the height of thefe old ridges,
he may reap very good crops, although perhaps at a
fomewhat greater expenfe of labour than he would
have been put to upon the fame field, if it had been
reduced to a proper level furface, and divided into
ftraight and parallel ridges.
“ But, where a man is fecure of poffeffing his ground
for any confiderable length of time, the advantages
that he will reap from having level and well laid-out
fields, are fo confiderable as to be worth purchafing, if
it Ihould even be at a confiderable expence. But the
lofs that is fuftaiaed at the beginning, by this mecha¬
nical mode of levelling ridges, if they are of confider- Practice
able height, is fo very great, that it is perhaps doubt- ~
ful if any future advantages can ever fully compenfate
it. I would therefore advife, that all this levelling
apparatus Ihould be laid afidc; and the following more
efficacious praftice be fubftituted in its ftead : A prac¬
tice that I have long followed with fuccefs, and can
fafely recommend as the very beft that has yet come to
my knowledge. tos
“ If the ridges have been raifed to a very great Beft method
height, as a preparation for the enfuing operations, of levelling,
they may be firft cloven, or fcaled out, as it is called in
different places ; that is, ploughed fo as to lay the earth
on each ridge from the middle towards the furrows.
But, if they are only of a moderate degree of height,
this operation may be omitted. When you mean to
proceed to level the ground, let a number of men be
colledled, with fpades, more or fewer as the nature of
the ground requires, and then fet a plough to draw a
furrow direftly acrofs the ridges of the whole field in¬
tended to be levelled. Divide this line into as many
parts as you have labourers, allotting to each one ridge
or two, or more or lefs, according to their number,
height, and other circumftances. Let each of the la¬
bourers have orders, as foon as the plough has pafled
that part affigned him, to begin to dig in the bottom
of the furrow that the plough has juft made, about the
middle of the fide of the old ridge, keeping his face
towards the old furrow, working backwards till he
comes to the height of the ridge, and then turn to¬
wards the other furrow, and repeat the fame on the
other fide of the ridge, always throwing the earth that
he digs up into the deep old furrow between the rid¬
ges, that is dire&ly before him; taking care not to dig
deep where he firft begins, but to go deeper and deeper
as he advances to the height of the ridge, fo as to leave
the bottom of the trench he thus makes acrofs the
ridge entirely level, or as nearly fo as poffible. And
when he has finifbed that part of the furrow allotted to
him that the plough has made in going, let him then
go and finiffi in the fame manner his own portion of
the furrow that the plough makes in returning. In this
manner, each man performs his own talk through the
whole field, gradually railing the old furrows as the
old heights are depreffed. And, if an attentive over-
feer is at hand, to fee that the whole is equally well
done, and that each furrow is raifed to a greater height
than the middle of the old ridges, fo as to allow for the
fubfiding of that loofe earth, the operation will be en¬
tirely finiftied at once, and never again need to be re¬
peated.
“ In performing this operation, it will always be
proper to make the ridges, formed for the purpofe of
levelling, which go acrofs the old ridges, as broad as
poffible ; becaufe the deep trench that is thus made in
each of the furrows are an impediment in the future
operations, as well as the height that is accumulated
in the middle of each of thefe ridges; fo that the fewer
there are of thefe, the better it is. The farmer, there¬
fore, will do well to advert to this in time, and begin
by forming a ridge by always turning the plough to
the right hand, till it becomes of fuch a breadth as
makes it very inconvenient to turn longer in that man¬
ner ; and then, at the diftance of twice the breadth of
this new-formed ridge from the middle of it, mark off
Part II. A G R I C U
Practice a furrow for the middle of another ridge, turning
*•- round it to the right hand, in the fame manner as was
done in the former, till it becomes of the fame breadth
with it; and then, turning to the left hand, plough out
the interval that was left between the two new-formed
ridges. By this mode of ploughing, each ridge may
be made of 40, or 50 or 60 yards in breadth, without
any great inconvenience >. for although fome time will
be loft in turning at the ends of thefe broad ridges,
yet, as this operation is only to be once performed in
this manner, the advantage that is reaped by having
few open furrows, is more than fufficient to counter¬
balance it. And, in order to moderate the height
that would be formed in the middle of each of thefe
great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the
ridges, and draw the furrow that is to be the middle of
each, fome days before you colleft your labourers to
level the field; that you may, without any hurry or
lofs of labour, clear out a good trench through the
middle of each of the old ridges ; as the plough at
this time going and returning nearly in the fame track,
prevents the labourers from working properly without
this precaution.
“ If thefe rules are attended to, your field will be at
once reduced to a proper level, and the rich earth that
formed the furface of the old ridges be ftill kept upon
the furface of your field ; fo that the only lofs that the
pofleffor of fuch ground can fuftain by this operation,
is merely the expence of performing it.”
He afterwards makes a calculation of the different
expences of levelling by the plough and by the fpade,
toS which he finds the latter by far the cheapeft method.
Proper di- Let it be a rule, to dire<ft the ridges north and
reftion of fouth, if the'ground will permit. In this direction, the
the ridges. eaft ancj weft fides of the ridges, dividing the fun e-
,07 qually between them, will ripen at the fame time.
Narrow rid- It is a great advantage in agriculture, to form ridges
ges an ad- fo narrow, and fo low, as to admit the crowns and fur-
vantage. rows to ge changed alternately every crop. The foil
neareft the furface is the beft ; and by fuch ploughing,
it is always kept near the furface, and never buried.
In high ridges, the foil is accumulated at the crown
and the furrows left bare. Such alteration of crown
and furrow, is eafy where the ridges are no more but
feven or eight feet broad. This mode of ploughing
anfwers perfectly well in fandy and gravelly foils, and
even in loam. But it is not fafe in clay foil. In that
foil, the ridges ought to be 12 feet wide, and 20 inches
high ; to be preferved always in the fame form by call¬
ing, that is, by ploughing two ridges together, be¬
ginning at the furrow that feparates them, and plough¬
ing round and round till the two ridges be finilhed.
By this method, the feparating furrow is raifed a little
higher than the furrows that bound the two ridges.
But at the next ploughing, that inequality is correc¬
ted, by beginning at the bounding furrows, and going
round and round till the ploughing of the two ridges
be completed at the feparating furrow.
L T U R E.
15 s
Plate V.
fig. <f.
4- Clearing Ground of Weeds.
For this purpofe a new inftrument, termed a cleaning
harrow, has been introduced by Lord Kaimes, and
is ftrongly recommended (b.) It is one entire piece
like the firft of thofe mentioned above, confifting of
feven bulls, four feet long each, two and one-fourth Practice
inches broad, two and three-fourths deep. The bulls
are united together by Iheths, fimilar to what are
mentioned above. The intervals between the bulls
being three and three-fourths inches, the breadth of
the whole harrow is three feet five inches. In each
bull are inferted eight teeth, each nine inches free be¬
low the wood, and diftant from each other fix inches.
The weight of each tooth is a pound, or near it. The
whole is firmly bound by an iron plate from corner to
corner in the line of the draught. The reft as in the
harrows mentioned above. The fize, however, is not
invariable. The cleaning harrow ought to be larger
or lefs according as the {oil is ftiff or free.
To give this inftrument its full effeft, ftones of fuch
a fize as not to pafs freely between the teeth ought to
be carried off, and clods of that fize ought to be bro¬
ken. The ground ought to be dry, which it com¬
monly is in the month of May.
In preparing for barley, turnip, or other fummer-
crop, begin with ploughing and crofs-ploughing. If
the ground be not fufficiently pulverized, let the great
brake be applied, to be followed fucceffively with the Ist
and 2d harrows*. In ftiff foil, rolling may be proper, * Plate V.
or twice between the a&s. Thefe operations will loofen fig- 3i 4*
every root, and bring fome of them to the furface.
This is the time for the J.11 harrowf, conduced by a t
boy mounted on one of the horfes, who trots fmartly
along the field, and brings all the roots to the furface:
there they are to lie for a day or two, till perfeftly
dry. If any ftones or clods remain, they muft be car¬
ried off in a cart. And now fucceeds the operation of
the cleaning harrow. It is drawn by a fingle horfe,
diredted by reins, which the man at the oppofite corner
puts over his head, in order to have both hands free.
In this corner is fixed a rope, with which the man from
time to time raifes the harrow from the ground, to let
the weeds drop. For the fake of expedition, the weeds
ought to be dropt in a ftraight line crofs the field,
whether the harrow be full or notand feldom is a
field fo dirty but that the harrow may go 30 yards be¬
fore the teeth are filled. The weeds will be thus laid
in parallel rows, like thofe of hay raked together for
drying. A harrow may be drawn fwiftly along the
rows, in order to ftiake out all the duft ; and then
the weeds may be carried clean off the field in carts.
But we are not yet done with thefe weeds r inftead of
burning, which is the ordinary pradlice, they may be
converted into ufeful manure, by laying them in aheap
with a mixture of hot dung to begin fermentation.
At firft view, this way of cleaning land will appear
operofe; but upon trial, neither the labour nor ex¬
pence will be found immoderate. At any rate, the la¬
bour and expence ought not to be grudged; for if a
field be once thoroughly cleaned, the feafons muft be
very crofs, or the farmer very indolent, to make it ne-
ceffary to renew the operation in lefs than 20 years. In
the word feafoils, a few years pafture is always under
command; which effeftually deftroys triennial plants,
fuch as thiftles and couch-grafs.
Sect. III. Culture of particular Plants.
The articles hitherto infifted on, are all of them
preparatory to the capital objedl of a farm, that of
railing
(b) In his Gentleman Farmer; to which performance the practical part of this article is materially indebted.
152 A G R I C U
Practice raifing plants for the nourilhment of man, and of o-
~ ‘ ther animals. Thefe are of two kinds ; culmiferous,
and leguminous; differing widely from each other.
Wheat, rye, barley, oats, rye-grafs, are of the firfl
kind : of the other kind are peafe, beans, clover, cab*
110 bage, and many others.
Culmife- -Culmiferous plants, fays Bonnet, have three fets of
rous p ants. roots> The firft iffue from the feed, and pufh to the
furface an upright ftem ; another fet iffue from a knot
in that ftem; and a third, from another knot, nearer
the furface. Hence the advantage of laying feed fo
in deep in the ground as to afford fpace for all the fets.
Legumi- Leguminous plants form their roots differently,
nous plants. peafe> beans, cabbage, have ftore of fmall roots, all
iffuing from the feed, like the undermoft fet of culmi¬
ferous roots ; and they have no other roots. A potatoe
and a turnip have bulbous roots. Red clover has a
ftrong tap-root. The difference between culmiferous
and leguminous plants with refpeft to the effefts they
produce in the foil, will be infilled on afterward, in
the fection concerning rotation of crops. As the pre-
fent feftion is confined to the propagation of plants,
it falls naturally to be divided into three articles : firft,
Plants cultivated for fruit; fecond. Plants cultivated
for roots; third, Plants cultivated for leaves.
L Plants Cultivated for Fruit.
j,t 1. Wheat and Rye.
-Fallowing Any time from the middle of April to the middle
or w eat. Q£ the fallowing for wheat may commence.
The moment ihould be chofen, when the ground, be¬
ginning to dry, has yet fome remaining foftnefs: in
that condition, the foil divides eafily by the plough,
and falls into fmall parts. This is an effential article,
deferving the ftrifteft attention of the farmer. Ground
ploughed too wet, rifes, as we fay, whole-fur, as when
pafture-ground is ploughed: whereploughed too dry, it
rifes in great lumps, which are not reduced by fubfe-
quent ploughings; not to mention, that it requires
double force to plough ground too dry, and that the
plough is often broken to pieces. When the ground
is in proper order, the farmer can have no excufe for
delaying a Angle minute. This firft courfe of fallow
muft, it is true, yield to the barley-feed; but as the
barley-feed is commonly over the firft week of May, or
fooner, the feafon muft be unfavourable if the fallow
cannot be reached by the middle of May.
As clay foil requires high ridges, thefe ought to
be cleaved at the firft ploughing, begining at the fur¬
row, and ending at the crown. This ploughing ought
to be as deep as the foil will admit: and water-furrow¬
ing ought inftantly to follow; for if rain happen before
water-furrowing, it ftagnates in the furrow, neceffarily
delays the fecond ploughing till that part of the ridge
be dry, and prevents the furrow from being mellowed
and roafted by the fun. If this firft ploughing be well
executed, annual weeds will rife in plenty.
About the firft week of June, the great brake will
loofen and reduce the foil, encourage a fecond crop of
annuals, and raife to the furface the roots of weeds
moved by the plough. Give the weeds time to fpring,
which may be in two or three weeks. Then proceed
to the fecond ploughing about the beginning of July;
which muft be erofs the ridges, in order to reach all
L T U R E. Part II.
the flips of the former ploughing. By crofs-ploughing Practice ;
the furrows will be filled up, and water-furrowing be
{till more neceffary than before. Employ the brake
again about the xoth of Auguft, to ueftroy the annuals
that have fprung fince the laft ftirring. The deltruc-
tion of weeds is a capital article in fallowing : yet fo
blind are people to their intereft, that nothing is more
common than a fallow field covered with charlock and
wild muftard, all in flower, and ten or twelve inches
high. The field having now received two harrowings
and two breakings, is prepared for manure, whether
lime or dung, which without delay ought to be incor¬
porated with the foil, by a repeated harrowing and a
gathering furrow. This ought to be about the begin¬
ning of September, and as foon after as you pleafe the
feed may be fown.
As in ploughing a clay foil it is of importance to
prevent poaching, the hinting furrows ought to be
done with two horfes in a line. If four ploughs be
employed in the fame field, to one of them may be al¬
lotted the care of finiftiing the hinting furrows. 1I3
Loam, being a medium between fand and clay, is Dreffing i
of all foils the fitteft for culture, and the leaft fubject *oiim for I
to chances. It does not hold water like clay; and w eat* .!
when wet, it dries fooner. At the fame time, it is more
retentive than fand of that degree of moifture which
promotes vegetation. On the other hand, it is more
fubjeil to couch-grafs than clay, and to other weeds;
to deftroy which, fallowing is ftill more neceffary than
in clay.
Beginning the fallow about the firft of May, or as
foon as barley-feed is over, take as deep a furrow as
the foil will admit. Where the ridges are fo low and
narrow as that the crown and furrow can be changed
alternately, there is little or no occafion for water-fu'r-
rowing. Where the ridges are fo high as to make it
proper to cleave them, water-furrowing is proper.
The fecond ploughing may be at the diftance of five
weeks. Two Crops of annuals may be got in the interim,
the firft by the brake, and the next by the harrow;
and by the fame means eight crops may be got in the
feafon. The ground muft be cleared of couch-grafs
and knot-grafs roots, by the cleaning harrow defcribed
above. The time for this operation is immediately be¬
fore the manure is laid on. The ground, at that time
being in its loofeft ftate, parts with its grafs-roots more
freely than at any other time. After the manure is
fpread, and incorporated with the foil by brakeing or
harrowing, the feed may be fown under furrow, if the
ground hang fo as eafily to carry off the moifture. To
leave it rough without harrowing, has two advantages:
it is not apt to cake with moifture ; and the inequali¬
ties make a fort of Ihelter to the young plants againft
froft. But if it lie flat, it ought to be fmoothed with
a flight harrow after the feed is fown, which will faci¬
litate the courfe of the rain from the crpwn to the fur¬
row- 114
A fandy foil is too loofe for wheat. The only chance Drefling a
for a crop is after red clover, the roots of which bind f*ndy foil*
the foil; and the inftrudlions above given for loam are
applicable here. Rye is a crop much fitter for fandy
foil than wheat; and like wheat it is generally fown
after a fummer-fallow. frJ
Laftly, Sow wheat as foon in the month of O&ober as Time for !
the ground is ready. When fown a month more early, it fowing.
is
Part II. A G R I C l
•1>R At:TTCE is too forward in the fpring, and apt to be hurt by froft:
when town a month later, it has not time to root be¬
fore froft comes on, andfroft fpews it out of the ground.
niS 2. Oats.
fVoffiinon winter*pi°ugi1ing enters into the culture of oats,
tilled land. we rnu^ reniin<:i t^e reader of the effect of froft upon
tilled land. Providence has negledted no region in¬
tended for the habitation of man. If in warm cli¬
mates the foil be meliorated by the fun, it is no lefs
meliorated by froft in cold climates. Froft a6ts upon
water, by expanding it into a larger fpace. Froft has
no effeft upon dry earth; witnefs fand, upon which it
it makes no impreffion. But upon wet earth it a£ts
moft vigoroufly: it-expands the moifture, which re¬
quiring more fpace puts every particle of the earth out
of its place, and feparates them from each other. In
that view, froft may be confidered as a plough fuperior
to any that is made, or can be made, by the hand of
man : its a&ion reaches the minuteft particles; and, by
dividing and feparating them, it renders the foil loofe
and friable. This operation is the moft remarkable in
tilled land, which gives free accefs to froft. With re-
fpetl to clay-foil in particular, there is no rule in huf-
bandry more elfential than to open it before winter in
hopes of froft. It is even advifeable in a clay-foil to
leave the ftubble rank, which, when ploughed in be¬
fore winter, keeps the clay loofe, and admits the froft
into every cranny.
To apply this doftrine, it is dangerous to plough
clay-foil when wet; becaufe water is a cement for clay,
and binds it fo as to render it unfit for vegetation. It
is, however, lefs dangerous to plough wet clay before
winter, than after. A fucceeding froft corecis the bad
effects of fuch ploughing; a fucceeding drought increafes
117 th^m*
Culture of The common method is, to fow oats on new-plough-
oats. ed land in the month of March, as foon as the ground
is tolerably dry. If it continue wet all the month of
March, it is too late to venture them after. It is much
, better to fummer-fallow, andtofowwheat intheautumn.
But the preferable method, efpecially in clay-foil, is
to turn over the field after harveft, and to lay it open
to the influences of froft and air, which lefien the te¬
nacity of clay, and reduce it to a free mould. The fur-
face-foil by this means is finely mellowed for reception
of the feed; and it would be a pity to bury it by a fe-
cond ploughing before fowing. In general, the bulk
of clay-foils are rich; and fltilful ploughing without
dung, will probably give a better crop, than unlkilful
ploughing with dung.
Hitherto of natural clays. We muft add a word of
carfe-clays which are artificial, whether left by the
fea, or fweeped down from higher grounds by rain.
The method commonly ufed of dreffing carfe-clay for
oats, is, not to ftir it till the ground be dry in the
fpring, which feldom happens before the firft of March,
and the feed is fown as foon after as the ground is fuffi-
ciently dry for its reception. Froft has a ftronger
effeft on fuch clays than on natural clay. And if the
field be laid open before winter, it is rendered fo loofe by
froft as to be foon drenched in water. The particles at
the fame time are fo fmall, as that the firft drought in
fpring makes the furface cake or cruft. The difficulty
of reducing this cruft into mould for covering the oat-
Vol. I. 6
J L T XJ R E. 153
feed, has led farmers to delay ploughing till the month Practic
of March. But we are taught by experience, that this ~
foil ploughed before winter, is fooner dry than when
the ploughing is delayed till fpring; and as early fow¬
ing is a great advantage, the objeftion of the fuper-
ficial crufting is eafily removed by the firft harrow above
defcribed, which will produce abundance of mould for
covering the feed. The ploughing before winter not
only procures early fowing, but has another advantage:
the furface-foil that had been mellowed during winter
by the fun, froft, and wind, is kept above.
The dreffing a loamy foil for oats differs little from
dreffing a clay foil, except in the following particular,
that being lefs hurt by rain, it requires not high ridges,
and therefore ought to be ploughed crown and furrow
alternately.
Where there is both clay and loam in a farm, it is
obvious from what is faid above, that the ploughing
of the clay after harveft ought firft to be difpatched.
If both cannot be overtaken that feafon, the loam may
be delayed till the fpring with lefs hurt.
Next of a gravelly foil; which is the reverfe of clay, as
it never fuffers but from want of moifture. Such a foil
ought to have no ridges; but be ploughed circularly
from the centre to the circumference, or from the cir¬
cumference to the centre. It ought to be tilled after
harveft: and the firft dry weather in fpring ought to be
laid hold of to fow, harrow, and roll; which will pre-
ferve it in fap.
The culture of oats is the fimpleft of all. That grain
is probably a native of Britain: it will grow on the
worft foil with very little preparation. For that reafon,
before turnip was introduced, it was always the firft
crop upon land broken up from the ftate of nature.
Upon fuch land, may it not be a good method,
to build upon the crown of every ridge, in the form
of a wall, all the furface-earth, one fod above ano¬
ther, as in a fold for Iheep ? After ftanding in this form
all the fummer "and winter, let the walls be thrown
down, and the ground prepared for oats. This will
fecure one or two good crops; after which the land
may be dunged for a crop of barley and grafs-feeds.
This method may anfwer in a farm where manure is
fcanty.
3- Barley. _ Il3
This is a culmiferous plant that requires a mellow Culture of
foil. Upon that account, extraordinary care is requi- barlcy>
fite where it is to be fown in clay. The land ought to
be ftirred immediately after the foregoing crop is re¬
moved, which lays it open to be mellowed with the
froft and air. In that view, a peculiar fort of plough- ^
ing has been introduced, termed ribbing; by which the Ribbing,
greateft quantity of furface poffible is expofed to the
air and froft. The obvious obje&ion to this method is,
that half of the ridge is left unmoved. And to ob¬
viate that objection, the following method is offered,
which moves the whole foil, and at the fame time ex-
pofes the fame quantity of furface to the froft and air. ,2(,
As foon as the former crop is off the field, let the A better
ridges be gathered with as deep a furrow as the foil method,
will admit, beginning at the crown and ending at the
furrows. This ploughing loofens the whole foil, gi¬
ving free accefs to the air and froft. Soon after, begin
a fecond ploughing in the following manner. Let the
U field
154
PRACTIC
121
Advantag
of this me
thod.
Time of
Sowing.
A G R I C U
e field be divided by parallel lines crofs the ridges, with
~ intervals of 30 feet or fo. Plough once round an in¬
terval, beginning at the edges, and turning the earth
toward the middle of the interval; which covers a foot
or fo of the ground formerly ploughed. Within that
foot plough another round fimilar to the former; and
after that, other rounds, till the whole interval be finilh-
ed, ending at the middle. Inftead of beginning at
the edges, and ploughing toward the middle, it will
have the fame effeA to begin at the middle and to
plough toward the edges. Plough the other intervals
in the fame manner. As by this operation the furrows
of the ridges will be pretty much filled up, let them
be cleared and water-furrowed without delay. By
this method, the field will be left waving like a plot
in a kitchen-garden, ridged up for winter. In this
form, the field is kept perfeftly dry; for befide the
capital furrows that feparate the ridges, every ridge
has a number of crofs furrows that carry the rain in-
flantly to the capital furrows. In hanging grounds
retentive of moifture, the parallel lines above menti¬
oned ought not to be perpendicular to the furrows of
the ridges, but to be diredled a little downward, in
order to carry rain-water the more haftily to thefe fur¬
rows. If the ground be clean, it may lie in that ftate
winter and fpring, till the time of feed-furrowing. If
weeds happen to rife, they muft be deftroyed by plough¬
ing, or brakeing, or both ; for there cannot be worfe
hufbandry, than to put feed into dirty ground.
;s This method refembles common ribbing in appear-
* ance, but is vefy different in reality. As the common
ribbing is not preceded by a gathering furrow, the
half of the field is left untilled, compaft as when the
former crop was removed, impervious in a great mea-
fure to air or froft. The common ribbing at the fame
time lodges the rai'n-water on every ridge, preventing
it from defcending to the furrows ; which is hurtful in
all foils, and poikmous in a clay foil. The Jiitching
here defcribed, or ribbing if you pleafe to call it fo,
prevents thefe noxious effects. By the two,ploughings
the whole foil is opened, admitting freely air and froft ;
and the multitude of furrows lays the furface perfectly
dry, giving an early opportunity for the barley-feed.—
But further, as to the advantage of this method:
When it is proper to fow the feed, all is laid flat with
the brake, which is an eafy operation upon foil that is
dry and pulverized; and the feed-furrow which fuc-
ceeds, is fo (hallow as to bury little or none of the fur-
face-earth : whereas the flirring for barley is common¬
ly done with the deepeft furrow ; and confequently bu¬
ries all the furface-foil that was mellowed by the froft
and air. Nor is this method more expenfive; becaufe
the common ribbing muft always be followed with a
ftirring furrow, which is faved in the method recom¬
mended. Nay, it is lefs expenfive ; for after common
ribbing, which keeps in the rain-water, the ground is
commonly fo Toured, as to make the ftirring a labo¬
rious work.
Where the land is in good order, and free of weeds,
April is the month for fowing barley. Every day is
proper, from the firft to the laft.
The dreffing loamy foil and light foil for barley, is
the fame with that defcribed ; only that to plough dry
is not altogether fo effential as in drefling clay-foil.
Loam or fand may be ftirred a little moift: better,
L T U R E. Part II.
however, delay a week or two, than to ftir a loam when Pr actice
moift. Clay muft never be ploughed moift, even tho’
the feafon fliould efcape altogether. But this will fel-
dom be neceffary ; for not in one year of 20 will it hap¬
pen, but that clay is dry enough for ploughing fome
time in May. Froft may correft clay ploughed wet
after harveft ; but ploughed wet in the fpring, it unites
into a hard mafs, not to be difiblved but by very hard
labour.
The foregoing culmiferous plants are what are ordi¬
narily propagated for food in this country. What
follow are leguminous plants.
The propereft foil for beans is a deep and moift clay. Culture of
There was lately introduced into Scotland a method beans,
of fowing beans will a drill-plough, and horfe-hoeing
the intervals ; which, befide affording a good crop, is
a drefling to the ground. But as that method is far
from being general, we keep in the common track.
As this grain is early fown, the ground intended for
it fhould be ploughed before winter, to give accefs to
the froft and air ; beneficial in all foils, and neceffary
in a clay-foil. Take the firft opportunity after Ja¬
nuary when the ground is dry, to loofen the foil with
the harrow firft defcribed, till a mould be brought up¬
on it. Sow the feeed, and cover it with the fecond
harrow. The third will fmooth the furface, and cover
the feed equally. Thefe harrows make the very belt
figure in fowing beans ; which ought to be laid deep
in the ground, not lefs than fix inches. In clay foil,
the common harrows are altogether infuflicient. The
foil, which has refted long after ploughing, is render¬
ed compaft and folid : the common harrows flcim the
furface : the feed is not covered; and the firft hearty
ftiower of rain lays it above ground. Where the far¬
mer overtakes not the ploughing after harveft, and is
reduced to plough immediately before fowing, the
plough anfwers the purpofe of the firft harrow; and
the other two will complete the work. But the labour
of the firft harrow is ill faved; as the ploughing before
winter is a fine preparation, not only for beans, but
for grain of every kind. If the ground ploughed be¬
fore winter happen by fuperfluity of moifture to cake,
the firft harrow going along the ridges, and crofling
them, will loofen the furface, and give accefs to the air
for drying. As foon as the ground is dry, fow with¬
out delaying a moment. If rain happen in the interim,
there is no remedy but patience till a dry day or two
come.
Carfe-clay, ploughed before winter, feldom fails to
cake. Upon that account, a fecond ploughing is ne¬
ceffary before fowing; which ought to be performed
with an ebb furrow, in order to keep the froft-mould
as near the furface as pofiible. To cover the feed with1
the plough is expreffed by the phrafe to fo<w under fur¬
row. The clods raifed in this ploughing, are a fort
of flielter to the young plants in the chilly fpring-
months.
The foregoing method will anfwer for loam. And
as for a fandy or gravelly foil, it is altogether impro¬
per for beans.
Though we cannot approve the horfe-hoeing of
beans, with the intervals that are commonly allotted
for turnip, yet we would ftrongly recommend the drill¬
ing.
Part II. AGRICULTURE. 155
Practice ];ng them at the diftance of 10 or 12 inches, and keep¬
ing the intervals clean of weeds. This may be done
by hand-hoeing, taking opportunity at the fame time
to lay frelh foil to the roots of the plants. But as
this is an expenfive operation, and hands are not always
to be got, a narrow plough, drawn by a Angle horfe,
might be ufed, with a mould-board on each fide to fcat-
ter the earth upon the roots of the plants. This is a
cheap and expeditious method: it keeps the ground
clean ; and nouriflies the plants with frefh foil.
As beans delight in a moift foil, and have no end
of growing in a moift feafon, they cover the ground
totally when fown broadcaft, keep in the dew, and ex¬
clude the fun and air: the plants grow to a great
height; but carry little feed, and that little not well
ripened. This difplays the advantage of drilling;
which gives free accefs to the fun and air, dries the
ground, and affords plenty of ripe feed.
Culture of Pease are of two kinds ; the white, and the gray,
peafe. The cultivation of the latter only belongs to this place.
There are two fpecies of the gray kind, diftinguifli-
ed by their time of ripening. One ripens foon, and for
that reafon is termed^/ feed: the other, which is flower
in ripening, is termed cold feed.
Peafe, a leguminous crop, is proper to intervene be¬
tween twoculmiferous crops; lefs for the profit ofapeafe-
crop, than for meliorating the ground. Peafe how¬
ever, in a dry feafon, will produce fix or feven bolls each
acre ; but, in an ordinary feafon, they feldom reach a-
bove two, or two and a half. Hence, in a moift cli¬
mate, which all the weft of Britain is, red clover feems
a more beneficial crop than peafe; as it makes as good
winter-food as peafe, and can be cut green thrice du¬
ring fummer.
A field, intended for cold feed, ought to be ploughed
in October or November ; and in February, as foon as
the ground is dry, the feed ought to be fown on the
winter-furrow. A field intended for hot feed, ought to
be ploughed in March or April, immediately before
fowing. But if infefted with weeds, it ought to be al-
fo ploughed in O&obef or November.
Peafe laid a foot below the furface will vegetate; but
the moft approved depth is fix inches in light foil, and
four inches in clay foil; for which reafon, they ought
to be fown under furrow when the ploughing is delayed
till fpring. Of all grain, beans excepted, they are the
leaft in danger of being buried.
Peafe differ from beans, in loving a dry foil and a
dry feafon. Horfe-hoeing would be a great benefit,
could it be performed to any advantage; but peafe
grow expeditioufly, and foon fall over and cover the
ground, which bars ploughing. Horfe-hoeing has
little effedf when the plants are new fprung ; and when
they are advanced to be benefited by that culture, their
length prevents it. Fail growing at the fame time is
the caufe of their carrying fo little feed: the feed is
buried among the leaves; and the fun cannot penetrate
to make it grow and ripen. The only prafticable re¬
medy to obtain grain, is thin fowing; but thick fowing
produces more ftraw, and mellows the ground more.
Half a boll for an Englifh acre may be reckoned thin
fowing; three firlots, thick fowing.
Notwithftanding what is faid above, Mr Hunter, a
noted farmer in Berwickihire, began fome time ago to Praci ice
fow all his peafe in drills; and never failed to have great
crops of corn as well as of ftraw. He fowed double
rows at a foot interval, and two feet and an half be¬
tween the double rows, which admit horfe-hoeing. By
that method, he had alfo good crops of beans on light
land.
Peafe and beans mixed are often fown together, in
order to catch different feafons. In a moift feafon, the
beans make a good crop ; in a dry feafon, the peafe.
The growth of plants is commonly checked by
drought in the month of July ; but promoted by rain
in Auguft. In July, grafs is parched ; in Auguft, it
recovers verdure. Where peafe are fo far advanced in
the dry feafon as that the feed begins to form, their
growth is indeed checked, but the feed continues to fill.
If only in the bloffom at that feafon, their growth is
checked a little; but they become vigorous again in
Auguft, and continue growing without filling till Hop¬
ped by froft. Hence it is, that cold feed, which is
early fown, has the beft chance to produce corn : hot
feed, which is late fown, has the beft chance to pro¬
duce ftraw.
The following method is pra£tifed in Norfolk, for
fowing peafe upon a dry light foil, immediately opened
from pafture. The ground is pared with a plough ex¬
tremely thin, and every fod is laid exactly on its back.
In every fod a double row of holes is made. A pea
dropt in every hole lodges in the flay’d ground imme¬
diately below the fod, thrufts its roots horizontally, and
has fufficient moifture. This method enabled Norfolk
farmers, in the barren year 1740, to furnilh white peafe
at 12 s. per boll.
II. Plants cultivated for Rpots.
1. Turnip.
Turnip delights in a gravelly foil; and there it can Culture of
be raifed to the greateft perfection, and with the leaft turnip,
hazard of mifcarrying. At the fame time, there is no
foil but will bear turnip when well prepared.
No perfon ever deferred better of a country, than he
who firft cultivated turnip in the field. No plant is bet¬
ter fitted for the climate of Britain, no plant profpers
better in the coldeft part of it, and no plant contributes
more to fertility. In a word, there has not for two cen¬
turies been introduced into Britain a more valuable im¬
provement.
Of all roots, turnip requires the fineft mould; and
to that end, of all harrows froft is the beft. In order
to give accefs to froft, the land ought to be prepared
by ribbing after harveft, as above direfted in preparing
land for barley. If the field be not fubjeCt to annuals,
it may lie in that ftate till the end of May ; otherwife
the weeds muft be deftroyed by a brakeing about the
middle of April; and again in May, if weeds rife.
The firft week of June, plough the field with a (hallow
furrow. Lime it if requifite, and harrow the lime into
the foil. Draw fingle furrows with intervals of three
feet, and lay dung in the furrows. Cover the dung fufli-
cieiitly, by going round it with the plough, and forming
the three-feet fpaces into ridges. The dung comes thus
to lie below the crown of every ridge. Jzs
The feafon of fowing muft be regulated by the time Seafon and
intended for feeding. Where intended for feeding in method of
U 2 November, fowinS-
i56 A G R I C U
Practice November, December, January, and February, the
... — feej ought to be fown from the Ist to the 20th of June.
Where the feeding is intended to be ,carried on to
March, April, and May, the feed muft not be fown
till the end of July. Turnip fown earlier than above
direfted, flowers that very fummer, and runs fall to
feed ; which renders it in a good meafure unfit for
food. If fown much later, it does not apple, and'there
is no food but from the leaves.
Though by a drill-plough the feed may be fown of
any thicknefs, the fafeft way is to fow thick. Thin
lowing is liable to many accidents, which are far from
being counterbalanced by the expence that is faved in
thinning. Thick-fowing can bear the ravage of the
black fly, and leave a fufficient crop behind. It is a pro-
te&ion againft drought, gives the plants a rapid pro-
grefs, and eftablifhes them in the ground before it is
neceflary to thin them.
The fowing turnip broadcaft is univerfal in England,
and common in Scotland, though a barbarous pra&ice.
The eminent advantage of turnip is, that befide a pro¬
fitable crop, it makes a moil complete fallow ; and the
latter cannot be obtained but by horfe-hoeing. Upon
that account, the fowing turnip in rows at three feet di-
flance is recommended. Wider rows anfwer no profit¬
able end, ftraiter rows afford not room for a horfe to
walk in. When the turnip is about four inches high,
annual weeds will appear. Go round every interval
with the flightefl furrow pofiible, at the diftance of
two inches from each row, moving the earth from the
rows toward the middle of the interval. A thin plate
of iron muff be fixed on the left fide of the plough, to
prevent the earth from falling back, and burying the
turnip. Next, let women be employed to weed the
rows with their fingers ; which is better, and cheaper
done, than with the hand-hoe. The hand-hoe, be¬
fide, is apt to diflurb the roots of the turnip that are to
ft and, and to leave them open to drought by removing
the earth from them. The {landing turnip are to be
at the diftance of twelve inches from each other: a
greater diftance makes them fwell too much ; a lefs di¬
ftance affords them not fufficient room. A woman
foon comes to be expert in finger-weeding. The fol¬
lowing hint may be neceffary to a learner. To fecure
_ the turnip that is to Hand, let her cover it with the left
hand ; and with the right pull up the turnip on both
fides. After thus freeing the {landing turnip, fhe may
fafely ufe both hands. Let the field remain in this
ftate, till the appearance of new annuals make a fecond
ploughing neceffary; which muft be in the fame fur¬
row with the former, but a little deeper. As in this
ploughing the iron plate is to be removed, part of the
loofe earth will fall back on the roots of the plants :
the reft will fill the middle of the interval, and bury
every weed. When weeds begin again to appear, then
is the time for a third ploughing in an oppofite direc¬
tion, which lays the earth to the roots of the plants.
This ploughing may be about the middle of Auguft;
after which, weeds rife very faintly. If they do rife,
another ploughing will clear the ground of them.
L T U R E. Part IT.
Weeds that at this time rife in the row, may be cleared Practice
with a hand-hoe, which can do little mifchief among
plants dillant twelve inches from each other. It is cer¬
tain however, that it may be done cheaper with the
hand (c). And after the leaves of turnips in a row meet
together, the hand is the only inftrument that can be
applied for weeding.
In fwampy ground, the furface of which is beft re¬
duced by paring and burning, the feed may be fown
in rows with intervals of a foot. To fave time, a drill-
plough may be ufed that fows three or four rows at
once. Hand-hoeing is proper for fuch ground ; be-
caufe the foil under the burnt Jlratum is commonly full
of roots, which digeft and rot better under ground than
when brought to the furface by the plough. In the
mean time, while thefe are digetting, the afhes will fe¬
cure a good crop.
2. Potatoes.
The choice of foil is not of greater importance in Culture of
any other plant than in a potato. This plant in clay potatoes,
foil, or in rank black loam lying low without ventila¬
tion, never makes palatable food. In a gravelly or
fandy foil, expofed to the fun and to free air, it thrives
to perfe£lion, and has a good relifti. But a rank black
loam, though improper to raife potatoes for the table,
produces them in great plenty; and the produdft is,
as already obferved, a palatable food for horned cattle,
hogs, and poultry.
The fpade is a proper inftrument for railing a fmall
quantity, or for preparing corners or other places inac-
ceffible to the plough; but for raffing potatoes in quan¬
tities, the plough is the only inftrument.
As two great advantages of a drilled crop, are, to
deftroy weeds, and to have a fallow at the fame time
with the crop, no judicious farmer will think of raffing
potatoes in any other way. In September or Odftober,
as foon as that year’s crop is removed, let the field have
a roufing furrow, a crofs-brakeing next, and then be
cleared of weeds by the cleaning harrow. Form it into
three-feet ridges, in that ftate to lie till April, which
is the proper time for planting potatoes. Crofs-bake
it, to raife the furrows a little. Then lay well-digefled
horfe-dung along the furrows, upon which lay the roots
at eight inches diftance. Cover up thefe roots with the
plough, going once round every row. This makes a
warm bed for the potatoes; hot dung below, and a loofe
covering above, that admits every ray of the fun. As
foon as the plants appear above ground, go round every
row a fecond time with the plough, which will lay up¬
on the plants an additional inch or two of mould, and
at the fame time bury all the annuals; and this will
complete the ploughing of the ridges. When the po¬
tatoes are fix inches high, the plough, with the deepeft
furrow, muft go twice along the middle of each inter¬
val in oppofite dire&ions, laying earth firft to one row,
and next to the other. And to perform this work, a
plough with a double mould-board will be more expe¬
ditious. But as the earth cannot be laid clofe to the
roots by the plough, the fpade muft fucceed, with
which
e Children under thirteen maybe employed to weed turnip with the fingers. We have feen them go on in that
work with alacrity; and a fmall premium will have a good effedt. For boys and girls above thirteen, a hand-hoe adapted
to their hze is an excellent inftrument: it ftrengthens the arms amazingly, in driving the plough, the legs only are
exercifed; but as the arms are chiefly employed in hufbandry, they ought to be prepared beforehand by gentle
Part II. A G R I C I
Practice which four inches of the plants muft be covered, lea-
ving little more but the tops above ground ; and this
operation will at the fame time bury all the weeds that
have fprung fince the former ploughing. What weeds
arife after, muft be pulled up with the hand. A hoe
is never to be ufed here: it cannot go fo deep as to
deftroy the weeds without cutting the fibres of the
plants ; and if it fkim the furface, it only cuts off the
heads of the weeds, and does not prevent their pufhing
ii8 again.
Bert method The fhorteft and moft perfedf method of taking up
caking potatoes, is to plough once round every row at the di-
t em up. flanee 0f four Jnches, removing the earth from the
plants, and gathering up with the hand all the potatoes
that appear. The diftance is made four inches, to pre¬
vent cutting the roots, which are feldom found above
that diftance from the row on each fide. When the
ground is thus cleared by the plough, raife the pota¬
toes with a fork having three broad toes or claws; which
is better than a fpade, as it does not cut the potatoes.
The potatoes thus laid above ground, muft be gathered
with the hand. By this method fcarce a potatoe will
I49 be left.
Of prefer- As potatoes are a comfortable food for the low peo-
ving them. p]ej ;t {s 0f importance to have them all the year'round.
For a long time, potatoes in Scotland were confined to
the kitchen-garden; and after they were planted in
the field, it was not imagined at firft that they could
be ufed after the month of December. Of late years,
they have been found to anfwer even till April; which
has proved a great fupport to many a poor family, as
they are eafily cooked, and require neither kiln nor
mill. But there is no caufe for flopping there. It is
eafy to preferve them till the next crop : When taken
out of the ground, lay in the corner of a barn a quan¬
tity that may ferve till April, covered from froft with
dry ftraw preffed down : bury the remainder in a hole
dug in dry ground, mixed with the hulks of dried oats,
fand, or the dry leaves of trees, over which build a
flack of hay or corn. When the pit is opened for
taking out the potatoes, the eyes of what have a ten¬
dency to pufh, muft be cut out; and this cargo will
ferve all the month of June. To be ftill more certain
of making the old crop meet the new, the fetting of a
fmall quantity may be delayed till June, to be taken
up at the ordinary time before froft. This cargo, ha¬
ving not arrived to full growth, will not be fo ready to
pufh as what are fet in April.
If the old crop happen to be exhaufted before the new
crop is ready, the interval may be fupplied by the po¬
tatoes of the new crop that lie next the furface, to be
picked up with the hand; which, far from hurting the
crop, will rather improve it.
^ 3* Carrot and Parsnip.
Culture of 3h roots, a carrot requires the deepeft foil. It
carrot. ought at leaft to be a foot deep, all equally good from
top to bottom. If fuch a foil be not in the farm, it
may be made artificially by trench-ploughing, which
brings to the furface what never had any communica¬
tion with the fun or air. When this new foil is fuffi-
ciently improved by a crop or two with dung, it is fit
for bearing carrots. Beware of dunging the year when
the carrots are fown; for with frelh dung they feldom
cfcape rotten fcabs.
J L T U R E. i57
The only foils proper for that root, are a loam and a Practic
fandy foil.
The ground muft be prepared by the deepeft furrow
that can be taken, the fooner after harveft the better;
immediately upon the back of which, a ribbing ought
to fucceed, as directed for barley. At the end of March,
or beginning of April, wdiich is the time of lowing the
feed, the ground muft be fmoothed with a brake. Sow
the feed in drills, with intervals of a foot for hand-
hoeing : which is no expenfive operation where the
crop is confined to an acre or two : but if the quantity
of ground be greater, the intervals ought to be three
feet, in order for horfe-hoeing.
In flat ground without ridges, it may be proper to
make parallel furrows with the plough, ten feet from
each other, in order to carry off any redundant moi-
fture.
At Parlington in Yorkfhire, from the end of Sep¬
tember to the firft of May, 20 work-horfes, four bul¬
locks, and fix milk-cows, were fed on the carrots that
grew on three acres; and thefe animals never tafted
any other food but a little hay. The milk was excel¬
lent : and, over and above, 30 hogs were fattened upon
what was left by the other beafts. We have this fact
from undoubted authority.
The culture of parfnips is the fame with that of Partnips.
carrots,
III. Plants Cultivated for Leaves.
There are many garden-plants of this kind. The
plants proper for the field are cabbage red and white,
colewort plain and curled. As there is very little' dif¬
ference in the cultivation of thefe plants, wre {hall con¬
fine ourfelves to cabbage. The reader will eafily ap¬
ply to the other plants the direftions to be given con-
censing cabbage.
Cabbage is an interefting article in hufbandry. It Culture of
is eafily raifed, is fubje£t to few difeafes, refills froft cabbage,
more than turnip, is palatable to cattle, and fooner fills
them than turnip, carrot, or potatoes.
The feafon for fetting cabbage, depends on the ufe
it is intended for. If intended for feeding in Novem¬
ber, December, and January, plants procured from
feed fown the end of July the preceding year, muft be
fet in March or April. If intended for feeding in
March, April, and May, the plants muft be fet the firft
week of the preceding July, from feed fown in the end of
February or beginning of March the fame year. The
late fetting of the plants retards their growth ; by
which means they have a vigorous growth the follow¬
ing fpring. And this crop makes an important link
in the chain that conne&a winter and fummer green
food. Where cabbage for fpring-food happens to be
neglefted, a few acres of rye, fown at Michaelmas, will
fupply the want. After the rye is confumed, there is
time fufficient to prepare the ground for turnip.
And now to prepare a field for cabbage. Where
the plants are to be fet in March, the field muft be
made up after harveft, in ridges three feet wide. In
that form let it lie all winter, to be mellowed with air
and froft. In March, take the firft opportunity, be¬
tween wet and dry, to lay dung in the furrow's. Cover
the dung with a plough, which will convert the furrow
into a crown, and confequently the crown into a fur¬
row. Set the plants upon the dung, diftant from each,
other
158
Practice other three feet. Plant them fo as to make a ftraight
line crofs the ridges, as well as along the furrows, to
which a gardener’s line ftretched perpendicularly crofs
the furrows will be requifite. This will fet each plant
at the diftance precifely of three feet from the plants
that furround it. The purpofe of this accuracy, is to
give opportunity for ploughing, not only along the
ridges, but crofs them. This mode is attended with
three fignal advantages : it faves hand-hoeing, it is a
more complete dreffing to the foil, and it lays earth
neatly round every plant.
If the foil be deep and compofed of good earth, a
trench-ploughing after the preceding crop will not be
amifs ; in which cafe, the time for dividing the field
into three-feet ridges as above, ought 'to be immediately
before the dunging for the plants.
If weeds happen to rife fo clofe to the plants as not
to be reached by the plough, it will require veiy little
labour to deftroy them with a hand-hoe.
Unlefs the foil be much infefted with annuals, twice
ploughing after the plants are fet will be a fufficient
drefling. The firft removes the earth from the plants;
the next, at the dillance of a month or fo, lays it back.
Where the plants are to be fet in July, the field
muft be ribbed as direfted for barley. It ought to
have a flight ploughing in June before the planting, in
order to loofen the foil, but not fo as to bury the fur-
face-earth ; after which the three-feet ridges muft be
formed, and the other particulars carried on as diredl-
ed above with refpeft to plants that are to be fet in
March.
Sect. IV. Culture of Grafs.
The graffes commonly fown for pafture, for hay, or
to cut green for cattle, are red clover, white clover,
yellow clover, ryegrafs, narrow-leaved plantain com¬
monly called ribwort, faintfoin, and lucerne.
Red clover is of all the moft proper to be cut green
for fummer-food. It is a biennial plant when fuffered
to perfeft its feed; but when cut green, it will laft
three years, and in a dry foil longer. At the fame
time the fafeft courfe is to let it ftand but a Angle year:
if the fecond year’s crop happen to be fcanty, it proves,
like a bad crop of peafe, a great encourager of weeds
by the fhelter it affords them.
Here, as in all other crops, the goodnefs of feed is
of importance. Chufe plump feed of a purple colour,
becaufe it takes on that colour when ripe. It is red
when hurt in the drying, and of a faint colour when
I33 unripe.
Of red do- Red clover is luxuriant upon a rich foil, whether clay,
ver. loam, or gravel: it will grow even upon a moor, when
properly cultivated. A wet foil is its only bane ; for
there it does not thrive.
To have red clover in perfedion, weeds muft be ex¬
tirpated, and ftones taken off. The mould ought to
be made as fine as harrowing can make it; and the
furface be fmoothed with a light roller, if not fuffi-
ciently fmooth without it. This gives opportunity for
diftributing the feed evenly: which muft be covered
by a fmall harrow with teeth no larger than of a gar-
* Plate V. den-rake, three inches long, and fix inches afunder *. In
7’ harrowing, the man ftiould walk behind with a rope in
his hand fixed to the back part of the harrow, ready
to difentangle it from ftones, clods, turnip or cab-
Part IL
bage roots, which would trail the feed, and difplace it. Practice
Nature has not determined any precife depth for the ’
feed of red clover more than of other feed. It will
grow vigoroufly from two inches deep, and it will grow
when barely covered. Half an inch may be reckoned
the moft advantageous poiition in clay foil, a whole
inch in what is light or loofe. It is a vulgar error,
that fmall feed ought to be fparingly covered. Mified
by that error, farmers commonly cover their clover-
feed with a bufhy branch of thorn; which not only
covers it unequally, but leaves part on the furface to
wither in the air.
The proper feafon for fowing red-clover, is from the
middle of April to the middle of May; It will fpring
from the firft of March to the end of Auguft ; but
fuch liberty ought not to be taken except from ne-
ceflity.
There cannot be a greater blunder in hufbandry, than
to be fparing of feed. Ideal writers talk of fowing an
acre with four pounds. That quantity of feed, fay
they, will fill an acre with plants as thick as they ought
to ftand. This rule may be admitted where grain is
the objeft ; but it will not anfwer with refpecl to grafs.
Grafs-feed cannot be fowh too thick : the plants fhel¬
ter one another: they retain all the dew: and they
muft pufh upward, having no room laterally. Obferve
the place where a fack of peafe, or of other grain, has
been fet down for fowing : the feed dropt there acci¬
dentally grows more quickly than in the reft of the
field Jbwn thin out of hand. A young plant of clover,
or of faintfoin, according to Tull, may be raifed to a
great fize where it has room ; but the field will not
produce half the quantity. When red clover is fown
for cutting green, there ought not to be lefs than 24
pounds to an acre. A field of clover is feldom too
thick : the fmaller a ftem be, the more acceptable it is
to cattle. It is often too thin ; and when fo, the Items
tend to wood.
Red clover is commonly fown with grain ; and the Of fowing
moft proper grain has been found by experience to be clover with
flax. The foil muft be highly cultivated for flax as well grain»
as for red clover. The proper feafon of fowing is the
fame for both : the leaves of flax being very fmall, ad¬
mit of free circulation of air ; and flax being an early
crop, is removed fo early as to give the clover time for
growing. In a rich foil it has grown fo fail, as to af¬
ford a good cutting that very year. Next to flax,
barley is the bell companion to clover. The foil muft
be loofe and free for barley; and fo it ought to be for
clover : the feafon of fowing is.the fame ; and the clo¬
ver is well eftablilhed in the ground, before it is over¬
topped by the barley. At the fame time, barley com¬
monly is fooner cut than either oats or wheat. In a
word, barley is rather a nurfe than a ftepmother to
clover during its infancy. When clover is fown in
fpring upon wheat, the foil, which has lain five or fix
months without being ftirred, is an improper bed for
it; and the wheat, being in the vigour of growth,
overtops it from the beginning. It cannot be fown
along with oats, becaufe of the hazard of froft; and when
fown as ufual among the oats three inches high, it is
over-topped, and never enjoys free air till the oats be
cut. Add, that where oats are fown upon the winter-
furrow, the foil is rendered as hard as when under
wheat.—Red clover is fometimes fown by itfelf, with¬
out
AGRICULTURE.
Tlate ^
Part II.
Practice out other grain : but this method, befide lofing a crop,
j is not falutary; becaufe clover in its infant itate re¬
quires fhelter.
As to the quantity of grain proper to be fown with
clover : In a rich foil well pulverized, a peck of barley
on an Englilh acre is all that ought to be ventured ;
but there is not much foil in Scotland fo rich. Two
Linlithgow firlots make the proper quantity for an
acre that produces commonly fix bolls of barley ; half
a firlot for what produces nine bolls. To thofe who
are governed by cuftom, fo fmall a quantity will be
thought ridiculous. Let them only confider, that a
rich foil in perfedt good order, will from a fingle feed
of barley- produce 20 or 30 vigorous Items. People
may flatter themfelves with the remedy of cutting bar¬
ley green for food, if it happen to opprefs the clover.
This is an excellent remedy in a field of an acre or two;
but the cutting an extenfive field for food mull be flow;
and while one part is cutting, the clover is fmothered
’ *35 in other parts.
While and The culture of white clover, of yellow clover, of
ver Tib-0" r^wort, of ryegrafs, is the fame in general with that
wort, & rye- ret^ clover. We proceed to their peculiarities. Yel-
grafs. low clover, ribwort, ryegrafs, are all of them early
plants, blooming in the end of April or beginning of
May. The two latter are evergreens, and therefore
excellent for winter-pafture. Ryegrafs is lefs hurt by
froft than any of the clovers, and will thrive in a moi-
fter foil : nor in that foil is it much affedfed by
drought. In a rich foil, it grows four feet high : even
in the dry fummer 1775, ro^e t0 three feet eight
inches; but it had gained that height before the drought
came on. Thefe grafles are generally fown with red
clover for producing a plentiful crop. The proportion
of feed is arbitrary ; and there is little danger of too
much. When ryegrafs is fown for procuring feed, five
firlots wheat-meafure may be fown on an acre; and
for procuring feed of ribwort, 40 pounds may be fown.
The roots of ryegrafs fpread horizontally : they bind
the foil by their number; and tho’ fmall, are yet fo vi¬
gorous as to thrive in hard foil. Red clover has a large
tap-root, which cannot penetrate any foil but what is
open and free ; and the largenefs of the root makes the
foil ftill more open and free. Ryegrafs, once a great
favourite, appears to be difearded in moll parts of Bri¬
tain. The common pradlice has been, to fow it with red
clover, and to cut them promifeuoufly the beginning of
June for green food, and a little later for hay. This in¬
deed is the proper feafon for cutting red clover, becaufe
at that time it begins to flower; but as at that time the
feed of the ryegrafs is approaching to maturity, its
rowth is flopped for that year, as much as of oats or
arley cut after the feed is ripe. Oats or barley cut
green before the feed forms, will afford two other cut¬
tings ; which is the cafe of ryegrafs, of yellow clover,
and of ribwort. By fuch management, all the pro¬
fit will be drawn that thefe plants can afford.
When red clover is intended for feed, the ground
ought to be cleared of weeds, were it for no other pur-
pofe than that the feed cannot otherwife be preferred
pure: what weeds efeape the plough, ought to be ta¬
ken out by the hand. In England, when a crop of
feed is intended, the clover is always firft cut for hay.
This appears to be done, as in fruit-trees, to check the
growth of the wood, in order to encourage the fruit.
This praftice will not anfwer in Scotland, as the feed Pxacij c
would often be too late for ripening. It would do bet-
ter to eat the clover with fheep till the middle of May,
which would allow the feed to ripen, The feed is ripe
when, upon rubbing it between the hands, it parts
readily from the hulk. Then apply the feythe, fpread
the crop thin, and turn it carefully. When perfectly
dry, take the firft opportunity of a hot day for th re fil¬
ing it on boards covered with a coarfe flieet. Another
way lefs fubjedl to rifle, is to flack the dry hay, and
to threfli it the end of April. After the firft threfli-
ing, expofe the hulks to the fun, and threfti them over
and over till-no feed remain. Nothing is more effica¬
cious than a hot fun to make the hulk part with its
feed; in which view it may be expofed to the fun by
parcels, an hour or two before the flail is aplied.
White clover, intended for feed, is managed in the
fame manner. No plant ought to be mixed with rye¬
grafs that is intended for feed. In Scotland, much rye¬
grafs feed is hurt by tranfgreffing that rule. The feed
is ripe when it parts eafily from the hulk. The yellow-
nefs of the ftem is another indication of its ripenefs;
in which particular it refembles oats, barley, and other
culmiferous plants. The beft manner to manage a crop
of rye-grafs for feed, is to bind it loofely in fmall
flieaves, widening them at the bottom to make them
Hand ere£t; as is done with oats in moift weather. In
that ftate they may ftand till fufficiently dry for
threlhing. By this method they dry more quickly,
and are lefs hurt by rain, than by clofe binding and
putting the (heaves in fhocks like corn. The worfl:
way of all is to fpread the rye-grafs on the moift-ground,
for it makes the feed malten. The (heaves, when fuffi -
ciently dry, are carried into clofe carts to where they
are to be threfned on a board, as mentioned above for
clover. Put the draw in a rick when a hundred (lone
or fo are threflied. Carry the thi;e(hing-board to the
place where another rick is intended ; and fo on till the
whole feed be tbrelhed, and the draw ricked. There is
neceffity for clofe carts to fave the feed, which is apt
to drop out in a hot fun; and, as obferved above, a hot
fun ought always to be chofen for threlhing. Carry
the feed in facks to the granary or barn, there to be
feparated from the hufles by a fanner. Spread the feed
thin upon a timber-floor, and turn it once or twice a-
day till perfeftly dry. If fuffered to take a heat, it
is ufelefs for feed. ^
The writers on agriculture reckon faintfoin prefer- Culture of
able to clover in many refpefts : They fay, that it pro- faintfoin.
duces a larger crop ; that it does not hurt cattle when
eaten green; that it makes better hay ; that it continues
four times longer in the ground ; and that it will grow
on land that will bear no other crop. Thefe are great
advantages: But, as we have fo little of that kind of
grafs in Scotland, it cannot be expedled that any direc¬
tions can be given concerning the manner of cultivating
it, founded upon experience. We mull therefore confine
ourfelves to fuch fails as are mentioned by authors of
the beft credit.
Saintfoin has a very long, tap-root, which is able to
pierce very hard earth. The roots grow very large; and
the larger they are, they penetrate to the greater depth;
and hence it may be concluded, that this grafs, when
it thrives well, receives a great part of its nouriftiment
from below the Jlaple of the foil: of courfe, a deep dry-
AGRICULTURE.
i6o A G R I C U
Practice foil is beft for the culture of faintfoin. When plants
~~ draw their nourifhment from that part of the foil that
is near the furface, it is not of much confequence
whether their number be great or fmall. But the cafe
is very different when the plants receive their food, not
only near, but alfo deep below, the furface. Befides,
plants that flioot their roots deep are often fupplied
with moifture, when thofe near the furface are parched
with drought.
To render the plants of faintfoin vigorous, it is necef-
fary that they be fown thin. The beft method of do¬
ing this is by a drill; becaufe, when fown in this man¬
ner, not only the weeds, but alfo the fupernumerary
plants, can eafily be removed. It is feveral years be¬
fore faintfoin comes to its full ftrength ; and the num¬
ber of plants fufficient to flock a field, while in this im-
perfeft ftate, will make but a poor crop for the firfl
year or two. It is therefore neceffary that it be fown
in fuch a manner as to make it eafy to take up plants
in fuch numbers, and in fuch order, as always to leave
in the field the proper number in their proper places.
This can only be done, with propriety, by lowing the
plants in rows by a drill. Suppofing a field to be dril¬
led in rows at ten inches diflance, the partitions may
be hand-hoed, and the rows dreffed in fuch a manner
as to leave a proper number of plants. In this fitua-
tion the field may remain two years ; then one fourth
of the rows may be taken out in pairs, in fuch a man¬
ner as to make the beds of fifty inches, with fix rows in
each, and intervals of thirty inches, which may be
ploughed. Next year, another fourth of the rows
may be taken out in the fame manner, fo as to leave
double rows with partitions of ten inches, and intervals
of thirty : All of which maybe hoed at once or alter¬
nately, as it may be found moft convenient.
The great quantity of this grafs which the writers on
this fubjedt affure us may be raifed' upon an acre, and
the excellency and great value of the hay made of it,
Ihould induce farmers to make a complete trial of it,
and even to ufe the fpade in place of the hoe, or hoe-
plough, if neceffary.
The plants taken up from a field of faintfoin may be
fet in another field; and if the tranfplanting of this
rafs fucceeds as well as the tranfplanting of lucerne
as done with Mr Lunin de Chateauvieux, the trouble
and expence will be fufficiently recompenfed by the
largenefs of the crops. In tranfplanting, it is necef¬
fary to cut off great part of the long tap-root: this
will prevent it from ftriking very deep into the foil,
and make it pulh out large roots in a hoping direftion
from the cut end of the tap-root. Saintfoin managed in
this manner, will thrive even on (hallow land that has
a wet bottom, provided it be not overftocked with
plants.
Whoever inclines to try the culture of this grafs in
Scotland, fhould take great pains in preparing the
land, and making it as free from weeds as poffible.
Culture of writers on agriculture, ancient as well as
lucerne. modern, beftow the higheft encomiums upon lucerne
as affording excellent hay, and producing very large
crops. Lucerne remains atleaft 10 or 12 years in the
ground, and produces about eight tons of hay upon
the Scots acre. There is but little of it cultivated in
Scotland. However, it has been tried in feveral parts
of that country; and it is found, that, when the feed
L T U R E. Part II.
is good, it comes up very well, and ftands the winter- Practice
froft. But the chief thing which prevents this grafs 1
from being more ufed in Scotland, is the difficulty
of keeping the foil open, and free from weeds. In
a few years the furface becomes fo hard, and the turf
fo ftrong, that it deftroys the lucerne before the plants
have arrived at their greateft perfection: fo that lucerne
can fcarce be cultivated with fuccefs there, unlefs fome
-method be fallen upon of deftroying the natural grafs,
and prevent the furface from becoming hard and im¬
penetrable. This cannot be done effedtually by any
other means than horfe-hoeing. This method was firfl
propofed by Mr Tull, and afterwards praCtifed fuccefs-
fully by M. de Chateauvieux near Geneva. It may be
of ufe therefore to give a view of that gentleman's
method of cultivating lucerne.
He does not mention any thing particular as to the
manner of preparing the land; but only obferves in ge- |
neral, that no pains Ihould be fpared in preparing it.
He tried the lowing of lucerne both in rows upon the
beds where it was intended to ftand, and likewife the
fowing it in a nurfery, and afterwards tranfplanting it
into the beds prepared for it. He prefers tranfplant¬
ing ; becaufe, when tranfplanted, part of the tap-root
is cut off, and the plant fhoots out a number of lateral
branches from the cut part of the root, which makes it
fpread its roots nearer the furface, and confequently
renders it more eafily cultivated: befides, this circum-
ftance adapts it to a (hallow foil, in which, if left in its
natural date, it would not grow.
The tranfplanting of lucerne is attended with many
advantages. The land may be prepared in the fummer
for receiving the plants from the nurfery in autumn;
by which means the field muft be in a much better fi-
tuation than if the feed had been fown upon it in the
fpring. By tranfplanting, the rows can be made more
regular, and the intended diftances more exactly ob-
ferved ; and confequently the hoeing can be performed
more perfedlly, and with lefs expence. Mr Chateau-,
vieux likewife tried the lucerne in (ingle beds three feet
wade, with fingle rows ; in beds three feet nine inches
wide, with double rows; and in beds four feet three
inches wide, with triple rows. The plants in the fingle
rows were fix inches afunder, and thofe in the double
and triple rov/s were about eight or nine inches. In a
courfe of three years he found, that a fingle row produ¬
ced more than a triple row of the fame length. The
plants of lucerne, when cultivated by tranfplantation,
(hould be at lead fix inches afunder, to allow them room
for extending their crowns.
He further obferves, that the beds or ridges ought to
be raifed In the middle ; that a fmall trench, two or
three inches deep, (hould be drawn in the middle; and
that the plants ought to be fet in this trench, covered
with earth up to the neck. He fays, that if the lu¬
cerne be fown in fpring, and in a warm foil, it will be
ready for tranfplanting in September; that, if the wea¬
ther be too hot and dry, the tranfplanting (hould be
delayed till O&ober ; and that, if the weather be un¬
favourable during both thefe months, this operation
muft be delayed till fpring. He further direfts, that
the plants (hould be carefully taken out of the nurfery,
fo as not to damage the roots ; that the roots be left
only about fix or feven inches long; that the green
crops be cut off within about two inches of the crown;
f that
Part II. AGRICULTURE*
Practice that they be put into water as foon as taken up, there
to remain till they are planted; and that they fhould
be planted with a planting-ftick, in the fame manner as
cabbages.
He does not give particular directions as to the times
of horfe-hoeing ; but only fays in general, that the in¬
tervals fhould be ftirred once in the month during the
whole time that the lucerne is in a growing ftate. He
likewife obferves, that great care ought to be taken not
to fuffer any weeds to grow among the plants, at leaft
for the firft two or three years ; and for this purpofe,
that the rows, as well as the edges of the intervals
where the plough cannot go, Ihould be weeded by the
hand.
Sect. V. Rotation of Crops.
Rotation of branch of hufbandry requires more (kill and fa-
crops. gacity than a proper rotation of Crops, fo as to keep
the ground always in heart, and yet to draw out of it
the greateft profit poffible. Some plants rob the foil,
others are gentle to it: fome bind, others loofen. The
nice point is, to intermix crops, fo as to make the
greatefl: profit confidently with keeping the ground in
trim. In that view, the nature of the plants employ-
ed in hulbandry, mud be accurately examined.
Culmife- The difference between culmiferous and leguminous
rous and 1c- plants, is occafionally mentioned above *. With re-
S— fpeft to the prefent fubjeft, a clofer infpeftion is neeef-
* N° no biry. Culmiferous plants, having fmail leaves and few
in. in number, depend modly on the foil for nourifliment,
and little on the air. During the ripening of the feed,
they draw probably their whole nouridiment from the
foil ; as the leaves by this time, being dry and wither¬
ed, mud have lod their power of drawing nouridiment
from the air. Now, as culmiferous plants are chiefly
cultivated for their feed, and are not cut down till the
feed be fully ripe, they may be pronounced all of them
to be robbers, fome move, fome lefs. But fuch plants,
while young, are all leaves; and in that date draw
mod of their nouridiment from the air. Hence it is,
that where cut green for food to cattle, a culmiferous
crop is far from being a robber. A hay-crop accor-
diagly, even where it confids modly of ryegrafs, is not
a robber, provided it be cut before the feed is formed;
which at any rate it ought- to be, if one would have
hay in perfection. And the foggage, excluding the
frod by covering the ground, keeps the roots warm. A
leguminous plant, by its broad leaves, draws much of
its nouridiment from the air. A cabbage, which has
very broad leaves, and a multitude of them, owes its
growth more to the air than to the foil. One fail is
certain, that a cabbage cut and hung up in a damp
place, preferves its verdure longer than other plants.
At the fame time, a feed is that part of a plant which
requires the mod nouridiment; and for that, nouridi-
ment a culmiferous plant mud be indebted entirely to
the foil. A leguminous fcrop, on the contrary, when
cut green for food, mud be very gentle to the ground.
Peafe and beans are leguminous plants ; but being cul¬
tivated for feed, they feem to occupy a middle fiation :
their feed makes them more fevere than other legumi¬
nous crops cut green ; their leaves, which grow till
reaping, make them lefs fevere than a culmiferous plant
left to ripen.
Thefe plants are didinguiflied no lefs remarkably by
Von. I.
the following circumdance. All the feeds of a culmife- PR
rous plant ripen at the fame time. As foon as they begin
to form, the plant becomes dationary, the leaves wither,
the roots ceafe to pu(h, and the plant when cut down
is blanchedand faplefs. The feeds of a leguminous plant
are formed fucceflively : flowers and fruit appear at the
fame time in different parts of the plant. This plant
accordingly is continually growing, and pufhing its
roots. Hence the value of bean or peafe draw above that
of wheat or oats: the latter is withered and dry when the
crop is cut; the former, green and fucculent. The
diderence therefore, with refpect to the foil, between a
culmiferous and leguminous crop, is great. The lat¬
ter, growing till cut down, keeps the ground in Cen¬
dant motion, and leaves it to the plough loofe and mel¬
low. The former gives over growing long before
reaping; and the ground, by want of motion, turns
compafit and hard. Nor is this all. Dew falling on a
culmiferous crop after the ground begins to harden,
reds on the furface, and is fucked up by the next fun.
Dew that falls on a leguminous crop, is (haded from
the fun by the broad leaves, and finks at leifure into
the ground. The ground accordingly, after a culmi¬
ferous crop, is not only hard, but dry : after a legu¬
minous crop, it is not only loofe, but foft and unc¬
tuous.
Of all culmiferous plants, wheat is the mod fevere,
by the long time it occupies the ground without ad¬
mitting a plough. And as the grain is heavier than
that of barley or oats, it probably requires more nou-
rilhment than either. It is obferved above, that as
peafe and beans draw part of their nourKhment from
the air by their green leaves while allowed to dand,
they draw the lefs from the ground; and by their con-
dant growing they leave it in good condition for fub-
fequent crops. In.both refpe&s they are preferable
to any culmiferous crop.
Culmiferous crops, as obferved above, are not rob¬
bers when cut green : the foil, far from hardening, is
kept in condant motion by the pudiing of the roots,
and is left more tender than if it had been left at reft
without any bearing crop.
Bulbous-rooted plants are above all fuccefsful in di¬
viding and pulverifing the foil. Potatoe-roots grow
fix, eight, or ten, inches under the furface ; and, by
their fize and number, they divide and pulverize the
foil better than can be done by the plough; confequent-
ly, whatever be the natural colour of the foil, it is
black when a potato-crop is taken up. The potato,
however, with refpeft to its quality of dividing the
foil, mud yield to a carrot or parfnip ; which are large
roots, and pierce often to the depth of 18 inches.
The turnip, by its tap-root, divides the foil more than
can be done by a fibrous-rooted plant; but as its bul¬
bous root grows moftly above ground, it divides the
foil lefs than the potato, the carrot, or the parfnip.
Red clover, in that refpect, may be put in the fame
clafs with turnip.
Whether potatoes-or turnip be the more gentle crop,
appears a puzzling queftion. The former bears feed,
and probably draws more nouridnnent from the foil
than the latter, when cut green. On the other hand,
potatoes divide the foil more than turnip, and leave it
more loofe and friable* It appears no lefs puzzling,
to determine between cabbage and turnip : the former
X draws
162
AGRICULTURE.
Practice draws more of its nourifhment from the air, the latter
leaves the foil more free and open.
The refult of the whole is what follows : Culmi-
ferous plants are robbers ; fome more, fome lefs : they
at the fame time bind the foil ; fome more, fome lefs.
Leguminous plants in both refpefts are oppofite : if
any of them rob the foil, it is in a yery flight degree;
and all of them without exception loofen the foil. A
culmiferous crop, however, is generally the more pro¬
fitable : but few foils can long bear the burden of fuch
crops, unlefs relieved by interje&ed leguminous crops.
Thefe, on the other hand, without a mixture of cul¬
miferous crops, would foon render the foil too loofe.
Thefe preliminaries will carry the farmer fome length
in dire£ting a proper rotation of crops. Where dung,
lime, or other manure, can be procured in plenty to
recruit the foil after fevere cropping, no rotation is
more proper or profitable in a ftrong foil, than wheat,
peafe or Seans, barley, oats, fallow. The whole farm
may be brought under this rotation, except fo far as
hay is wanted. But as fuch command of manure is
rare, it is, of more importance to determine what fhould
be the rotation when no manure can be procured but
the dung collefted in the farm. Confidering that cul¬
miferous crops are the more profitable in rich land, it
would be proper to make them more frequent than the
other kind. But as there are few foils in Scotland that
will admit fuch frequent culmiferous crops without fuf-
fering, it may be laid down as a general rule, that al¬
ternate crops, culmiferous and leguminous,^ ought to
form the rotation. Nor are there many foils that will
Hand good, even with this favourable rotation, un¬
lefs relieved from time to time by pafturing a few
years. If fuch extended rotation be artfully carried
on, crops without end may be obtained in a tolerable
good foil,, without any manure but what is produced in
140 the farm.
The nature Jt is fcarce neceflary to be mentioned, being known
fidered with to every farmer, that clay anfwers beft for wheat,
regard to moift clay for beans, loam for barley and peafe, light
the rotation foil for turnip, fandy foil for rye and buck-wheat; and
of crops, that oats thrive better in coarfe foil than any other
grain. Now, in dire&ing a rotation, it is not fuffi-
cient that a eulmiferous crop be always fueceeded by a
leguminous : attention muft be alfo given, that no crop
be introduced that is unfit for the foil. Wheat, being
a great binder, requires more than any other crop a
leguminous crop to follow. But every fuch crop is
not proper: potatoes are the greateft openers of foil;.
but they are improper in a wheat-foil. Neither will tur¬
nip anfwer, becaufe it requires a light foil. A very loofe
foil, after a crop of rye, requires ryegrafs to bind it, or
the treading of cattle in pafturing: but to bind the foil,
wheat muft not be ventured; for it fueceeds ill in loofe
foil.
Another confideration of moment in directing the
rotation; is to avoid crops that encourage weeds. Peafe
is the fitteft of all crops for fucceeding to wheat, be-
caufe it renders the ground loofe and mellow, and the
fame foil agrees with both; But beware of peafe, un¬
lefs the foil be left by the wheat perfectly free of weeds;
becaufe peafe, if not an extraordinary crop,, fofter
weeds. Barley jmay be ventured after wheat, if the
farmer be unwilling to lofe a crop. It is indeed a rob¬
ber ; better, however, any crop, than run the hazard of
Part II.
poifoning the foil with weeds. But to prevent the ne- Practice
ceffity of barley after wheat, the land ought to be fal- —
lowed before the wheat: it cleans the ground tho¬
roughly, and makes peafe a fecure crop after wheat.
And after a good crop of peafe, barley never fails. A
horfe-hoed crop of turnip is equal to a fallow for root¬
ing out weeds ; but turnip does not fuit land that is
proper for wheat. Cabbage does well in wheat-foil;
and a horfe-hoed crop of cabbage, which eradicates
weeds, is a good preparation for wheat to be fucceed-
ed by peafe; and a crop of beans diligently hand-
hoed, is in that view little inferior. As red clover re •
quires the ground to be perfeftly clean, a good crop
of it enfures wheat, and next peafe. In loam, a drill¬
ed crop of turnip or potatoes prepares the ground, e-
qual to a fallow, for the fame fucceffion.
Another rule is, to avoid a frequent repetition of
the fame fpecies ; for to produce good crops, change
of fpecies is no lefs neceflary than change of feed.
The fame fpecies returning every fecond or third year,
will infallibly degenerate, and be a fcanty crop. This
is remarkably the cafe of red clover. Nor will our
fields bear pleafantly perpetual crops of wheat after
fallow, which is the praftice of fome Englifti farmers.
Hitherto of rotation in the fame field. We add
one rule concerning rotation in different fields ; which
is, to avoid crowding crops one after another in point
of time ; but to chule fuch as admit intervals fufficient
for leifurely dreffing, which gives opportunity to ma¬
nage all with the fame hands, and with the fame cat¬
tle ; for example, beans in January or February, peafe
and Oats in March, barley and potatoes in April, tur¬
nip in June or July, wheat and rye in O&ober. i r
For illuftrating the foregoing rules, a few inftances Exception-
of exceptionable rotations will not be thought amifs. able rota-
The following is an ufual rotation in Norfolk. Firft, dons,
wheat after red clover. Second, barley. Third, tur¬
nip. Fourth, barley with red clover. Fifth, clover
cut for hay. Sixth, a fecond year’s crop of clover
commonly paftured. Dung is given to the wheat and
turnip.—Againft this rotation feveral objections lie..
Barley after wheat is improper. The two crops of bar¬
ley are too near together. The fecond crop of clover
muft be very bad, if pafturing be the beft way of con-
fuming it ; and if bad, it is a great encourager of
weeds. But the ftrongeft objection is, that red clover
repeated fo frequently in the fame field cannot fail to
degenerate ; and of this the Norfolk farmers begin to
be fenfibl'e.—Salton in Faff Lothian is a clay foil;
and the rotation there is. Wheat after fallow and dung.
Second, barley after two ploughings ; the one before
winter, the other immediately before the feed is fown..
Third, oats. Fourth, peafe. Fifth, barley. Sixth,
oats r and then fallow. This rotation confifts chiefly
of robbing crops. Peafe are the only leguminous-
crop, which even with the fallow is not fufficient to-
loofen a fliff foil. But the foil is good, which in fome
meafure hides the badnefs of the rotation.—About
Seaton, and all the way from Prefton to Gofsford, the.
ground is ftfll more feverely handled : wheat after fal¬
low and dung, barley, oats, peafe, wheat, barley, oats,
and then another fallow. The foil is excellent; and
it ought indeed to be fo, to fupport many rounds of
fuch cropping.
In the parifties of Tranent, Aberlady, Dirlcton,
North,-
Part IT.
AGRICULTURE.
i63
Fields not
to be kept
too long in
pafture.
North-Berwick, and Athelftonefoord, the following When the rotation is completed, the feventh inclo- Practice
rotations were formerly univerfal, and to this day are fure having been fix years in pafture, is ready to be ta-
much more frequent than any other mode. ken up for a rotation of crops which begins with oats
1. After fallow with dung, wheat, barley, oats, in the year 1781, and proceeds as in the fixth inclo-
peafe and beans, barley, oats, wheat. fure. In the fame year 1781, the fifth inclqfure is
2. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, peafe and made pafture, for which it is prepared by fowing pa-
beans, wheat, barley, oats, peafe, wheat. fture grafs feeds with the barley of the year 1780. And
3. After fallow and dung, wheat, oats, peafe, bar- in this manner may the rotation be carried on without
ly, oats, wheat. end. Here the labour is equally diftributed; and there
4. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, beans, wheat, is no hurry nor confufion. But the chief property of
peafe, barley, oats. this rotation is, that two culmiferous or white-corn
In the feveral Tours of Young the itinerant farmer, crops are never found together ; by a due mixture of
are found, in the beft counties of England, examples crops, the foil is preferved in good heart without any
without end, of rotations no lefs exceptionable than adventitious manure. At the fame time, the knd is
many of thofe mentioned. always producing plentiful crops: neither hay nor pa-
Where a field is laid down for pafture in order to be fture get time to degenerate. The whole dung is laid
recruited, it is commonly left in that ftate many years; upon the fallow.
for it is the univerfal opinion, that the longer it lies, Every farm that takes a grafs-crop into the rotation
the richer it becomes for bearing corn. This may be muft be inclofed, which is peculiarly neceflary in a clay
true; but in order to determine the mode of cropping, foil, as nothing is more hurtful to clay than poaching-
the important point is, what upon the whole is the
moft profitable rotation; not what may produce luxu¬
riant crops at a diftant period. Upon that point, it
may be affirmed, that the farmer who keeps a field in
pafture beyond a certain time, lofes every year confi-
derably ; knd that a few luxuriant crops of corn, after
twenty years of pafture, and ftill more after thirty, will
not make up the lofs.
Pafture-grafs,while young, maintains many animals;
and the field is greatly recruited by what they drop;
it is even recruited by hay-crops, provided the grafs be
cut before feeding. But as old grafs yields little pro¬
fit, the field ought to be taken up for corn when the
Rotation in a free foil.
Turnip.
Barley.
Hay.
Gats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Pafture.
1776.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Turnip.
Pafture.
1777-
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Turnip.
Barley.
Pafture.
1778.
Oats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Turnip.
Turnip.1 Barley.
Barley.! Hay.
Hay. ; Oats.
Pafture. Pafture.
1780.
Wheat.
Turnip.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Pafture.
For the next rotation, the feventh inclofure is taken
pafture begins to fail; and after a few crops, it ought up for corn, beginning with an oat-crop, and proceed-
to be laid down again with grafs-feeds. Seduced by ing in the order of the fourth inclofure; in place of
a chimerical notion, that a field, by frequent corn- which, the third inclofure is laid down for pafture by
crops, is fatigued and requires reft like a labouring fowing pafture-graffes with the laft crop in that inclo-
mai? or animal, careful farmers give long reft to their fure, being barley. This rotation has all the advanta-
fields by pafture, never adverting that it affords little ges of the former. Here the dung is employed on the
profit. It ought to be their ftudy, to improve their turnip-crop.
foil, by making it free, and alfo retentive of moifture; We proceed to confider what rotation is proper for
If they accomplifh thefe ends, they need not be afraid carfe clay. The farm we propofe confifts of feventy-
of exhaufting the foil by cropping. three acres. Nine are to be inclofed for a kitchen gar-
Where a farmer has accefs to no manure but what den, affording plenty of red clover to be cut green for
• is his own production, the cafe under confideration, * the farm-cattle. The remaining fixty-four acres are
there are various rotations of crops, all of them good divided into four inclofures, fixteen acres each, to be
though perhaps not equally fo. We (hall begin with
two examples, one in clay, and one in free foil, each
of the farms ninety acres. Six acres are to be inclofed
for a kitchen-garden, in which there muft be annually
a crop of red clover, for fummer-food to the working
cattle. As there are annually twelve acres in hay, and
twelve in pafture, a fingle plough with good cattle will
be fufficient to command the remaining fixty acres.
cropped as in the following table..
^775-
Beans.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
1776-
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Beans.
Hay.
Oats.
Beans.
Barley. Hay.
1778-
Oats.
Beans.
Barley.
1775-
Fallow.
Wheat.
Peafe.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Pafture.
Rotation in a clay foil. Here the dung ought to be applied to the barley.
Many other rotations may be contrived, keeping to
1776. 1777. I7?8- t779- 1780- the rules above laid down. Fallow, for example, wheat.
Wheat. Peafe. Barley. Hay. Oats. peafe and beans, barley, cabbage, oats, for clay. Here
Peafe. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow, dung muft be given both to the wheat and cabbage.
Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. For free foil, drilled turnip, barley, red clover, wheat
Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peafe. upon a fingle furrow, drilled potatoes, oats. Both
Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peafe. Barley. the turnip and potatoes muft have dung. Another for
Fallow. Wheat. Peafe. Barley. Hay. free foil: turnip drilled and dunged, red cloyer, wheat
Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. on a fingle furrow with dung, peafe, barley, potatoes,
X 2 oats.
164
PH4CTICE
*44
©,f ripenefs.
©f reapers.
Manner
tutting.
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
oats. The followlrtg rotation has proved fuccefsful in
a foil proper for wheat. 1. Oats with red clover, after
fallow, without dung. 2. Hay. The clover-ftubble
dunged, and wheat fown the end of Oftober witha fingle
furrow. 3. Wheat. 4. Peafe. 5. Barley. Fallow again.
Oats are taken the firft crop, to fave the dung for the
wheat. Oats always thrive on a fallow, though without
dung, which is not the cafe of barley. But barley fel-
dom fails after peafe. In ftrong clay foil, the following
rotation anfwers. 1. Wheat after fallow and dung.
2. Beans fown under furrow as early as poffible. Above
the beans, fow peafe end of March, half a boll per acre,
and harrow them in. The two grains will ripen at
the fame time. 3. Oats or barley on a winter-furrow
with grafs-feeds. 4. Hay for one year or two ; the
fecond growth paftured. Lay what dung can be fpared
on the hay-ftubble, and fow wheat with a fingle fur¬
row. 5. Wheat. 6. Beans or peafe. 7. Oats. Fallow
again.
Sect. VI. Of Reaping Corn and Hay Crops> and
Storing them up for ufe.
Culmiferous plants are ripe when the Item is to¬
tally white: they are not fully ripe if any green ftreaks
remain. Some farmers are of opinion, that wheat ought
to be cut before it is fully ripe. Their reafons ai-e,
firft, that ripe wheat is apt to fhake; and next, that
the flour is not fo good. With refpeft to the laft, it is
contrary to nature, that any feed can be better in an
unripe ftate, than when brought to perfe&ion : nor
will it be found fo upon trial. With refpeft to the
firft, wheat, at the point of perfe&ion, is not more apt
to (hake than for fome days before: the hufle begins
not to open till after the feed is fully ripe ; and then
the fuffering the crop to (land becomes ticklifh : after
the minute of ripening, it (hould be cut down in an
inftant, if poffible.
This leads to the hands that are commonly engaged
to cut down corn. In Scotland, the univerfal prac¬
tice was, to provide a number of hands, in proportion
to the extent of the crop, without regard to the time
of ripening. By this method, the reapers were often
idle for want of Work ; and what is much worfe, they
had often more work than they could overtake, and
ripe fields were laid open to (baking winds. The Lo-
thians have long enjoyed weekly markets for reapers,
where a farmer can provide himfelf with the number
he wants; and this praftice is creeping into neighbour¬
ing (hires. Where there is no opportunity of fuch
markets, neighbouring farmers ought to agree in bor¬
rowing and lending their reapers.
One (hould imagine, that a caution againft cutting
corn when wet, is unneceflary; yet from the impatience
of farmers to prevent (baking, no caveat is more fo.
Why db they not confider, that corn Handing dries in
half a day when, in, a clofe (heaf, the weather muft
be favourable if it dry in a month ? in moift weather
it will never dry.
f With refpeft to the manner of cutting, we muft pre-
mife, that barley is of all the moft difficult grain to be
dried for keeping. Having no hulk, rain has eafy
accefs ; and it has a tendency to malten when wet.
Where the ground is properly fmoothed by rolling, it
feems beft to cut it down with the fythe. This man-
uer being more expeditious than the fickle, removes it
fooner from danger of wind; and gives a third more Practice
draw, which is a capital article for dung, where a farm ’
is at a diftance from other manure. We except only
corn that has lodged ; for there the fickle is more con¬
venient than the fythe. As it ought to be dry when
cut, bind it up direftly : if allowed to lie any time in
the fwath, it is apt to be difcoloured.—Barley fown
with grafs-feeds, red clover efpecially, requires a dif¬
ferent management. Where the grafs is cut along
with it, the difficulty is great of getting it fo dry as
to be ventured in a Hack. The beft way is, to cut
the barley with a fickle above the clover, fo as that
nothing but clean barley is bound up. Cut with a
fythe the ftubble and grafs: they make excellent winter-
food. The fame method is applicable to oats; with
this only difference, that when the field is expofed to
the fouth-weft wind, it is lefs neceffary to bind imme¬
diately after mowing. As wheat commonly grows
higher than any other grain, it is difficult to manage
it with the fythe; for which reafon the fickle is pre¬
ferred in England. Peafe and beans grow fo irregu¬
larly, as to make the fickle neceffary. I4r
The beft way for drying peafe, is to keep feparate Drying of
the handfuls that are cut: though in this way they wet
eafily, they dry as foon. In the common way of heap¬
ing peafe together for compofing a (heaf, they wet as
eafily, and dry not near fo fooh. With refpeft to beans,
the top of the handful laft cut, ought to be laid on the
bottom of the former ; which gives ready accefs to the
wind. By this method peafe and beans are ready for
the (lack in half the ordinary time. r ^
A (hcaf eommpnly is made as large as can be con- siz^of
tained in two lengths of the corn made into a rope. To (heaves,
fave frequent tying, the binder preffes it down with his
knee, and binds it fo hard as totally to exclude the air.
If there be any moifture in the crop, which feldom fails,
a procefs of fermentation and putrefa&ion commences
in the {heaf; which is perfe&ed in the ftack, to the
deftruftion both of corn and draw. How ftupid is it,
to make the fize of a (heaf depend on the height of the
plants ! By that rule, a wheat-fheaf is commonly fo
weighty, as to be unmanageable by ordinary arms: it
requires an effort to move it, that frequently burfts the
knot, and occafions lofs of grain, befide the trouble of
a fecond tying. Sheaves ought never to be larger than
can be contained in one length of the plant, cut clofe
to the ground; without admitting any exception, if
the plants be above eighteen inches high. The bind¬
er’s arm can then comprefs the (heaf fufficiently, with¬
out need of his knee. The additional hands that this,
way of binding may require, are not to be regarded,
compared with the advantage of drying foon. Corn
thus managed may be ready for the (lack in a week :
it feldom in the ordinary way requires lefs than a fort¬
night, and frequently longer. Of a fmall (heaf com-
preffed by the arm only, the air pervades every part
nor is it fo apt to be unloofed as a large (heaf, how¬
ever firmly bound. We omit the gathering of (heaves
into (hock's, becaufe the common method is good,
which is to place the (hocks directed to the fouth-weft,.
in order to refift the force of the wind. Five (heaves
on each fide make a fufficient ftay; and a greater num¬
ber cannot be covered with two head-(heaves.. I4!>.
Every article is of importance that haftens the ope- GarryingofT
raition.in a country, like Scotland, fubjedied to unequal the victiu'!,
harveft-
Part II.
’ractice harveft-weather; for which reafon, the moft expediti-
ous method ftiould be chofen for carrying corn from the
field to the ftack-yard. Our carriages are generally
too fmall or too large. A fledge is a very aukward
machine : many hands are required, and little progrefs
made. Waggons and large carts are little lefs dilato¬
ry, as they mull ftand in the yard till unloaded fbeaf
by fheaf. The bell way is, to ufe long carts moveable
upon the axle, fo as at once to throw the whole load on
the ground ; which is forked up to the ftack by a
hand appointed for that purpofe. By this method,
two carts will do the work of four or five,
tfflacking. Building round flacks in the yard is undoubtedly
preferable to houfing corn. There it is fhut up from
the air ; and it muft be exceedingly dry, if it contraft
not a muftinefs, which is the firft ftep to putrefaction.
Add to this, that in the yard, a ftack is preferred from
rats and mice by being fet on a pedeftal; whereas no
method has hitherto been invented for preferving corn
in a houfe from fuch deftruClive vermin. The proper
manner of building, is to make every fheaf incline
downward from its top to its bottom. Where the
fheaves are laid horizontally, the ftack will take in rain
both above and below. The beft form of a ftack is
that of a cone placed on a cylinder; and the top of
the cone fhould be formed with three fheaves drawn to
a point. If the upper part of the cylinder be a little
151 wider than the under, fo much the better,
overin g The delaying to cover a ftack for two or three
ie flacks. weeks, though common, is, however, exceedingly ab-
furd ; for if much rain fall in the interim, it is beyond
the power of wind to dry the ftack. Vegetation be¬
gun in the external parts, fhuts out the air from the
internal; and to prevent a total putrefaction, the ftack
muft be thrown down, and expofed to the air, every
fheaf. In order to have a ftack covered the moment it
is finifhed, ftraw and ropes ought to be ready ; and
the covering ought to be fo thick as to be proof
againft rain.
Scotland is fubjeCl not only to floods of rain, but to
Tiigh winds. Good covering guards againft the for¬
mer, and ropes artfully applied guards againft the lat¬
ter. The following is a good mode. Take a hay-
rope well twifted, and furround the ftack with it, two
feet or fo below the top. Surround the ftack with
another filch rope immediately below the eafing. Con¬
nect thefe two with ropes in an up-and-down pofition,
diftant from each other at the eafing about five or fix
feet. Then furround the ftack with other circular
ropes parallel to the two firft mentioned, giving them
a twift round every one of thofe that lie up-and-down,
by which the whole will be connected together in a
fort of net-work. What remains is, to finifh the two
feet at the top of the ftack. Let it be covered with
bunches of ftraw laid regularly up and down ; the un¬
der part to be put under the circular rope fifft men¬
tioned, which will keep it faft, and the upper part be
bound by a. fmall rope artfully twrfted, commonly call¬
ed the crown of the Jiack. This method is preferable
to the common way of laying long ropes over the top
of the ftack, and tying them to the belting-rope; which
flattens the top, and makes it take in rain. A ftack
covered in the way here deferibed, will ftand two years
fecure both againft wind and rain ; a notable advantage
in this variable climate.
165
The great aim in making hay is, to preferve as much Pr acti c e
of the fap as poffible. All agree in this; and yet differ IJl
widely in the means of making that aim effectual. To Hay-ma-
deferibe all the different means would be equally tedi- kin£*
ous and unprofitable. We fhall confine ourfelves to,
two, which appear preferable to all others. A crop of
rye-grafs and yellow clover ought to be fpread as cut.
A day or two after, when the dew is evaporated, rake
it into a number of parallel rows along the field, term¬
ed wind-rows, for the convenience of putting it up into
fmall cocks. After turning the rows once and again,
make fmall cocks weighing a ftone or two. At the
diftance of two days or fo, put two cocks into one,
obferving always to mix the tops and bottoms together,
and to take a new place for each cock, that the leaft
damage poffible may be done to the grafs. Proceed
in putting two cocks into one, till fufficiently dry for
tramp-ricks of 100 ftone each. The eafieft way of
ereCting tramp-ricks, is to found a rick in the middle
of the row of cocks that are to compofe it. The cocks
may be carried to the rick by two perfons joining arms
together. When all the cocks are thus carried to the
rick within the diftance of forty yards or fo, the reft
of the cocks will be more expeditioufly carried to the
rick, by a rope wound about them and dragged by a
horfe. Two ropes are fufficient to fecure the ricks
from wind, the fhort time they are to ftand in the field.
In the year tyyy, 10,000 ftone were put into tramp-
ricks the fourth day after cutting. In a country fo wet
as many parts of Scotland are, expedition is of mighty
confequence in the drying both of hay and corn. With
refpeCt to hay intended for horned cattle, it is by the
generality held an improvement, that it be heated a
little in the ftack. But we violently fufpeft this doc¬
trine to have been invented for excufing indolent ma¬
nagement. An ox, it is true, will eat fuch hay ; but
it will always be found that he prefers fweet hay ; and
it cannot well be doubted, but that fuch hay is the
moft falutary and the moft nourifhing.
The making hay confifting chiefly of red clover, Hay of red
requires more care. The feafon of cutting is the laft clover,
week of June, when it is in full bloom : earlier it may
be cut, but never later. To cut it later, would indeed
produce a weightier crop ; but a late firft cutting
makes the fecund alfo late, perhaps too late for drying.
At the fame time, the want of weight in an early firft
cutting, is amply compenfated by the weight of the
fecond..
When the feafon is too variable for making hay of
the fecond growth, mix ftraw with that growth, which
will be a fiibftantial food for cattle during winter.
This is commonly done by laying ftrata of the ftraw
and clover alternately in the ftack. But by this me¬
thod, the ftrata of clover, if they do not heat, turn
mouldy at leaft, and unpalatable. The better way is,
to mix them carefully with the hand before they be put
into the ftack. The dry ftraw imbibes moifture from
the clover and prevents heating.
But the beft method of hay-making feems to be that 134
recommended by Mr Anderfon *. “ Inftead,” fays ®ther me*
he, “ of allowing the hay to lie, as ufual in moft pla- °E}j- on
ces, for fome days inthe fwathe after it is cut, and af- Agnculture,
terwards alternatelyputting it up into cocks and fpread- vol.l.p.iBS,
ing it out, and tedding it in the fun, which tends great¬
ly to bleach the hay, exhales its natural juices, and
fubjefts
AGRICULTURE.
i66
Practice fubjefts it very much to the danger of getting rain,
_ thus runs a great rifle of being good for little, I
* make it a general rule, if poffible, never to cut hay
but when the grafs is quite dry; and then make the
gatherers follow clofe upon the cutters,—putting it up
immediately into fmall cocks about three feet high each
when new put up, and of as fmall a diameter as they
can be made to Hand with; always giving each of them
a flight kind of thatching, by drawing a few hand¬
fuls of the hay from the bottom of the cock all around,
and laying it lightly upon the top with one of the ends
hanging downwards. This is done with the utmoft
eafe and expedition ; and when it is once in that ftate,
I confider my hay as in a great meafure out of dan¬
ger: for unlefs a violent wind ftiould arife immediately
after the cocks are put up, fo as to overturn them, no¬
thing elfe can hurt the hay; as I have often experienced,
that no rain, however violent, ever penetrates into thefe
cocks but for a very little way. And, if they are dry
put up, they never jit together fo clofely as to heat; al¬
though they acquire, in a day or two', fuch a degree of
iirmnefs, as to be in no danger of being overturned by
wind after that time, unlefs it blows a hurricane.
“ In thefe cocks, I allow the hay to remain, until,
upon infpection, I judge that it will keep in pretty
large tramp-cocks, (which is ufually in one or two
weeks, according as the weather is more or lefs favour¬
able, when two men, each with a long pronged pitch-
fork, lift up one of thefe fmall cocks between them
with the greateft eafe, and carry them one after ano¬
ther to the place where the tramp-cock is to bebuilt (d):
and in this manner, they proceed over the field till the
iss whole is finiftied.
Advantages “ The advantages that attend this method of making
thod1'5 n,e" kay> are» ry'^at ^ greatly abridges the labour; as it does
not require above the one half of the work that is ne-
ceflary in the old method of turning and tedding it:
That it allows the hay to continue almoft as green as
when it is cut, and preferves its natural juices in the
greateft perfection ; for, unlefs it be the little that is
expofed to the fun and air upon the furface of the
cocks, which is no more bleached than every ftraw of
hay faved in the ordinary way, the whole is dried in
the moft flow and equal manner that could be defired:
and, laftly. That it is thus in a great meafure fecured
from almoft the poffibility of being damaged by rain.
This laft circumftance deferves to be much more at¬
tended to by the farmer than it ufually is at prefent; as
I have feen few who are fufficiently aware of the lofs
that the quality of their hay fuftains by receiving a
flight ftiower after it is cut, and before it is gathered;
the generality of farmers feeming to be very well fatis-
fied if they get in their hay without being abfolutely
rotted; never paying the leaft attention to its having
been feveral times wetted while the hay was making.
But, if thefe gentlemen will take the trouble at any
time to compare any parcel of hay that has been made
perfeftly dry, with another parcel from the fame field
Part II.
that has received a ftiower while in the fwathe, or even Practicb
a copious dew, they will foon be fenfible of a very ma- ”
nifeft difference between them; nor will their horfes or
cattle ever commit a miftake in chufing_between the
two. IJ(y
“ Let it be particularly remarked, that in this man- Particular i
ner of making hay, great care muft be taken that it be caution re¬
dry when firft put into the cocks ; for, if it is in the ^fmethuil
leaft degree wet at that time, it will turn inftantly
mouldy, and fit together fo as to become totally imper¬
vious to the air, and will never afterwards become dry
till it is fpread out to the fun. For this reafon, if at
any time during a courfe of good fettled weather you
ftiould begin to cut in the morning before the dew is off
the grafs, keep back the gatherers till the dew is eva¬
porated ; allowing that which was firft cut to lie till it
is dry before it is cocked. In this cafe, you will al¬
moft always find that the uncut grafs will dry fooner
than that which has been cut when wet; and, there¬
fore, the gatherers may always begin to put up that
which is frefh cut before the other ; which will ufually
require two or three hours to dry after the new-cut hay
may be cocked. And if, at any time, in cafe of ne-
ceffity, you ftiould be obliged to cut your hay before it
is dry, the fame rule muft be obferved, always to allow
it to remain in the fwathe till it is quite dry : but, as
there is always a great rifle of being long in getting it
up, and as it never in this cafe •wins (e) fo kindly as
if it had been dry cut, the farmer ought to endeavour,
if poffible, in all cafes, to cut his hay only when dry;
even if it ftiould coft him fome additional expence to
the cutters, by keeping them employed at any other
work, or even allowing them to remain idle, if the
weather ftiould be variable or rainy.
“ But if there is a great proportion of clover, and
the weather fhould chance be clofe and calm at the
time, it may, on fome occafions, be neceffary to open
up thefe cocks a little, to admit fome freftt air into
them; in which cafe, after they have flood a day or
two, it may be of great ufe to turn thefe cocks and o-
pen them up a little, which ought to be done in the
drieft time of the day; the operator taking that part of
each cock which was the top, and with it forming the
bafe of a new one, fo that the part which was moft ex¬
pofed to the air becomes excluded from it, and that
which was undermoft comes to be placed upon the top,
fo as to make it all dry as equally as poffible.
“ If the hay has not been damp when it was firft;
put up, the cock may be immediately finiflied out at
once; but if it is at all wet, it will be of great ufe to
turn over only a little of the top of the cock at firft, and
leaving it in that ftate to dry a little, proceed to ano¬
ther, and a third, and fourth, treating each in
the fame way; going on in that manner till you find
that the infide of the firft opened cock is fufficiently
dried, when it will be proper to return to it, turning
over a little more of it till you come to what is ftifl
damp, when you leave it and proceed to another, and
fo
AGRICULT URE.
(d) If the hay is to be carried to any confiderable diftance, this part of the labour may be greatly abridged, by cau-
fing the carriers take two long Hicks of a fufficient ftrength, and having laid them down by the fmall cocks parallel
to one another, at the diftance of one and a half, or two feet afunder, let them lift three or four cocks, one after ano¬
ther, and place them carefully above the flicks, and then carry them all together, as if upon a hand-barrow, to the
place where the large rick is to be built.
(e ) By •winning hay, is meant the operation by which it is brought from the fucculent ftate of grafs to that of a
dry fodder.
Part II. A G R I C I
Practice f0 on round the whole ; always returning afrefh till the
fr cocks are entirely finiihed. This is the beft way of fa-
ving your hay, if you have been under the neceffity of
cutting it while damp ; but, it is always beft to guard
againft this inconvenience, if poflible.”
*57 In the yard, a ftack of hay ought to be an oblong
,JIay-ftacks. fquare> jf j-^e quantity be greater than to be eafily
flowed in a round ftack ; becaufe a fmaller furface is
expofed to the air, than in a number of round ftacks.
For the fame reafon, a ftack of peafe ought to have the
fame form, the ftraw being more valuable than that of
oats, wheat, or barley. The moment a ftack is finifh-
ed, it ought to be covered ; becaufe the furface-hay is
much damaged by withering in dry weather, and moi-
ftening in wet weather. Let it have a pavilion-roof;
for more of it can be covered with ftraw in that fhape,
than when built perpendicular at the ends. Let it be
roped as direfted above for corn-ftacks ; with this dif¬
ference only, that in an oblong fquare the ropes muft
be thrown over the top, and tied to the belt-rope be¬
low. This belt-rope ought to be fixed with pins to
the'ftack: the reafon is, that the ropes thrown over the
ftack will bag by the finking of the ftack, and may
be drawn tight by lowering the belt-rope, and fixing
it in its new pofition with the fame pins.
The ftems of hopes, being long and tough, make
excellent ropes; and it will be a faring article, to pro¬
pagate a few plants of that kind for that very end.
A ftack of ryegrafs hay, a year old, and of a mode¬
rate fize, will weigh, each cubic yard, 11 Dutch ftone.
A ftack of clover-hay in the fame circumftances weighs
fomewhat lefs.
Sect. VII. Manures.
The manures commonly ufed are dung, lime, Ihell-
marl, clay-marl, and ftone-marl. Many other fub-
ftances are ufed; ftiavings of horn, for example, refufe
of malt, and even old rags : but as the quantity
that can be procured is inconfiderable, and as their
application is fimple, we fhall confume no time upon
them.
r?3 Dung is the chief of all manures ; becaufe a quan-
liung' tity of it may be colle&ed in every farm, and becaufe
it makes the quickeft return. A field fufficiently dung¬
ed, will produce good crops four or five years.
Dung of animals that chew the cud, being more
thoroughly putrefied than that of others, is fit to be
mixed with the foil without needing to be collected in¬
to a dunghill. A horfe does not chew the cud ; and
in horfe-dung may be perceived ftraw or ryegrafs bro¬
ken into fmall parts, but not diflblved: it is proper
therefore that the putrefaftion be completed in a dung¬
hill. It ought to be mixed there with cool materials:
fo hot it is, that, in a dunghill by itfelf, it finges and
burns inftead of putrefying. The difference between
the dung of a horfe and of a horned animal, is vifible
in a pafture-field: the grafs round the former is wither¬
ed ; round the latter, it is ranker and more verdant than
in the reft of the field. A mixture of dry and moift
ftuff, ought to be ftudied: the former attracting moi-
fturefrom the latter, they become equally moift.
iJ9 To prevent fap from running out of a dunghill, its
Of a dung- fitiiation ihould be a little below the furface ; and to
1 ’ prevent rain from running into it, it ftiould be fur-
rounded with a ring of fod. If the foil on which the
r L T U R E. 167
dunghill ftands be porous, let it be paved, to prevent Practice
the fap from finking into the ground. If moifture ”
happen to fuperabound, it may be led off by a fmall
gutter to impregnate a quantity of rich mould laid
down to receive it, which will make it equal to good
dung.
Straw fhould be prepared for the dunghill, by being
laid under cattle, and fufficiently moiftened. When laid
dry into a dunghill, it keeps it open, admits too much
air, and prevents putrefaCtion.
Dung from the liable ought to be carefully fpread on
the dunghill, and mixed with the former dung. When
left in heaps upon the dunghill, fermentation and putre-
faftion go on unequally.
Complete putrefaction is of importance with regard to
the feed of weeds that are in the dunghill: if they remain
found, they are carried out with the dung, and infeft the
ground. Complete putrefaftion is of Hill greater im¬
portance by pulverifing the dung ; in which condition
it mixes intimately with the foil, and operates the moll
powerfully. In land intended for barley, undigefted
dung has a very bad effeCl: it keeps the ground open,
admits drought, and prevents the feed from fpring-
ing. On the other hand, when thoroughly rotted, it
mixes with the foil, and enables it to retain moifture. j6a
It follows, that the propereft time for dunging a field, Time for
is in its higheft pulverifation ; at which time the earth dunging,
mixes intimately with the dung. Immediately before
fetting cabbage, fowing turnip, or wheat, is a good
time. Dung divides and fpreads the moft accurately
when moift. Its intimate mixture with the foil is of
fuch importance, that hands Ihould be employed to di¬
vide and fpread any lumps that may be in it. I(Jl
Dung Ihould be fpread, and ploughed into the Manner of
ground, without delay. When a heap lies two or three dunging,
weeks, fome of the moifture is imbibed into the ground,
which will produce tufts of corn more vigorous than in.
the reft of the field. There cannot be a worfe pra&ice
than to lead out dung before winter, leaving it expo-
fed to froft and fnow. The whole fpirit of the dung is
extradled by rain, and carried off with it. The dung
divefted of its fap becomes dry in fpring, and incapable
of being mixed with the mould. It is turned over
whole by the plough, and buried in the furrow. I(-2
As dung is an article of the utmoft importance in Of colkil-
hufbandry, one ftiould imagine, that the colle&ing it ing dung,
would be a capital article with an induftrious farmer.
Yet an ingenious writer, obferving that the Jamaicans
are in this particular much more induftrious than the
Britifti, afcribes the difference to the difficulty of pro¬
curing dung in Jamaica. “ In England, where the
“ long winter enables a farmer to raife what quantity
“ he pleafes, it is not colledled with any degree of
“ induftry. But in Jamaica, where there is no win-
“ ter, and where the heat of the fun is a great ob-
“ ftrudlion, the farmer muft be indefatigable, or he
“ will never raife any dung.” Cool intereft is not a-
lone a fufficient motive with the indolent, to be acftive.
As dung is of great importance in hulbandry, a far¬
mer cannot be too affiduous in colledling animal and
vegetable fubftances that will rot. One article of that
kind there is, to colleft which there is a double motive,
and yet is neglected almoft every where. A farm full
of weeds is a nuifance to the neighbourhood: it poi-
fons the fields around; and the poffeffor ought to be dif-
graced
168
PRACTICf
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
Time of li-
graced as a peft to fociety. Now the cutting down e-
very weed before the feed is formed, anfwers two ex¬
cellent purpofes. Firft, it encourages good crops, by
keeping the ground clean. Next,, thefe weeds mixed
with other materials in a dunghill, may add confider-
ably to the quantity of dung.
Next of lime, which is a profitable manure, and great¬
ly fo when it can be got in plenty within a mode¬
rate diftance. The benefit of lime is fo vifible, that
the ufe of it has become general, where the price and
carriage are in any degree moderate.
However people may differ in other particulars, all
agree, that the operation of lime depends on its inti¬
mate mixture with the foil; and therefore that the pro¬
per time of applying it, is when it is perfectly powder¬
ed and the foil at the fame time in the higheft degree
of pulverifation. Lime of itfelf is abfolutely barren ;
and yet it enriches a barren foil. Neither of the two
produces any good effeft without the other: and con-
fequently, the more intimately they are mixed, the effedl
muff: be the greater.
Hence it follows, that lime ought always to be fla¬
ked with a proper quantity of water, becaufe by that
means it is reduced the moll effeftually into powder.
Lime left to be flaked by a moift air, or accidental rain,
is feldom or never thoroughly reduced into powder ;
and therefore can never be intimately mixed with the
foil. Sometimes an opportunity offers to bring home
fhell-lime before the ground is ready for it; and it is
commonly thrown into a heap without cover, trufting
to rain for flaking. The proper way is, to lay the
fnell-lime in different heaps on the ground where it is
to be fpread, to reduce thefe heaps into powder by fla¬
king with water, and to cover the flakedjime with fod
fo as to defend it from rain. One however would avoid
as much as pofiible the bringing home lime before the
ground be ready for it. Where allowed to lie long in
a heap, there are two bad confequences,: firft, lime at-
tracfts moifture, even though well covered, and runs in¬
to clots, which prevents an intimate mixture ; and,
next, we know, that burnt limeftone, whether in fhells
or in powder, returns gradually into its original ftate
of limeftone; and upon that account alfo, is lefs capable
of being mixt with the foil. And this is verified by a
fa£, that, after lying long, it is fo hard bound together
as to require a pick to feparate the parts.
For the fame reafon, it is a bad practice, though
common, to let fpread lime lie on the furface all win¬
ter. The bad effefts abovementioned take place here
in part: and there is another; that rain wafhes the
lime down to the furrows, and in a hanging field car¬
ries the whole away.
As the particles of powdered lime are both fmall and
heavy, they quickly fink to the bottom of the furrow,
if care be not taken to prevent it. In that view, it is
a rule, that lime be fpread, and mixed with the foil,
immediately before flowing, or along with the feed. In
this manner of application, there being no occafion to
move it till the ground be ftirred for a new crop, it has
time to incorporate with the foil, and does not readily
feparate from it. Thus, if turnip-feed is to be fown
broadcaft, the lime ought to be laid on immediately
before flowing, and harrowed in with the feed. If a
crop of drilled turnip or cabbage be intended, the lime
ought to be fpread immediate]y before forming in
drills. With refpeft to wheat, the line ought to bePRAcnce
fpread immediately before feed-furrowing. If fpread
more early, before the ground be fufficiently bro¬
ken, it finks to the bottom. If a light foil be prepa¬
red for barley, the lime ought to be fpread after feed¬
furrowing, and harrowed in with the feed. In a ftrong
foil, it finks not fo readily to the bottom ; and there¬
fore, before flawing the barley, the lime ought to be
mixed with the foil by a brake. Where moor is fum-
mer-fallowed for a crop of oats next year, the lime
ought to be laid on immediately before the laft
ploughing, and braked in as before. It has fufficient
time to incorporate with the foil before the land be
ftirred again. i6(.
The quantity to be laid on, depends on the nature Quantity,
of the foil. Upon a ftrong foil, feventy or eighty bolls
of (hells are not more than fufficient, reckoning four
fmall firlots to the boll, termed 'wkeat-meafure; nor
will it be an overdofe to lay on an hundred bolls. Be¬
tween fifty and fixty may fuffice upon medium foils; and
upon the thin or gravelly, between thirty and forty. It
is not fafe to lay a much greater quantity on fuch foils.
It is common to lime a pafture-field immediately Liming pa-
before ploughing. This is an unfafe pra&ice; it is (lure-fields,
thrown to the bottom of the furrow, from which it is
never fully gathered up. The proper time for liming
a pafture field, intended to be taken up for corn, is a
year at leaft, or two, before ploughing. It is waftied
in by rain among the roots of plants, and has time to
incorporate with the foil.
Limeftone heat fmall, makes an excellent manure;
and fupplies the want of powdered lime, where there ,6g
is no feuel to burn the limeftone. Limeftone beat Beat lime-
fmall has not hitherto been much ufed as a manure; ft'ne.
and the proportion between it and powdered lime has
not been afcertained. What follows may give fome
light. Three pounds of raw lime is by burning re¬
duced to two pounds of (hell-lime. Yet nothing is ex¬
pelled by the fire but the air that was in the lime¬
ftone : the calcareous earth remains entire. Ergo, two.
pounds of (hell-lime contain as much calcareous earth
as three pounds of raw limeftone. Shell-lime of the
beft quality, when flaked with water, will meafure out
to thrice the quantity. But as limeftone lofes none of
its bulk by being burnt into (hells, it follows, that
three buftiels of raw limeftone contain as much calca¬
reous earth as fix buftiels of powdered lime; and con-
flequently, if powdered lime poflefs not fome virtue
above raw limeftone, three buftiels of the latter beat
fmall (hould equal as a manure fix bufliels of the former.
Shell-marl, as a manure, is managed in evefy re- of (hell-
fpect like powdered lime; with this only difference, that marl,
a fifth or a fourth part more in meafure ought to be
given. The reafon is, that (hell-marl is lefs weighty
than lime; and that a boll of it contains lefs calcareous
earth, which is the frudlifying part of both.
Clay and done marls, with refpe£t tohulhandry, are
the fame, though in appearance different. 170
The goodnefs of marl depends on the quantity of Of claf
calcareous earth in it: which has been known to amount antl ft°ne“
to a half or more. It is too expenfive if the quantity mai S’
be lefs than a third or a fourth part. Good marl is the
moft fubftantial of all manures; becaufe it improves the
weakeft ground to equal the beft borough-acres. Th<f
low part of Berwickfliire termed the Merfe, abounds
every
Part II. AGRICULTURE. 169
Practice every where with this marl; and is the only county in
Scotland where it is in plenty.
Land ought to be cleared of weeds before marling;
and it ought to be fmoothed with the brake and harrow,
in order that the marl may be equally fpread. Marl
is a foffil on which no vegetable will grow; its efficacy
depends, like that of lime, on its pulverifation, and in¬
timate mixture with the foil. Toward the former, al¬
ternate drought and moifture contribute greatly, as alfo
froft. Therefore, after being evenly fpread, it ought
to lie on the furface all winter. In the month of Oc¬
tober, it may be roufed with a brake; which will bring
to the furface, and expofe to the air and froft, all the
hard parts, and mix with the foil all that is powdered.
In that refpett it differs widely from dung and lime,
which ought to be ploughed into the ground without
delay. Oats is a hardy grain, which will anfwer for
being the firft crop after marling, better than any o-
ther; and it will fucceed though the marl be not tho¬
roughly mixed with the foil. In that cafe, the marl
ought to be ploughed in with an ebb furrow immediate¬
ly before fowing, and braked thoroughly. It is tick-
liftt to make wheat the firft crop: if fown before win¬
ter, froft fwells the marl, and. is apt to throw the feed
out of the ground; if fown in fpring, it will fuffer more
than oats by want of due mixture.
Summer is the proper feafon for marling ; becaufe
in that feafon the marl, being dry, is not only lighter,
but is eafily reduced to powder. Froft however is not
improper for marling, efpecially as in froft there is
little opportunity for any other work.
Marl is a heavy body, and finks to the bottom of
the furrow, if indifcreetly ploughed. Therefore the
firft crop fhould always have an ebb furrow. During
the growing of that crop, the marl has time to incor¬
porate with the foil, and to become a part of it; after
which it does not readily feparate.
Sect. VIII. principles andOperations of the New
or Horfc-hoeing Hufkandry.
The general properties attributed to the new huf-
bandry may be reduced to two, viz, the promoting
the growth of plants by hoeing, and tjie faring of feed;
jyj both of which are equally profitable to the farmer.
Advanrages The advantages of tillage before fowing have already
aferibed to been p0jnted out. Inthis place we muftconfine ourfelves
5^°^e l)°e* to t^e utility of tillage after fowing. This kind of tillage
is moft generally known by the name of horfe-hoeing.
Land fowed with wheat, however well it may be
cultivated in autumn, finks in the winter; the particles
get nearer together, and the weeds rife; fo that in
fpring, the land is nearly in the fame fituation as if it
never had been ploughed. This, however, is the fea¬
fon when it ihould branch and grow with moft vigour ;
and confequently (lands moft in need of ploughing or
hoeing, to deftroy the weeds, to fupply the roots with
freftiearth, and, bydividinganewtheparticlesof thefoil,
to allow the roots to extend and colledl rtourifhment.
It is well known, that, in gardens, plants grow
with double vigour after being hoed or tranfplanted.
If plants growing in arable land could be managed
with eafe and fafety in this manner, it is natural to ex-
pe£t, that their growth would be promoted according¬
ly. Experience (hows, that this is not only praftica-
ble, but atteitded with many advantages.
Vol. I.
In the operation of hoeing wheat, though-fome of Practice
the roots be moved or broken, the plants receive no in¬
jury ; for this very circumftance makes them fend forth
a greater number of roots than formerly, which enlarge
■ their pafture, and confequently augment their growth.
Sickly wheat has often recovered its vigour after a
good hoeing, efpecially when performed in weather
not very hot or dry.
Wheat, and fuch grain as is fown before winter,
requires hoeing more than oats, barley, or other -grain
fown in the fpring ; for, if the land has been well
ploughed before the fowing of fpring-corn, it neither
has time to harden, nor to produce many weeds, not
having been expofed to the winter’s fnow and rain.
Of Sowing. -in
As, in the.pra&ice of the new hufoandry, plants Method o£
grow with greater vigour than by the old method, the
land (hould be fowed thinner. It is this principle of Hulbandiy.
the new hulbandry that has been chiefly obje&ed to ;
for, upon obferving the land occupied by a fmall num¬
ber of plants, people are apt to look upon all the va¬
cant fpace as loft. But this prejudice will foon be re¬
moved, when it is conlidered, that, in the bed land
cultivated in the common method, and fown very thick,
each feed produces but one or two ears; that, in the
fame land fown thinner, every feed produces two or
three ears ; and that a Angle-feed fometimes produces
18 or 21 ears.
In the common method, as there are many more
plants than can find fufficient nourilhment, and as it is
impoffible to affift them by hoeing, numbers die before
they attain maturity, the greateft part remain fickly
and drooping ; and thus part of the feed is loft. On
the contrary, in the new method, all the plants have
as much food as they require; and as they are, from
time to time, affifted by hoeing, they become fo vigo¬
rous as to equal in their production the numerous but
fickly plants cultivated in the common method.
Of Hoeing.
The new hulbandry is abfolutely impracticable in
lands that are not eafily ploughed. Attempting to
cultivate land according to this hufbandry, without at¬
tending to this circumftance, that it is practicable in
no land excepting fuch as have already been brought
into good tilth by the old method, has gone far to
make it contemptible in many places. ,73
When a field is in good tilth, it (hould be fown fo The di/Te-
thin as to leave fufficient room for the plants to extend rcnt hoe.
their roots. After being well ploughed and harrowed, ,nSs-
it muft be divided into rows, at the diftance of thirty
inches from one another. On the fides of each of thefe
rows, two rows of wheat muft be fowed fix inches di-
ftant from each other. By this means there will be an
interval of two feet wide betwixt the rows, and every
plant will have room enough to extend its roots, and to
fupply it with food. The intervals will likewife be
fufficient for allowing the earth to be hoed or tilled
without injuring the plants in the rows.
The firft hoeing, which (hould be given before the
winter, is intended to drain away the wet, and to dif-
pofe the earth to be mellowed by the frofts. Thefe
two ends will be anfwered by drawing two fmall fur-,
rows at a little diftance from the rows, and throwing
Y the
170 A G R I C U
P r a'ct t c e the earth taken from the furrows into the middle of
the intervals. This firft hoeing ftiould be given when
the wheat is in leaf.
The fecond hoeing, which is intended to make the
plants branch, fhould be given after the hard frofts are
over. To do this with advantage, after ftirring the
earth a little, near the rows, the earth which was
thrown in the middle of the intervals Ihould be turned
back into the furrows. This earth, having been mel¬
lowed by the winter, fupplies the plants with excel¬
lent food, and makes the roots extend.
The third hoeing, which is intended to invigorate
the ftalk, ftiould be given when the ears of the corn
begin to fliew themfelves. This hoeing may, however,
be very flight.
But the laft hoeing is of the greateft importance,
as it enlarges the grain, and makes the ears fill at their
extremities. This hoeing fhould be given when the
wheat is in bloom; a furrow mutt be drawn in the
middle of the interval, and the earth thrown to the
right'and left on the foot of the plants. This fupports
the plants, prevents them from being laid, and pre¬
pares the ground for the next fowing, as the feed is
then to be put in the middle of the ground that form¬
ed the intervals.
By this fucceflive tillage, or hoeing, good crops will be
obtained, provided the weather is not very unfavourable.
But as ftrong, vigorous plants are longer before they
arrive at maturity, corn raifed in the new way is later
in ripening than any other, and mutt therefore be fown
earlier.
In order to prepare the intervals for fowing again,
fome well-rotted dung may be laid in the deep furrows
made in the middle of the intervals; and this dung
mutt be covered with the earth that was before thrown
towards the rows of wheat. But, if the land does not
require mending, the deep furrow is filled without any
dung. This operation Ihould be performed immedi¬
ately after harveft, that there may be time to give the
land a flight ttirring before the rows are fowed ; which
fhould occupy the middle of the fpace which formed
the intervals during the laft crop. The intervals of the
fecond year take up the fpace occupied by the ftubhle
of the firft.
Suppofing dung to be neceflary, which is denied by
many, a very fmall quantity is fufficient; a Angle layer,
put inthe bottom of each furrow, will be enough.
Description of the Instruments commonly ufed in
,74 the New Husbandry.
Sforibed”*8 Fig. I. is a marking plough. The principal ufe of
ffate VI.' this plough is to ftraight and regulate the ridges. The
firft line is traced by the eye, by means of three poles,
placed in a ftraight line. The plough draws the firft
furrow in the direction of this line ; and, at the fame
time, with the tooth A, fixed in the block of wood
near the end of the crofs-poll or Aider B B, marks the
breadth of the ridge at the diftanee intended. The
ploughman next traces the fecond line or rutt made by
the tooth, and draws a fmall furrow along it; and con¬
tinues in this manner till the whole field is laid out in
ftraight and equidiftant ridges.
Fig. 2. is a plough for breaking up lee, or turning
up the bottom of land when greatly exhaufted. By its
sonftru&ion, the width and depth of the- furrows can
L T U R E. Part II.
be regulated to a greater certainty than by any other Practic e
hitherto known in this country. Its appearance is
heavy ; but two horfes are fufficient to plough with it
in ordinary free land; and only four are neceffary irr
the ftiffeft clay-foils. This plough is likewife eafily
held and tempered. A, is the fword fixed in the fizers B,
which runs thro’ a mortoife E, at the end of the beam
C, and regulates the depth of the furrow by raifing
or depreffing the beam ; it is fixed by putting the pin
D thro’ the beam and fword, and is moveable at E.
Fig. 3. is a jointed brake-harrow with 24 teeth, fiia-
ped like coulters, and Handing at about an angle of 80
degrees. By this inftrument the land is finely pulve-
rifed, and prepared for receiving the feed from the drill.
It requires four horfes in ftiff, and two in open, land.
This harrow is likewife ufed for levelling the ridges ;
which is done by prelfing it down by the handles where
the ridge is high, and raifing it up when low.
Fig. 4. is an angular weeding-harrow, which may
follow the brake when neceffary. The feven hindmoft
teeth fhould ftand at a more acute angle than the reft,
in order to colleft the weeds, which the holder can
drop at pleafure, by raifing the hinder part, which is
fixed to the body of the barrow by two joints.
Fig. 5. is a pair of harrows with fhafts. This har¬
row is ufed for covering the feed in the drills, the horfe
going in the furrow.
Fig. 6. is a drill-plough, conftru&ed in fuch a man¬
ner as to fow at once two rows of beans, peafe, or
wheat. This machine is eafily wrought by two horfes.
A, is the happer for containing the feed ; B, circular
boxes for receiving the feed from the happer ; C C, two
fquare boxes which receive the feed from fmall holes in
the circular boxes, as they turn round; and laft of all,
the feed is dropped into the drills through holes in the
fquare boxes, behind the coulters D. The cylinder E
follows, which, together with the wheel F, regulates
the depth of the coulters, and covers the feed; the har¬
row G comes behind all, and covers the feed more
completely. H H, two Aiders, which, when drawn
out, prevent the feed from falling into the boxes; and, I,
is a ketch which holds the rungs, and prevents the boxes-
from turning, and lofing feed at the ends of the ridges.
Fig. 7. is a fingle hoe-plough of a very fimple con-
ftru&ion, by which the earth in the intervals is ftir-
red and laid up on both fides to the roots of the plants,
and at the fame time the weeds are deftroyed. A A
the mould-boards, which may be raifed or deprefled at
pleafure, according as the farmer wants, to throw the
earth higher or lower upon the roots.
Summary of the Operations necefihry in, executing
the New Husbandry with the Plough.
»7jf
1. It is indifpenfably neceflary that the farmer be Summary of
provided with a drill and hoe-plough. opera—
2. The new husbandry may be begun either with the tlons-
winter or fpring corn.
3. The land muft be prepared by four good piough-
ings, given at different times, from the beginning of
April to the middle of September.
4. Thefe ploughings muft be done in dry weather,
to prevent the earth from kneading.
5. The land muft be harrowed inthe fame-manner as
if it were, fowed in the common way.
6. The rows of wheat fhould be fowed very ftraight.
7. When
TlateTI.
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
Practice >7. When the field is not very large, a line muft be
— {trained acrofs it, by which a rill may be traced with
a hoe for the horfe that draws the drill to go in; and
when the rows are fown, 50 inches muft be left betwixt
each rill. But, when the field is large, flakes at five
feet diftance from each other muft be placed at the two
ends. The workman muft then trace a fmall furrow
with a plough that has no mold-board, for the horfe to
go in that draws the drill, directing himfelf with his eye
by the flakes.
8. The fowing (hould be finiflied at the end of Sep¬
tember, or beginning of Oftober.
9. The furrows muft be traced the long way of the
land, that as little ground as pofiible maybe loft in head¬
lands.
10. The rows, if it can be done, fliould run down
the flope of the land, that the water may get the ea-
fier off.
11. The feed-wheat muft be plunged into a tub of
lime-water, and ftirred, that the light corn may come
to the furface and be fkimmed off.
12. The feed muft be next fpread on a floor, and
frequently ftirred, till it is dry enough to run through
the valves of the happer of the drill.
13. To prevent fmut, the feed may be put into a ley
of aflies and lime.
14. After the happers of the drill are filled, the
horfe muft go (lowly along the furrow that was traced.
That a proper quantity of feed may be fown, the a-
perture of the happer muft be fuited to the fize of the
grain.
15. As the drill is feldom well managed at firft, the
field {hould be examined after the corn has come up,
and the deficiencies be fupplied.
16. Stiff lands, that retain the wet, muft be ftirred
or hoed in O&ober. This {hould be done by opening
a furrow in the middle of the intervals, and afterwards
filling it up by a furrow drawn on each fide, which
will raife the earth in the middle of the intervals, and
leave two fmall furrows next the rows, for draining off
the water, which is very hurtful to wheat in winter.
17. The next ftirring muft be given about the end
A G R
AGRIFOLIUM, or Aquifolium. See Ilex.
AGRIMONIA, Agrimony; a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants. Of this genus there are five fpecies enumera¬
ted by botanical writers; but none of them have any
remarkable properties except the two following.—
. ( 1.) The eupatoria, or common agrimony. It grows
naturally in feveral parts of Britain by the fides of
hedges and of woods.—This fpecies is eat by flieep and
goats, but refufed by horfes and fwine. The Cana¬
dians are faid to ufe an infufion of the root in burning
fevers, with great fuccefs. An infufion of fix ounces of
the crown of the root in a quart of boiling water,
fweetened with honey, and half a pint of it drank
three times a-day, is an effe&ual cure for the jaundice,
according to Do£tor Hill. He advifes to begin with
a vomit, afterwards to keep the belly foluble, and to
continue the medicine as long as any fymptoms of the
difeafe remain.—It is faid to be an aperient, detergent,
and ftrengthener of the vifcera. Hence it is recom¬
mended in fcorbutic diforders, in debility and laxity of
of March, with a light plough. In this ftirring the Pr
furrows made to drain the rows muft be filled up by
earth from the middle of the intervals.
18. Some time in May, the rows muft be evened;
which, though troublefome at firft, foon becomes eafy,
as the weeds are foon kept under by tillage.
19. In June, juft before the wheat is in bloom, ano¬
ther ftirring muft be given with the plough. A deep
furrow muft be made in the middle of the intervals,
and the earth thrown upon the fides of the rows.
20. When the wheat is ripe, particular care muft be
taken, in reaping it, to trample as little as pofiible on
the ploughed land.
21. Soon after the wheat is carried off the field, the
intervals muft be turned up with the plough, to prepare
them for the feed. The great furrow in the middle
muft not only be filled, but the earth raifed as much as
pofiible in the middle of the intervals.
22. In September, the land muft be again fowed
with a drill, as above directed.
23. In Ottober, the ftubble muft be turned in for
forming the new intervals; and the fame management
muft be obferved as dire&ed in the firft year.
Wf. pretend not to determine whether the old or
hufbandry be preferable in every country.
With regard to this point, the climate, the fituation
of particular land, {kill and dexterity in managing the
machinery, the comparative expence in railing crops,
and many other circumftances, muft be accurately at¬
tended to before a determination can be given. One
obfervation, however, may be made in favour of the
new huftandry :—Though the particular modes of cul¬
tivating land by it are perhaps too limited to be uni-
verfally adopted ; yet it has been of great ufe in rai¬
ling fufpicions concerning the old method, and in turn¬
ing the views of philofophers and farmers towards im¬
proving in general. Many real improvements in agri¬
culture have been the confequences of thde fufpicions ;
and as this fpirit of inquiry remains in full vigour, par¬
ticularly in our own country, a folid foundation is laid
for expelling ftill further impi-ovements in thisufeful art.
A G R
the inteftines. See. Digefted in whey, it affords an ufeful
diet-drink for the fpring-feafon, not ungrateful to the
palate or ftomach. Doiftor Alfton fays, that the beft
mode of adminiftering this herb is in powder, when
the intention is to corroborate ; and that if thus taken
in a large quantity, we may expert many of the effefts
of the bark from it in agues.—(2.) The odorata, or
fweet-feented agrimony. This grows near four feet
high ; the leaves have more pinna; than the former ;
the ferratures of the leaves are alfo (harper, and, when
handled, they emit an agreeable odour. The leaves
of this fpecies make an agreeable cooling tea, which is
fometimes preferibed by phyficians as a drink for peo¬
ple in fevers.
Culture. Both thefe fpecies may be propagated
either by feed, or by parting the roots in autumn when
the leaves begin to decay. The feeds ought alfo to be
fown in this feafon ; for if kept out of the ground till
fpring, they feldom come up that year.—Agrimony is
a hardy perennial plant, and will thrive in almoft any
foil or fituation; but the plants ftiould not be placed
Y 2 nearer
AGR [172] AGR
nearer one another than two feet, that the roots may
have room to fpread.
AGRIMONOIDES, the trivial name of a fpecies
of the agrimonia.
AGRIMONY. See Agrimonia.
Agrimony. See Eupatorium.
Water-hemp Agrimony. See Bidens.
AGRIONIA, in Grecian antiquity, feftivals an¬
nually celebrated, by the Boeotians, in honour of
Bacchus. At thefe feftivals, the women pretended to
fearch after Bacchus as a fugitive; and, after fome time,
gave over their inquiry, faying, that he was fled to the
Mufes, and was concealed among them.
AGRIOPHAGI, in antiquity, a name given to
thofe who fed on wild beafts. The word is Greek,
compounded of a-y^ot, wild, favage, and I eat.
The name is given, by ancient writers, to certain peo¬
ple, real or fabulous, faid to have fed altogether on
lions and panthers. Pliny and Solinus fpeak of Agrio-
phagi in Ethiopia, and Ptolemy of others in India on
this fide the Ganges.
AGRIPPA, m midwifery, a term applied to chil¬
dren, brought forth with their feet foremoft.
Agrippa (Herod) fon of Ariftobulus by Berenice,
and the grandfon of Herod the Great. He was call
into prifon by Tiberius for wilhing Caius emperor, w ho
gave him a chain of gold, equal in weight to thofe
which he had wore in prifon, and afterward made him
king of Judea. He put St James to death, imprifon-
ed St Peter, and, for allowing the deifying Ihouts of the
people, was eaten up with worms.
Agrippa II. fon of thepreceding Herod, was made
king of Chalcide; but three or four years after, he
was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave
him in the place of it other provinces. In the war Vef-
pafian carried on againft the Jews, Herod fent him a
fuccour of 2000 men; by which it appears, that, tho’ a
Jew by religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the Ro¬
mans, whofe affiftance indeed he wanted, to fecure the
peace of his own kingdom. He lived to the third year
of Trajan, and died at Rome A. C. 100. He was the
feventh and laft king of the family of Herod the Great.
It was before him and Berenice his filler, that St Paul
pleaded his caufe at Csefarea.
Agrippa (Marcus Vifpanius), fon-in-Iawto Augu-
ftus, of mean birth, but one of the moll confiderable
generals among the Romans. Auguftus’s vi&ory over
ompey and Mark Anthony was owing to his counfel:
he adorned the city with the pantheon, baths, aque-
dudls, &c.
Agrippa (Cornelius), born at Cologne in 1486,1
man of confiderable learning, and by common report
a great magician ; for the monks'at that time fufpe&ed
every thing of herefy or forcery which they did not un-
derftand. He compofed his Treatife of the Excellence
of Women, to infinuate himfelf into the favour of Mar¬
garet of Auftria, governefs of the Low-Countries. He
accepted of the charge of hiftoriographer to the empe¬
ror, which that princefs gave him. The treatife of the
Vanity of the Sciences, which he pubWhed in 15 30, en¬
raged his enemies extremely; as did that otOccult Philo-
fophy, which he printed foon after at Antwerp. He
was imprifoned in France for fomething he had written
againft Francis I.’s mother ; but was enlarged, and went
to Grenoble, where he died in 1534. His works are
printed in two volumes odlavo. Agrippina
AGRIPPINA, daughter of Germanicus, filler of II
Caligula, and mother of Nero ; a woman of wit, but A^a em"
exceffively lewd: Ihe was thrice married, the laft time '
to Claudius her own uncle, whom Ihe poifoned to make
way for Nero her fon. Nero afterward caufed her to
be murdered in her chamber, when fhe bid the execu¬
tioner ftab her firft in the belly, that had brought forth
fuch a monfter.
Agrippina colonia ubiorum, (Pliny, Suetonius) ;
now Cologne : fo called from Agrippina, the daughter
of Germanicus, and mother of Nero, who had a colony
fent thither at her requeft by the emperor Claudius, to
honour the place of her birth. See Cologne.
AGRIPPINIANS, in church-hiftory, the followers
of Agrippinus bilhop of Carthage, in the third century,
who firft introduced and defended the practice of re-
baptization.
AG ROM, a difeafe frequent in Bengal, and other
parts of the Indies, wherein the tongue chaps and
cleaves in feveral places, being extremely rough withal,
and fometimes covered with white fpots. The Indians
are very fearful of this difeafe, which they attribute to
extreme heat of the ftomach. Their remedy is, to chew
the black-feeded bafilica, drink fome chalybeated li¬
quor, or the juice of large mint.
AGROSTEMMA, Wild Lychnis, or Campion;
a genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants.
Species. The moft remarkable are, 1. The githago,
hairy wild lychnis, or common campion, which grows
naturally in corn-fields in moft parts of Britain. The
flowers appear in June, are generally purple, fometimes
white, and by cultivation yellow. 2. The coronaria,
or Angle rofe-campion. Of this fpecies there are
four varieties ; one with deep red, another with flefti-
coloured, a third with white, flowers; and a fort with
double1 flowers, which has turned moft of the others
out of the gardens. 3. The flos jovis, or umbelliferous
mountain-campion, grows naturally upon the Helve¬
tian mountains : it is a low plant with woolly leaves 1
the flower-ftem rifes near a foot high; the flowers grow
in umbels on the top of the ftalk, and are of a bright
red colour. They appear in July, and the feeds ripen
in September.
Culture. The firft and third fpecies are annual
plants, fo mull be propagated by feeds ; but as the
firft is found naturally in corn-fields, it is very feldom
cultivated in gardens; the third fort fhould have a
fliady fituation, and thrives beft in a ftrong foil. The
fecond fpecies is perennial, but only thofe varieties
which have fingle flowers produce any feeds; the double
kind, therefore, as it produces no feeds, muft be pro¬
pagated by parting the roots in autumn, after the
flowers are paft. In doing this, every head which can
be flipped off with roots ftiould be parted: thefe fhould
be planted in a border of frefh undunged earth, at the
diftance of fix inches one from the other, obferving to-
water them gently until they have taken root ; after
which they will require no more; for much wet is very
injurious to them, as is alfo dung. In this border they
may remain till fpring, when they fhould be planted in '
the borders of the flower-garden, where they will be
very ornamental during the time of their flowering,
which is in July and Auguft.—This plant is eat by
horfesy
A G U [ 173 ] AHA
' Agroftis
! II
Aguillonius
horfes, goats, and fheep.
AGROSTIS, Bent-grass, in botany, a genus of
the triandria order, belonging to the digynia clafs of
plants. The calix has two valves, terminated by a
beard or aun. There are fifteen fpecies ; eight of
them natives of Britain. See Grass.
AGROSTOGRAPHIA, fignifies the hiftory or
defcription of graffes.
AGROUND, the fituationof a fhip whofe bottom,
or any part of it, hangs or refts upon the ground, fo
as to render her immoveable, till a greater quantity of
water floats her off, or till ftie is drawn out into the
ftream by the application of mechanical powers.
AGRYPNIA, among phyficians, implies an inap¬
titude to fleep; a troublefome fymptom of feverifh and
other diforders.
Agrypnia, in the Greek church, implies the vigil
of any of the greater feftivals.
AGUE, a general name for all periodical fevers,
which, according to the different times of the returns
of the feverifh paroxyfm, are denominated tertian, quar-
tian, and quotidian. See Medicine, n° 424—426.
Ague-tree, a name given to the faflafras, on ac¬
count of its febrifuge qualities.
AGUEPERSE, a town of France, fituated on the
Lyonnois, about fifteeen miles north of Clermont.
AGUILLANEUF, or Auguillaneuf, a form of
rejoicing ufed among the ancient Franks on the firft
day of the year. The word is compounded of the
French A to, gut mifleto, and Van neuf the new year.
Its origin is traced from a druid-ceremony : the priefts
ufed to go yearly in December, which with them was
reputed a facred month, to gather mifleto of the oak
in great folemnity. The prophets marched in the front,
finging hymns in honour of their deities; after them
came a herald with a caduceus in his hand ; thefe were
followed by three druids a-breaft, bearing the things
neceflary for facrifice; lafl: of all came the chief, or
arch-druid, accompanied with the train of people. The
chief druid climbing the oak, cut off the mifleto with a
golden fickle, and the other druids received it in a white
cloth; on the firft day of the year, it was diftributed
among the people, after having bleffed and confecrated
it by crying Au gui l’an neuf, to proclaim the new-
year. This cry is ftill continued in Picardy, with the
addition of Plantez, Plantez, to wifh a plentiful year.
In Burguudy and fome other parts, the children ufe the
fame word to beg a new-year’s gift. Of later times
the name Auguillaneuf was alfo given to a fort of beg-
ing, pra&ifed in fome diocefes, for church-tapers, on
new-year’s day, by a troop of young people of both
fexes, having a chief, &c. It was attended with vari¬
ous ridiculous ceremonies, as dancing in the church, &c.
which occafioned the fynods to fupprefs it.
AGUILLAR, a town of Spain, in the province of
Navarre, about twenty-four miles weft of Eftella.
Aguillar Del Campo, a town of Old Caftile, with
the title of marquifate, about 15 leagues north of the
city of Burgos.
AGUILLONIUS (Francis), a Jefuit, born at Bruf-
fels : he was. rector of the Jefuits college at Antwerp,
and eminent for his ikill in mathematics. He was
the firft who introduced that fcience among the Jefuits
in the low countries : he wrote a book of Optics, and
was employed in finifliing his Catoptrics and Dioptrics,
when death prevented him in 1617.
- AGUIRRA (Jofeph Saenz de), a Benedi&ine, and
one of the moft learned men of the 17^ century, was
born March 24, 1630. He was cenfor and fecretary
of the fupreme council of the inquifition in Spain, and
interpreter of the fcriptures in the univerfity of Sala¬
manca. He printed three volumes in folio upon Phi-
lofophy, a Comentary upon Ariftotle’s ten books of
Ethics, and other pieces. He died at Rome, Auguft
19, 1699.
AGUL, in botany, a fynonime of the hedyfarum.
See Hedysarum.
AGURAH, in Jewifli antiquity, the name of a
filver coin, otherwife called gerah and kejhita.
AGURIUM, or Agyrium, (anc. geogr.) a town
of Sicily in the Val di Demona, near the river Seme-
tus. The people were called Populus Agyrinenfts,hy Ci¬
cero; Agyrinus, by Pliny. It was the birth-place of
Diodorus Siculus, as he himfelf teftifies; but he calls it
Argyrium, as it is now called S. Philippa d'Argirone,
which modern name feems to confirm that Argyrium is
the true reading.
AGUSADURA, in ancient cuftoms, a fee due
from vaflals to their lord for the ftiarpening their
ploughing tackle. Anciently the tenants in fome ma¬
nors were not allowed to have their rural implements
ftiarpened by any but whom the lord appointed; for
which an acknowledgment was to be paid, called Agu-
fadura, in fome places Agufage : which fome take to
be the fame with what was otherwife called Reillage,
from the ancient French Reille, a plough-ftiare.
AGUTI, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of the moufe, belonging to the mammalia glires of
Linnseus. See Mu's.
Aguti-guepa, in botany. See Sagittarium.
AGYEI, in antiquity, a kind of obelifks, facred
to Apollo, erected in the veftibles of houfes, by way
of fecurity.
AGYNIANI, in church-hiftory, a feft who con¬
demned all ufe of flefti, and marriage, as not inftituted
by God, but introduced at the inftigation of the deviL
The word is compounded of the privative « and ywn
woman. They are fometimes alfo cdWeAAgynnenfes, and
Agynii ; and are faid to have appeared about the year
694, It is no wonder they were of no long continuance.
Their tenets coincide in a great meafure with thofe of
the Abelians, Gnoftics, Cerdonians* and other preach¬
ers of chaftity and abftinence.
AGYRTiE, in antiquity, a kind of ftrolling im-
poftors running about the country, to pick up money
by telling fortunes at rich mens doors, pretending to
cure difeafes by charms, facrifices, and other religi¬
ous myfteries ; alfo to expiate the crimes of their de-
ceafed anceftors, by virtue of certain odours and fumi¬
gations ; to torment their enemies, by the ufe of ma¬
gical verfes and the like. The word is Greek AyugUi,
formed of the verb I congregate; alluding to
the praftife of Charletans, who gather a crowd about
them.
Agyrtte, among the Greeks, amount to the fame
with JErufcatores among the Latins, and differ not
much from gypfies among us.
AHAB, fon of Omri king of Ifrael, fucceeded his
father A. M. 3086, and furpaffed all his predeceffors
in impiety and wickednefs.
Agul
Ahab.
AH-/E-
A T A t 174 ] AID
ATiaetnlla AH-ETULA, the trivial name of a fpecies of the
II coluber. See Coluber.
Ajix- AHALOTH. See Xvlo-aloes.
AHEAD, a fea-term, fignifying further onward
than the (hip, or at any diftance before her, lying im¬
mediately on that point of the compafs to which her
ftem is directed. It is ufed in oppofition to ajlern,
which expreffes the fituation of any object behind the
Ihip. See Astern.
AHICCYATLI, in zoology, the Indian name of
a ferpent refembling the rattle-fnake, only it wants the
rattles. It is as fatal in the effect of its poifon as any
known fpecies of ferpent.
AHMELLA, in botany. See Bidens.
AHOUAI, in botany, a fynonime, and alfo the
trivial name of a fpecies of the cerbera. See Cerbera.
A-HULL, in the fea-language, the fituation of a
Ihip when all her fails are furled on account of the vio¬
lence of the ftorm, and when having iafiied her helm
on the lee-fide, ihe lies nearly with her fide to the wind
and fea, her head being fomewhat inclined to the di¬
rection of the wind.
AHUN, a town in France, in the Upper Marche
and generality of Moulins, and is a royal jurifdiCtion.
It is feated on the river Creufe, near a BenediCtine ab¬
bey of the fame name, eight miles fouth-eaft of Gue-
ret, 30 north-eaft of Lomages, and 55 fouth-eaft; of
Moulins. E. Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. 49. 5.
AHUYS, a town of Sweden. It is fmall, but very
ftrong by its fituation, and has a good port. It is in
the principality of Gothland, in the territory of Blec-
kingy, near the Baltic fea, about 18 miles from Chrif-
tianftadt. E. Long. 14. 10. N. Lat. 56. 20.
A I, (anc. geog.) a town in Judea, to the north of
Jericho, called Aiva by Jofephus, and the inhabitants
Ainatte.
AICUROUS, a fpecies of parrot. See Psittacus.
AJALON, (anc. geogr.) a town of the tribe of
Dan, one of the Levitical. Another in the tribe of
Benjamin, in whofe valley Jolhua commanded the moon
to ftand ftill, being then in her decreafe, and confe-
quently to be feen at the fame time with the fun.
AJAN, a coaft and country of Africa, has the ri¬
ver Quilmanci on the fouth ; the mountains from which
that river fprings, on the weft ; Abyffinia, or Ethio¬
pia, and the ftraight of Babelmandel, on the north ;
and the eaftern, or Indian ocean, on the eaft. The
coaft abounds with all neceffaries of life, and has plenty
of very good horfes. The kings of Ajan are often at
war with the emperor of the Abyfiins; and all the pri-
foners they take they fell to the merchants of Cambaya,
thofe of Aden, and other Arabs, who come to trade
in their harbours, and give them in exchange, coloured
cloths, glafs-beads, raifins, and dates; for which they
alfo take back, befides (laves, gold and ivory. The
whole fea-coaft, from Zanguebar to the ftraight of
Babelmandel, is called the coaft of Ajan ; and a con-
fiderable part of it is ftyled the Defert-coaft.
AJAX, the fon of Oileus, was one of the principal
generals that went to the fiege of Troy : he ravifhed
Caflandra the daughter of Priam, even in the temple
of Minerva, where (he thought to have found fanc-
tuary. It is faid, he made a ferpent of fifteen feet
long fo familiar with him, that it eat at his table,
and followed him like a dog. The Locrians had
a Angular veneration for his memory. Ajax
Ajax, the fon of Telamon, was, next to Achilles, Jl
the moft valiant general among the Greeks at the fiege 1 s'
of Troy: he commanded the troops of Salamis, and
performed many great actions, of which we have an
account in the Iliad, in Diftys Cretenfis, and in the 23d
book of Ovid’s Metamorphofes. He was fo enraged that
the arms of Achilles were adjudged to Ulyffes, that he
immediately became mad. The Greeks paid great ho¬
nours to him after his death, and erefted a magnificent
monument to his memory upon the promontory of
Rheteum.
Ajax, in antiquity, a furious kind of dance, in
ufe among the Grecians; intended to reprefent the
madnefs of that hero, after his defeat by Ulyfies, to
whom the Greeks had given the preference in his con-
teft for Achilles’s arms. Lucian, in his trcatifie of
Dancing, fpeaks of dancing the Ajax.—There was al¬
fo an annual feaft called Ajantia, Aiavrua, confecrated
to that prince, and obferved with great folemnity in
the ifland of Salamis, as well as in Attica ; where, in
memory of the valour of Ajax, a bier was expofed,
fet out with a complete fet of armour.
AJAZZO, a fea-port town of the ifland of Corfi-
ca, in the Mediterranean, with a bifhop’s fee. Long.
26. 35. Lat. 41. 40.
Ajazzo, a fea-port town of Natolia, in the pro¬
vince of Caramania, anciently Silefia, feated on the
coaft of the Mediterranean, 30 miles north of Antioch,
and 50 weft of Aleppo, where the city of Iffus anci¬
ently flood, and near which Alexander fought his fe-
cond battle with Darius. Long. 33. 10. Lat. 37. o.
AICHSTAT, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
and capital of a biftioprick of the fame name. It is
remarkable for a curious piece of workmanfhip, called
the Sun of the Holy Sacrament, which is in the
church: it is of maffy gold, of great weight, and is
enriched with 350 diamonds, 1400 pearls, 250 rubies,
and other precious ftones. This place is moderately
large, and feated in a valley on the river Altmul, 10
miles N. of Newburgh, and 37 S. of Neuremberg.
E. Lon. 11. 10. N. Lat. 49. o. The biftioprick is
45 miles in length, and 17 in breadth; and the biftiop
is chancellor of the church of Mayence or Mentz.
AID, in a general fenfe, denotes any kind of affift-
ance given by one perfon to another.
Aid, in law, denotes a petition made in court to
call in help from another perfon who has intereft in
land, or any other thing contefted.
Aw-de-camp, in military affairs, an officer employ¬
ed to receive and carry the orders of a general.
Aid, Auxilium, in ancient cuftoms, a fubfidy paid
by vaffals to their lord on certain occafions. Such were
the aid of relief, paid upon the death of the Lord
Mefne to his heir; the aid cheval, or capital aid, due
to the chief lord on feveral occafions, as, to make his
eldeft fon a knight, to make up a portion for marry¬
ing his daughter, &c.
AIDS, in the French cuftoms, certain duties paid
on all goods exported or imported into that kingdom.
Court of Aids, in France, a fovereign court efta-
blilhed in feveral cities, which has cognizance of all
caufes relating to the taxes, gabelles, and aids, im-
pofed on feveral forts of commodities, efpecially wine.
Aids, in the menage, are the fame with what fome
writers
AIL [ 175 ] AIR
Aidan writers call cberijhings, and ufed to avoid the neceffity
AilJbur corre<^i°n3-—The inner heel, inner leg, inner rein,
—■C l-y-' &c. are called inner aids ; as the outer heel, outer leg,
outer rein, <bc. are called outer aids.
AIDAN, a famous Scottifh bilhop of Lindisfarne,
or Holy Ifland, in the 7th century, was employed by
Ofwald king of Northumberland in the converfion of
the Englilh, in which he was very fuccefsful. He died
in 651.
AIGHENDALE, the name of a liquid meafure
ufed in Lancafhire, containing feven quarts.
AIGLE, a bailiwick, in the territory of Romand,
in Swiflerland, confifts of mountains and valleys, the
principal of which are the Aigle and Bex. Through
thefe is the great road from Vallais into Italy. When
you pafs by Villeneuve, which is at the head of the
lake of Geneva, you enter into a deep valley three miles
wide, bordered on one fide with the Alps of Swiffer-
land, and on the other with thofe of Savoy, and croffed
by the river Rhone. Six miles from thence you meet
with Aigle, a large town, feated in a wide part of the
valley, where there are vineyards, fields, and meadows.
The governor’s caftle is on an eminence that overlooks
the town, and has a lofty marble tower. This govern¬
ment has nine large parifhes; and is divided into four
parts, Aigle, Bex, Olon, and Ormont. This lafl is
among the mountains, and joins to Rougement. It
is a double valley, abounding in pafture-lands. Ivor-
na, in the diftrift of Aigle, was in part buried by the
fall of a mountain, occafioned by an earthquake in 1584.
Aigle a fmall town, in France, in Upper Norman¬
dy, twenty-three miles from D’Evereux, and thirty-
eight from Rouen. It is furrounded with walls and
ditches, has fix gates, three fuburbs, and three parifhes.
It trades in corn, toys, and more particularly in needles
and pins. E. Long. 1. 5. N. Lat. 48. 39.
AIGUILLON, a fmatl town of France in the pro¬
vince of Guienne, fituated at the conflux of the rivers
Garonne and Lot.
AIGUISCE, in heraldry, denotes a crofs with its
four ends fharpened, but fo as to terminate in obtufe
angles.— In differs from the crofs fitehee, in as much
as the latter tapers by degrees to a point, and the for¬
mer only at the ends.
AILANA, Ailath, or Aheloth, anciently a
town of Arabia Petrasa, fituated near the Sinus Ela-
nites of the Red Sea. It was alfo called Elath, and
Eloth, (Stephanus, Strabo, Mofes.) The fame with
Elana.
AILE, in law, a writ which lies where a perfon’s
grandfather, or great-grand-father, being feifed of
lands, 'be. in fee-fimple, the day that he died, and a
ftranger abates or enters the fame day, and difpoflefles
the heir of his inheritance.
AILESBURY, Aylesbury, or Alesbury, a
borough town in Buckinghamfhire, confifling of about
400 houfes. It confifls of feveral ftreets, though the
houfes are not very contiguous : thefe lie round about
the market place, in the middle of which is a conve¬
nient hall, where the feffions are held, and fometimes
the affixes for the county. It fends two. members to
parliament; has a market on Saturdays; and three
fairs for cattle, viz. on the Saturday before Palm-
funday, June I4th, and September 25th. It is fixty
miles fouth-eail of Bucingham and forty-four north-weft
of London. W. Long. o. 40. N. Eat. 51. 40. Ailred
AILRED, or Ealred, abbot of Revefby in Lin- IJ
colnfhire, in the reigns of Stephen and Henry II. He - A“'
was born in 1109, of a noble family, and educated in
Scotland with Henry the fon of king David. On his
return to England, he became a monk of the Ciftertian
order, in the monaftery of Revefby, of which he after¬
wards was made abbot. He died on the 12th of Ja¬
nuary, 1166, aged 57, and was buried in his mona¬
ftery. “ He was (fays Leland) in great efteem du¬
ring his life; celebrated for the miracles wrought after
his death; and admitted into the catalogue of faints.”
He was author of feveral works ; moft of which were
publifhed by Gilbo the Jefuit at Douay, 1631; part
of them may be alfo found in the Bibliotheca Cijlertien-
Jis, and Bibliotheca Patrum. His principal work is the
Speculum charitatis. Leland, Bale, and Pits, mention
feveral manuferipts which never were publifhed.
AINSWORTH (Dr Henry), an eminent noncon-
formift divine”, who, about the year 1590, diftinguifh-
ed himfelf among the Brownifts; which drew upon
him fuch troubles, that he was obliged to retire to
Holland, and became minifter of a church at Amfter-
dam. His fkill in the Hebrew language, and his ex¬
cellent Annotations on the Holy Scriptures, which are
ftill highly efteemed, gained him great reputation. He
alfo wrote feveral pieces in defence of the Brownifts,
and feveral other works.
AINSWORTH (Robert), born at Woodyale in
Lancafhire in 1660, was mailer of a boarding-fehool at
Bethnal-green, from whence he removed to Hackney,
and to other places in the neighbourhood of London.
After acquiring a moderate fortune, he retired, and
lived privately till the time of his death, which happen¬
ed in 1743. We are indebted to him for the beft La¬
tin and Ehglifh Di&ionary extant: he publifhed it in
quarto 1736 ; and in 1752, the fourth edition, under
the care of Doftor Ward of Grelham College, and the
Rev. William Younge, was enlarged to two vols folio..
AIR is that invifible fluid which every where fur- Def;n;tjon
rounds the globe; and on which depends the life not on¬
ly of every kindof animals, but of vegetables alfo; and
which feems, in. fhort,.. to be one of the great agents
employed by nature in carrying on her operations
throughout the whole world. ^
For many ages the air was confidered as an. abfolute- Ancient ro¬
ly fimple fluid, the component parts of which were be- tions con-
yond the reach of man?s wifdom to difeover. Its com- ccrmng
mon operations were thought to be performed, either
by its heat or cold, its moifture or drynefs; and if any
effedts were difeovered which could not be explained
by thefe, (fuch as the appearance of peftilential difea-
fes), they were reckoned to be entirely fupernatural,
and the immediate effedt of Divine power. 3
In the beginning of the laft century, Lord Bacon Difcovery
and Galileo difeovered fome of what maybe called the "j8*
mechanical powers of the air. The former, from ex- p0^fj
periments, afeertained its elafticity ; and the latter, its
weight. The prefiure of the atmofphere, however,
was more fully difeovered by Toricelli, the difciple of
Galileo, and inventor of the barometer, as Lord Bacon
had been of the thermometer. Pafcal obferved, that
this preffure was not always the fame ; but diminilhed
according to the height to which the barometer was
carried. Otto de Guerick foon after invented theair-
pumgj-
AIR [ i76 ] AIR
Ain,
4
Van Hel-
mont the
firft difco-
verer of dif¬
ferent kinds
of air.
Difcove-
Boyle.
6
ByDrHales.
pnrap ; which was much improved by Mr Boyle and
Dodtor Hoock, two members of the Royal Society.
The complete knowledge of the mechanical properties
of the air, however, muft be afcribed to the labours of
Doctor Halley and Sir Ifaac Newton ; who have, by
mathematical demonftration, eftablilhed its rarefaction,
and the proportion in which it is rarefied, according tp
its diftance from the earth, &c.
While thefe difcoveries were making concerning the
mechanical properties of the air, little notice feems to
have been taken of the different kinds of fluid which
go under that name. It was known, indeed, that air
was feparable from terreftrial bodies by means of fire,
fermentation, &c.; but this was commonly reckoned
to be the fame with the air we breathe. Van Hel-
mont, a difciple of Paracelfus, was the hr ft who under¬
took to make inquiries concerning this fpecies of air.
He gave it the name of gas fylveflre., from the Dutch
word ghoaji, fignifying fpirit; andobferves, that fome
bodies refolve themfelves almoft entirely into it. 41 Not,
(fays he), that it had been actually contained in that
form in the bodies from which it was feparated; but
it was contained under a concrete form, as if fixed, or
coagulated.” According to this author, the gas fyl-
veftre is the fame with what is feparated from all fub-
ftances by fermentation; from vegetables by the aftion
of fire; from gun-powder when it explodes; and from
charcoal when burning. On this occafiOn he afferts,
that fixty-two pounds of charcoal contain fixty-one
pounds of gas, and only one pound of earth. To the
effluvium of gas, he alfo attributes the fatal effects of
the grotto del Cani in Italy, and the fuffocation of
workmen in mines. He afferts, that it is to the corrup-
tion of the aliment, and the gas difcharged from it,
that we are to attribute wind, and the difcharges of it
from the bowels. Upon the fame principles he ac¬
counts for the fwelling of dead bodies, which have re¬
mained fome time under water; and for the tumours
which arife on fome parts of the body in certain difea-
fes. He alfo determines, that this gas is different from
the air we breathe ; that it has a greater affinity with
water : and he imagined it might confift of water re¬
duced to vapours, or a very fuhtile acid combined with
volatile alcali.
Mr Boyle repeated all Van Helmont’s experiments
to more advantage than he himfelf had performed them;
but feems not to have proceeded further in his difco¬
veries than Van Helmont did : only he found, that
there are fome bodies, fuch as fulphur, amber, cam¬
phor, &c. which diminifh the volume of air in which
they burn.
Doftor Hales was the firft perfon who attempted to
determine the quantity of air produced from different
bodies: and, for this purpofe, he made experiments on
almoft every known fubftance in nature, examining
them by diftillation, fermentation, combuftion, combi¬
nations, &c. Of the vegetable fubftances which he ex¬
amined, crude tartar feems to have yielded the greatell
quantity of air, and effential oils the leaft. From a
cubic-inch of the former he obtained 504 cubic-inches
of air; and from a like quantity of oil of anifeeds,
only 22. Of the animal-fubftances, the greateft quan¬
tity of air was obtained from the human calculus, or
ftone extraded from the bladder: three quarters of a
-cubic-inch of this fubftance yielding, on diftillation, no
lefs than 516 cubic-inches of air; while a cubic-inch -Ah.
of tallow yielded only 18 inches. In the mineral
kingdom, pit-coal gave out the greateft quantity of
this fluid, 360 inches of air being obtained from one
inch of it, or nearly one-third of its whole weight.
From the fame quantity of antimony, only 28 inches
were obtained. By fermentation, 639 cubic inches of
air were obtained from 42 inches of fmall-beer in feven
days ; and from 26 inches of bruifed apples, 968 inches
of air were obtained in thirteen days. 7
In examining the quantities of air produced from Produftioa
combinations of different bodies, very ftrange pheno- a.nc* ab(°/P"
mena appeared ; the very combinations which produ- tion oi a'r‘
ced air one day, would abforb all they had produced,
and fometimes much more, the next. Half a cubic inch
of fal-ammoniac, with one cubic-inch of oil of vitriol,
produced five or fix cubic- inches of air the firft day ;
and the next, abforbed 15. In a few hours, fix inches
of oyfter-lhells, and as much vinegar, produced 29 in¬
ches of air; but, in nine days, 21 inches were abforb¬
ed, and the remainder difappeared upon pouring water
into the veffel. A quarter of an inch of iron-filings,
and one cubic inch of fulphur, inftead of producing,
abforbed 19 inches of air. A cubic inch of aquafortis,
with an equal quantity of marcafite, abforbed 85 in¬
ches ; but the fame quantity of aquafortis and fea-
coal, abforbed 18 inches in three days; after which,
inftead of abforbing, they generated 12 inches. Two
cubic inches of lime, with four of vinegar, abforbed
22 inches of air : .but two inches of lime, with an equal
quantity of fal-ammoniac, abforbed 115 inches.
By examining flaming fubftances, it appeared that
all of them, nitre alone excepted, abforbed or confu-
med air. A lighted candle, three-fifths of an Englifh
inch in diameter, confumed 78 inches of air : linen-
rags, dipped in melted brimftone, and burnt in a large
veffel, confumed 198 inches ; in a fmaller one, 150.
Two grains of Kunkel’s phofphorus abforbed 28 in¬
ches of air ; after which it had only loft half a grain
in weight, and in a fflort time gained a whole grain.
A rat, confined in a large receiver, confumed 78 inches
before it died; and 73 inches of air breathed by a
man till he was almoft fuffocated, were reduced to 20. g
Doctor Hales alfo firft fufpefted, that the brifknefs Sufpicion of'
and fparkling of the waters, improperly called acidu- a‘r 'n mine-
lous, were owing to the air they contained. But not- waters-
with {landing all his difcoveries concerning the quantity
of elaftic fluid obtained from different bodies, he did
not imagine there was any effential difference between
this fluid and the air we breathe, only that it was load¬
ed with noxious vapours, foreign to its nature. He
therefore endeavoured to reftore air which had been
depraved by the refpiration of animals, or by burning
bodies, to its original purity. This he attempted, by
filtering it through flannel which had been fteeped in
a folution of fait of tartar; and by this means the air
was perfedtly reftored. A candle, likewife placed un¬
der a receiver, lined with flannel dipped in a folutiou
of this fait, burned confiderably longer than it would
otherwife have done. The flannels, however, through
which the air was filtered, were fenfibly increafed in
weight.
What do&or Hales only fufpe&ed, concerning the confirmed
impregnation of fome kinds of waters with air, was by M.Venel.
confirmed by M. Vend, profeffor of chemiftry at Mont¬
pelier,
AIR [ 177 ] AIR
Air.
Difroveties
fey Dr Black.
By the
Count'de
Saluoes.
pelier, in a memoir read before the Royal Academy of
Sciences in 1750. This gentleman proceeded fo far as
to difengage the air from the Seltzer waters, and to
meafure its quantity ; which he conftantly found to
amount to about one-fifth of its bulk. When the wa¬
ter was deprived of this air, it became flat, and ceafed
to fparkle; the only difference then between the Selt¬
zer water, deprived of its air, and common water, was,
that the former contained a fmall quantity of fea-falt.
Upon thefe principles he attempted to recompofe
Seltzer water, by diffolving in a pint of common water
two drachms of fofiile alkali, and then adding an equal
quantity of marine acid. The quantity of fea-falt
produced by the union of thefe two, he knew would
prove equal to that contained in a pint of Seltzer water;
and the effervefcence produced by the action of the
acid and alcali upon each other, he imagined, would
produce air fufficient for the impregnation of the wa¬
ter. In this he was not deceived.; the water thus pro¬
duced was not only analogous to Seltzer, but much
more ftrongly impregnated with air.
Dr Black profefibr of chemiftry at Glafgow, now
at Edinburgh, firft difcovered, that magneiia alba,
chalk, and all the earths in general which are redu¬
ced to quicklime by calcination, confift of an alcaline
earth, by itfelf foluble in water, but which, .combined
with a large quantity of fixed air, becomes infoluble;
lofing the properties of quicklime, and affuming the
natural appearance we obferve thofe earths to have when
not reduced into lime. The fame thing he difcovered
in alkalies, both fixed and volatile. On the fixed air
contained in thefe bodies, he found their property of
effervefcing with acids to depend, as likewife their
mildnefs ; both the alcalies and calcareous earth being
highly cauftic when deprived of their fixed air. He alfo
found, that this fluid which he called fixed-air, had dif¬
ferent degrees of affinity with different fubftances; that
it was ftronger with calcareous earth, than with fix¬
ed alcali; with fixed alcali, than magnefia; and with
magnefia, than volatile alcali. He alfo fufpefted, that
the fixed air of alcaline falts unites itfelf with the preci¬
pitates of metals, when thrown down from acids ; and
that the increafe of weight obfervable in thefe precipi¬
tates, was owing to this caufe. But he was of opinion,
that the fluid which he called fixed air was very diffe¬
rent from the common air we breathe; and therefore
adopted the name of air, merely as one already efta-
blifhed, whatever impropriety there might be in the
term.
In the mean time, the count de Saluces, at Turin,
was employing himfelf in making experiments on the
elaftic fluid difcharged from gun-powder.;—He found,
that, when at liberty, this fpecies of air occupied two
hundred times the fpace of that taken up by the gun¬
powder itfelf. He was able to reduce it to the fame
fiate with common air, by filtering through alcaline
folutions, or by expofing it for twelve hours to the de¬
gree of cold in which water freezes. The air detach¬
ed from pulvis fulminans he found to be much lefs in
quantity than that from gun-powder, notwithftand-
ing the explofion of the former is much greater. He
alfo obferved, that air difengaged from enervefcing bo¬
dies extinguiflies flame ; but that what was feparated
from volatile alcali and vinegar, was an exception to
this rule. He was, however, of opinion, that all thefe
Vol. I.
different fluids were o'nly common air loaded with hetero- Air.
geneous particles.
Mr Haller firft inferred, from Doftor Hales’s expe- By Mr Hal-
riments, that air is the real cement of bodies ; which, hr.
fixing itfelf in the felids and fluids, unites them to each
other, and ferves as a bond by which they are kept
from diffolution. In 1764, Dr Macbride of Dublin ByDrMae-
publiflied a number of experiments in fupport of this bride,
doftruie. From his work it appears, that fixed air is
feparated, not only from all fubftances in fermentation,
but alfo from all animal fubftances as they begin to pu¬
trefy ; and that this air is capable of uniting itfelf to all
calcareous earths, as well as alcalies both fixed and vo¬
latile, and reftoring to them the property of effervef¬
cing with acids when they have by any means been
deprived of it.—The conclufions drawn by him from ... H .
his numerous experiments were, that fixed air is an cla- f()nCerning
ftic fluid, very different from the common air we fixed air.
breathe: that it is poffeffed of a ftrong antifeptic quali¬
ty, and may be introduced with fafety into the intefti-
nal canal, and other parts of the animal oeconomy,
where common air would have fatal effecls; but is mor¬
tal if breathed into the lungs, &c. 15
In 1766 and 1767, Mr Cavendifti communicated QBantity of
fome new experiments to the Royal Society at Lon-
don, wherein he determines the quantity of air con- a]caijne faits
tained in fixed alcali, when fully faturated with it, to determined
be five-twelfths of its weight, and feven-twelfths in vo- by Mr Ca-
latile alcali: that water is capable of abforbing more vendil}l’
than its own bulk of this air; that it has then an agree¬
able, fpirituous, and acidulous tafte; and that it has the
property of diffolving calcareous earths and magnefia,
as well as almoft all the metals, efpecially iron and zinc:
that the vapour of burning charcoal occafions a remark¬
able diminution of common air, at the fame time that a
confiderable quantity of fixed air is produced in the o-
peration. He alfo found, that folution of copper in fpi-
rit of fait, inftead of producing inflammable air, like
that of iron or zinc, afforded a fpecies of air which loft
its elafticity as foon as it came into contaft with v/ater.
About the fame time that Dr Macbride publiftied Dr Black’s
his experiments, a treatife appeared, written in Ger- theory op-
man by Mr Meyer, apothecary at Ofnabruck, wherein P°fed by Mr
he oppofes Doctor Black’s theory concerning fixed Meyer’
air being the caufe of effervefcence in calcareous earths
and alcaline falts. The lofs of weight thefe fubftances
fuffer by calcination, he attributes to the quantity of
water expelled by the vehement heat; and their not
effervefcing afterwards, he attributes to their having
been neutralized, while in the fire, by a peculiar kind
of acid, which he calls acidum pingue. The exiftence
of fuch an acid in lime he proves from the precipitation
of lime-water by alcaline folutions. From this he con¬
cludes, that the acidym pingue forfakes the earth, which
it before kept in a diffolved ftate, to unite with the al¬
cali. This acid he alfo affirms to be what efcapes
from charcoal in burning; what unites with metals in
their calcination; and what gives the caufticity to vo¬
latile and fixed alcalies, as being the very acid, caujiic,
or power of fire itfelf. _ 17
A ftrong objection lies againft this theory, from a His manner
faft difcovered by Doctor Black; namely, that pure
calcareous earth diffolved in the nitrous acid, may be objeftions.
precipitated either in the form of lime, or of chalk, ac¬
cording as we make ufe of the cauftic or the mild alca-
Z lies.
AIR
An-. lies. The reafon given by Dr Black for this pheno-
~ ” ~ menon is, that, in the diflolution of the earth by the
acid, all its fixed air is expelled. In the precipitation,
if a mild fixed alcali is made ufe of, the fixed air is ex¬
pelled from it by its union with the acid, and the cal¬
careous earth has liberty again to combine with the fixed
air expelled from the alcah; in which cafe, the earth ap¬
pears in its natural mild ftate: but if an alcali is made
ufe of, which contains no fixed air, the calcareous earth
has none to combine with, and therefore appears in the
ftate of lime.
This formidable objedlion Mr Meyer eafily folves by
his new hypothefis of the acidum pingue. “ When we
mix (fays he) a folution of calcareous earth in the nitrous
acid with a cauftic fixed alcali in a fluid ftate, we mix
folutions of two neutral falts together; the one of cal¬
careous nitre, the other of alcali faturated with aci¬
dum pingue. In this cafe, according to the known laws
of affinities, a double decompofition ought to take
place; and we fee it a&ually does fo. The weaker
acidum pingue is expelled from its bafis by the nitrous
acid, which forfakes the earth to unite with the alcali.
The acidum pingue, having now nothing elfe to com¬
bine with, unites with the earth which the nitrous acid
hath left, neutralizes, and forms it into lime. The cafe
is different when the mild alcali is employed: for this
having no acidum pingue joined with it, can communi¬
cate none ; and therefore the precipitate falls as a cal-
18 careous earth.”
Anfwered To this new fyftem of Mr Meyer’s, Mr Jacquin,
by Mr Jac- botanical profeffor at Vienna, publiflied an anfwer in
quui' 1769.—He firft attempts toprove, that calcareous earth
is not converted into quicklime merely by the lofs of
its humidity. To afcertain this, he diftilled 38 ounces
of limeftone in a ftone-retort, fitted with a large tubu¬
lated receiver, with a fire gradually increafed to the
higheft degree; and obtained only two ounces of water,
which had fome flight traces of volatile alcali.' This
came over with a moderate fire; and after the aqueous
vapours ceafed, an elaftic vapour began to feparate very
plentifully, and continued for an hour and an half to fly
off through the tube of the receiver with an hilling
noife. The lime which was left in the retort weighed
only 17 ounces.—Here was therefore a deficiency of
19 ounces, which Mr Jacquin attributed to the air; and,
according to him, limeftone contains fix or feven hun¬
dred times its bulk of air.
Mr Jacquin afterwards exammes the aftion of water
upon lime; and finds, that it is by no means the abfence
or prefence of moifture in. any degree, which conftitutes
lime; feeing it can be preferved under water for any
length of time as lime, provided we keep the furface
jy of the water from contact with the air.
Mr erans’s About the time that Mr Jacqum’s performance made
reply. its appearance, Mr Meyer died; but MrCrans, phyii-
cian to his Pruffian majeffy, publifhed a reply to Mr
Jacquin at Leipfic. He eludes the force of Mr Jac¬
quin’s experiment with limeftone diftilled in a retort, by
attributing to water, reduced to a ftate of vapour, or
in a great degree of expanfion, the elaftic reparation
during the continua nce of the diftillation. But of this
affertion he hath not brought any deciflve proof.
Mr Gratis denies that lime is deprived, of the power
of effervefcing with acids; and corroborates his affer¬
tion,' both from experiments made by himfelf, and
A 1 R
by the united teftimonies of Meffrs Duhamel, Geof- Ai-. ^
froy, Homberg, and Pott.—On this occafion he obje&s,
that if lime differs from calcareous earth only in being
deprived of its air, it ought, by a ftiort expofure to
the open air, to imbibe all that it has loft; but fo far
from this, he affirms, that, after being expofed a con-
fiderable time, it even acquires greater caufticity. In
favour of Mr Meyer’s hypothefis, he likewife obferves,
that the fudden fwelling and heat, obferved in the fla¬
king of lime, is a natural confequence of his fyftem,
whereas it is abfolutely inexplicable on Dr Black’s
hypothefis; which alfo can give no reafon why calca¬
reous earth diffolves with very little heat in the nitrous
acid, while the diffolution of lime in the fame acid pro¬
duces a degree of heat fuperior to that of boiling wa¬
ter; and afferts the partifans of fixed air to be utterly
unable to explain many phenomena, which upon Mr
Meyer’s plan are perfectly intelligible.
This author further obferves, that lime-water dif¬
folves fulphur, camphor, and refins, nearly in the fame
manner that fpirit of wine does. If Dr Black’s dif-
ciples then reafon confiftently, they ought to fay that it
renders thofe fubftances foluble by attra&ing their air
from them; but thus they will be obliged to affirm the
fame of fpirit of wine, which, he fays, would lead them
into a labyrinth of difficulties, if not of abfurdities.
With regard to effervefcence, MrCrans obferves, that,
in the diffolution of a calcareous earth, we may have
an effervefcence or not, juft as we pleafe, by employ¬
ing a ftrong or a weak acid; wffiereas, on Dr Black’s
plan, there ought to be an effervefcence whether ti e a-
cid employed is ftrong or weak.—He afterwards ftiews,
that a brifle effervefcence may be obtained by a mixture
of cauftic lixivium with an acid, though, according to
Dr Black and Mr Jacquin, neither of thefe fubftan¬
ces contain any air. Mr Crans’s method is to pour
fome cauftic lixivium into a folution of calcareous earth.
The alcali trickles down the fides of the bottle, and
reaches the bottom. If the two liquors are afterwards
fuddenly agitated, a brifk effervefcence enfues, and the
precipitation is formed in an inftant.
The experiments adduced by Dr Black and Mr Jac¬
quin for the fupport of their fyftem, from the preci¬
pitation of calcareous earths in the form of lime by
cauftic alcalies, are abfolutely denied by Mr Grans;
who affirms, that, with whatever alcali he precipitated
the earth, the precipitate always effervefeed with acids.
The only difference he could perceive, was, that it had
fome degree of folubility in water,, and turned fyrup
of violets green.
A ftrong argument in Dr Black’s favour is, that jj;s a^er
calcareous earths, when diffolved in acids, fuffer a lofs toDrBlack’s
of weight equal to what they would have done, had experiments:
they been reduced by calcination into quicklime.—
Here Mr Grans oppofes experiments made by folutions
of calcareous ftones in the nitrous acid, compared with
folutions of lime. In thefe proceffes, he always ob¬
ferved a confiderable diminution of weight, but without
any rule ; fometimes the lime appeared more diminiftx-
ed than the calcareous earth, at other times the calcare¬
ous earth appeared to receive an augmentation in weight
during its diffolution. Thefe experiments, however,
do not appear to have been made with fufficient accu¬
racy, both as Mr Grans employed too fhallow veffels,
and likewife operated upon fuch fmall quantities, that.
[ *78 1
A I R
Air. an error in the fcales might occafion moft of the ine-
S qualities he has remarked.
jl jjis an^e,. Laftly, Mr Crans proceeds to Dr M'Bride’s expe-
to Dr Mac- riments concerning the reftoration of the effervefcing
I bride. power to alcalies by means of fixed air. To this trial he
fubmitted the cauftic lixivium made after Mr Meyer’s
method. The air detached from an effervefcing mixture
precipitated from the lixivium a white fediment, which
collected at the bottom of the bottle. The liquor alfo ac¬
quired, after fome time, the property of effervefcing with
acids; but he obferved, that it did fo, nearly, in as fhort
a time when expofed to the open air. He alfo remark¬
ed, that this property was much fooner recovered if'the
lixivium was placed over 3 moderate fire ; and that it
was recovered at the inftant when the fumes began to
arife. Hence Mr Crans concludes, that it acquires the
effervefcing power only in proportion to the evapora¬
tion of the caitftic principle, or acidum pingue, to
which the alcali W^s united.
The fame thing was obferved with refpeft to the
cauftic volatile alcali obtained from fal ammoniac. Mr
Crans placed one portion of it in a ftove ; another on
hot cinders ; and expofed the third to the vapours of
an effervefcing mixture. At the end of eight hours all
_ _ the three effervefced. The reafon he gives, is, the eva¬
poration of the acidum pingue; fo that, according to
him, the fixed air had no other effeft than what might
have naturally taken place in the open air.
Upon the whole, Mr Crans agrees that fixed air
combines with alcaline liquors; but he affirms that thefe
liquors are impregnated in the fame manner with com¬
mon water, and denies that there is any real combina¬
tion, or that to fuch a combination is owing the mild
ftate of alcaline falls. This he conftantly afcribes to
the evaporation of the acidum pingue.
Dr Black’s While Mr de Crans thus attacked Dr Black’s doc-
thcory at- tr;ne at Leipfic, Mr de Smeth did the fame at Utrecht.
Mr^de ' This gentleman begins with afferting that we have no
Smeth. knowledge of common air, except by fome of its phy-
fical effeois ; of its internal nature^ and compofition we
know nothing; and therefore we ought not to call any
fubftance air, merely becaufeit has elafticity, and gra¬
vity, while it wants the other effential properties of air.
He affirms, that elafticity is a very equivocal charafter-
iftic of air ; and that we may at this rate affirm water
reduced into vapours to be atmofpherical fluid. He is
of opinion, that the elaftic.vapours which arife either
from fermenting or effervefcing liquors, are very diffe¬
rent from atmofpherical air ; and he particularly ob-
ferves, that the vapour of fermentation is much more
fubtile than common air, as paffing through bodies
which would be an unfurmountable obftacle to the
latter. This vapour he found incapable of being re¬
tained by lutes; a moiftened bladder, tied over*the
mouth of the veffel, was not at all inflated, though he
was certain, from other experiments, that a great quan¬
tity of this vapour had efcaped. Nay, fo far is he
from thinking it a particular element, or ftmple, in the
fenfe which chemifts give to that word, that he is very
pofitive it did not originally exift in the bodies from
which it is extradled by art, but is only a miafma
formed by the collifion of folid and fluid parts ; that
it is therefore never produced, but in cafes where the
bodies fuffer violent inteftine motion, in confequence of
which their parts Sire altered, broken, and attenuated,
A I R
fo as to exhibit the phenomena of fixed air. Air.
The antifeptic virtue of aftringents, according to ~TTr
Dr M‘bride, confifts in the power they have of con-
tra&ing the pores of animal fubftances, and thus pre¬
venting the efcape of their fixed air. This argument Mr
de Smeth pays no regard to; and affirms that we know
too little of the manner in which aftringents aft, to be
able to form the leaft induftion from thence- Indeed, 33
from the following experiments mentioned by Mr Hen- Mr Henry’s
ry, F. R. S. it would fecm that the fv/eetening pro- exPeri™ents
perties of fixed air may poffibly depend on an affinity th^TntifJp-
between this fluid and the feptic particles arifing from tic power of
putrid bodies.—“ A piece of putrid beef, faftened by fixed air.
a ftringto a cork, was confined in three pints of fixed
air for 13 hours, during which time it was confiderably,
though not entirely, fweetened ; but the air in the bot¬
tle feemed to have acquired all the putrid fmell of
which the fleffi had been deprived ; fo that the feptic
effluvium did not feem to be deftroyed, but only to
change its place. Slips of linen cloth alfo, dipped in
very rancid oil, were much fweetened by being expo-
fed to a ftream of fixed air from an effervefcent mix¬
ture; but a pint-bottle of the fame oil, though it ab-
forbed much of this air, fo as to become entirely fa-
turated with it, was not fweetened in the leaft.” 24
Mr de Smeth endeavour's to overthrow Dr Black’s A remark-
theory by a number of experiments, moft of which are
evidently inconclufive. The principal, indeed the on - ^smeth. '
ly one, which deferves attention, is the following :—
Having obferved that Homberg’s pyrophorus gained
weight confiderably by being expofed to the air, he
was induced to make the fame experiment with regard
to quicklime. Twelve ounces of this fubftance, being
expofed to the air in a balance, augmented almoft vifi-
bly in weight during the firft month. After this pe¬
riod, its attraftfve power diminifhed confiderably; and
at the end of a year, or thirteen months, was abfo
lutely loft. In this time it had acquired an augmen¬
tation in weight of four ounces, three drachms, and
forty grains; was reduced to a fine powder, and no
longer feparated the volatile alcali but in a concrete
form. After a fpace of thirteen months, then, the .
whole weight of this lime was fixteen ounces, three
drachms, and forty grains. Mr de Smeth weighed,
feparately, twelve ounces, three drachms, and forty
grains; which, by calculation, he found ought to con¬
tain three ounces, two drachms, fifty-four grains and an
half, of matter attrafted from the atmofphere. This mat¬
ter he thought would be eafily diffipable by fire ; and
to afcertain himfelf of this, he put the abovementioned
quantity into an earthen retort, and e :pofed it to a very
ftrong fire for two hours. During the operation, there
paffed into the receiver, one ounce, four drachms, and
forty grains of pure phlegm, in which no faline matter
could be difcovered. The reliduum, weighing ten ounces
five drachms, proved a quicklime, notwithftanding there
was only two drachms of weight loft upon the whole.
If there had been a feparation of air then, during the
operation, it could by no means have been fo confide-
rable, as according to Dr Black’s theory it cmght to
have been.—From this experiment it alfo appears, that
quicklime, by being expofed to the air, gains fome-
thing from it which cannot afterwards be feparated
by fire. He afterwards repeated the fame operation
in open veffels, with the fame fuccefs. Having put the
Z 2 remaining
L 179 ]
AIR [ 180 ] AIR
Air. remaining four ounces of lime in a wind furnace, and
urged it with a very ftrong fire, it retained one drachm
eleven grains of matter, attrafted from the atmofphere.
Being again expofed to the air, it regained in weight,
4 drachms, 28 grains. The fame thing has been ob-
ferved by Mr du Hamel; who relates, that lime, flaked
in the air, retained an increafe of weight, amounting to
aboutfour and a half drachms /><?rpouiid, and which could
not be driven off by the ftrongeft fire he could employ.
During this controverfy among the learned, con¬
cerning the exiftence or non-exiftence of fixed air, as
fuch, in terreftrial bodies, none of the contending par¬
ties feem to have apprehended, that this fluid might
pofiibly be one of the component parts of our atmo¬
fphere; and, tho’ pernicious when feparated from the
others, might neverthelefs be abfolutely neceflary, in
a certain degree, to preferve that life which its fuffo-
cating properties, when collefted by itfelf, would feem
calculated rather than to deftroy.—To decompofe the
fubtile invifible fluid we daily breathe ; to be able to
recompofe it again, and produce air either falutary or
noxious as we pleafe; feems to be one of the higheft
difcoveries ever made by man.—This, however, hath
Dr Prieftley been accomplifhed by Dr Brieftley, whofe difcovedes
<irfld th°" We n°W beSin *° re^a^e‘
true compo- began his experiments much about the
fition of the fame time with Mr de Smeth. He begins with ob-
atmofphere. ferving, that the term fixed air may be equally applied
to every fpecies of air hitherto difeovered; feeing in¬
flammable, and other kinds of air, are fixed in berreltrial
bodies as well as this. As the term, however, has come
into fuch general ufe, he chufes to retain it, and dif-
tinguiflies by that name the fluid-which iflues from fer¬
menting liquors, and from the effervefcence of acids with
calcareous earths. It may be obtained in its greateft
purity from a mixture of oil of vitriol and chalk. From
. fermenting liquors alfo, if the quantity is confiderable,
it maybe obtained tolerably pure; and in this way Dr
Prieftley himfelf ufed frequently to procure it, when li-
a6 ving in the neighbourhood of a large brewery.
His account One general property of this air is to be imbibed by
of fixed air. water with great avidity. By agitation, the water may
be impregnated very quickly with a great quantity of
it; but as agitation will alfo make water part with its
fixed air, fo great a quantity cannot be imbibed by this
means as when the water is left to take up the air lei-
furely by being at reft.—The air thus taken up is dif-
charged by boiling, or by freezing, the water which
contains it.
Dr Prieftley agrees with Dr Black, that the concrete
form of volatile alcaline falts, as well as the effervefeing
power of both kinds of alcalies, and calcareous earths,
depends upon the prefence of fixed air. He alfo owns
it to be of an acid nature, though weak, and of a pe¬
culiar kind. This was demonftrated by Mr Bewly, in
fome letters to Dr Prieftley, wherein he gives an ac¬
count of his having both changed the bluejuices of ve¬
getables red with this acid, and likewife formed per-
feftly neutral falts, both from fixed and volatile alca-
li, by means of it; and in the laft volume of his obfer-
vations, Doftor Prieftley hath given very ftrong reafons
Fixed air a for thinking that fixed air is a modification of the ni-
snodification trous acid. He found atfo, that it poflefied an iae-
of them- briating quality; and, when combined with fixed al-
trous act . cajj byfuch quantity as to neutralize it,, could not be
expelled by a boiling heat, unlefs the liquor was ex- Air.
pofed to the open air ; in which cafe it was impoffible —
to retain it. The Do&or hath alfo obferved, that wa¬
ter held long in fixed air difeharged from fermenting
liquor, acquires a very difagreeable tafte: once he ob¬
ferved it like tar-water; but could not fatisfy himfelf
whence this arofe, for fear of hurting the liquor; ha¬
ving once injured a large quantity of beer, by holding
over it a quantity of ether in a glafs.
By agitating pure fixed air in a glafs, with water, a
part of it always remained, which the water could not
imbibe; and in this refiduum the Doftor found that
animals could live, though flame was extinguiflied. By
a mixture of iron-filings and brimftone, about one fifth
of the air was imbibed, and the remainder was not fo
noxious as before.
In making experiments on common air made noxi¬
ous by the burning of candles, brimfto^e, &c. he found,
that lime-water became turbid by bcinw placed in the
veflel where the candle was burning. This made him
fufpeft, that the manner in which this change happens
to the air, is by its depofiting its heavieft part, or that
which commonly goes by the name of fixed air. This
he was afterwards aflured of, by finding air confider-
ably diminiftied by the eleftric fpark; and that, in
confequence of this, blue juices of vegetables were
turned red, and lime-water was precipitated exaftly
as by fixed air.—The Count de Saluces, at Turin, had 2g
imagined, that air which had been rendered incapable Miftake of
of fupporting flame, could be reftored merely by being the Count of
expofed to a confiderable degree of cold, and alfo by detefted65
being comprefled in bladders. Dr Prieftley repeat¬
ed his experiments; but found them not to fucceed,
unlefs the air was comprefled in bladders only, which
he attributes to the porofity of the bladders ; and with
great reafon, having conftantly found, that however he
comprefled it, or to whatever degree of cold he expofed ^
it, in glafs-veflels, the air underwent no change. Ve- Noxious air
getation alone he found effedtual for this purpofe ; rendered
which was generally accomplifiied in five or fix days r "'holefome
after which time candles would burn in it perfeiftly
well; while another portion of the fame air, after be¬
ing kept for many months, without any vegetation,
would extinguifti candles equally as at firft.
The reftoration of the air depended entirely upon
the vegetation of the plant made ufe of; for a great
number of frefti leaves of mint were unfuccefsfully ufed
for a long time, in endeavouring to reftore a fmall
quantity of air in which candles had burnt out.
Though mint was the firft plant made ufe of by the
doctor in this experiment, he found all others to an-
fwer equally well, as well aromatics, as thofe which
had no fmell ; and even poifonous plants, as well as
others. The plant he found moft efficacious for this
purpofe was fpinach.
One caution the doftor gives in making experiments
of this kind, viz. that it is abfolutely neceflary to re¬
move all the dead or rotten leaves of the plant; for
they will deprave air in fuch a manner as to render it
incapable of fupporting flame. A frefti cabbage-leaf,
put under a glafs veflel for one night, fo affedted the
air in it, that it extinguiflied a candle next morning ;
and this without any appearance of putrefadlion in the
leaf.
After candles ceafe to burn, animals feel little or no
inconvenience
Putrid air
favourable
to vegeta-
Explodes
proach of
flame-
AIR [ 181 ] AIR
inconvenience from breathing the fame air. It ia im- qual quantity of common air is introduced, a number Air.
poffible, however, for them to breathe air of this or any of explofions may be produced from the fame quantity '
other kind for any length of time without fuffocation. of inflammable air; only taking care to ftop the mouth
The reafon of their death, according to Dr Prieftley, of the vial immediately after every explofion, otherwife
is not the want of the pabulum-vita, fuppofed to be the inflammable air will continue burning, though in-
contained in the air; but to the air being impregm-ted: vifibly in.the day-time, till the whole is confumed. A
with fomething ftimulating to the lungs. The: noxious final! mixture- of the fumes of fmoking fpirit of nitre,
effluvium with which the air, in this cafe, is loaded, makes it go off at once, as if mixed with an equal
cannot be abforbed by Handing, withoutagitation, ia quantity of common air. This kind of air Dr Prieftley
frefli or fait water. Growing vegetables; however, re- could not kindle without bringing it into con tail with
ftored air depraved by animal refpiration, as perfe&ly a iubftance pdtually flaming; but Mr Volta, inventor
as that in which candles had burned out. The fame of the dedrephorus. or perpetual electrifying machine,
effeft was produced by agitating this air with water; hath fucceededin firing it by the fimple eleftric fpark,
and in fome degree, alio, by a mixture of fixed air. even when the eledtricity' is very moderate, by a well
Notwithftanding that this kind of air, (which the • hted co’al without any flame, by a red hot iron, and
DoCtor diftinguiflies by the name of putrid air), proves evCn by a flint and fteel. 34
fo very noxious to moft animals ; yet vegetables thrive - Upon trial, with fixed air, the inflammable kind Inflamma-
in it to a furprifing degree. It is alfo impofiible for feemed incapable of mixing with it. Even after equal ^ ^ “T"
them to be kept clean from fwarms of infers ; which quantities of the two had been confined together in
Dr Prieftley was frequently obliged to brufli off the a vial for three yearn they did not feem to have at all ed air.
fprigs of mint on which he made his experiments. united, or affeCted aiie another; the fixed air being
Inflammable air was firft obferved by Mr Cavendifh. -abforbed by water, and the inflammable air exploding
He obtained it from a folution of iron, zinc, or tin, in as ufual. 3;
the marine acid. DoCIor Prieftley hath found, that Vegetables continued to grow in this kind of air, Rendered
this air may be procured from every inflammable fub- but without making it lofe its inflammability, or be- *>y
fiance, either animal, mineral, or vegetable, by com- come fit for refpiration. This could be accomplifhed
bullion alone. From thefe fubftances he extraCled it, only by agitation in water. By agitating a large
by heating them in a gun-barrel, to the orifice of quantity of inflammable air in water, one fourth of it
which a glafs-tube or tobacco-pipe was luted, and to difappeared in ten minutes, and a moufe lived 20 mi-
this was tied a flaccid bladder, in order to catch the mites in ounce meafures of the remainder; which
generated air : but, in order to get a great quantity is as long as that creature can live in the fame quantity
of air, it was neceffary to apply the heat as fuddenly, of common air. The air was yet, however, inflam-
and as vehemently, as poffible. By this treatment, a mable, though very weakly fo. By a continuance of
bit of dry oak, weighing twelve grains,, will yield a the agitation, this air admitted a candle to burn in it;
ftieep’s bladder full of air, while only two or three and at la ft came to extinguifti it like that in which a
ounce meafures of it can be obtained if the heat is candle had burned out. The degree of diminution fuf-
flowly applied. fered by this kind of air when it loft its inflammability.
Inflammable air, when made by a quick procefs, has was about one half. Diftilled water imbibed about one
a ftrong offenfive fmell, from whatever fubftance it is fourteenth of its bulk of inflammable air ; but the tafte
extra&ed. It differs, however, according to the fub- was not fehiibly altered.
fiance from which it is obtained; and is rhoft fetid when A mixture of iron-filings and brimftone, made into
procured from animal bodies. If a quantity of this a pafte with water, diminiftied the air in which it flood,
kind of air is contained in a glafs veffel Handing in- between one fourth and one fifth of its whole quantity;
verted in water, it will even fmell through the water ; which then became rather lighter than common air. In.
which will foon become covered with a thin film, af- this ftate it is highly noxious ; has a very pungent and
fuming all the different colours. If the air has been offenfive fmell; nor is it meliorated by Handing in
generated from iron, the film will be a;red okre; if from water. The diminution in this, as well as in other
zinc, it is a whitiih fubftance, probably the calx of cafes, Dr Prieftley concludes to arife from a depofition
that metal; it likewife fettles to the bottom ; and, of the fixed air, owing to a fuperabundant quantity of
when the water is ftirred, has very much the appear- phlogifton being introduced. ^
ance of wool. When water is once imgregnated in All the acids have been reduced by Dr Prieftley Nitrous air.
this manner, it continues to yield this fcum for a con- into the form of air. He begins with the nitrous,
fiderable time after the air is removed. which is obtained from a folution of any kind of metal-
This kind of air is no lefs noxious to animals than lie fubftance in that acid. From gold, and the regulus
the fixed or putrid kinds. It was generally thought to of antimony, it is obtained by means of aqua regia,
be immifcible with, water: but Dr Prieftley hath ob- He hath even found that it may be obtained in great
ferved four inftances of its entirely lofing the inflam- plenty from common water. See Water. .5
mable property, and being reduced to half its bulk, One of the moft confpicuous properties of this air is Diminifties
by long ftanding in a bottle inverted in water. In this the great diminution of any quantity of common air common air^
ftate it extinguifhed candles much more foeedily than with which it is mixed, attended with a turbid red or.
that air in which they had formerly burnt out, and in- deep orange colour, exaftly like that which appears on
ftantly killed animals that were put into it. unftopping a bottle containing fmokirig fpirit of ni-
If inflammable air, contained in a vial, be mixed tre, which the air itfelf very much refembles in fmell.
with an equal quantity of common air, it will inftantly This diminution is attended with a confiderable degree
explode on the approach of flame. If lefs than an e- of heat..
AIR f 182 1 AIR
A™- If one ounce meafure of nitrous, be put to double
^ quantity of common air, in a few minutes the mix¬
ture will want one ninth of the original quantity ; and
if both kinds of air be very pure, the diminution will
ftill go on very llowly, till the whole, in a day or two,
is reduced to one fifth lefs than the original quantity of
common air. After this faturation of common with
nitrous air, a frefh quantity of the latter makes an ad^
dition equal to its own bulk, without producing the
leaft rednefs, or other vifible effeft.—The diminution
in this mixture, was found to arife from a precipitation
of the fixed part of the common air, and the condenfa-
tion of the nitrous air into the acid, called fpirit of
nitre. The precipitation of fixed air appeared, when
fhe procefs was conducted in lime-water, by its be¬
coming turbid, though a fmall quantity of this water
put into the veffel was not affecled by it. The con-
denfation was evident by the acid tafte communicated
to water in which this procefs had been condufted; and
Mr Bewley has obferved, that, without a mixture of
common air, the condenfation oAnitraus air will not
37 take place.
Nitrous air It is alfo very remarkable, that the effervefcence with
3 nodnefs1 of n'trous peculiar to common air, or that fit for re-
common air fph'ation ; and this exaftiy in proportion to its good-
nefs ; that is, the more pure, or fit for refpiration, any
quantity of air is, the greater degree of rednefs will be
communicated to it on the admixture of nitrous air, and
viceyerfa. Thus the Doctor was furnifhed with a mofi;
accurate method of meafuring the degree of goodnefs
of any kind of air he had occafion to try.—This teft is
equally applicable to air, on whatever account it is ren¬
dered unfit for refpiration ; not the leaft elfervefcence
being made between the nitrous and fixed, inflam¬
mable, putrid, or any fpecies of noxious air. By this
teft he was able to difeover, that air in which candles
had burned out, was thereby rendered about one third
worfe than common air.
Inflammable air, mixed with nitrous, burns with a
green flame. Equal proportions of oil of vitriol and
fpirit of nitre produced nitrous air; but with a lefs pro¬
portion of the nitrous acid, an inflammable kind, burn-
38 ing with a green flame, was produced.
Nitrons air By a mixture of iron filings and brimftone, made in-
diminifhed to a pa{ie wJto water, nitrous air is remarkably dimi-
K;xr minifhed; no more than one fourth of the original
lings and quantity being left in one hour after the effervefcence
irimftone. of the iron and brimftone has begun ; which generally
takes place in about five or fix hours after the mixture
has been made. The glafs in which this mixture was
made, ufually acquired fuch a degree of heat, that it
could not be touched.
Nitrous air, thus diminiihed, has not fo ftrong a
fmell as at firft, but fmells exaftly like common air di-
minilhed by the fame mixture. It is not then capable
of being further diminiihed by a freih mixture of iron
and brimftone. Nor is common air, faturated with ni¬
trous, any farther diminiihed by a mixture of iron and
brimftone ; though the mixture ferments with great
heat, and fwells very much in it.
This kind of air, as well as common air faturated
with nitrous, proves fatal both to vegetable and animal
life. Neither of thefe differ in fpecific gravity from
the common atmofpheric air.
Diftilled water abforbs nitrous air with great avidi¬
ty, and acquires from it a remarkably acid and a- Air,
ftringent tafte, with a peculiarly pungent fmell. A ' i|
filmy kind of fubftance is alfo precipitated by the union
of this kind of air with water. The Dofitor fuppofes
it to be a calx of the metal employed in producing the
nitrous air. ^
The moft remarkable, and, as Dr Prieftley ob- Prodigious j
ferves, probably the moft ufeful, property of this kind antifeptic I
of air, is its power of preferving animal fubftances from Powerof ru-
putrefa&ion, and reftoring thofe that are already pu- trous air‘ !■
trid; which it poffeffes in a degree far fuperior to fixed j
air. In the months of July and Auguft, 1772, the
podlor put two mice, one of-them juft killed, the other
foft and putrid, into the fame jar of nitrous air ; and
after i25'days, having obferved little or no change in the
quantity of the air, he took them out; when both
were found perfectly fvveet: that which had been put
into the jar when juft dead, was quite firm; the o-
ther continued foft, but perfectly fweet.—A moufe
inclofed for a month in fixed air, became infufferably
offenfive.
Though this kind of air may be obtained from ail
metallic fubftances, yet it is got with difficulty from
fame metals, and the proportion yielded by them is
very different. Iron yields the greateft quantity, fix-
teen ounce meafures of air being obtained from 20 grains
of this metal; next to iron, copper, or brafs, yield
the mbit ; after them filver, quickfilver, <&c. In attemp¬
ting to get nitrous air from zinc, the following pheno¬
mena occurred.,
Four, penny-weights, and feventeen grains of zinc be¬
ing diffolved in fpirit of nitre diluted with an equal
quantity of water, yielded twelve ounce meafures of air,
which was in fame degree nitrous. The folution being
boiled in a fand heat, fame air came from it, which ap¬
peared to be the fame with nitrous air diminifhed about
•g-, or by wafhing in water. Upon the evaporation
of the fluid, there remained a brown fixed fubftance,
which, on an increafe of heat, gave out very denfe red
fumes ; and the air was confiderably diminifhed within
the receiver. This fubftance, therefore, the Debtor con¬
cludes, muft have contained the principle on which the
properties of nitrous air depend.
Although the air, however, within the receiver was
diminiftied f by this procefs, it was as much affebted by
nitrous air, as common air itfelf is, and a candle burned
in it perfectly well.
The Debtor next proceeds to an inveftigation of the
air produced from the fumes of burning charcoal; and
he finds, that in this cafe, as well as in others, a confi-
derable diminution of air is occafioned, and, by the pre¬
cipitation of lime-water contained in the veffel, there
appeared to be a depofition of fixed air. At firft he
concluded, that the fixed air in this cafe came from the
charcoal; but, confidering the intenfe heat requifite for
making charcoal, he thought it more probable it came
from the air, as the great heat requifite to calcine the
charcoal would have expelled all the air out of it.
This, however, was determined in the following manner.
Having fufpebled, from the experiments with char- phenomena i
coal, that the diminution of air in all cafes was owing obferved in
to the depofition of its fixed part, in confequence of its 'j16 calcina-
having more than the ufual quantity of phlogifton; the of me'
calcination of metals, which are fuppofed to contain
nothing elfe than a particular kind of earth united to
phlogifton.
AIR [ 183 ] AIK
Air. pKlogifton, appeared to be the moll certain method of
r determining this point. Pieces of lead and tin were ac¬
cordingly lufpended in given quantities of air, and had
the focus of a burning mirror thrown upon them, fo as
to make them fume copioufly. A great diminution of
the air immediately took place; it became in the highell
degree noxious, made no effervefcence with nitrous air,
nor was farther diminilhed by a mixture of iron-filings
and brimllone.
The water overwhich metals have been calcined, ac¬
quires a yellowilh tinge, and an exceedingly pungent
fmell and tafte, much like that over which brimftone
has been frequently burned. A thin whitifh pellicle,
alfo, covered the furface of the water, and the lides of
the vial in which the calcination was made. Mr La
41 Voilier has proved, by fome experiments, that the cal-
Calcination cination of metals depends entirely on the abforption of
of metals fixed air; that, exactly in proportion to the increafe of
the abforp- their weight, the air in the receiver which contains them
tion of fixed is diminilhed ; and that when all the fixed part of the
air- air has been depofited, the calcination cannot proceed
farther, until frelh air is admitted. Dr Prieftley alfo has
obferved, that lime-water is not precipitated by ha¬
ving metals calcined over it; but it always acquires the
peculiar fmell and tafte above-mentioned. The reafoh
why none of the lime is precipitated in this cafe, is,
that the metallic calx has a greater affinity with fixed
air than lime has, and confequently abfotbs it preferably
4Jr to the lime.
Diminution From all thefe experiments, and many more than what
counted'fr> can mentioned here, the Dc6tor concludes, that in
in“dl cafes * all cafes the diminution of the air is owing to the de-
pofition of its fixed part; which happens in confequence
of a faturation with phlogifton: that the inflammable
principle, having a greater affinity with fome of the
conftituent parts of the air than its fixed part, unites
with them in preference to the other; which immedi¬
ately joins itfelf to whatever has a tendency to abferb
it. When an animal or vegetable putrefies, the phlo-
giftic matter, together with all its other conftituent
parts, is let loofe, which he fuppofes to be the caufe of
the diminution of the air in that cafe. When iron fer¬
ments with brimftone and water, there is an evident e-
fcape of phlogifton, by the metal’s being reduced to
calx. The fame mull necefiarily happen upon the ig¬
nition of charcoal ; and as fpirit of nitre has a very
ftrong affinity with phlogifton, it is highly probable
that nitrous air diminilhes common air, by imparting
phlogifton to it, while the acid of the nitrous air, uni¬
ting with the aqueous part of the atmofphere, con-
denfes into a liquor.
As for the Doctor’s experiments on the other kinds of
acid afid alkaline air, as they come more properly under
Chemistry, we lhall here only mention, that from the
fume of the marine acid he always obtained inflamma¬
ble air, by putting to it fpirit of wine, oil of olives,, oil
43 of turpentine, charcoal, phofpliorus, bees wax, and
True com- even fulphur. This made him fufpect, that the com-
airfuf"acd mon a‘r we f)reat^e» was no other than feme kind of
acid united with phlogifton; and that it really was fo,
44 he difeovefed by the fallowing experiments.
jDifcovei^d. Having expofed mercurius calcinatus per fe to the
focus of a burning glafs twelve inches diameter, he ob¬
tained air from it very plentifully. This air, he found,
was not abforbed by water; a candle burned with a very
vigorous and greatly enlarged flame; a piece of red-hot
wood fparkled in it like paper dipped in a folution of
nitre, and confumed very fall.—The fame properties he
obferved in air drawn from red precipitate. From mi¬
nium, he extra£led air of the very fame kind. One third
of this air, indeed. Was readily abforbed by water; but
in the remainder, a candle burned very ftrongly, and
with a crackling noife.
After fome time, it occurred to him to apply the teft.
of nitrous air to that which he had newly procured;
and, upon fo doing, he found that it was fully as much
diminilhed as common air. From hence he concluded,
that this air was refpirable. Accordingly, he put a
mbufe into two ounce meafures of air, obtained from
mercurius calcinatus per fe. Had it been common air,
he knew that this creature would have lived a quarter
of an hour in fuch a quantity. In the dephlogijiicated
air, however, as Dr Prieftley calls it, the moule lived a
full half hour; nor did it, when taken out, Ihew figns
of being injured any otherwife than by cold, as it pre-
fently revived upon being held to the fire. The remain¬
der of the air which had been fo long breathed by the
ifloufe, and which, had it been common air, would have
been in the higheft degree noxious, was ftill found to
be much better than common air, being reduced by ni¬
trous air to almoft one half of its original quantity.
From this quality of taking more phlogifton from
nitrous air, than common air was capable of doing, he
concluded, that it muft originally contain lefs of that
principle than common air. In his experiments to know
why this kind of air comes to be fo much dephlogifti-
cated, he at laft hit upon a method of producing very
pure air readily, and in conliderable quantity. Having
moiftened half an ounce of red lead with fpirit of nitre,
and then dried the mafs, he obtained from it not quite
a pint of dephlogiftieated air,, exceedingly pure, in
which a candle burned very brillcly; and which feemed
to be about five times as pure as common air. From
this experiment,. the Dodlor concluded, that the nitrous
acid was that which gave the minium power to emit
this dephlogifticated air. The vitriolic and marine
acids were tried without effect. No air of any kind was
produced by treating them in . the fame, manner. The
minium effervefeed violently with all the acids.
For tlie fame purpofe, the Dodtor tried, with fuccefs,
flowers of zinc, chalk, quicklime, flaked lime, tobacco-
pipe-clay, flint, Mufcovy talcs, and even glafs itfelf;
from all which he draws the general conclufion, “ That
the air we breathe confifts of the nitrous acid and earth,
with as much phlogifton as is neCeffary toils elafticity;
and likevvife as much more as is neceffary to bring it
from its ftate of perfeft purity, to the mean condition in
which we find it.” The refiduum of his diftillation, he
found equally fit with frelh earth for the production of
more air, upon being again moiftened with the fpirit of
nitre. In histhirdvolume, publilhedin 1777, the Doctor
acquaints ns, that very pure dephlogifticated air is pro¬
duced by fimply diliilling a folution of any metal in the
nitrous acid: and Mr Bewly found even that trouble
unneceffary;, nothing more being requifite, than to moi-
ften red lead with the fpirit of nitre, and then pour up¬
on it oil of vitriol; when the dephlogifticated air would
immediately be expelled without any more heat being
required than what was generated by the mixture. The
Do&or hath alfo endeavoured to determine the propor¬
tions
Air..
AIR [ 184 ] AIR
Air. tions of earth and nitrous acid, required to produce this
i kind of air; but hitherto without fuccefs. Air, he finds,
will take up a great deal of earth when hot, which it
4J depofits when cold. See Earth.
The uf'e of We lhall conclude this fubjeft with fome obferva-
bloodinani- t;ons which the Do6tor has made on the ufe of the
s‘ blood in animals, and on refpiration. They are to be
found at length in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for
the year 1776, and in his third volume on air publifh-
4« ed in 1777.
B.efpiration In his treatife on putrid air, or that infe&ed by ani-
a phlogiftic mal refpiration, he had ihewn, that refpiration was a
procefs. phlogiftic procefs; and that by means of it a putrid ef¬
fluvium was carried off from the body, without which
he imagined that ,a living body might perhaps putrefy
as foon as a dead one. In this paper he proves, that the
blood is the principal agent in carrying off the fuper-
abundant phlogifton; that when the whole mafs of blood
is fucceflively brought almoft into contadt with the air
in the lungs, it difchafges phlogifton into it; and that
the blood receives its red florid colour from the air, he
47 proves by the following experiments.
Black co- Pieces of the nearly black-coloured craffamentum of a
loured blood fheep’s blood, inclofed in nets of open gauze, or wire,
vidby bebig ^av*ng ^een introduced thro’ water or quickfilver into
expoftd to* inverted receivers containing common air, received from
the air. it a florid red colour, at the fame time that the air was
confiderably depraved.—The brighteft red blood be¬
came black in phlogifticated or any otherwife depraved
air; and refumed its colour again upon being expofed
to the frefh air, parting, in this laft fituation, with the
phlogifton it had acquired in the preceding.
That pure air is depraved by the prefence of blood,
while the colour of it is changed from black to red, the
Doftor proved by his very pure dephlogifticated air
being confiderably vitiated by fucceffively introducing
frefh pieces of craffamentum to the fame portion of it;
and this without any tendency to putrefaction in the
49 . blood employed.
Remarkable In the courfe of his experiments on blood, he made
difeovery the following remarkable difeovery concerning the na-
thenamreof ture ^erum’ yvi' t^at a covering of ferum feveral
ferum. inches deep was no impediment to the aCtion of the air
upon the craffamentum of the blood, as it acquired the
red colour as eafily on being expofed to pure air with
this thick coat of ferum, as without it; whereas the
flighteft covering of water, or faliva, effectually pre¬
vented any change of colour. Oh reverfing the expe¬
riment, he found that phlogifticated air would aCt up¬
on craffamentum, fo as to turn it black, through a co¬
vering of ferum two inches deep.—From thefe experi¬
ments he concluded, that the ferous part of the blood
was particularly organized for the purpofe of tranfmit-
, ting air through it.
Apparatus It now remains that we give fome account of the ap-
for making paratus requifite for making experiments on air: and
onPaftmentS for th's PurP°fe fufficient to give an idea of
that made ufe of by Dr Prieftley ; both as being moft
eafily underftood, and likewife, if we may judge from
the difeoveries he hath made by the ufe of it, as being
the moft efficacious of any that hath hitherto been in¬
vented.
Plate VII. For experiments in which air will bear to be con¬
fined in water, he made ufe of an oblong wooden trough
a> fig- !• two feet long, xx inches deep, and 18 inches
wide; with a fhelf, bb, about an inch lower than the top,
for the convenience of placing the jars upon it. The *
feveral kinds of air are kept in cylindric prscccc, about
about 10 inches long, and 2-| wide; though it is ne-
ceffary, for particular experiments, to have veffels of
different forms and fizes. When he has occafion to
transfer air from one jar to another in quickfilver, a
fmall oblong trough is abfolutely neceffary ; but, on
other occafions, a bafon is more convenient for holding
the quickfilver.
When veffels of air are to be removed from the large
trough, they are placed in pots or di flies of different
fizes, to hold more or lefs water as there is occafion.
For the purpofe of merely removing a jar of air from
one place to another, where it is to Hand only a few
days, common tea-difhes may be ufed; unlefs the air
be in a ftate of diminution, when veffels of a larger
fize muft be made ufe of.
When an experiment is to be tried how long a fmall
animal, a moufe for inftance, will live in a certain fpe-
cies of air, a tall beer-glafs, fuch as is reprefented by ct,
which contains between two and three ounce meafures
-of air, will anfwer the purpofe. In this quantity of
common air a moufe will live 20 minutes, or half an
hour.—On this occafion the Doftor obferves, that mice
muft be kept in a pretty exaft temperature, as they
are unable to bear either much heat or much cold. He
was alfo furprized to find that they lived entirely with¬
out water; and he had an inftance of one moufe tearing
another almoft in pieces, though there was plenty of
provifions at the time for both. The method of put¬
ting thefe creatures into the quantity of air defigned
for the experiment, is to pafs them through the water
into the cavity of the glafs, into which fomething muft
be put for them to fit cdnveniently out of the reach of the
water.—The fame method may be ufed when a plant
is to be conveyed into, any given quantity of air. If
the plant is of fuch a nature that it will grow in water
only, there will be no occafion to fet it in a pot of
earth, which otherwffe will be neceffary.
For opening the mouth of a vial, in any quantity of
air, without admitting the water into the vial, it is ne¬
ceffary to have a cork cut tapering, with a ftrong wire
thruft through it, (/;, fig. 1.) by which means it may be
introduced into the mouth of an inverted jar, and the
cork withdrawn by means of the wire, which afterwards
can be replaced by the fame means, if there is occafi¬
on.—For fupporting a gallipot at a confiderable height
within a jar, it is convenient to have fuch wire-ftands
as are reprefented fig. 2. They anfwer better than any
other, as they take up but little room, and eafily bend
to any form.
When air is to be poured from a wide-necked, into
a very narrow-necked veffel, a glafs funnel <? muft be
ufed, by which means the operation is rendered ex¬
ceedingly eafy ; firft filling the veffel into which the
air is to be conveyed with water, and unftopping the
other containing the air under the funnel, which is in-
ferted into the mouth of the narrow veffel, and im-
merfed in water. The air immediately afeends through
the neck of the funnel, makes the water defeend, and
take its place.
To expel air from folid fubftances by means of Plate
heat, a gun-barrel may be fometimes ufed, which % 11
is filled up with dry fand that has been well burned,
. fo
Plate . VII •
I
,
i
AIR [ 185 ] AIR
Air. fo tkat no air can come from it. To the open end
is luted the ftem of a tobacco-pipe, or a fmall glafs-
tube. Having put the clofed end of the barrel con¬
taining the materials, into the fire, the generated air,
iffuing through the tube, may be received in a veflel
of quickfilver having its mouth inverted into a bafon of
the fame, fufpended all together by wires, in the man¬
ner reprefented in the figure.
But the moft accurate method of extrafting air from
feveral fubftances, by means of heat, is to put them,
if they will bear it, into vials full of quickfilver, with
the mouths immerfed in the fame; and then throwing
the focus of a burning mirror, or convex lens, upon
them. The vials ufed for this purpofe ftiould have their
bottoms-round and very thin, that they may not break
with a fudden application of heat ; for which Florence
flalks feerh very proper.
If air is to be expelled from any liquid, a vial is
nearly filled with it. To the vial is fitted a perforated
cork, having a glafs tube inferted in it, bent as in ft
Plate VII. fig* I* and fecured with cement. The vial is then to
be put in a kettle of boiling water, in order to expell
the air; or it may be heated by means of a candle, or
red-hot poker. But where the air is readily imbibed
by water, quickfilver ought always to be ufed ; or if a
fufficient quantity of it cannot be procured, oil will in
fome meafure anfwer the purpofe.
When air is to be transferred from a jar Handing in
the trough of water to any other veffel, the contrivance
Plate VIII. fig. 12. is made ufe of. It confifts of a bladder furnifh-
ea at one end with a fmall tube of glafs bent, having
at the other a cork perforated, fo as juft to admit the
fmall end of a funnel. When the common air is pref-
fed out of this bladder, and the funnel thruft tightly
into the cork, it may be filled with any kind of air as
eafily as a glafs jar. A firing being then tied above the
cork in which the funnel is inferted, and the orifice in
the other cork clofed by prefiing the bladder againft it,
it may be carried to any place; and if the tube be care¬
fully wiped, the air may be conveyed quite free from
moifture through a body of quickfilver, or any thing
elfe.
To impregnate fluids with air of any kind, as water
with fixed air, a vial is filled with the fluid, as a, fig. 5.
It is then inverted in a bowl b, containing a quanti¬
ty of the fame fluid; and the bladder c being filled
with the air, as much of it as is thought proper may
be thrown into the vial; and, to accelerate the impreg¬
nation, the vial may be fhaken as much as poffible.
The fame apparatus ferves very com’eniently for con¬
veying air immediately as it is generated from an effer-
vefeing mixture, into any other fpecies of fluid ; and
that the vial may be more conveniently fhaken, in order
to make -the effervefcence occafionally more brifk, a
flexible leather pipe may be fometimes ufed, inftead
of the inflexible glafs one.
When any kind of air is to be tried with regard to
its capacity for fuftaining flame, a cylindrical glafs vef-
Piate VII. fel (fig. 4.) is made ufe of, with a bit of wax candle,
faftened to the end of a wire, and turned up in fuch
a manner as to be let down into the veflel with the
flame upwards. The veflel ftiould be kept careful-
ly covered, till the moment the candle is admitted;
and by this means the Doftor has extinguiflied a can¬
dle more than 20 times fucceffively ; although it is im-
Vol. I.
pofiible to dip the candle in it without giving the Air.
external air an opportunity of mixing more or lefs ~
with that in the veflel. The candle at the other end
of the wire is very convenient for being held under a
jar Handing in water, in order to burn as long as the
inclofed air can fupply it; for, the moment it is ex-
tinguiftied, it may be drawn through the water, before
any fmoke can have mixed with the air.
In order to draw air out of a veflel which has its
mouth immerfed in water, and thereby to raife the wa¬
ter to any height, it is convenient to ufe a glafs fyphon,
fig. 6. putting one of the legs up into the veflel, and pjate vm
drawing the air out of the other by the mouth. If
the air is of a noxious quality, it may be neceflary to
have a fyringe faftened to the fyphon ; or if a very
fmall hole is made in the upper part of a glafs-veflel,
it may be filled to any height, by holding it under
water, while the air is difeharged at the hole, which
may be afterwards cloftd with cement.
When a particular kind of air is to be admitted to
any thing that will not bear wetting, efpecially if it
is a powder, and muft be placed on a Hand, as in thofe
experiments in which the focus of a burning mirror
is to be thrown upon it, a receiver is firft exhaufted,
in which it is previoufly placed; and having a glafs
tube bended for the purpofe, as in fig. 7. it is to be
ferewed to the ftem of a transfer of the air-pump on
which the receiver had been exhaufted; and introdu¬
cing it into a jar of that kind of air with which the
receiver is defired to be filled, the purpofe is gained,
by only turning the cock.
To take the eleftric fpark in any kind of air, the
quantity of which muft be very fmal.1, to produce a
fenfible effett upon it in a ftiort time, a piece of wire
is put into the end of a fmall tube, and faftened with
hot cement, as in fig. 8. and having got the air de¬
fired into the tube, by means of the apparatus already
deferibed, it is placed inverted in a bafon containing
quickfilver or any other fluid fubftance. . By the help
of the air-pump, then, as much of the air is driven out
as is thought proper ; and putting a brafs ball on the
end of the wire, the fparks, or fhocks, are communi¬
cated by its means, thro’ the air contained in the tube,
to the fluid.—If air is generated very fall by this pro-
cefs, a glafs is ufed, fig. 10. which is narrow above, and .
grows wider below, that the quickfilver may not too
foon recede beyond the ftrlking diftance. 50
Befides this general apparatus, which hitherto may Apparatus
be confidered as merely experimental, and a matter of for.imPre&'
curiofity only, it will be proper to mention that for im- with Ixed^
pregnating water with fixed air; as water impregnated air.
with this kind of air hath been found exceedingly fa-
lutary in putrid difeafes, particularly in the fea-feurvy.
For this reafon, a method of impregnating large quan¬
tities of water with fixed air has become an objedt wor¬
thy of public attention. A propofal for doing fo was
laid before the board of Admiralty, and was accep¬
ted of; and the captains of two Ihips that were juft
failing for the fouth feas, had orders to make trial-of
the impregnated water ; for which purpofe Dr Prieftley
drew out his diredtions in writing, and fent a drawing of
his apparatus. ’ y.
The apparatus recommended by Dr Prieftley for By Dr
impregnating water, -is not in the. leaft different from Prieftley,
that reprefented fig. 5. where a reprefents a glafs-
A a veffel,
AIR [ 186 ] AIR
Air. vefiel, with a pretty narrow neck, but fo formed that
it wiH ftand upright with its mouth downwards. Ha¬
ving filled it with water, lay a flip of clean paper, or
thin paftebbard, upon the mouth : then, if they be
preffed clofe together, the veffel may be turned upfide
down, without danger of admitting common air into
it; and when thus inverted, it muft be placed into
another veffel, in the form of a bowl or bafon, b, with
a little water in it, fo much as to permit the flip of pa¬
per or pafteboard to be withdrawn, and the end of the
crooked pipe to be introduced. One end of this pipe is
iriferted into a bladder, which is tied round it; and
the other communicates, by means of a perforated
cork, with a vial which contains the effervefcing mix¬
ture, from whence the fixed air is to be detached.
On fome otcafions it may be convenient to have this
pipe flexible; when it will be belt made of leather
fewed with a waxed thread, in the manner ufed by
flioe-makers. When this pipe is flexible, a piece of
quill muft be thruft into each end of it, to keep them
open, while one of them is introduced into the yeflel
of water, and the other into the bladder- c, the oppo-
fite end of which muft be tied round a cork perforated,
and the hole kept open by a quill. The cork muft
fit the vial containing the effervefcing mixture, two-
thirds of which muft be filled with chalk, juft covered
with oil of vitriol. The Doctor, however, finds it moft
convenient to ufe a glafs tube; and, for the advantage
of agitating the vial, to have two bladders, communica¬
ting by a perforated cork, to which they are both tied.
Things being thus prepared, and the vial containing
the chalk and water being detached from the bladder,
and the pipe from the vefiel of water, pour a little oil of
vitriol upon the chalk and water; and having carefully
prefled all the common air out of the bladder, put the
cork into the bottle prefently after the effervefcence
has begun. Alfo, prefs the bladder once more, after
a little of the newly generated air has got into it, in
order the mofe effe&ually to clear it of all remains of
' common air; and then introduce the end of the pipe
into the mouth of the vefiel of water, as in the draw¬
ing, and begin to agitate the chalk and water brilldy.
This will prefently produce a confiderable quantity of
fixed air, which will diftend the bladder ; and this be¬
ing prefled, the ail- will force its way through the pipe,
and afcend into the vefiel of water, the water at the
fame time defcending and coming into the bafon.
When about one half of the water is forced out, let
the operator lay his hand upon the uppermoft part of
the veffel and {hake it as brifkly as lie can, not to
throw the water out of the bafon ; and, in a few mi¬
nutes, the water will abforb the air; and, taking its
place, will nearly fill the veflel as at firft. Then {hake
the vial containing the chalk and water again, and
force more air into the veflel, till upon the whole
an equal bulk of air has been thrown into it. Alfo
{hake the water as before, till nq more of the air can
be imbibed. As foon as this is perceived to be the cafe,
the water is ready for ufe ; and if it is not to be ufed
immediately, fliould be put, as foon as pofiible, into a
bottle Well corked and cemented. It will, however,
keep very well,, if the bottle be only well corked, and
kept with the' mouth downwards. A little more than
a tea-fpoonful of oil of vitriol will be fufficient to im¬
pregnate three pints of water with fixed air..
By this procefs may fixed air be given to wine, beer, Air.
and almoft any liquor whatever : and when beer is be- “
come flat or dead, it will be revived by this means ;
but the delicate agreeable flavour, or acidulous tafte,
communicated by the fixed air, and which is manifeft
in water, will hardly be perceived in wine, or other li¬
quors, which have much tafte of their own.
By the fame means alfo may be prepared water ha- Art;^3j
ving all the medicinal virtues of Pyrmont water, or any pyrmont
other mineral water fimilar to it; efpecially if a few water,
iron-filings be added, to render it a chalybeate like
genuine Pyrmont water; which it may be made to re¬
ferable exactly, by putting eight or ten drops of tinc-
. tura martis cum fpiritu falls to every pint.
The firft hint of the ufes to which fixed air may be
applied, was given by Sir John Pringle ; who difco-
vered that putrefaftion was checked by fermentation.
Doctor Macbride found this to be an effeft of the
fixed air produced in the procefs ; upon which prin¬
ciple he recommended the ufe of wort to failors, as a
fubftitute to frefti vegetables, by fupplying a quantity
of fixed air from its fermentation in the ftomach ;
which conjefture is now confirmed by experience. Dr
Black difcovered the exiftence of fixed air in calcareous
fubftances; Dr Brownrigg claims the difcovery of it
in Pyrmont, and other mineral waters; and Dr Prieft-
ley, that of an eafy method of impregnating water with
it in large quantities. He alfo conjedtured, that, if ap¬
plied by way of clyfter, it might be of fervice in putrid
fevers; which is likewife verified by experience. The
fixed air may be injedted into the inteftinal canal, by
the fame apparatus employed for injedling the fmoke
of tobacco.
The ufe of bladders in this apparatus was objedled j)r booth’s
to by Dr Nooth; who afierted, that they were apt apparatus,
to communicate an urinous flavour to the water. This
he attributed to the adtion of the folvent power of the
air upon the bladder ; and he gave a particular kind of
apparatus of his own invention, in which, the vefiels
being entirely made of glafs, np inconvenience of this
fort could be apprehended.—To Dr Nooth’s objec¬
tions Dr Prieftley replied, that he had been converfant
with bladders, and fixed air contained in bladders, as
much as any man, and never found any fuch flavour
arifing from the ufe of them as Dr Nooth had expe¬
rienced. He fufpedled, therefore, that the tafte com¬
plained of had arifen from the carelefsnefs of the fer-
vant, and that urine had really been mixed with the
water made ufe of. He owned, however, that the ap¬
paratus recommended by Dr Nooth, and improved by
Mr Parker, had in fome refpefts the advantage of his
own, particularly in being more cleanly to the opera¬
tor, and requiring lefs attendance; though it was more
inconvenient, where large quantities of water were to
be impregnated, on account of its being much flower.
This apparatus is reprefented, fig. 3. In the loweft Plate VIb
vefiel, the chalk, or pounded marble, (which laft is
preferred by Dr Prieftley), and the water acidulated
with oil of vitriol, is to be put; in the middle vef¬
fel is the water to be impregnated, the defcent of which
is prevented by the afcent of the fixed air. During
the effervefcence, the fixed air rifes into the middle vef¬
fel, difplaces part of the water in it, thro’ the bent
tube into the upper veflel, the common air going out
through a channel in the Hopple. When this bent
tube
A I R
[ 187 ]
A I R
tube is of a proper lengths the procefs requires no at¬
tention ; and if the produdtion of air be copious, the
water will generally be fufficiently impregnated in five
or fix hours. At leaft, all the attention that needs be
given to it is to raife the uppermoft veffel once or twice,
to let out that part of the fixed air which is not readily
abforbed by water. If the operator chufes to acce¬
lerate' the procefs by agitating the mixture, he muft
feparate the two uppermoft veffels from the loweft, or
the air will be too copioufly produced, and he will alfo
be in danger of throwing the liquor contained in the
loweft veffel, in contact with the ftopple which feparates
it from the middle veffel, by which means fome of the
oil of vitriol might get into the water.
Fluor-acid A £ n° 264.
Marine-acid A.IK \ ^ )n°226,262.
Vegetable-acid Ai'kC }n 289.
Vitriolic-acid Air J \ n° 163.
Air, in mythology, was adored by the heathens un¬
der the names of Jupiter and Juno 5 the former repre-
fenting the fuperior and finer part of the atmofphere,
and the latter the inferior and groffer part. The augurs
alfo drew prefages from the clouds, thunder, lightning,
&c.
Air, in painting, &c. denotes the manner and very
life of action; or it is that which expreffes the difpofi-
tion of the agent.—It is fometimes alfo ufed in a fyno-
nymous fenfe with gefture or attitude.
Air, in mufic, is taken in different fenfes. In a vul¬
gar acceptation, it fignifies any particular manner of
execution: thus, we lay of a practical mufician, that
he performs with a good or bad, proper or improper,
air. But this is certainly a folecifm of fpeech. The
animating graces, and moving touches, with which me¬
lody is adorned and heightened in execution, are refol-
vable either into manner or expreffion.—Arir is likewife
fometimes contrafted with harmony; and, in this fenfe,
it is fynonymous with melody in general.—Its pro¬
per meaning is, A tune, which is fet to words, or to
fiiort pieces of poetry that are called fongs.
In operas, we give the name of air to fuch pieces of
mufic as are formed with meafures and cadences, to di-
ftinguifh it from the recitative; and, in general, every
piece of mufic is called an air, which is formed for the
voice, or even for inftruments, and adapted to ftanzas,
whether it forms a whole in itfelf, or whether it can be
detached from any whole of which it forms a part, and
be executed alone.
If the iubjeCt admits of harmony, and is fet in parts,
the air is, according to their number, denominated a
duett, a trio, a quartette, &c. We need not follow
Rouffeau, and the other philologifts, in their endeavours
toinveftigate the etymon of the word air. Its derivation,
though found and afeertained, would contribute little
to illuftrate its meaning in that remote fenfe, to which,
through a long continuance of time, and the various
viciffitudes of language, it has now paffed. The curi •
ous may confult the fame article in the Diciionaire de
Mufique by M. Rouffeau.
are painted all the pictures of imitative mufi^; melody
is the defign, and harmony the colouring: every pidtu-
refque objett feledted from the moft beautiful parts of
nature, every refledted fentiment of the human heart,
are the models which the artift imitates; whatever gains
attention, whatever interefts the foul, whatever charms
the ear, or caufes emotion in the heart, thefe are the
objedts of his imitation *. An air which delights the
ear, and difeovers the learning of the compofer; an air
invented by genius, and compofed with tafte; is the no-
bleft effort of mufic: it is this which explores the com-
pafs, and difplays the delicacy^ of a beautiful voice; it
is in this where the charms of a well-condudted fym-
phony fhine; it is by this, that the paffions, excited and
inflamed by nice gradations, reach and agitate the foul
through the avenues of external fenfe. After hearing a
beautiful air, the mind is acquiefcent and ferene : the
ear is fatisfied, not difgufted: it remains impreffed on
the fancy, it becomes a part of our effence, we carry
it with us, we are able to repeat it at pleafure: with¬
out the ability acquired by habit to breathe a fingle
note of it, we execute it in our imagination in the fame
manner as we heard it upon the theatre: one fees the
feene,, the adtor, the theatre; one hears the accompa¬
niments and the applaufes. The real enthufiaft in mu¬
fic never forgets the beautiful airs which he has heard;
when he chufes, he caufes the opera to recommence.
The words to which airs are adapted, are not always
rehearfed in regular fucceflion, nor fpoken in the fame
manner with thofe of the recitative; and though, for
ordinary, they are very ftiort, yet they are interrupted,
repeated, tranfpofed, at the pleafure of the artift. They
do not conftitute a narrative, which once told is over:
they either delineate a picture, which it is neceffary to
contemplate in different points of view; or infpire a fen¬
timent in which the heart acquiefces with pleafure, and
from which it is neither able nor willing to be difen-
gaged; and the different phrafes of the air, are nothing
elfe but different manners of behplding the fame image.
This is the reafon why the fubjedt of an air fliould be
one. It is by thefe repetitions properly placed, it is
by thefe redoubled efforts,, that an impreffion, which at
firft was not able to move you, at length {hakes your
foul, agitates you, tranfports you out of yourfelf : and
it is likewife upon the fame principle, that the runnings
as they are called, or thofe long, mazy, and inarticu-
lated infledtions of the voice, which, in pathetic airs,
frequently frem, though they are not always fo, im¬
properly placed; whilft the heart is affedted with a fen¬
timent exquifitely moving, it often expreffes its emo¬
tions by inarticulate founds, more ftrongly and fenfibly
than it could do by words themfelves.
The form of airs is of two kinds. The fmall airs
are often compofed of two {trains, which ought each of
them to be fung twice; but the important airs in ope¬
ras, are frequently in the form of rondeaus.
AIRS, in the menage, are the artificial motions of
taught horfes; as the demivolt, curvet, capriole, See*.
AiK-Bladder, in fifties. See Comparative Ana-
* See Demi¬
volt, ire.
In modern mufic, there are feveral different kinds of tomy, np 147.
airs, each of which agrees to a certain kind of dancing, Air-Gm#, a pneumatic machine for exploding bul-
and from thefe dances the airs themfelves take their lets, &c. with great violence.
/V. i O A — —- r I M    ~ ~ f.. .
fpecific names. See Music, Art. 252.
The common air-gun is made of brafs, and has two
The airs of our operas, are, if we may be permitted barrels; the infide barrel A, fig. 1. which is of a fmall plate IX.
the expreffion, the canvhfs or fubftratum upon which
bore, from whence the bullets are exploded; and a large
A a 2 barrel
AIR [ 188 ] AIR
Air gun. barrel E £ D R on the outfide of it. There is a fyringe
S M N P fixed in the flock of the gun, by which the
air is injected into the cavity between the two barrels
through the valve E P. The ball K is put down into
its place in the fmall barrel, with the rammer, as in any
other gun. At S L is another valve, which, being
opened by the trigger O, permits the air to come be¬
hind the bullet, fo as to drive it out with great force.
If this valve be opened and Unit fuddenly, one charge
of condenfed air may be fufficient for feveral difcharges
of bullets; but if the whole air be difcharged on one
fingle bullet, it will drive it out with a great force.
This difcharge is effected by means of a lock, fig. 2.
placed here as ufual in other guns; for the trigger be¬
ing pulled, the cock will go down and drive the lever
O, fig. i. which will open the valve, and let in the air
upon the bullet K.
The Magazine Air-gun was invented by that inge¬
nious artift L. Colbe. By this contrivance ten bullets
are fo lodged in a cavity, near the place of difcharge,
that they may be drawn into the fhooting-barrel, and
fucceffively difcharged fo fail as to be nearly of the
fame ufe as fo many different guns.
Fig. 3. reprefents the prefent form of this machine,
where part of the flock is cut off, to the end of the in-
jefting- fyringe. It has its valve opening into the ca¬
vity between the barrels, as before. K K is the fmall
fhooting-barrel, which receives the bullets from the
magazine E D, which is of a ferpentine form, and
doled at the end D when the bullets are lodged in it.
The circular part ab c, is the key of a cock, having
a cylindric hole through it, i k, which is equal to the
bore of the fame barrel, and makes a part of it in the
prefent fituation. When the lock is taken off, the fe¬
veral parts R, T, W, &c. come into view, by which
means the difcharge is made by pufhing up the pin
Pp, which raifes and opens a valve V, to let in the air
agaihfl the bullet I, from the cavity F F; which valve
is immediately fhut down again by means of a long
fpring of brafs, N N. This valve V being a conical piece
of brafs, ground very true in the part which receives it,
will of itfelf be fufficient to confine the air.
To make a difcharge, you will pull the trigger Z Z,
which throws up the feer y a, and difengages it from
the notch a, upon which the flrong fpring W W moves
the tumbler T, to which the cock is fixed. This, by
its end u, bears down the end v of the tumbling lever
R, which, by the other end m, raifes at the fame time
the flat end of the horizontal lever Qj and by this
means, of courfe, the pin Pp, which Hands upon it, is
puflied up, and thus opens the valve V, and difcharges
the bullet. This is all evident fro-m a bare view of the
figure.
To bring another bullet to- fucceed that marked I,
inflantaneoufly, turn the cylindric cavity of the key of
the cock, which before made part of the barrel KK,
into the fituation iky fo that the part i may be at K;
and hold the gun upon your fhoulder, with the bar¬
rel downwards, and the magazine upwards, by which
means that bullet next the cock will fall into, it out of
the magazine, but go no farther into this cylindric
cavity than the two little fprings s s, wrhich detain it.
The two circles reprefent the cock-barrel, wherein the
key abovementioned turns upon an axis not reprefent-
ted here, but vifible in fig. 4. This axis is a fquare
piece of Heel, on which comes the fquare hole of the Air-pipe?,
hammer H, fig. 5. ; by which the cylindric cavity
mentioned is opened to the magazine. Then opening
the hammer, as in that figure, the bullet is brought into
its proper place near the difcharge-valve, and the cylin¬
dric cavity of the key of the cock again makes part of
the inward barrel K K.
It evidently appears how expeditious a method this
is of charging and difeharging a gun ; and were the
force of condenfed air equal to that of gunpowder,
fuch an air-gun would anfwer the end of leveral guns.
In the air-gun, and all other cafes where the air is
required to be condenfed to a very great degree, it will
be requifite to have the fyringe of a fmall bore, viz.
not exceeding half an inch in diameter; becaufe the
preflure againft every fquare inch is about 15 pounds,
and therefore againft every circular inch about 12
pounds. If therefore the fyringe be one inch in dia¬
meter, when one atmofphere is injedled, there will be
a refiftance of 12 pounds againft the pifton ; and when
10 are injedled, there will be a force of 120 pounds to
be overcome ; whereas ten atmofpheres adl againft the
circular half-inch pifton (whofe area is only one-fourth
part fo big) with only a force equal to 30 pounds;
or 40 atmofpheres may be injedled with fuch a fyringe,
as well as 10 with the other. In ftiort, the facility of
working will be inverfely as the fquares of the diame¬
ter of the fyringe.
A.i&-Jacket, a fort of jacket made of leather, in
which are feveral bags, or bladders, compofed of the
fame materials, communicating with each other. Thefe
are filled with air through a leather tube, having a brafs
ftop-cock accurately ground at the extremity, by which
means the air blown in through the tube is confined in
the bladders. The jacket mull be wet, before the air
be blown into the bags, as otherwife it will immediate¬
ly efcape through the pores of the leather. By the
help of thefe bladders, which are placed near the breaft,
the perfon is fupported in the water, without making
the efforts ufedin fwimming *. * See a!fo
Kik-Pipes, an invention for drawing foul air out of articles
fliips, or any other clofe places, by means of fire. K,^^aC~
Thefe pipes were firft found out by one Mr Sutton, a bamToo*
brewer in London; and from him have got the name Habit.
of Sutton's Air-pipes. The principle on which their
operation depends is known to every body, being in¬
deed no other than that air is neceffary for the fup-
port of fire; and, if it has not accefs from the pla¬
ces moil adjacent, will not fail to come from thofe
that are more remote. Thus, in. a common furnace,,
the air enters through the affi-hole; but if this is clo-
fed up, and a hole made in the fide of the furnace, the
air will rufti in with great violence through that hole.
If a tube of any length whatever is inferted in this hole,
the air will ruffi through the tube into the fire, and of
confequence there will be a continued circulation of
air in that place where the extremity of the tube is laidi
Mr Sutton’s contrivance then, as communicated to the
Royal Society by Doctor Mead, amounts to no more
than this.—“ As, in every fhip of any bulk, there is
already provided a copper or boiling-place proportion-
able to the fize of the veffel; it is propofed to clear the
bad air, by means of the fire already ufed under the
faid coppers or boiling-places for the neceffary ufes of
the fhip.
It
AIR [ i
Air-pipes. « It is well known, that, under every fuch copper or
" boiler, there are placed two holes, feparated by a
grate ; the firft of which is for the fire, and the other
for the afhes falling from the fame ; and that there is
alfo a flue from the fire-place upward, by which the
fmoke of the fire is difcharged at fome convenient place
of the fliip.
“ It is alfo well known, that the fire once lighted
in thefe fire-places, is only preferved by the conftant
draught of air through the forementioned two holes and
flue ; and that if the faid two holes are clofely flopped
up, the fire, though burning ever fo brifldy before, is
immediately put out.
“ But if, after (hutting up the abovementioned
holes, another hole be opened, communicating with
any other room or airy place, and with the fire ; it is
clear, the faid fire muft again be raifed and burn as be¬
fore, there being a like draught of air through the
fame as there was before the flopping up of the firft
holes; this cafe differing only from the former in this,
that the air feeding the fire will now be fupplied from
another place.
“ It is therefore propofed, that, in order to clear the
holds of (hips of the bad air therein contained, the two
(holes abovementioned, the fire-place and afh-place, be
both clofed up with fubftantial and tight iron-doors;
and that a copper or leaden pipe, of fufficient fize, be
laid from thg. hold into the alh-place, for the draught
of air to come in that way to feed the fire. And thus
it feems plain, from what has been already faid, that
there will be, from the hold, a conftant difcharge of
the air therein contained; and confequently, that that
air, fo difcharged, muft be as conftantly fupplied byfreftr
air down the hatches or fuch other communications as
are opened into the hold; whereby the fame muft be
continually frefhened, and its air rendered morewhole-
fome and fit for refpiration.
“ And if into this principal pipe fo laid into the
hold, other pipes are let in, communicating refpe&ive-
ly either with the well or lower decks ; it muft follow,
that part of the air, confumed in feeding the fire, muft
be reipeftively drawn out of all fuch places to which the
communication (hall be fo made.’*
This account is fo plain, that no doubt can remain
concerning the efficacy of the contrivance; it is evi¬
dent, that, by means of pipes of this kind, a conftant
circulation of frefti air would be occafioned thro’ thofe
places where it would otherwife be moft apt to ftagnate
and putrefy. Several other contrivances have been ufed
for the fame purpofe; and Doftor Hales’s ventilators,
by fome unaccountable prejudice, have been reckoned
fuperior in efficacy and even fimplicity to Mr Sutton’s
machine, which at its firft invention met with great
l J See oppofition *■, and even when introduced by Dr Mead,
; u on’ who ufed all his intereft for that purpofe, was ftiame-
fully negle&ed.
A machine capable of anfwering the fame purpofe
was invented by Mr Defaguliers, which he called the
(hip's lungs. It confifted of a cylindrical box fet up on
its edge, and fixed to a wooden pedeftal. From the
upper edge of the box iffued a fquare trunk open at the
end, and communicating with the cavityj of the box.
Within this box was placed a cylindrical wheel turning
on an axis. It was divided into 12 parts, by means of
partitions placed like the radii of a circle. Thefe par-
89 ] AIR
titions did not extend quite to the centre, but left an Air-trunks,
open fpace of about t8 inches diameter in the middle ;
towards the circumference, they extended as far as pof-
fible without interfering with the cafe, fo that the
wheel might always be allowed to turn freely.—Things
being thusxircumftanced, it is plain, that if the wheel
was turned towards that fide of the box on which the
trunk was, every divifion would pufti the air before it,
and drive it out through the trunk, at the fame time
that frefh air would come in through the open fpace at
the centre, to fupply that which was thrown out thro*
the trunk. By turning the wheel fwiftly, a ftrong blaff
of air would be continually forced out thro’ the fquare
trunk, on the fame principles on which a common fan¬
ner winnows corn. If the wheel is turned the oppofite
way, a draught of air may be produced from the trunk
to the centre. If this machine, then, is placed in a
room where a circulation of air is wanted, and the trunk
made to pafs through one of the walls; by turning the
wheel fwiftly round, the air will be forced with great
velocity out of that room, at the fame time that frefli
air will enter through any chinks by which it can have
accefs to fupply that which has been forced out.
It is evident, that the circulation which is promoted
by this machine, is entirely of the fame kind with that
produced by Mr Sutton’s; the turning of the wheel in
Mr Defaguliers’s machine being equivalent to the rare-
fa&ion of the air by fire in Mr Sutton’s: but thaf the
latter is vaftly fuperior, as afting of itfelf, and without
intermiffion, requires no arguments to prove. Mr Sut¬
ton’s machine has yet another conveniency, of which no
other contrivance for the fame purpofe can boaft;
namely, that it not only draws out putrid air, but de-
ftroys it by caufing it pafs through fire; and experience
has abundantly (hewn, that though putrid air is thrown
into a great quantity of frefti air, it is fo far from lo-
fing its pernicious properties, that it often produces
noxious difeafes. We do not fay, indeed, that putrid
air becomes falutary by this means; but it is undoubt¬
edly rendered lefs noxious than before; tho’ whether it
is equally innocent with the fmoke of a fire fed in the
common way, we cannot pretend to determine.
Befides this machine by Mr Defaguliers, the venti¬
lators of Doctor Hales, already mentioned, and thofe
called Wind-fails, are likewife ufed for the fame purpofe.
The former of which is an improvement of the Heffian-
bellows * •. the other is a contrivance for throwing frefti * See Vend*
air into thofe places where putrid air is apt to lodge; lalor'
but this has the laft-mentioned inconvenience in a
much greater degree than any of the others, as the
blaft of frefh air throws out that which was rendered:
putrid by ftagnation, in fuch a manner as to contami ¬
nate all around it. See Wind-sails.
h.\K-Trunk, is alfo a contrivance by Do&or Hales
to prevent the ftagnation of putrid effluvia in jails,
and other places where a great number of people are
crowded together in a fmall fpace.. It confifts only of
a long fquare trunk open at both ends; one of which is
inferted into the cieling of the rodm, the air of which
is required to be kept pure;, and the other extends a
good way beyond the roof. Through this trunk a
continued circulation is carried on : and the reafon is,
that the putrid effluvia which do fo much mifchief when
colleded, being much lighter than the pure atmofphere,
avife to the top of the room; and, if they there find a
vent,,
A I R
[ 190 ]
Air-trunk* vent, will continually go out through it, Thefe effluvia
!l arife in very confiderable quantity, being calculated by
■ Aire- the late Dr Keil at no lefs than 39 ounces from one man
in 24 hours.
Thefe trunks were firft made trial of by Mr Yeoman,
over the Houfe of Commons, where they were nine
inches wide within; and over the Court of King’s-bench
in Weftminifter-hall, where they were fix inches wide.
They are fometimes made wider, and fometimes nar¬
rower : but the wider they are, the longer they ought
to be, more effe&ually to promote the afeent of the va¬
pour. The reafon why vapours of this kind afeend
more fwiftly through a long trunk than a fiiort one, is,
that the preffure of fluids is always according to their
different depth, without regard to the diameter of their
bafis, or of the veffel which contains them ; and, upon
this principle, a gallon of water may be made to fplit
ftrong calk*. When the column of putrid effluvia is
A J U
* See Hydro-
Jlqtics, n° 6.
from the town, there is a lazar-houfe, commonly called
the King's chapel, which King Robert de Bruce fet a-
part for the maintenance of lepers.
Aire, a town of France, in Proper Gafcony, of
which it is the capital, with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated
on the river 'Adour, on the declivity of a mountain.
E. Long. o. 3. N. Lat. 43. 47.
Aire, a ftrong town in the Netherlands, in the
county of Artois, with a caftle. It was taken by the
French in 1710, and was confirmed to them by the
treaty of Utrecht. It is feated on the river Lis, 22
miles fouth of Dunkirk, and communicates with St
Qmer’s by a canal cut from the river Aa. E. Long.
2. 31. N. Lat. 50. 38.
AIRESHIRE, a county of Scotland, the capital
of which is the town of Aire. It lies eaftward of the
frith of Clyde.
AIRING, a term peculiarly ufed for the exercifing
long and narrow, the difference between the column of horfe's in the open air. It purifies the blood; purges the
f See Pneu¬
matics, n° 6.
atmofphere preffing on the upper end of the trunk, and
that which preffes on the lower end, is much greater
than if the column of putrid effluvia was fliort and wide;
and confequently the afeent is muchfwifter.—One pan
of a Angle pair of feales, which was two inches in dia¬
meter, being held within one of thefe trunks, over the
houfe of commons, the force of the afeending air made
it rife fo as to require four grains to reftore the equili¬
brium, and this when there was no perfon in the houfe;
but when it was full, no lefs than 12 grains were requi¬
site to reftore the equilibrium; which clearly {hews that
thefe trunks muft be of real, and very great efficacy.
Aavi-Pump, a machine by which the air contained in
a proper veffel may be exhaufted, or drawn out *.
Pwsc-Shafts, among miners, are holes made to meet
the adits, and fupply them with frefti air.
AiK-Threads, in natural hiltory, a name given to
the long filaments, fo frequently feen in autumn float¬
ing about in the air.
Thefe threads are the work of fpiders, efpecially of
that fpecies called the long-legged field-fpider; which,
having mounted to the fummit of a buft) or tree, darts
from its tail feveraj of thefe threads, till one is produced
capable of fupporting the creature in the ^ir : on this
it mounts in queft of prey, and frequently rifes to a very
confiderable height. See Aranea.
Aik-Vejels, are fpiral duels in the leaves, &c. of
plants, fuppofed to be analogous to the lungs of ani¬
mals, in fupplying the different parts of a plant with air.
See Plants, n° 35. and the figure there referred to.
AIRA, in botany, a genus of the triandria di-
gynia clafs. There are 14 fpecies of the aira, nine of
which are natives of Britain. The Englifli name is
Hair-grafs. See the general article Grass.
AIRANI, in church-hiftory, an obfeure fe& of A-
rians, in the fourth century, who denied the confubftan-
tiality of the Holy Ghoft with the Father and the Son.
They are otherwife called Airaniftx} and are faid to
have taken tlieir name from one Airas, who diftinguiffi-
ed himfelf at the head of this party, in the reigns of
Valentinian and Gratian.
AIRE, in geography, a fea-port town in Scotland,
fituated in N. lat. 55. 30. and W. long. 4. 40. at the
mouth of a river of the fame name, which difeharges
itfelf into the frith of Clyde. Aire is the chief town
of the county, and very ancient. About a mile north
Ajuga.
body from grofs humours; and, as the jockies exprefs
it, teaches the horfe how to make his wind rake equally,
and keep time with the other motions of his body. It
alfo fharpens the ftomach, and keeps the creature hun¬
gry ; which is a thing of great confequence, as hunters
and racers are very apt to have their ftomach fall off,
either from want of exercife, or from the tob violent
exercife which they are often expofed to. If the horfe
be over fat, it is beft to air him before fun-rife, and
after fun-fetting; and in general, it is allowed by all,
that nothing is more beneficial to thofe creatures than
early and late airings. Some of our modern managers,
however, difpute this: they fay, that the cold of thefe
times is too great for the creature; and that if, in par¬
ticular, he is fubjeft to cattarhs, rheums, or the like
complaints, the dews and cold fogs, in thefe early and
late airings, will be apt to increafe all thofe diforders.
Nature, we fee, alfo points out the fun-beams as of
great ufe to thefe animals; thofe which are kept hardy
and lie out all night, always running to thofe places
where the funfhine comes, as foon as it appears in a
morning. This Ihould feem to recommend thofe airings
that are to be made before fun-firt, and a little time
after fun-rife. As to the caution, fo earneftly in¬
culcated by Markham, of ufing thefe early and late
airings for fat horfes, it is found unneceflary by many:
for they fay, that the fame effect may be produced by
airings at warmer times, provided only that they are
made longer; and that, in general, it is from long air¬
ings that we are to expeft to bring a horfe to a perfect
wind and found courage.
AIRY, or Aery, among fportfmen, a term expref-
fing the neft of a hawk or eagle.
Airy Triplicity, among aftrologers, denotes the three
figns, gemini, libra, and aquarius.
AISNE, a, river of France, which rifes in Cham¬
paign, and runs W. by Soifons in the Ifle of France,
falling into the river Oife, a little above Campeigne.
AITOCZU, a confiderable river of Leffer Afia,
which, arifing in the mountain Taurus, falls into the
fouth part of the Euxine fea.
AJUGA, Bugle, a genus of the gymnofpermia
order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. The
Species enumerated by Linnaeus are, 1. The orienta-
lis, with inverted flowers, which is a native of the Eaft.
2. The genevenfis, with woolly leaves and hairy cups,
A I X [ 191 ] A I X
‘ Ajuga is a native of Swiflerland and of the fouthern parts of
Europe. 3. The pyramidalis, or mountain-bugle, with
 ! a fquare pyramidal fpike, and blue flowers, is a native
of Sweden, Germany, Swiflerland, and the hilly parts
of Britain. Sheep and goats eat it; cows are not fond
of it; horfes and fwine refufe it. 4. The reptans, com¬
mon, or pafture bugle, with creeping fuckers, and blue,
red, or white bloflbms, in long leafy fpikes, is a native
of the fouthern parts of Europe, and is met with in
woods and moifl; places in many parts of Britain. The
roots are aftringent, and ftrike a black colour with vi¬
triol of iron.
Culture. The firfl: fpecies is propagated by fowing
the feeds foon after they are ripe, in a pot filled with
loamy earth, and placed in a fliady fituation till autumn;
when it mull be removed under a frame, and protected
from the frolts. In the fpring, after the plants are come
up, let them be tranflated each into a feparate pot, and
in fummer placed under a lhady fituation. The other
forts are eafily propagated by their fide-lhoots, and
fucceed belt in a moifl; lhady fituation.
AIUS LOCUTIUS, the name of a deity to whom
the Romans erefted an altar.—The words are Latin,
and fignify “ a fpeaking voice.”—The following ac¬
cident gave occafion to the Romans erefting an altar to
the AIus Locutius. One M. Ceditius, a plebeian, ac¬
quainted the tribunes, that, in walking the ftreets by
night, he had heard a voice over the temple of Vella,
giving the Romans notice that the Gauls were coming
againll them. Tliis intimation was however neglefted ;
but after the truth was confirmed by the event, Camil-
lus acknowledged this voice to be a new deity, and erec¬
ted an altar to it under the name of the Aius Locutius.
AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, a kind of tube fitted
to the mouth of the vefiel through which the water of
a fountain is to be played. To the different form and
llruilure of ajutages, is owing the great variety of
fountains. See Fountain.
AIX, a fmall, but ancient town, in the duchy of Sa¬
voy, with the title of a marquifate. It is feated on the
lake Bourget, at the foot of a mountain, between
Chamberry, Annecy, and Rumilly. There is here
a triumphal arch of the ancient Romans, but it is al-
molt entirely ruined. The mineral waters bring a great
number of llrangers to this place. E. Long. 7. 10.
N. Lat. 45. 40.
AIX, an ancient city, the capital of Provence, in
France. It is an archbilhopric; and has a parliament,
a court of aids, a chamber of accounts, a fenefchal’s
jurifdidlion, a generality, and an univerfity. It is a
well-built city; and moll like Paris of any place in
the kingdom, as well for the largenefs of the buildings,
as in refpeft of the politenefs of the inhabitants. It is
embellifhed with abundance of fine fountains and feveral
beautiful fquares. The preachers fquare is on the
fide of a hill ; it is about 160 yards in length, and
is furrouftded with trees, and houfes,, built with Jlone,
three llories high. The town-hall is at one end of the
city, and is dillributed into feveral line apartments:
the two lowell are taken up by the board of accoiints,
and by the fenefchal; that above is defigned for the
feflions of parliament., The hall of audience is adorned
with the pictures of the kings of France on horfeback.
The hotel of the city is a handfome building, but hid
by the houfes of the narrow llreet in which it is placed.
The cathedral church is a Gothic ftrudlure. The church
of the fathers of the oratory is a handfome building ;
and not far from thence is the chapel of the blue pe¬
nitents, which is full of paintings. The convent of
preachers is very fine; in their church is a filver lla-
tue of the Virgin Mary almcdl as big as the life. There
are other churches and buildings which contain a great
number of rarities. The baths without the city, which
were difcovered not long fince, have good buildings,
raifed at a vaft expence, for the accommodation of thofe
that drink the waters. E. Long. 5. 32. N. Lat. 43. 32.
Aix, a fmall ifland on the coafl; of France, between
the ifle of Oleron and the continent. It is twelve
miles north-well of Rochfort, and twelve fouth-fouth-
well of Rochelle. W. Long. 1. 4. N. Lat. 46. 5.
Aix la Chapelle, a fine city of Germany, in the
circle ofWeftphalia and duchy of Juliers. All authors
are agreed about its antiquity, it being mentioned in
Csefar’s Commentaries and the Annals of Tacitus. The
Romans had colonies and fortrefles there, when they
were at war with the Germans ; but the mineral wa¬
ters and the hot bath fo increafed its fame, that, in
procefs of time, it was advanced to the privileges of a
city, by the name of Aqusegranii, that is, the waters
of Granius; that which it has now, of Aix la Chapelle,
was given it by the French* to diftinguilh it from the
other Aix. It is fo called, on account of a chapel
built by Charlemagne in honour of the Holy Virgin.
Having repaired, beautified, and enlarged the city,
that was dellroyedby the Huns, in the reign of Atti-
la, in 451, he made it the ufual place of his refi-
dence. The town is feated in a valley furrounded with
mountains and woods, and yet the air is very whole-
fome. It may be divided into the inward and outward,
city. The inward is incompafled with a wall about three
quarters of a league in circumference, having ten gates;
and the outward wall, in which there are eleven gates,
is about a league *and a half in circumference. There
are rivulets which run through the town and keep it
very clean, turning feveral mills; befides twenty public
fountains, and many private ones. They have Hone-
quarries in the neighbourhood, which furnifh the in¬
habitants with proper materials for their magnificent
buildings, of which the ttadt-houfe and the cathedral;
are the chief. There are likewife thirty parochial or
collegiate churches. The market-place is very fpa-
cious, and the houfes round it (lately. In the middle,
before the (ladt-houfe, is a fountain of blue (lones,
which throws out water, from fix pipes, into a marble
bafon placed beneath, thirty feet in circumference..
On the top of this fountain, is placed the llatue of
Charlemagne, of brafs, gilt, holding a fceptre in his
right hand, and a globe in his left. The lladt-houfe
is adorned with the (latues of all the emperors fince
Charlemagne. This fabric has three dories, the upper
of which is one entire room, of 16’2 feet. in length
and 60 in breadth. In this the new-ele&ed emperor
formerly entertained all the eledlors of the empire.—
Aix la Chapelle is a free imperial city, and changes
its magidracy every year on the eve of St John Baptid.
The mayor is in the nomination of theeleftor palatine,
in the quality of the duke of Juliers, as protector of the
city. This place is famous for feveral councils, and
treaties of peace concluded here, particularly thofe be¬
tween France and Spain in 1668, and between Great
Britain.
Chapelle.
A K E [i92] ALA
i* Britain and France in 1748. The baths have been
a k!e’ frequented for fqveral centuries, of which fome are hot
--- eD ‘ e* and fome are warm. The pidncipal are called the Em¬
peror’s Bath, the Bath of St Cornille, the Bath of
Rofes, the Bath of -St Quirin, the Little Bath, and
the Bath of the Poor, befides feveral others. The
Emperor’s Bath has the name of Charlemagne, who
repaired it, and bathed very often in its waters ; it is
the finefl. and moft commodious. The Little Bath re¬
ceives its waters from the Emperor’s Bath, and con¬
tains three bathing places. That of St Quirin has par¬
ticular,fprings, but its virtues are the fame as the for¬
mer. The Bath of St Cornille is fo called from the
fign of the houfe where it is feated; it is only warm,
and is divided into five different baths. The Bath of
Rofes, is fo called from a citizen called John Ro-
fen, who built it. The Poor’s Bath is free for every
one, and is frequented by crowds of poor people.
The men bathe in diftinfl baths from the women,
and even private baths are to be had for money.
There are two fprings in the lower part of the city,
over one of which there is the ftatue of the Virgin
Mary, and over the other that of Charlemagne. Thefe
are for drinking ; and there are two pumps to raife up
the waters. There are feveral galleries or piazzas, un¬
der which they walk during the time of drinking, to
make them pafs the more freely.—About a quarter of
a league from Aix, Hands the abbey of Borzet, or Bur-
fcheit, which is a very magnificent pile of building. It
was formerly a monafiery; but ferves for a nunnery,
whofe abbefs is a princefs of the empire, and lady of
Borzet. The baths here are much hotter than at Aix
la Chapelle: fome of them are fo hot, that they will
boil eggs, which is frequently done by poor people;
and if you throw in a dog, he will be killed in an in-
ftant. Therefore, here, as at Aix, the water muft ftand
till it is of a proper coolnefs. You may bathe here at
fourteen different houfes; and there is likewife one open
bath where the poor .may bathe gratis. Near this
place are feveral mines of lead, coal, and lapis calami-
naris. The time of drinking the waters, in the firft
feafon, is from the beginning of May to the middle of
June; and, in the latter feafon, from the middle of Au-
guft to the latter end of September. They are faid
to be efficacious in almoft all tedious chronic difeafes,
wliether internal or of the fkin, particularly in all dif-
orders of the nerves, or in all cold difeafes, and inward
decays.—We need not to mention, that there are all
kinds of amufements common to other places of public
refort; but the {harpers appear more fplendid here than
elfewhere, affuming titles, with an equipage fuitable to
them.—Aix la Chapelle is 36 miles from Liege, and
30 from Cologne. E. Long. 5. 48. N. Lat. 51. 55.
AIZOON, called by Mr Miller fempervive; though
the name Aizoon has been by fame writers applied to
the houfe-leek, and alfo to the aloes: A genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants. Linnaeus mentions three fpecies; the canarienfe,
hifpanicum, and paniculatum. The firft is a native of
the Canary iflands, the fecond of Spain, and the third
of the Cape of Good Hope. They may all be raifed
in this country on hot-beds ; but as they are not at all
remarkable either for beauty or any other property, we
reckon it unneceffary to take further notice of them.
AKENSIDE (Dr Mark), a celebrated phyfician
and poet, born at Newcaftle upon Tyne in -I721 ; AkiUa
where, and at the univerfities of Edinburgh and Ley- ^
den, he was educated. He was afterward admitted ' a~ ■
by mandamus to the degree of doftor in phyfic at Cam¬
bridge; and was appointed one of the queen’s phyfi-
clans, upon the eftabliffiment of her houftiold. He
was poffeffed of a fine luxuriant fancy; which, tho’ he
wrote many pieces, particularly odes, is principally
difplayed in that admired poem, The Pleafures of
Imagination; which, however, he did not live to finifti
according to his plan. He died of a putrid fever in
177°.
AKIBA, a famous rabbin, flouriffied a little after
the deftru&ion of Jerufalem by Titus. He kept the
flocks of a rich citizen of Jerufalem till the 40th year
of his age, and then applied himfelf to ftudy in the
academies for 24 years; and was afterwards one of the
freateft mafters in Ifrael, he having 24,000 fcholars.
1/2 declared for the impoftor Barcochebas, whom he
owned for the Meffiah; and not only anointed him king,
but took upon himfelf the office of his mafter of the
horfe. The troops which the emperor Hadrian fent
againft the Jews, who under the conduct of this falfe
Meffiah had committed horrid maffacres, exterminated
this faction. Akiba was taken, and put to death with
great cruelty. He lived 120 years; and was buried
with with his wife in a cave upon a mountain not far
from Tiberias, and his 24,000 fcholars were buried
round about him upon the fame mountain. It is ima¬
gined he invented a fuppofititious work under the name
of the patriarch Abraham.
AKISSAT, the ancient Thyatira, a city in Na-
tolia, in Afia, fituated in a plain 18 miles broad, which
produces plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants,
who are reckoned to be about 5000, are faid to be all
Mahometans, and not one Chriftian among them, ex¬
cept a few flaves. The houfes are built of nothing but
earth or turf dried in the fun, and are very low and ill
contrived: but there are fix or feven mofques, which
are all of marble. There are remarkable infcriptions
on marble in feveral parts of the town, which are part
of the ruins of ancient Thyatira. It is feated on the
river Hermus, 50 miles from Pergamos. E. Long. 28.
30. N. Lat. 38. 50.
AKOND, in the Perfian affairs, the chief judge in
all cafes of contracts and other civil matters. He is at
the head of the lawyers, and has his deputies in all
courts of the kingdom.
AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and fig-
nifying much the fame with the Englifh particle the:
Thus they fay, alkermes, alkoran, &c. i. e. the ker-
mes, the koran, &c.
Al, or Ald, a Saxon term frequently prefixed to the
names of places, denoting their antiquity; as Aid-
borough, Aldgate, &c.
ALA, a Latin term properly fignifying a wing;
from a refemblance to which feveral other things are
called by the fame name : Thus,
Ala, is a term ufed by botanifts for the hollow of a
ftalk, which either the leaf, or the pedicle of the leaf,
makes with it; or it is that hollow turning, or finus,
placed between the ftalk or branch of a plant, and the
leaf, whence a new offspring ufually iffues. Sometimes
it is ufed for thofe parts of leaves othervVife called lobes,
or ’wings.
ALvE,
ALA [ 193 ] ALA
Alas ALiE (the plural number) is ufed to fignxfy thofe
lj petals or leaves of papilionaceous flowers, placed be-
A a lnl *' tween thofe others which are called the vexillum and
carina, and which make the top and bottom of the
flowers. Inftances of flowers of this ftru&ure are feen
in thofe of peafe and beans, in which the top leaf or
petal is the vexillum, the bottom the carina, and the
fide ones the alas. See Papilionaceous.
Al^e is alfo ufed for thofe extremely flender and
membranaceous parts of fome feeds, which appear as
wings placed on them ; it likewife fignifies thofe mem¬
branaceous expanfions running along the Hems of fome
plants, which are therefore called alated ftalks.
Alae, in anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of
the liver, the cartilages of the noltril, &c.
Alae, in the Roman art of war, were the two wings
or extreme parts of the army drawn up in order of
battle.
ALABA, one of the three fmalleft diftrifts of Bif-
cay in Spain, but pretty fertile in rye, barley, and
fruits. There are in it very good mines of iron, and
it had formerly the title of a kingdom.
ALABARCHA, in antiquity, a kind of magi-
ftrate among the Jews of Alexandria, whom the em¬
perors allowed them to eledt, -for the fuperintendency
of their policy, and to decide differences and difputes
which arofe among them.
ALABASTER, in natural hiftory, a genus of fof-
fils refembling marble, which are bright, brittle, and
do not give fire with Heel; they ferment with acids,
and readily calcine with heat. There are three fpecies
of alabafter. 1. The fiiow-white fliining alabafter, or
lygdinum of the ancients, is found in Taurus, in pieces
large enough to make diflies, or the like. It cuts ve¬
ry freely, and is capable of a fine polifli. 2. The
yellowilh alabafter, or phengites of Pliny, is found in
Greece; and is of a foft loofe open texture, pretty
heavy, and nearly of the colour of honey. This fpe¬
cies has likewife been found in Germany, France, and
in Derbyfhire in England. 3. Variegated, yellow,
and reddifli alabafter. This fpecies is the common ala¬
bafter of the ancients, and is fo foft that it may be
cut with a knife ; It is remarkably bright, and almoft
tranfparent ; admits of a fine polilh and confifts of
large angular fparry concretions. It is not proof a-
gainft water ; it ferments violently with aqua-fortis,
and burns to a pale yellow. The colour of this fpecies
is a clear pale yellow refembling amber, and variegated
with undulated veins; fotne of which are pale red,
others whitilh, and others of a pale brown. It was
formerly brought from Egypt, Jbut is now to be met
with in feveral parts of England. The alabafters are
frequently ufed by ftatuaries for fmall ftatues, vafes,
and columns. After being, calcined and mixed with
water, they may be call in any mould like plafter of
Paris. See Gypsum.
Alabaster, in antiquity, a term not only ufed for
a box of precious ointment; but alfo for a liquid mea-
fure, containing ten ounces of wine, or nine of oil.
ALABASTRUM dendroide, a kind of lamina¬
ted alabafter, beautifully variegated with the figures of
Ihrubs, trees, &c. found in great abundance in the pro¬
vince of Hohenftein.
ALADINISTS, a fe£t among the Mahometans,
anfwering to free-thinkers among us.
Vol. I.
ALADULIA, a confiderable province of Turky Aiadulia
in Afia, in that part called Natolia, between the moun- .. U
tains of Antitaurus, which feparate it from A mafia amani>1-
on the north, and from Carimania on the weft. It has
the Mediterranean fea on the fouth; and the Euphrates,
or Frat, on the eaft, which divides it from Diarbeker. It
comprehends the Lefler Armenia of the ancients, and
the eaft part of Cilicia. Formerly it had kings of its
own ; but the head of the laft king was cut off by Se¬
lim I. emperor of the Turks, who had conquered the
country. It is now divided into two parts : the north,
comprehended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the
Euphrates, is a beglerbeglic, which bears the name of
Marafh, the capital town ; and the fouth, feated be¬
tween mount Taurus and the Mediterranean, is united
to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The country is rough,
ragged, and mountainous; yet there are good*paftures,
and plenty of horfes and camels. The people are har¬
dy and thievifti. The capital is Malatigah.
ALAIN (Chartier), fecretary to Charles VII. king
of France, born in the year 1386. He was the au¬
thor of feveral works in profe and verfe ; but his moft
famous performance was his Chronicle of King Charles
VII. Bernard de Girard, in his preface to the Hi¬
ftory of France, ftyles him “ an excellent hiftorian,
who has given an account of all the affairs, particulars,
ceremonies, fpeeches, anfwers, and circumftances, at
which he was prefent himfelf, or had information of.”
Giles Coroxet tells us, that Margaret, daughter to
the king of Scotland, and wife to the dauphin, paf-
fing once through a hall where Alain lay afleep, ftie
flopped and kiffed him before all the company who at¬
tended: fome of them telling her, that it was ftrange
fhe fhould kifs a man who had fo few charms in his
perfon, fhe replied, “ I did not kifs the man, but the
mouth from whence proceed fo many excellent fayings,
fo many wife difcourfes, and fo many elegant expref-
fions.” Mr Fontenelle, among his Dialogues of the
Dead, has one upon this incident, between the prin-
cefs Margaret and Plato. Mr Pafquier compares Alain
to Seneca, on account of the great number of beauti¬
ful fentences interfperfed throughout his writings.
ALAIS, a confiderable town of France, in the
province of Languedoc, fituated on the river Garden,
at the foot of the Cevennes. The Jefuits had a college
in this place ; and a fort was built here in 1689. It is
34 miles north of Montpellier, and 340 from Paris.
E. Lon. 4. 20. N. Lat. 44. 8.
ALALCOMENIUS, in Grecian antiquity, the
Boeotian name of the month called, by the Athenians,
Mamatterion.
ALAMANNI (Lewis) was born at Florence, of
a noble family, on the 28th of Oftober, 1495. He
was obliged to fly his country for a confpiracy againft
Julius de Medici, who was foon after chofen pope un¬
der the name of Clement VII. During this voluntary
banifhment, he went into France; where Francis I.
from a love to his genius and merit, became his patron.
This prince employed him in feveral important affairs,'
and honoured him with the collar of the order of St.
Michael. About the year 1540, he was admitted a
member of the Inflammati, an academy newly ere&ed
at Padua, chiefly by Daniel Barbara and Ugohn Mar-
telli. After the death of Francis, Henry duke of Or¬
leans, who fucceeded him in 1537, /hewed no lefs fa-
B b vour
Ala moda¬
lity
II
Alan.
ALA L i94 ] ALA
vour to Alamanni; and in the year xyyij fent him as
his ambaflador to Genoa : this was his laft journey to
Italy ; and being returned to France, he died at Am-
boife on the 18th of April 1556, being in the 61st
year of his age. He left many beautiful poems, and
other valuable performances, in the Italian language.
We have alfo fome notes of his upon Homer’s Iliad
and Odyffey ; thofe upon the Iliad were printed in the
Cambridge edition of Homer in 1689, and Jolhua
Barnes has alfo inferted them in his fine edition of
Homer in 1711.
ALAMODALITY, in a general fenfe, is the ac¬
commodating a perfon’s behaviour, drefs, and adtions,
to the prevailing tafte of the country or times in which
he lives.
Alamodality of writing, is defined the accommo¬
dation of mental produdtions, both as to the choice of
fubjedt and the manner of treating it, to the genius or
tafte of the times, in order to render them more ac¬
ceptable to the readers.
ALAMODE, a phrafe originally French, im¬
porting a thing to be in the falhion or mode. The
phrafe has been adopted not only into feveral of the
living languages, as the Englifh and High-Dutch,
but fome have even taken it into the Latin. Hence
we meet with Alamodicus and Alamodalitas.
Alamode, in commerce, a thin gloffy black filk,
chiefly ufed for womens hoods and mens mourning
fcarfs.
ALAN (Cardinal William),'was born at Roflal in
Lancalhire, in the year 1532. He went to Oxford
at the age of 15, and in 1550 was eledted fellow of
Oriel college. In 1556, being then only 24 years old,
he was chofen principal of St Mary’s hall, and one of
the prodtors of the univerfity. In 1558 he was made
canon of York ; but, upon queen Elizabeth’s accef-
fion to the throne, he left England, and fettled at Lou¬
vain in an Englilh college, of which he became the
chief fupport. In 1565 he vifited his native country;
but, on account of his extreme adtivity in the propa¬
gation of the Roman-catholic religion, he was obli¬
ged to fly the kingdom in 1568. He went firft to
Mechlin; and then toDoway, where he was made dodtor
of divinity. Soon after, he was appointed canon of
Cambray, and then canon of Rheims. He was crea¬
ted cardinal on the 28th of July, 1587, by the title of
St Martin in Montibus; and obtained from the king of
Spain a rich abbey in the kingdom of Naples, and af¬
terwards the biftioprick of Mechlin. It is fuppofed to
have been by the advice and inftigation of this prieft,
that Philip II. attempted to invade England. He died
on the 20th of Odtober 1594, aged 63 5 and was bu¬
ried in the Englifla college at Rome. He was a man
of confiderable learning, and an elegant writer. He
wrote many books in defence of the Romifli religion.
The moft remarkable are, \.A defence of the 12 mar¬
tyrs in one year. Tho. Alfield was hanged for bring¬
ing, and publifliing,. this and other of Alan’s works,
into England, in the year 1584. 2. Adedaration of
the fentence of Sextus V. &c. A work intended to ex¬
plain the pope’s bull for the excommunication of queen
Elizabeth, and. to exhort the people of England to
take up arms in favour of the Spaniards. Many thou-
fand copies of this book, printed at Antwerp, were
put on board the Armada ; but the enterprife failing,
they were afterwards deftroyed. 3. Of the nucrjhip
due to faints and their relids, 1583. This treatife was
anfwered by lord Burleigh, and is efteemed the moft
elegant of the cardinal’s writings.
ALAND, an ifland of the Baltic fea, between
Sweden and Finland, fubjedt to the former. It lies
between 17 and 19 degrees of E. Long, and between
59 and 61 degrees of Lat. at the entrance of the guiph
of Bothnia.
ALANDRARIUS, in our old cuftoms, was a
keeper of fpaniels, fetting-dogs, &c. for the ufe of
fportfmen. The word is derived from alan, a gothic
term for a grey-hound.
ALAQUECA, a ftone brought from the Eaft In¬
dies in final! glofly fragments, faid to ftop haemorrha¬
ges by external application.
ALA RAF, in the Mahometan theology, the par¬
tition wall that feparates heaven from hell. The word
is plural, and properly written al araf ; in the Angular
it is written al arf. It is derived from the Arabic
verb arafa, to diftinguifti. Al araf gives the denomi¬
nation to the feventh chapter of the alcoran, wherein
mention is made of this wall. Mahomet feems to have
copied his al araf, either from the great gulf of fepa-
ration mentioned in the New Teftament, or from the
Jewifli writers, who alfo fpeak of a thin wall dividing
heaven from hell. Mahometan writers differ extremely
as to the perfons who are to be found on al araf. Some
take it for a fort of limbus for the patriarchs, pro¬
phets, &c. others place here fuch whofe good and evil
works fo exactly balance each other, that they deferve
neither reward nor punilhment. Others imagine this
intermediate fpaee to be poffeffed by thofe who, going to
war without their parents leave, and fuffering martyrdom
there, are excluded paradife for their difobedience, yet
efcape hell becaufe they are martyrs.
ALARBES, or Alarabes, a name given to thofe
Arabians who live in tents, and diftinguifti themfelves
by their drefs from the others who live in towns.
ALARES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given
to the cavalry, dn account of their being placed in the
two wings of the army.
ALARM, in the military art, denotes either the
apprehenfion of being fuddenly attacked; or the notice
thereof, fignified by firing a cannon, firelock, or the
like.—Falfe alarms are frequently made ufe of to har-
rafs the enemy, by keeping them conftantly under
arms. Sometimes alfo this method-is taken to try the
vigilance of the piquet-guard, and what might be ex-
pefted from them in cafe of real danger.
AiiARM-i?e//, that rung upon any fudden emergency,
as a fire, mutiny, or the like.
Alarm-jPc/?, or A\,AKm-place, the ground for draw¬
ing up each regiment in cafe of an alarm. This is other-
wife called the rendezvous.
Alarm, in fencing, is the fame with what is other-
wife called an appeal, or challenge.
ALASCANI, in church-hiftory, a feft of Antilu-
therans, whofe diftinguiftiing tenet, befides their deny¬
ing baptifm, is faid to have been this, that the words,
‘This is my body, in the inftitution ofthe eucharift, are not*
to be underftood of the bread,, but of the whole action,
or celebration of the fupper. They are faid to have
taken the name from one Joannes a Lafco, a Poliftv
baron, fuperintendant of the church of that country,,
in,.
Aland
Alafcani.
ALA t 195 ] ALA
Alafco in England. See the next article.
Alauda ALASCO (John), a Polifti nobleman of the 16th
  1-- century, who, imbibing the reformed opinions, was ex¬
pelled his country, and became preacher to a Proteftant
congregation at Embden; but forefeeing perfecution
there, -came to England about the year 1551, while the
reformation was carrying on under Edward the VI.
The publication of the Interim driving the Proteftants
to fuch places as afforded them toleration, 380 were
naturalized here, and obtained a charter of incorpora¬
tion, by which they were eredled into an ecclefiaftical
eftablifhment, independent on the church of England.
The Auguftine friars church was granted them, with
the revenues, for the maintainance of Alafco as fuper-
intendant, with four affiftant minifters, who were to be
approved by the king: and this congregation lived
undifturbed until the acceflion of Queen Mary, when
they were all fent away. They were kindly received
and permitted to fettle at Embden ; and Alafco at laft,
after an abfence of twenty years, by the favour of Si-
gifmund returned to his own country, where he died
in 1560. Alafco was much efteemed by Erafmus, and
the hiftorians of his time fpeak greatly in his praife :
we have of his writing, De Ciena Domini liber; Epiftola
continens fummam Controverfne de Coena Domini, &c. He
had fome particular tenets; and his followers are called
Alafcani in church-hiftory. See the preceding article.
AL AT AM A HA, a large river of North America,
which, rifing in the Apalachian mountains, runs fouth-
eaft through the province of Georgia, and falls into the
Atlantic ocean, below the town of Frederica.
ALATED animals, fuch as are furnifhed with
wings.
Alated Leaves, in botany, fuch as are compofed of
feveral pinnated ones. See Pinnated.
ALATERNOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of a
fpecies of the myrica. See Myrica.
ALATERNUS, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the rhamnus. See Rhamnus.
ALAVA, a diftri& of Spain, about 20 miles in
length, and 17 in breadth, containing very good iron
mines. Viftoria is the capital town.
ALAUDA, or Lark, in ornithology, a genus of
birds of the order of pafferes ; the characters of which
are thefe : The beak is cylindrical, fubulated, ftraight;
and the two mandibles or chaps are of equal lize. The
tongue is bifid, and the hinder claw is ftraight, and
longer than the toe. There are nine fpecies of the
g alauda. 1. The arvenfis, or common fky-lark. This
‘ and the wood-lark are the only birds that fing as
they fly ; this raifing its note as it foars, and lowering
it till it quite dies away as it defcends. It will often
foar to fuch a height, that we are charmed with the
mufic when we lofe fight of the fongfter ; it alfo be-
S’ns its fong before the earlieft dawn. Milton, in his
llegro, moft beautifully exprefles thefe circumftances;
and biftiop Newton obferves, that the beautiful fcene
that Milton exhibits of rural cheerfulnefs, at the fame
time gives us a fine pifture of the regularity of his life,
and the innocency of his own mind : thus he defcribes
himfelf as in a fituation
To hear the lark begin his flight.
And finging ftartle the dull night.
From his watch-tow’r in the ikies,
Till the dappled dawn doth rife.
It continues its harmony feveral months, beginning Alauda, 7
early in the fpring, on pairing. In the winter they or ^ar^'
aflemble in vaft flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in
great numbers for our tables. They build their neft
on the ground, beneath fome clod, forming it of hay,
dry fibres, &c. and lay four or five eggs.—The place
thefe birds are taken in the greateft quantity, is the
neighbourhood of Dunftable : the feafon begins about
the 14th of September, and ends the 25th of Fe¬
bruary ; and during that fpace, about 4000 dozen
are caught, which fupply the markets of the metro¬
polis. Thofe caught in the day are taken in clap-nets
of fifteen yards length, and two and a half in breadth;
and are enticed within their reach by means of bits of
looking-glafs, fixed in a piece of wood, and placed in
the middle of the nets, which are put in a quick whirl¬
ing motion by a firing the larker commands; he alfo
makes ufe of a decoy-lark. Thefe nets are ufed only
till the 14th November: for the larks will not dare, or
frolic in the air, except in fine funny weather ; and of
courfe cannot be inveigled into the fnare. When the
weather grows gloomy, the larker changes his engine,
and makes ufe of a trammel net, twenty-feven or
twenty-eight feet long, and five broad; which is put
on two poles, eighteen feet long, and carried by men
under each arm, who pafs over the fields and quar¬
ter the ground as a fetting dog: when they hear or
feel a lark hit the net, they drop it down, and fo
the birds are taken.—2. The pratenfis, or tit-lark, Tit-lark,
has the two outward feathers of the wing edged with
white, and frequents the meadows. It is found frequent¬
ly in low marlhy grounds : like other larks, it builds its
neft among the grafs, and lays five or fix eggs. Like
the wood-lark, it fits on trees; and has a moft remarkable
fine note, finging in all fituations, on trees, on the
ground, while it is fporting in the air, and particularly
in its defcent. This bird, with many others, fuch as
the thrufti, blackbird, willow-wren, &c. become filent
about midfummer, and refume their notes in Septem¬
ber : hence the interval js the moft mute of the year’s
three vocal feafons, fpring, fummer, and autumn. Per¬
haps the birds are induced to fing again as the autum¬
nal temperament refembles the vernal.—3. Thearborea,
or wood-lark, is a native of Europe, and is diftinguifti- Wood-lark,
ed by an annular white fillet about the head. It is in- ire.
ferior in fize to the Iky-lark, and is of a Ihorter thicker
form; the colours are paler, and its note is lefs fonorous
and lefs varied, though not lefs fweet. It perches on
trees, and whiftles like the black-bird. It will fing in the
night; and, like the common lark, will fing as it flies.
It builds on the ground, and makes its neft on the out-
fide with mofs, within of dried bents, lined with a few
hairs. It lays five eggs, dufley and blotched with deep
brown marks, darkeft at the thicker end. The males
of this and the laft are known from the females by their
fuperior fize. But this fpecies is not near fo numerous
as that of the common kind.—4. The campeftris, has
one half of its chief feathers of the wings brown, ex¬
cept two in the middle which are white, and the throat
and breaft are yellowifh.—5. The trivialis, whofe chief
feathers on the tail are brown, only half of the outer-
moft is white, and the fecond is white at the end, in the
Ihape of a wedge ; there is likewife a double whitilh
line on the wings. It is a native of Sweden, and per¬
ches on the tops of trees.—6. The criftata: the chief
B b 2 tail-
Aiauta
II
Alba.
ALB [ 196 ] ALB
tail-feathers are black, but the two outermoft are edged
with white, and the head is crefted. It is a native of
Europe.—7. The fpinoletta : the chief tail-feathers are
black, only the outermoft two are obliquely half white.
It is a native of Italy.—8. The alpeftris : the chief
wing-feathers are half white, the throat yellow, and it
has a black ftreak under the eyes and on the breaft. It
is a native of North America.—9. The magna, is yel¬
low on the belly, with a crooked black ftreak on the
breaft, and the three fide-feathers of the tail white. It
is a native of Africa and America.
ALAUTA, a confxderable river of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, which, after watering the north-eaft part of Tran-
fylvania and part of Wallachia, falls into the Danube
almoft oppoftte to Nicopolis.
ALB, or Albe, in the Romifh church, a veftment
of white linen hanging down to the feet, and anfwering
to the furplice of the Englilh clergy. In the ancient
church, it was ufual, with thofe newly baptized, to
wear an alb, or white veftment ; and hence the Sunday
after Eafter was called dominica in albis, on account of
the albs worn by thofc baptized on eafter-day.
Alb is alfo a name of a Turkifh coin, otherwife
called afper. See As per.
ALBA firma, or Album, in our old cuftoms, de¬
noted rent paid in filver, and not in corn, which was
called black-mail.
Alba Terra, one of the numerous names for the
philofopher’s ftone.
ALBA, (anc. geog.) a town of the Marfi in Italy,
fituated on the north-fide of the Lacus Fucinus, ftill
retaining its name. The inhabitants were called Al-
bani, and Albenfes.
Alba helviorum, or Albaugujla, in ancient geogra¬
phy, (Pliny, Ptolemy); afterwards called Vivarium;
now Viviers, in the fouth-eaft of Languedoc, on the
Rhone. In the lower age the inhabitants were called
Albenfes, and their city, Civitas Albenjium, in the No-
titia Gallise. E. long. 4. 45. lat. 44. 50.
Alba julia, (anc. geog.) now Weiffenburg, a
town of Tranfylvania, on the river Marifius, or Me-
rifch, to the weft of Hermanftat, fuppofed to be cal¬
led Julia, after Julia Domna the mother of Ca-
racalla. 'There are, however, feveral infcriptions found
at or near Weiflenburg, which bear Col. Apul. that is
Colonia Apulenfts, without the leaft mention of Alba
Julia, though infcribed after Caracalla’s time. Add,
that Ulpian, reciting the colonies of Dacia, calls this
colony Apulenfis, and neither Alba nor Julia. Whence
there is a fufpicion, that Alba Julia is a corruption
of Apulum. It was alfo called Apulum Augujlum.
E. Long. 25. o. Lat. 46. 46.
Alba longa, (anc. geog.) a colony from Lavi-
nium, in Latium, eftablifhed by Afcanius the fon of
./Eneas, at the foot of the Mons Albanus : called Al¬
ba, from a white fow found by iEneas, which farrowed
30 white pigs on that fpot; which circumftance was in¬
terpreted to portend the building of a city there in
30 years after, (Propertius). The epithet Longa was
added on account of its length. It was the royal refi-
dence, till the building of Rome, as was foretold by
Anchifes, (Virgil) ; was deftroyed by Tullus Hoftilius,
all but the fane or temple ; and the inhabitants were
tranfplanted to Rome, (Strabo.)
Alba pompeia, (anc. geog.) on the river Ceba,
now Ceva, in Liguria, the birth-place of the emperor Albana
Pertinax ; a colony either eftabliflied at firft by Pom- ^ ^'1 .
pey, or re-eftablifhed by him after having been before 1 !
fettled by Scipio. The inhabitants were called Alpen-
fes Pompeiani. At this day the town is Amply called
Alba, without any epithet.
ALBANA, (anc. geog.) a fea-port town of Alba¬
nia, on the Cafpian fea, between the rivers Cafius and
Albanus ; now called Bachu, or Bachy, giving name to
the Cafpian fea, viz. Mar de Bahu. E. Long. 49. o.
Lat. 40. o.
ALBAHURIM, figura fexdecim laterum, a figure
of great importance according to aftrological phyfi-
cians, who built their prognoftics on it.
ALBANENSES, in church-hi ftory, the fame with
Albigenfes, according to fome; according to others,
different. Thofe, however, who are for diftinguifhing
them, attribute the fame opinions to both ; only ma¬
king the Abanenfes to have been prior in refpeit of
time, as having been found towards the clofe of the
eighth century ; whereas the Albigenfes appeared not
till the twelfth. See Albigenses.
ALBANI, in Roman antiquity, a college of the
falii, or priefts of Mars; fo called from mount Albanus,
the place of their refidence. See Salii.
ALBANIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, on
the gulph of Venice, bounded by Livadia on the fouth,
by Theffaly and Macedonia on the eaft, and on the
north by Bofnia and Dalmatia. The people are ftron^-,
large, courageous, and good horfemen; but are faid
to be of a thievifh difpofition : the grand feignior pro¬
cures excellent foldiers from hence, particularly caval¬
ry, known by the name of Arnauts. There are feve *
ral large towns in this province ; and the inhabitants
are almoft all Chriftians of the Greek church, and
defcended from the ancient Scythians. Formerly it
was part of the kingdom of Macedonia. Their chief
manufacture is carpets. The principal places are Du-
razzo, Velona, Antivari, Scutari, Croya, Aleffo, Di-
bra, Dolcigno, and Albanapoli. Long, from 28° to
3i0E. Lat. from 390 to 430 N.
Albania, a country of Afia, bounded on the weft
by Iberia ; on the eaft by the Cafpian fea; on the north
by mount Caucafus; on the fouth by Armenia, and the
river Cyrus, now Kur; which, fpringing from the
Mofchian mountains that feparate Colchis from Arme¬
nia, and watering the country of Mokan, receives the
Aragus and Araxes, and falls into the Cafpian fea
within a fmall diftance from the fouthern borders of
this country.—The whole country formerly called Al¬
bania, now goes under the names of Shirnsian and Eajl-
Georgia, and is extremely fruitful and pleafant. The
ancient hiftorians take notice of the Albanian men
being tall, ftrong-bodied, and, generally fpeaking, of
a very graceful appearance; far excelling all other na¬
tions in comelinefs, as well as ftature. Modern travel¬
lers take no notice of the appearance of the men ; but
extol tire beauty of the women, v/hich feems to be un¬
noticed by the ancients. The Albanians were ancient¬
ly an independent and pretty powerful people ; but
we find no mention made of their kings till the reign
of Alexander the Great, to whom the king of Alba¬
nia is faid to have prefented a dog of an extraordinary
fiercenefs and fize.—It does not appear that the Alba¬
nians were ever conquered by the Romans, even when
their.
Albano,
Alban.
ALB [ 197 ] ALB
their power was at its greateft height; though, when
they ventured to engage in war with that powerful em¬
pire, they were always defeated, as might naturally be
expefted.
ALBANO (Francefco), a celebrated hiftory and
landfcape painter, born at Bologna in 1578, who ftudied
firft in the fchool of Dennis Calvert at the fame time
with Guido, but placed himfelf afterward under the
dire&ion of the Caracci, and completed his ftudies at
Rome. For the moft part he painted in a fmall fize,
and chofe his fubjeds from poetic or fabulous hiftory:
he was fond of introducing cupids, in a variety of ac¬
tions and attitudes. It has been obje&ed to him, that
he was apt to preferve too great a fimilitude in his fi¬
gures, and in the air of his heads; which arofe from
his painting after his wife and children as models. The
ftyle of his landfcape is very agreeable, as his fcenes
and objeds were ftudied from nature. In the king of
Sardinia’s palace at Turin, are the Four Elements paint¬
ed by him, which are of extraordinary beauty and well
preferved. He died in 1660. He had a brother Gio¬
vanni Battifta Albano, who was his difciple, and be¬
came an admirable painter in his ftyle: he died in 1668.
Albano, a town of Italy, on a lake of the fame
name, in the Campagnia of Rome, with a bifiiop’s fee.
The territory about it produces the beft wine in all this
country; and a great many noblemen have gardens here,
where they pafs the fummer. It is near the Caftle
Gandolfo, 15 miles S. E. of Rome. E. long. 13. 10.
N. lat. 41.43. There is likewife another town of the
fame name in the Bafilicate of the kingdom of Naples,
remarkable for the fertility of the furrounding territory,
and for the nobility of the inhabitants.
ALBAN (St) is faid to have been the firft perfon
who fuffered martyrdom for Chriftianity in Britain ;
he is therefore ufually ftyled the protomartyr oc this
ifland. He was born at Verulam, and flouriihed to¬
wards the end of the third century. In his youth he
took a journey to Rome, in company with Amphiba-
lus a monk of Caerleon, and ferved feven years as a
foldier under the emperor Dioclefian. At his return
home, he fettled in Verulam; and, through the exam¬
ple and inftruttions of Amphibalus, renounced the er¬
rors of paganifm, in which he had been educated, and
became a convert to the Chriftian religion. It is ge¬
nerally agreed, that Alban fuffered martyrdom during
the great perfecution under the reign of Dioclefian ;
but authors differ as to the year when it happened :
Bede and others fix it in 286; fome refer it to the year
296; but Ufferius reckons it amongft the events of 303.
The ftory and circumftances relating to his martyrdom,
according to Bede, are as follows. Being yet a pagan,
(or at leaft it not being known that he was a Chriftian ),
he entertained Amphibalus in his houfe. The Roman
governor being informed thereof, fent a party of fol-
diers to apprehend Amphibalus ; but Alban, putting
on the habit of his gueft, prefented himfelf in his ftead,
and was carried before that magiftrate. The governor
having aiked him of what family he was ? Alban re¬
plied, “ To what purpofe do you inquire of my fa¬
mily ? if you would know my religion, I am a> Chri¬
ftian.” Then being aiked his name, he anfwered,
“ My name is Alban; and I worihip the only true and
living God, who created all things. ’ The magiftrate
replied, “ If you would enjoy the happinefs of eternal
life, delay not to facrifice to the great gods.” Alban
anfwered, “ The facrifices you offer are made to devils;
neither can they help the needy, or grant the petitions
of their votaries.” His behaviour fo enraged the go¬
vernor, that he ordered him immediately to be behead¬
ed. In his way to execution, he was ftopped by a ri¬
ver, over which was a bridge fo thronged with fpefta-
tors that it was impoffible to crofs it; the faint, as
we are told, lifted up his eyes to heaven, and the ftream
was miraculoufly divided, and afforded a paffage for
himfelf and a thoufand more perfons. Bede does not
indeed give us the name of this river; but, notwith-
ftanding this omiffion, the miracle, we fuppofe, will
not be the lefs believed. This wonderful event convert¬
ed the executioner upon the fpot, who threw away his
drawn fword, and, falling at St Alban’s feet, defired
he might have the honour to die with him. This hid¬
den converfion of the headfman occafioning a delay
in the execution, till another perfon could be got to
perform the office, St Alban walked up to a neigh¬
bouring hill, where he prayed for water to quench his
thirft, and a fountain of water fprung up under his
feet: here he was beheaded, on the 23d of June. The
executioner is faid to have been a fignal example of di¬
vine vengeance ; for as foon as he gave the fatal ftroke,
his eyes dropt out of his head. We may fee the opinion
of Mr Milton in regard to this narrative, in his hif¬
tory of England: his words are thefe, fpeaking of
St Alban, “ The ftory of whofe martyrdom, foiled
and worfe martyred with the fabling zeal of fome idle
fancies, more fond of miracles than apprehenfive of
the truth, defcrves no longer digreffion.” Between
4 or 500 years after St Alban’s death, Offa, king of
the Mercians, built a very large and (lately monaftery
to his memory ; and the town of St Alban’s in Hert-
fordlhire takes its name from our protomartyr.
Albans (St), a market-town of Hertfordfhire, is
a very great thoroughfare, accommodated with good
inns, on the north-weft road from London, at the di-
ftance of twenty-one miles. This town fends two mem¬
bers to parliament, gives the title of dude to the noble
family of Beauclerc, and has one of the beft markets
for wheat in England- St Alban’s is feated near the
ruins of an ancient Roman city, by Tacitus called Fi?-
rolam ; and by the Saxons Watlingcefler, becaufe it is
feated on the road called JVatlingJireet. Nothing now
remains of Verolam, but the ruins of old walls; in the
fields adjacent to which they continue to find Roman
coins, as they formerly found teffellated pavements.
In memory of St Alban, Offa, king of the Mercians,
anno 795, ere&ed an abbey, calling it St Alban's ;
and near it the town of the fame name was afterwards
built. The church of the abbey is remaining to this
day : time and the weather have made it look like
ftone on the outfide ; but if you break a bit off, the
rednefs of the brick immediately appears. When the
monafteries were diffolved, the townfmen paid £ 400
to prevent its being levelled with the ground, and have
fince converted it into a parifti-church, which, for its
largenefs, beauty, and antiquity, claims a particular re¬
gard. It had a very noble font of folid brafs, in which
the children of the kings of Scotland were ufed to be
baptized ; and was brought from Edinburgh, by Sir
Philip Lea, when that city was in flames ; but in the
times of the late civil wars, it was taken away. Not
many
Alban,
Alban*.
ALB [ ]
Albanus many years fince, a tomb was difcovered in this church, of Earl.
M“ns faid to be that of Humphrey duke of Gloucefter: when
Albemarle t^ie leaden coffin was opened, the body was pretty en-
  — tire, being preferved in a fort of pickle. There was a
ftately crofs in the middle of the town, as there were
in many othqr places where queen Eleanor’s body
relied when it was brought out of the north for in¬
terment at Wellmi niter; but it has been demolilhed, as
, fome fay, by the inhabitants. The market-days are
Wednefdays and.Saturdays. W. Long. o. 12. N. Lat.
51- 44-
ALBANUS MONS, (anc. geog.) now called Mmt
Albano, 16 miles from Rome, near where Alba Longa
Hood.
Albanos Mons, (anc. geog.) to the north of If-
tria, called Albius by Strabo ; the extremity of the
Alps, which, together with the mountains to the call,
joining it, called Montes Bebii, feparates the farther
Liburnia and Dalmatia from Pannonia.
ALBA REGALIS. See Stul Weissenburgh.
ALBANY, a fortrefs belonging to the Britilh,
feated on the S. W. of Hudfon’s bay. W. long. 84.
20. N. lat. 53. 20.
Albany, a town of North America, the capital
of one of the ten counties of the province of New-
York, which goes by the fame name, is a well built
place, confidering the country. Here the fachems, or
the kings of the Five Nations of Iroquois, met the
governors of the Britilh plantations, when they entered
into any treaty with them. W. Long. 44. 29. N. Lat.
42. 30.
ALBARAZIN, a llrong town, and one of the
moll ancient of the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It
is feated upon an eminence, near the river Guadelquivir,
a little below its fource, and on the frontiers of Valen¬
cia and New Callile. It is the feat of a bilhop, and
produces the bell wool in all Arragon. It is about 100
miles call of Madrid. E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 40. 32.
ALBARII, in antiquity, properly denoted thofe
wfyo gave the whitening to earthen velfels, &c. In
which fenfe they Hood contradillinguilhed from Dealba-
tores, who whitened walls.
ALBARIUM opus, in the ancient building, the
incrullation or covering of the roofs of houfes with white
plaller, made of mere lime. This is otherwife called
opus album. It differs from Tettorium, which is a com¬
mon name given to all roofing or ceiling, including
even that formed of lime and fand, or lime and marble;
whereas Albarium was rellrained to that made of lime
alone.
ALB ATI equi, an appellation given to fuch hor-
fes, in the games of the ancient circus, as wore white
furniture, in contradiftin&ion from the Veneti, Prafini,
and Rujfeti. See Veneti, Prasini, &c.
ALBATROSS, in ornithology, a fpecies of the
diomedea. See Diomedea.
ALBAZIN, a town of Greater Tartary, with a
llrong callle : It is fituated upon the river Amur, or
Yamour, and belongs to the Mufcovites. E. long. 103.
30. N. lat. 54. o.
ALBE, a fmall piece of money, current in Germany,
worth only a French fol and feven deniers.
ALBEMARLE, or Aumarle, a town of France,
in Upper Normandy, and in the territory of Caux,
from whence the noble family of Keppel takes the title
ALB
The ferges of this town are in high elleem. i
It is feated on the declivity of a hill, on the confines of
Picardy, 35 miles N. E. of Rouen, and 70 N. W. of _
Paris, E. Long. 2. 21. N. Lat. 49. 50.
Albemarle, the moll northern part of the province
of North Carolina, in America.
ALBENGUA, a town of Italy, in the territory of
Genoa. It is the fee of a bilhop; and is a very ancient
handfome town, but not well peopled on account of the
infalubrity of the air. However, it is feated in a very
beautiful plain, which is well cultivated; and the outfide
of the town is furrounded with olive-trees. It is a fea-
port, about 38 miles S. W. of Genoa. E. Long. 8. 13.
N. Lat. 44. 4.
ALBERONI (Julius), the fon of a poor gardener,
in the fuburbs of Placentia, born in 1664; who, by
his great abilities and good fortune, rofe from this low
original, to the employment of firll minilter of Hate at
the court of Spain, and to the dignity of cardinal. He
roufed that kingdom out of the lethargy it had funk
into for a century pall; awakened the attention, and
raifed the aftonilhment, of all Europe, by his projefts ;
one of which was to fet the Pretender on the throne of
Great Britain. He was at length deprived of his em¬
ployment, and banilhed to Rome : he died in 1752, at
the great age of 89. His Tejlament Politique, Col¬
lected from his memoirs and letters, was publilhed at
Laufanne in 1753.
ALBERTI (Leone Battifta), was defcended from
a noblfe family in Florence; and was perfectly acquaint¬
ed with painting, fculpture, and architecture. He
wrote of all three in Latin; but his lludies did not per¬
mit him to leave any thing confiderable behind him in
painting. He was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in
his buildings, which he executed in a beautiful man¬
ner ; and his work on architecture, which confills of ten
books, is greatly elleemed. He alfo wrote fome trea-
tifes of morality, and a piece on arithmetic. He died
in 1485.
ALBERTUS (Magnus), a Dominican friar, and
afterwards archbifiiop of Ratilbon, was one of the moll
learned men and moll famous doctors of the I3ttl cen¬
tury. He was by the ignorant charged with being a
magician, and making a machine refembling a man,
which they foolilhly imagined explained all the difficul¬
ties he propofed to it. He died at Cologne, Novem¬
ber 15. 1280. His works were printed at Lyons, in
1651, in 21 volumes in folio.
ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth “about 14 French
livres : it was coined during the admi nitration of Al-
bertus archduke of Aullria.
ALBESIA, in antiquity, a kind of Ihields other-
wife called Decumana. SccDecumana.
ALB I, a city of France, the capital of the Albi-
5eois, in Languedoc, and the fee of an archbilhop.
'he cathedral is dedicated to St Cecilia, and has one of
the finelt choirs in the kingdom. Here is a very va¬
luable filver Ihrine, of exquifite workmanfhip, of the
Mofaic kind : it contains the reliques of St Clair, the
firll bilhop of this city. The chapel of this pretended
faint is magnificent, and adorned with paintings. The
Lice is a fine large walk without the city: what diftin-
guilhes this from all others, is a terras above a deep
mall, which ferves inltead of a foffe; it is bordered with
two rows of very fine trees, which are kept in excellent
order.
ALB [ 199 ] ALB
jigenfes. order. There are four gates, through which you may
~ -view all the beauties of a delightful plain. At one end
of this is the convent of the Dominicans. The arch-
bifhop’s palace is very beautiful. The river w a flies its
walls, and ferves both for an ornament and defence.
This city is feated on the river Tarn, 35 miles north-by¬
well of Touloufe, and 250 fouth of Paris. E. Long,
o. 52. N. Lat. 43. 56.
The Albigeois is a fmall territory about 27 miles in
length, and 20 in breadth, abounding in corn, woad,
rapes, faffron, plums, and (beep ; and the inhabitants
rive a great trade in dried prunes, crapes, a coarfe fort
of cloth, and wines of Ga iliac. Thefe wines are the
only forts hereabouts that are fit for exportation: they
are carried down to Bourdeaux, and generally fold to
the Britilh. They have likewife feveral Coal-mines.
ALBIGENSES, in church-hiftpry, a fedt or party
of reformers, about Touloufe and the Albigeois in Lan¬
guedoc, who fprung up in the x 2th century, and diftin-
guilhed themfelves by their oppofition to the difcipline
and ceremonies of the Romilh church.
This fe£t had their name, it is fuppofed, either by
reafon there were great numbers of them in the diocefe
of Albi, or becaufe they were condemned by a coun¬
cil held in that city. In effedt, it does not appear that
they were known by this name, before the holding of
that council. The Albigenfes were alfo called Albiani,
Albigejei, Albii, and Albanenfes, though fome diftin-
guilh thefe lall from them. Other names given to them
are, Henricians, Abelardtfts, Bulgarians, See. fome on
account of the qualities they affumed; others on that
of the country from whence it is pretended they were
derived ; and others on account of perfons of note who
adopted their caufe, as Peter de Brius, Arnold de
Breffe, Abelard, Henry, &c. IJerengarius, if not Wick-
liff hitnfelf, is by fome ranked in the number. The
Albigenfes are .frequently confounded with the Walden-
fes ; from whom, however, they differ in many refpedts,
both as being prior to them in point of time, as having
their origin in a different country, and as being char¬
ged with divers herefies, particularly Manicheifm,.from
which the Waldenfes are exempt. But fev^ral Prote-
ftant writers have vindicated them from that imputa¬
tion. Dr Allix Ihews, that a great number of Mani-
chees did fpread over the weftern countries from Bulga¬
ria ; and fettled in Italy, Languedoc, and other places,
where there were alfo Albigenfes; by which means, be¬
ing both under the imputation of herefy, they came, ei¬
ther by ignorance or malice, to be counfounded, and
called by the fame common name, tho’ in reality entire¬
ly different.
Other errors imputed to them by their opponents,
the monks of thofe days, were, That they admitted
two Chrifts; one evil, who appeared on earth; the o-
ther good, who has not yet appeared : That they de¬
nied the refurredlion of the body; and maintained hu¬
man fouls to be daemons imprifoned in our bodies, by
way of punifhment for their fins : That they condemn¬
ed all the facraments of the church; rejected baptifm as
ufelefs; held the eucharifl in abhorrence; excluded the
ufe of confeffions and penance; maintained marriage
unlawful; laughed at purgatory, prayers for the dead,
images, crucifixes, &c.—There were likewife faid to be
two claffes of them; the Perfeft, and the Believers. The
perfect, boafted of their living in continence, of eating
neither flefh, eggs, nor cheefe. The believers lived like Albigenfes
other men, and were even loofe in their morals; but :
they were perfuaded they fhould be faved by the faith
of the perfect, and that none were damned who recei¬
ved impofition of hands from them. But from thefe
charges alfo they are generally acquitted by Prote-
flants; who cpnfider them as the pious inventions of
the Romifh church, whofe members deem it meritorious,
by any means to blacken heretics.
However this be, the Albigenfes grew fo formidable,
that the Catholics agreed upon a holy league or croifade
againft them. They were at firft fupported by Raimond,
count of Touloufe. Pope Innocent III. defirous to put a
flop to their progrefs, fent a legate into their country ;
which failing, he ftirred up Philip Auguftus, king of
France, and the other princes and great men of the
kingdom, to make war upon them. Upon this the
count of Touloufe, who had fided with them, made his
fubmiffion to the pope, and went over to the Catho¬
lics : but foon after, finding himfelf plundered by the
croifaders, he declared war againft them, and was join¬
ed by the king of Arragon. His army was defeated
at the fiege of Muret, where he himfelf was killed, and
the defeat followed by the furrender of the city of Tou¬
loufe, and the conqueft of the greateft part of Lan-
uedoc and. Provence. His fon Raimond fucceeded.
im ; who agreed with the king and the pope to fet up
the inquifition in his eftates, and to extirpate the Albi¬
genfes. In an affembly held at Milan, the archbifhop
of Touloufe drew up articles; agreeable to which the
count made a moft ample declaration againft them,
which he publifhed at Touloufe in 1253. From this
time the Albigenfes dwindled by little and little, till the
times of the reformation ; when fuch of them as were
left fell in with the Vaudois *, and became conform- ^•^ee Vav°
able to the dodtrine of Zuinglius and the difcipline of am‘
Geneva.
The curious reader who defires to know more con¬
cerning the hiftory of the Albigenfes, may confult Pra¬
te ol. Elench. Haer. — Fortheperfecutions, wars, and croi-
fades railed againft them, fee Limborch. Hift. Inquifit.
1. 1. c. 8. feq. A£t. Erud. Lipf. 1693. p. 324. feq.„
Kujler, Bibl. Nov. Libr. T. 3. p. 33. Du Pin, Bibl.
Ecclef. T. 10. p. 166. Jour, des Scav. T. 26. p.109.
T. 28. p. 481. Bibl. Choif. T. 27. p. 42. Holy Inquif,
c. 3. feci. 1. p. 51. Ouvr. des Scav. Jan. 1694. p. 238.
—The lawful nefs of perfecuting them, Jour, des Scav.
T. 13. p. 105.—Colloquies and councils againft them,
Allix, Rem. Hift. Albigenf. c. 15. feq. Adi. Erud.
Lip. 1693. p. 173.—Their Manicheifm refuted, Allix,
ubifupra, c. 11. Adi. Erud. Lipf. an. 1693. p. 171.
Allix, Rem. Hift. Piedm. c. 15. Adi. Erud. Lipf.
1691. p. 261. Bafnage, Hift. de la Relig. c. 4. & 5.
Aft. Erud. Lipf. 1690. p. 399. Ouvr. des Scav.
Jan. 1690. p. 221. feq. Bibl. Choif. T. 27. p. 44.—
Their merits as reformers, Aft. Erud. Lipf. 1693.
173. feq. Mem. de Tfev. 1717. p. 1375* Bibl.
niv. T. 9. p. 33. As faints and martyrs, Hift. Crit..
Rep. Lett. T. 4. p. 19. Jour, des Scav. T. 35. p. 385.
Albigenses is alfo a name fometimes given to the
followers of Peter Vaud, or Waldo; and hence fy-
nonimous with what we more properly call Wal-
denfes, or Poor Men of Lyons. In this fenfe the
word is applied by Camerarius, Thuanus, and feveral
other writers. The reafon feems to be, that, the two.
parties-
ALB
Albinteme- parties agreed in their oppofrtion to the papal innova-
*:i'm tions and incroachments, though in divers other re-
Alborak. fpe<^s to different enough. The bifhop of Meaux
 ; labours hard to fupport a diftinftion between the two
feds, alleging that the Albigenfes were heretics and
Manichees ; whereas the Waldenfes were only fchifma-
tics, not heretics ; being found as to articles of faith,
and only feparating from the church of Rome on ac¬
count of ceremonies and difcipline. Dr Allix endea¬
vours to fet afide the diftin&ion; and (hews, that both
of them held the fame opinions ; and were equally con¬
demned and held for heretics : and this not for points
of faith, but for declaiming againft the papal tyranny
and idolatry, and holding the pope to be the Antichrift;
which laft, according to M. de Meaux, conftitutes no¬
thing lefs than Manicheifm. In this fenfe the Lollards
and Wickliffites in England w'ere not only Albigenfes,
but Manichees.
ALBINTEMELIUM, Ai-bintimilium, (Taci¬
tus;) or at full length, Albium Intemelium, (Pli¬
ny, Strabo); now Vintimiglia, fituated in the fouth-
weft of the territory of Genoa, near the borders of the
county of Nice, with a port on the Mediterranean, at
the mouth of the rivulet Rotta, almoft about half-way
between Monaco and S. Remo. E. Long. 7.4c. Lat.
43- 17* .
ALBIOECE, or Alebece, (Pliny, Strabo;) o-
therwife called Reii Apollinares, from their fuperftitious
worfhipof Apollo; alfo Civitas Reienfmrrr, now Riezf
in Provence, about 18 leagues to the north-eaft of Tou¬
lon, on the north fide of the rivulet Verdon ; was ori¬
ginally a Roman colony, (Infcription.) It is fometimes
written Regium. The people were called Albici,
(Caefar.) E. Long. 1. o. Lat. 43. 20.
ALB INI, in antiquity, the workmen employed in
what was called Opus Albarium. They made a dif¬
ferent profefiion from the dealbatores or •whiteners.
ALBINOS, the name by which the Portuguefe call
the white Moors, who are looked upon by the negroes
as monfters. They are the iffue of a white man and
black woman, and at a diftance might be taken for
Europeans; but, when you come near them, their
white colour appears like that of perfons affedfed with
a leprofy.
ALBINOVANUS, a Latin poet, whom Ovid fur-
r.amed the Divine. There is now nothing of his extant,
except an Elegy on Drufus, and another on the death
of Mecaenas.
tide Britain. ALBION, the ancient name of Britain *.
New Albion, a name given by Sir Francis Drake
to California.
ALBISOLA, a fmall town belonging to the repu¬
blic of Genoa : here is a porcelain manufadture, and fe-
veral country-houfes of the Genoefe nobility. It was
bombarded in 1745, by the Englilh. E. Long. 8. 20.
N. Lat. 44. 15.
ALBOGALERUS, in Roman antiquity, a white
cap worn by the fiamen dictlis, on the top of which was
an ornament of olive branches.
ALBORAK, amongft the Mahometan writers, the
beaft on wdiich Mahomet rode, in his journeys to hea¬
ven. The Arab commentators give many fables con¬
cerning this extraordinary vehicle. It is reprefented as
of an intermediate ftiape and fize between an afs and
a mule. A place, it feems, was fecured for it in pa-
A L B
radife, at the interceflion of Mahomet; which, how- Albourg
ever, was in fome meafure extorted from the prophet, N
by Alborak’s refufing to let him mount him when the u^°’
angel Gabriel was come to conduc'd him to heaven.
ALBOURG, a town of Denmark, in North Jut¬
land, capital of the diocefe of the fame name, and a
bifhop’s fee. It has this name, which fignifies eel-town,
on account of the great number of eels taken here. It
is feated on a canal, 10 miles from the fea, 30 north of
Wiburg, and 50 north of Arhuys. It has an ex¬
change for merchants, and a fafe and deep harbour.
They have a confiderable trade in herrings and corn;
and a manufactory of guns, piftols, faddles, and gloves.
E. Long. 29. 16. N. Lat. 56. 35.
ALBRICIUS, born at London, was a great phi-
lofopher, a learned and able phyfician, and well ver-
fed in all the branches of polite literature. He lived in
the 1 Ith century, and wrote feveral works in Latin, par¬
ticularly, 1. Of the origin of the gods. 2. The vir¬
tues of the ancients. 3. The nature of poifon, &c.
ALBUCA, Bastard star-of-Bethlehem, a ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexan-
dria clafs of plants. Of this genus Linnaeus reckons
only two
Species. X. The major, or ftar- flower, with fpear-
Ihaped leaves. This is a native of Canada, and fome
other parts of North America: the root is bulbous;
from whence flioot up eight or ten long, narrow, fpear-
Ihaped leaves. In the center of thefe arifes a flower-
ftem, a foot or more in height, garnilhed with a loofe
fpike of greenilh yellow flowers. After the flowers are
pad, the germen fwells to a three-cornered capfule,
having three cells filled with flat feeds. 2. The minor,
or Aftican ftar-flower, is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope. This hath alfo a pretty large bulbous root, from
which arife four or five narrow awl-fhaped leaves, of a
deep green colour; the flower-ftem, which comes from
the center of the root, is naked, and rarely rifes more
than eight or nine inches high, having five or fix green-
ifh-yellow flowers, growing almoft in the form of an?
umbel at top: thefe are rarely fucceeded by feeds in
Britain.
Culture. The Canada albuca is hardy; fo the roots
may be planted about four inches deep in a border of
light earth, where they will thrive, and produce their
flowers late in the fummer: but as the feeds do not of¬
ten ripen in Britain, and the bulbs put out few off-
fets, the plants are not common in this country. The
African fort generally flowers twice a-year; firfl: in
March or April, and again in July or Auguft; and if
its roots are kept in pots filled with light earth, fliel-
tered under a hot-bed frame, they will flower even in
winter; but the beft method is to have a border in the
front of a green-houfe, or ftove, where the roots of
molt of the bulbous flowers may be planted in the full
ground, and fcreened in winter from froft: in fuch fi-
tuations they thrive much better, and flower ftronger,
than when kept in pots.
ALBUGINEA tunica, in anatomy, the third or
innermoft coat or covering of the teftes; it is likewife
the name given to one of the coats of the eye.
ALBUGINEUS, in anatomy, a term fometimes
applied to the aqueous humour of the eye.
ALBUGO, or Leucoma, in medicine, a diftemper
occafioned by a w’hite opaque fpot growing on the cor¬
nea
[ 200 ]
ALB [ 201 ]
A L C
Album fifd of the eye, and obflrufting vjfion *.
Albu uer- ALBUM, in antiquity, a kind of white table, or
qiic. regifter, wherein the names of certain magiltrates, pu-
—  —- blic tranfaclions, &c. were entered. Of thefe there
*\nT under were var^ous f°rts 5 as the album decurionum, album fe-
n° 791. natorum,, album judicum, album pnstoris, &c.
Album Decurionum, was the regifter wherein the
names of -the decurtones were entered. This is other-
wife called matriculatio decurionum.
Album Senatt>ru?n, the lift of fenators names, which
was firft introduced by Auguftus, and renewed yearly.
A.'L'bvm ■ Judicum, that wherein the names of the
perfons of thofe decuria who judged at certain times,
were entered.
Album Pratoris, that wherein the formula of all
adfions, and the names of fuch judges as the prator
had chofen to decide caufes, were written.
The high-prieft entered the chief tranfaftions of each
year into an album, or table, which was hung up in his-
houfe for the public ufe.
Album Gracum, among phyficians, the white dung
of dogs, formerly prefcribed for inflammations of the
throat, &c. but now juftly defpifed.
ALBUMAZAR, a learned Arabian aftronomer in
the tenth century, who wrote a treatife, Of the Revo¬
lution of the Tears.
ALBUMEN, the white of an egg. For its na¬
ture, origin, and office, fee Egg.
The white of an egg, according to Boerhaave, makes
an extraordinary menftruum Being boiled hard in the
{hell, and afterwards fufpended in the air by a thread,
it refolves and drops down into an infipid, fcentlefs li¬
quor, which appears to be that anomalous unaccount¬
able menftruum fo much ufed by Paracelfus; and will,
though it contain nothing (harp, oleaginous, or fapo-
naceous, make a thorough folution of myrrh; which
is more than either water, oil, fpirits, or even fire it-
felf, can effetft.
A little putrid white of egg taken into the ftomach,
■ occafions a naufea, horror, fainting, vomiting, diarrhoea,
and gripes; it inflames the bile, excites heat, thirft, fe¬
ver; and diffolves the humours like the plague. On
the contrary, the white of frefh-laid eggs, if taken
while warm from the hen, is extremely nourifhing to
the infirm: it may be taken in hike-warm milk; but if
any other heat is applied to it, the nutritious quality
will be deftroyed. The frefh white of egg prevents
burns from rifing in blifters, if it is ufed immediately
after the accident: it mitigates inflammations of the
eyes, and preferves the face from fun-burning. In phar¬
macy, it is ufed as a mediujn to render balfams and tur¬
pentines, &c. mifcible with aqueous fluids; but as it
difagrees with many ftomachs when thus taken, a mu¬
cilage of gum arabic may fupply its place, it being as
good a medium in fimilar circumftances, and not apt to
offend the tendereft ftomach.—Whites of eggs are alfo
ufeful for clarifying liquors; to which purpofe, being
mixed and incorporated with the liquors to be clari¬
fied, and the whole afterwards boiled, the whites of
eggs are by this means brought together and harden¬
ed, and thus carry off the grofs parts of the liquor along
with them.
ALBUQUERQUE, a fmall city in Spain, in the
province of Eftremadura, is feated on an eminence, nine
miles from the frontiers of Portugal. It is command-
Vol. I.
ed by an almoft impregnable fortrefs, built on a high AIhurn,
mountain, and ferving to defend the town. It carries A‘C3-
on a great trade in wool and woollen manufactures. It
was taken by the allies of Charles king of Spain, in
1705. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 38. 52.
ALBURN, the Englifti name of a compound co¬
lour, being a mixture of white and red, or reddifti
brown. Skinner derives the word, in this fenfe, from
the Latin albus, and the Italian burno, from bruno,
brown.
ALCA, or Auk, in ornithology, a genus of the
order of anferes. The beak of this genus is without
teeth, fliort. convex, compreffed, and frequently fur¬
rowed tranfverfely; the inferior mandible is gibbous
near the bafe; the feet have generally three toes. The
fpeciesof thealca are five.— 1. The impennis, northern
penguin, or great auk, with a compreffed bill furrow-
ed on each fide, and an oval fpot on each fide of the '
eyes. According to Mr Martin, this bird breeds on
the ifle of St Kilda; appearing there the beginning of
May, and retiring the middle of June. It lays one
egg, which is fix inches long, of a white colour; fome
are irregularly marked with purplifh lines croffing
each other, others blotched with black, and ferruginous
about the thicker end: if the egg is taken away, it will
not lay another that feafon. Mr Macaulay informs us
that it does not vifit that ifland annually, but fometimes
keeps away for feveral years together; and adds, that
it lays its egg clofe to the fea-mark, being incapable,
by reafon of the ftiortnefs of its wings, to mount higher.
The length of this bird, to the end of its toes, is three
feet: but its wings are fo fmall, as to be ufelefs for
flight; the length, from the tip of the longeft quill-fea¬
thers to the firft joint, being only four inches and a
quarter. This bird is obferved by feamen never to wan¬
der beyond foundings; and according to its appear¬
ance they dire£t their meafures, being then affured that
land is not very remote. Thus the modern failors pay
refpeft to auguries, in the fame manner as Ariftopha-
nes * tells us thofe of Greece did above 2000 years * Aves,%^j.
ago:
From birds, in failing men inflruftions take;
Now lie in port; now fail, and profit make.
2. The alle, little auk, or black and white diver, with Little Auk,
a fmooth conical bill, a white ftreak on the belly and 8"
wings, and black feet. The bulk of this fpecies ex¬
ceeds not that of a black-bird.—3. The ar&ica, or puf- The Puffin,
fin, with a compreffed bill and four furrows; the orbit
of the eyes and temples are white. The legs of this
fpecies are very fmall; and placed fo far behind as to
difqualify it from (landing, except quite erect, refting
not only on the foot, but the whole length of the leg.
This circumftance * makes the rife of the puffin from * It attends
the ground very difficult, and it meets, with many falls every one of
before it gets on wing; but when that is effetted, few ^
birds fly longer or ftronger. Thefe birds frequent the fture 0f tj,c
coafts of feveral parts of Great Britain and Ireland; Little Auk,
but no place in greater numbers than Prieftholm Ifle, %• 8.
where their flocks may be compared to fwarms of bees
for multitude. Thefe are birds of paffage; they refort
there annually about the fifth or tenth of April, quit the
place (almoft to a bird), and return twice or thrice be¬
fore they fettle to burrow and prepare for ovation and
incubation. They begin to burrow the firft week in
May; but fome few lave themfelves that trouble, and
C c diflodge
A L C [ 202 ] A L C
Alca. dxflodge the rabbits from their holes, taking poffeffion
“ of them till their departure from the ifle. Thofe which
form their own burrows, are at that time fo intent on
the work as to fuffer themfelves to be taken by the
hand. This talk falls chiefly to the fhare of the males;
who alfo aflift in incubation. The firft young are hatch¬
ed the beginning of July. The old ones (hew yaft af¬
fection towards them ; and feem totally infeniible of
danger in the breeding feafon. If a parent is taken at
that time, and fufpended by the wings, it will in a fort
of defpair treat itfelf moft cruelly, by biting eyCry part
it can reach; and the moment it is loofed, will never
offer to efcape, but inftantly refort to its unfledged
young : this affeftion ceafes at the dated time of mi¬
gration, which is moft punftually about the eleventh
of Auguft, when they leave fuch young as'cannot fly,
to the mercy of the peregrine falcon, who watches the
mouths of the houfe for the appearance of the little de-
ferted puffins, which, forced by hunger, are compelled fro
leave their burrows. They lay only one egg. The eggs
differ much in form: fome have one end very acute; o-
thers have both extremely obtufe; all are white. Their
fleffi is exceffively rank, as they feed on fea-weeds and
fifli, efpecially fprats: but when pickled and preferved
with fpices, are admired by thofe who love high-eating.
Dr Caius tells us, that, in his days, the church allowed
them in lent, inftead of fifh: he alfo acquaints us, that
they were taken by means of ferrets, as we take rabbits:
at prefent, they are either dug out, or drawn from their
burrows by a hooked ftick: they bite extremely hard ;
and keep fuch faff hold on whatever they fallen, as not
to be eafily difengaged. Their noife, when taken, is
very difagreeable; being like the efforts of a dumb per-
Razor-bill, fon to fpeak. 4. The torda, or razor-bill, with four
Pl.IX.fig.7. furrows on the bill, and a white line on each fide
running from the bill to the eyes. Thefe birds, in
company with the guillemot, appear in our feas the be¬
ginning of February; but do not fettle on their breed¬
ing places till they begin to lay, about the beginning
of May. They inhabit the ledges of the higheft rocks
that impend over the fea, where they form a grotefque
appearance ; fitting clofe together, and in rows one
above another. They properly lay but one egg a-
piece, of an extraordinary fize for the bulk of the bird,
being three inches long: it is either white, or of a pale
fea-green, irregularly fpotted with black: if this egg
is deftroyed, both the auk and the guillemot will lay
another; if that is taken, then a third: they make no
neft, depofiting their egg on the bare rock; and tho’
fuch multitudes lay contiguous, by a wonderful inftindl
each diftinguffhes its own. What is alfo matter of great
amazement, they fix their egg on the fmooth rock, with
fo exadl a balance, as to fecure it from rolling off; yet
fhould it be removed, and then attempted to be repla¬
ced by the human hand, it is extremely difficult, if not
impoffible, to find its former equilibrium. The eggs are
food to the inhabitants of the coafts they frequent;
which they get with great hazard; being lowered from
above by ropes, trufting to the ftrength of their com¬
panions, whofe footing is often fo unftable that they
are forced down the precipice, and perifh together.
5. The pica, or black-billed auk, has the bill of the
fame form with the torda, but is entirely black. The
cheeks, chin, and throat, are white: in all other re-
fpe&s it agrees with the former fpecies.
The winter refidence of this genus, tmd that of the Airbus.
guillemot *, is but imperfectly known: it is probable ^ SeeOijm-
they live at fea, in fome more temperate climate, re- bus.
mote from land; forming thofe multitudes of birds that
navigators obferve in many parts of the ocean : they are
always found there at certain feafons, retiring only at
breeding time; when they repair to the northern lati¬
tudes, and during that period are found as near the
pole as navigators have penetrated. During winter, ra¬
zor-bills and puffins frequent the coaft of Andalufia,
but do not breed there.
ALCJEUS, a famous ancient lyric poet, born at
Mitylene, in the ifland of Lefbos. Horace feems to xxxii,
think him the inventor of this kind of poefy.
Now the Roman mufe infpire,
And warm the fong witli Grecian fire. Francis.
He flouriffied in the 44th Olympiad, at the fame time
with Sappho, who was likewife of Mitylene. Alcaeus
was a great enemy to tyrants, but not a very brave fol-
dier. He was prefent at an engagement, wherein the
Athenians gained a vidlory over the Lieibfans 5 ar>d
here, as he himfelf is faid to have confeffed in one of his
pieces, he threw down his arms, and faved himfelf by
flight. Horace, who, of all the Latin poets, moft re-
fembled Alcaeus, has made the like confeffion :
With thee I faw Philippi’s plain,
Its fatal rout, a fearful fcene!
And dropp’d, alas! th’ inglorious fhield,
Where valour’s felf was forc’d to yield,
Where foil’d in duft the vanquifh’d lay,
And breath’d th’ indignant foul away. Francis.
The poetical abilities of Alcseus are indifputed; and
though his writings were chiefly in the lyric ftrain, yet
his mufe was capable of treating the fublimeft fubjefts 0(Je v..
with a fuitable dignity. Hence Horace fays, bib. II.*
Alcseus ftrikes the golden firings,
And feas, and war, and exile, fings.
Thus while they ftrike the various lyre,
The ghofls the facred founds admire:
But when Alcaeus lifts the {train
To deeds of war and tyrants flain,
In thicker crowds the (hadowy throng
Drink deeper down the martial fong. ^Francis.
Alc-eus, an Athenian tragic poet, and, as fome
think, the firft compofer of tragedies. He renoun¬
ced his native country Mitylene, and paffed for an A-
thenian. He left ten pieces, one of which was Pa-
fiphae, that which he produced when he difputed with
Ariftophanes, in the fourth year of the 97th Olympiad.
There is another Alc;eus mentioned in Plutarch,
perhaps the fame whom Porphyrius mentions as a com¬
pofer of fatirica! iambics and epigrams, and who
wrote a poem concerning the plagiarifm of Euphorus
the hiftorian. He lived in the 145th Olympiad.
We are told likewife of one Alcaeus, a Meffenian,
who lived in the reign ofVefpafian and Titus. We
know not which of thefe it Was who fuffeped for his
lewdnefs a very Angular kind of death, which gave
occafion to the following epitaph:
’AXXctiv rtupr; ut®', &c.
This is Alcseus’s tomb, who died by a radifh,
The daughter of the earth, and punifher of Adulterers.
This punifliment infli&ed on adulterers*, was thralling * ?ee
one of the largeft radilhes up the anus of the adulterer: c “ "
or, for want of radilhes, they made ufe of a filh f with f See MugU.
Alcaics
Alcala.
Sat. x.
ver. 31(5.
A L C [ 203 ] A L C
a very large head, which Juvenal alludes to:
^iiofdam machos et mugUh intrat.
The mullet enters feme behind.
Hence we may underftand the menace of Catullus,
Ah! turn te miferum, maliquc fati,
&ucm attraBis pedUus, patente porta,
Ptrcurrent raphaniqae mugilefque. Epig. xv.
Ah! wretched thou, and born to lucklefs fate,
Who art difeover’d by the unlhut gate!
If once, alas! the jealous hulband come,
The radifli, or the fea-fi(h, is thy doom.
ALCAICS, in ancient'poetry, a denomination gi¬
ven to feveral kinds of verfe, from Alcaeus their inventor.
The firft kindconfifts of five feet, viz. a fpondee, or
iambic; an iambic ; a long fyllable ; a da&yle; ano¬
ther da&yle: fuch is the following verfe of Horace,
Omnes | eo\dem coghnur, | omnium
Verfa\tur ur\nd\ferius j ocyus |
Sort exitura.
The fecond kind confifts of two dactyles and two tro¬
chees: as,
Exili\um impoJi\tura | cymbte.
Befides thefe two, which are called daftylic Alcaics,
there is another ftyled fimply Alcaic; confifting of an
epitrite; a coriambus; another coriambus; and a bac-
ehius: the following is of this fpecies,
Cur timet fla\vum Tiberim tan\gere, cur | olivum?
Alcaic Ode, a kind of manly ode compofed of fe¬
veral ftrophes, each confifting of four verfes ; the two
firft of which are always Alcaics of the firft kind; the
third verfe is a diameter hypercataledftic, or confift¬
ing of four feet and a long fyllable; and the fourth
verfe is an Alcaic of the fecond kind. The following
ftrophe is of this fpecies, which Horace calls minaces
Alceei camence.
Non pcjjidentem multa vocaveris
ReBe beatum: reBius occupat
Nomen beati, qui deorum
Muneribus fapienter uti, &c.
ALCAID, Alcayde, or Alcalde, in the polity
of the Moors, Spaniards, and Portuguefe, a magiftrate,
or officer of juftice, anfwering nearly to the French
provoft, and the Britilh juftice of peace.—The alcaid
among the Moors is vefted with fupreme jurifdiftion,
both in civil and criminal cafes.
ALCALA de Guadeira, a fmall town of Spain,
in Andalufia, upon the river Guadeira. Here are a-
bundance of fprings, from whence they convey water
to Seville by an aqueduft. W. long. 6. 16. N. lat.
37\I5‘
Alcala de Henares, a beautiful and large city of
Spain, in new Caftile, feated upon the river Henares,
which walhes its walls. It is built in a very agreeable
plain, and is of an oval figure. The ftreets are hand-
fome and pretty ftrait; one of them is very long, run¬
ning from one end of the city to the other. The houfes
are well built; and there are feveral fquares, the largeft
of which is an ornament to the city; it is furrounded on
all fides with piazzas, where tradefmen have their fhops,
to expofe feveral forts of commodities to fale, of which
there is as great plenty and variety as in moft towns of
Spain. The univerfity was founded by cardinal Xime-
nes, archbilhop of Toledo, about the beginning of the
16th century. The land about Alcala is watered by
the Henares, well cultivated, and very fruitful, while
that at a diftance is dry and fterile: it yields grain in -
plenty, very good mufeat wine, and melons of a deli¬
cious kind. Without the walls is a fpring, the water
of which is fo pure, and fo well tafted, that it is inclo-
fed and Ihut up for the king of Spain’s own ufej from
whence it is carried to Madrid.—This city is 1 o miles
fouth-weft of Guadalaxara, and 13 miles eaft of Ma¬
drid. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 40. 30.
ALCALA-fira/, a fmall city of Spain,, in Andalu¬
fia, with a fine abbey. It is built on the top of a high
mountain, in a mountainous country; and the road to
it is incommodious, rough, and unequal; but to make
amends for this, here are feveral kinds of exquifite fruit
and wine. W. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 37. 18.
ALCALY, or Alkali. See Chemistry, n° 23,
119, 184, 274, 316, 389.
ALCANIS, a town of Arragon in Spain, feated
on the river Guadaloup, twelve miles from Cafpe. It
was formerly the capital of the kingdom of the Moors ;
but being taken from them, it was made a commandery
of the order of Calatrava. Here is a very remarkable
fountain, which throws up water through 42 pipes.
It is furrounded with gardens and fruit-trees, and de¬
fended with a goodfortrefs. W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat.
41. o.
ALCANNA, in commerce, a powder prepared from
the leaves of the Egyptian privet, in which the people of
Cairo drive a confiderable trade. It is much ufed by the
Turkilh women to give a golden colour to their nails
and hair. In dyeing, it gives a yellow colour when
fteeped with common water, and a red one when in-
fufed in vinegar. There is alfo an oil extracted from
the berries of alcanna, and ufed in medicine as a calm¬
er.
ALCANTARA, a fmall, but very ftrong city of
Eftremadura, in Spain. It gives name to one of the
three orders of knighthood. It is feated on the banks
of the Tajo, or Tagus, 21 miles from Coria, in a
very fruitful foil, and is celebrated for its bridge over
that river. This was built in the time of the emperor
Trajan, as appears by an infeription over one of the
arches, by the people of Lufitania, who were affefied
to fupply the expence : it is raifed 200 feet above the
level of the water; and though it confifts but of fix
arches, is 670 feet in length, and 28 in breadth. At
the entrance of the bridge, there is a fmall antique
chapel hewn in a rock by the ancient Pagans, who de¬
dicated it to Trajan, as the Chriftians did to St Julian.
This city was built by the Moors, on account of the
convenience of this bridge; which is at a place where
the Tajo is very deep, running between two high fteep
rocks: for thisreafon, they called \tAl-Cantara, which,
in their language, fignifies the Bridge. It was taken
from them in 1214, and given to the knights of Cala¬
trava, who afterwards affumed the name of Alcantara.
It was taken by the earl of Galloway, in April, 1706,
and retaken by the French in November following.
It is 45 miles from Madrid, and 125 from Seville.
W. Long. 7. 12. N. Lat. 39. 30.
Knights of Alcantara, a military order of Spain,
which took its name from the above mentioned city.'
They make a very confiderable figure in the hiftory of
the expeditions againft the Moors.
ALCAREZ, a fmall city of La Mancha, in Spain,
defended by a pretty ftrong caftle, and remarkable for
C c 2 a*
A L C [ 204 ] A L C
AlcafTar an ancient aqueduft. It ftands near the river Guarda-
A|ce mena, and the foil about it is very fruitful. They
   have a breed of little running-horfes, which are very
fleet and ftrong. It is 25 miles north of the confines
of Andalufia, 108 fouth of Cuenza, and 138 fouth-
by-eaft of Madrid. W. Long. 1. 50. N. Lat. 38. 28.
ALCASSAR do sal, a town of Portugal, in Eftre-
madura, which has a cattle faid to be impregnable. It
is indeed very ftrong both by art and nature, being
built on the top of a rock which is exceedingly fteep on
all fides. Here is a falt-work which produces very fine
white fait, from whence the town takes its name. The
fields produce large quantities of a fort of ruflies, of
which they make mats, which are tranfported out of
the kingdom. W. long. 9. 10. N. lat. 38. 18.
Alcassar, a city of Barbary, feated about two
leagues from Earache, in Afga, a province of the king¬
dom of Fez. It was of great note, and the feat of the
governor of this part of the kingdom. It was built
by Jacob Almanzor, king of Fez, about the year 1180,
and defigned for a magazine and place of rendezvous
for the great preparations he was making to enter
Granada in Spain, and to make good the footing Jo-
feph Almanzor had got fome time before. It is faid
his father firft invaded Spain with 300,000 men, moft
of whom he was obliged to bring back to Africa to
quiet a rebellion that had broke out in Morocco. This
done, he returned to Spain again with an army, as is
faid, of 200,000 horfe, and 300,000 foot. The city
is now fallen greatly to decay, fo that of fifteen mofques
there are only two that they make ufe of. The reafon,
probably, is the bad fituation of the town; for it ftands
fo low, that it is exceflively hot in fummer, and almoft
overflowed with water in the winter. This they affirm
to be owing to a curfe of one of their faints. Here
are a great number of ftorks, who live very familiarly
with the people, walking about the town, poffefiing
the tops of the houfes and mofques without molefta-
tion; for they efteem them facred birds, and account it
finful to difturb them. At prefent, the bafhaw of Te-
tuan appoints a governor to this town, which is the
laft of his dominions towards Mequinez. Near this city
there is a high ridge of mountains, running towards
Tetuan, whofe inhabitants were never brought entirely
under fubjedtion; and whenever it was attempted, they
revenged themfelves by infefting the roads, and robbing
and deftroying the travellers; when they were purfued,
they retired into their woody mountains, where none
could fafely follow them. Not far from hence is the
river Elmahaflen, famous for the battle fought between
Don Sebaftian king of Portugal, and the Moors;
in which the Portuguefe were defeated, and their king
flain. W. Long. 12 35. N. Lat. 35. 15.
ALCAZAR leguer, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Uabat. It
was taken by Alphonfo, king of Portugal, in 1468;
but foon after that, it was abandoned to the Moors.
It is feated on the coaft of the ftraits of Gibraltar.
W. Long. j;. 30. N. Lat. 38. o.
ALCAZER, a town qf Spain, in New Caftile, feat-
•ed on the river Guardamana, which has a fortrefs on
a high hill for its defence, and lies in a very fruitful
country. It is 100 miles north-weft of Carthagena.
W. long. 2. 10. N. lat. 38. 15.
ALCE, Alces, or Elk, in zoology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of the cervus, belonging to the order Alee#
of mammalia pecora. See Cervus. II
ALCEA, the holly-hock; a genus of the poly- A,cedo'
andria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants. ,
Species. Although Linnaeus mentions two diftinct
fpecies of this genus, viz. the rofea and ficifolia, he
thinks, that the latter may perhaps be only a va¬
riety of the former; but Mr Miller affirms them to be
diftinft fpecies, whofe difference in the form of their
leaves always continues: The, leaves of the firft fort
are roundifh, and cut at their extremities into angles;
thofe of the fecond are deeply cut into fix or feven feg-
ments, fo as to refemble a hand. Cultivation produces
almoft an infinite variety of this plant, fuch as double-
flowered, fingle-flowered, deep red, pale red, blackifh
red, white, purple, yellow, and flelh-colour. The firft
fpecies is a native of China, the fecond grows alfo in
Iftria." Tho’ natives of warm countries, they are hardy
enough to thrive in the open air in Britian, and have
for many years been fome of the greateft ornaments in
gardens, towards the end of fummer; but they have the
inconvenience of growing too large for fmall gardens,
and requiring tall flakes to fecure them from being
broken by ftrong winds. In large gardens, however,
when properly difpofed, they make a fine appearance;
for as their fpikes of flowers grow very tall, there will
be a fucceffion of them on the fame Items more than two
months : the flowers on the lower part of the fpike ap¬
pear in July; and as their ftalks advance, new flow- %
ers are produced till near the end of September. When
planted in good ground, the ftalks will often rife to
the height of eight or nine feet; fo that near fix feet of
each will be garnifhed with flowers, which, when double
and of good colours, make a very beautiful appearance.
Culture. The holly-hock is propagated by feeds,
which fhould be carefully faved from thofe plants whofe
flowers are double and of the beft colours : for though
the duplicity of the flowers, as well as their colour, are
only accidental properties, yet the young plants will
produce nearly the fame kind of flowers with thofe
from which the feeds are taken, provided no plants with
Angle or bad-coloured flowers are permitted to grow
near them; and as foon as fuch appear they ought to
be removed from the good ones, that their farina may
not fpread into the others, which would caufe them to
degenerate. The feeds ought to be gathered very dry,
and remain in their capfules until fpring; but care mull
be taken that no wet comes to them in winter, other-
wife the covers would turn mouldy, and fpoil their con¬
tents.—They Ihould be fown in drills, about the middle
of April, on a bed of light earth, and covered with
earth of the fame kind about half an inch deep. When
the plants have put out fix or eight leaves, they ftiould
be tranfplanted into nurfery-beds, obferving to water
them until they have taken good root; alter which
they will require no farther care, but to keep them-
clean from weeds till Ofrober, when they ftiould be
tranfplanted where they are to i-emain.
ALCEDO, or Kingfisher, in ornithology, a ge¬
nus of the order of picae. The alcedo has a long,
ftrait, thick, triangular bill ^ with a flefhy, plain, Ihort,
flat tongue. There are feven fpecies of the alcedo.
1. The ifpida, or common kingfilher, haunts the
fhores of Europe and Afia. It is not much larger than
A L C L 205 ] A L C
i Alcedo, a fwallow; its fhape is clumfy; the bill difproportion-
or ably long; it is two inches from the bafe to the tip;
-r lng ler' the upper chap black, and the lower yellow. But the
colours of this bird atone for its inelegant form: the
crown of the head and the coverts of the wings are of
a deep blackifh green, fpotted with bright azure; the
back and tail are of the moft refplendent azure; the
whole under-fide of the body is orange-coloured; a
broad mark of the fame, paffes from the bill beyond
the eyes; beyond that, is a large white fpot: the tail
is (hort, and confifts of twelve feathers of a rich deep
blue; the feet are of a reddiih yellow, and the three
joints of the out-moft toe adhere to the middle toe,
while the inner-toe adheres only by one.
From the diminutive fize, the flender {hort legs, and
the beautiful colours of this bird, no perfon would be
led to fuppofe it one of the moft rapacious little ani¬
mals that fleims the deep. Yet it is for ever on the
wing, and feeds on filh; which it takes in furprifing
quantities, when we confider its fize and figure. It takes
its prey after the manner of the ofprey, balancing itfelf
at a certain diftance above the water for a confiderable
fpace, then darting into the deep, and feizing the fifti
with inevitable certainty. While it remains fufpended
I in the air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a beau¬
tiful variety of the moft dazzling and brilliant colours.
This {hiking attitude did not efcape the notice of the
ancients; for Ibycus, as quoted by Athenaeus, ftyles thefe
birds «xxvov£f TawtnxTigoi, the halcyons with expanded
wings. It makes its neft in holes in the fides of the
cliffs, which it fcoops to the depth of three feet; and
lays from five to nine eggs, of a moft beautiful femi-
tranfparent white: the neft is very fetid, by reafon of
j the remains of the fifti brought to feed the young. The
K female begins to lay early in the feafon; and excludes
her firft brood about the beginning of April. The
male, whofe fidelity exceeds even that of the turtle,
brings her large provifions of-fifti while (he is thus em¬
ployed; and ftie, contrary to moft other birds, is found
plump and fat at that feafon. The male, that ufed to
twitter before this, now enters the neft as quietly and
as privately as poffible. The young ones are hatched
at the expiration of 20 days ; but are feen to differ as
well in theif fize as in their beauty.
This fpecies is the axxuavapwv©-, or mute halcyon of
Ariftotle, which he defcribes with more precifion than
is ufual with that great philofopher: after his defcrip-
tion of the bird, follows that of its neft, than which
the moft inventive of the ancients have delivered no¬
thing that appears at firft fight more fabulous and ex¬
travagant. He relates, that it refembled thofe con¬
cretions that are formed by the fea-water; that it re¬
fembled the long-necked gourd; that it was hollow
within; that the entrance was very narrow, fo that,
ftiould it over-fet, the water could not enter; that itre-
fifted any violence from iron, but could be broke with
a blow from the hand ; and that it was compofed of the
bones of the Bsxovx, or fea-needle. The neft had medi¬
cal virtues afcribed to it; and from the bird was called
1' Halcyoneum. In a fabulous age, every odd fubftance
that was flung aftiore received that name ; a fpecies of
y Plin. tubular coral, a fponge, a zoophite,, and a mifcella-
Jib. xxxii. n'eous concrete, having by the ancients been dignified
£:.8- with that title from their imaginary origin*. Yet much
L ‘°4*' 1 'v' of this feems to be founded on truth, The form of the
neft is juftly deferibed ; and the materials which Ari- Alcedo,
ftotle fays it was compofed of, are not entirely of his . ■ “A
own invention. Whoever has feen the neft of the king- S - '
fiftier, will obferve it ftrewed with the bones and fcales
of fifti; the fragments of the food of the owner and its
young.—On the foundation laid by the philofopher,
fucceeding writers formed other tales extremely abfurd;
and the poets, indulging the powers of imagination,
dreffed the ftory in all the robes of romance. This neft
was a floating one:
Incubat halcyone pendentibus aeqnore nidis. Ovid. Mir/, lib. xi.
It was therefore neceffary to place it in a tranquil fea,
and to fupply the bird with charms to allay the fury
of a turbulent element during the time of its incubation;
for it had, at that feafon, power over the feas and the
winds.
X aXxuvSf ;ogYi(rtvvTt ret hv/uutx, tdv ti SraXucrtrxv, _
Tov rs »o7ov, t&v r tupoVf o( ttryctTO. <pv)ita xmi‘
A’xxusvxf, y\avx.txi( Nyiptiicri rut n
OgviSrav iipi\u3rii>. TheoCRIX. Ittyl. vii. 1. 57.
May Halcyons fmooth the waves, and calm the feas,
And the rough fouth-eaft fink into a breeze;
Halcyons, of all the birds that haunt the main,
Moft lov’d and honour’d by the Nereid train. Favk es.
Thefe birds were equally favourites with Thetis as with
the Nereids;
Dileclas Thetidi Halcyones. Virg. Georg. I. 399.
as if to their influence thefe deities owed a repofe in
the midft of the ftorms of winter, and by their means
were fecured from thofe winds that difturb their fubma-
rine retreats, and agitated even the plants at the bot¬
tom of the ocean.
Such are the accounts given by the Roman and Si¬
cilian poets. Ariftotle and Pliny tells us, that this
bird is moft common in the feas of Sicily : that it fat
only a few days, and thofe in the depth of winter ; and
during that period the mariner might fail in full fecu-
rity; for which reafon they were ftyled Halcyon days.
Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore feptem
Incubat Halcyone pendentibus aequore nidis:
Turn via tuta maris : ventos cuttodit, et arcet
zEolusegreffu. Ovid. Mel. lib. XI.
Alcyone, comprefs’d,
Seven days fits brooding on her watery neft,
A wintry queen-; her fire at length is kind,
Calms every ftorm, and hulhes every wind. Dr yd E tr.
In after-times, thefe words expreffed any feafon of
profperity: thefe were the Halcyon days of the poets;
the brief tranquillity, the feptem placidi dies, of human
fife.
The poets alfo made it a bird of fong. Virgil feems
to place it in the fame rank with the linnet;
Littoraque Halyconem refonant, et Acanthida dumi.
Georg. III. 338.
And Silius Italicus celebrates its mufic, and its float¬
ing neft:
Cum fonat Halcyone cantu, nidofque natantes
Immotageftat fopitis fludtibus unda. Nb. XIV. 47 j.
But thefe writers feem to have transferred to our fpe¬
cies, the harmony that belongs to the vocal alcedo*, *Anft.hift,
one of the loft birds of the ancients.
As the ancients have had their fables concerning
this bird, fo have the modern vulgar. It is an opi¬
nion generally received among them, that the flefti of
the kingfiftier will not corrupt, and that it will even
baniffi '
Aloedo
II
Alciat.
f See Chc-
wiftry, n°5,
A L C [ 206 ] A L C
bariifli all vermin. This has no better foundation than
that which is faid of its always pointing, when hung
up dead, with its breaft to the north. The only truth
which can be affirmed of this bird when killed is, that
its flelh is utterly unfit to be eaten ; while its beautiful
plumage preferves its luftre longer than that of any o-
ther bird we know.
The other fpecies are, 2. The erathaca, with a fhort
tail, a blue back, a yellow bill, a purple head and rump,
and the throat and oppofite part of the neck white. It
is a native of Bengal. 3. The alcyon with a fhort black
tail, white belly, and ferruginous bread;. It is a native
of America. Its cry, its folitary abode about rivers,
and its manner of feeding, are much the fame as of thofe
in Britain. It preys not only on fifli, but likewife on
lizards. 4. The todus, with a fhort green tail, a blood-
coloured throat, and a white belly. It is a native of
America; and is the green fparrow, or green humming¬
bird, of Edwards. 5. The finyrnenfis, with a fhort
green tail, ferruginous wings, and a green back. It is
a native of Africa, and Afia. 6. The rudis, with a
brown fhort tail variegated with white. It is a native
of Perfia and Egypt. 7. The dea, with two verylpng
feathers in the tail, a blackifh blue body, andgreenifh
wings. It is a native of Surinam. All thefe likewife
dive in the water, and catch fifh with their long beaks.
ALCHEMILLA, or Ladies-mantle, a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria
clafs of plants. Of this genus there are three
Species. 1. The vulgaris, or common ladies-mantle,
with leaves plaited like a fan, and yellowifh-green blof-
foms. It grows naturally in pafture-lands in this as well
as in moft other countries in Europe. The leaves difco-
ver to the tafte a moderate aflringency; and were for¬
merly much efteemed in fome female weakneffes, and in
fluxes of the belly. They are now rarely made ufe of, tho’
both the leaves and roots might doubtlefs be of fervice
in cafes where mild aftringents are required. In the
province of Smolandia in Gothland, they make a tinc¬
ture of the leaves, and give it in fpafmodic or convul-
live difeafes. Horfes, fheep, and goats, eat it; cows
are not fond of it ; fwine refufe it.—2. The alpina, or
cinque-foil ladies-mantle, with finger-fhaped fawed
leaves,and greenifh blofibms. It is a native of the moun¬
tainous parts of Europe. Goats and cows eat it; horfes,
fneep, and fwine, refufe it.—3. The minor, or leaf! ladies-
mantle, with five fmooth leaves growing at a joint and
cut into many fegments. It grows naturally in Swe¬
den, Lapland, and other cold countries. Eaten by
cows and goats; refufed by horfes, fheep, and fwine.
Culture. Thefe plants have perennial roots, and an¬
nual ftalks. They are eafily propagated by parting of
their roots, or fowing their feeds in autumn. They
fhould have a moifl: foil and fhady fituation, and be kept
clean from weeds ; which is all the culture they re¬
quire.
ALCHEMIST, a pra&itioner in alchemy.
ALCHEMY, that branch of chemiftry which had
for its principal obje&s, the tranfmutation of metals
into gold; the panacea, or univerfal remedy ; an alka-
heft, or univerfal menftruum; an univerfal ferment;
and many other things equally ridiculousf.
ALCIAT (Andrew), a great lawyer, who flourifh-
ed in the 16th century, born at Milan. He mixed
much of polite learning in the explication of the laws,
and happily drove out the barbarity of language which
till then had reigned in the leftures and writings of
lawyers; for which Thuanus highly praifes him. He
publifhed a great many law-books, and fome notes
upon Tacitus. His Emblems have been much admired,
andtranflated into French, Italian, and Spanifh; and fe-
veral learned men have written commentaries on them.
ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general. It was
the fate of this great man to live at a time when his
country was a fcene of confufion. The Greeks, grown
infolent from their conquefts in Perfia, turned their
arm's againft each other, and bandied together under
the conduft of the two mofl opulent Hates Athens and
Lacedaemon. Alcibiades, in the midft of an expedition
he had planned againft the enemy of his country, was
recalled home to anfwer fome charge of a private na¬
ture ; but fearing the violence of his enemies, inftead
of going to Athens, he offered his fervices at Sparta,
where they were readily accepted. By his advice the
Lacedemonians made a league with Perfia, which gave
a very favourable turn to their affairs. But his credit
in the republic raifing jealoufies againft him, he pri¬
vately reconciled himfelf to his country, and took a-
gain the command of an Athenian army. Here viftory,
waiting as it were at his command, attended all his
motions. The lofs of feven battles obliged the Spar¬
tans to fue for peace. He enjoyed his triumphs, how¬
ever, only a fliort time at Athens. One unfuccefsful
event made him again obnoxious to the malice of his
citizens; and he found it expedient to retire from
Athens. In his abfence the Spartans again took the
lead, and at the fatal battle of ./Egos entirely fubdued
the Athenian power. Alcibiades, though an exile,
endeavoured to reftore the power of his country; of
which the Spartans having intelligence, procured him
to be affaffmated. He was a man of admirable accom-
plilhments, but indifferently principled; of great parts;
and of an amazing verfability of genius.
ALCINOUS, king of the Phaeacians, in the ifland
now called Corfu, was fon of Naufithous, and grand-
fon of Neptune and Peribea. It is by his gardens this
king has chiefly immortalized his memory. He re¬
ceived Ulyffes with much civility, when a ftorm had
call him on his coaft. The people here lojed pleafure
and good cheer, yet were Ikilful feamen; and Alcinous
was a good prince.
ALCMAER, a city of the United Provinces, feat-
ed in North Holland, about four miles from the fea,
fifteen from Haerlem, and eighteen from Amfterdam.
It is a handfome city, and one of the cleaneft in Hol¬
land. The ftreets and houfes are extremely neat and
regular, and the public buildings very beautiful. It
had formerly two parifti-churehes, dedicated to St
Matthew and St Lawrence. The latter had fo high
a tower, that it ferved for a fea-mark to the ve ffels
that were in the open fea ; but, in 1464, it tumbled
down, and damaged the other church fo much, that
they were both demolifhed in 1470, and one church
was built in their Head, dedicated to the fame faints.
The Spaniards, under the command of Frederic of To¬
ledo, fon of the duke d’Alva, came to befiege it, after
they had taken Haerlem in 1573 ; but were forced to
raife the fiege, after three months lying before it, as
well on account of the infection of the air as the flout
refiftance of the inhabitants and foldiers; even the wo-
Alcibiade*
Alcmaer.
men
A L C
[ 2°7 ]
A L C
an men fignalizing themfelves bravely in its defence. It is the chapel he bad built at Kingfton upon Hull. Alcohol
recorded in the regifter of this city, that, in the year ALCOHOL, or Alkool, in chemiftry, fpirit of , li
c*{• 1637, one hundred and twenty tulips, with the off-fets, wine highly re&ified *. It is alfo ufed for any highly A col“11-
fold for 90,000 florins. The town has a very good re&ified fpirit.—Alcohol is extremely light and infiam- * See Cocmi-
trade in butter and cheefe, of which a vaft quantity is mable : It is a ftrong antifeptic, and therefore employ- ftry> n°563-
fold every year, and is efteemed the beft in Holland, ed to preferve animal fub(lances.
E. long. 4. 26. N. lat. 52. 28. Alcohol is alfo ufed for any fine impalpable
ALCMAN, a ly ric poet, who flouriflied in the 27th powder.
Olympiad. He was born at Sparta; andcompofed fe- ALCOHOLIZATION, the procefs of rectifying
veral poems, of which only fome fragments are remain- any fpirit. It is alfo ufed for pulverization,
ing, quoted by Athenaeus and fome other ancient wri- ALCORAN, or Al-koran, the fcripture, or bible,
ters. He was very amorous; accounted the father of of the Mahometans. The word is compounded of the
gallant poefy; and is faid to have been the firftthatin- Arabic particle a/, and coran or koran, derived from
troduced the cuftom of finging love-fongs in company, verb caraa or karaa, to read. The word therefore
He is reported to have been one of the greateft eaters properly fignifies, the reading; or rather, that ’which
of his age; upon which Mr Bayle remarks, that fuch ought to he read. By this name the Mahometans de-
a quality would have been extremely inconvenient, if note not only the entire book or volume of the Koran,
poetry had been at that time upon fuch a footing as but alfo any particular chapter or feCtion of it; juft as
it has been often fince, not able to procure the poet the Jews call either the whole fcripture, or any part of
bread. He died of a ftrange difeafe ; for he was eat it, by the name of Karah, or Mikra, words of the fame
up with lice. origin and import.
ALCMANIAN, in ancient lyric poetry, a kind of Befides this peculiar name, the Koran is alfo honour*
verfe confifting of two daCtyles and two trochees; as,— ed with feveral appellations common to other books of
Virgini\hus pue\rijque [ canto. fcripture : as, al Farkan, from the verb foraka, to
The word is formed from Sllcman, the name of an an- divide or diflinguifh ; not, as the Mahometan doctors
cient Greek poet, in great efteem for Ms erotics or fay, becaufe thofe books are divided into chapters or
amorous compofitions. fe&ions, or diftihguifli between good and evil; but in
ALCMENA, the daughter of EleAryo king of My- the fame notion that the Jews ufe the work Perek, or
eenae, and wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter putting on the Pirka, from the fame root, to denote a fection or por-
fhape of her hufband while he was abroad in the wars, tion of fcripture. It is alfo called al Mojhaf, the vo-
begot Hercules upon her ; he made that night as long lume, and al Kitab, the look, by way of eminence, which
as three ordinary ones. o anfwers to thc.Biblia of the Greeks; and alDhikr, the
ALCOA arbor, the name of a tree in St Helena, admonition, which name is alfo given to the Pentateuch
faid to emulate ebony. and Gofpel.
ALCOCK (John), dodfor of laws, and biihop of The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of very
Ely in the reign of king He'nry VII. born at Beverly unequal length, which we call chapters; but the Ara-
in Yorkfhire, and educated at Cambridge. He was bians fonnar, in the inngxdar fura; a word rarely ufed
firft made dean of Weftminfter, and afterwards ap- on any other occafion, and properly fignifying a row,
pointed matter of the rolls. In 1471, he was confe- order, or a regular feries ; as a courfe of bricks in
crated bilhop of Rochefter : in 1476, he was tranflated building, or a rank of foldiers in an army ; and is the
to the fee of Worcefter; and in i486, to that of Ely, fame in ufe and import with the Sura, or Tora, of the
in the room of Dr John Morton, preferred to the fee Jews, who alfo call the fifty-three ft6tions of tire Pen-
of Canterbury. He was a prelate of great learning tateuch Sedarim, a word of the fame fignification.
and piety; and fo highly efteemed by king Henry, Thefe chapters are not, in the manufcript copies, di-
that he appointed him lord prefident of Wales, and ftinguiftied by their numerical order, but by particular
afterwards lord chancellor of England. Alcock foun- titles, which are taken fometimes from a particular
ded a fchool at Kingfton upon Hull, and built the fpa- matter treated of, or perfon mentioned therein ; but
clous hall belonging to the epifcopal palace at Ely. ufually from the firft word of note, exaftly in the fame
He was alfo the founder of Jefus-college in Cambridge, manner as the Jews have named their Sedarim; though
for a mafter, fix fellows, and as many fcholars. This the word from which fome chapters are denominated
houfe was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to St Radi- be very far diftant, towards the middle, or perhaps the
gund ; and, as Godwin tells us, the building being end, of the chapter; which feems ridiculous. But the
greatly decayed, and the revenues reduced almoft to occafion of this appears to have been, that the verfe or
nothing, the nuns had all forfaken it, except two; pafiage wherein fuch word occurs, was, in point of
whereupon biftiop Alcock procured a grant from the time, revealed and committed to writing before the o-
crown, and converted it into a college. But Cambden ther verfes of the fame chapter which precede it in or-
and others tell us, that the nuns of that houfe were der; and the title being given to the chapter before it
fo notorious for their incontinence, that King Henry was completed, or the paffages reduced to their prefent
VII. and Pope Julius II. confented to its diflblution : order, the verfe from whence fuch title was taken did
Bale accordingly calls this nunnery fpiritualium mere- not always happen to begin the chapter. Some chap-
tricum canobiurn, “ a community of fpiritual harlots.” ters have two or more titles, occafionedby the difference
Biftiop Alcock wrote feveral pieces, amongft which are of the copies.
the following: 1. Mans Perfeftionis. 2. In Pfalmos Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mecca,
Penitentiales. 3. Homilite Vulgares. 4. Meditationes and others at Medina, the noting this difference makes
Pi#. He died October Ist, 1500; and was buried in a part of the title : but the reader will obferve, that fe¬
veral
A L C
[
veval of the chapters are fakl to have been revealed mrt-
“ ly at Mecca, and partly at Medina ; and, as to others,
it is yet a difpute among the commentators to which
of the two places they belong.
208 ] A L C
another fpecies of the Jewifh Cabala called Gmatria j
the uncertainty of which conjectures fufficiently appears ■
from their difagreement. Thus, for example, five chap¬
ters, one of which is the-fecond, begins with thefe letters.
Every chapter is fubdivided into fmaller portions, of A. L. M. which fome imagine to Hand for Allah latif
very unequal length alfo, which we cuftomarily call
verfes: but the Arabic word is ayat, the fame with the
Hebrew cloth, and fignifies or nvonders: fuch as
are the fecrets of God, his attributes, works, judge¬
ments, and ordinances, delivered in thofe verfes; many
of which have their particular titles alfo, impofed in
the fame manner as thofe of the chapters.
BefideS thefe unequal divifions of chapter and verfe,
the Mahometans have alfo divided their Koran into fix-
ty equal portions, which they call Ahzab, in the fin-
gular Hizb, each fubdivided into four equal parts;
which is alfo an imitation of the Jews, who have an
ancient divifion of their Milhma into fixty portions call¬
ed MafitUoth. But the Koran is more ufually divided
into thirty feftions only, named Ajza, from the Angu¬
lar Joz, each of twice the length of the former, and in
the like manner fubdivided into four parts. Thefe divi¬
fions are for the ufe of the readers of the Koran in the
royal temples, or in the adjoining chapels where the
emperors and great men are interred. There are thir¬
ty of thefe readers belonging to every chapel, and each
reads his feftion every day, fo that the whole Koran is
read over once a-day.
Next after the title, at the head of every chapter,
except only the ninth* is prefixed the following folemn
form, by the Mahometans called the Bifmallah, In
THE NAME OF THE MOST MERCIFUL GoDJ which form
they conftantly place at the beginning of all their books
and writings in general, as a peculiar mark or diftin-
guilhing charadteriftic of their religion, it being count¬
ed a fort of impiety to omit it. The Jews, for the
fame purpofe, make ufe of the form, In the name of the
Lord, or, In the name of the great and the ea-
ftern Chriftians that of, In the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghojl. But Mahomet
probably took this form, as he did many other things^
from the Perfian Magi, who ufed to begin their books
in thefe words, Benam Tezdan bakhfoaifhgher dadar ;
that is, In the name of the mojl mercifuljujl God.
There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which
have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain let¬
ters of the alphabet, fome with a Angle one, others with
more. Thefe letters the Mahometans believe to be
the peculiar marks of the Koran, and to conceal feve-
ral profound myfteries, the certain underftanding of
which, the more intelligent confefs, has not been com¬
municated to any mortal, their prophet only excepted.
Notwithstanding which, fome will take the liberty of
gueffmg at their meaning by that fpecies of Cabala call¬
ed by the Jews Notarikon, and fuppofe the letters to
Hand for as many words, expreffing the names and at¬
tributes of God, his works, ordinances, and decrees; and
therefore thefe myfterious letters, as well as the'verfes
themfelves, feem in the Koran to be calledfgns. Others
explain the intent of thefe letters from their nature or or¬
gan, or elfe from their value in numbers, according to
God // gracious and to be glorifiedf’ c
li minni, i.e. to me andfrom me, viz. belongs all perfec¬
tion, and proceeds all good; or elfe for Ana Allah a-
lam, “ I am the mojl wife God,” taking the firft letter
to mark the beginning of the firft word, the fecond the
middle of the fecond word, and the third thelaft of the
third word; or for Allah, Gabriel, Mohammed,-the
author, revealer, and preacher of the Koran. Others
fay, that as the letter A belongs to the lower part of
the throat, the firft of the organs of fpeech ; L to the
palate, the middle organ; and M to the lips, which
are the laft organ ; fo thefe letters fignify that God is
the beginning, middle, and end, or ought to be praifed
in the beginning, middle, and end, of all our words and
a&ions : or, as the total value of thofe three letters, in
numbers, is feventy-one, they fignify, that, in the fpace
of fo many years, the religion preached in the Koran
fhould be fully eftablilhed. The conjecture of a learn¬
ed Chriftian is at Jeaft as certain as any of the former,
who fuppofes thofe letters were fet there by the ama-
nuenfis, for Amur li Mohammed, i. e. At the command
of Mohammed, as the five letters prefixed to the nine¬
teenth chapter feem to be there written by a Jewilh
fcribe, for Cob yaas, i, e. Thus he commanded.
The Koran is univerfally allowed to be written with
the utmoft elegance and purity of language, in the dia¬
led!; of the tribe of Koreilh, the moft noble and polite
of all the Arabians, but with fome mixture, though very
rarely, of other dialefts. It is confeffedly the ftandard
of the Arabic tongue, and, as the more orthodox be¬
lieve, and are taught by the book itfelf, inimitable by
any human pen (though fome fedlaries have been of
another opinion), and therefore infifted on as a per¬
manent miracle, greater than that of raifing the dead,
and alone fufficient to convince the world of its divine
original.
And to this miracle did Mahomet himfelf chiefly
appeal for the confinnation of his miffion,,publicly chal¬
lenging the moft eloquent men in Arabia, which was
at that time flocked with thoufands whole foie ftudy
and ambition it was to excel in elegance of ftyle and
compofition, to produce even a Angle chapter that might
be compared with it (a).
To the pomp and harmony of expreffion fome afcribe
all the force and effedl of the Alcoran; which they
confider as a fort of mufic, equally fitted with other fpe¬
cies of that art to ravilh and amaze. In this Mahomet
fucceeded fo well, and fo ftrangely captivated the minds
of his audience, that feveral of his opponents thought it
the effecl of witchcraft and enchantment, as he himfelf
complains.—Others have attributed the effeift of the
Alcoran to the frequent mention of rewards and punilh-
ments; heaven and hell occuring almoft in every page.
Some fuppofe, that the fenfual pleafures of paradife, fo
frequently fet before the imaginations of the readers of
the Alcoran, were what chiefly bewitched them. • Tho’,
with
Ja) As the compofition and arrangement of words, however, admit of infinite varieties, it can never be abfolutely
faid that any one is the belt poffible. In fadt, Hamzah Benahmed wrote a book againft the alcoran with at leaft equal
elegance; and Mofelema another, which even furpaffed it, and occalioned a defedion of a great part of the Muflulmans.
Journ.de Scav. tom. xiii. p. *8o. Ouvr. de Scav. Nov. 1708. p.404.
Alcoran.
A L C [ 209 ] A L C
Alcoran, with regard to thefe, there is great difpute whether
‘ they are to be underftood literally or fpiritually. Se¬
veral have even allegorized the whole book.
The general defign of the Koran was to unite the
profeffors of the three different religions then followed
in the populous country of Arabia, (who, for the moft
part, lived promifcuoufly, and wandered without guides,
the far greater number being idolaters, and the reft Jews
and Chriftians moftly of erroneous and heterodox be¬
lief) in the knowledge and worfhip of one God, under
the fanttion of certain laws, and the outward figns of
ceremonies partly of ancient and partly of novel inftitu-
tion, enforced by the confideration of rewards and pu-
nifhments both temporal and eternal; and to bring them
all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet and
ambaffador of God, who, after the repeated admoni¬
tions, promifes, and threats, of former ages, was at laft
to eftablifh and propagate God’s religion on earth, and
to be acknowledged chief pontiff in fpiritual matters,
as well as fupreme prince in temporal.
The great do&rine then of the Koran, is the unity
of God ; to reftore which point Mahomet pretended
was the chief end of his miffion ; it being laid down
by him as a fundamental truth, That there never was,
nor ever can be, more than one true orthodox religion.
For, though the particular laws or ceremonies are only
temporary, and fubjedt to alteration, according to the
divine diredtion ; yet, the fubftance of it being eternal
truth, is not liable to change, but continues immutably
the fame. And he taught, that, whenever this religion
became negledfed, or corrupted in eflentials, God had
the goodnefs to re-inform and re-admonifti mankind
thereof, by feveral prophets, of whom Mofes and Je-
fus were the moft diftinguifhed, till the appearance of
Mahomet, who is their leal, and no other to be expec¬
ted aftfer him. The more effedtually to engage peo¬
ple to hearken to him, great part of the Koran is em¬
ployed in relating examples of dreadful punilhments
formerly* inflidted by God on thofe who rejedted and
abufed his meffengers; feveral of which ftories, or
fome circumftances of them, are taken from the Old
and New Teftaments, but many more from the apocry¬
phal books and traditions of the Jews and Chriftians of
thofe ages, fet up in the Koran as truths in oppofition
to the fcriptures, which the Jews and Chriftians are
charged with having altered: and indeed, few or none
of the relations or circumftances in the Koran were in¬
vented by Mahomet, as is generally fuppofed, it being
cafy to trace the greateft part of them much higher,
as the reft might be, were more of thofe books extant,
and was it worth while to make the inquiry.
The reft of the Alcoran is taken up in prefcribing
neceflary laws and diredtions, frequent admonitions to
moral and divine virtues, the worfhip and reverence of
the fupreifie being, and refignation to his will. One
of their moft learned commentators diftinguilhes the
contents of the Alcoran into allegorical and literal; un¬
der the former are comprehended all the obfcure, pa¬
rabolical, and aenigmatical pafiages, with fuch as are
repealed, or abrogated; the latter, fuch as are clear,
and in full force.
The moft excellent moral in the whole Alcoran in¬
terpreters fay, is that in the chapter Al Alraf, viz, Shfew
mercy, do good to all, and difpute not with the igno¬
rant ; or, as Mr Sale renders it, Ufe indulgence, com-
Vol. I.
mand that which is juft, and withdraw far from the ig- Alcoran.
norant. Mahomet, according to the authors of the Kef-
cbaf, having begged of the angel Gabriel a more am¬
ple explication of this paflage, received it in the follow¬
ing terms: “ Seek him who turns thee out, give to him
“ who takes from thee, pardon him who injures thee;
“ for God will have you plant in your fouls the roots of
“ his chief perfections.” It is eafy to fee, that this
commentary is copied from the Gofpel.—In reality, the
neceffityof forgiving enemies, though frequently incul¬
cated in the Alcoran, is of a later date among the Ma¬
hometans than among the Chriftians; among thofe lat¬
ter, than among the heathens; and to be traced origi¬
nally among the Jews *. But it matters not fo much • See Exod.
who had it ftrft, as who obferves it beft. The caliph xx‘“> 4> 5*
Haflan, fon of Hali, being at table, a flave unfortunate¬
ly let fall a difti of meat reeking hot, which fcalded him
feverely. The flave fell on his knees, rehearfing thefe
words of the Alcoran, “ Paradife is for thofe who re-
ftrain their anger.” I am not angry with thee, anfwer-
ed the caliph. “ And for thofe who forgive offences
“ againft them,” continues the flave. I forgive thee
thine, replies the caliph. “ But above all, for thofe
“ who return good for evil,” adds the flave. I fet thee
at liberty, rejoined the caliph, and I give thee ten
dinars.
There are alfo a great number of occafional paffages
in the Alcoran, relating only to particular emergencies.
For this advantage Mahomet had in the piecemeal me¬
thod of receiving his revelation, that whenever he hap¬
pened to be perplexed and gravelled with any thing, he
had a certain refource in fome new morfel of revelation.
It was an admirable contrivance of his, to bring down
the whole Alcoran at once, only to the loweft heaven,
not to earth ; fince, had the whole been publiflied at
once, innumerable obje&ions would have been made,
which it would have been impoffible for him to folve ;
but as he received it by parcels, as God faw fit they
fliould be publifhed for the converfion arid inftruftion
of the people, he had a fure way to anfwer all emer¬
gencies, and to extricate himfelf with honour from any
difficulty which might occur.
That Mahomet was really the author and chief
contriver of the Koran, is beyond difpute ; though it
is highly probable that he had no fmall affiftance in
his defign from others, as his countrymen failed not to
objeft to him: however, they differed fo much in their
conjectures as to the particular perfons who gave him
fuch affiftance, that they were not able, it feems, to
prove the charge ; Mohammed, it is to be prefumed,
having taken his meafures too well to be difcovered.
However it be, the Mahometans abfolutely deny
the Koran was compofed by their prophet himfelf, or
any other for him. It is their general and orthodox be¬
lief, that it is of divine original; nay, that it is eternal
and uncreated, remaining, as fome exprefs it, in the
very effence of God : that the firft tranfcript has been
from everlafting by God’s throne, written on a table
of vaft bignefs,. called the preferved table, in which are
alfo recorded the divine decrees paft and future : that
a copy from this table, in one volume on paper, was
by the miniftry of the angel Gabriel fent down to the
loweft heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the night
of power: from whence Gabriel revealed it to Maho¬
met by parcels, fome at Mecca, and fome at Medina,
D d at
A L C [ 210 ] A L C
Alcoran. at different times, during the fpace of twenty-three
~ years, as the exigency of affairs required; giving him,
however, the confolation to fliew him the whole (which
they tell us was bound in filk, and adorned with gold
and precious ftones of paradife) once a-year; but in
the laft year of his life he had the favour to fee it twice.
They fay, that few chapters were delivered entire, the
moft part being revealed piecemeal, and written down
from time to time by the prophet’s amanuenfxs in fuck
a part of fuch or fuch a chapter, till they were com-
pleated, according to the directions of the angel. The
firft parcel that was revealed is generally agreed to have
been the firft five verfes of the ninety-fixth chapter.
After the new-revealed paffages had been from the
prophet’s mouth taken down in writing by his fcribe,
they were publiflied to his followers, feveral of whom
took copies for their private ufe, but the far greater
number got them by heart. The originals, when re¬
turned, were put promifcuoufly into a cheft, obferving
no order of time, for which reafon it is uncertain when
many paffages were revealed.
When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the
fame diforder, and not digefted into the method, fuch
as it is, in which we now find them. This was the
work of his fucceffor Abu Beer; who, confidering that
a great number of paffages were committed to the me¬
mory of Mahomet’s followers, many of whom were
flain in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected,
not only from the palm-leaves and Ikins on which they
had been written, and which were kept between two
boards or covers, but alfo from the mouths of fuch as
had gotten them by heart. And this tranfcript, when
completed, he committed to the cuftody of Haffa the
daughter of Omar, one of the prophet’s widows.
From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu
Beer was really the compiler of the Koran ; though,
for aught appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the
chapters complete as we now have them, excepting fuch
paffages as his fucceffor might add or correft from
thofe who had gotten them by heart; what Abu Beer
did elfe, being perhaps no more than to range, the
chapters in their prefent order, which he feems to have
done v.-ithout any regard to time, having generally
placed the longeft firft.
However, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira, Oth-
man being then caliph, and obferving the great difa-
greement in the copies of the Koran in the feveral pro¬
vinces of the empire ; thofe of Irak, for example, fol¬
lowing the-reading of Abu Mufa al Aftiari, and the
Syrians that of Macdad Ebn Afwad; he, by the advice
of the companions, ordered a great number of copies to
be tranferibed from that of Abu Beer, in Haffa’s care,
under the infpeftion of Zeid Ebn Thabety Abd’allah
Ebn Zobair, Said Ebn al As, and Ad’alrahman Ebn
al Hareth the Makhzumite; whom he directed, that,
wherever they difagreed about any word, they ftiould
write it in the dialect of the Koreilh, in which it was at
firft delivered. Thefe copies, when made, were dif-
perfed in the feveral provinces of the empire, and the
old ones burnt and fuppreffed. Though many things
in Haffa’s copy were corre&ed by the abovementioned
revifers, yet fome few various readings ftill occur.
In fine, the book of the Alcoran is held in the higheft
efteem and reverence among the Muffelmans. They
dare not fo much as touch the Alcoran, without being
firft wafhed, .or legally purified ; to prevent which, an Alcorani
infeription is put on the cover or label, Let none touch ^jcl!Jjnlls
but they nxiho. are clean. It is read with great care and * *
refpedt ; being never held below the girdle. They
fwear by it; take omens from it on all weighty occa-
fions ; carry it with them to war ; write fentences of it
in their banners; adorn it with gold and precious ftones;
and knowingly fuffer it not to be in the poffeffion of any
of a different religion. Some fay that it is puniftiable
even with death, in a Chriftian, to touch it; others, that
the veneration of the Muffelmans leads them to condemn
the tranflating it into any other language as a profana¬
tion : but thefe feem to be aggravations. The Maho¬
metans have taken care to have their feripture tranflated
into the Perfian, the Javan, the Malayan, and other
languages; though, out of refpeft to the original, thefe
verlions are generally, if not always, interlineated.
See further concerning the hiftory of the Alcoran,
Boulainviliers, Vie de Mahom. p. 258. Aft. Erudif.
Lipf. 1694, p. 382. & 1692, p. 331, feq.—Its excel¬
lency and ufe, Reland, Relig. Mahom. in Pref. Jour.
Liter. T. 10. p. 29.—As Charafters and Confufion,
Ouvr. des Scav. Sept. 1704, p. 419. Jour, des Scav.
T. 37. p.39.48. p. 87, T. feq.—Its Obfcurityand Dif¬
ficulties, Mem. deTrev. 1714, p. 1147.—Its Doftrine
of Chrift, Phil. Tranf. N° 154. p. 433. See alfo Po-
Jlellus on its conformity with the Gofpel.—Contradic¬
tions in it, how folved, Z)’ Herbel. p. 87.
Alcoran, is alfo figuratively applied to certain o-
ther books full of impieties and impoftures.—In this
fenfe we meet with the Alcoran of the Cordeliers,
which has made a great noife ; wherein St Francis is
extravagantly magnified, and put on a level with Jefus
Chrift. The Alcoran of the Cordeliers is properly an
extraft of a very fcarce book, entitled, The conformity
of the life of the feraphic father St Francis with the life
of Chrift, puhlifhed in 1510, 4^0.; fince, at Bologna, in
folio. Erafmus . Albertus, being by the eleftor of
Brandenburg appointed to vifit a monaftery of Fran-
eifeans, found this book; and being ftruck with the
extreme folly and abfurdity of it, collefted a number
of curiofities out of it, and publifhed them under the .
title of the Alcoran of the Francifcans, with a preface
by Martin Luther.
ALCORANISTS, among Mahometans, thofe who
adhere ftriftly to the letter or text of the alcoran, from
an opinion of its ultimate fufficiency and perfection.
The Perfians are generally Aleoranifls, as admitting
the alcoran alone for their rule'of faith. The Turks,
Tartars, Arabs, &c. befides the alcoran, admit a mul¬
titude of traditions. The Alcoranifts, among Maho¬
metans, amount to much the fame with the textuaries
among the Jews. The Alcoranifts can find nothing
excellent out of the alcoran; are enemies of philofo-
phers, metaphyficians, and fcholaftic writers. With
them the alcoran is every thing.
ALCOVE, among builders, a recefs, or part of a
chamber feparated by an eftrade, or partition of co¬
lumns, and other correfponding ornaments, in which
is placed a bed of ftate, and fometimes feats to enter¬
tain company. Thefe alcoves are frequent in Spain;
and the bed is railed two or three afeents, with a rail
at the foot.
ALCUINUS (Flaccus,) an ecclefiaftic of the
eighth century. Where he was born, is a matter of'
difpute;,
A L C [ 2" ]
A L D
Alcuinus difpute; but, according to the mofl: probable opinion,
.11. it was in Yorkihirei It is pretty certain, however, that
gyonms. educated firft under Bede, and afterwards by
Egbert archbifhop of York, by whom he was made
keeper of the library of that city (a). He thence rofe
to be deacon of the church, and afterwards became
abbot of Canterbury. In the year 793 he went over
to France, upon the invitation of Charlemagne, by
whom he was greatly carelfed, and amply provided
for. He was not only honoured with his friendlhip
and confidence, but became his inftru&or in rhetoric,
logic, mathematics, and divinity. He attended him
to the council of Francfort; and, at his return, was
prefented with the abbeys of Ferrara, St Jodocus, and
St Lupus. He retired at laft to the abbey of St Mar¬
tin at Tours, where he fpent the latter part of his life,
and died im the year 804. Doubtlefs, he was oner of
the beft fcholars and wifeft men of his time. France
was chiefly indebted to him for her improvements
in literature. The univerfities of Paris, Tours, Ful-
den, Soiflbns, and many others, owe to him their ori¬
gin and increafe ; and to him was owing the inllitution
* See ilea- 0f learned academies, at leaft the firft one * we read
of wa .8 fet on foot by the emperor at his inftigation.
His works were collefted and publilhed by Andrew
du Chefne in one volume folio, Paris, 1617. They
confift of, 1. Trafts upon feripture. 2. Tradls up¬
on dottrine, difeipline, and morality. 3. Hiftorical
treatifes, letters, and poems. Since this edition, there
has been publiftied an incredible number of tradts,
poems, &c. aferibed to this author, moft of which,
in all probability, were not his.
■f SeeAIceda. ALCYON, the trivial name of a fpecies of alcedo f.
ALCYONIUM, an obfolete name of a fubmarine
plant. It is alfo ufed for a kind of coral, or aftroites,
frequently found fofiile in England,
ALCYONIUM stagnum, (anc. geogr.) a lake
in the territory of Corinth, whofe depth was unfathom¬
able, and in vain attempted to be discovered by Nero :
through this lake Bacchus is faid to have defeended to
hell, to bring back Semele; (Paufanias).
ALCYONIUS (Peter), a learned Italian, who flou-
rifhed in the 16th century. He was well verfed in the
Greek and Latin tongues, and wrote fome pieces of
eloquence which met with great approbation. He
was corrector of the prefs a confiderable time for Al¬
dus Manutius, and is intitled to a {hare in the praifes
given to the editions of that learned printer. He pu¬
bliftied a treatife concerning banifhment, which con¬
tained fo many fine paffages intermixed with others
quite the reverfe, that it was thought he had tacked
to fomewhat of his own, feveral fragments of a treatife
of Cicero de gloria; and that afterwards, in order to
fave himfelf from being detected in this theft, he burnt
the manufeript of Cicero, the only one extant. Pau-
lus Manutius, in his commentary upon thefe words of
Cicero, “ Librum tibi celeriter mittam de gloria, I
will fpeedily fend you my treatife on gloryhas the
following pafiage relating to this affair : “ He means
(fays he) his two books On Glory, which were handed
down to the age of our fathers ; for Bernard Juftinian,
in the index of his books, mentions Cicero de Gloria.
This treatife however, when Bernard had left his whole
library to a nunnery, could not be found, though Aldborongh
fought after with great care: nobody doubted but Pe- Aj(jJman
ter Alcyonius, who, being phyfician to the nunnery, a
was entrufted with the library, had bafely Hole it.
And truly, in his treatife Of Baniftiment, fome things
are found interfperfed here and there, which feem not
to favour of Alcyonius, but of fome higher author.”
The two orations he made after the taking of Rome,
wherein he reprefented very ftrongly the injuftice of
Charles V. and the barbarity of his foldiers, were ex¬
cellent pieces. There is alfo an oration aferibed to him,
on the knights who died at the fiege of Rhodes.
ALDBOROUGH, a fea-port town in Suffolk,
with a market on Saturdays. It is pleafantly fituated,
in a dale, between a high hill to the weftward, on
which its large old-built church ftands; the fea to the
eaft, and its river, running fouth-weft. It is a large,
long, ordinary town, made up of two or three ftreets
of low houfes, running parallel to each other. A quar¬
ter of a mile to the fouth lies Slaughden, where they
have a commodious key, with warehoufes for fifti: more
foutherly ftill, they have conveniences for drying their
north-fea fifti. Their employment in the fifhery is their
chief bufinefs, which is confiderable in the feafons for
catching herrings and fprats; and it is the only place
in England for curing red fprats. It is a town corpo¬
rate, and fends two members to parliament. Towards
the fea, it has fome pieces of cannon planted for its de¬
fence. It is 88 miles north-eaft from London. E.Long.
1. 32. N. Lat. 52. 50.
Aldborough, a market-town in the weft riding
of Yorkftiire, feated on the river Oufe, 15 miles north-
weft of York, and 200 miles north of London. It
fends two members to parliament. W. Long. o. 20.
N. Lat. 54. 15. It was anciently a Roman city, cal¬
led Ifurium Brigantium; and feveral coins and monu¬
ments of the Saxons and Romans have been difeovered
there.
ALDEBARAN, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft
magnitude, called in Englifli the bull's-eye, as making
the eye of the conftellation Taurus. Its longitude is
6 deg. 32 min. 9 fee. of Gemini, and its latitude 5 deg.
29 min. 40 fee. fouth.
ALDER-tree, in botany. See Alnus.
ALDERHOLM, a pleafant ifland of Sweden, for¬
med by the three arms of a river running thro’ Gentle,
a town of Nordland, in Sweden. Here is a wharf, a
repofitory for planks and deals, two packing houfes, a
large cuftom-houfe for taking toll of the ftiips, an ar-
fenal for cannon, and a granary.
ALDERMAN, in the Britifli policy, a magiftrate
fubordinate to the lord-mayor of a city or town-cor¬
porate. The number of thefe magiftrates is not limi¬
ted, but is more or lefs according to the magnitude of
the place. In London they are 26 ; each having one
of the wards of the city committed to his care. This
office is for life ; fo that when one of them dies, or re-
figns, a ward-mote is called, who return two perfons,
one of whom the lord-mayor and aldermen chufe to
fupply the vacancy. By the charter of the city of
London, all the aldermen who have been lord-mayors,
together with the three eldeft ones not arrived at that
dignity, are juftices of the peace.
D 4 2 Alderman,
(a) William of Malmfbury calls this library omnium liberalium artium armarium. It was deftroyed by fire in
the reign of king Stephen, with great part of the city of York.
Alderman
Aldhelm.
A L D [ 212 ] A L D
Alderman, among our Saxon anceftors, was a de¬
gree of nobility anfwering to earl or count at prefent.
Alderman was alfo ufed, in the time of king Ed¬
gar, for a judge or juft ice ; in which fenfe, Alwin is
called aldennannus totius Anglia:.
ALDERNEY, an ifland in the Britilh channel, fub-
je£t to the crown of Great Britain. It is about eight
miles in compafs, and is feparated from Cape la Hogue,
in Normandy, by a narrow ftreight, called the Race of
Alderney, which is a very dangerous paflage in ftormy
weather when the two currents meet; otherwife it is
fafe, and has depth of water for the largeft fhips. Thro’
this ftreight the French fleet made their efcape, after
their defeat at La Hogue, in 1692. It is a healthy
ifland, has but one church, is fruitful both in corn and
pafture, and is remarkable for a fine breed of cows. The
inhabitants, for their greater fafety, live together in a
town of the fame name. The number of houfes are
faid to be 200, and the inhabitants 1000. It has but
one harbour, called Crabby, which is at a good diftance
from the town; and is only fit for fmall vefiels. To the
weft lie the range of rocks called the Cajkets, fo dan¬
gerous to mariners. W. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 50.
ALDHELM (St), bifhop of Shireburn in the time
of the Saxon Heptarchy. He is faid to have been the
fon of Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the Weft-
Saxons; but, in the opinion of William of Malmftmry,
his father was no more than a diftant relation to the
king. He was born and educated at Malmfbury in
Wilt (hi re; where he built a monaftery, of which he
himfelf was the firft abbot. He was afterwards, in
705, by king Ina, promoted to the fee of Shireburn,
and confecrated at Rome by Pope Sergius I. whom he
is faid to have reproved for his incontinency. He was
the firft Englifliman who wrote in Latin, and the firft
who introduced Latin poetry into this ifland. Bale
gives him alfo the chara&er of a Ikilful mufician. Ac¬
cording to the monkilh writers, he wrought many mi¬
racles. HediedMay 25^, 709. Malmeftmry fays, that
he might be juftly deemed ex acumine Gracum, ex ni-
tore Romanum, et ex pompa Anghtm. And an ancient
chronicler fays, that he was an excellent harper, a moft
eloquent Saxon and Latin poet, a moft expert chanter
or finger, do Cor egregius, and admirably well verfed
in the fcriptures and the liberal fciences. Bede fays
of Aldhelm, that “ he was a man of univerfal erudi-
“ tion, having an elegant ftyle, and being wonderful-
“ ly well acquainted with books.” In fad, confider-
ing the cloud of ignorance by which he was furround-
ed, and the great difficulty of acquiring knowledge
without proper inftruAion, Aldhelm was a very ex¬
traordinary man. From one of his letters to Hedda,
biffiop of Winchefter, concerning the nature of his ftu-
dies whilft at Canterbury, he appears to have been
indefatigably determined to acquire every fpecies of
learning in his power. For a copy of this curious
epiftle, fee Henry’s Hiftory, vol. i. p. 318.—He wrote,
x. De 0EI0 vitiis principalibus. This treatife is extant
in Bibliotheca Patrum of Canifius. 2. Anigmaticwu
verfus mille. This, with feveral other of his poems,
was publiftied by Martin Delrio at Mentz, 8vo, 1601.
3. A book addrefled to a certain king of Northumber¬
land, named Alfrid, on various fubje&s. 4. De vita
monachorum. 5. De laude fanCorum. 6. De arithme¬
tic a. 7. De'ajlrologia. 8. A. book againft the mi-
ftake of the Britons concerning the celebration of Ea-
fter; printed by Sonius, 1576. 9. De laude virgi-
nitatis. Manufcript, in Bennet-college, Cambridge.
Publiftied among Bede’s Opufcula. Befides many fon-
nets, epiftles, and homilies in the Saxon language.
ALDPORT, an ancient name for Manchefter *.
ALDRICH (Robert), biftiop of Carlifle, was born
at Burnham in Buckingharaffiire about the year 1493,
and educated at Eaton-fchool; from whence, in 1507,
he was elected fcholar of King’s-college, Cambridge,
where he took his degrees in arts, and was afterwards
proftor of the univerfity. In 1525, he was appointed
mafter of Eaton-fchool, then became fellow of that
college, and finally provoft. In 1529, he went to
Oxford, where, being firft incorporated bachelor of
divinity, in the following year he proceeded doftor
in that faculty: in 1531, he was made arch-deacon
of Colchefter; in 1534, canon of Windfor; and the
fame year, regiftrary of the order of the garter. Fie
was confecrated biftiop of Carlifle in the year 1537, and
died at Horncaftle in Lincolnftiire in 1556. He wrote,
1. Epiflola ad Gul. Hormannum, in Latin verfe; printed
in YioxmzAs Antiboficon, Lond. 1521, of which book
Pitts erroneoufly makes Aldrich the author. 2. Epi-
gr animat a varia. 3. Latin verfe s, and another epiftle
to Horman, prefixed to the Vulgaria puerorum of that
author, Lond. 1519, 4to. 4. Anfwers to certain que¬
ries concerning the abufes of the mafs; alfo about recei¬
ving the facrament.
Aldrich (Dr Flenry), an eminent Englifti divine
and philofopher, born at London in 1647, was e-
ducated at Weftminfter fchool under the famous Dr
Bufby, and admitted of Chrift-church college, Oxford.
He had a great (hare in the controverfy with the Pa-
pifts in the reign of James II. and bifliop Burnet ranks
him among thofe who examined all the points of po¬
pery with a folidity of judgment, clearnefs of argu¬
ment, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing, far
beyond any who had before that time written in our
language. He rendered himfelf fo confpicuous, that
at the revolution, -when Mafley the popiffi dean of
'Chrift-church fled, his deanry was conferred on him.
In this ftation he behaved in an exemplary manner, and
that fabric owes much of its beauty to his ingenuity :
it was Aldrich who defigned the beautiful fquare call¬
ed which is efteemedan excel¬
lent piece of architecture. In imitation of his pre-
decefibr Dr Fell, he publiftied, yearly, a piece of fome
ancient Greek author, as a prefent to the ftudents of
his houfe : he publiftied A Syftem of Logic, with fome
other pieces ; and the revifing Clarendon’s Hiftory of
the Rebellion, was intrufted to him and biftiop Spratt..
He died about the year 1711.
ALDROVANDUS (Ulyffes), profeffor ofphilofo-
phy and phyfic at Bologna, the place of his nativity.
He was a moft curious inquirer into natural hiftory,
and travelled into the moft diftant countries on purpofe
to inform himfelf of their natural productions. Minerals,
metals, plants, and animals, were the objeCls of his
curious refearches; but he applied himfelf chiefly to
birds, and was at great expence to have figures of
them drawn from the life. Aubert le Mire fays, that
he gave a certain painter, famous in that art, a yearly
falary of 200 crowns, for thirty years and upwards; and
that he employed at his own expence Lorenzo Bennini
Aldport
* See Maa-
chejier.
ALE [2
Aldus- and Cornelius Swintus, as well as the famous engraver
vandus Chriftbpher Coriolanus. Thefe expences ruined his
A|e fortune, and at length reduced him to the utmoft ne-
 — ceffity ; and it is faid tha.t he died blind in an hofpital
at Bologna, at a great age, in 1605. Mr Bale ob-
ferves, that antiquity does not furniih us with an in-
ftance of a defign fo extenfive and fo laborious as that
of Aldrovandus, with regard to natural hiitory ; that
Pliny has treated of more kinds of fubjedls, but only
touches lightly on them, faying but a little upon any
thing, whereas Aldrovandus has collected all he could
meet with. His compilation, or that compiled upon
his plan, confifts of thirteen volumes in folio, feveral of
which were printed after his death. He himfelf pu-
blilhed his Ornithology, or Hiftory of Birds, in three
folio volumes, in 1599; and his feven books Of Infe&s,
which make another volume of the faqje fize. The
volume Of Serpents, three Of Quadrupeds, one Of
Fillies, that Of exanguious Animals, the Hiftory of
Monfters, with the Supplement to that of Animals,
the treatife Of Metals, and the Dendrology or Hiftory
of Trees, were publilhed at feveral times after the
death of Aldrovandus, by the care of different perfons;
and Aldrovandus is the foie author only of the firft fix
volumes of this work, the reft having been finilhed and
compiled by others, upon the plan of Aldrovandus : a
moft extenfive plan, wherein he not only relates what
he has read in naturalifts, but remarks alio what hifto-
rians have written, legiflators ordained, and poets feign-
___ ed: he explains alfo the different ufes which may be
made of the things he treats of, in common life, in me¬
dicine, archite&ure, and other arts; in Ihort, he fpeaks
of morality, proverbs, devices, riddles, hieroglyphics,
and many other things which relate to his fabjeft.
ALDROVANDA, in botany, a genus of the
pentandria order, belonging to the pentagynia clafs
of plants; of which there is but one fpecies. The ca-
lix is divided into five parts; the petals are five ; and
the capfule has five valves, with ten feeds. It is a na¬
tive of Italy and the Indies; and has no Engliff name.
ALDUABIS, (anc. geogr.) a river of Celtic Gaul,
which rifing from mount Jura, feparatlng the Seqiiani
from the Helvetii, and running through the county of
Burgundy, or the Franche Comte, environs almoft on
every fide the city of Befan^on ; and running by Dole,
falls into the Saone near Chalone. In Csefar it is call¬
ed Alduafdubis ; (in Ptolemy), Dulis : now le Doux.
ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infufion
of malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a lefs
See Brew- proportion of hops *. This-liq.uor, the natural fubfti-
l&‘ tute of wine in fuch countries as could not produce the
frape, was originally made in Egypt, the firft planted
ingdom, on the difperfion from the eaft, that was fup-
pofed unable to produce grapes. And, as the Noachiarj
colonies pierced further into the weft, they found, or
thought they found, the fame defedt; and fupplied it in
the fame manner. Thus the natives of Spain, the in¬
habitants of France,, and the aborigines of Britain, all
ufed an infufion of barley for their ordinary liquor;
and it was called by the various names of Cali a and
Ceria in the firft country, Cerevifia in the fecond, and
Cur mi in the laft ; all literally importing only the
Jlrong miater.
There are various forts of ale known in Britain,
particularly pale and bromm; the former is brewed from
13 ] ALE
malt llightly dried ; and is efteemed more vifeid than Ale
the latter, which is made from malt more highly dried ii
orroafted. _ 6 Aiea-
Pale ale brewed with hard waters, as thofe of fprings
and wells, is judged the moft wholefome, in regard the
mineral particles tend to prevent the cohefions of thofe
drawn from the grain, and enable them to pafs the pro¬
per fecretions the better ; fofter waters, as thofe of ri¬
vers, and rain, feem better fuited to draw out the fub-
ftance of high-dried malts, which retain many igneous
particles, beft abforbed in a fmooth vehicle.
In Staffordlhire, they have a fecret of fining ale, in
a very ftiort time. Plot conjeftures it to be done by
adding alum, or vinegar, in the working.
Ale is prepared various ways, and of various ingre¬
dients, as of wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, the ber¬
ries of the quick-bean, &c.
Some have found that the juice which bleeds from
the birch or fycamore, is of great ufe on this occafion,
applied inftead of water. It makes one bufhel of malt
go as far as four in the common way.
Some have a method of preparing ale, fo that it will
keep, carried to the Eaft or Weft Indies. The fecret PhiLTraaf.
is, by mafhing twice with frefti malt; boiling twice ; N° xxvii.
and, after (hipping it, putting to every five gallons two
new-laid eggs whole, to remain therein. It is faid,
that, in a fortnight’s time, the (hells will be diffolved;
and the eggs become like wind-eggs ; and that after¬
wards the white would difappear, and the yoke remain
untouched.
Ale is generally held to be more diuretic than beer, in
regard it is fmoother, more foftening, and relaxing;
fo that where urine is to be promoted by facilitating
the paffage, ale is meft likely to effeft it.
Ale is flatulent; and hence fometimes produces co-
lies, and the cholera morbus: it is acefcent; but it
does not produce calcareous difeafea, as has been af-
ferted.
If malt-liquor, of any degree of (Length, is be¬
come flat and tartifti, as it is ufed, it (hould be drawn
out of the cadi into a jug, in which as many drams of
powdered chalk is put as there are to be pints of liquor;
thus a new ferment will be railed, a fprightly tafte will
be reftored to the liquor, and its acidity will be de-
ftroyed. Tart liquors of this kind are apt to produce
a dyfury, ftrangury, or a gonorrhoea; in which cafes,,
a fmall quantity of brandy may be taken.
The confumption of ale in thefe kingdoms is incre¬
dible. It was computed twenty years ago at the value
of four millions yearly, including Great Britain and
Ireland.
Medicated Ales, thofe wherein medicinal herbs have
been infufed, or added during the fermentation *. * see
Gill Ale, is that in which the dried leaves of gill Pharmacy,
or ground-ivy have been infufed. It is efteemed ab- n° 381,
fteriive and vulnerary, and confequently good in dif-
orders of the bread and obftnnftions of the vifeera. <
A.hi.~conner, an officer in London, who infpefts the
meafures ufed in public-houfes. There are four ale¬
conners, who are all chofen by the common-council of
the city.
ALE-/i7w, a tax paid annually to the lord-mayor
of London, by all who fell ale within the city.
ALE A, in Roman antiquity, denotes in general all
manner of games of chance ; but, in a more reitri&ed
fenfe,,
ALE [ 214 1 ALE
Alcander jcnfe, was ufed for a particular game played with dice
II and tables, not unlike our backgammon.
manda0" ALEANDER ( Jerome), cardinal and archbifllop of
 I— Brindifi, was born in 1480; and diftinguilhed himfelf
at the beginning of the reformation, by the oppofition
he made to Luther: for being fent into Germany as
the pope’s nuncio in 1519, he tufted, as occafion ferved,
in the charafiter both of ambaffador and do<ftor; and
declaimed three hours together againft Luther’s doc¬
trine before the diet of Worms, but could not prevent
that celebrated reformer from being heard in that diet.
He publiftied feveral works, and died at Rome in 1542.
Aleander (Jerome), a learned man of the feven-
teenth century, born in the principality oPFriuli, of the
fame family with the preceding. When he went to
Rome, he was employed as fecretary under cardi¬
nal Otftavius Bandini, and difcbarged this office with
great honour for almoft twenty years. He afterwards,
by the perfuafion of Urban VIII. who had a great e-
fteem for him, became fecretary to Cardinal Barberini,
whom he accompanied to Rome when he went there
in the charaifter of legate a latere, and in whofe fer-
vice he died in 1631. He was one of the firft mem¬
bers of the academy of Humorifts, wrote a learned trea-
tife in Italian on the device of the fociety, and difplay-
ed his genius on many different fubjecfts. Barberini
gave him a magnificent funeral at the academy of Hu¬
morifts ; the academifts carried his corpfe to the grave ;
and Gafpar Simeonibus, one of the members, made his
funeral oration.
ALECTO, one of the furies, daughter of Ache¬
ron and the Night, or, as others would have it, of
Pluto and Proferpine.
ALECTORIA, a ftone faid to be formed in the
gall-bladders of old cocks, to which the ancients a-
fcribed many fabulous virtues. This is otherwife cal¬
led Alettorius Lapis, fometimes Aleftorolithos, in Eng-
lifti the cock-Jlone. The more modern naturalifts hold
the alettorius lapis to be originally fwallowed down,
not generated in, the ftomach or gizzard of cocks and
capons. It is known that many of the fowl-kind make
a pratftice of fwallowing pebbles, as it is fuppofed to
-be of fervice in the bulinefs of trituration and digeftion.
ALECTOROMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpecies
of divination performed by means of a cock. This is
otherwife called Aleflryomancy; of which there appear
to have been different fpecies. But that moft fpoken
of by authors was in the following manner: A circle
being defcribed on the ground, and divided into twen¬
ty-four equal portions, in each of thefe fpaces was
written one of the letters of the alphabet, and on each
of the letters was laid a grain of wheat; after which,
a cock being turned loofe in the circle, particular no¬
tice was taken of the grains picked up by the cock,
becaufe the letters under them, being formed into a
word, made the anfwer defired. It was thus, accor¬
ding to Zonaras, that Libanius and Jamblicus fought
who fhould fucceed the emperor Valens ; and the cock
eating the grains anfwering to the fpaces ©eoa, fe¬
veral whofe names began with thofe letters, as Theo-
dotus, Theodiftes, Theodulus, &c. were put to death;
which did not hinder, but promote, Theodofius to the
fucceffion. But the ftory, however current, is but ill
fupported: It has been called in queftion by fome,
and refuted by others, from the filence of Marcellinus,
Socrates, and other hiftorians of that time. A-lee
A-LEE, in the fea-language, a term only ufed when II .
the wind, croffing or flanking the line of a fhip’s ente■,0^
courfe, preffes upon the mafts and fails fo as to make
her incline to one fide, which is called the lee-fide :
hence, when the helm is moved over to this fide, it is faid
to be a-lee, or hard-a-lee.
ALEGAMBE (Philip), a celebrated Jefuit, born
at Bruffels in 1592, diftinguiftied himfelf by publifhing
a Bibliotheque of the writers of his order, and died at
Rome in 1652.
ALEGRETTE, a fmall town of Portugal, in A-
lentejo, on the confines of Port Alegre, on the river
Caja, which falls into the Guadiana, a little below Ba-
jadoz, near the frontiers of Spanilh Eftremadura. It
is a very pretty town, and finely fituated; feven miles
fouth-eaft of Port Alegre, and thirty north of Elvas.
W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 39. 6.
ALEIUS CAMPUS, in ancient geography, (Ho¬
mer, Strabo, Pliny); a plain in Cilicia, on this fide the
river Pyramus, near the mountain Chimera, famous for
Bellerophon’s wandering and periftiing there, after be¬
ing thrown off Pegafus; which is the reafon of the ap¬
pellation.
ALEMANIA, or Alle m an 1 a, (anc. geog.) a name
of Germany, but not known before the time of the
Antonines, and then ufed only for a part. After the
Marcomanni and their allies had removed from the
Ri rie, a rabble, or collection of people from all parts
of Gaul, as the term Alemanni denotes, prompted
either by levity or poverty, occupied the Agri, called
Decutnates by Tacitus, becaufe they held them on a
tithe ; now fuppofed to be the duchy of Wirtemburg.
Such appear to be the fmall beginnings of Alemania,
which was in after-times greatly enlarged : but ftill
it was confidered as a diftindt part; for Caracalla,
who conquered the Alemanni, affumed the furname
both of Alemannicus and Germanicus.
ALEMBIC, a chemical veffel, ufually made of glafs,
or copper,' for condenfing the vapours that rife in dif-
tillation ; for the alembic is properly the head or up¬
per part of the apparatus ufed in diftilling ; though it
is often ufed to fignify the whole. See Distilling.
ALEMBROTH, in the writings of the alchemifts,
a word ufed for a fort of fixed alkaline fait, which had
the power of the famous alkaheft, in diffolving bodies,
opening the pores of moft or all known fubftances, and
thence, as well as by deftroying fulphurs, promoting
the feparation of metals from their ores.—It is alfo
ufed for a compound of corrofive mercury and fal am¬
moniac. See Chemistry, n° 337.
ALENIO (Julius), a Jefuit, born at Brefcia in the
republic of Venice. -He travelled into the eaftem
countries ; and arrived at Maca in 1610, where he
taught mathematics. From thence he went to the
empire of China, where he continued to propagate the
Chriftian religion for thirty-fix years. He was the
firft who planted the faith in the province of Xanfi,
and he built feveral churches in the province of Fokien.
He died in Auguft 1649, leaving behind him feveral
works in the Chinefe language.
ALENTEJO, a province of Portugal, between the
rivers of Tajo and Guadiana : the foil is very fertile,
and the inhabitants laborious and induftrious. The
principal town is Ebora.
ALENZON,
ALE [5
Alenzon, ALENZON, a large handfome town of France, in
Aleppo. jower Normandy, with the title of a duchy. It is
furrounded with good walls, and flanked with towers.
The caftle was formerly a place of great confequence,
and has held out long fieges. It has but one pariih-
church, which has a bold and noble front. Among the
nunneries, that of St Clair is moil; remarkable. It is
feated on the river Sarte, in a vaft open plain, which
produces all forts of corn and fruit. Near it there are
quarries of ftone fit for building, wherein are found
a fort like Brillol Hones. The linen made at Alenzon
is very good, and fells at Paris. It is 20 miles north
of Mans, 63 fouth-by-weft of Rouen, and 88 fouth-
weft of Paris. Lon. o. 10. N. lat. 48. 25.
ALEPPO, or Haleb, the metropolis of Syria, is
built on eight fmall hills or eminences, on the higheft
of which the caftle is ere&ed, and is now generally
agreed to be the ancient Beraea. This mount is of a
conic form, and feems in a great meafure to be raifed
with the earth thrown up out of a deep broad ditch
which furrounds it. The fuburbs to the north-north-
eaft are next in height to this, and thofe to the weft-
fouth-weft are much lower than the parts adjacent and
than any other part of the city. It is encompafled by
an old wall confiderably decayed, and by a broad ditch
now in moft places turned into gardens. It is about
three miles and a half in circumference, but the fuburbs
eight.
The mofques in Aleppo are numerous, and fome few
of them magnificent. Before each of them is an area,
with a fountain in the middle, defigned for ablutions
before prayers; and behind fome of the larger there are
little gardens. There are many large khans, or cara-
vanferas, confifting of a capacious fquare, on all fides
of which are a number of rooms, built on a ground-
floor, ufed occafionally for chambers, ware-houfes, or
ftables. Above ftairs there is a colonade or gallery on
every fide, in which are the doors of a number of fmall
rooms, wherein the merchants, as well ftrangers as na¬
tives, trahfaft moft of their bufinefs. The ftreets are
narrow ; but well paved, and kept very clean.
The bazars or market-places are long covered nar¬
row ftreets, on each fide of which are a great number
of fmall {hops, juft fufficient to hold the tradefman and
his goods, the buyer being obliged to Hand without.
Each feparate branch of bufinefs has a particular bazar,
which is locked up, as well as the ftreets, an hour and
a half after fun-fet: but the locks are of wood, though
the doors are cafed with iron. The {laughter-houfes
ai-e in the fuburbs, open to the fields. The tanners
have a khan to work in near the river. To the fouth-
ward in the fuburbs they burn lime, and a little be¬
yond that there is a village where they make ropes and
catgut. On the oppofite fide of the river, to the weft-
ward, there is a glafs-houfe, where they make a coarfe
white glafs, in the winter only, for the greateft part of
this manufacture is brought from a village thirty-five
miles weftward.
The city is fupplied with good water from fprings,
near the banks of the river Heylen, about five miles
to the north-eaft, which is conveyed from thence by
an aqueduft, and diftributed all over the town by
earthen pipes. This is fufficient for drinking, cookery,
See. but the fountains are fupplied by wells of brackifti
water, of which there is one in every houfe. Their
15 ] ALE
fuel is wood and charcoal in the houfe ; but they heat Alepp#
their bagnios with the dung of animals, leaves of plants, A1|fa
parings of fruit, and the like. e a'
The inhabitants of Aleppo, though of different re¬
ligions, feem to be much the fame fort of people. The
number of fouls in the city and fuburbs is computed at
about 235,006, of whom 200,000 are Turks, 30,000
Chriftians, and 5000 Jews. Of the Chriftians the
greater* number are Greeks, next to them the Arme¬
nians, then the Syrians, and laftly the Maronites; each
of whom have a church in the city called Judida, in
which quarter, and the parts adjacent, moft of thenr
refide. The common language is the vulgar Ara¬
bic, but the Turks of condition ufe the Turkifh. Moft
of the Armenians can fpeak the Armenian, fome few
Syrians underftand Syriac, and many of the Jews He¬
brew ; but fcarce one of the Greeks underftand a word
of Greek: however, in their manners, they all are
much alike. Aleppo is 70 miles eaft of Scanderoon,
on the fea-coaft, and 175 north-by-eaft of. Damafcus.
E. long. 37. 40. N. lat. 36. 12.
ALERIA, Alalia, or Alaria, (anc. geog.) a
town of Corfica, fituated near the middle of the eaft
fide of the ifland, on an eminence, near the mouth of
the river Rotanus mentioned by Ptolemy; built by the
Phocseans, (Diodorus Siculus.) Afterwards Sylla led a
colony thither. It is now in ruins, and called yf/ma
Difirutta.
ALES (Alexander), a celebrated divine of the con-
felfion of Augfbourg, born at Edinburgh the 23d of
April 1500. He foon made a confiderable progrefs
in fehoeft-divinity, and entered the lifts very early a-
gainft Luther, this being then the great controverfy
in falhion, and the grand field wherein all authors
young and old ufed to difplay their abilities. Soon
after, he had a (hare in the difpute which Patrick Ha¬
milton maintained againft the ecclefiaftics, in favour of
the new faith he had imbibed at Marpurgh : he endea¬
voured to bring him back to the Catholic religion ;
but this he could not effect, and even began himfelf to
doubt about his own religion, being much affefted by
the difeourfe of this gentleman, and ftill more by tire
conftancy he {hewed at the ftake, where David Beton
archbiftrop of St Andrew’s caufed him to be burnt.
Beginning thus to waver, he was himfelf perfecuted
with fo much violence, that he was obliged to retire
into Germany, where he became at length a perfect
convert to the Proteftant religion. The change of
religion which happened in England after the marriage
of Henry VIII. with Anna Bulien, induced Ales to
o to London, in 1535. Pie was highly efteemed
y Cranmer archbiflrop of Canterbury, Latimer, and
Thomas Cromwel, who were at that time in high fa¬
vour with the king. Upon the fall of thefe favourites,
he was obliged to return to Germany; where the elec¬
tor of Brandenburgh appointed him profeflbr of divi¬
nity at Francfort upon the Oder, in 1540. But lea¬
ving this place upon fome difguft, he returned to Leip-
fic, where he was chofen profeflbr of divinity, and died
in March 1565. He wrote a Commentary on St John,
on the Epiftles to Timothy, and on the Pfalms, &c.
ALESA, Al^sa, or Halesa, (anc. geogr.) a
town of Sicily, on the Tufcan fea, built, according to
Diodorus Siculus, by Archonides of Herbita, in the
fecond year of the ninty-fourth.olympiad, or four hun¬
dred
ALE [ 216 ] ALE
Akiham dred and three years before Ohrid; fituated on an emi*
Akxande Rence about a mile from the fea: now in ruins. It en-
- "xaa er* joyed immunity from taxes under the Romans, (Dio¬
dorus, Cicero.) The inhabitants were called Halejini,
(Cicero, Pliny;) alfo Alefiniy and Alafini.
ALESHAM, a fmall neat town in Norfolk. It is
15 miles N. of Norwich, and 121 N. E. by N. of
London. E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 52. 53. The town
confids of about 400 pretty good houfes; but the
ftreets are narrow, though well paved.
ALESIA, (anc. geog.) called Alexia by Livy and
others; a town of the Mandubii, a people of Celtic Gaul;
fituated, according to Casfar, on a very high hill, whofe
foot was wafhed on two fides by two rivers. The town
was of Inch antiquity, that Diodorus Siculus relates
it was built by Hercules. If is fuppofed to be the city
of A life, in the duchy of Burgundy, not far from Di-
jon.
ALET, a town of France, in Lower Languedoc,
with a biihop’s fee. It is remarkable for its baths, and
for the grains of gold and filver found in the dream
which runs from the Pyrenean mountains, at the foot
of which it dands. It is feated on the river Aude,
15 miles S. of Carcafibne, and 37 N. W. of Narbonne.
E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 42. 59.
ALETRIS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants. Of
this genus, botanical writers enumerate five fpecies, viz.
1. The farinofa, a native of Virginia, and other parts
of North America. 2. The capenfis, a native of the
Cape of Good Hope. 3. The hyacinthoides, or Gui¬
nea aloe. 4. The zeylanica, or Ceylon aloe. 5. The
fragrans, or tree-aloe, a native of Africa. Of thefe
only,the fird is fo hardy as to outlive the winter in Bri¬
tain, unlefs placed in a dove ; and even this requires to
be Iheltered under a frame. The dowers appear in June
or July, of a whitilh green colour. The third and fifth
produce fine fpikes of white dowers; thofe of the third
kind appearing in July, of the fifth in March or April.
By proper management the lad kind becomes a dately
plant, rifing to the height of twelve or fourteen feet;
the dowers open wide in the evening, and perfume the
air of the dove. Thefe fend out one or two heads, or
tufts, towards their tops; which may be cut od-; and
after they have lain a week in the dove to heal the
wounded parts, they may be planted for increafe. The
other fpecies feldom or never dower in this country, nor
does their appearance otherwife merit notice.
ALETUM, or Aleta, (anc. geogr.) a town of
Celtic Gaul, now extinft. From its ruins arofe St
Malo, in Brittany, at the didance of a mile. Its ruins
are called Guich Aleth in the Britifh.
ALEXANDER the Great, king of Macedo¬
nia. His father Philip laid the plan of that exten-
five empire, which his dm afterwards executed.—
Philip, having made himfelf mader of Greece, began
to cad his eyes upon Perfia, with a view to retaliate
upon that haughty empire the injuries of former times.
It was the popular topic of the day. But this prince
was cut off in the midd of his enterprize. Such, how¬
ever, was the infiuence of Alexander in the affembly of
the Grecian dates, that he was created general of their
combined forces in the room of his father. Having
made every needful preparation, at the head of a veteran
army he invaded Alia. The lieutenants of Darius,
who was then king of Perfia, oppofed him at the river Alexander.
Granicus, where Alexander obtained a complete vic¬
tory, after which he purfued his march through Afia.
At Ulus, near Scanderoon, he was met by Darius in
perfon, at the head of a prodigious army. Here he
obtained a fecond victory; and took the camp of Da¬
rius, together with his family, whom he treated with
the utmod humanity. Contrary to all the maxims of
war, indead of purfuing Darius, he made an excurfion
into Egypt; and, as far as appears, through no better
motives than thofe of "vanity. Here he was acknow¬
ledged to be the fon of Jupiter Ammon. In the mean
time Darius recruited his drength, and got together an
army fuperior to what he brought into the plain of Iffus.
Alexander havingfinifhed his Egyptian expedition, tra-
verfed Afia, and paffed the Euphrates. At Arbella, a
town in Affyria, he met Darius. Here a decifive bat¬
tle was fought, which put all Perfia into the hands of
Alexander. 'His ambition not being fatisfied with the
conqued of that vad country, he proje&ed an expedi¬
tion into India. Here he met with great pppofition
from Porus, a gallant prince, whom in the end he re¬
duced. Beyond the ^Ganges lay a country dill unltib-
dued. He notified it to his army, that he propofed to
pafs the river. But thefe veterans, harrafled with the
fatigues, and feeing, no end of their labour, mutinied,
and refufed to march further. The difappointed chief
was therefore obliged to return. At Babylon he pro¬
pofed to receive ambaffadors, appoint governors, and
fettle his vad monarchy ; but his exceffes put an end to
his life in the midd of his defigns, and in the flower of
his age.'—Alexander had a noble education under A-
ridotle, and other maders of the fird eminence; the
good effects of which were feen in the early part of his
life. No prince ever gave nobler indances of genero-
fity, candour, judice, prudence, and fortitude. But
the tide of his fucceffes changed his manners ; and he
became luxurious, arrogant, cruel, and even brutal.
With regard to his public charafter, he hath been as
much the fubjedl of different opinions, as any prince
of antiquity. By fome, his conqued of Perfia has been
confidered as the greated effort of heriofm. His In¬
dian expedition has likevvife been magnified as an ap¬
pendage to one vad plan of univerfal commerce and le-
giflation. But they feem to have a truer idea of Alex¬
ander, who confider the whole fcheme of his conqueds
as the projedl folely of ambition.
ALEXANDER ab Alexandro, a Neapolitan
lawyer, of great learning, who flourilhed toward the
end of the x 7th and beginning of the 16th century.
He followed the profeffion of the law fird at Naples,
afterwards at Rome: but he devoted all the time he
could fparc to the dudy of polite literature ; and at
length he entirely left the bar, that he might lead a
more eafy and agreeable life with the mufes. The par¬
ticulars of his life are to be gathered from his work in-
titled Getiialium Dierum ; We are there informed, that
he lodged at Rome, in a houfe that was haunted; and
he relates many furprifing particulars about the ghod :
he fays alfo, that, when he was very young, he went to
the le&ures of Philelphus, who explained at Rome the
Tufculan quedions of Cicero ; he was there alfo when
Nicholas Perot and Domitius Calderinus read their
leftures upon Martial. The particular time when he
died is not known ; but he was buried in tjie monadery
ALE [ 217 ] ALE
• of the Olivets. Tiraquea wrote a learned commentary
_upon his work, which was printed at Lyons in 1587,
and reprinted at Leyden in 1673, the notes of
Dennis Godfrey, Chriftopher Colerus, and Nicholas
Mercer us.
Alexander Severus, emperor of Rome, fucceed-
ed Heliogabalus about A. D. 222, when but 16 years
of age'. His mother’s name was Mammasa, and by her
advicfe he in a great meafure regulated his conduit. He
applied himfelf to the reformation of abufes, the ftate
having been greatly difordered by the vicious conduit of
his predeceflor; he was a moft ftriit lover of juftice, an
encourager of learning and learned men, and favourable
to the Chriltians. He made a fuccefsful expedition
againft the Perfians; but endeavouring to reform his
troops, which had grown very licentious under the late
bad government, they murdered him at theinftigation of
Maximinus in the 29th year of his age, together with
his mother, A. D. 235.
Alexander vi. (Pope), had four baftards when he
was cardinal, for one of which he had fo great affeition
that he ftuck at nothing to raife him. Defigning to
poifon fome cardinals, he was poifoned himfelf, A. D.
1503. See Borgia.
Alexander vii. (Pope), whofe real name was Fabio
Chig i, was born at Sienna in I599« His family finding
him a hopeful youth, fent him early to Rome, where he
foon engaged in a friendfhip with the marquis Pallavi-
cini, who recommended him fo effeftually to PopeUrban
VIII. that he procured him the poll of Inquifitor at Mal¬
ta. He was fent Vice-legate to Ferrara, and afterward
nuncio into Germany: there he had an opportunity of
difplaying his intriguing genius; for he was mediator
at Munfter, in the long conference held to conclude a
peace with Spain. Cardinal Mazarin had fome re-
fentment againft Chigi, who was foon after made a car¬
dinal and fecretary of ftate by Innocent X. but his re-
fentment was facrificed to political views. In 1655,
when a pope was to be chofen, Cardinal Sacchetti, Ma-
zarin’s great friend, finding it was impoffible for him
to be raifed into St Peter’s chair becaufe of the power¬
ful oppofition made by the Spanifh faction, defired Car¬
dinal Mazarin to confent to Chigi’s exaltation. His
requeft was granted, and he was elefted pope by the
votes of all the 64 cardinals who were in the conclave:
an unanimity of which there are but few inftances in the
election of popes. He {hewed uncommon humility at
•his election, and at firft forbad all his relations to come
to Rome without his leave ; but he foon became more
favourable to his nephews, andloadedthem with favours.
It is afferted that he had once a mind to turn Prote-
ftant. The news-papers in Holland beftowed great en¬
comiums upon him; and acquainted the world, that he
did not approveof the cruel perfecutions of the Walden-
fes in Piedmont. There is a volume of his poems extant.
He loved the Belles-Lettres, and the converfation of
learned men. He was extremely fond of ftately build¬
ings ; the grand plan of the college Della Sapienza,
which he finifhed, and adorned with a fine library, re¬
mains a proof of his tatte in architefture. He died
in 1667.
Alexander (William), earl of Stirling, an eminent
Scots ftatefman and poet in the reigns of James I. and
Charles I. who, after travelling with the duke of Ar-
gyle as his tutor or companion, wrote a poetical com-
Vol. I.
plaint of his unfuccefsful love of fome beauty, under
the title of Aurora. He then removed to the court of
James VI. where he applied to the more folid parts of
poetry, forming himfelf upon the plan of the Greek
and Roman tragedians. Im 607, he publifhed fome dra¬
matic performances, intitled The Monarchic Tragedies,
dedicated to king James; who was fo well pleafed with
them, as to call him his philofophical poet. After this,
he is faid to have written A fupplement to complete the
third part of Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia; and in 1613,
he produced a poem called Doomfday, or the great day
of judgment. He was made gentleman-ufher to prince
Charles, and mafter of the requefts; was knighted; and
obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, where he projected
the fettlement of a colony, but afterward fold it to the
French. In 1626, he was made fecretary of ftate for
Scotland;. was created firft vifcount, and then earl, of
Stirling; and died in 1640.
Alexander i. (St), whom St Ireneus reckons the
fifth bifhop of Rome, fucceeded St Evariftus in the
year 109, and died in the year 119. There is no ac¬
count of his life ; and the epiftles which are attributed
to him are fuppofititious.
Alexander ii. king of Scotland, fuceeeded his fa¬
ther William in 1213, at 16 years of age. He made
an expedition into England, to oppofe the tyranny of
king John; who returned the vifit, and was offered bat¬
tle by Alexander, but refufed it. He took the city of
Carlifle from Henry III. which was afterwards exchan¬
ged for Berwick. Alexander died in 1249, in the 51ft
year of his age, and 3 5th of his reign; and left for his
fucceffor, his fon 
Alexander hi. who was crowned king of Scotland
in 1249. The Cummings, lords of Scotland, took arms
againft him ; and taking him prifoner, confined him at
Striveling : but he was afterwards releafed by his fub-
je£fs. He married the daughter of Henry III. king
of England ; and was at length killed by a fall from
his horfe, on the 10th of April 1290, after having
reigned 42, or according to others 37, years.
ALEXANDERS, in botany. See Smyrnium.
ALEXANDREA, (anc. geogr.) a mountain of
Myfia, on the fea-coaft, forming a part of mount Ida,
where Paris gave judgment on the three goddeffes.
ALEXANDRETTA, by the Turks called Scan-
deroon; a town in Syria, at the extremity of the Me¬
diterranean fea. It is the port of Aleppo, from which
it is diftant 28 or 30 leagues. It is now little elfe but
a heap of ruined houfes, chiefly inhabited by Greeks,
who keep tippling-houfes for failors. The air. is very
unwholefome ; and therefore the better fort of inhabi¬
tants, during the hot weather, live at a village called
Bayland, on a mountain about ten miles off, where
there is wholefome water and excellent fruit. What
furprifes ftrangers moft, when they arrive at this
place, are the pigeons which carry letters to Aleppo,
which they reach in about three hours : thefe pigeons
are of a lingular kind *, and #re very much celebrated *
throughout the eaft. E. Long. 37. 5. N. Lat. 36. 35.
ALEXANDRIA, now Scanderia, by Athenasus
called x^uo-n; a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long
time its capital. This city was built by Alexander
the Great, foon after the overthrow of Tyre, about
333 years before Chrift. It is fituated on the Medi¬
terranean, twelve miles weft of that mouth of the Nile
E e anciently
Alexander
il
Alexandria.
See Colum-
ALE [2:
Alexandria, anciently called Canopicum; and lies in E. long. 30.19.
" N. lat. 31.10.
Alexander is faid to have been induced to build this
city, on account of its being conveniently fituated for
a fine port; and fo hidden was his refolution, that af¬
ter he had dire&ed where every public ftrufture was
to be placed, fixed the number of temples, and the dei¬
ties to whom they fhould be dedicated, &c. there were
no inftruments at hand proper for marking out the
walls, according to the cuftom of thofe times. Upon
this, a workman advifed the king to collect: what meal
« was among the foldiers, and to fift it in lines upon the
ground, whereby the circuit of the walls would be
fufficiently marked out. This advice was followed ;
and the new method of marking out the walls was, by
Ariftander, the king’s foothfayer, interpreted as a pre-
fage of the city’s abounding with all the neceffaries of
Jife. Nor was hc deceived in his prediction ; for A-
lexandria foon became the flaple, not only for mer-
chandife, but alfo for all the arts and fciences of the
Greeks.
All authors agree, that this city was very commo-
dioufly fituated. Its form refembled that of a foldier’s
coat. The ftreets were wifely contrived, fo as to ad¬
mit the cooling breezes to refrefh the air. One large
beautiful ftreet paffed from gate to gate, being 100
feet broad, and five miles long. It had a broad and
high wall round it, fo as to have the fe'a clofe on one
fide, and a great lake on the other, with a narrow pafs
at each end.
The architect employed by Alexander in this un¬
dertaking was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had
acquired fo much reputation by rebuilding the temple
of Diana at Ephefus. The city was firft rendered
populous by Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander’s cap¬
tains, who, after the death of the Macedonian monarch,
being appointed governor of Egypt, foon affumed the
title of king, and took up his refidence at Alexandria,
about 304 years before Chrift.
In the 30th year of Ptolemy Soter’s reign, he took
his fon Ptolemy Philadelphus partner with him in the
empire ; and by this prince the city of Alexandria was
much embelliihed. In the firft year of his reign the
famous watch-tower of Pharos was finifhed. It had
been begun feveral years before by Ptolemy Soter;
and, when finilhed, was looked upon as one of the
wonders of the world. The fame year, the ifland of
Pharos itfelf, originally feven furlongs diftant from the
continent, was joined to it by a cauieway. This was the
work of Dexiphanes, who completed it at the fame
time that his fon put the laft hand to the tower. The
tower was a large fquare ftrufture of white marble; on
the top of which, fires were kept conftantly burn¬
ing, for the direftion of failors. The building coft
800 talents; which, if Attic, amounted to L. 165,000;
if Alexandrian, to twice that fum.
The architedf employed in this famous ftrufture
fell upon the following contrivance to ufurp the whole
glory to himfelf.—Being ordered to engrave upon it
the following infcription, “ King Ptolemy to the
u Gods the Saviours, for the benefit of Sailors;” ia-
ftead of the king’s name he fubftituted his own, and
then filling up the hollow of the marble with mortar,
-Wrote upon it the abovementioned infcription. Ln
procefs of time, the mortar being wore of, the follow-
8 ] ALE
ing infcription appeared: “ Sostratus the Cnidian, Alexandria.
“ the fon of Dexiphanes, to the Gods the Saviours,
“ for the benefit of Sailors.”
This year alfo was remarkable for the bringing of
the image of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria. It
was fet up in one of the fuburbs of the city called
Rhacotis, where a temple was afterwards erefted to his
honour, fuitable to the greatnefs of that ftately me¬
tropolis, and called, from the god worftiipped there,
Serapeum. This ftrufture, according to Ammianus
Marcellinus, furpaffed in beauty and magnificence all
others in the world, except the capitol at Rome 
Within the verge of this temple" was the famous Alex¬
andrian library. It was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for
the ufe of an academy he inftituted in this city; and, by
continual additions by his fucceftbrs, became at laft the
fineft library in the world, containing no fewer than
700,000 volumes. The method followed in colle&ing
- books for this library, was, to feize all thofe which were
brought into Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners.
The books were tranfcribed in the mufeum, by perfons
appointed for that purpofe ; the copies were then deli¬
vered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in
the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, having borrowed
from the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euri¬
pides, and jEfchylus, returned them only the copies,
which he caufed to be tranfcribed in as beautiful a
manner as poffible ; prefenting the Athenians at the
fame time with fifteen talents (upwards of L. 3000
Sterling) for the exchange.
As the mufeum was at firft in that quarter of the
city call Bruchion, near the royal palace, the library
was placed there likewife ; but when it came to con¬
tain 400,000 volumes, another library, within the
Serapeum, was eretfed by way of fupplement to it,
and on that account called the daughter of the former.
In this fecond library 300,000 volumes, in procefs of
time, were depofited; and the two together contained
the 700,000 volumes already mentioned. In the war
carried on by Julius Casfar againft the inhabitants of
this city, the library in the Bruchion, with the 400,000
volumes it contained, was reduced to afties. The li¬
brary in the Serapeum, however, ftill remained; and
here Cleopatra depofited 200,000 volumes of the Per-
gamean'library, which Marc Antony prefented her
with. Thefe, and others added from time to time,
rendered the new library at Alexandria more numer¬
ous and confiderable than the former; and though it
was often plundered during the revolutions and troubles
of the Roman empire, yet it was again and again re¬
paired, and filled with the fame number of books.
This library continued to be of great fame and ufe
in thefe parts, till the year 642, when the Saracens
made themfelves matters of Alexandria. At that time,
John, furnamed the grammarian, a famous Peripatetic
philofopher, being in the city, and in high favour with
Amri-Abnol-As, the Saracen general, begged of him
the royal library. Amri replied, that it was not in
his power to grant fuch a requeft ; but that he would
write to the khalif on that head; fince, without know¬
ing his pleafure, he dared not to difpofe of a fingle book.
He accordingly wrote to Omar, who was then khalif,
acquainting him with the requeft of his friend : To
which the ignorant tyrant replied, That if thofe books
contained the fame doftrine with the koran, they could
be.
ALE
Alexandria.be of no ufe, fince the koran contained all necefiary
' truths ; but if they contained any thing contrary to
that book, they ought not to be fuffered ; and there¬
fore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them
to be deftroyed. Purfuant to this order, they were
diftributed among the public baths; where, for the fpace
of fix months, they ferved to fupply the fires of thofe
places, of which there was an incredible number in A-
lexandria.
This city, as we have already obferved, foon became
extremely populous; and was embellifhed both by its
own princes, and the Romans; but, like moll other
noted cities of antiquity, hath been the feat of terrible
mafiacres. About 141 years before Chrift, it was al-
- molt totally depopulated by Ptolemy Phyfcon. That
barbarous monfter, without the leaft provocation, gave
free liberty to his guards to plunder his metropolis, and
murder the inhabitants at their pleafure. The cruel¬
ties praftifed on this occafion cannot be expreffed; and
the few who efcaped, were fo terrified, that they fled
into other countries. Upon this, Phyfcon, that he
might not reign over empty houfes, invited thither
ftrangers from the neighbouring countries; by whom
the city was repeopled, and foon recovered its former
fplendor. On this occafion many learned men having
been obliged to fly, proved the means of reviving learn¬
ing in Grece, Afia Minor, the iflands of the Archipela¬
go, and other places, where it was almoft totally loft.
The new inhabitants were not treated with much
more kindnefs by Phyfcon than the old ones had been;
for, on theircomplaining of his tyrannical behaviour,
he refolved on a general maflacre of the young men.
Accordingly, when they were one day afiembled in the
gymnafium, or place of their public exercifes, he or¬
dered it to be let on fire ; fo that they all perifhed,
either in the flames, or by the fwords of his mercena¬
ries, whom the tyrant had placed at all the avenues.
Though Julius Csefar was obliged to carry on a
war for fome time againft this city, it feems not to
have fuffered much damage, except the burning of
the library already mentioned. Before Ccefar left
Alexandria, in acknowledgment of the afliftance he
had received from the Jews, he confirmed all their
privileges there, and even' engraved his decree on a
pillar of brafs. This, however, did not prevent the
maffacre of 50,000 of them in this city about the year
of Chrift 67.
The city of Alexandria feems to have fallen into de¬
cay foon after this, and to have forfeited many of its
ancient privileges, though for what offence is not known;
but when Adrian Viiited Egypt, about the year 141,
it was almoft totally ruined. He repaired both the
public and private buildings, not only reftoring the
inhabitants to their ancient privileges, but heaping new
favours upon them ; for which they returned him their
folemn thanks, and conferred upon him what honours
they could while he was prefent; but as foon as he was
gone, they publiftied the moft bitter and virulent lam¬
poons againft him.
The fickle and fatirical humour of the Alexandrians
was highly difliked by Adrian, though he inflicted no
puniftiment upon them for it; but when they lampoon¬
ed Caracalla, he did not let them efcape fo eafily.
That tyrant, in the year 215, when he vifited their
city, having become the fubject of their fcolifh fatires,
ALE
ordered a general maffacre by his numerous troops, who Akxandiia
were difperfed all over the city. The inhuman orders
being given, all were murdered, without diftin£tion of
age or fex ; fo that in one night’s time the whole city
floated in blood, and every houfe was filled with car-
cafes. The monfter, who occafioned this, had retired
during the night to the temple of Serapis, to implore
the prote&ion of that deity; and, not yet fatiated with
flaughter, commanded the maffacre to be continued ail
the next day; fo that very few of the inhabitants remain¬
ed. As if even this had not been fufficient, he ftripped
the city of all its ancient privileges; fuppreffed the acade¬
my ; ordered all ftrangers, who lived there, to depart;
and that the few who remained might not have the fatif-
faftion of feeing one another, he cut off all communi¬
cation of one ftreet with another, by walls built for that
purpofe, and guarded by troops left there.
Notwithftanding this terrible difafter, Alexandria
foon recovered its former fplendor, as Caracalla was
murdered a fhort time after. It was long efteemed the
firft city in the' world, next to Rome; and we may judge
of its magnificence, and the multitude of people con¬
tained in it, from the- account of Diodorus Siculus,
who relates, that in.his time, (44 years before Chrift),
Alexandria had on its rolls 300,000 freemen. Nor
does it feem to have been at all inferior at the time it
was taken by the Saracens; for the general above
mentioned feems to have been aftoniflied at its wealth
and beauty, as appears by the following paffage in his
letter to the khalif, mentioned by Eutychius : “ I fliall
not pretend to give a particular defcription of the city
I have taken, nor fend you an account of all the cu¬
rious and valuable things contained in it. At prefent
it will be fufficient to obferve, that I have found in it
4000 palaces;- 4000 baths; 40,000 Jews that pay tri¬
bute ; 400 royal Cirri, or places fet apart for public
diverfions; and 12,000 gardeners, who fupply the city
with all kinds of herbs in great plenty,”
At this time, according to the Arabian hiftorians,
Alexandria confifted of three cities, viz. Mcnna, or the
port, which included Pharos, and the neighbouring
parts; Alexandria, properly fo called, where the mo¬
dern Scanderia now ftands; and Nekita, probably the
Necropolis ofjofephus and Strabo.
After the city was taken, Amri, the Saracen ge¬
neral, thought proper to purfue the Greeks who had
fled farther up the country ; and therefore march¬
ed out of Alexandria, leaving but a very flender garri-
fon in the place. The Greeks, who had before fled on
board their fhips, being apprifed of this, returned on
a fudden, furprifed the town, and put all the Arabs
they found therein to the fword: but Amri, receiving
advice of what had happened, fuddenly returned, and
drove them out of it with great flaughter ; after which
the Greeks were fo intimidated, that he had nothing far¬
ther to fear from them.—A few years after, however,
Amri being deprived of his government by the khalif
Othman, the Egyptians were fo much difpleafed with
his difmiffion, that they inclined to a revolt; andCon-
ftantine, the Greek emperor, having received intelli-
ence of their difaffeftion, began to meditate the re¬
union of Alexandria. For this purpofe, he fent one
Manuel, an eunuch, and his general, with a powerful
army, to retake that place ; which, by the affiftance of
the Greeks in the city, who kept a fecret correfpon-
E e 2 dence
[ 219 ]
ALE [ 220 ] ALE
Alexandria, dence with the imperial forces while at fea, and joined
them as foon as they had made a defcent, he effefted,
without any confiderable effufion of Chriftian blood.
The khalif, now perceiving his miftake, immediately
reftored Amri to his former dignity. This ftep was
very agreeable to the natives; who having had expe¬
rience of the military fldll and bravery of this renown-
ed general, and apprehending that they fhould be call¬
ed to an account by the Greeks for their former perfi¬
dious conduct, had petitioned Othman to fend him a-
gain into Egypt.—Upon Amri’s arrival, therefore, at
Alexandria, the Copts, or natives, with the traitor Al-
Mokawkas (who had formerly betrayed to Amri the
fortrefs of Mefr) at their head, not only joined him,
but fupplied him with all kinds of provifions, exciting
him to attack the Greeks without delay. This he did;
and, after a moft obftinate difpute which lafted feveral
days, drove them into th? town, where, for fome time,
they defended themfelves with great bravery, and re¬
pelled the utmoft efforts of the befiegers. This fo ex-
afperated Amri, that he fwore, “ If God enabled him
to conquer the Greeks, he would throw down the walls
of the city, and make it as eafy of accefs as a banvdy-
boufe, which lies open to every body.” Nor did he
fail to execute this menace ; for having taken the town
by ftorm, he quite difmantled it, entirely demolifhing
the walls and fortifications. The lives of the citizens,
however, were Ipa^ed, at leaft as far as lay in the ge¬
neral’s power; but many of them were put to the fword
by the foldiers on their firft entrance. In one quarter,
particularly, Amri found them butchering the Alex¬
andrians with unrelenting barbarity; to which, how¬
ever, by his feafonable interpofition, he put a flop, and
on that fpot erefted a mofque, which he called the
mofque of mercy.
From this time Alexandria never recovered its for¬
mer fplendor. It continued under the dominion of the
khalifs till the year 924, when it was taken by the Ma-
grebians, two years after its great church had been de-
Atroyed by fire. This church was called by the Arabs
Al Kaifaria, or Ccefarea; and had formerly been a pa¬
gan temple, eredfed in honour of Saturn, by the fa¬
mous queen Cleopatra.
The city was foon after abandoned by the Magre-
bians; but in 928 they again made themfelves mailers
of it: their fleet being afterwards defeated by that be¬
longing to the khalif, Abul Kafern the Magrebian ge¬
neral retired from Alexandria, leaving there only a gar-
rifon of 300 men ; of which Tbmadl, the khalif’s ad¬
miral, being apprifed, he in a few days appeared before
the town, and carried off- the remainder of the inhabi¬
tants to an ifland in the Nile called Abukair. This
was done, to prevent Abul-Kafem from meeting with
any entertainment at Alexandria, in cafe he Ihould think
proper to return. According to Eutychius, ,above
200x000 of the miferable inhabitants perilhed this year.
What contributed to raife Alexandria to fuch a pro¬
digious height of fplendor as it enjoyed for a long time;
was, its being the centre of commerce between the Eail-
ern and Weliern parts of the world.. It was with the
view of becoming mailer of this lucrative trade, that
Alexander built this’ city, after having extirpated the
Tyrians, who formerly engrofled all the Eall-India
traffic. Of the immenfe riches which that trade afford¬
ed; we may form an idea, from confidering that the
Romans accounted it a point of policy to opprefs the Alexandria*
Egyptians, efpecially the Alexandrians; and after the
defeat of Zenobia, there was a Angle merchant of Alex¬
andria who undertook to raife and pay an army out of .
the profits of his trade. The Greek emperors drew
prodigious tributes from Egypt, and yet the xhalifs
found their fubjefts in fo good circumflances as to fcrew
up their revenues to three hundred millions of crowns.
Though the revolutions which happened in the go¬
vernment of Egypt, after it fell into the hands of the
Mahometans, frequently affedled this city to a very great
degree ; yet Hill the excellence of its port, and the in¬
numerable conveniences refulting from the Eall-India
trade, to whomfoever were mailers of Egypt, preferred
Alexandria from total, dellru&ion, even when in the
hands of the mofl barbarous nations. Thus, in the
13th century, when the barbarifm introduced by the
Goths, &c. began to wear off from the European
nations, and they acquired a tafle for the elegan¬
cies of life, the old mart of Alexandria began to re¬
vive ; and the port, though far from recovering its
former magnificence, grew once more famous by be¬
coming the centre of commerce : but having fallen un¬
der the dominion of the Turks, and the paffage round
the Cape of Good Hope being difcovered by the Por-
tuguefe in 1499, a fatal blow was given to the Alex¬
andrian commerce, and the city has fince fallen into
decay.
At prefent, the city of Alexandria is reckoned to have
about 14,000 or 15,000 inhabitants; a ftrange col-
luvies of different nations, as well as from various parts
of the Turkilh empire. They are in general given to .
thieving and cheating; and (like their predeceflbrs,)
feditious above all others, were they not kept in awe
by the feverity of their government. The Britifh and
French carry on a confiderable commerce with them, and
have each a conful refiding here. Some Venetian Ihips
alfo fail thither yearly, but with French colours, and
under the prote&ion of France. The fubjedls of thofe
kingdoms which keep no conful here, are fubje&ed to a
tax by the Grand Signior: but the Jews have found
out a method of indemnifying themfelves for this dif-
advantage; namely, by felling their commodities cheap¬
er than other foreigners can afford. They are alfo fa¬
voured by the farmers of the revenue; who know, that,
if they do not pay fome private regard to them, the
Jews have it in their power to caufe fewer merchandizes
come into their port during the two years that their
farm lafls.
The city is governed like others in the fame king¬
dom *. It hath a fmall garrifon of foldiers, part of * See Egypt..
which are Janifaries and Affaffs; who are very haughty
and infolent, not only to flrangers, but to the mercan¬
tile and induflrious part of the people, though ever fo
confiderable and ufeful. The government is fo remifs
in favour of thefe wretches, that Mr Norden informs
us, one of them did not hefitate to kill a farmer of the
cufloms, for refufing to take lefs of him than the duty
impofed, and went off unpunifhed; it being a common
falvo'among them, that wffiat is done cannot be undone.
The prefent condition of Alexandria is very defpi-
cable, being now fo far ruined, that the rubbifn in many
places overtops the houfes. The famous iower of Pha-
j-os has long fince been demoh'fhed; and acaflle, called
Farillotiy built in its place. Thecaufeway which joined
the
ALE [ 2
Alexandria, the ifland to the continent is broken down, and its place
“ fupplied by a ftone-bridge of feveral arches.
Some parts of the old walls of the city are yet Hand¬
ing. They are flanked with large towers, about
200 paces diftant from each other, with fmall ones
in the middle. Below are magnificent cafemates,
which may ferve for galleries to walk in. In the lower
part of the towers is a large fquare hall, whofe roof is
fupported by thick columns of Thebaic Hone. Above
this are feveral rooms, over which there are platforms
more than 20 paces fquare.
The next piece of antiquity is the pillar of Pom-
pey, faid to be built by Julius Casfar in commemora¬
tion of his vi&ory at Pharfalia. It Hands ”.pon an e-
minence, about 200 paces from the city, and is pla¬
ced upon a fquare pedeflal about feven or eight feet
high; and the pedefial Hands upon a fquare bafe, one
of whofe fides is 20 feet. Sandys fays, it is 36 palms
round, and 86 in height, each palm cbnfiHing of nine
inches. The fliaft is a Angle Hone, by fome called
Theban marble, by others granite. On the top is
a very fine capital. It is hard to fay what machines
they had in former times to raife fuch a vaH Hone as
this; for Thevenot, in his laH vifit, by meafuring the
fliadow, found it to be 75 royal feet of Paris, which
is equal to 80 Engliih. A few paces from hence Hood
Csefar’s palace : but the remains are only a few por¬
phyry pillars, and the front, which is almoH entire,
and looks very beautiful. The palace of Cleopatra was
built upon the walls facing the port, having a gallery
on the outfide, fupported by feveral fine columns. Not
far from Cleopatra’s palace are two obeliflcs : one of
thefe is thrown down, and almoH buried in the fand ;
and though the other Hands upright, the pedeHal is
hid by the fand that furrounds it. They are of granite;
and each of the four fides are covered with hierogly¬
phics. About 70 paces from Pompey’s pillar, is the
khalis, or the canal of the Nile, which was dug by the
ancient Egyptians, to con vey the water of the Nile to
Alexandria, and fill the ciHerns under the city- On
the fide of the khalis, are gardens full of orange and
lemon trees, and the fields are full of caper and palm
trees. On the top of a hill is a tower, on which a
centinel is always placed, to give-notice, by means of
a flag, of the fliips that are coming into the port.
From this hill may be feen the fea, the whole extent
of the city, and the parts round it.
On the fouth-weH fide of the city, at a mile’s dif-
tance, there are catacombs cut out of a rock, to enter
which perfons muH creep upon all four ; but the roof
is ten feet high : on each fide are fepulchres, cut out
of the rock, of which there are four rows one above a-
nother. The bones in thefe places were very hard and
looked very frelh. Over-againfi this there is another,
that runs a long way, but will not admit a man to Hand
upright. Thefe were, doubtlefs, burying-places belong¬
ing to the city. The Romans called fuch places cata¬
combs. Alexandria is about 50 leagues north of Cairo..
E. Long. 31. 15'. N. Lat. 31. 12.
Alexandria, a firong and confiderable city of I-
taly, belonging to the duchy of Milan, with a good
caHle, built in 1178 in honour of Pope Alexander III.
This pope made it a bifhopric, vvith feveral privileges
and exemptions. Prince Eugene of Savoy took this city
m 1706, after three days fiege. The French took it in
21 ]
A L E
1745 ; but the king of Sardinia, to whom it belongs Alexan
by the treaty of Utrecht, retook it in 1746. The for- -^le.xa
tifications of the town are trifling, but the citadel is lian
confiderable. It is 15 miles fouth-eafi of Cafal, 35
north-by-wefi of Genoa, and 40 fouth-by-wefi of Mi¬
lan. E. Long. 8. 4c. N. Lat. 44. 53. The country
about this town is called the Aley.andrin.
Alexandria, (an. geog.) a city of Arachofia, call¬
ed alfo Alexandropolis, on the river Arachotus, (Ste-
phanus, Ifidorus Characenus.)—Another Alexandria
in Gedrofia, built by Leonatus, by order of Alex¬
ander, (Pliny.)1—A third Alexandria in Aria, fituated
at the lake Arias, (Ptolemy); but, according to Pli¬
ny, built by Alexander on the river Arius.—A fourth
in the Baftriana,, (Pliny.)—A fifth Alexandria^ an
inland town of Carmania, (Pliny, Ptolemy, Ammian.).
—A fixth Alexandria, or Alexandropolis, in the Sog-
diana, (Ifidorus Characenus.)—A feventh in India,
at the confluence of the Acefines and Indus,.(Arrian.):
—An eighth called alfo Alexandretta near the Sinus
Ifficus, on the confines of Syria and Cilicia, now Scan-
deroon *, the port-town to Aleppo.—A ninth Alex- * See A
andria of Margiana, which being demoKihed by the endrctta
barbarians, was rebuilt, by Antiochus the fon of Se-
leucus, and called Antiochia of Syria, (Pliny) ; water¬
ed by the river Margus, which is divided into feveral
channels, for the purpofes of watering the country,
which was called Zotale. The city was feventy Hadia
in circuit, according to Pliny ; who adds, that, after
the defeat of Craffus, the captives were conveyed to
this place by Orodes, the king of the Parthians.—A
tenth, of the Oxiana, built on the Oxus by Alexander,
on the confines of Baftria, (Pliny.)—An eleventh,
built by Alexander at the foot of mount Paropamifus,
which was called Caucafus, „(¥X\ny, Arrian.) —A
twelfth Alexandria in Troas, called alfo Areas and An-
tigonia, (Pliny.)—A thirteenth, on the laxartes, the
boundary of Alexander's vittories towards Scythia,
and the jail that he built on that fide-
ALEXANDRIAN, in a particular fenfe, is ap¬
plied to all thofe who profeffed or taught the fciences
in the fchool of Alexandria. In this fenfe, Clemens
is denominated Alexandrinu-s, though born at Athens-
The fame may be faid of Apion, who was born at
Oafis; and Aroflarchus, by birth.a Samothracian. The
chief Alexandrian philofopbers were, Amonius, Plo¬
tinus, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblicus, Sopater, Maxi¬
mus, and Dexippus.
Alexandrian is more particularly underHood of a
college of prieHs, confecrated to the fervice of Alex¬
ander Severus after his deification. Lampridius relates,
that, notwithflanding Severus was killed by Maximin,
the fenate profecuted his apotheofis; and, for regula¬
rity of worihip, founded an order of priefls, or fodales,
under the denomination of Alexandrini.
Alexandrian, ox Alexandrine, in poetry, a kind of
verfe confiHing of twelve, or of twelve and thirteen fyl-
lables alternately; fo called from a poem on. the life of
Alexander, written in this kind of verfe by fome French
poet. Alexandrines are peculiar to modern poetry, and
feem well adapted to epic poems. They are fometimes
ufed by mofi nations of Europe; but chiefly by the
French, whofe tragedies are generally compofed of A-
lexandrines.
ALEXICACUS, fomething that preferves the bo-
A L F
Akxicacus dy from harm or mifchief. The word amounts to much
Alfred t^e ^ame as alexiterial.
.  Alexicacus, in antiquity, was an attribute of Nep¬
tune, whom the tunny-fifhers ufed to invoke under this
appellation, that their nets might be preferred from the
Zipixr, or fword-fifh, which ufed to tear them; and that
he might prevent the affiftance, which it was pretended
the dolphins ufed to give the tunnies on this occafion.
ALEXIPHARMICS, in medicine, are properly
remedies for expelling,or preventing the ill effects of
poifon : but fome of the moderns having imagined that
the animal fpirits, in acute diftempers, were affe&ed
by a malignant poifon, the term -has been underftood
to mean medicines adapted to expel this poifon by the
cutaneous pores, in the form of fweat. In this fenfe,
alexipharmics are the fame as fudorifics.
ALEXITERIAL, among .phyiicians, a term of
much the fame import with alexipharmic j though fome-
times ufed in a fynonymous fenfe with amulet.
ALEYN (Charles), an Engliihpoet in the reign of
Charles I. In 1631, he publifiled two poems on the
famous victories of Crefci and Poiftiers. He Lcceeded
his father as clerk of the ordnance, and was commi/fary-
general of the artillery to the king at the battle of Edge-
hill. The next piece he wrote was a poem in honour
of Henry VII. and the vidfory that gained him the
crown of England. In 1639, the year before he died,
he tranflated the hiitory of Eurialius and Lucretia, from
the Latin epiftles of jEneas Sylvius.
ALFAQUES, among the Moors, the name gene-
nerally ufed for their clergy, or thofe who teach the
Mahometan religion ; in oppofition to the Morabites,
who anfwer to monks among Chriftians.
ALFATERNA, (anc.geog.) thelafttbwn of Cam¬
pania, beyond Vefuvins, (Diodorus) ; the fame with
Nuceria, which fee. The inhabitants dlfaterni, (Pli¬
ny.) >
ALFET, in our old cuftoms, denotes a caldron full
of boiling water, wherein an accufed perfon, by way
of trial or purgation, plunged his arm up to the elbow.
ALFORD, a town in Lincolnlhire, with a market
on Tuefdays for provifions and corn ; and two fairs,
on Whit-Tuefday, and November 8. for cattle and
fheep. It is feated on a fmall brook that runs through
the town, and is a compaft place. It is fix miles from
the fea, and 20 N. of Bofton. E. Lon. o. 15. N. Lat.
53- 3°-
ALFRED, or jElfred, the Great, king of Eng¬
land, was the fifth and youngeft fon of JEthelwolf
king of the Weft Saxons, and was born at Wantage
in Berklhire in 849. He diftinguilhed himfelf, du¬
ring the reign of his brother Ethelred, in feveral en¬
gagements againft the Danes ; and upon his death fuc-
ceeded to the crown, in the year 871, and the 22d of
his age. At his afcending the throne he found him¬
felf involved in a dangerous war with the Danes, and
placed in fuch circumftances of diftrefs as called for
the greateft valour, refolution, and all the other vir-
A L F
tues with which he was adorned. The Danes had Alfred,
already penetrated into the heart of his kingdom ; and
before he had been a month upon the throne, he was
obliged to take the field againft thofe formidable ene¬
mies. After many battles gained on both fides, he was at
length reduced to the greateft diftrefs, and was entirely
abandoned by his fubjefts. In this fituation, Alfred,
conceiving himfelf no longer a king, laid alide all marks
of royalty, and took fhelter in the houfe of one who
kept his cattle. He retired afterwards to the ifle of
JEthelingey in Somerfetfhire, where he built a fort for
the fecurity of himfelf, his family, and the few faithful
fervants who repaired thither to him. When he had
been about a year in this retreat, having been inform¬
ed that fome of his fubjedls had routed a great army of
the Danes, killed their chiefs, and taken their magical
ftandard (a), he ifiued his letters, giving notice where
he v'?.3, and inviting his nobility to come and confult
with rum. Before they came to a final determination,
Alfieri, putting on the habit of a harper, went into
the enemy’s camp, where, without fufpicion, he was
every where admitted, and had the honour to play be¬
fore their princes. Having thereby acquired an exaft
knowledge of their fituation, he returned in great fe-
crecy to his nobility, whom he ordered to their refpec-
tive homes, there to draw together each man as great
a force as he could; and upon a day appointed there
was to be a general rendezvous at the great wood,
called Selnuood, in Wiltfhire. This affair was tranfac-
ted fo fecretly and expeditioufty, that, in a little time,
the king, at the head of an army, approached the
Danes, before they had the leaft intelligence of his de-
fign. Alfred, taking advantage of the furprife and
terror they were in, fell upon them, and totally defeat¬
ed them at iEthendune, now Eddington. Thofe who
efcaped fled to a neighbouring caftle, where they were
foon befieged, and obliged to furrender at difcretion.
Alfred granted them better terms than they could ex-
pe£t: he agreed to give up the whole kingdom of the
Eaft-Angles to fuch as would embrace the Chriftian re¬
ligion, on condition they fliould oblige the reft of their
countrymen to quit the ifland, and, as much as it was
in their power, prevent the landing of any more fo¬
reigners. For the performance thereof he took hofta-
ges ; and when, in purfuance of the treaty, Guthrum,
the Danilh captain, came, with thirty of his chief of¬
ficers, to be baptized, Alfred anfwered for him at the
font, and gave him the name of Mtkelftan; and cer¬
tain laws were drawn up betwixt the king and Gu¬
thrum for the regulation and government of the Danes
fettled in England. In 884, a frefli number of Danes
landed in Kent, and laid fiege to Rochefter; but the
king coming to the relief of that city, they were obli¬
ged to abandon their defign. Alfred had now great
fuccefs; which was chiefly owing to his fleet, an ad¬
vantage of his own creating. Having fecured the fea-
coafts, he fortified the reft of the kingdom with caftles
and walled towns; and he befieged and recovered from
the -
[ 222 ]
(a) “ This (fays Sir John Spelman) was a banner with the image of a raven magically wrought by the three fifters
of Hinguar and l lubba, on purpofe for their expedition, in revenge of their father Lodebroch’s murder, made, they
fay, almoft in an inftant, being by them at once begun and finiflied in a noontide, and believed by the Danes to have
carried great fatality with it, for which it was highly efteemed by them. It is pretended, that being carried in battle,
towards good fuccefs it would always feem to clap its wings, and make as if it would flv ; but towards the approach of
milhap, it would hang down and not move.” Life of Alfred, p. 61.
Alfred.
It 
A L F [2:
the Danes the city of London, which he refolved to re¬
pair, and keep as a frontier (b).
After fome years refpite, Alfred was again called
into the field: for a body of Danes, being worfted in
the weft of France, came with a fleet of 250 fail on the
coaft of Kent; and having landed, fixed themfelves at
Appletree: fhortly after, another fleet of 80 veffels
coming up the Thames, the men landed, and built a
fort at Middleton. Before Alfred marched againft the
enemy, he obliged the Danes, fettled in Northumber¬
land and Elfex, to give him hoftages for their good
behaviour. He then moved towards the invaders, and
pitched his camp between their armies, to prevent their
junction. A great body, however, moved off to Ef-
fex ; and croffing the river, came to Farnham in Surry,
where they were defeated by the king’s forces. Mean
while the Danes fettled in Northumberland, in breach
of treaty, and notwithftanding the hoftages given, e-
quipped two fleets; and, after plundering the northern
and fouthern coafts, failed to Exeter, and befieged it.
The king, as foon as he received intelligence, marched
againft them ; but before he reached Exeter, they had
got poffeflion of it. Fie kept them, however, blocked up
on all fides; and reduced them at laft to fuch extremi¬
ties, that they were obliged to eat their horfes, and were
even ready to devour each other. Being at length ren¬
dered defperate, they made a general fally on the be-
fiegers; but were defeated, though with great lofs on
the king’s fide. The remainder of this body of Danes
fled into Effex, to the fort they had built there, and to
their (hips. Before Alfred had time to recruit him-
felf, another Danilli leader, whofe name was Laf, came
with a great army out of Northumberland, and de-
ftroyed all before him, marching on to the city of
Werheal in the weft, which is fuppofed to be Chefter,
where they remained the reft of that year. The year
following they invaded North-Wales; and after having
plundered and deftroyed every thing, they divided, one
body returning to Northumberland, another into the
territories of the Eaft-Angles ; from whence they pro¬
ceeded to Effex, and took pofleffion of a fmall ifland
called Mereftg. Here they did not long remain: for
having parted, fome failed up the river Thames, and
others up the Lea-road; where drawing up their ftiips,
they built a fort not far from London, which proved a
great check upon the citizens, who went in a body and
attacked it, but were repulfed with great lofs : at har-
veft-time the king himfelf was obliged to encamp with
a body of troops in the neighbourhood of the city, in
order to cover the reapers from the excurfions of the
Danes. As he was one day riding by the fide of the
river Lea, after fome obfervation, he began to think
that the Danifti fhips might be laid quite dry : this
he attempted, and fucceeded; fo that the Danes de-
] A I. F
ferted their fort and fhips, and marched away to the Alfred,
banks of the Severn, where they built a fort, and win-
tered at a place called Quatbrig (c). Such of the Da-
nifh fhips as could be got off, the Londoners carried
into their own road; the reft they burnt and deftroyed.
Alfred enjoyed a profound peace during the three
laft years of his reign, which he chiefly employed in
eftablifhing and regulating his goveroment, for the fecu-
rity of himfelf and his fucceffors, as well as the eafe and
benefit of his fubjefts in general. After a troublefome
reign of 28 years, he died on the 28th of O&ober
A. D. 900; and was buried at Winchefter, in Hyde-
abbey, under a monument of porphyry.
All our hiftorians agree in diftinguifhing him as one
of the moft valiant, wifeft, and belt of kings that ever
reigned in England; and it is alfo generally allowed,
that he not only digefted feveral particular laws ftill in
being, but that he laid the firft foundation of-our pre-
fent happy conftitution. There is great reafon to be¬
lieve that we are indebted to this prince for trials by
juries; and the doomfday-book, which is preferved in
the exchequer, is thought to be no more than ano¬
ther edition of Alfred’s book of Winchefter, which
contained a furvey of the kingdom. It is faid alfo, that
he was the fifft who divided the kingdom into fhires:
what is afcribed to him is not a bare divifion of the
country, but the fettling a new form of judicature; for
after having divided his dominions into fliires, he fubdi-
vided each (hire into three parts, called trythings. There
are fome remains of this ancient divifion in the ridings of
Yorkfture, the laths of Kent, and the three parts of Lin-
colnftiire. Each trything was divided into hundreds or
wapentakes ; and thefe again into tythings, or dwell¬
ings of ten houfeholders : each of thefe houfeholdera
flood engaged to the king, as a_ pledge for the good be¬
haviour of his family, and all the ten were mutually
pledges for each other; fo that if any one of the ty-
thing was fufpected of an offence, if the head boroughs
or chiefs of the tything would not be fecurity for him,
he was imprifoned; and if he made his efcape, the ty¬
thing and hundred were fined to the king. Each fhire
was under the government of an earl, under whom was
the reive, his deputy;, fince, from his office, called
Jhire-reive, or Jheriff. And fo effectual were thefe re¬
gulations, that it is faid he caufed bracelets of gold to
fie hung up in the highways, as a challenge to rob¬
bers ; and they remained untouched-
In private life, Alfred was the moft amiable man in
his dominions ; of fo equal a temper, that he never
fuffered either fadnefs or unbecoming gaiety to enter
his mind ; but appeared always of a calm, yet cheerful
difpofition, familiar to his friends, juft even to his ene¬
mies, kind and tender to all. He was a remarkable
ceconomift of his time, and Afferius has given us an
account
( b) The Danes had pofleffed themfelve&of London in the time of his father; and had held it till now as a convenient
place for them to land at, and fortify themfeives in; neither was it taken from them but by a clofe fiege. However,
when it came into the king’s hands, it was in a miferable condition, fcarce habitable, and all its fortifications ruined.
The king, moved by the importance of the place, and the defire of ftrengfhening his frontier againft the Danes, re-
ftored it to its ancient fplendor. And obferving, that, through the confufion of the times, many, both Saxons and
Danes, lived in a loofe diforderly manner, without owning any government, he offered them now a comfortable eftablilh-
ment, if they would fubmit and become his fubjeCts. This propofition was better received than he expe&ed; for mul¬
titudes growing weary of a vagabond kind of life, joyfully accepted fuch an offer. Chron. Sax. p. 88.
(c) The king’s contrivance is thought to have produced the meadow between Hertford and Bow ; for at Hertford
was the Danifh fort, and from thence they made frequent excurfions on the inhabitants of London. Authors are not
agreed as to the method the king purfued in laying dry the Danifh (hips : Dugdaleiuppofes that he did it by ftraiten*-
ing the channel; but Henry of Huntingdon alleges, that he cut feveral canals, which exhanfted its water-.
A L F [2:
account of the method he took for dividing and keep¬
ing an account of it: he caufed fix wax-candlea to be
made, each of 12 inches lon^, and of as many ounces
weight; on the candles the inches were regularly mark¬
ed, and having found that one of them burnt juft four
hours, he committed them to the care of the keepers of
his chapel, who from time to time gave him notice
how the hours went: but as in windy weather the
candles were wafted by the imprefiion of the air on the
flame, to remedy this inconvenience, he invented lan-
thorns, there being then ho glafs in his dominions.
This prince, we are told, was 12 years of age be¬
fore a mafter could be procured in the weftern kingdom
' to teach him the alphabet; fuch was the ftate of learn¬
ing when Alfred began to reign. He had felt the mi-
fery of ignorance; and determined even to rival his co¬
temporary Charlemagne in the encouragement of lite¬
rature. He is fuppofed to have appointed perfons to
read le&ures at Oxford, and is thence confidered asthe
founder of that univerfity. By other proper eftablifli-
ments, and by a general encouragement to men of abi¬
lities, he did everything in his power to diffufeknow¬
ledge throughout his dominions. Nor was this end
promoted more by his countenance and encouragement,
than by his own example and his writings. For not-
withftanding the latenefs of his initiation, he had ac¬
quired extraordinary erudition ; and, had he not been
illuftrious as a king, he would have been famous as an
author. His works are, Breviarum quoddam ccllec-
tum ex Legibus Trojanorum, lib. I. A Breviary collec¬
ted out of the Laws of the Trojans, Greeks, Britons,
Saxons, and Danes; in one Book. Leland faw this book
in the Saxon tongue, at Chrift-church in Hampfhire.
2. Viji-Saxonum Leges, lib. I. The laws of the Weft-
Saxons, in one book. Pittstells us, that it is in Bennet-
College library, at Cambridge. 3. Inftituta qua dam,
lib. I. Certain Inftitutes, in one book. This is mention¬
ed by Pitts, and feems to be the fecond capitulation with
Guthrum. 4. Contra Judices iniquos, lib. I. An In¬
ventive againft Unjuft Judges, in one book. 5. Atta
JWagiftrattium fuorum, lib. I. A6ts of his Magiftrates,
in one book. This is fuppofed to be the book of
judgments mentioned by Horne ; and was, in all pro¬
bability, a kind of reports, intended for the ufe of fuc-
ceeding ages. 6. Regum Fortune varice, lib. I. The
various Fortunes of Kings, in one book. 7. Difta
Sapientum, lib. I. The Sayings of Wife Men, in one
book. 8, Parabola et Sales, lib. I. Parables and
14 ] A L G
pleafant Sayings, in one book. 9. Colleftiones Chroni~ Alfred.
corum. Collections of Chronicles. 10. Epijlola ad Wulf- il
ftgium Epifcopum, lib. I. Epiftles to Bilhop Wulfsig, A Sarva-
in one book. 11. Manuale Meditationum. A Ma¬
nual of Meditations.—Befides thefe original works, he
tranflated many authors from the Latin, &c. into the
Saxon language, viz. 1. Bede’s Hiftory of England,
2. Paulinus Orofinus’s Hiftory of the Pagans. 3. St
Gregory’s Paftoral, <bc. The firft of thefe, with his
prefaces to the others, together with his laws, were
printed at Cambridge, 1644. His laws are likewife
inferted in Spelman’s Councils. 4. Boetius de Confola-
tione, lib. V. Boetius’s Confolations of Philofophy, in
five books. Dr Plot tells us, king Alfred tranflated
it at Woodftock, as he found in a MS. in the Cotton
Library. 5. JEfopi Fabula. iEfop’s Fables: which he
is faid to have tranflated from the Greek both into Latin
and Saxon. 6. Pfalterium Davidicum, lib. I. David’s
Pfalter, in one book. This was the laft work the king
attempted, death furprifing him before he had finifhed
it; it was however completed by another hand, and
publiflied at London in 1640, in quarto, by Sir John
Spelman. Several others are mentioned by Malmfbury;
and the old Hiftory of Ely aflerts, that he tranflated
the Old and New Teftaments.
The life of this great king was firft written by
Aflerius Menevenfis; and firft publilhed by Archbi-
fhop Parker, in the old Saxon character, at the end
of his edition of Haflingham’s hiftory, printed in
1674, fol.
ALGA, in botany, the trivial name of the lichen,
fucus, and feveral other plants of the cryptogamia clafs.
ALGAGIOLA, afmall fea-port town in the ifland
of Corfica, fortified with walls and baftions. It was
almoft deftroyed by the malcontents in 1731, but has
fince been repaired. E. Long. 9. 45. N. Lat. 42. 20.
ALGAROT, in chemiftry, an Arabic term for an
emetic powder, prepared from regulus of antimony,
diflblved in acids, and feparated by repeated lotions in
warm water.
ALGARVA, a province in the kingdom of Por¬
tugal, 67 miles in length, and 20 in breadth; bounded
on the W. and S. by the fea, on the E. by the river
Guadiana, and on the N. by Alentejo. It is very fer¬
tile in figs, almonds, dates, olives, and excellent wines;
befides, the fifliery brings in large fums. The capital
town is Pharo. It contains four cities, 12 towns, 67
parifhes, and 61,000 inhabitants.
ALGEBRA,
Definition, A General method of computation, wherein figns
and etyrno- £\_ an{j {Vmbols. commonlv the letters of the alnha-
logy.
and fymbols, commonly the letters of the alpha¬
bet, are made ufe of to reprefent numbers, or any other
quantities.
This faience, properly fpeaking, is no other than a
kind of fhort-hand, or ready way of writing down a
chain of mathematical reafoning on any fubjeCt what¬
ever ; fo that it is applicable to arithmetic, geometry,
aftronomy, menfuration of all kinds of folids, &c. and
the great advantages derived from it appear manifeftly
to arife from the concifenefs and perfpicuity with which
every propofition on mathematical fubjeCts can be wrote
down in algebraic characters, greatly fuperior to the
tedious circumlocutions which would be neceflary were
the reafoning to be written in words at length.
With regard to the etymology of the word algebra,
it is much contefted by the critics. Menage derives
it from the Arabic algiabarat, which fignifies the
reftitution of any thing broken ; fuppofing that the
principal part of algebra is the confideration of broken
numbers. Others rather borrow it from the Spanifli,
algebrijla, a perfon who replaces diflocated bones; ad¬
ding, that algebra has nothing to do with fraCtion.
Some, with M. d’Herbelot, are of opinion, that alge¬
bra takes its name from Gebar, a celebrated philofo-
pher, chemift, and mathematician, whom the Arabs
Sea.r. A L G I
Hiftory. call Giaber, and who is fuppofed to have been the tn-
ventor. Others from gefr, a kind of parchment made
of the ikin of a camel, whereon Ali and Giafer Sadek
wrote, in myftic charafters, the fate of Mahometaniim,
and the grand events that were to happen, till the end
of the world. But others, with more probability, de¬
rive it from geber; a word whence, by prefixing the ar¬
ticle al, we have formed algebra; which is pure Ara¬
bic, and properly fignifies the reduction of fra&ions to
a whole number. However, the Arabs, it is to be ob-
ferved, never ufe the word algebra alone, to exprefs
what we mean by it; but always add to it the word
macabelah, which fignifies oppofition arid comparifon:
thus algebra-ahnacabelah, is what we properly call al¬
gebra.
Some authors define algebra, The art of folving ma¬
thematical problems ; but this is rather the idea of ana-
lyfis, or the analytic art. The Arabs call it, The art
of refitution and coruparifon; or, The art of refolution
and equation: Lucas de Burgo, the firft European
who wrote of algebra, calls it, Regula rei et cenfus;
that is, the rule of the root and its fquare; the root
with them being called res, and the fquare cenfus. Ci¬
thers call it Specious Arithmetic; and fome, Univerfal
Arithmetic.
History. It is highly probable that the Indians or Arabians
firft invented this noble art: for it may be reafonably
fuppofed, that the ancient Greeks were ignorant of
it; becaufe Pappus, in his mathematical colle&ions,
where he enumerates their analyfis, makes no mention
of any thing like it ; and, befides, fpeaks of a local
problem, begun by Euclid, and continued by Apol¬
lonius, which none of them could fully refolve; which
doubtlefs they might eafily have done, had they known
any thing of algebra.
Diaphantus was the firft Greek writer of algebra,
who publilhed thirteen books about the year 800, tho’
only fix of them were tranflated into Latin, by Xylan-
der, in 1575; and afterwards, viz. anno 1621, in
Greek and Latin, by M. Bachet and Fermat, with ad¬
ditions of their own. This algebra of Diaphantus’s
only extends to the folution of arithmetical indeter¬
minate problems.
Before this tranflation of Diaphantus came out, Lu¬
cas Pacciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a Minorite friar,
publifhed at Venice, in the year 1494, an Italian trea-
tife of algebra. This author makes mention of Leonar¬
dos Pifanus, and fome others, of whom he had learned
the-art; but we have hone of their w-ritings. He adds,
that algebra came originally from the Arabs, and ne¬
ver mentions Diaphantus; which makes it probable,
that that author was not then known in Europe. His
algebi-a goes no farther than fimple and quadratic
equations.
After Pacciolus, appeared Stifelius, a good author;
but neither did he advance any farther.
After him, came Scipio Ferreus, Cardan, Tarta-
gilla, and fome others, who reached as far as the fo¬
lution of fome cubic equations. Bombelli followed
thefe, and went a little farther. At laft came Nun-
nius, Ramus, Schoner, Salignac, Clavius, &c. who all
of them took different courles, hut none of them went
beyond quadratics.
In 1590, Vieta introduced what he called his Specious
Arithmetic, which confifts in denoting the quantities,
VOL. I.
l, B R A, 225
both known and unknown, by fymbols or letters. He Elementary
alfo introduced an ingenious method of extracting the R-llles~
roots of equations, by approximations; fince greatly
improved and facilitated by Raphfon, Halley, Simpfon,
and others.
Vieta was followed by Oughtred, who, in his Clavis
Mathematica, printed in 1631, improved Vieta’s me¬
thod, and invented feveral compendious characters, to
ftievv the fums, differences, reCtangles, fquares, cubes,
&c.
Harriot, another Engliftiman, cotemporary with
Oughtred, left feveral treatifes at his death; and among
the reft, an Analyfis, or Algebra, which was printed
in 1631, where Vieta’s method is brought into a ftill
more commodious form, and is much efteemed to this
day.
In 1657, DesCartes publilhedhis geometry, where¬
in he made ufe of the literal calculus and the algebraic
rules of Harriot; and as Oughtred in his Clavis, and
Marin. Ghetaldus in his books of mathematical com-
pofition and refolution publilhed in 1630, applied
Vieta’s arithmetic to elementary geometry, and gave
the conftruCtion of fimple and quadratic equations; fo
Des Cartes applied Harriot’s method to the higher
geometry, explaining the nature of curves by equations,
and adding the conftruCtions of cubic, biquadratic,
and other higher equations.
Des Cartes’s rule for conftrufting cubic and biqua¬
dratic equations, was farther improved by Thomas Ba -
ker, in his Clavis Geometrica Catholica, publifhed in
1684; and the foundation of fuch conftrudions, with
the application of algebra to the quadratures of curves,
queftions de maximis et minimis, the centrobaryc me¬
thod of Guldinus, &c. was given by R. Slufius, in
1668; as alfo by Fermat in his Opera Mathematica,
Roberval in the Mem. de Mathem. et de Phyfque, and
Barrow in his Left. Geomet. In 1708, algebra was ap¬
plied to the laws of chance and gaming, by R. de Mont-
mort; and fince by de Moivre and James Bernouilli.
The elements of the art were compiled and publifhed
by Kerfey, in 1671 ; wherein the fpecious arithmetic,
and the nature of equations, are largely explained, and
illuftrated by a variety of examples: the whole fubftance
of Diaphantus is here delivered, and many things ad¬
ded concerning mathematical compofition and refolution
from Ghetaldus. The like has been fince done by
Preftet in 1694, and by Ozanam in 1703 : but thefe
authors omit the application of algebra to geometry;
which defedt is fuplied byGuifnec in a French treatife
exprefly on the fubjedt pnblifhed in 1704, and 1’Ho-
pital in his analytical treatife of the conic fedtions in
1707. The rules of algebra are alfo compendioufly
delivered by Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Arithmetica Uni-
verfalis, firft publifhed in 1707, which abounds in fe-
ledt examples, and contains feveral rules and methods
invented by the author.
Algebra has alfo been applied to the confideration
and calculus of infinites ; from whence a new and ex-
tenfive branch of knowledge has arifen, called the Doc¬
trine of Fluxions, or Analyfis of Infinites, or the Calcu¬
lus Differentialis.
Sect. I. Elementary Rules. f
In algebra, a letter of the alphabet may ftand for any Notation.,
quantity whatever 5 whether length, breadth, thick-
F f nefs,
226 A L G :
Elementary nefs, folidity, &c. but when once a letter is appro-
Rules- priated to one particular kind of quantity, it cannot
Hand for any other, in that demonftration, or piece
of reafoning. Thus, though the letter a may repre-
fent any quantity of water, earth, 6c. yet if it is once
appropriated to any of thefe, water, for inftance, it
cannot likewife reprefent earth; as this would produce
confufion. Each fpecies of quantity, therefore, muft
be reprefented by a different letter.—As all quantities,
concerning, which we fpeak, muft be either known or
unknown; and both thefe are frequently reprefented by
letters in algebraic operations; it will be proper to ufe
the firft letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, &c. to reprefent
one kind of quantities; and the laft letters, x, y, z, to
reprefent the others; that there may be as little dan-
i ger of miftake as poffible.
Pofitive and Befides this obvious divifton of quantity, into known
negative and unknown; algebraifts confider quantities as pofi-
qiuntnies. . . P , , r
tive or negative, hmple or compound, roots or powers,
rational or irrational.—Pofitive quantities are fuch as,
by their prefence, always deqote an increafe, or addition
of fomething which was not there before; and there¬
fore they have always -f- plus, the fign of addition, pre-
, fixed to them: but as quantity is generally fpokea of
in a pofitive fenfe, the fign is omitted before a fingle
letter, or before the firft term of any feries of quanti¬
ties expreffed by letters. Thus, if a limply is wrote
down, a is fuppofed to be meant; in like manner, in
the feries « + £ + <:,. &c. the firft term or letter is al¬
ways fuppofed to be pofitive. Negative quantities are
intended to exprefs the difference between one pofitive
quantity and another. By themfelves they cannot have
any exiftence, as they would be lefs than nothing, which-
is abfurd. Thefe quantities have always the fign of fub-
tra&ion, — minus, prefixed to them; whether they ftand
firft or laft. If a fingle letter is marked with the fign
of fubtraftion, it is always fuppofed to have a refpecf
to fome other quantity which is not expreffed. Thus,
a by itfelf reprefents a pofitive quantity of any kind;
—a does not by itfelf reprefent any thing, but only the
difference between the former a, or + a, and fpme other
quantity which at that time is not expreffed; but if an¬
other quantity, expreffed by h, is wrote down before it,
as l—a, this denotes the difference between b and a.
The fame thing would be denoted though the order of
the terms were inverted; b—a is the fame with —a-\-b:
but in writing the terms of an algebraic feries, pofitive
quantities ought to precede negative ones ; and thofe
which have like figns, whether + or —, ought always
3 to be placed together.
Addition & By attending to this diftin&ion between pofitive and
lubtraOion. negative quantities, addition and fubtrattion of alge¬
braic characters will be very eafy. Every letter in al¬
gebra is fuppofed to reprefent fomething real, and the
letter is only put for it ; becaufe it is eafier expreffed
than the name of the thing itfelf. Thus, fuppofe a to
neprefent a gallon of water; if I want to add another
fgallon, or another a, to the firft one, the fum is two gal-
ons; or, in algebraic fhort-hand, 2a. In like man¬
ner, if we want to add another a, the fum will be $a.
But if we want to add one fpecies of quantity to ano¬
ther, as a pound of earth to a gallon of water, we muft
take one letter for the one fpecies, and another for the
other. Thus, let a reprefent the earth, and b the wa¬
terwhen thefe two are added together, the fum is nei-
E B R. A. Sea. I.
ther two pounds of earth, nor two gallons of vvater: the Elementary
fum of their literal reprefentatives, therefore, can nei- Rulcs‘
ther be 2a, nor zb‘, butrz+i- Here it will be obfetved,
that, where quantities of the fame kind, expreffed by
the fame letter, are added together, fome arithmetical
figures muft be prefixed to the algebraic ones; and
thefe numbers, called coefficients, or uncia, are to be ?na
naged exadtly in the fame way, as in common arithme¬
tic. Thus is 2^, and 2a-\-^a is $a'. rz added to b
can only be reprefented by a-\-b‘, in like manner, ad¬
ded to yi will neither make 12a, nor I zb; therefore, the
fum of thefe two can only be reprefented by ^a-^-^b.
When quantities occur which have contrary figns, there
is a neceffity for fubtrafting the one from the other, in
order to come at the true fum. Thus if a man has^io
of ftock in hand, and £$ of debt; in order to come at
his real worth, we muft fubtraft the debt from the goods.
If the j^io of goods is reprefented by 10a, and the^5
of debt by 5a; it is as plain, that the fum muft be on¬
ly 10a—5^, or 5#. If diffimila,r letters occur, having
contrary figns, they muft be wrote down with the figns
prefixed that are proper to each. Thus, the fum of 2a,
3<sr, and—7$, isaa-hs#—7^5 or 5a—7b; of 2a, 5a, 6b,
and —7b, is 2a-\-^a-ir6b-—7b, or 7a—b, &c.
Subtraction of algebraic characters confifts only in
changing the fign of the quantity to be fubtradied,
and then following the above rules for addition. Thus,
if I am to take 2a from 5*7, I change the fign of the
2a, and write it thus, 5*7—2a; adding thefe, I find the
fum to be $a, as already mentioned. If the letters are
diffimilar, they muft be wrote down with the fign of
fubtradfion —between them: as, if I fubtradl b from
a, the remainder will be a—b; but if I take —b from'77,
I muft change its fign to +, and then the remainder is
a-\-b. The reafon is evident, from the former example.
If a man has 1 o in goods, and owes ^"5; if I want
to take away his debt, 1 muft add to his ftock, or pre¬
vent the debt from affedting it, which is the fame thing.
If I reprefent the goods by a, and the debt by b, the
true ftate of his affairs will be reprefented by a—b. If
I want to take away-—b from this, I muft change its
fign to +; and then the and —b deftroy one ano¬
ther: fo that the remainder, after taking away the debt,
is a, or ^ 1 o; which is agreeable to truth. 4
Quantities are confidered by algebraifts as fimple or Simple and
compound. The fimple quantities are fuch as are re- compound
prefented by fingle letters, as a, b, c, &c. Compound tluaatities-
quantities arife only from the addition or fubtraftion of
diffimilar fimple ones: thus, a-\-b, b-\-c, and all others
connefted by the figns + or —, are called compound $
quantities. By multiplication of fimple quantities, com- Multiplica-
pound ones are not produced: for letters are multiplied tion.
into one another by writing them down in connexion,
without any fign, or with X, the fign of multiplication,
between them; aszrXd, or^, denotes the produdt of a
multiplied into b. In algebra, the figns prefixed to the
quantities, are objects of multiplication, as well as the
letters or coefficients of the letters themfelves: thus, -B
multiplied into +, always gives + for the produdl; and
— multiplied into — gives the fame ; but — into -f-,
or -4- into —, give — for the product.
That + multiplied into -f fhould give +, or that +
into — ffiould give — for the product, will readily be
comprehended: but why — multiplied into — fliould
giVe +, is not fo eafily underftood. Different methods
have
Sed. I.
ALGEBRA.
227
Elementary have been ufed to illuilrate the reafon of this; but all
Ru es‘ of them feem involved in fome degree of obfcurity, from
6 which we hope the following will be altogether free.
f Why-X- We have already obferved, that no quantity is in it-
I feIf negative, but only as it ftands in relation to ano-
l ther. Pofxtive and negative quantities, therefore, arife
only from addition and fubtraftion, but not from mul¬
tiplication. Four inches in meafure are a pofitive quan¬
tity in themfelves, and are pofitive or negative in alge¬
braic writing according as they are added to or taken
away from any thing. Negative quantities, therefore,
are capable of being added or fubtra&ed, but not effac¬
ing multiplied, as negatives. Suppofe one merchant owes
j^ioo, another ^50, and a third buys the ftock, and
becomes liable for the debts of both. His capital will
then be negatively affe&ed by both debts; and if we call
(it a, the debt of the firft merchant £, and of the fecond
c, his real worth will be exprefled by a—b—c, and may
be found by fubtrafting the fum of the debts from his
ftock; but it is impoffible to multiply the two debts to¬
gether in any manner of way, fo as to affeft him by
the product of the numbers ; the reafon is, becaufe we
change the relation by multiplying them. In like man¬
ner, if we cut four inches from a ruler, thefe with re-
fpeft to the whole ruler will be —4; but if we multi¬
ply the —4, or the part cut off, by itfelf, we produce
+16 fquare inches, which have not, nor can have, any
relation to the ruler itfelf, but will become pofitive or
negative with regard to another quantity, juft as we
pleafe to add or lubtraft them. The cafe is different
when a negative quantity is multiplied by a pofitive one;
becapfe then the relation is not changed. Thus, in the
formed example, if we cut off four inches from a ruler,
the quantity cut off is —4; if we multiply this —4 by
-4-2, or, which is the fame thing, want to add other four
inches to thofe already cut off, we muft take them from
the ruler, and thus the product will be —8.
In multiplication of algebraic characters, there is not
the leaft difficulty. The figns are multiplied as we have
already mentioned; the coefficients, as in common arith¬
metic; and the letters, by writing them down without
any fign between them : thus, za multiplied into 3#,
produces 6ab, or 6ba; for the order of the letters is of
no confequence. If the multiplier and multiplicand are
both compound quantities, each term of the firft muft
be multiplied into all thofe of the fecond, and all the
produfts added together: thus, if a—l is to be multi¬
plied by a—b, I firft multiply by a, which produces
tta—ab; I then multiply by —b, and the produce is
—ab-^bb; and, adding thefe two produCts together, we
? have aa-—zab-\-bb for the total produce.
Jivifion. Divifion being the converfe of multiplication, what
has been faid concerning the latter, will alfo ferve to
make the former eafily underftood. When the fame let¬
ters are contained in the divifor and dividend, there
divifion may properly take place: thus, if I am requi¬
red to divide abc by a> the quotient will be be; be¬
caufe be multiplied into a, produces abc the dividend.
If I am to divide it by b, the quotient will be ac; be¬
caufe acYb is alb, or abc. With regard to the figns,
they are to be managed fo, that the fign of the divifor
multiplied into that of the quotient may produce the
fign of the dividend; and it muft always be carefully
obferved to change the fign of that quantity which is
fubtraclcd from the dividend, whether the fubtraftion
can properly take place or not. The coefficients, or Elementary-
pure numbers, are to be divided exactly as in common Ru!es~
arithmetic. Suppofe now it is required to divide aa—
2ab-\-bb by a—b, I begin with confidering what fign
multiplied into that of the divifor will give that of the
dividend for a produft: as they are both pofitive quan •
titles, this muft be +. I next confider what letter mul¬
tiplied into the firft term of the divifor will give the firft
term of the dividend for a produCI. This I find to be a;
for aY,a gives aa for the produCt. I then multiply this
firft term of the quotient into both terms of the divifor;
and behoved to do fo, though there were three, four,
or piore terms in it. The produCt is aa—ab. Subtrac¬
ting this product from the dividend, there remains —ab
-\-bb for a new dividend. I muft now again confider
what fign multiplied into that of the firft term of the
divifor will give the fign of the firft term of the di¬
vidend ; which I here find to be —. By again confi¬
dering what letter multiplied into the firft term of the
divifor will ^ive the firft term of the dividend for a pro-
duft, I find it to be b; which multiplied into both terms
of the divifor, produces —ab-\-bb; which, fubtratted
from the new dividend, leaves no remainder.
If the letters are totally different, or the firft term of
the divifor cannot be found in the dividend, there divi¬
fion cannot take place; the quantities muft in this cafe
be wrote down with-7- the fign of divifion between them,
or placed the one over the other like frattions, as a-^b.
-, bd-T-cf, -j3 &c. but as long as the firft term of the di¬
vifor will divide the firft term of the dividend, the ope¬
ration may be continued; and fometimes the quotient
will run out to an infinite feries of terms, as in the fol¬
lowing example:
1-fax) 1 (1—x+xx—xxx, &c.
i+x
+XX
-faxx-faxxx
—xxx
+XXXX, &C. 8
If a quantity is multiplied into itfelf any number of Roots and
times, the produtts are faid to be the powers of that Powersvvhat
quantity, which is called the root, with refpett to them.
The powers are diftinguifhed by the names of fquare;
cube, or third power; biquadrate, or fourth power; fur-
folid, or fifth power; cube fquared, or fixth power, &c.
and are thus wrote; a11, or fimply a, the radical quan¬
tity; <7%. or a fquared, or multiplied into itfelf; «3, a
cubed, or the fquare of a multiplied by a; a*, figni-
fying the fquare of a multiplied by itfelf, &c. The mul- 9
tiplying a quantity by itfelf any number of times is cal-
led involving that quantity to a certain height, the fign tjon<
of which is <sy; and if the root of an involved quantity
is required, the operation by which it is found is call¬
ed evolution, and is expreffed by the fign m.
Involution of a limple quantity is performed merely
by writing it down with a figure above ; as a%, a6, a7,
&c. expreffing the height of the power to which it is
F f 2 involved.
2,28
ALGEBRA.
Sea. I.
Elementary
Rules.
involved. Thefe figures are named the indices, or ex¬
ponents of the powers. Involution of compound quan¬
tities is performed by continual multiplication; but any
root, confifting of only two terms, fuch as a-\-b, or a—b,
(the firft of which is called a binomial, and the fecond
a rejidual root) taay be involved to any height, by the
following rule.
The power muft always confift of one term more
than is exprefled by its index : that is, if it is requi¬
red to raife a-\-b to the fquare, the power will confift
of three terms; if to the cube, of 4 terms; to the
biquadrate, of 5 ; to the furfolid, of 6, &c. The firft
and laft terms are both pure powers, without any coef¬
ficients, the one of the firft and the other of the laft
term of the root, the indices of both which exprefs
the height of the power. Thus, if I am to involve
a-^b to the fixth power, the firft term muft be a6, and
the laft b6. In the intermediate terms the index of a
decreafes, and that of b gradually increafes, till it at¬
tains the fame height that a had at firft. The letters
of the 6th power of a-\-b, therefore, without their co¬
efficients, will Hand thus:
at+aSb+a'b'+an'+a'b'+abS+b6.
To find the coefficients, multiply the index of any
term into its coefficient, and divide by the number of
terms; the quotient is the coefficient of the term im¬
mediately following. In the firft term, the coefficient,
though not exprefted, is fuppofed to be 1. This mul¬
tiplied by 6 the index, and divided by the number of
terms 1, quotes & for the coefficient of the fecond
term, which therefore is 6asb%. multiplying then the
index 5, by this coefficient 6, and dividing by 2, the
number of terms, I have 15 for the coefficient of the
third, and the term is i$a*b*. Proceeding in this man¬
ner, I find the power required, to be
«6+6«!£+I5tf4^+20^3+i5^44.6^r+£6.
The refidual root, a—b, is involved by the very
fame rules ; only the figns, inftead of being conftant-
ly ft-, are + and — alternately; and thus the 6th
power of a—b will be
2oa^3+i 5a'b*-6abs+b6.
If the root confifts of three or more terms, no rule
can be formed by which the quantity can be fo eafily
involved to the required height, as continual multipli¬
cation ; becaufe there are fuch a number of terms, and
the letters are fo intermingled with one another, that it
would be difficult to remember the numerous directions
neceflary in fuch a cafe: nor do fuch tedious multi¬
plications often occur; but where they do, it is proper
to range the product according to the number of times
that a certain letter is repeated in every term, which
is called the ranging it according to the dimenjions of
that letter. Thus, fuppofe I am to raife a-\-b-{-c to the
cube: by multiplying it twice, I find the product to be
a'i-)r/))a7'b-\-'})a1c-\-6abc-ir,3)ab1-\-i)aci-\-‘3)btc-\-‘$bc1-{-b'i-\-ci
This-long line is exceedingly confufed, and difficult
to be comprehended at one view ; but by ranging it
according to. the dimenfions of any of its letters, is
much more plain and intelligible: according to the di¬
menfions of the letter a, it ftands thus:
, , -\-6bc *
fl!+3^+f;4p
+3' +t.3
An Evolution, or the. extraction, of roots,, is proper¬
ly the folution of a certain kind of equations, it will
be more properly treated of, after the nature of equa¬
tions in general, and the methods of folving the more
Ample ones, are confidered.
In algebra, as in common arithmetic, fractions arife
from the divifion of quantities that are incommenfura-
ble to one another, or thofe of which the lefler will not
divide the greater without a remainder; but as the rules
for adding, fubtraCting, multiplying, &c. of algebraic
fractions are exaCtly the fame with thofe for performing
the fame operations on arithmetical ones, only making
allowance for the difference between adding, fubtraCt¬
ing, isc. letters, inftead of figures, we refer to the ar¬
ticle Arithmetic.
Hitherto we have only confidered fuch quantities as
muft be fuppofed always to have a politive or real ex-
iftence, and confequently can be expreffed by a certain
fymbol; but, befides thefe, there are other imaginary
quantities, the exiftence of which it is often neceffary
to fuppofe, though in faCt they have not, nor cannot
have, an exiftence. Thus, if I am required to find a
number which, multiplied into itfelf, will produce 16;
it is eafily found, and fuch a number may be expreffed
by a: but if I am required to find one, which, mul¬
tiplied by itfelf, will produce 15, it cannot be found by
any art, and confequently cannot be expreffed by a let¬
ter. Quantities of this kind are denominated, by al-
gebraifts, furds, or irrational ones; and have the fign
prefixed to them, which denotes their imaginary
exiftence. This fign denotes the extraction of a root;
and the different kinds of roots delired, are expreffed
by figures fet over it. Thus, l/, or limply y', denotes
that the fquare root is defired; 4/, the cube-root, &c.
Sometimes this fign is prefixed to a number, or to an al¬
gebraic feries which is capable of affording a true ra¬
tional root; but it then only denotes that the root hath
not been extracted, and confequently exifts as yet only
in idea. The prefixing this fign to any letter makes
no other difference with regard to addition, fubtrac-
tion, multiplication, or divifion, than’caufing the letter
reprefent' a different quantity than otherwife it would
have done, and fo muft be added or fubtraCted by
figns. Thus a added to a, makes 2a-, but a added to
\/a, is a-\-\la. Among themfelves furds are as eafily
managed as other quantities: for y’n+y'^ is an(i
</a—\/a is O', x/a+^y/a—2A/a, is 2A/a; /aXzb,
is 2b\fa-, &\/a-i-2A/a, is 4; lOj/ba-^-^i/b, is 2t/a,
&c.—In the multiplying furds by themfelves, or in¬
volving them, we need fometimes only throw away the
radical fign: thus i/a<s/ is a} but t/a®/ is a/a ;
-v/tf©-4 is d1, &c. When the root of any compound
quantity is fought, it muft, befides the radical fign,
have a line drawn over it, to denote that it is only to be
reckoned a fimple quantity; thus a/ab-\-dd, &c. In
cafes where irrational quantities of this kind occur, it
will be proper to put fome letter, as x, y, z, or any o-
ther not already ufed, for the furd, and let that fym¬
bol remain till the laft ftep of the operation, when the
true value may be fubftituted in its place.
Surds, like fraCtions, may be reduced to their leaft
terms ; or two unlike furd quantities may be reduced
to two having the fame denomination. To reduce a
furd quantity to its loweft terms, a certain rational
root muft be found in it, multiplied by a furd; the root
muft be extracted according to the rules hereafter gi-
Elementary
Rules.
10
Stjrds, or
irrational
quantities.
Sea. II. ALGEBRA. 229
Equations, yen for evolution, and prefixed to the other quantity making one thing equal to another, or averting it to be Equations.
with the radical fign. Thus, though no number mul- fo, if the affertion is really true j and, in fad, it is by this 
tiplied into itfelf will produce 8, yet fuch an imagi¬
nary quantity may be exprelfed otherwife than by ^/8}
for 8 contains the number 4, which is a perfed fquare,
and produced by multiplying 2 into itfelf. -y'B there¬
fore is reduced to -v/qX-v/z : but one of thefe is a per¬
fed fquare; and therefore ^4X^/2 is 2^/2, which is
the furd in its loweft terms. In like manner, 4^/28
is v/4xV/7 or> 2^7; 4/18 is \/gX\/2, or 3^/2.
The fame rule holds in algebraic quantities. */\azb
is £rauy.»Sb, or 2a*Sb‘, */ifC^b1 is 5
which being both complete fquares, the furd is redu¬
ced to 2aY.b, or lab.
This method of reducing furds is often very conve¬
nient for bringing them into lefs compafs, fo as to facili¬
tate their addition or fubtradion. Thus -^/i 8+^32,
being reduced to their leaft terms, become 3-v/2+4V/2,
or 7^2 ; and y'8^J+-v/50^1—is reduced to
2«v/2+,5^v/2—6«^/2, ox a\/2 ; »/i2alx-\-A/']5azx,
becomes la^^x+jax/^x, or la^/^x, 8cc.
Surds are reduced to the fame denomination, by
involving them to a proper height; but in order to
underhand this the more readily, it is proper to take
notice, that in any feries of powers, as a, a1, a1, a*,
a5, a6, &c. the addition of the indices is equivalent to
the involution of the power, and the fubtradion of the
very fimple operation that the moft abftrufe and diffi¬
cult algebraic problems are refolved. The method of
noting down equations, or making the affirmation of
equality, is by writing down the two quantities, with
the fign of equality, between them ; and the quan¬
tities are then called the two different fides of the equa¬
tion. Thus, that is, the fum of a and £ is
equal to the third quantity c, where a-\-h are one fide
of the equation, and c is the other: 4+5—6=3. Here,
44-5—6 are one fide, and 3 is the other fide, of the
equation.
It is needlefs to obferve, that no problem can be re¬
folved by making falfe equations, or affirming a thing
to be equal to what it is not: but tho’ this will never
be done intentionally, it is very often done by miftake j
and to prevent miftakes of this kind, it will be always
neceffary to keep in view the following felf-evident
axioms.
1. If equal quantities are added to equal quantities,
the fums will be equal. Thus, if a bottle contains a
gallon of water, and a caflc contains another gallon ;
if a third gallon is poured into the bottle, and a fourth
one into the calk, there will be equal quantities of wa¬
ter in the bottle and the calk.
2. If equal quantities are fubtra&ed from, multi¬
indices is equivalent to the divifion of the powers by plied into, or divided by, equal quantities; the remain-
one another. Thus, by fubtracting the index 4 from 7
in the powers a4 and a1, there remains «3; which is
the quotient of a1 divided by a4 ; as is evident from
dividing aaaaaaa by aaaa. In like manner, the divi-
fion of the indices anfwers to the extraction of the
root : thus, to divide the index of a6 by 2, is the fame
ders, produCts, or quotients, will be equal.
In conformity to thefe axioms, it is plain, that an
algebraift may do what he pleafes with his equations,
provided he does the fame thing with both fides of
them : thus, if a—\, I may then fay 20=8, 7^=28,
a—4=4—4=0; or a-i-2=2, ^-t-4 = i, a-i-SerOjy, &c.
thing as to extra£1 its fquare root; to divide it by 3, is where everyone of thefe equations is as true as the firft;
/ the fame thing as to extracl its cube root; the quotients
being and a’1, anfwering to the powers and aa.
This divifion cannot go farther in rational quantities,
than that of 2 the index of the fquare by itfelf. The
quotient is 1, which is the index of >>/az, being a1, or
fimply a. The fquare or cube root of a.y then, muff
be expreffed by a divifion of its index 1, by 2 or 3,
and may be wrote d*, aT, as well as */a and j/a.
When furds are to be reduced to the fame denomina¬
tion, it will be moft proper to write them with thefe
fractional indices; the fradions have then only to be
reduced to a common denominator, according to the
rules of arithmetic : and thus, a* and aJ will become
and a6. This reduction is convenient when furds
are to be multiplied or divided by one another. For
example ; fuppofe I was to multiply the two above-
mentioned furds into one another, no more is neceftary
than to add the two indices together, after having re¬
duced them to a common denominator, and the pro¬
duct is 0s; which intimates, that the produCl of y'a
into 4/3 is equivalent to ; y'a and ^3 will
become 2s and 3^, or %/il and ^3% which is 4/8
and \/g; multiplied togetlier, they become 4/72, &c.
Sect. II. Equations, or the application of the
n foregoing general rules to the folutim of various
JheTemf °f ki™S °f PrMe™S-
equation. The word equation implies no more than fimply the
becaufe what is done to one fide of the equation is like-
wife done to the other : but if I either add, fubtraCt,
multiply, or divide, one fide, without doing fo to the
other, I evidently affirm a falfehood ; for if «=4, then
it is plain that if I multiply one fide by 2, and only add
2 to the other, I make 2a—6, or fay that twice four is
fix.
As there is no fcience whatever wherein people are
more liable to miftake, and to perplex themfelves, than
algebraic operations, it will be very proper for young
algebraifts to number the fteps of their operation, and
on the left-hand margin to mark what is done in each
ftep, that a more full and diftinft view of the whole
may be at once obtained, and any miftake more eafily
corre&ed, as in the following example.-
-6
\Y.~2
2+b
2a—12
la+b—
2-\-b
6 \
=144, &c.
Here the figures on the margin denote what is done
with each preceding ftep, or equation ; 1X2 denotes
that the firft equation is multiplied, not by the fecondr
equation, but by the number 2; which, for this reafon,
has a line drawn over it: 2-\-b fignifies, that b is added
to both fides of the fecond equation: 2-r-i fignifies,
that both fides of the fecond equation are divided by
both fides of the firft: 2©-% that both fides of the
fecond equation are involved to the fecond power or
fquare
230
ALGEBRA.
Se&. II.
Equations, fquare, Sec.
In all equations there are fome quantities fuppofed
to be known, and others unknown : the defign of the
equation is to difcover the value of the unknown quan¬
tities ; in order to which they muft be compared with
thofe quantities which are known ; for if the equation
confifts only of unknown quantities, it is impoffible to
,4 know any thing about them.
Reduftion Thq end propofed in every equation is to place the-
of equations unknown quantities all by themfelves bn one fide of the
equation, and the known ones by themfelves on the
other: when this is done, the equation is faid to be
t; reduced, and the operation is at an end.
Bv tranfpo- Equations may be reduced, (i.) By addition and
fuion. fubtrattion ; or, as it is commonly called, by tranfpo-
fition. This is performed by adding to, or fubtrafting
from, both fides of the equation, a quantity with which
it is encumbered, and which tends to obfcure the true
meaning. Thus, ; here the unknown quan¬
tity x is combined, by addition, with 6 a known one;
which 1 want to get clear of, that I may know the pre-
cife value of x. For this purpofe I make an equation of
6=6, which I fubtraft from the former, and the work
Hands thus.
1 x+6=7
2 6 =6
Here I find the true value of x, becaufe it Hands
alone upon one fide, and a known quantity Hands a-
lone on the other. It is evident alfo, that if, infiead of
writing down the equation 6=6, I only change the
fign of the known quantity, and carry it over to the
other fide of the equation with the fign fo changed,
the event will be the fame; for, if x-|-6=7, then un¬
doubtedly x=7—6, or 6=7—x. It is a rule, there¬
fore, in algebra, That whatever quantity is carried over
from one fide of an equation to another, mufi have its
fign changed, whether it was ~b or —, and whether
the quantity be known or unknown; it will then pro¬
duce the effefts of a pofitive or negative quantity,
among thofe to which it is carried, according as the
fign is changed from — to -f-, or from + to —. Sup-
pofe the following equation given,
| i I 3x+5=2x+6
1 2X 2 X+5=6
2—5 I 3 I *=I .
The reafon of this operation is obvious: for carry¬
ing over 2x with its fign changed, it meets with 3*,
which it defiroys as far as it can ; the remainder is then
only x, which being Hill combined with y, makes
the tranfpofition again neceffary, as in the former ex-
l6 ample.
By divifion. (2.) When the unknown quantity is combined with
any known one by multiplication, it is neceffary to divide
both fides of the equation by that quantity into which
the unknown one is multiplied. Thus, fuppofe 4x=20,
I cannot make x Hand alone upon one fide of the equa¬
tion, unlefs I divide 4.x by 4; the quotient is x : and
dividing the other fide alfo by 4, we have x=5. In
like manner, if 4X—2=8, then, by tranfpofition, 4*=
i? 8-)-2=io, and, by divifion, x=If=2,^, &c.
Bymultipli- (3.) If the unknown quantity is divided by any
cation. known one, both fides of the equation muH be multi¬
plied by that quantity which divides the unknown one,
in order to take away the fraftion, without which Equations,
tjae equation could not be conveniently reduced. With ““
regard to fraftional quantities, according to the rules
of arithmetic, it is the fame thing to multiply a frac¬
tion by its denominator, and merely to throw away
that denominator ; hence, if one fide of an equation is
divided by any quantity, and not another, it will be
fufficient to multiply by the dividing quantity that
fide of the equation which is not affefted by it. This
is equally evident with any of the former methods of
reduftion ; for if -=4, then it is plain, that x=8,,and
fo of others. If feveral fractional quantities occur in
one, or both fides of the equation, the fame ope¬
ration muH be repeated with every one of them, as
f d-5-|-i!f=:6; then x4-—+^=12 ; and 3X+2X, or
2 3 4 3 4
5x + ^==36, and 20x+6x=I44; whence, by divifion,
4
x=i44-^26=5,53 85, nearly.
(4.) Reduction by involution takes place when the *
unknown quantity is under the radical fign. In this
cafe, in order to come at its value, both fides of the
equation muH be involved to the power expreffed by
the index of the furd quantity, as ^*=4: then, x=i6,
by involving both fides of the equation to the fquare;
if 4/x=3, then x=27, &c.
Thefe are all the methods of reduction that are ap¬
plicable to Ample equations, or thofe where the un¬
known quantity is not multiplied by itfelf; in which
cafe, very different methods are to be ufed, which fiiall
be explained under quadratic, cubic, &e. equations :
we muH now take notice of the preliminary Heps ne¬
ceffary to be taken in order to the folution of an alge¬
braic problem. ,3
The firff thing to be done is to Hate the queHion, as Method of
it is called; or to write down in algebraic characters Hating or
what is before expreffed in the words at length. This aI.
will be moff eafily underltood by the following ex- gebraic pro-
ample. blem.
It is required to find a number, which being multi¬
plied by 5, and 8 fubtraCted from the produCt, the
remainder fhall be 52. As the thing here fought
is only one number, I put x, or any letter at pleafure,
for it: then, as the queHion intimates that the num¬
ber fought is multiplied by 5, and 8 fubtraCted from
the produCt; I do the fame with the letter taken to re-
prefent it; and find the remainder to be $x—8 : this
therefore, by the queHion, being equal to 52, I write
it down in algebraic characters, thus, jx—8=52. By \
tranfpofition 5x=52-4-8=60; and by divifion, x—6o-~
5 = 12, the number fought.
When only one thing is fought, generally the folu¬
tion of algebraic problems is not difficult; but when
two or more things are required to be difcovered, the
difficulty becomes proportionably greater. It is ne¬
ceffary, however, that where there are two or more
unknown quantities, there ffiould be data fufficient to
find them all out; becaufe queHions propofed without
fufficient data, cannot be refolved but in an indetermi¬
nate manner. Thus, if it be required to find two num¬
bers x and y, with this fingle condition, that their
fum ffiall be 100; it is evident, that the queHion is ca¬
pable of 99 different anfwers, each of which ffiall ful-
Sea. IT.
jEquations. fil the condition required; for x may be I ,and ^ 99 ; or
x maybe 2, and_y 98, &c. but if to the foregoing con¬
dition I add another, namely, that the difference of the
two numbers required is 50, the queftion is then pro¬
perly limited, and capable only of one direct anfwer.
If a third condition is required, fuppofe, that their pro-
du£t ihould be 740; this condition is either fuperfluPus,
becaufe the values of x and y may be found without it;
or abfurd, as being inconfiftent with the reft, it is
therefore a general rule in algebra. That where there
are two unknown quantities, the problem muft be laid
down in fuch a manner as to admit of two equations
being formed from it, which lhall neither be inconfiftent
with, nor confequences of, one another; for if this laft
is the cafe, it is the fame thing as tho* only one equa¬
tion were given: for inftance, if am required to find two
numbers whofe fum is 100, and double their fum 200,
this laft equation is only the firft one doubled ; and con-
i l9 fequently the queftion is ftill as unlimited as before.
iExtermina- For the folution of problems where two or more
,tion of un- quantities are concerned, there is one general rule
j which will certainly hold in all cafes, namely, to find
a value of each of the unknown quantities from each
of the equations, treating the other unknown quantity
exaftly as a known one. By this means we have two
fides of a new equation, where only one unknown
quantity is concerned, the other being exterminated,
as it is called, by the preceding operation; and it is
evident, that if the equations are confiftent with one
another, the value of the unknown quantity found by
one equation, will be precifely- equal to that found by
the other. We lhall illuftrate this by the preceding ex¬
ample, which,^ being ftated, will be x-f-_y=ioo, and
x—y—50. By tranfpofing the firft equation, we have
x~too—y, and by tranfpofing the fecond, x—^o+y ;
it is plain, that x, though an unknown quantity, muft
always be equal to itfelf; and therefore the values of
it obtained from both thefe equations will be equal to
one another ; of thefe therefore I form the new equa->
tion 100—_y—50+_>': by tranfpofition, we have firft
100=50+2)', and then JO—Zy ; whence, by divifion,
25=^, and 100—/, or 100—25=75=x,
The fame method is to be followed when there are
three, or four unknown quantities ^but the operation will
then be much more tedious ; becaufe, having formed
a new equation in which one quantity is exterminated,
we muft ftill continue to form new ones in order to ex¬
terminate the others, as in the following example.
It is required to find three numbers whofe fum is
130 ; if the third is multiplied by 3, and that produft
is fubtracted from the fum of the firft and fecond, the
remainder will be 10; if the firft is multiplied by 2,
the fecond by 3, thefe two produfts are added together,
and 15 fubtrafted from the fum, the remainder will be
7 times the third number.
Having put x, y, z, for the three numbers, the
queftion refolves itfelf into the following equations.
11 I x+y+z—1,30
2 x+y—3z=io
3 ! 2X+37—15=73
By tranfpofing the firft equation, we have x~i 30-—
* y—z; by tranfpofing the fecond, x=io+3z—y ; on
tranfpofing the third, and dividing by two, we have
x_7z±i5—3,y. Thefe thr
ee values of x muft necef-
23I
farily be equal to one another ; I therefore form a new Equations,
equation from the firft and third; then 130—-y—z— "
Reducing this equation by multiplication
and tranfpofition, it becomes y—<)z—245. To have
another value of y, I form a new equation from the
fecond and third values of x, or I might for the fame
purpofe make an equation of the firft and fecond va¬
lues of x ; this will be 10+32—Re¬
ducing this equation in the fame manner as before,
we have _y=z—5. We muft now form a third equation
from the two values of y already found; and thus we
will have 93—245=2 — 5 ; from whence, by tranfpofi¬
tion and divifion, we have z—$0. 20
In the fame manner we might now proceed to find Extermfra-
the values of the other unknown quantities: but it is t'onty fub-
evident, that though this method muft infallibly anfwer, ^'tution‘
a great deal of needlefs trouble is occafioned by it in
the prefent cafe ; for, if, inftead of finding the three
values of x, I only find one from the firft equation, and
fubftitute that in place of the letter x in the fecond,
the quantity^ will be exterminated at once. The va¬
lue of x from the firft equation is x=i30—y—z, the
fecond equation is x+y—33=10; writing therefore in¬
to this equation, 130—y—z, in place of x, we have
130—y—z+y—32=10, where the pofitive and nega¬
tively deftroy one another, and the equation becomes
130—42=10; whence, 42=120, and 2=30. But it
is plain, that the remarkable fuccefs of this fubftitution >
depends entirely upon the circumftance of a {fugle y in
the fecond equation ; for had there been 2y there, the
fame advantage would not have been derived from fol¬
lowing this method: There can therefore be no rules
laid down for obtaining the folution of algebraic pro¬
blems in the moft eafy manner'poffible; thefe muft de¬
pend on the particular circumftances of each problem ;
and hence there is no fcience where the rational facul¬
ties and ingenuity are put to a greater ftretch than in
algebra, and no branch of education is more proper
for producing a quicknefs of underftanding, provided
the algebraift does not lofe himfelf in the depths of his
fcience, in which cafe he will be quick-lighted only to
•algebra itfelf.
As fo much difficulty is occafioned by a number of
unknown quantities, it will feldom be proper to ftate
a queftion with two unknown quantities, where one will
anfwer the purpofe, though fometimes the unknown
quantities may be made to difappear furprifingly, by
proper management. On fome occafions, inftead of
chufing a Angle letter to reprefentan unknown quanti¬
ty, it will be proper to exprefs it by a fum, or a dif¬
ference ; as x+y, or x—y. As an example, we (hall
give three methods of folving the former problem,
“ Required to find two numbers whofe fum is 100, and
difference 50.” With one unknown quantity, the quef¬
tion is ftated in the following manner.
11 j x= the leaft number fought.
2, | 100—x= the greateft
3 ! IOO—2X=50= their difference by queftion
3-f2X j 4 | IOO=5Q+2X
4—5° Ji 50=2x
6 25=x the leaft number fought
I 7 [ 100—x=i00—25=75, t^e greateft number
With two unknown quantities this may be folved o-
thervvife
ALGEBRA.
2$2
Equations,
Quadratic
equations.
algebra.
Sea. IT.
3+4
5^-2
3-4
7-5-2
therwife than by forming a new equation, thus:
x= greateft number
y~ leafl;
-50 ^ queftion
2X=I50
*=75
2y-5°
. _ , ^=25
Reprefenting one of the numbers by a fum, and the
other by a difference, the work will ftand thus:
x-\-y=- greateft number
x—-y— leafl
2x —100, 7 ^ quefiion
2^=50 3
x^so
y=2s
«+y-75
x—y=25
1+23
i-2|4
3-t2 j 5
4^2 6
7
I 8
Though this problem is fo eafily refolved by all the
three methods, that it is difficult to fay which has the
advantage; yet it is fufficient to fhew the prodigious
diverfity of operation that mull occur in the folution of
algebraic problems, according as we ufe different me¬
thods. The laft method is exceedingly proper, where
equations have to be multiplied into one another, which
is the origin of quadratic, cubic, and other high equa¬
tions, of which we are now to treat.
If an equation is multiplied into itfelf once, the
produce is another equation, which is as ftriftly juft
as the former: but after having reduced it by all the
methods propofed for the reducing fimple equations,
and having brought the unknown quantities to one
fide, and the known ones to the other, we are ftill
at a lofs; becaufe the unknown quantity being mul¬
tiplied into itfelf, we know not what relation it bears
to the known one. Thus, if the equation a—\2 is
multiplied once into itfelf, the produce is 144;
where the unknown quantity cannot be difeovered till
we know what number multiplied into itfelf will pro¬
duce 144. The above equation is one of that kind call¬
ed quadratic equations; and, from its confifting only of
the literal quantity multiplied into itfelf, is called a fim¬
ple quadratic: but if we multiply the equation 11+3—15
once into itfelf, theprodudt is 4-6^-f 9=225 ; and re¬
ducing this by tranfpoiition, we have a2+6a=2i6,
where the literal quantity is not only multiplied by it¬
felf, but by the number 6. This addition is called the
affeftion of an equation, and the laft mentioned one is
of that kind called quadratic affefted equations.
It is not to be fuppofed that any perfon would pro¬
duce equations of this kind by multiplying fuch fimple
ones as thofe above mentioned; but very often the cir-
cumftances of the queftion oblige him to ftate them
in this manner, or they are unavoidably multiplied in
the courfe of the operation. Thus, fuppofe it is required
to find two numbers whofe fum is 100, and produdt
1875; by the common method, we have x+y—ioo, and
xy=i8'J5. From the firft equation x=ioo—y, and from
thefecond x=-1 — -; whence 100-^=1875-^. Edu¬
cing this, we have loqy—^=1875. We do not get
clear of this difficulty by ufing only one unknown quan¬
tity ; for putting x for the one, and 100—x for the q-
ther, we come at once to the equation 1 oox—x*=l 875.
Neither is it to be totally avoided by making x+j=
one of the numbers, and x—-_y=the other; thus indeed,
by the queftion, we have 2x=ioo, and xz—;
whence, by fubftituting the value of x, we have^*=625;
fo that, though the equation is now only a fimple qua¬
dratic, we mull ftill remain ignorant of the value of y,
till we know what number multiplied into itfelf will
produce 625. Here, however, we fee the utility of
fometimes reprefenting unknown quantities by a fum
and a difference.
We have already obferved, that, when literal powers
are to be divided by one another, the divifion is
perfomed by fubtra&ing their indices. The extrac¬
tion of their roots, in like manner, is performed by
dividing their indices by 2, 3, 4, &c. according as
we want the fquare, cube, or biquadrate root; fo,
if required to; find the fquare root of a8, I divide
its index 8 by 2, the quotient a* is the root re¬
quired. If the root of any feries of terms is requi¬
red, as of x1+6x+g, we muft proceed to find it
by fnppofing it to be a+b. This root we involve
to the fquare, and then make the following equa¬
tion al+2ab+bi—x7‘+6x+g. From this it is evident,
that if correfponds with xz, 2ab muft correfpond
wnth 6x, and b* to 9: therefore, as x is the firft term of
the root, and correfponds with a, 6 the coefficient of x
muft correfpond with 2b the coefficient of a. Dividing,
therefore, the coefficient of x in the feeond term by 2,
the quotient 3 is the fecond term of the root, and the
fquareTOot of xz+6x+9 is x+3- Hence we have an
eafy rule for completing an imperfeft fquare, viz. to
take half the coefficient of the unknown quantity, mul¬
tiply it by itfelf, and add it to both fides of the equa¬
tion, which will then be exadt fquares. Thus the af-
fefted quadratics are eafily reduced to fimple ones, as
in the following example. Suppofe, xz+14^=32, then
taking the half of 14 or 7, multiplying it by itfelf, and
adding it to both fides of the equation, we have xz-f-i4x
-4-49=81. From the foregoing example we are fure
that the root of the literal part is x-47, and from the
multiplication table we know that 9 multiplied into it¬
felf produces 81. Extracting the root on both fides,
therefore, we have x-47=9; whence x=2.
As long as the root of the number fought does not
exceed fome of the 9 digits, there is no difficulty; but
fuppofing it to confift of many places of figures, a te¬
dious operation is required, which will be beft under-
ftood by an example. Suppofe the following equation
is given; x^zqSyqftq, I take x=«H-£; whence xz=«*
+2ab+bi, which confequently muft be equal to the
number given. The extraction of the root is now fa¬
cilitated by the following confideration, that no digit
multiplied into itfelf can produce more than two places
of figures. To afeertain the number of places there¬
fore in the root of the abovementioned number, I place
a point over every third figure, beginning at the right
hand, and the equation will ftand thus:
a'l+2ab+b'l=2g85g8^.
Hence I conclude, that the root required muft con¬
fift of 4 places of figure's, or be above 1000. I next
confider what digit multiplied into itfelf will produce
the neareft fquare under 2, the firft figure of the power.
Had the point been placed over the fecond figure, I
muit
Sea. II. ' ALGEBRA.
Equations. n?bll have confidered what digit multiplied into itfelf
®— would have produced the neareft fquare under the firft
two figures. In the prefent cafe, I find it to be i. I
therefore fuppofe iooo; multiply it by itfelf, and
fubtraft it from the power, in the following manner:
ai-'r2ab-\-bz—l<)%59%4.(lcoo—a
d1 =1000000
2^+^=1985984
It now appears, that if this remainder was divided
by la-^b, the quotient muft be b; for 2a-\-b'-Ab—2ab\-
bb. But as b is ftill unknown, I muft firft proceed
with ia, as in common divifion : but as it has fome-
thing to be added, I muft have regard to this in cha¬
fing the quotient figure ; therefore, though in common
divifion I might chufe 8 for the quotient, I only chufe
7, a being =1000, 2<7=2000; and to find the other
term b, the work will ftand thus:
2<Z=2000X
. b— 700 y
2.7+^=2700/_
[985984 ( 700=3
[890000 =2tf3+33
95984
To find the-other figures of the root, I'muft now
fuppofe (7=i 700; in which cafe, the former a2+2+.+/;3
will now only be equivalent in value to ax, and 95984
=2(73+3:s. The operation is now to be repeated ; a
being 1700, za is 3400; which I fet as a new divifor,
and proceed as follows:
2tf=3400'\
b— 20 J
2(7+3=3420/
95984 ( 20=3
684OO =2(73+3*
27584 _
I now make a third fuppofition, of (7=1720,
proceed as before ; thus,
*
and
2«=344°\
3= 8 J
2(7+3=3448/
27584 (8=3
27584 =2(73+3*
o
Here there being no remainder, use find 1728 to be
the true root of the number required ; and if the above
example is attended to, the reafons of the arithmetical
- rules given for extra&ing roots will be fufficiently un-
derftood. See Arithmetic.
Cubic cqua- If the equations are multiplied into themfelves twice,
tions. the produce is called a cubic equation; and, like the
quadratic, is either fimple, or affefted: thus, x3=I728
is a fimple cubic; x%—io3i:*+3x=997474, x3+iox=
104, &c. are cubic affe&ed equations.
The folution of fimple cubic equations, or the me¬
thod of extracting the cube root, will eafily be under-
ftood by an example of the fame kind with that by
which we illuftrated the extradtion of the fquare root.
If the cube root of any fimple algebraic power is re¬
quired, it is found by dividing the index of that power
by 3, as already obferved. If of any feries, the root
muft be fuppofed =(7+3, as before; then, this involved
to the cube, or (73+3.(7*3+3(?3*+33, will be equal to the
cube propofed. Let it be required to find the cube root of
x3+i8x*+io8.y+2 16. Here, taking (7+3= the root
required, and involving it to the cube, we have (73+3(7*3
+3(73*+33=k3+i8x'* + io8\'+2i6. From infpection,
it is evident, that if a3 correfponds to x3, 3(7*3 muft cor-
Vol. I.
refpond to i8x*, and confequently that 3=184-3=6, Equa
the root of the cube required therefore muft be x+6.
By attentively confidering this, we may eafily fee
how an algebraic cube can be completed. Let us fup¬
pofe the equation x3+6x*=32 given, and it is required
to complete the cube. Here it is plain that 3=2, and
confequently that the cube which wants the terms equi¬
valent to 3(73’' and 33 will be completed by adding them.
As 3=2, they are eafily found to be I2x+8 ; and ad¬
ding thefe to both fides of the equation, we have x3+
6x*+i2x+8=40+i2x. Both fides of this equation
are complete cubes; but it is impoffible to reduce an
affefted cubic equation by completing its cube, as we
reduce a quadratic equation by completing its fquare :
the reafon is, becaufe the fquare confifts but of three
terms ; if it wants the third, that can always be made
up from the known quantity with which the unknown
one is multiplied in the fecond; if it wants both the fe-
cond and the third, it is a complete fquare; but in a
cube which confifts of four terms, the unknown quan¬
tity enters into them all except the laft; and therefore,
if any other than the laft .is wanting, the unknown
quantity muft again be added to both fides of the equa¬
tion, as in the la.ft example. Some cafes may indeed
occur, as the following, where the cube can be advan-
tageoufly completed. Suppofe the following equation
is given; x3+i2.v*+48x=448. As thefe terms aree-
quivalent to (73+3(7*3+3(73% and only want 33 to make
it complete, we need only take the third of the coeffi¬
cient of the fecond term, and, involving it to the cube,
add it to both fides of the equation, .which will then
be x3+12x*+48x+64=5I2. Byextraftingthe root,we
have x+4=8, and x=4. Inftances of this kind, however,
occur fo rarely, that we fhould not have mentioned this
had it not been to fhew the reafon why cubic equations
cannot be folved on the fame principles with quadratics.
If the cube root of a large number is to be extract¬
ed, the principles are the fame with thofe on which
the extraction of the fquare root depends, but the ope¬
ration is more tedious. Let it be required to find the
cube root of 5832. Taking (7+3= the root required, as
before: we have then (73+3(7*3+3(73*+33=5 8 3 2. The
number of places in the root muft be determined by
points, as in the extraction of the fquare root; but for
the cube they muft be placed at the interval of two fi¬
gures from one another, becaufe the cube of fome of
the digits extends to three places of figures. I then
chufe the digit which produces the cube next lefs than
that of the firft one, two, or three figures of the- re-
folvend, according as the point happens to fall, for the
fignificant figure of a, annexing to it as many cyphers
as there are places of figures in the root; then having
cubed this and fubtra&ed it, I take 3(7* for a divifor,
multiplying it by 3, and adding ^ab1, and 33, thus :
(73+3(753+3(73*+33= 5 8 3 2/io=(7
(?3= 1000V 8=3
3(7*=3oo) 4832
3(7*3= 2406
3(73*= 1920
33= 512
3(7*3+3(73*+33=4832
o
Gg
Here
234 A L G E B
Equations. Here 18 is the root required ; but had there been a 5=3
remainder, a mull have been taken =180, and the o-
peration repeated. The finding of b is attended with
much more difficulty in the cube than in the fquare,
on account of the great additions to be made; and the y
higher the powers, the greater is this difficulty: but as 8+3 8y
it is evident that an algebraic theorem will be fufficient —
dire&ion for the extraction of every root, however high
the power may be involved, we ffiall take no farther
notice of the evolution of fimple powers; only that all
powers whofe indices are multiples of 2 and 3, may be
evolved by repeated extractions of the fquare or cube
roots : thus, if I want the biquadrate root of any
power, it is obtained, by extracting the fquare twice ;
if the root of the fixth power, it may be had by extrac¬
ting the fquare thrice, or the cube twice; of the 8th
power, by extracting the fquare four times; of the 9th
power, by extracting the cube root thrice, Sec.; but the
roots of the 5th, 7th, and 11th powers, can only be had
by following an algebraic theorem conftruCted on pur-
2 3 pofe for themfelves.
Different 0- Hitherto we have confidered cubic and other high
rigins of equations as originating from a continued multiplica-
y—y 220—y
y-8360—38r_
y
y% ^*”8360 38/
y3—•^i-4-389'=:836o
By a little variation in the terms of this queftion, a
cubic equation, in which the third term is wanting, may
be produced. Suppofe two numbers^x andy, are requi¬
red, of which 200 divided by the fecond may equal the
firft; and the fquare of the fecond may be equal to 3 8
times the firft -|- the fecond. Here,
200 ■)
by queftion.
Sett. II.
Equations.
3^38
5X7
lionsC<1Ua" t'on one ftmple equation into itfelf; but their moft
common original is from the multiplication of three or
more different equations into one another. Thus, if
we multiply the equations x+i~5, x—3=i> x+2=6,
into one another, the cubic equation x3—yx—6=30,
and by tranfpofition x3—will be produced.
Here it is obfervable, that this equation wants the fe¬
cond term, becaufe fome of the numbers combined
with x are negative, and others pofitive, and the nega¬
tive and pofitive ones are exaCtly equal to one another.
y‘=^x+y
y2—y=38x
200
’ y~
—~20O
38 '
y2—y_
38
38
J3—yi—']6oo
If the fimple equations, or roots, of which a cubic
or other high equation is compofed, are of fuch a na¬
ture that one of them deftroys itlelf and becomes =0, a
new fpecies of cubic will arife, which is capable of three
different folutions, and confequently a kind of indeter¬
minate problem. If the equation is a biquadratic, it
will have four folutions of this kind, of the fifth power
five, and fo on, the number of folutions always being
ejcpreffed by the index of the power. This does not
Had the negative quantity been either greater or lefs ^iold, however, in any other kind of equations than
than the two pofitive ones, all the three terms would
have remained in the produft; and hence, when we
fee a cubic equation without the fecond term, we may
know that the pofitive and negative quantities combi¬
ned with x in the fimple equations, or roofs, from which
it is formed, have been exa&ly equal to one ano •
ther.
Cubic equations in which the third term is wanting
arife from the multiplication of a fimple quadratic by
xr+ri,xr±z2, x=t=3, &c. thus xzXx—i=x3—xs; xJX
x+2=x3+2x% &c..
We have already obferved, that the higher equations
are produced by the terms of a queftion which fecretly
oblige us either to ftate it in equations already involved,
or to involve them when we attempt their redudlion.
An example or two, we apprehend, will here be proper.
Let it be required to find two numbers, of which, if
the fecond is fubtrailed from 220, and the remainder
divided by the unknown number, the quotient will be
the firft number; alfo, if the fecond is multiplied by it¬
felf, and the original number fubtrafted from the pro-
duift, it will be 38 times the firft.
the one .number,,
yxz the other,
220—y
4 j=38x
4+38 i? iy—T
by queftion.
thofe where one of the original ones deftroys itfelf; as
will appear from the following examples.
If we multiply the equations x4-i=5, x—1=4, and
x—4=0, into one another, we will produce the cubic
equation, x3—4X*—x+4^0; or, by tranfpofition, x3
—4xJ—x=—4. Here, x may either be -f-i, —1,
or 4; for if either of thefe are fubftituted in place
of x, it anfwers the terms of the queftion. If x=i,
then x3=i; —4xJ=—4, and—x=—1; and x3—4X*
— x=i—4—X=—4. Ifxcc—1, then x3=—1; —4X*
=—4, and—x—-f-i, according to the rules of fub-
tradtion; confequently x3—-qx2—x——1—4+1=—4
as the equation imports. Laftly, if x=4; then x3—
4X2,—x—64.—64—4=—4, as in the other cafes. In
like manner, in the equation x3—9X*+26x:=24, the va¬
lue of x may be either 2, 3, or 4; for if x=2, then
x3 —9xJ-f26x=8—36+52=24; if x=3, then x3—9X*
+26x=2y—81+78=24 ; and if x=4, then x3—9x*+
26x=64—144+104=24 ; and fo of others.
But, when cubics are formed from the multiplication
of equations into one another, all of which have fome
pofitive value, it is evident, that then they can only have
one true folution: and the reafon is plain; becaufe, when
any of the equations deftroys itfelf, it likewife diftroys
the value of .all the reft, and the whole becomes =0;
and were it not that algebra can reprefent imaginary
beings as well as real ones, there could be nothing to
work upon in fuch a cafe. In fuch equations, the ab-
folute number which conftitutes their value is obtained
from the continual multiplication of the known quan¬
tities combined with x into one another ; or the laft
terra
Sea. II.
ALGEBRA.
Equation?, term tranfpofed. Thus in the firft example, x3—4X* —60. Here, becaufe the fign is negative, I fuppofe
—; —x+4=o, the number +4 is formed by the multipli- x=a+^, the third part of the coefficient of the fecond
2©-3
term, and fubftitute this inftead of x into all the terms
of the equation, in the following manner:
i2x*+47x=—60 by queft.
r«+4 by fuppofition.
=«3+12^+48^-64
-I2X*=S—12^* 96<7—192
47x=: +47^+188
—12x®+47x=i23—«+6o
—a-^60——60
a3—a——
cation of+i, —I, and—4, wherewith x was combined,
into one another; for + iX— 1—i,=and—iX—4=1+4,
according to the rules of multiplication. It is not pof-
fible, therefore, but that what has multiplied, muft alfo
divide; and as the taking x—4=0 deftroys all the pro-
du£t on the other fide which alone could have truly li- 2®.* and X—12
mited the value of x, it is the fame thing as though 2X47
we had taken x—1=0, x+i=o, and x—4=0, and 2+4+5
multiplied them all into one another, or given X three 1=6
different values originally. 7^-60
We lhall evidently fee the difference betwixt the From this example it will eafily appear when the af-
two fpecics of cubics juft now mentioned, by another fumed value of x ought to be a binominal, and when
example. The equations, x—2=1, x—1=2, and x a refidual, and the deftroying the fecond term of any
+2=5, produce the following; x3—x2—4x+4=io, equation can never be a matter of difficulty: but the
or by tranfpofition, x3—x2—4x=6. Here, as the num- deftruftion of the third term, it is plain, muft de-
ber 6 is not produced by the multiplication of I, pend upon quite other principles; for as its fign re-
—2, and +2, into one another, the value of x muft be mains always + whether the root is binomial or refi-
different from any one of them: and it is found to be dual, it cannot be deftroyed by any addition of a po-
fo upon trial; for fuppofing x— 1, then x3 x2 4X fitive; and as it is alfo generated from all the three fteps
='—1 —1+4=2. If x——2, then x3 x2—4x= 8 0f the new fubftitution, it is impoffible to calculate
^.+ 12—0. If x=+2, then x3—>x2—4x=+8—4—12 matters fo as to make the pofitive and negative terms
=—8: but neither of thefe are agreeable to the terms at all times to deftroy one another. In the laft exam-
of the queftion; therefore x is neither —x, — 2, nor pie, indeed, they have done fo very nearly ; and if the
+2. But if we take x=3, then x3—x2—qx= 27—9 equation had been a3—I2x2+48x=—55, they would
— 12=6, according to the queftion; and this is there- have done fo altogether, and the equation would have
fore the only true value of x. _ become a3=—125; but this is evidently a mere acci-
Solution of Having thus explained at large the origin of all the dent.
high cqoa- different kinds of high equations that can poffibly oc- A method of deftroying the third term of cubics
tions. cur (for what is faid of cubics, applies equally to Bi- as well as the fecond, has been invented by Cardan. It
quadratics, or thofe of any dimenfioh whatever), we is very laborious: however, it fliews in an eminent man-
muft now give fome; account of the different methods ner the powers of algebra, and how much a dextrous
of obtaining an exa& folution of them with as little management of literal quantities may conduce to the
trouble as poffible. A ready method of doing this hath refolution of problems utterly impoffible to be folved
always been reckoned a defideratum in algebra, and without them.
indeed is likely .to continue fo. From what we have Before this method can be followed, the fecond term
already faid, we hope it will be evident why a cube can- muft be deftroyed as we have ffiewn above ; then x
not be completed in a manner fimilar to that of com- muft be fuppofed =y+z, and we proceed as in the fol-
pleting the fquare in quadratic equations ; another me- lowing example,
thod hath therefore been chofen, namely, of deftroying
the fecond and third terms, and thus reducing the af¬
fected cube to a fimple one.
D«ftru£lion deftrudtion of the fecond term is eafily effected,
of the fe- and may be underftood from the following confidera-
yond term, tions. (1.) In every cube whofe root is a binomial, or
expreffible by the figns are all + ; thus the cube
of i7+fc=73+3<z2+i-„3(z£2+£3. (2.) In a refidual root,
or a—b, the figns of the cube are + and — alternately;
thus the cube of a—b=a^—^a1^b+^ab^—P. (3.) By
adding the cube of a binomial to the cube of a refidual,
the fecond and fourth terms always deftroy one another,
becaufe they have contrary figns; but the firft and third
remain, becaufe their figns are like, and they can only
be deftroyed by fubftradling the equations from one a-
nother: thus the fum of the two cubes of a-\-b, and a
—b, is zP+Cab1; their difference is 6azb-\-2b3.
It hath already been obferved, that the coefficient of
the fecond term of any Cube is always equal to three
times the known quantity forming one part of the root;
as, if the root is «+/;, the coefficient of a2 in the fecond
term will be 3^; if the root is x+3, the coefficient of
the fecond teym will be +9 ; if it is x—3, the coeffi¬
cient will be —9, &c. Let it now be required to de¬
ftroy the fecond term of the equation x3—I2X2+47x=:
Difficulty ol
deftroying
the third
x3+7x=92 by queftion,
x=y+2 by fuppofition.
x 3 +>'3 +z3+$yzy.y-^z—j3+
3y2 2+3^22+23 ,
7X=7y+7z
3jz=—7 by fuppbfitioH.
y+zX3yz=—tj—72
x3=y3+23—-yy—72
x3+7x=y3+s3
>2=—7-f-3
y323=—343-t-27
4>,3z3= 1372-7-27
_y3+23=92
/+2/z5+26=8464
/--2y323+2rt=:8514,814
23=92,27575i
273=x 84,27575 I
y3=92,137876 _
7=4,5 nearly
223= 0,137876
23=—0,068938
z=— 0,5 nearly
7+2=4=x by fecond ftep.
In the above operation there is no difficulty, except
in the affuming 372=—7, after having determined
G g 2 7+2
\ 2®'3
2x7
6 fubftituted into 1
4+7
5-J-3
9®--
10X4
1 2©-2
13 —11
, 14ml2
12+15
16-7-2
I JUJU3
12-15
19-7-2
20UJJ3
a8
The product
of two num¬
bers not li¬
mited by
their fum.
236
Equations.
Why it wil
not always
Succeed.
Sir Ifaac .
Newton’s
inethod of
ALGEBRA.
Sed. II.
j>+z to be —x: but it muft be confidered, that the pro-
diwft of two numbers is by no means determined by
their fum ; for by making one of the numbers a frac¬
tion and the other an integer, by making one of them
pofitive, and the other negative, we may fix their pro¬
duct, or any number of times their produft, at what
we pleafe, without affecting their fum in the lead. But
we muft be careful, if we have once affumed a fum,
not to affume a difference alfo ; for that would deter¬
mine the unknown quantities. Thus, having affumed
j+z=x, we cannot affume y—z= any known quanti¬
ty, becaufe it might alter the value of y and z with
regard to x ; but though we affume any imaginable
product, we only alter the value of y and z with re¬
gard to one another, which is of no confequence.
From the above operation may be deduced a general
rule for the folution of all eubics to which this method
is applicable; which, as corre&ed by Mr Simfon, may
be expreffed in the following words. “ Multiply the
whole value of the equation by itfelf; divide the pro-
du£t by four; to the quotient add the cube of the
coefficient of x in the third term (the fecond being de-
ftroyed) divided by 27 ; extraft the fquarerootof this
fum, to which add half the value of the equation, and
extract the cube root of the whole. Divide, now, one
third of the coefficient of x by the root juft found;
fubtratt the quotient from the divifor, and the remain •
der is the value of x.” For the better underftanding
this theorem, in the foregoing example, x3+7.v=92,
let «=7, and £—92; then, the rule we have juft now
mentioned will ftand thus in algebraic charadters:
\a
Though this theorem feems capable of refolving every
kind of cubic equation, yet one unlucky circumftance
deftroys its utility in a great many cafes. For inftance;
let the equation x3—I2x=—9 be propofed. Here, ac¬
cording to the theorem, I multiply —9 by itfelf, the
produdt is -f-81; this, divided by 4 quotes, 20,25.
I now divide the cube of —12, or —1728, by 27; and
the quotient —64 added to +20,25, deftroys it en¬
tirely, and leaves a remainder of —44,25. From this
the fquare root ought to be extracted ; but this is im-
poffible, becaufe it is a negative quantity, and is form¬
ed neither from the multiplication of a pofitive in¬
to itfelf, nor of a negative into itfelf, but of a pofitive
into a negative. Here, therefore, the operation muft
ftop; and it is eafy from this example to fee when Car¬
dan’s method will fucceed, and when it will not.
Other methods have been invented of folving the
higher equations ; but all of them are exceffively labo¬
rious, and even precarious. A very ingenious method
was invented by Sir Ifaac Newton from finding the di-
vifors of the abfolute number by which the value of the
equation is exprefled 5. each of thefe was to be fubfti-
tuted In place of the unknown quantity, till fome of
them was found to anfwer the terms of the queftion.
It is eafily ftiown, indeed, that x muft always be a
divifor of this number, and thus equations may be hal¬
ved which could not be folved by Cardan’s method; of
which the laft-mentioned one x3—I2x=—9, is an in¬
ftance: for here, the only divifors of—9 are, +1, —1,
+3, — 3, and +9, —9; and fubftituting thefe fuccef-
fively in place of x, 3 will be found to anfwer, and is Equations,
the true value of x. Notwithftanding this advantage,
however, when the number is large, it is exceffively
tedious to fubftitute all the divifors; and indeed, as we
may eafily know within a figure or two of the true va¬
lue, perhaps we might fucceed as well by random trials
as any other way. The laft term, and confequently the
number of divifors, however, may be leffened by chan¬
ging the equation into another, wherein a binomial or
refidual root is put for the unknown quantity; thus, in
the equation^4—qy3—8^+32—o, if x+x be fubftitu-
ted for j/, it will become x4—rdx*—x6x+2i=:o.
Another very curious method is, inftead of fubftitu- Another
ting all the divifors of the laft term, to fubftitute fuc- method by
ceffively the terms of the arithmetical progreffion finding an
2, o, —1, —2, &c. with the numbers thence re- amhn+tical
fulting ; then find all the divifors of each of thefe amonl the
numbers, and write them down over againft the num- divifors.
ber they divide. This being done, fearch for one or
more arithmetical progreffions, either afcending or de¬
fending, whofe common difference is either unity, or
fome divifor of the index of the higheft power of x ;
that term of fuch progreffion which itands over againft
o, if divided by the common difference, and fubftituted
into the equation with the fign + or —, according as
the progreffifln from whence it was taken was afcending
or defending, will be one of the roots of the equa-
tiom If x has more values than one, there will be
more arithmetical progreffions. Sometimes indeed there
will be deceptions by this method, and progrefllons
will appear, which do not point out the true root; but
thefe would fail if the fubftitution was continued two
or three fteps further: an example or two will fufficient-
ly illuftrate this.
Let the equation given be x3+x=68. By tranfpo-
fition it becomes x3+x—68=ro. Here I firft fuppoff
x—2 ; which being fubftituted, produces —58: then I
fuppofe x=i, which produces 66 ; if x=ro, then —68
is produced ; with —1, then —70 is produced ; with
—2, 78. is produced ; and fo on. Having thus made
the requifite fubftitutions, they are wrote down with
the terms of the arithmetical progreffion from which
they are produced-, on one hand, and their divifors on
the other, thus:
Divifbrs Progreffion af en-
—58 1. 2. 29. Sec. 2 [ding
—66 1. 2. 3. 6. 11. &c. 3
—68 1. 2. 4. 17. Sec. 4*
—70 1. 2, 5. 7. See. 5
—78 1. 2. 3. 6. 13. See. 6
_ —98 i- 2. 7. 14. &c. 7
Among thefe divifors only one progreffion is difo-
vered; and the number 4, pointing over againft o,.
ffewS 4 to be the only true root of the equation. 
Let now the equation x4+x3—29x,—-qx+iSorzo be
propofed, and the work will ftand as follows.
D
ifors
5. 7. 10. 14. 35. 70
3. 4. 6. 8. 9. 12,3cc
3. 4. 5. 6. 9. io,Scc
4. 5. 8. 10. 16. 20,&c
3. 5. 6. 9. 10. 15,&c
Progreffions
this example there are four progreffions, two a
fending, and tw
roots of the equation to be +3, +4,
o defending: which ffiow the four WhJ’' .
--3, and—5. The ST""'
reafon
Sed. ir.
ALGEBRA.
2.37
i Equations, reafon of our fuccefs in this method is, that all the va-
1 ' lues of x mult neceffarily be divifors of the abfolute
number by which the value of the whole equation is
exprefied. When x is fuppofed =o, then that number
ftands alone ; becaufe it cannot bp affefted by any of
the values of x. The true roots of the equation mull
therefore lie in that line of divifors oppofite to o.
The progreffions ferve to point them out ; becaufe, as
+i> +2, or—i, —2, are fuceffively fubfcituted in place
of o, there is a proportionable alteration in the value
of the equation, and confequently in the divifors of the
number by which it is exprelfed; and as long as the
fubftitution is continued, ufing quantities that differ
by one certain increafe or decreafe, the fame progref-
fion muft continue among the divifors.
A method of depreffing biquadratic equations into
cubic ones was invented by Des Cartes, which is pub-
lifhed in Simpfon’s algebra, together with an improve¬
ment: but as the difficulty of folving cubic equations
is very little inferior to that of folving biquadratics, we
think it unneceflary to take farther notice of this, or
any other method that is applicable to particular cafes;
and fnall therefore explain the method of folving e-
quations by approximation, or by the converging fe-
ries ; which, though fufficiently laborious, will cer¬
tainly anfwer in all cafes, and for every kind of equa-
3t tion.
General me- Let the propofed equation be .\'3+iox,-(-50.\-=26oo.
thod by ap- Here it is plain, that x cannot much exceed io : ma-
tioiT*1”3' king trial qf n, therefore, I find it too much, fo that
the true value of x muil lie between io and 11. The
difference between io and the true root, I call e.
which is an unknown quantity; and for the more eafy Equations,
finding its value, I put r for io, and fay x~r-\-e, ‘
Then,
1 I x3=r3+3/-S(?+3rfJ+c3
2 J iOxi=iorl+20rif-j-ioe1,
3 5°*= JoH-joe
I-1-2+3 4 I xi+l0x1-\-50x=r~>-\-3r1e+i)re1+el +
I or1 -f 2 ore-j-1 oeJ -I-5 Or-f-5 oe.
Becaufe e is of fmall value in comparifon of r, and
to avoid being involved in high equations, I reject alt
the powers of e above the firft; and having thrown
them out, the equation becomes x3 + iox2-H50x, or
26oorrr3-}-3r2e+ior2+20re-l-5or-l-50e;—whence, by
tranfpofition, 2600—r3-—Iorz—50r=3rze-f-20re-t-50e;
and, by divifion,-^00~~r ■ °r~~J.2L—e. As
3rz-l-20H-5O
the value of r is known, I fubftitute that value into
this new equation; and having made the divifion, e is
found to be 0,18 nearly. Having then affumed r—
10,18, and fubftituted this value into the equation in-
ftead of 10, in order to find the value of e more ex¬
actly, it will come out —0,0005347; which added to
10,18, gives 10,1794653; and if this value is again
fubftituted, we will have another value of e, which will
determine the root ftill more exactly; and fo on, to as
many places of decimals as we pleafe.
It is not neeefiary, in the folution of equations by
this method, to take r always the neareft root lefs than
juft ; the fame purpofe will be anfwered by taking it
more than juft, making r—e—x, and proceeding ac¬
cordingly.
A L G
ALGEDO, the running of a gonorrhoea Hopping
fuddenly after it appears. When it thus flops, a pain
reaches to the anus, or to the tefticles, without their
being fwelled; and fometimes this pain reaches to the
bladder, in which cafe there is an urging to difcharge
the urine, which is with difficulty paffed, and in very
fmall quantities at a time. The pain is continued to
the'bladder by the urethra; to the anus, by the acce-
leratory mufcles of the penis; and to the tefticles, by
the vafa deferentia, and veficulae feminales. In this
cafe, calomel repeated fo as to purge, brings back
the running, and then all difficulty from this fymptom
ceafes.
ALGENEB, a fixed ftar, of the fecond magnitude,
in Perfeus’s right fide; its longitude is 270, 46', 12'',
of Taurus, and its latitude 30°, 05','28", north, ac¬
cording to Mr Flamftead’s catalogue.
ALGEZIRA, a town of Andalufia in Spain, with
a port on the coaft of the Straits of Gibraltar. By
this city the Moors entered Spain in 713 ; and it was
taken from them in 1344, after a very long fiege, re¬
markable for being the firft in which cannon were made
ufe of. It was called Old Gibraltar, and is about four
leagues from the New. W. Long. 5. 2. N. Lat.
36-
ALGHIER, or Algeri, a town in Sardinia, with
a bifliop’s fee, upon the weftern coaft of the ifland, be¬
tween Safferi and Bofa. Though it is not large, it is
well peopled, and has a commodious port. The coral
fifhed for on this coaft is in the higheft efteem of any in
the Mediterranean. W.- Long. 4. 2. Lat. 36. o.
A L G
ALGIABARII, a Mahometan fe<?t of predeftina-
rians, who attribute all the aftions of men, good or
evil, to the agency or influence of God. The Algia-
barii ftand oppofed to the Alkadarii *. They hold * See Aika-
abfolute degrees and phyfical premotion. For the ju- n '
ftice of God in punilhing the evil he has caufed, they
refolve it wholly into his abfolute dominion over the
creatures.
ALGIERS, a .kingdom of Africa, now one of the
ftates of Barbary.—According to the lateft and beft
computations, it extends 460 miles in length from eaft to
weft, and is very unequal in breadth; fome places being
fcarce 40 miles broad, and others upwards of 100. It
lies between Long. o. 16. and 9. 16. W. and extends
from Lat. 36. 55. to 44. 50. N.—It is bounded on the
north, by the Mediterranean; on the eaft, by the river
Zaine, the ancient Tufca, which divides it from Tunis ;
on the weft, by the Mulvya, and the mountains of Tra-
va, which feparate it from Morocco; and' on the fouth
by the Sahara, Zaara, or Numidian defert. r
The climate of Algiers is in moft places fo moderate, Climate and
that they enjoy a conftant verdure ; the leaves of the toil-
trees being neither parched up by heat in fumraer, nor
nipped by the winter’s cold. They begin to bud in
February; in April, the fruit appears in its full bignefs;
and is commonly ripe in May. The foil, however, is
exceffively various ; fome places being very hot, dry,
and barren, on which account they are generally fuf-
feredto lie uncultivated by the inhabitants, who are very
negligent. Thefe barren places, efpecially fuch as He
on the fouthern fide, and are at a great diftance from
A L G L 238 ] A L G
Algiers, the fea, harbour vaft numbers of wild creatures, as
_ Hons, tigers, buffalCes, wild boars, ftags, porcupines,
monkeys, oftriches, &c. On account of their barren-
nefs, they have but few towns, and thofe thinly peopled;
though fome of them are fo advantageoufly lituated for
trading with Bildulgerid arid Negroland, as to drive
a confiderable traffic with them.
The Algerine kingdom made formerly a confider-
riiaria^att~ a^e Part t^ie ^aur*tan*a Tingitana *, which was re¬
duced to a Roman province by Julius Casfar, and from
him alfo called Mauritania Cnefarienfis.—In our gene¬
ral account of Africa, we have related, that the Ro¬
mans were driven out of that continent by the Van¬
dals ; thefe by Belifarius, the Greek emperor Juftini-
an’s general; and the Greeks in their turn by the Sa¬
racens. This laft revolution happened about the middle
of the feventh century ; and the Arabs continued ma¬
ilers of the country, divided into a great number of
i petty kingdoms or dates, under chiefs of their own
Abu-Texfc- chufing, till the year 1051. This year, one Abu-
fhe Arab"65 beker-ben-Omar, or, as the Spanifn authors call him,
princes! Abu-Texefien, an Arab of the Zinhagian tribe, being
provoked at the tyranny of thofe defpots, gathered, by
the help of his marabouts or faints, a moil powerful
army of malcontents, in the fouthern provinces of Nu-
midia and Libya. His followers were nicknamed Afo-
rabites or Morabites; by the Spaniards, Alnwravides;
probably from their being affembled principally by the
faints who were alfo called Morabites. The khalif of
Kayem’s forces were at this time taken up with quell¬
ing other revolts in Syria, Mefopotamia, See. and the
Arabs in Spain engaged in the mod bloody wars; fo
that Texefien having nothing to fear from them, had
all the fuccefs he could wilh againft the Arabian cheyks
or petty tyrants, whom he defeated in many battles,
and at laft drove them not only out of Numidia and Li¬
bya, but out of all the weftern parts, reducing the
whole province of Tingitania under his dominion.
Texifien was fucceededby his fon Yufef, or Jofeph,
a brave and warlike prince. In .the beginning of his
re'ign, he laid the foundation of the city of Morocco,
which he ddigned to make the capital of his empire.
While that city was building, he feht fome of his ma¬
rabouts embaftadors to Tremecen, (now a province of
Algiers,) at that time inhabited by a powerful and
infolent feft of Mahometans called Tjcneti. The de-
ftgn of this embafly was to bring them back to what he
called the true faith ; but the Zeneti, defpifing his of¬
fers, affembled at Amaf, or Amfa, their capital, mur¬
dered the ambaffadors, and invaded Jofeph’s dominions
3 with an army of 50,000 men.
Kcneti de- The king hearing of their infamous proceedings,
roye ‘ fpeedily muftered his army, and led it by long marches
into their country, deftroying all with fire and fword;
while the Zeneti, inftead of eppofing his progrefs, xe-
tired as fall as pofiible towards Fez, in hopes of recei¬
ving afliftance from thence. In this they were miferably
deceived: the Fezzans marched out againft them in a
hoftile manner; and coming up with the unhappy Ze-'
neti, encumbered with their families and baggage, and
ready to expire with hunger and wearinefs, they cut
them all to pieces, except a fmall number who were
moftly drowned in attempting to fwim acrofs a river;
and fome others, who, in their flight, periftied by
falling from the high adjacent rocks. In the mean time
Jofeph reduced their country to a mere defart; which Algiers,
was, however, foon peopled by a numerous colony of
Fezzans, who fettled there under the protection of the
reigning kings. In this war it is computed that near
a million of the Zeneti, men, women, and children,
loft their lives.
The reftlefs and ambitious temper of Jofeph did not
let him remain long at peace. He quickly declared
war againft the Fezzans, reduced them to become his
tributaries, and extended his conquefts all along the
mediterranean. He next attacked fome Arabian cheyks
who had not yet fubmittedto his jurifdidtion; andpur-
fued them with fuch fury, that neither the Libyan de¬
farts, nor ridges of the mod; craggy rocks, could (bel¬
ter them from his arms. He attacked them in fuch of
their retreats, caftles, and fortreffes, as were till then
deemed impregnable; and at laft fubdued them, to the
great grief of the other African nations, wrho were great¬
ly annoyed by the ravages committed by his numerous
forces.
Thus was founded the empire of theMorabites: which,
however, was of no long duration ; that race being in
the x 2th century driven out by Mohavedin, a marabout.
This race of priefts was expelled by Abdulac governor
of Fez; and he, in the 13th century, ftrippedofhis new 4
conquefts by the Sharifs of Hafcen, the defeendants of Sharifs of
thofe Arabian princes whom Abu-Texefien had form- Hafcenwho.
erly expelled.
The better to fecure their new dominions, the Sha¬
rifs divided them into feveral little kingdoms or pro¬
vinces ; and among the reft the prefent kingdom of
Algiers was divided into four, namely, Tremecen., Te-
nez, Algiers proper, and Bujeyah. The four firft mo-
narchs laid fo good a foundation for a lafting balance
of power between their little kingdoms, that they con-
tiued for fome centuries in mutual peace and amity;
but at length the king of Tremecen, having ventured to
violate fome of their articles, Abul-Farez, king of Te-
nez, declared war againft him, and obliged him to be¬
come his tributary. This king dying loon after, and
having divided his kingdom among his three fons, new
difeords arofe; which Spain taking advantage of, a
powerful fleet and army was fent againft Barbary, under g
the Count of Navarre, in 1505. This commander foon Algertnes'in
made himfelf mailer of the important cities of Oran, danger from
Bujeyah, and fome others; which fo alarmed the Al- ^ Spani-
gerines, that they put themfelves under the proteilion ar s'
of Selim Eutemi, a noble and warlike Arabian prince.
He came to their affiftance with a great number of his
braveft fubjeils, bringing wnth him his wife Zaphira,
and a fon then about 12 years old. This however was
not fufiicient to prevent the Spaniards from landing a
number of forces near Algiers that fame year, and ob-
hging that metropolis to become tributary to Spain.
Nor could Prince Selim hinder them from building a
ftrong fort on a fmall illand oppofite to the city, which
terrified their corfairs from failing either in or out of
the harbour.
To this galling yoke the Algerines were obliged to
fubmit, till the year 1516; when, hearing of the death
of Ferdinand king of Spain, they fent an embaffy to j,
Aruch Barbarojfa, who was at this time no lefs dread- Invite Bar¬
ed for his valour than his furprifing fuccefs, and was bar°ffa.
then fent on a cruize with a fquadron of galleys and
barks. The purport of the embaffy was, that he Ihould
come
Algiers.
His treach
ery and
cruelty.
A L G [ 239 ] A L G
come and free them from the Spanilh yoke; for which
they agreed to pay him a gratuity anfwerable to fo
great a fenrice. Upon this, Barbarofla immediately
difpatched 18 gallies and 30 barks to the affiftance of
the Algerines; while he himfelf advanced towards the
city with 800 Turks, 3000 Jigelites, and 2000 Mooriih
volunteers. Inftead of taking the neareft road to Al¬
giers, he directed his courfe towards Sharjhel, where
Haffan, another famed corfair, had fettled himfelf. Him
he furprifed, and obliged to furrender; not without a
previous promife of friendlhip: but no fooner had Bar-
barolfa got him in his power, than he cut off his head;
and obliged all Haflan’s Turks to follow him in his
new expedition.
On Barbarofla’s approach to Algiers, he was met by
prince Eutemi, attended by all the people of that me¬
tropolis, great and fmall; who looked for deliverance
from this abandoned villain, whom they accounted in¬
vincible. He was condufted into the city amidft the
acclamations of the people, and lodged in one of the
nobleft apartments of prince Eutemi’s palace, where
he was treated with the greateft marks of diftinftion.
Elated beyond meafure with this kind reception, Bar¬
barofla formed a defign of becoming king of Algiers;
and fearing fome oppofltion from the inhabitants, on
account of the excefles he fuflered his foldiers to com¬
mit, murdered prince Eutemi, and caufed himfelf to be
reclaimed king; his Turks and Moors crying out as
e rode along the ftreets, “ Long live King Aruch
Barbarofla, the invincible king of Algiers, the chofen
of God to deliver the people from the oppreflion of the
Chriftians; and deftru&ion to all that lhall oppofe, or
refufe to own him as their lawful fovereign.” Thefe
laft'threatening words fo intimidated the inhabitants,
already apprehenfive of a general maflacre, that he was
immediately acknowledged king. The unhappy prin-
cefs Zaphira, it is faid, poifoned herfelf, to avoid the
brutality of this new king, whom fhe unfuccefsfully en¬
deavoured to ftab with a dagger.
Barbaroffa was no fboner feated on the throne, than
he treated his fubjedls with fuch cruelty, that they ufed
to fliut up their houfes and hide themfelves when he ap¬
peared in public. In confequence of this, a plot was
foon formed againft him; but being difeovered, he cau¬
fed twenty of the principal confpirators to be behead¬
ed, their bodies to be buried in a dunghill, and laid a
heavy fine on thofe who furvived. This fo terrified the
Algerines, that they never afterwards durft attempt any
thing againil either Barbarofla or his fuccefibrs.
In the mean time, the fon of prince Eutemi having
fled to Oran, and put himfelf under the proteftion of
the marquis of Gomarez,, laid, before'that nobleman a
plan for putting the city of Algiers into the hands of
the king of Spain. Upon this, young Selim Eutemi
was fent to Spain, to lay his plan before cardinal Xi-
menes; who having approved of it, fent a fleet with
10,000 land forces, under the command of Don Francif-
co, or, as others call him, Don Diego de Vera, to drive
out the Turks, and reftore the young prince. But the
fleet was no fooner come within fight of land, than
it was difperfed by a florm, and the greateft part
of the {hips dalhed againft the rocks. Moft of the
Spaniards were drowned; and the few who efcaped to
fhore, were either killed by the Turks, or made {laves.
Though Barbarofla had nothing to boaft on this oc-
cafion, his pride and infoleuce were now fwelled to fuch
a degree, that he imagined himfelf invincible, and that
the very elements confpired to make him fo. The A-
rabiahs were fo much alarmed at his fuccefs, that they
implored the afliftance of Hamidel Abdes king of Te-
nez, to drive the Turks out of Algiers. That prince
readily undertook to do what was in his power for this
purpofe, provided they agreed to fettle the kingdom
on himfelf and his defeendents. This propofal being
accepted, he immediately fet out at the head of 105000
Moors ; and, upon his entering the Algerine domini¬
ons, was joined by all the Arabians in the country.
Barbarofla engaged him, only with 1000 Turkiflimuf-
queteers and 500 Granada Moors; totally defeated his
numerous army; purfued him to the very gates of his
capital, which he eafily made himfelf mafter of; and,
having given it up to be plundered by his Turks, obli¬
ged the inhabitants to acknowledge him as their fove¬
reign. This vidtofy, however, was chiefly owing to the
advantage which his troops had from their fire-arms;
the enemy having no other weapons than arrows and
javelins.
No fooner was Barbarofla become mafter of the king¬
dom of Tenez, than he received an embafly from the
inhabitants of Tremecen; inviting him to come to their
affiftance againft their then regning prince, with whom
they were diflatisfied on account of his having dethro¬
ned his nephew, and forced him to fly to Oran; offer¬
ing him even the fovereignty, in cafe he accepted of
their propofal. The king of Tremecen, not fufpedling
the treachery of his fubjedts, met the tyrant with an
army of 6000 horfe and 3000 foot: but Barbarofla’s
artillery gave him fuch an advantage, that the king
was at length forced to retire into the capital; which
he had no fooner entered, than his head was cut off, and
fent to Barbaroffa, with a frefli invitation to come and
take poffeffion of the kingdom. On his approach, he
was met by the inhabitants, whomhe received with great
complaifance, and many fampromifes; but beginning
to tyrannize as ufual, his new fubjects foon convinced
him that they were not fo paffive as the inhabitants of
Algiers. Apprehending,, therefore, that his reign
might prove uneafy and precarious, he entered into an
alliance with the king of Fez.; after which,, he took
care to fecure the reft of the cities in his new kingdom,
by garrifoning them with his own troops. Some of
thefe, however, revolted foon after;, upon which he
fent one of his corfairs, named Efcander, a man no lefs
cruel than himfelf, to reduce them. The Tremeceni-
ans now began to repent in good earneft of their ha¬
ving invited fuch a tyrant to their affiftance ; and held
confultations on the moft proper means of driving him
away, and bringing back their lawful prince Abuchen
Men: but their cabals being difeovered, a great num¬
ber of the confpirators were maffacred in the moft cruel
manner. The prince had the good luck to efcape to
Oran, and was taken under the protection of the mar¬
quis of Gomarez, who fent immediate advice of it to
Charles V. then lately arrived in Spain, with a power¬
ful fleet and army- That monarch immediately order¬
ed the young king a fuccour of 10,000 men, under the
command of the governor of Oran; who, under the
guidance of Abuchen Men, began his march towards
Tremecen,; and in their way they were j oined by prince
Selim, with a great number of Arabs and Moors. - The
Algiers.
A L G
A L G [ 240 ]
Algiers.
5?arbarofTa
defeated and
killed by the
Spaniards.
firfl: thing they refolved upon, was, to attack the im¬
portant rortrefs of Calau, fituated between Tremeeen
and Algiers, and commanded by the corfair Efcander
at the head of about 300 Turks. They invefted it
clofely on all fides, in hopes Barbaroffa would come out
of Tremecen to its relief, which would give the Tre-
mecenians an opportunity of keeping him out. That
tyrant, however, kept clofe in his capital, being em-
baraffed by his fears of a revolt, and the politic delays
of the king of Fez, who had not fent the auxiliaries
he promifed. The garrifon of Calau, in the mean
time, made a brave defence; and, in a fally they made
at night, cut off near 300 Spaniards. This encouraged
them to venture a fecond time; but they were now re-
pulfed with great lofs, and Efcander himfelf wound¬
ed: foon after which, they furrendered upon honourable
terms; but were all maflacred by the Arabians^ except
fixteen, who clung clofe to the ftirrups of the king, and
of the Spanifh general.
Barbaroffa being now informed that Abuchen Men,
with his Arabs, accompanied by the Spaniards, were
in full march to lay fiege to Tremecen, thought pro¬
per to come out, at the head of 1500 Turks and 5000
Moorifh horfe, in order to break his way through the
enemy ; but he had not proceeded far from the city,
before his council advifed him to return and fortify
himfelf in it. This advice was now too late ; the in¬
habitants being refolved to keep him out, and open their
gates to their own lawful prince as foon as he appear¬
ed. In this diftrefs Barbaroffa faw no way left but to
retire to the citadel, and there defend himfelf till he
could find an opportunity of dealing out with his men
and all his treafure. Here he defended himfelf vigo-
roufly ; but his provifions failing him, he took advan¬
tage of a fubterranean back-way, which he had caufed
to be digged up for that purpofe, and, taking his im-
menfe treafure with him, dole away as fecretly ashecould.
His flight, however, was foon difcovered; and he was
fo clofely purfued, that to amufe, as he hoped, the ene¬
my, he caufed a great deal of his money, plate, jewels,
&c. to be fcattered all the way, thinking they would
not fail to flop th.eir purfuit to gather it up. This
dratagem, however, failed, through the vigilance of
the Spanilh commander, who being himfelf at the head
of the purfuers, obliged them to march on, till he was
come up clofe to him on the banks of the Huexda, a-
bout eight leagues from Tremecen. Barbaroffa had
jud eroded the river with his vanguard, when the Spa¬
niards came up with, his rear on the other fide, and cut
them all off; and then eroding the water, overtook him
at a fmall didance from it. Here a bloody engagement
enfued, in which the Turks fought like as many lions ;
but, being at length overpowered by numbers, they
were all cut to pieces, and Barbaroffa among the red*,
in the 44th year of his age, and four years after he had
raifed himfelf to the royal title of Jigcl and the adja¬
cent country; two years after he had acquired the fo-
vereignty of Algiers, and fcarce a twelvemonth after
the reduftion of Tremecen. His head was carried to
Tremecen, on the point of a fpear; and Abuchen Men
proclaimed king, to the joy of all the inhabitants. A
few days after the fight, the king of Fez made his ap¬
pearance at the head of 20,000 horfe, near the field of
battle ; but hearing of Barbaroffa’s defeat and death,
.marched off with all poffible fpeed, to avoid being
attacked by the enemy. Algiers,
The news of Barbaroffa’s death fpread the utmoff ~ j
confternation among the Turks at Algiers ; however, gucce” ej
they caufed his brother Hayradin to be immediately by Hayra-
proclaimed king. The Spanifh commander now fent din.
back the emperor’s forces, without making any at¬
tempt upon Algiers ; by which he lod the opportunity
of driving the Turks out of that country ; while Hay¬
radin, judly dreading the confequences of the tyranny
of his officers, fought the prote&ion of the Grand Sig-
nior. This was readily granted, and himfelf appointed
baffiaw or viceroy of Algiers; by which means he re¬
ceived fuch confiderable reinforcements, that the un¬
happy Algerines durd not make the lead complaint;
and fuch numbers of Turks reforted to him, that he
was not only capable of keeping the Moors and Arabs
in fubjeftion at home, but of annoying the Chridians
at fea. Elis fird flep was to take the Spanifh fort g^n^fott
abovementioned, which was a great nuifance to his me- ^
tropolis. The Spaniards held out to the lad extremi¬
ty ; but being all flain or wounded, Hayradin eafily
became mafler of the place.
Hayradin next fet about building a flrong mole for
the fafety of hjs fhips. In this he employed 30,000
Chriflian flaves, whom he obliged to work without in-
termiflion for three years ; in which time the work was
completed. - He then caufed the fort he had taken
from the Spaniards to be repaired, and placed a flrong
garrifon in it, to prevent any foreign veffels from en¬
tering the harbour without giving an account of them-
felves. By thefe two important works, Hayradin foon
became dreaded not only by the Arabs and Moors, but
alfo by the maritime Chriflian powers, efpecially the
Spaniards. The viceroy failed not to acquaint the
Grand Signior with his fuccefs, and obtained from him
a frefli fupply of money, by which he was enabled to
build a dronger fort, and to ere& batteries on all places
that might favour the landing of an enemy. All thefe
have fluce received greater improvements from time to
time, as often as there was occafio'n for them.
In the mean time the Sultan, either out of a fenfe of
the great fervices Hayradin had done, or perhaps out
of jealoufy led he fliould make himfelf independent,
raifed Hayradin to the dignity of bafliaw of the em- ,3
pire, and appointed Haffan Aga-, a Sardinian renega- Succeeded
do, an intrepid warrior, and an experienced officer, by Haffau
to fucceed him as bafliaw of Algiers. Haffan had no A^a‘
fooner taken poffeffion of his new government, than he
began to purfue his ravages on the Spanilh coad with,
greater fury than ever ; extending them to the ecclefi-
adical date, and others parts of Italy. But Pope
Paul III. being alarmed at this, exhorted the emperor
Charles V. to fend a powerful fleet to fupprefs thofe
frequent and cruel piracies ; and, that nothing might
be wanting to render the enterprize fuccefsful, a bull
Was publimed by his holinefs, wherein a plenary abfo- *
lution of fins, and the crown of martyrdom, was pro¬
mifed to all thofe who either fell in battle or were I4
made Haves. The emperor on his part needed no fpur; Charles
and therefore fet fail at the head of a powerful fleet Vth’s expe- ■
confiding of 120 ffiips and zo^gjallies, having on board dit.10?
30,000 chofen troops, an immenfe quantity of money, g;e"s> ~
arms, ammunition, &c. In this expedition many
young nobility and gentry attended as volunteers, and
among thefe many knights of Malta, fo remarkable
for
A L G
Algiers, for their valour againft the enemies of Chriftianity.
* Even ladies of birth and character attended Charles in
his expedition, and the wives and daughters of the of¬
ficers and foldiers followed them with a defign to fettle
‘ a Barbary after the conqueft was finilhed. All thefe
t 241 ]
A L G
men, horfes, and other creatures, fwimming on the
waves; at which he was fo difheartened, that abandon¬
ing his tents, artillery, and all his heavy baggage, to
the enemy, he marched at the head of his army, though
in no fmall diforder, towards cape Malabux, in order
Algier:
Siege of Al¬
giers rai fed.
meeting with a favourable wind, foon appeared before to re-imbark in thofe few veffels which had outweather-
Algiers ; every Ihip difplaying the Spanilh colours on
the ftern, and another at the head, with a crucifix to
xj ferve them for a pilot.
Algiers in By this prodigious armament, the Algerines were
great con- thrown into the utmoft confternation. The city was fur-
ernation. roun(je(j only by a wall with fcarce any outworks. The
whole garrifon confided of 800 Turks and 6000 Moors,
without fire-arms, and poorly difciplined and accou¬
tred ; the red of their forces being difperfed in the o-
ther provinces of the kingdom, to levy the ufual tribute
on the Arabs and Moors. The Spaniards landed with¬
out oppofition, and immediately built a fort, under
the cannon of which they encamped, and diverted the
courfe of a fpring which fupplied the city with water.
Being now reduced to the utmod didrefs, Haffan re¬
ceived a fummons to furrender at difcretion, on pain
of being put to the fword with all the garrifon. The
herald was ordered to extol the vad powder of the em¬
peror both by fea and land, and to exhort him to re¬
turn to the Chridian religion. But to this Haffan on¬
ly replied, that he mud be a”madman who would pre¬
tend to advife an enemy, and that the advifed mud dill
aft more madly who would take counfel of fuch an ad-
ed the dorm. But Hafian, who had caufed his motions
to be watched, allowed him jud time to get to the
ftiore, when he fallied out and attacked the Spaniards
in the midd of their hurry and confulion to get into
their drips, killing great numbers, and bringing away
a dill greater number of captives; after which he re¬
turned m triumph to Algiers, where he celebrated with
great rejoicings his happy deliverance from fuch dif-
trefs and danger.
Soon after this, the prophet Yufef, who had foretold
the dedruftion of the Spaniards, was not only declared
the deliverer of his country, but had a confiderable
gratuity decreed him, with the liberty of exercifing his
prophetic funftion unmoleded. It was not long, how¬
ever, before the marabouts, and fame interpreters of
the law, made a drong oppofition againd him; remon-
drating to the bafhaw, how ridiculous and fcandalous it
was to their nation, to afcribe the deliverance of it to
a poor fortune-teller, which had been obtained by the
fervent prayers of an eminent faint of their own profef-
fion. But tho’ the bafhaw and his douwan feemed,
out of policy, to give into this lad notion, yet the im-
preflion which YufePs prediftions and their late accom-
The rnad
prophet re*
warded.
vifer. He was, however, on the point of furrendering plifhment had made upon the minds of the common
Prevented
by a mad
prophet
from fur-
tendering.
the city, when advice was brought him that the forces
belonging to the wedern government were in full march
towards the place ; upon which it was refolved to de¬
fend it to the utmod. Charles, in the mean time, re-
folving upon a general affault, kept a condant firing
upon the town; which, from the weak defence made
by the garrifon, he looked upon as already in his hands.
But while the dounuany or Algerine fenate, were deli¬
berating on the mod proper means of obtaining an ho¬
nourable capitulation, a mad prophet, attended by a
multitude of people, entered the affembly, and fore¬
told the fpeedy dedruftion of the Spaniards before the
end of the moon, exhorting the inhabitants to hold out
till that time. This prediftion was foon accomplifhed
in a very furprifing and unexpefted manner: for, on
the aS^^ef Oftober 1541, a dreadful dorm of wind,
rain, and hail, arofe from the north, accompanied with
violent (hocks of earthquakes, and a difmal and uni-
verfal darknefs both by fea and land; fo that the fun,
moon, and elements, feemed to combine together for the
it dedruftion of the Spaniards. In that one night, feme
Spanith fleet fay in lefs than half an hour, 86 fhips and 15 galleys
allorm^ ^ were deftroyecl> with all their crews and military uores ;
by which the army on fhore was deprived of all means
of fubiiding in thefe parts. Their camp alfo, which
fpread itfelf along the plain under the fort, was laid
quite under water by the torrents which defeended from
the neighbouring hills. Many of the troops, by try¬
ing to remove into fome better fituation, were cut in
pieces by the Moors and Arabs; while feveral galleys,
and other veffels, endeavouring to gain fome neighbour¬
ing creeks along the coads, were immediately plunder¬
ed, and their crews maffacred by the inhabitants.
The next morning, Charles beheld the fea covered
people, proved too drong to be eradicated; and the fpi
rit of divination and conjuring has fince got into fuch
credit among them, that not only their great datefmen,
but their prieds, marabouts, and fantoons, have applied
themfelves to that dudy, and dignified it with the name
of Mahomet’s Revelations.
The unhappy Spaniards had fcarce reached their
fhips, when they were attacked by a frefh dorm, ir
which feveral more of them perifhed; one fhip in par¬
ticular, containing 700 foldiers, befides failors, funk
in the emperor’s fight, without a poffibility of faving
a fingle man. At length, with much labour, they
reached the port of Bujeyah, at that time poffeffed by
the Spaniards, whither Haffan king of Tunis foon af
ter repaired, with a fupply of provifions for the empe¬
ror, who received him gracioufly, with frelh affurances
of his favour and proteftion. Here he difmiffed the few
remains of the Maltefe knights and their forces, who
embarked in three fhattered gallies, and with much dif¬
ficulty and danger reached ther own country. Charles
himfelf daid no longer than till the 16th of November,
when he fet fail for Carthagena, and reached it on the
25^ of the fame month. In this unfortunate expedi¬
tion upwards of 120 fhips and galleys were lod, above
300 colonels and other land and fea officers, 8000 fol¬
diers and marines, befides thofe dedroyed by the ene¬
my on their reimbarkation, or drowned in the lad dorm.
The number of prifoners was fo great, that the Alge¬
rines fold fome of them, by way of contempt, for an
onion per head.
Haffan, elated with this viftory, in which he had
very little fhare, undertook an expedition againd the
king of Tremecen, who, being now deprived of the af-
fidance of the Spaniards, was forced to procure a peace
Frefh cala-
mitiesofthe
Spaniards.
Haflan re¬
duces Tre¬
mecen.
with the fragments of fo many fhips, and the bodies of by paying a vad fum of money, and becoming tributary
Vol. I. H h to
A L G
43
HafTan Cor¬
fu chofen
bafhaw by
by the janif-
ferks.
to him. The bafhaw returned to Algiers, laden with
riches; and foon after died of a fever, in the 66th year
of his age.
From this time the Spaniards were never able to
annoy the Algerines in any confiderable degree. In
1555, they loll the city of Bujeyah, which was taken
by Salha Rais, Haffan’s fucceflbr; who next year fet out
on a new expedition, which he kept a fecret, but was
fufpedled to be intended againft Oran : but he was
fcarcely got four leagues from Algiers, whentheplague,
which at that time raged violently in the city, broke
out in his groin, and carried him off in 24 hours.
Immediately after his death the Algerine foldiery
chofe a Corfican renegado, HafTan Corfo, in his room,
till they fhould receive further orders from the Porte.
He didnot accept of the bafhawfhip without a good deal
of difficulty ; but immediately profecuted the intended
I 242 1
A L G
expedition againft Oran, difpatching a meffenger to joy.
fubje&s by allowing the mountaineers of Cuco to buy Algiers,
ammunition at Algiers, was fent in irons to Conftan-
tinople, while the aga of the Janifaries, and general
of the land forces, fupplied his place.—Haffan eafilyjHaflan fent
found means to clear himfelf; but a new bafhaw was ap- ’n 'ror>s to
pointed, called Achmet; who was nofooner arrived, than ConfUnti-
he fentthe twodeputy-bafhawsto Conftantinople, where ^ v‘
their heads were ftruck off.—Achmet was a man of
fuch infatiable avarice, that, upon his arrival at Algiers,
all ranks of people came in fhoals to make him prefents;
which he the more greedily accepted, as he had bought
his dignity by the money he had amaffed while head-
gardener to the fultan. He enjoyed it, however, only
four months ; and after his death, the ftate was gover-
ned other four months by his lieutenant; when Haf- Reinrtated.
fan was a third time fent viceroy to Algiers, where
he was received with the greateft demonftrations of
Superfeded
by Tekelli,
who puts
acquaint the Porte with what had happened. They
had hardly begun their hoftilities againft the place,
when orders came from the Porte, exprefsly forbidding
Haffan Corfo to begin the fiege, or, if he had begun it,
enjoining him to raife it immediately. This news was
received with great grief by the whole fleet and army,
as they thought themfelves fure of fuCcefs, the garrifon
being at that time very weak. Neverthelefs, as they
dared not difobey, the fiege was immediately raifed.
Corfo had hardly -enjoyed his dignity four months,
before news came, that eight galleys were bringing a
new bafhaw to fucceed him ; one Tekelli, a principal
Turk of the Grand Signior’s court: upon which the
Algerines unanimoufly refolved not to admit him. By
the treachery of the Levantine foldiers, however, he
was admitted at laft, and the unfortunate Corfo thrown
over a wall in which a number of iron hooks were fix¬
ed ; one of which catching the ribs of his right fide,
he hung three days in the moft exquifite torture, before
he expired.
Tekelli was no fooner entered upon his new govern¬
ment, than he behaved with fuch cruelty and rapaci-
The firft enterprife in which Haffan engaged, was Siege of
the liege of Marfalquiver, fituated near the city Oran, Marfalqui-
which he defigned to inveft immediately after. The ver-
army employed in this fiege confifted of 26,000 foot
and 10,000 horfe, befides which he had a fleet cqnfifting
of 32 galleys and galliots, together with three French
vefl’els laden with bifcuit, oil, and other provifions. The
city was defended by Don Martin de Cordova, brother
of the Count d’Alcandela, who had been taken prifoner
in the battle where that nobleman was killed, but had
obtained his liberty from the Algerines with immenfe
fums, and now made a moft gallant defence againft the
Turks. The city was attacked with the utmoft fury
by fea and land, fo that feveral breaches were made in
the walls. 'The Turkifh ftandards were feveral times
planted on the walls, and as often diflodged; but the
place muft have in the end fubmitted, had not Haffan
been obliged to raife the fiege in hafte, on the news
that the famed Genoefe admiral Doria was approach¬
ing with confiderable fuccours from Italy. The fleet
accordingly arrived foon after ; but miffing the Alge¬
rine gallies, bore away for Pennon de Velez, where
oufnefs, that he was affaffinated, even under the dome of they were lhamefully repulfed by an handful of Turks
faint, by Yufef Calabres, the favourite renegado of who garrifoned that place ; which, however, was taken
Haffan Corfo ; who for this fervice was unanimoufly
chofen baftiaw, but died of the plague fix days after
his election.
Yufef was fucceeded by Haffan the fon of Hayra-
din, who had been formerly recalled from his bafliaw-
the following year.
In 1567, Haffan was again recalled to Conftanti-
nople, where he died three years after. He was fuc¬
ceeded by Mahomet, who gained the love of the Al¬
gerines by feveral public-fpirited adtions. He incor-
ftiip, when he was fucceeded by Selha-Rais ; and now porated the Janifaries and Levantine Turks together,
Spaniards-
defeated
with great
daughter.
had the good fortune to get himfelf reinftated in his
employment. Immediately on his arrival, he engaged
in a war with the Arabs, by whom he was defeated
with great lofs. The next year, the Spaniards under¬
took an expedition againft Moftagan, under the com¬
mand of the count d’ Alcandela; but were utterly de¬
feated, the commander himfelf killed, and 12,000 ta¬
ken prifoners. This difafter was owing to the inconfi-
derate ralhnefs, or rather madnefs, of the commander;
which was fo great, that, after finding it impoffible to
rally his fcattered forces, he rulhed, fwordin hand, into
the thickeft of the enemy’s ranks, at the head of a fmall
number of men, crying out, St Jago ! St Jago ! the
viftory is ours, the enemy is defeated ;’’ foon after
which he was thrown from his horfe, and trampled to
death.
Haffan. having had the misfortune to difoblige his
and by that means put an end to their diffentions, which
laid the foundation of the Algerine independency on
the Porte. He likewife added fame confiderable for¬
tifications to the city and caftle, which he defigned to
render impregnable. But while he was thus ftudying John Gaf-
the intereft of Algiers, one John Gafcon, a bold Spa- con’s bold
nifli adventurer, formed a defign of furprifing the whole ^tternPt to
piratic navy in the bay, and fetting them on fire in the gerine'fleet
night-time; when they lay defencelefs, and in their £
firft fleep. For this he had not only the permiffion of
king Philip II. but was furnilhed by him with proper
veffels, mariners, and fireworks, for the execution of
his plot. With thefe he fet fail for Algiers in the moft
proper feafon, viz. the beginning of Odtober, when
moft, if not all the ftnps lay at anchor there; and ea-
fily failed near enough, unfufpeded, to view their man¬
ner of riding, in order to catch them napping, at a
time
A L G [ 243 ] A L G
Algiers, time when the greater part of their crew were difperfed
. jn the,',, quarters. He came accordingly, unperceived
by any, to the very mole-gate, and difperfed his men
with their fire-works; but to their great furprife, they
found them fo ill mixed, that they could not with all
f His bravado t^ie*r art ma^e them take fire. In the mean time, Gaf-
at the city con took it into his head, by way of bravado, to go to
jh. gate. the mole-gate, and give three loud knocks at it with
the pommel of his dagger, and to leave it fixed in the
gate by its point, that the Algerines might have caufe
to remember him. This he had the good fortune to do
without meeting with any difturbance or oppofition;
but it was not fo with his men ; for no fooner did they
find their endeavours unfuccefsful, than they made fuch
a bufile as quickly alarmed the guard pofted on the ad-
33 jacent baftion, from which the uproar quickly fpread
: Ts lake., and itfe]f thro’ the whole garrifon. Gafcon, now finding
I put to death, jn utm0ft danger, failed away with all poi-
fible hafte: but he was purfued, overtaken, and brought
back a prifoner to Mahomet; who no fooner got him
into his power, than he immediately caufed a gibbet
of confiderable height to be erefted on the fpot where
Gafcon had landed, ordering him to be hoilled up, and
hung by the feet to a hook, that he might die in ex-
quifite torture ; and to (hew his refentment and con¬
tempt of the king his mafter, he ordered his commiffion
to be tied to his toes. He had not, however, hung
long in that Hate, when the captain who took him, ac¬
companied by a number of other corfairs, interceded fo
j- ftrongly in his behalf, that he was taken down, and
put under the care of fome Chriftian furgeons ; but two
days after, fome Moors reporting that it was the com¬
mon talk and belief in Spain, that the Algerines durft
not hurt a hair of Gafcon’s head, be. the unfortu¬
nate Spaniard was hoifted up by a pulley to the top
of the execution-wall, and let down again upon the
hook, which in his fall catched him by the belly, and
gave him fuch a wound, that he expired without a
groan. Thus ended the expedition of John Gafcon,
which has procured him a place among the Spanifli
martyrs; while, on the other hand, the Algerines look
upon his difappointment to have been miraculous, and
owing to the efficacious protection of the powerful faint
Sidi Outededda, whofe prayers had before raifed fuch
a terrible ftorm againft the Spaniffi fleet.
Mahomet, being foon after recalled, was fucceed-
ed by the famous renegado Ochali, who reduced the
kingdom of Tunis; which, however, remained, fub-
ject to the viceroy of Algiers only till the year 1586,
when a bafliaw of Tunis was appointed by the Porte.
The kingdom of Algiers continued to be governed,
till the beginning of the feventeenth century, by vice¬
roys or bafhaws appointed by the Porte ; concerning
whom we find nothing very remarkable, further than
that their avarice and tyranny was intolerable both to
the Algerines and the Turks themfelves. At laft the
Turkifh Janifaries and militia becoming powerful e-
nough to fupprefs the tyrannic fway of thefe bafliaws,
and the people being almoft exhaufted by the heavy
taxes laid upon them, the former refolved to depofe
thefe petty tyrants, and fet up fome officers of their
own at the head of the realm. The better to fuccced
i in this attempt, the militia fent a deputation of fome of
their chief members to the Porte, to complain of the
. , avarice and oppreffion of thefe bafliaws, who funk both
the revenue of the (late, and the money remitted to it Algiers,
from Conftantinople, into their own coffers, which ~
Ihould have been employed in keeping up and paying
the foldiery ; by which means they were in continual
danger of being overpowered by the Arabians and
Moors, who, if ever fo little affifted by any Chriftian
power, would hardly fail of driving all the Turks out of
the kingdom. They reprefented to the Grand Vizir
how much more honourable, as well as eafier and
cheaper, it would be for the Grand Signior to permit
them to chufe their own dey, or governor, from among
themfelves, whofe intereft it would then be to fee that
the revenue of the kingdom was rightly applied in
keeping up its forces complete, and in fupplying all
other exigencies of the (late, without any farther charge
or trouble to the Porte than that of allowing them its
protedlion. On their part, they engaged always to
acknowledge the Grand Signiors as their fovereigns,
and to pay them their ufual allegiance and tribute, to
refpedt their bafliaws, and even to lodge and maintain
them and their retinue, in a manner fuitable to their
dignity, at their own charge. The bafliaws, however,
were, for the future, to be excluded from affifting at
any but general douwans, unlefs invited to it; and
from having the liberty of voting in them, unlefs when
their advice was afleed, or the intereft of the Porte was
likely to fuffer by their filence. All other concerns,
which related to the government of Algiers, were to be
wholly left under the direction of the dey and his
douwan. 34
Thefe propofals having been accepted by the Porte, Algerines
the deputies returned highly fatisfied; and having noti-
fied their new privileges, the great douiuan immediate- own ,jeyS.
ly proceeded to the eleftion of a dey from among
themfelves. They compiled a new fet of laws, and
made feveral regulations for the better fupport and
maintenance of this new form of government, to the
obfervation of which they obliged all their fubjefts to
fwear ; and the militia, navy, commerce, &c. were all
fettled pretty nearly on the footing upon which they now
are, and which (hall be afterwards deferibed ; tho’ the
fubfequent altercations that frequently happened be¬
tween the bafliaws and deys, the one endeavouring t©
recover their former power, and the other to curtail it,
caufed fuch frequent complaints and difeontents at the
Ottoman court, a s made them frequently repent their
compliance.
In the year 1601, the Spaniards, under the com¬
mand of Doria the Genoefe admiral, made another at¬
tempt upon Algiers, in which they were more fortu¬
nate than ufual, their fleet being only driven back by
contrary winds, fo that they came off without lofsi
In 1609, the Moors being expelled from Spain, flock¬
ed in great numbers to Algiers; and as many of them
were very able failors, they undoubtedly contributed to They grow
make the Algerine fleet fo formidable as it became foon grow forn1'*
after; tho’ it is probable the frequent attempts made ^
on their city would alfo induce them to increafe their ^
fleet. In 16x6, their fleet confided of 40 fail of (hips
between 200 and 400 tons, their admiral 500 tons. It.
was divided into two fquadrons, one of 18 fail, before
the port of Malaga; and the other at the Cape of San¬
ta Maria, between Li(bon and Seville ; both of which
fell foul on all Chriftian (hips, both Englifti and French,
with whom they pretended to be in friendfhip, as well
H h 2 as
A L G
f 244 ]
A L G
Algiers. as Spaniards and Portuguefe, with whom they were at
war.
The Algerines were now become very formidable to
the European powers. The Spaniards, who were moft
in danger, and leaft able to cope with them, folicited
the affiftance of England, the pope, and other ftates.
The French, however, were the firft who dared to
fhew their refentment of the perfidious behaviour of
thefe mifcreants; and in 1617, M. Beaulieu was fent
againft them with a fleet of 50 men of war, who de¬
feated their fleet, took two of their veffels, while their
admiral funk his own (hip and crew, rather than fall in-
36 to his enemies hands.
An Englilh In 1620, a fquadron of Englilh men of war was
fquadron ^ fent a^ajn{i Algiers, under the conduit of Sir Robert fperate, that perhaps the annals of knight-errantry can younger
and to get a (hare of their prizes, which were very con- Algiers,
fiderable. However, for form’s fake, a fevere repri-
mand, accompanied with threats, was fent them; to
which they replied, that “ thefe depredations deferred
to be indulged to them, feeing they were the only bul¬
wark againft the Chriftian powers, efpecially againft
the Spaniards, the fworn enemies of the Moflem name
adding, that “ if they Ihould pay a punililious regard
to all that could purchafe peace, or liberty to trade
with the Ottoman empire, they would have nothing to
do but fet fire to all their (hipping, and turn camel-dri¬
vers for a livelihood.” 38
In the year 1635, four younger brothers of a good Defperate
family in France, entered into an undertaking fo de-
the Alge- Manf« : but of this expedition we have no other ac¬
mes. count, than that it returned without doing any thing;
and the Algerines, becoming more and more infolent,
openly defied all the European powers, the Dutch on¬
ly excepted, to whom, in 1625, they fent a propofal,
direfted to the prince of Orange, that in cafe they
would fit out 20 fail of ihips the following year,
upon any good fervice againft the Spaniards, they
would join them with 60 fail of their own.
The next year, the Coulolies, or Cologlies, (the chil-
fcarce furnilh its equal.—This was no lefs than to re- brothers,
tort the piracies of the Algerines, upon themfelves; and
as they indifcriminately took 'he (hips of all nations,
fo were thefe heroes indifcriminately to take the fliips
belonging to Algiers; and this with a fmall frigate of
ten guns! — In this ridiculous undertaking, 100 volun¬
teers embarked ; a Maltefe commiffion was procured,
together with an able matter, and 36 mariners.—They
had the good fortune, on their firft fetting out, to take
(hip laden with wine, on the Spanifh coaft : with
dren of fuch Turks as had been permitted to marry at which they were fo much elated, that three days after
Algiers), who were enrolled in the militia, having fei-
zed on the citadel, had well nigh made themfelves
mafters of the city; but were attacked by the Turks and
renegadoes, who defeated them with terrible flaughter.
they madly encountered two large Algerine corfairs, one
of 20 and the other of 24 guns, both well manned,
and commanded by able officers. Thefe two large vef¬
fels having got the fmall frigate between them, plied
Many fcores of them were executed ; and their heads her furioufly with great (hot, which foon took off her
States of
Barbary
throw off
thrown in heaps upon the city-walls, without the eaft-
ern gate. Part of the citadel was blown up ; and the
remaining Coulolies were difmiffed from the militia, to
which they were not again admitted till long after.
In 1623, the Algerines and other ftates of Barbary
threw off their dependence on the Porte altogether, and
main maft: notwithftanding which, the French made fo
defperate a refiftance, that the pirates were not able
to take them, till the noife of their fire brought up five
more Algerines; when the French veffel, being almoft
torn to pieces, was boarded and taken. The young
knights-errant were puniihed for their temerity by a
their depen- ^et UP f°r themfelves. What gave occafion to this was dreadful captivity, from which they redeemed them-
slence on the the 25 years truce which Sultan Amurath IV. was obli
Porte. ged to make with the emperor Ferdinand II. to prevent
felves in 1642 at the price of 6000 dollars.
The Algerines profecuted their piracies with im- A French
his being overmatched by carrying on a war againft punity, to the terror and difgrace of the Europeans, admiral car-
TU ..\ 1 1 S'nC "O, ,..C.. 1 i...— I,, A ,. . 1. ^ . ..'11 * 1„  — /T .... .  1.    — li'  — .. 1. . .i t  — - .1.   ClCS off t be
him and the fophi of Perfia at the fame time. As this
put a ftop to the piratical trade of the Algerines, they
proceeded as above-mentioned; and refolved, that who¬
ever defired to be at peace with them, muft, diftinftly
and feparately, apply to their government. — No fooner
was this refolution taken, than the Algerines began to
till the year 1652; when a French fleet being acciden-
tally driven to Algiers, the admiral took it into his head (haWi
to demand a releafe of all the captives of his nation,
without exception. This being refufed, the French¬
man without ceremony carried off the Turkiih vice¬
roy, and his cadi or judge, who were juft arrived from
make prizes of feveral merchant (hips belonging to the Porte, with all their equipage and retinue. The
powers at peace with the Porte. Nay, having feized
a Dutch fhip and poleacre at Scanderoon, they ven¬
tured on fhore; and finding the town abandoned by
the Turkifh aga and inhabitants, they plundered all
the magazines and warehoufes, and fet them on fire.
—About this time Lewis XIII. undertook to build
a fort on their eoafts, inftead of one formerly built by
the Marfilians, and which they had demoliihed. This,
after fame difficulty, he accompliihed; and it was cal¬
led the Baftion of France : but the fituation being af¬
terwards found inconvenient, the French purchafed the
port of La Calle, and obtained liberty to trade with
the Arabians and Moors. The Ottoman court, in the
mean time, was fo much embarraffed with the Perfian
war, that there was no leifure to check' the Algerine
piracies. This gave an opportunity to the vizir ando-
ther courtiers to compound matters with the Algerines,
Algerines, by way of reprifal, furprifed the Baftion of
of France already mentioned, and carried off the in¬
habitants to the number of 600, with all their effects;
which fo provoked the admiral, that he fent them word
that he would pay them another vifit the next year
with his whole fleet. ^
The Algerines, undifmayed by the threats of the The Alge-
French admiral, fitted out a fleet of 16 galleys and gal- rines fit out
liots, excellently manned and equipped, under the com- a formidable
mand of Admiral Hali Pinchinin.—The chief defign fleet‘
of this armament was againft the treafure of Loretto ;
which, however, they were prevented by contrary winds
from obtaining. Upon this they made a defcent on
Puglia in the kingdom of Naples; where they ravaged
the whole territory of Necotra, carrying off a vaft num¬
ber of captives, and among them fome nuns. From
thence fleering towards Dalmatia, they fcoured the
A-
A L G
Adriatic; and loading themfelves with immenfe plun¬
der, left thofe coafts in the utmoft confternation and
refentment.
At laft the Venetians, alarmed at fuch terrible de¬
predations, equipped a fleet of 28 fail, under the com-
Vhich is to-
Bally de- ^ v* v.^-
Ihe Veneti- nian<^ admiral Capello, with exprefs orders to burn,
fink, or take, all the Barbary corfairs he met with, ei¬
ther on the open feas, or even in the Grand Signior’s
harbours, purfuant to a late treaty of peace with the
Porte. On the other hand, the captain bafhaw, who
had been fent out with the Turkifti fleet to chafe the
Florentine and Maltefe cruifers out of the Archipe¬
lago, underftanding that the Algerine fquadron was fo
near, fent exprefs orders to the admiral to come to his
afiiftance. Pinchinin readily agreed ; but having firft
refolved on a defcent upon the ifland of Lifla, or Lifi-
na, belonging to the Venetians, he was overtaken by
Capello, from whom he retired to Valona, a fea-port
belonging to the Grand Signior, whither the Venetian
admiral purfued him ; but the Turkifh governor refu-
fing to ejeft the pirates according to the articles of the
peace between the Ottoman court and Venice, Capello
was obliged to content himfelf with watching them for
fome time. Pinchinin was foon weary of reftraint, and
ventured out; when an engagement immediately en-
fued, in which the Algerines were defeated, and five
of their veflels-difabled; with the lofs of 1500 men,
Turks, and Chriftian Haves; befides 1600 galley-flaves
who regained their liberty. Pinchinin, after this de¬
feat, returned to Valona, where he was again watched
by Capello; but the latter had not lain long at his old
anchorage before he received a letter from the fenate,
defiring him to make no farther attempt on the pirates
at that time, for fear of a rupture with the Porte. This
was followed by a letter from the governor of Valona,
defiring him to take care left he incurred the Sultan’s
difpleafure by fuch infults. The brave Venetian was
forced to comply ; but, refolving to take fuch a leave
of the Algerines as he thought they deferred, obferved
how they had reared their tents, and drawn their booty
and equipage along the fhore. He then kept firing a-
245 ] A L G
fevereft penalties; but all perfons whatever to take their Algiers*
thumbs from 'within their- girdles, while they were de-
liberating on this important point. In the mean time,
they applied to the Porte for an order, that the Vene¬
tians fettled in the Levant fhould make up their lofs.
But with this the Grand Signior refufed to comply,
and left them to repair their Ioffes, as well as build new
ftiips, in the belt manner they could. It was not long,
however, before they had the fatisfaftion to fee one of
their corfairs land, with a frefh fupply of 600 flaves,
whom he had brought from the coaft of Iceland, whi¬
ther he had been directed by a mifcreant native taken
board a Danifti fliip.
Our pirates did not long continue in their weak and They fet oat
defencelefs ftate; being able, at the end of two years, a new
to appear at fea with a fleet of 65 fail. The admiral
Pinchinin equipped four galliots at his own expence;
with which, in conjunction with the Chiayah, or fe-
cretary of the bafhaw of Tripoli, he made a fecond ex-
curfion. This fmall fquadron, confifting of five gal¬
leys and two brigantines, fell in with an Englifh fhip of
40 guns; which, however, Pinchinin’s captains refu¬
fed to engage; but being afterwards reproached by
him for their cowardice, they fwore to attack the next ^
Chriftian fhip which came in their way. This happened Five of their
to be a Dutch merchantman, of 28 guns and 40 men, galieys de-
deeply laden, and unable to ufe her fails by reafon of feated by a
a calm. Pinchinin immediately fummoned her to fur- chanttnan^"
render; but, receiving an ironical anfwer, drew up his
fquadron in form of an half-moon, that they might
pour their fhot all at once into their adverfary. This,
however, the Dutchman avoided, by means of a breeze
of wind which fortunately fprung up and enabled him'
to turn his fhip; upon which the galleys ran foul of v
each other.—Upon this, Pinchinin ran his own galley*
along fide of the merchantman, the upper deck of
which feventy Algerines immediately took poffeffion of,
fome of them cutting the rigging, and others plying
the hatches with hand-grenadoes : but the Dutchmen
having fecured themfelves in their clofe quarters, be¬
gan to fire at the Algerines on board, from two pieces
mong their tents, while fome well-manned galliots and of cannon! oaded with-fmall fhot; by which they were
brigatines were ordered among their (hipping, who
attacked them with fuch bravery, that, without any
great lofs, they towed out their 16 galleys, with all
their cannon, ftores, &c.—In this laft engagement, a
ball from one of the Venetian galleys happening to
ftrike a Turkifh mofque, the whole a&ion was confi-
dered as an infult upon the Grand Signior. To conceal
this, Capello was ordered to fink all the Algerine
fhips he had taken, except the admiral; which was to
be conducted to Venice, and laid up as a trophy. Ca¬
pello came off with a fevere reprimand; but the Vene¬
tians were obliged to buy, with 500,000 ducats, a peace
from the Porte. The Grand Signior, offered to repair the
lofs of the Algerines by building ten galleys for them,
upon condition that they fhould continue in his fervice
till the end of the enfuing fummer ; but Pinchinin, who
knew how little the Algerines chofe to lie under obliga¬
tions to him, civilly declined the offer.
In the mean time, the news of this defeat and lofs
the utmoft filled Algiers with the utmoft grief and confufion. The
the news" ^ w^°^e c*ty was on the point of a general infurredtion,
when the bafhaw and douwan iffued out a proclamation,
forbidding, not only complaints and outcries, under the
Algiers ir
all foon killed, or forced to fubmit. Pinchinin, in the
mean time, made feveral unfuccefsful attempts to re¬
lieve his men, as well as to furround the Dutchman
with his other galleys: but that fhip lay fo deep in the
water that every fhot did terrible execution among the
pirates; fo that they were obliged to remove farther
off. At laft the Dutch captain, having ordered his
guns to be loaded with cartouches, gave them fuch a
parting volley as killed 200 of them, and fent the reft
back to Algiers in a moft difmal plight.
But though Pinchinin thus returned in difgrace, the
reft of the fleet quickly came back with vaft numbers of
flaves, and an immenfe quantity of rich fpoils ; info-
much that the Englifh, French, and Dutch, were o-
bliged to cringe to the mighty Algerines, who fome-
times vouchfafed to be at peace with them, but fwore
eternal war againft Spain, Portugal, and Italy, whom
they looked upon as the greateft enemies to the Maho- 4?
metan name. At laft, Lewis XIV. provoked by the Prepara-
grievous outrages committed by the Algerines on the tionsagainff
coafts of Provence and Languedoc, ordered, in 1681, a
confiderable fleet to be fitted out againft them, under ei'vls
the marquis du Quefne, vice-admiral of France. His
firft
A L G [ 246 ] A L G
Algiers
bombarded
and fet on
fire by the
French.
47
Algerines
commit
dreadful r
vages in
The city
gain bom-
ftrft expedition was againft a number of Tripolitan cor-
fairs ; who had the good fortune to outrow him, and
flicker themfelves in the Ifland of Scio belonging to
the Turks. This did not, however, prevent him from
purfuing them thither, and making fuch terrible fire
upon them as quickly deftroyed 14 of their veffels, be-
fides battering the walls of the caftle.
This feverity feemed only to be defigned as a check
to the piracies of the Algerines; but, finding they ftill
continued their outrages on the French coaft, he failed
to Algiers in Auguft 1682, cannonading and bombard¬
ing it fo furioufly, that the whole town was,in flames in
a very little time. The great mofque was battered
down, and moft of the houfes laid in ruins, infomuch
that the inhabitants were on the point of abandoning
the place; when on a fudden, the wind turned about,
and obliged Du Quefne to return to Toulon. The
Algerines immediately made reprifals, by fending a
number of galleys and galliots to the coafts of Provence,
1- where they committed the moil dreadful ravages, and
brought away a vaft number of captives: upon which
a new armament was ordered to be got ready at Tou¬
lon and Marfeilles, againft the next year; and the Al¬
gerines, having received timely notice, put themfelves
into as good a ftate of defence as the time would allow.
In May 1683, Du Quefne with his fquadron caft
<-anchor before Algiers; where, being joined by the
Marquis D’Affranville, at the head of five ftout vef¬
fels, it was refolved to bombard the town next day.
Accordingly 100 bombs were thrown into it the firft
day ; which did terrible execution, while the befieged
made feme hundred difcharges of their cannon againft
them, without doing any confiderable damage. The
following night the bombs were again thrown into the
city in fuch numbers, that the dey’s palace and other
great edifices were almoft deftroyed; fome of their bat¬
teries were difmounted, and feveral veffels funk in the
port. The dey, and Turkifh bafhaw, as well as the
whole foldiery, alarmed at this dreadful havock, im¬
mediately fued for peace. As a preliminary, the im¬
mediate furrender was infifted on of all Chriftian cap¬
tives who had been taken fighting under the French
flag ; which being granted, 142 of them were imme¬
diately delivered up, with a promife of fending him
the remainder asfoon as they could be got from the dif¬
ferent parts of the country. Accordingly Du Quefne
fent his commifl’ary-general and one of his engineers
into the town ; but with exprefs orders to infift upon
the delivery of all the French captives without excep¬
tion, together with the effedls they had taken from
the French ; and that Mezomorto their then admiral,
and Hali Rais one of their captains, fhould be given
as hoftages.
This laft demand having embarrafled the dey, he af-
fembled the douwan, and acquainted them with it:
upon which Mezomorto fell into a violent pafiion, and
told the afiembly, that the cowardice of thofe who fat
at the helm had occafioned'the ruin of Algiers; but
that, for his part, he would never confent to deliver up
any thing that had been taken from the French. He
immediately acquainted the foldiery with what had
paffed; which fo exafperated them, that they murdered
the dey that very night, and on the morrow chofe
Mezomorto in his place. This was no fooner done,
than he cancelled all the articles of peace which had
been made, and hoftilitles were renewed with greater Algiers,
fury than ever.
The French admiral now kept pouring in fuch vol- 49
leys of bombs, that, in lefs than three days, the great-
eft part of the city was reduced to allies, and the fire deftroyed.
burnt with fuch vehemence, that the fea was enlight¬
ened with it for more than two leagues round. Mezo¬
morto, unmoved at all thefe difafters, and the vaft num¬
ber of the llain, whofe blood ran in rivulets along the
ftreets; or rather, grown furious and defperate, fought
only how to wreak his revenge on the enemy ; and, not
content with caufing all the French in the city to be
cruelly murdered, ordered their conful to be tied hand
and foot, and faftened alive to the mouth of a mortar,
from ydience he was (hot away againft their navy.—
By this piece of inhumanity Du Quefne was fo exaf¬
perated, that he did not leave Algiers till he had ut¬
terly deftroyed all their fortifications, (hipping, almoft
all the lower part, and above two thirds of the upper
part, of the city ; by which means it became little elfe
than an heap of ruins. S®
The haughty Algerines were now thoroughly con-
vinced that they were not invincible; and, therefore, peac^
immediately fent an embaffy into France, begging in
the moft abject terms for peace ; which Lewis imme¬
diately granted, to their inexpreffible joy. They now
began co pay fome regard to other nations, and to be
a little cautious how they wantonly incurred their dif-
pleafure. The firft bombardment by the French had
fo far humbled the Algerines, that they condefcended
to enter into a treaty with England; which was renew¬
ed, upon terms very advantageous to the latter, in 1686.
It is not to be fuppofed, however, that the natural per¬
fidy of the Algerines would difappear on a fudden: not-
withftanding this treaty, therefore, they loft no oppor¬
tunity of making prizes of the Englifh Ihips, when Sf
they could conveniently come at them. Upon fome in- Seven of
fringement of this kind, captain Beach drove alhore their (hips
and burnt feven of their frigates in 1695; which pro- b"rnlbyK
duced a renewal of the treaty five years after: but it cap eac ‘
was not till the taking of Gibraltar and Port Mahon,
that Britain could have a fufficient chek upon them to
enforce the obfervation of treaties; and thefe have fince
proved fuch reftraints upon Algiers, that they ftill con¬
tinue to pay a greater deference to the Englilh, than
to any other European power. ji
The prefent century furnilhes no very remarkable e- Expulfion
vents with regard to Algiers; except the taking of the
famed city of Oran from the Spaniards in 1708, (which
however they regained in 1737,) and the expulfion of
the Turkilh balhaw, and uniting his office to that of
dey in 1710. This introduced the form of govern¬
ment which ftill continues in Algiers. 53
The dey is now abfolute monarch; and pays no o- Revenues,
ther revenue to the Porte, than that of a certain num- of * c
ber of fine boys or youths, and fome other prefents
which are fent thither yearly. His own income, pro¬
bably, rifes and falls according to the opportunities he
hath of fleecing both natives and foreigners; whence it
is varioufly computed by different authors. Dr Shaw
computes the taxes of the whole kingdom to bring into
the treafury no more than 300,000 dollars; but fuppofes
that the eighth part of the prizes, the effefts of thofe
perfons wdio die without children, joined to the yearly
contributions raifed by the government, prefents from
foreigners.
A L G [ 247 ] A L G
Algiers, foreigners, fines and opprefiions, may bring in about
! ’ ~ as much more. Both the dey, and officers under him,
enrich themfelves by the fame laudable methods of ra¬
pine and fraud; which it is no wonder to find the com¬
mon people praftifing upon one another, and efpecially
upon ftrangers, feeing they themfelves are impoveriffi-
ed by heavy taxes and the injuftice of thofe who are
in authority.
We have already hinted, that the firft deys were e-
lefted by the militia, who were then called the dounuan,
or common-council. This elective body was at firft
compofed of 800 militia-officers, without whofe con-
fent the dey could do nothing; and upon fome urgent
occafions, all the officers refiding in Algiers, amount¬
ing to above 1500, were fummoned to affift. But
fince the deys, who may be compared to the Dutch
Stadtholders, have become more powerful, the dou-
wan is principally compofed of 30 chiak-balhaws, or
colonels, with now and then the mufti and cadi upon
fome emergencies; and, on the ele&ion of a dey, the
whole foldiery are allowed to come and give their votes.
All the regulations of ftate ought to be determined by
that affembly, before they pals into a law, or the dey
hath power to put them in execution : but, for many
years back, the douwan is of fo little account, that it
is only convened out of formality, and to give alfent
to what the dey and his chief favourites have concerted
j4 beforehand. The method of gathering the votes in this
Strange me- auguft affembly, is perfeftly agreeable to the charafter
|heHn°f the t^10^e w^° compofe it. The aga, or general of the
yotes'of the janiffaries, or the prefident pro tempore, firft propofes
douwan. the queftion, which is immediately repeated with a loud
voice by the chiah-balhaws, and from them echoed a-
gain by four officers called bajhaldalas, from thefe
the queftion is repeated from one member of the dou-
wan to another, with ftrange contortions, and the moft
hideous growlings, if it is not to their liking. From
the loudnefs of this growling noife, the aga is left to
guefs as well as he can whether the majority of the af-
lembly are pleafed or difpleafed with the queftion; and
from fuch a prepofterous method, it is not furprifing
that thefe alfemblies Ihould feldom end without fome
tumult or diforder. As the whole body of the mili¬
tia is concerned in the election of a new dey, it is
feldom carried on without blows and bloodlhed: but
when once the choice is made, the perfon elefted is fa-
luted with the words Alla Barick, “ God blefs you,^
or profper you and the new dey ufually caufes all
the officers of the douwan, who had oppofed his elec¬
tion, to be ftrangled, filling up their places with thofe
who had been moft zealous in promoting it. From this
account of the ele&ion of the deys, it cannot be expec¬
ted that their government ftiould be at all fecure ; and
as they arrive at the throne by tumult, diforder, and
bloodffied, they are generally deprived of it by the fame
means, fcarcely one in ten of them having the good
fortune to die a naturaf death.
In this country it is not to be expefted that juftice
nniftf adminiftered with any degree of impartiality,
ents &c The Mahometan foldiery, in particular, are fo much
’ favoured, that they are feldom put to death for any
crime, except rebellion; in which cafe, they are either
ftrangled with a bow-ftring, or hanged to an iron hook.
In leffer offences, they are fined, or their pay ftopped;
and if officers, they are reduced to the ftation of com¬
mon foldiers, from whence they may gradually raife Algiers,
themfelves to their former dignity. Women guilty of ~
adultery, have a halter tied about their necks, with the
other end faftened to a pole, by which they are held
under water till they are fuffocated. The baftinado is
likewife inflifted for fmall offences; and is given either
upon the belly, back, or foies of the feet, according to
the pleafure of the cadi; who alfo the appoints the num¬
ber of ftrokes. Thefe fometimes amount to 200 or 300,
according to the indulgence the offender can obtain
either by bribery or friends; and hence he often dies
under this puniftiment, for want of powerful enough
advocates. But the moft terrible puniftiments, are thefe
inflifted upon the Jews, or Chriftians, wrho fpeak againft
Mahomet or his religion; in which cafe, they muft ei¬
ther turn Mahometans, or be impaled alive. If they
afterwards apoftatize, they are burned or roafted alive;
or elfe thrown down from the top of the city-walls,
upon iron hooks, where they are caught by different
parts of their body, according as they happen to fall,
and fometimes expire inthegreateft torments; though
by accident they may be put out of pain at once, as we
have already related of the Spanifti adventurer John
Gafcon. This terrible puniftunent, however, begins
now to be difufed.
The officer next in power to the dey is the aga of ^2?
the janiffaries, who is one of the oldeft officers in the
army, and holds his poft only for two months. He is military
then fucceeded by the chiah, or next fenior officer.— cers.
During the two months in which the aga enjoys his dig¬
nity, the keys of the metropolis are m his hands; all
military orders are iffued out in his name; and the fen-
tence of the dey upon any offendmg foldier, whether
capital or not, can only be executed in the court of
his palace.—As foon as he Is gone through this ftiort
office, he is confidered as mazoul, or fuperannuated ;
receives his pay regularly, like the reft of the militia,
every two moons; is exempt from all further duties, ex¬
cept when called by the dey to affift at the grand coun¬
cil, to which he hath, however, a right to come at all
times, but hath no longer a vote in it.^—Next to the
aga in dignity, is the fecretary of ftate, who regifters
all the public a£ts; and after him are the 30 chiahs,
or colonels, who fit next to the aga in the douwan,
and in the fame gallery with him. Out of this clafs
are generally chofen thofe who go embaffadors to fo¬
reign courts, or who difperfe the dey’s orders through¬
out the realm.—Next to them are 800 bolluck-balhaws,
or eldeft captains, who are promoted to that of chiah-
baftiaws, according to their feniority. The oldack- .
bafhaws, or lieutenants, are next; who amount to 400,
and are regularly raifed to the rank of captains in their
turn, and to other employments in the ftate, according
to their abilities. Thefe, by way of diftindlion, wear
a leather ftrap, hanging down to the middle of their
back. One rule is ftri&Iy obferved in the rotation of
thefe troops from-one deputy to a higher; viz. the right
of feniority; one iingle infringement of which would
caufe an infurredtion, and probably coft the dey his
life. Other military officers of note are the vekelards,
or purveyors of the army ; the peys, who are the four
oldeft foldiers, and confequently the neareft to prefer¬
ment ; the foulacks, who are the next in feniority to
them, and are part of the dey’s body-guard, always
marching before him when he takes the field, and dif--
tinguiftied.
A L G l 248 ] A L G
Algiers, tinguifhed by their carbines and gilt fcymiters, with a
- ” brafs gun on their caps; the kayts, or Turkifh fol-
diers, each band of whom have the government of one
or more adowars, or itinerant villages, and col left their
taxes for the dey ; and the fagiards, or Turkifh lance-
men, xoo of whom always attend the army, and watch
over the water appointed for it. To thefe we may add
the beys, or governors of the three great provinces of
the realm. All the above-mentioned officers ought to
compofe the great douwan or council above-mentioned;
but only the 30 chiah-bafhaws have a right to fit in the
allery next after the dey: The reft are obliged to
and on the floor of the hall, or council-chamber,
with their arms acrofs, and, as much as poffible, with¬
out motion ; neither are they permitted to enter with
their fwords on, for fear of a tumult. As for thofe
who have any matters to tranfaft with the douwan,
they muft ftand without, let the weather be ever fo
bad ; and there they are commonly prefented with cof¬
fee by fome of the inferior officers, till they are dif-
S? miffed.
Divifion of The kingdom of Algiers is at prefent divided into
three provinces or diftrifts, viz. the eaftern, weftern,
and fouthern. The eaftern or Levantine government,
which is by far the moft confiderable of the three, and is
alfo called Beylick, contains the towns of Bona, Conftan-
tina, Gigeri, Bujeyah, Steffa, Tebef, Zamoura, Bifcara,
and Necanz, in all which the Turks have their garri-
fons : befides which, it includes the two ancient king¬
doms of Cuco and Labez, though independent of the
Algerine government, to whofe forces their country is
inacceffible; fo that they ftilllive under their own cheyks,
chofen by each of their adowars or hords. To thefe
we may add a French faftory at Callo, under the di-
re&ion of the company of the French Baftion.—The
weftern government hath the towns of Oran, Tremecen,
Moftagan, Tenez, and Secrelly with its caftle and gar-
rifon.—The fouthern government hath neither town,
village, nor even a houfe, all the inhabitants living in
tents, which obliges the bey and his forces to be al-
58 ways encamped.
Rivers. The moft confiderable rivers of Algiers are the Zha,
or Ziz, which runs acrofs the province of Tremecen,
and the defert of Anguid, falling into the Mediterra¬
nean, near the town of Tabecrita, where it has the name
of Strut. (2.) The Haregol, fuppofed the Sign of Pto¬
lemy, comes down from the great Atlas, crofles the
defert of Anguid, and falls into the fea, about five
leagues from Oran. (3.) The Mina, fuppofed the Chy-
lematisoi Ptolemy, a large river, which runs through
the plains of Bathala, and falls into the fea near the
town of Arzew. This river hath lately received the
name of Cena, who rebuilt the town of Bathalah, af¬
ter it had been deftroyed. (4.) The Shelliff, Zilef, or
Zilif, defcending from the mount Gnanexeris, runs
through fome great deferts, the lake Titteri, the fron¬
tiers of Tremecen and Tenez, falling into the fea a
little above the city of Moftagan. (5.) The Celef,
fuppofed to be the Carthena of the ancients, falls into
the fea, about three leagues weft of Algiers, after a
Ihort courfe of 18 or 20 leagues. (6.) The Hued-al-
quivir, fuppofed to be the Nalabata, or Nafaba, of the
ancients,. and called by the Europeans Zinganir, runs
down, with a fwift courfe, through fome high moun¬
tains of Cuco, and falls into the fea near Bujeyah.
Whilft the city of Bujeyah was in the hands of the Algien.
Chriftians* the mouth of this river was fo choaked up 59
with fand, that no veffel could come up into it: but in Harbour of
1555, very foon after it was taken by the Moors, the cleared*!)
great rains fwelled it to fuch a degree, that all the fand accident/
and mud was carried off; fo that galleys, and other
veffels, have ever fince entered it with eafe, where they
lie fafe from ftorms, and all winds, but that which blows
from the north. (7.) Suf-Gemar, or Suf-Gimmar al
Rumniel, fuppofed to be the Ampfaga of Ptolemy, hath
its fource on mount Auras, on the confines of Atlas;
thence runs through fome barren plains, and the fruit¬
ful ones of Conftantina, where its ftream is greatly
increafed by fome other rivers it receives; from thence
running northward, along the ridges of fome high
mountains, it falls into the fea a little eaft of Gigeri.
(8.) The Ladag, or Ludeg, runs down from mount
Atlas through part of Conftantina, and falls into the
fea a little eaftward of Bona. (9.) Guadi, or Guadel
Barbar, fprings from the head of Orbus, or Urbs, in
Tripoli, runs through Bujeyah, and falls into the fea
near Tabarea. ga
Befides thefe there are many others of lefs note ; of Account of
which, however, we do not find that the Algerines a- ,hc corfiir|
vail themfelves as they might do, their genius leading ^^nmerce»
them too much to the piratical trade to mind any real
advantage that might be derived from their own coun¬
try. The corfairs, or pirates, form each a fmall re¬
public, of which the rais or captain is the fupreme
bafhaw; who, with the officers under him, form a kind
of douwan, in which every matter relating to the vef¬
fel is decided in an arbitrary way. Thefe corfairs are
chiefly inftrumental in importing whatever commodities
are brought into the kingdom either by way of mer-
chandife or prizes. Thefe confift chiefly of gold and
filver ftuffs, damalks, cloths, fpices, tin, iron, plated
brafs, lead, quickfilver, cordage, fail-cloth, bullets,
cochineal, linen, tartar, alum, rice, fugar, foap, cot¬
ton raw and fpun, copperas, aloes, brazil and log¬
wood, vermilion, &c. Very few commodities, however,
are exported from this part of the world; the oil, wax,
hides, pulfe and corn produced, being but barely fufficient
to fupply the country; though, before the lofs of Oran,
the merchants have been known to (hip off from one or
other of the ports of Barbary feveral thoufand tons
of corn. The confumption of oil, though here in great
abundance, is likewife fo confiderable in this kingdom,
that it is feldom permitted to be ftiipped off for Eu¬
rope. The other exports confift chiefly in oftriches
feathers, copper, ruggs, filk fafties, embroidered hand¬
kerchiefs, dates, and Chriftian flaves. Some manu-
fa&ures in filk, cotton, wool, leather, &c. are car¬
ried on in this country, but moftly by the Spaniards
fettled here, efpeciaily about the metropolis. Carpets
are alfo a manufacture of the country, which, though
much inferior to thofe of Turkey, both in beauty and
finenefs, are preferred by the people to lie upon, on
account of their being both cheaper and fofter. There
are alfo, at Algiers, looms for velvet, taffaties, and o-
ther wrought filks ; and a coarfe fort of linen is like¬
wife made in moft parts of the kingdom. gt
The inhabitants along the fea-coafts are a mixture Inhabitants (
of different nations; but chiefly Moors and Morefcos
driven out of Catalonia, Arragon, and other parts of
Spain. Here are alfo great numbers of Turks, who
come
A L G [ 249 ] A L G
Algiers, come from the Levant to feek their fortune ; as well as
: multitudes of Jews and Chriftians taken at fea, who
are brought hither to be fold for flaves. The Bere-
bers are fame of the mod ancient inhabitants of the
country; and are fuppofed to be defcended from the
ancient Sabeans, who came hither from Arabia Felix,
under the conduct of one of their princes. Others be¬
lieve them to be fome of the Canaanites driven out of
Paleftine by Jofhua. Thefe are difperfed all over Bar¬
bary, and divided into a multitude of tribes under their
refpeftive chiefs: moft of them inhabit the mountainous
parts; fome range from place to place, and live in tents,
or portable huts; others in fcattered villages: they have,
neverthelefs, kept themfelves for the moft part from in¬
termixing with other nations. The Berebers are reckon¬
ed the richeft of all, go better cloathed, and carry on a
much larger traffic of cattle, hides, wax, honey, iron,
and other commodities. They have alfo fome artifi¬
cers in iron, and fome manufafturers in the weaving
branch.—The name of Bereler is fuppofed to have been
originally given them on account of their being firft
fettled in fome defert place. Upon their increafing in
procefs of time, they divided themfelvcs into five tribes,
probably on account of religious differences, called the
Zinhagians, Mufamedins, Zeneti, Hoares, and Gome-
res ; and thefe having produced 600 families, fubdi-
vided themfelves into a great number of petty tribes.—
To thefe we may add the Znuoruahs, by European au¬
thors called Azuagues, or AJfagues, who are likewife
difperfed over moft parts of Barbary and Numidia.
Great numbers of thefe inhabit the mountainous parts
of Cuco, Labez, <foc. leading a wandering paftoral
life.—But the moft numerous inhabitants are the Moors
and Arabians. The former are very flout and warlike,
andfkilful horfemen; but fo addicted to robbing, that
one cannot fafely travel along the country at a diltance
from the towns without a guard, or at lead a marabout
or faint for a fafeguard. For as they look upon them¬
felves to be the original proprietors of the country, and
not only as difpoffeffed by the reft of the inhabitants,
but reduced by them to the lowed date of poverty,
they make no fcruple to plunder all they meet by way
of reprifal. See Moors.
Algiers, a city, the capital of the above king¬
dom, is probably the ancient Icoftum : by the Arabians
called Algezair, or rather Al-Jezier, or Al-Jezerah,
i. e. the ijland, becaufe there was an ifland before the
city, to which it hath been fince joined by a mole. It
is built on the declivity of a hill by the fea-fide, in the
form of an amphitheatre; at fea, it looks like the top-
fail of a fhip. The tops of the houfes are quite flat and
white; infomuch, that when it is firft difcovered, one
would take it to be a place where they bleach linen.
One houfe rifes above another in fuch a manner that
they do not hinder each other’s profpedi. The ftreets
are fo narrow, that they will fcarce admit two perfons
to walk a-breaft, and the middle part is lower than
the fides. When any loaded beafts, fuch as camels,
horfes, mules, or affes, pafs along, you are forced to
ftand up clofe to the wall to let them pafs by. There
is but one broad ftreet, which runs through the city
from eaft to weft, in which are the ftiops of the prin¬
cipal merchants, and the market for corn and other com¬
modities. The lower part of the walls of the city are
of hewn ftone, and the upper part of brick; they are
Vol. I.
30 feet high on the land fide, and 40 towards the fea ; Algiers
the foffes or ditches are twenty feet broad, and feven .. N .
deep. There is no fweet water in the city; and thov - S011cllun*
there is a tank or ciftern in every houfe, yet they often
want water, becaufe it rains but feldom: the chief fup-
ply is from a fpring on a hill, the water of which is
conveyed by pipes to above a hundred fountains, at
which a bowl is faftend for the ufe of paffengers. The
common refervoir is at the end of the mole, where the
fhips take in their water. Every one takes his turn at
thefe places, except the Turks, who are firft, and the
Jews laft. There are five gates, which are open from fun-
rifing till fun-fetting ; and feven forts, or caftles, with¬
out the walls, the greateft of which is on the mole with¬
out the gate, all of which are well fupplied with great
guns. There are ten large mofques, and fifty fmall
ones ; three great colleges or public fchools, and a great
number of petty ones for children. The houfes are
fquare, and built of ftone and brick, with a fquare
court in the middle, and galleries all round. There
are faid to be about 100,000 inhabitants in the city,
comprehending 5000 Jewifh families, befides Chriftians.
There are four fundics, or public inns, fuch as are in
Turky; and fix cazernes, or barracks, for the unmar¬
ried Turkiih foldiers, which will hold fix hundred each.
There are no inns for Chriftians to lodge in ; but only
a few tippling-huts kept by flaves, for the accommoda¬
tion of Greeks and the poorer fort of travellers, where
any thing may be had for money. Here are bagnios,
or public baths, in the fame manner as in Turky, at
a very moderate rate. The women have baths of their
own, where the men dare not come. Without the city
there are a great number of fepulchres, as alfo cells or
chapels, dedicated to marabouts, or reputed faints,
which the women go to vifit every Friday. The Turkifti
foldiers are great tyrants ; for they not only turn others
out of the way in the ftreets, but will go to the farm-
houfes in the country for twenty days together, living
on free quarters, and making ufe of every thing, not
excepting the women. The Algerines eat, as in Turky,
fittingcrofs-leggedrounda table about four inches high,
and ufe neither knives nor forks ; before they begin, e-
very one fays. Be ifme Allah, “In the name of God.”
When they have done, a flave pours water on all their
hands as they fit, and then they wafti their mouths.
Their drink is water, fherbet, and coffee. Wine is-not
allowed, though drank immoderately by fome. E.
Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 36. 40.
ALGOL, a fixed ftar of the third magnitude, call¬
ed Medttfa's Head, in the conftellation Perfeus; its
longitude is 210, 50', 42", of Taurus, and its latitude
230, 23', 47 ', north; according to Flamftead’s cata¬
logue.
ALGONQUINS, a nation in North America, who
formerly poffefled great trails of land along the north
fhore of the river St Lawrence. For a long time they
had no rivals as hunters and warriors, and were long
in alliance with the Iroquois ; whom they agreed to
proteil from all invaders, and to let them have a lhare
of their venifon. The Iroquois, on the other hand, were
to pay a tribute to their allies, out of the culture of the
earth; and to perform for them all the menial duties,
fuch as flaying the game, curing the flefti, and dreffing
the flrins. By degrees, however, the Iroquois affociated
in the hunting matches and warlike expeditions of the
A L H L 250 ] A L I
Algonquias Algbnquins ; fo that they foon began to fancy them-
felves as well qualified, either for war or hunting, as their -
~ neighbours. One winter, a large detachment of both
nations having gone out a-hunting, and fecured, as they
thought, a valt quantity of game, fix young Algon-
quins and as many Iroquois were fent out to begin
the daughter. The Algonquins, probably become a
little jealous of their afibciates, upon feeing a few elks,
defired the Iroquois to return, on pretence that they
would have fufficient employment in flaying the game
they ftiould kill; but after three days hunting, having
killed none, the Iroquois exulted, and in a day or two
privately fet out to hunt for themfelves. The Algon¬
quins were fo exafperated at feeing their rivals return
laden with game, that they murdered all the hunters
in the night-time. The Iroquois difiembled their re-
fentment; but in order to be revenged, applied them¬
felves to ftudy the art of war as praftifed among thofe
favage nations. Being afraid of engaging with the
Algonquins at fir'll, they tried their prowefs oh other
inferior nations, and, when they thought themfelves
fufficiently expert, attacked the Algonquins with fuch
diabolical fury, as Ihewed they could be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than the extermination of the whole race;
which, had it not been for the interpofition of the
French, they would have accomplilhed. —The few Al¬
gonquin nations that are now to be feen, feem entirely
ignorant of agriculture, and fubfill by filhing and hunt¬
ing. They allow themfelves a plurality of wives; not-
withftanding which, they daily decreafe in populoufn-efs,
few or none of their nations containing above 6000
fouls, and many of them not 2000. Their language is
one of the three radical ones in North America, being
underftood from the river St Lawrence to the Miflifiippi.
ALGOR, with phyficians, an unufual coldnefs in
any part of the body.
ALGORITHM, an Ai’abic word exprelfive of nu¬
merical computation.
ALGUAZIL, in the Spanilh polity, an officer
whofe bufinefs it is to fee the decrees of a judge exe¬
cuted.
ALHAGI, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
ofhedyfarum. See Hedysarum.
ALHAMA, a very pleafant town of the kingdom
of Granada, in Spain, fituated in the midft of feme
craggy mountains, about 25 miles S. W. of Granada,
on the banks of the Rio Frio, in W. Long. 1. 10.
N. Lat. 36. 59. and having the fineft warm baths in
all Spain. It was taken from the Moors in 1481.
The inhabitants, though furprifed, and the town with¬
out a garrifon, made a gallant defence: but being at
length forced to fubmit, the place was abandoned to
the pillage of the Chrijlian foldiers; who, not fatisfied
with an immenfe quantity of gold and jewels, made
flaves of upwards of 3000 of the inhabitants.
ALI, gives the denomination to a fedl, or divifion,
among the Mahometans, who adhere to the right of
fucceffion of Ali, the fourth caliph, or fucceffor of
Mahomet, and the reform, of Muffulmanifm introduced
by him. The fe&aries of Ali are,more particularly
called Schiites ; and Hand oppofed to the Sunnites, or
fett of Omar, who adhere to-the law, as left by Maho¬
met, Abubeker, and Omar. Ali"was coufin of Maho¬
met, and fon-in-law of that prophet, having married his
daughter Fatimah. After Mahomet’s death, great de¬
putes arofe about the fucceffibn: many Hood for Ali; Alibi
but Abubeker was preferred, and eledted the firft kalif. Ij
Ali took his turn, after the death of Othman.—The 1£n-
Perfians are the chief adherents to the fedt of Ali, whom
they hold to have been the legitimate fucceffor of Ma¬
homet, and Abubeker an ufurper. On the contrary, the
Turks are of the fedlof Omar; and hold Ali in execra¬
tion, having raifed a furious civil war among the Muf-
fulmans. The diftinguifhing badge of the followers of
Ali is a red turban,which is worn by the Perfians, who
are hence called in derifion, by the Turks, Kifilbachi,
q. d. red-heads. Ali is reputed the author of feveral
works, particularly a Centiloquium, in great repute a-
mong the Arabs and Perfians, part of which has been
publiflied in Englifli by Mr Ockley.
ALIBI,in law: When a perfon purfued for thecom-
miffion of a crime, libelled to have been perpetrated at
a certain place, and upon a certain day, proves in his
defence, that he was elfewhere at the time libelled, he
is faid to have proved alibi.
ALICANT, a large fea-port town, in the province
of Valencia and territory of Segura. It is feated be¬
tween the mountains and the fea, and has a caflle
deemed impregnable. The port is defended by three
baftions furnifhed with artillery. To prevent the vifits
of the Algerine pirates, watch-towers were built to
give notice of the approach of an enemy’s fliip. It
was taken from the Moors in 1264. The caftle-was
taken by the Englilh in 1706, and held out a fiege of
two years before it was retaken by the French and Spa¬
niards, and at laft furrendered upon honourable terms,
after part of the rock was blown up on which the caftle
ftood, and the governor killed. The houfes are high,
and well built; and a very great trade is carried on here,
particularly in wine and fruit. It is feated in the Me¬
diterranean, on a bay of the fame name, 37 miles north- *
eaft of Murcia, and 75 fouth of Valencia. W. Long,
o. 36. N. Lat. 38. 24.
ALICATA, a mountain of Sicily, near the valleys
Mazara and Noto, upon which was fituated (as is ge¬
nerally thought) the famous Dasdalion, where the ty¬
rant Phalaris kept his brazen bull.
Alicata, a town of Sicily, remarkable for corn and
good wine. It was plundered by the Turks in 1543 ;
and is feated on a fort of peninfula near the fea, twen¬
ty-two miles S. E. of Girgenti. E. Long. 15. 20.
N. Lat. 37. 11.
ALIEN, in law, implies a perfon born in a ftrange
country, not within the king’s allegiance ; in contra-
diftinftion to a denizon, or natural fubjedt. The word
is formed from the Latin alius, another; q. d. one
born in another country. An alien is incapable of in¬
heriting lands in Britain, till naturalized by an aft of
parliament. No alien is entitled to vote at the elec¬
tion of members of parliament; nor can he enjoy any
office, or be returned on any jury, unlefs where an
alien is party in a caufe, when the inqueft is compofed
of an equal number of denizens and aliens. The rea-
fons for dtabliflung thefe laws were, that every man is
prefumed to bear faith and love to that prince and
country where he received proteftion during his infan¬
cy ; and that one prince might not fettle fpies in ano¬
ther’s country ; but chiefly, that the rents and revenues
of the country might not be drawn to the fubjefts of
another. Some have thought that the laws againfl: a-
liena
ALI [251] A LI
Alien, Hens were introduced in the time of Henry II. when
Aliment a ^aw was mai^e at t^e parliament of Wallingford, for
 the expulsion of ftrangers, in order to drive away the
Flemings and Picards introduced into the kingdom by
the wars of king Stephen. Others have thought that
the origin of this law was more ancient; and that it
is an original branch of the feudal law: for by that
law no man can purchafe any lands but he muft be obli-
ed to do fealty to the lords of whom the lands are
olden ; fo that an alien who owed a previous,faith to
another prince, could not take an oath of fidelity in
another fovereign’s dominions. Among the Romans,
only the Gives Romani were efteemed freemen ; but,
when their territories increafed, all the Italians were
made free, under the name of Latins, tho’ they had
not the privilege of wearing gold rings till the time
of Jtiftinian. Afterwards all born wdthin the pale of
the empire were confidered as citizens.
Al 1 zn-Diity, an impoft laid on all goods imported
by aliens, over and above the cuftoms paid for fuch
goods imported by Dritifh, and on Britilh bottoms.
Alien-P;v9;vV/, a kind of inferior monafteries, for¬
merly very numerous in England, and fp called from
their belonging to foreign abbeys.
ALIENATION, in law, denotes the aft of making
over a man’s property in land, tenements, &c. to an¬
other perfon.
Alienation in mortmain, is making over lands, te¬
nements, &c. to a body-politic, or to a religious houfe,
for which the king’s licence muft firft be obtained, o-
* See Mori- therwife the lands, &c. alienated will be forfeited *.
mam. ALIMENT, (from alo to nourilh,) implies food
both folid and liquid : from which, by the procefs of
digeftion, is prepared a very mild, fweet, and whitifh
liquor, refembling milk, and diftinguiihed by the name
of chyle; which being abforbed by the lafteal veins,
by them conveyed into the circulation, and there affi-
milated into the nature of blood, affords that fupply
of nutrition which the continual wafte of the body is
found to require.—Next to air, food is the moft necef-
fary thing for the prelervation of our bodies: and as
on the choice thereof our health greatly depends, it is
of great importance to underftand, in general, what
is the propereft for our nourifhment; and, .in particular
■deviations from health, what is the beft adapted to re-
ftore us. Our blood and juices naturally incline to be¬
come putrid and acrimonious : frefh chyle, duly recei¬
ved, prevents this dettruftive tendency, and preferves
in them that mild ftate wdiich alone confifts with health.
An animal diet affords the moft of this bland nutritious
mucilage; watery fluids dilute the too grofs parts, and
carry off what is become unfit for ufe. It is only the
fmall portion of jelly which is feparated from the fa¬
rinaceous parts of vegetables, that, after being much
elaborated, is converted into the animal nature ; yet
the ufe of vegetables prevents both repletion, and a
too great tendency to a putrefcent acrimony of the
blood. In hot climates, as well as againft the confti-
tutional heat of particular perfpns, vegetables are de¬
manded in the largeft portion; animal fubftances af¬
ford the higheft reliih while our appetite continues,
but will fate the appetite before the ftomach is duly fil¬
led. Vegetables .may be eaten after either flefli or
fiffi: few herbs or fruits fatiate fo much as that the
itomach may not be filled with them, when it is alrea¬
dy fatisfied with flefli Or fifli ; whence it may be ob- Aliment
ferved, that no diet which is very nourifliing can be AiJma
eat to fulnefs, becaufe its nutritious parts are oily and L .
fatiating.—Health depends almoft wholly on a proper
crafis of the blood ; and to preferve this a mixture of
vegetables in feme degree is always required, for a
loathing is foon the confequence of animal food alone ;
hot acrid habits, too, receive from milk and vegetables
the needful for correfting their exceffes ; but in cold,
pituitous, and nervous habits, who want moft nourifti-
ment from leaft digeftion, and from the fmalleft quan¬
tity of food, animal diet is to be ufed more freely.
Thus much being offered as general principles with
refpeft to the matter and’quality of our aliment, the va¬
letudinarian may eafily regulate his diet with fome ad¬
vantage to himfelf by an attention to the few enfuing
particulars. In winter, eat freely, but drink fparingly :
roaft meat is to be preferred, and what is drank fhould
be ftronggr than at other feafons. In fummer, letthirft
determine the quantity to be drank ; cold ftomachs ne¬
ver require much : boiled meats and vegetables, if not
otherwife contradifted, may now be more freely ufed.
Lax habits require the winter’s diet to be continued all
the year, and rigid ones fliould be confined to that of
fummer. Fat people fhould fall at times, but the lean
fhould never do fo. Thofe who are troubled with e-
ruftations occafioned by their food, Ihould drink but
little, and ufe fome unaccuftomed exercife. The thirfty
fhould drink freely, but eat fparingly. In general, let
moderation he obferved ; and tho’ no dinner hath been
had, a light fupper is at all times to be preferred. Af¬
ter very high-feafoned meats, a glafs of water acidula¬
ted with the acid elixir of vitriol *, or in very weak See
ftomachs the fweet elixir of vitriol f, is far more aflif- no
tant to the work of digeftion than the common method | jh, _1)
of taking brandy.
Obligation of Aliment, in Scots law, the natural
obligation on parents to provide their children with the
neceffaries of life, &c. See Law, PartHI. N° clxxiii.4
ALIMONY, in law, implies that allowance which
a married woman fues for, and is entitled to, upon any
occafional feparation from her hufband *. * See Law,
ALIPILARIUS, or Alipilus, in Roman anti- Paort m-
quity, a fervant belonging to the baths, whofe bufinefs c ^ ,3*
it was, by means of waxen plafters, and an inftrument
called volfella, to take off the hairs from the arm-pits,
and even arms, legs, See. this being deemed a point of
cleanlinefs.
ALIPTERIUM, cc\itxhgtov, In antiquity, a place
in the ancient paleflrse, where the athlctx were anoint¬
ed before their exercifes.
ALIQUANT part, in arithmetic, is that number
which cannot meafure any other exaftly without fome
remainder. Thus 7 is an aliquant part of 16 ; for twice
7 wants two of 16, and three times 7 exceeds 56 by 5.
ALIQUOT part, is that part of a number or quan¬
tity, which will exaftly meafure it without any remain¬
der. Thus 2 is an aliquot part of 4; 3 of 9; 4 of l6 ; &c.
ALISMA, or Thrumwort, a genus of the po-
lyginia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants.
Of this genus, Linmeus enumerates feven fpecies, viz. the
plantago, or great water-plantain, which grows in all the
marftiy parts of this country; the ranunculoides, or leffer
water-plantain; the natans, or creeping water-plantain;
•the damafonium, or ftar-headed water-plantain j all which
I i 2 are
ALL [ 252 ] ALL
Alites are natives of Britain. The others, viz. the flava, cor-
II. difolia, and fubulata, are natives of America, where
atlui‘ they are generally found in ftagnating waters, and o-
ther fwampy .places; fo that it would be difficult to
preferve them in Britain, for they will not live in the
open air, and require a bog to make them thrive : but
as they are plants of no great beauty or ufe, it is not
worth while to cultivate them in this country.
ALITES, in Roman antiquity, a defignation gi¬
ven to fuch birds as afforded matter of auguries by
their flight.
ALKAHEST, or Alcahest, in chemiftry, an
univerfal menftruum capable of refolving all bodies in¬
to their firft principles. Van Helmont pretended he
was pofleffed of fuch a menltruum ; but, however cre¬
dulous people might be impofed on in his days, the no¬
tion is now become as ridiculous as the philofopher's
ftone, the perpetuum mobile, &c.—It is likewife ufed
by fome authors for all fixed falts volatilized.
ALKALI, in chemittry. See Alcali.
ALKANET, in botany. See Anchusa.
ALKEKENGI, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpecies of phyfalis. See Physalis.
ALKERMES, in pharmacy, a compound cordial
medicine made in the form of a confettion, deriving its
* See name from the kermes-berriesufed in its compofition*.
J^«,and ALL-HALLOWS. See the next article.
%uercus. ALL-SAINTS, in the calendar, denotes a feftival
celebrated on the firft: of November, in commemoration
of all the faints in general; which is otherwife called
All-hallonus. The number of faints being fo exceffive-
ly multiplied, it was found too burdenfome to dedicate
a feaft-day to each. In reality, there are not days
enough, fcarce hours enough, in the year, for this pur-
pofe. Hence an expedient was had recourfe to, by
commemorating fuch in the lump as had not their own
days. Boniface IV. in the ninth century, introduced
the feaft of All-Saints in Italy, which was foon after
adopted into the other churches.
All-saints Bay, a fpacious harbour near St Sal¬
vador in Brazil, in S. America, on the Atlantic Ocean.
W. long. 40°, S. lat. 120.
ALL-SOULS, a feftival kept in commemoration of
all the faithful deceafed, on the fecond of November.
ALLA, or Allah, the name by which the profef-
fors of Mahometanifm call the Supreme Being.
The term alia is Arabic, derived from the verb alab,
to adore. It is the lame with the Hebrew Eleab, which
fignifies the Adorable Being.,
ALLANTOIS, or Allantoides, a gut-lhaped
veficle invefting the foetus of cows, goats, (lieep, &c.
filled with an urinous liquor conveyed to it from the
urachus.—Anatomifts are not agreed whether the al-
* Ste Foetus; lantois has any exiftence in the human fpecies or not *.
and Compa- ALLATIUS (Leo), keeper of the Vatican library,
rattve Ana- . r o • v j 1 l , • r , L
iemy,no 7p. a native ox bcio,. and a celebrated writer of the i7rh
century. He was of great fervice to the gentlemen of
Port Royal in the eontroverfy they had with M.Claude
touching the belief of the Greeks with regard to the
eucharift.. No Latin was ever more devoted to the fee
of Rome, or more inveterate againft the Greek fchif-
matics, than Allatius. He never engaged in matri¬
mony, nor was he ever in. orders.; and Pope Alexan¬
der VII. having alked him one day, why he did not en¬
ter into orders, he anfwered, “ Becaufe I would be
free to marry.” The pope rejoined, “ If fo, why do Allay j
you not marry ?” “ Becaufe,^ replied Allatius, “ I Jr
would be at liberty to take orders.” Thus, as Mr “egiange- |
Bayle obferves, he palled his whole life, wavering be¬
twixt a pariffi and a wife; forry, perhaps, at his death,
for having chofen neither of them; when, if he had fix¬
ed upon one, he might have repented his choice for 30
or 40 years.—If we believe John Patricius, Allatius
had a very extraordinary pen, with which, and no o-
ther, he wrote Greek for 40 years ; and we need not
be furprifed, that, when he loft it, he was fo grieved,
that he could fcarce forbear crying. He publilhed fe-
veral manufcripts, feveral tranllations of Greek authors,
and feveral pieces of his own compofing. In his com-
pofitions he is thought to (hew more erudition than
judgment: he ufed alfo to make frequent digreffions
from one fubjeft to another. He died at Rome in 1669,
aged 83.
ALLAY. See Alloy.
ALLEGATA, a word anciently fubfcribed at the
bottom of refcripts and conftitutions of the emperors;
2.% fignata, or tejlata, was under other inftrumentS.
ALLEGIANCE, in law, is the tie, or ligamen,
which binds the fubjeft to the king, in return for that
prote&ion which the king affords the fubjeft. The
thing itfelf, or fubftantial part of it, is founded in rea-
fon and the nature of government; the name and the
form are derived to us from our Gothic anceftors. Un¬
der the feodal fyftem, every owner of lands held them in
fubje&ion to fome fuperior or lord, from whom or from
whofe anceftors the tenant or vaffal had received them:
and there was a mutual truft or confidence fubfifting
between the lord and vaffal, that the lord Ihould protect
thevaffal in the enjoyment of theterritoryhe had granted
him; and, on the other hand, that the vaffal Ihould be
faithful to the lord, and defend him againftall his enemies.
This obligation on the part of the vaffal was called his f-
delitas or fealty; and an oath of fealty was required by
the feodal law to be taken by all tenants to their land¬
lord, which is couched in almoft the fame terms as our
ancient oath of allegiance: except, that in the ufual oath
of fealty, there was frequently a faving or exception of
the faith due to a fuperior lord by name, under whom
the landlord himfelf was perhaps only a tenant or vaf¬
fal. But when the acknowledgement was made to the
abfolute fuperior himfelf, who was vaffal to no man, it
was no longer called the oath of fealty, but the oath of
allegiance ; and therein the tenant fwore to bear faith
to his fovereign lord, in oppofition to all men, without
any faving or exception: “ contra omneshomines fideli-
tatem fecit." Land held by this exalted fpecies of feal¬
ty, was called feudunt ligium, a liege fee; the vaffals
homines ligii, or liege men; and the fovereign, their do-
minus ligius, or liege lord. And when fovereign princes
did homage to each other for lands held under their
refpeftive fovereignties, a diftinftion was always made
between fmple homage, which was only an acknow¬
ledgement of tenure ; and liege homage, which included
the fealty before-mentioned, and the fervices confequent
upon it. Thus, when Edward III. of England in 1329,
did homage to Philip VI. of France, for his ducal do¬
minions on that continent; it was warmly difputed of
what fpecies the homage was to be, whetherV/V^r or
fmple homage. But with us in Britain, it becoming a
fettled principle of tenure, that all lands in the king¬
dom.
ALL [ 253 ] ALL
dom are holden of the king as their fovereign and lord
paramount, no oath but that of fealty could ever be ta¬
ken to inferior lords 5 and the oath of allegiance was
necefiarily confined to the perfon of the king alone. By
an eafy analogy, the term of allegiance was foon brought
to fignify all other engagements which are due from
fubjefts to -their prince, as well as thofe duties which
were Amply and merely territorial. And the oath of
allegiance, as adminiltered in England for upwards of
600 years, contained a promife “ to be true and faith-
“ ful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to
« bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to
“ know or hear of any ill or damage intended him,
without defending him therefrom.” But, at the re¬
volution, the terms of this oath being thought perhaps
to favour too much the notion of non-rehftance, the
prefent form was introduced by the convention parlia¬
ment, which is more general and indeterminate than
the former; the fubjedt onlypromifing “ that he will
“ be faithful and bear true allegiance to the king,”
without mentioning “ his heirs,” or fpecifying in the
leaft. wherein that allegiance confifts. The oath of fu-
premacy is principally calculated as a renunciation of
the pope’s pretended authority: and the oath of abju¬
ration, introduced in the reign of King William, very
amply fupplies the loofe and general texture of the oath
of allegiance; it recGgnizing the right of his majefty,
derived under the aft of fettlement; engaging to fup-
port him to the utmoft of the juror’s power; promifing
to difclofe all traiterous confpiracies againft him ; and
exprefsly renouncing any claim of the defcendants of
the late pretender, in as clear and explicit terms as the
Englilh language can furnilh. This oath muft be ta¬
ken by all perfons in any office, truft, or employment;
and may be tendered by two juftices of the peace to
any perfon whom they fhall fufpeft of difaffeftion. And
the oath of allegiance may be tendered to all perfons
above the age of twelve years, whether natives, deni¬
zens, or aliensi.
But, befides thefe exprefs engagements, the law alfo
holds that there is an implied, original, and virtual al¬
legiance, owing from every fubjeft to his fovereign, an¬
tecedently to any exprefs promife, and although the
fubjeft never fwore any faith or allegiance in form. For
as the king, by the very defeent of the crown, is fully
invefted with all the rights and bound to all the duties
of fovereignty, before his coronation; fo the fubjeft is
Bound to his prince by an intrinfic allegiance, before
the fuper-induftion of thofe outward bonds of oath, ho¬
mage, and fealty, which were only inftituted to remind
the fubjeft of this his previous duty, and for the better
fecuring its performance. The formal profeffion, there¬
fore, or oath of fubjeftion, is nothing more than a de¬
claration in words of what was before implied in law.
Which occafions Sir Edward Coke very juftly to ob-
ferve, that “ all fubjefts are equally bounden to their
allegiance, as if they had taken the oath; becaufe it is
written by the finger of the law in their hearts, and
the taking of the corporal oath is but an outward de¬
claration of the fame.” The fanftion of an oath, it is
true, in cafe of violation of duty, makes the guilt ftill
more accumulated, by fuperadding peijury to treafon:
but it does not increafe the civil obligation to loyalty;
it only ftrengthens the fecial tie, by uniting it with that
of religion.
Allegiance, both exprefs and implied, is however di- Allegiance
ftinguifhed by the law into two forts or fpecies, the one ”
natural, the other local; the former being alfo perpe¬
tual, the latter temporary.
Natural allegiance is fuch as is due from all men born
within the king’s dominions immediately upon their
birth. For, immediately upon their birth, they are un¬
der the king’s proteftion; at a time too, when (during
their infancy) they are incapable of protefting them-
felves. Natural allegiance is, therefore, a debt of gra¬
titude; which cannot be forfeited, cancelled, or alter¬
ed, by any change of time, place, or circumftance, nor
by any thing but the united concurrence of the legifla-
ture. A Briton who removes to France, or to China,
owes the fame allegiance to the king of Britain there,
as at home, and twenty years hence as well as now'. For
it is a principle of univerfal law. That the natural-born
fubjeft of one prince cannot by any aft of his own, no,
not by fwearing allegiance to another, put off or dif-
charge his natural allegiance to the former: for this
natural allegiance was intrinfic, and primitive, and an¬
tecedent to the other; and cannot be diverted Without
the concurrent aft of that prince to whom it was firft
due. Indeed the natural-born fubjeft of one prince, to
whom he owes allegiance, may beentangledbyfubjefting
himfelf abfolutely to another: but it is his own aft that
brings him into thofe rtraits and difficulties, of owing
fervice to two mafters; and it is unreafonable, that, by
fuch voluntary aft of his own, he fhculd be able at plea-
fure to unloofe thofe bands by which he is connefted
to his natural prince.
Local allegiance is fuch as is due from an alien, or
ftranger born, for fo long time as he continues within
the king’s dominion and proteftion ; and it ceafes, the
inftant inch rlranger transfers himfelf from this king¬
dom to another. Natural allegiance is therefore per¬
petual, and local temporary only; and that for this rea-
fon, evidently founded upon the nature of government,
That allegiance is a debt due from the fubjeft, upon an
implied contraft with the prince, that fo long as the one
affords proteftion, fo long the other will demean him¬
felf faithfully. As, therefore, the prince is always un¬
der a conftsnt tie to proteft his natural-born fubjefts
at all times and in all countries, for this reafon their al¬
legiance due to him is equally univerfal and permanent.
But, on the other hand, a\ the prince affords his pro¬
teftion to an alien, only during his refidenee in th’s
realm, the allegiance of an alien is confined (in point
of time) to the duration of fuch his refidence, and (in
point of locality) to the dominions of the Britifh em¬
pire. From which confiderations, Sir Matthew Hale
deduces this confequence, That, though there be an u-
furper of the crown, yet it is treafon for any fubjeft,
while the ufurper is in full poffeffion of the fovereignty,
to praftice any thing againft his crown and'dignity:
wherefore, altlio’ the true prince regain his fovereignty
yet fuch attempts againft the ufurper (unlefs in defence
or aid of the rightful king) have been afterwards pu-
nifhed with death; becaufe of the breach of that tem¬
porary allegiance, v/hich was due to him as king de
fatto. And upon this footing, after Edward IV. re¬
covered the crown, which had been long detained from
his houfe by the line of Lancafter, treafons committed
againft Henry VI. were capitally punifhed, tho’ Henry
had been declared an ufurper by parliament.
Alicia
ALL [ *54 ] ALL
Allegory The oath of allegiance, or rather the allegiance it-
A,. N felt, is held to be applicable not only to the political
 egr°‘ capacity of the king, or regal office j but to his natural
perfon, and blood-royal: and for the mifapplication of
their allegiance, viz. to the regal capacity or crown,
exclufive of the perfon of the king, were the Spencers
banifhed in the reign of Edward II. And from hence
arofe that principle of perfonal attachment, and affec¬
tionate loyalty, which induced our forefathers (and, if
occafion required, would doubtlefs induce their fons) to
hazard all that was dear to them, life, fortune, and fa¬
mily, in defence and fupport of their liege lord and fo-
vereign.
ALLEGORY, in compofition, confifls in chufing
a fecondary fubjeft,. having all its properties and cir-
• cumftances refembling thofe of the principal fubjeft,
and defcribing the former in fuch a manner as to re-
prefent the latter. The principal fubjeft is thus kept
out of view, and we are left to difcover it by refledtion.
In other words, an allegoryvtre, in every refpect, fi-
milar to an hieroglyphical painting, excepting only
that words are ufed inftead of colours. Their effedts
are precifely the fame : An hieroglyphic raifes two
images in the mind; one feen, that reprefents one that
is not feen: An allegory does the fame; the reprefen-
tive fubjedt is defcribed, and the refemblance leads us
to apply the defcription to the fubjedt reprefented.
There cannot be a finer or more corredl allegory than
the following, in which a vineyard is made to reprefent
God’s own people the Jews :
“ Thou haft brought a vine out of Egypt; thou
haft caft out the heathen, and planted it. Thou didft
“ caufe it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The
“ hills were covered with its fhadow, and the boughs
“ thereof were like the goodly cedars. Why haft thou
“ then broken down her hedges, fo that all that pafs
“ do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth wafte
“ it, and the wild beaft doth devour it. Return, we
“ befeech thee, O God of hofts : look down from hea-
“ yen, and behold, and vifit this vine and the vineyard
“ thy right-hand hath planted, and the branch thou
“ madeft ftrong for thyfelf.” Pfal. Ixxx.
Nothing gives greater pleafure than an allegory,
when the reprefentative fubjedt bears a ftrong analogy,
in all its circumftances, to that which is reprefented.
But mpft writers are unlucky in their choice, the ana¬
logy being generally fo faint and obfeure, as rather to
puzzle than to pleafe. Allegories, as well as meta¬
phors' and fimiles, are unnatural in expreffing. any fe-
vere paifion which totally occupies the mind. For this
reafon, the following fpeech of Macbeth is juftly con¬
demned by the learned author of the Elements of Cri-
ticifm:
Methought I heard a voice cry, Sleep no more !
Macbeth doth murder Sleep ; the innocent deep;
Sleep that knits up the ravell’d lleeve of Care,
The birth of each day’s life, fore Labour’s bath.
Balm of hurt minds, great Nature’s fecond courfe,
Chief nouriiher in life’s feaft. Adt. ii. Sc. 3.
. But fee this fubjedt more fully treated under the article
Metaphor and Allegory.
ALLEGRO, in mufic, an Italian word, denoting
that the part is to be played in a fprightly, brifk, live¬
ly, and gay manner.
Piu Allegro, fignifies, that the part it is joined to
fhould be fung or played quicker ; as
FW/u'a Allegro intimates, that the part to which
it refers ought to be played or fung only a little more
brifkly than allegro alone requires.
ALLEIN (Jofeph), the fon of Tobias Allein, was
born in the Devizes, in Wiltihire, in 1633, and edu¬
cated at Oxford. In 1655, he became affiftant to Mr
Newton, in Taunton-Magdalen, in Somerfetihire; but
was deprived for non-conformity. He died in j 668,
aged 35. Fie was a man of great learning, and greater
charity ; preferving, though a nonconformift and a fe-
vere fufferer on that account, great refpedf for the
church, and loyalty to his fovereign. He wrote feve-
ral books of piety, which are highly efteemed; but
his Alarm to unconverted fmners is more famous than
the reft. There have been many editions of this little
pious work, the fale of which has been very great; of
the edition 1672, there were 20,000 fold; of that 1675,
with this title, Afureguide to heaven, 50,000. There
was alfo a large impreffion of it with its firft title,
in 1720.
ALLEMAND, a fort of grave folemn mufic, with
ood meafure, and a How movement.—It is alfo a briik
ind of dance, very common in Germany and Swit¬
zerland.
ALLEMANNIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any
thing belonging to the ancient Germans. Thus, we
meet with Allemannic hiftory, Allemannic language,
Allemannic law, &c.
ALLEN (Thomas), a famous mathematician of the
fixteenth century, born at Utoxeter in Staffordlhire,
the 21st of December 1542. He was admitted fcholar
of Trinity-college, Oxford, the 4th of June 1561; and
in 1567, took his degree of mafter of arts. In 1570,
he quitted his college and fellowftup, and retired to
Gloucefter-hall; where he ftudied very clofely, and be¬
came famous for his knowledge in antiquity, philofo-
phy, and mathematics. Having received an Invitation
from Henry earl of Northumberland, a great friend
and patron of the mathematicians, he fpent fome time
at the earl’s houfe^ where he became acquainted with
thofe celebrated mathematicians Thomas Harriot, John
Dee, Walter Warner, and Nathaniel Torporley. Ro¬
bert earl of Leicefter had a particular efteem for Mr
Allen, and would have conferred a bifhopric upon him,
but his love of folitude and retirement made him de¬
cline the offer. His great Ikill in the mathematics,
made the ignorant and vulgar look upon him as a ma¬
gician or conjurer : the author of a book intitled Lei-
cefter's Common'wealth, hasaccordingly'accufed him with
ufing the art of figuring, to procure the earl of Lei-
cefter’s unlawful deiigns, and endeavouring by the
black art to bringabout a match betwixt him and Queen
Elizabeth. But without pretending to point out the
abfurdity of the charge, it is certain that the earl pla¬
ced fuch confidence in Allen, that nothing material in
the ftate was tranfa&ed without his knowledge; and the
earl had conftant information, by letter, from Mr Al¬
len, of what paffed in the univerfity. Mr Allen was
very curious and indefatigable in collecting fcattered
manuferipts relating to hiftory, antiquity, aftronomy,
philofophy, and mathematics : thefe collections have
been quoted by feveral learned authors, <bc. and men¬
tioned to have been in the Bibliotheca Alleniana. He
publiftied in Latin the fecond and third books of Clau¬
dius
A I, L [ 2ss ] ALL
ijjAilendorf dius Ptolemy of Pelufium, Concerting the Judgment
! N of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Quadri-
e'' _ partite Confiruttion, with an expofition. He wrote alfo
notes on many of Lilly’s books, and fome on John
Bale’s work De Scriptoribus Maj. Britannia. Having
lived to a great age, he died at Gloucefter-hall, on the
30th of September 1632.
ALLENDORF, a fmall town in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and in the landgravate of Heffe-Caffel,
remarkable for its fait-works, and three ftone-bridges.
It is feated on the river Wefer, 15 miles eaft of Caffel;
E. Long. 10.5. N. Lat. 51. 26.
ALLER, a river which runs thro’the duchy of Lu¬
nenburg, and falls into the Wefer, a little below Verden.
ALLERION, or Alerion, in heraldry, a fort of
eagle without beak or feet, having nothing perfeft but
the wings. They differ from martlets by having their
wings expanded, whereas thofe of the martlet are clofe j
and denote imperialifts vanquifhed and difarmed, for
which reafon they are more common in French than in
German coats of arms.
ALLESTRY (Richard) D. D. an eminent divine,
born at Uppington in Shropfhire, in March 1619,
was educated in the grammar fchool at Coventry, and
afterwards at Chrift-church in Oxford. His parts,
which were extraordinary, were improved by a no lefs
extraordinary induftry. He took up arms for King
Charles I. and was fometimes feen with his mufket in
one hand and his book in the other. He was very ac¬
tive in the fervice of King Charles II. before his refto-
ration, and was employed by the royalifts in tranfac-
ting bufinefs with that prince during his exile; but was
at laft feized at Dover by a party of foldiers, and com¬
mitted prifoner to Lambeth-houfe, where he was con¬
fined fix or eight weeks : but foon after the reftoration
he was made canon of Chrift-church, created doritor
of divinity, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to the
king, and regius profefibr of divinity. In 1665,
he was appointed provofi: of Eton college, where he
railed the fchool, which he found in a low condition,
to an uncommon pitch of reputation. The weft fide
of the outward quadrangle of that college was built
from the ground at his expence. The excellent Dr
Hammond, who was his intimate friend, left him his
valuable library, which he himfelf afterwards bequeath¬
ed to his fucceflbrs in the divinity-chair. He was emi¬
nent for his piety, benevolence, and integrity; for the
fincerity of his friendfhip, and his difinterefted temper.
He wrote feveral books; and a colleftiqn of his fermons
were printed after his deceafe, by Dr Fell, biftiop of
Oxford. He died Auguft 28th 1680.
ALLEVEURE, a fmall brafs Swedifh coin, worth
about \d. Englifh money.
ALLEY (William), biftiop of Exeter in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, was born at Great Wycomb in Buc-
kinghamfhire. From Eton fchool, in the year 152 8,
he removed to king’s college, Cambridge, where he
took the degree of bachelor of arts. He alfo ftudied
fome time at Oxford; afterwards he married, was pre-
fented to a living, and became a zealous reformer. Up¬
on Queen Mary’s acceftion, he left his cure, and reti¬
red into the north of England; where he maintained
his wife and himfelf by teaching a fchool, and prafti-
fing phyfic. Queen Elizabeth afcending the throne,
he went to London, where he acquired great reputa¬
tion by reading the divinity-leclure at St Paul’s, and
in July 1560 was confecrated biftiop of Exeter. He
was created dottor of divinity at Oxford in Nov. 1561.
He died on the 15th of April 1570 ; and was buried
at Exeter, in the cathedral. ' He wrote, 1. The poor
man's library, 2 vol. fol. Lond. 1571. Thefe volumes
contain twelve le£tures on the firft epiftle of St Peter,
read at St Paul’s. 2. A Hebrew grammar. Whether
it was ever publiftied, is uncertain. He tranflated the
Pentateuch, in the verfion of the Bible which was un¬
dertaken by queen Elizabeth’s command.
ALLEY, in gardening, a ftraight parallel walk,
bounded on bothfides with trees, flirubs, tec. andufual-
ly covered with gravel or turf.
Alley, among builders, denotes a narrow paflage
leading from one place to another.
Alley, in perfpeftive, that which, in order to have
a greater appearance of length, is made wider at the
entrance than at the termination.
ALLIA, a river of Italy, which running down a
very fteep channel from the mountains of Cruftuminum,
mixes with the Tiber at 40 miles from Rome ; famous
for the great flaughter of the Romans by the Gauls,
under Brennus: hence Allienfts dies, an unlucky day,
(Virgil, Ovid, Lucan.) Our anceftors, fays Cicero,
deemed the day of the fight of Alii a, more fatal than
that of taking the city.
ALLIANCE, in the civil and canon law, the rela¬
tion contra&ed between two perfons or two families by
marriage.
Alliance is alfo ufed for a treaty entered into by
fovereign princes and ftates, for their mutual fafety and
defence.—In this fenfe, alliances may be diftinguiftied
into fuch as are offenfive, whereby the contrafting par¬
ties oblige themfelves jointly to attack fome other
power; and into defenfive ones, whereby they bind
themfelves to ftand by and defend each other in cafe
they are attacked by others.
Alliance, in a figurative fenfe, is applied to any
kind of union or connexion ; thus, we fay, there is an
alliance between the church and ftate.
ALLIGATI, in Roman antiquity, the bafeft kind
of flaves, who were ufually kept fettered. The Ro¬
mans had three degrees, or orders, of fiaves or fervants;
the firft; employed in the management of their eftates;
the fecond in the menial or lower fundtipns of the fa¬
mily ; the third called fl//ig-ari,.abovementioned.
ALLIGATION, the name of a method of folving
all queftions that relate to the mixture of one ingredient
with another. Though writers on arithmetic general¬
ly make alligation a branch of that fcience ; yet, as it
is plainly nothing more than an application of the
common properties of numbers, in order to folve a few
queftions that occur in particular branches of bufinefs,
we chufe rather to keep it diftinft from the fcience of
arithmetic.
Alligation is generally divided into medial or alter¬
nate.
Alligation Medial, from the rates and quantities
of the fimples given, * difcovers the rate of the mixture^
Rule. As the total quantity of the fimples,
To their price or value ;
So any quantity of the mixture,
To the rate.
Alley
Alligation.
Alligation,
ALL [ 256 ] ALL
4<1. per ft), with 10 ft>. of other currants, at 6 d. per
tb : What is the value of 1 ft. of the mixture. Jnf.
30, at 4 amounts to 120
10, at 6 60
40 180
/L d. lb, d.
If 40 : 180:: 1 .-44-
Note 1. When the quantity of each fimple is the
fame, the rate of the mixture is readily-found by adding
the rates of the fimples, and dividing their fum by the
number of fimples, thus.
Suppofe a grocer mixes feveral forts of fugar, and of
each an equal quantity, viz. at 50 s. at 54 s. and at
60 s. per Cwt. the rate of the mixture will be 54 s. 8 d.
per C"’1.; for
/. /. d.
50-4-j:4-l-6o=i64, and 3)164)54 8
Note 2. If it be required to increafe or dimini Hi the
quantity of the mixture, fay, As the fum of the given
quantities of the fimples, to the feveral quantities given ;
fo the quantity of the mixture propofed, to the quanti¬
ties of the fimples fought.
Note 3. If it be required to know how much of
each fimple is in an afligned portion of the mixture,
fay, As the quantity of the mixture, to the feveral
quantities of the fimples given; fo the quantity of the
affigned portion, to the quantities of the fimples fought.
Thus,
Suppofe a grocer mixes 10 ft. of raifins, with 30 ft.
of almonds, and 40 ft of currants, and it be demanded,
how many ounces of each fort are found in every pound
or in every fixteen ounces of the mixture, fay,
Oz.
80 : 10 : : 16 : 2 raifins.
80 : 30 : : 16 : 6 almonds.
So : 40 : : 16 : 8 currants.
Proof 16
Note 4. If the rates of two fimples, with the total
value and total quantity of the mixture, be given, the
quantity of each fimple may be found as follows, viz.
Multiply the lefler rate into the total quantity, fub-
tracl the product from the total value, and the remain¬
der will be equal to the product of the excefs of the
higher rate above the lower, multiplied into the quan¬
tity of the higher-priced fimple ; and confequently the
faid remainder, divided by the difference of the rates,
will quote the faid quantity. Thus,
Suppofe a grocer has a mixture of 400 ft weight,
that coft him 7 1. 1 o s. confitting of raifins at 4 d.
per ft. and almonds at 6 d. how many pounds of al¬
monds were in the mixture ?
lb. Rater.
400 6 d.
L. s. d. 4 4 d.
7 10=1800    
1600 i6ood. 2d.
  L. s.
2)200(100 ft. of almonds at 6 d. is 2 10
And 300 ft. of raifins at 4 d. is, 5 o
Total 400
Proof 7 xo
Alligation Alternate, beingthe converfe of alliga* Alligation
tion medial, from the rates of the fimples, and rate of
the mixture given, finds the quantities of the fimples.
Rules. I. Place the rate of the mixture on the
left fide of a brace, as the root; and on the right fide
of the brace fet the rates of the feveral fimples, under
one another, as the branches. II. Link or allrgate the
branches, fo as one greater and another lefs than the
root may be linked or yoked together. III. Set the
difference betwixt the root and the feveral branches,
right againft their refpedtive yoke-fellows. Thefe al¬
ternate differences are the quantities required. Note, r.
If any branch happen to bave two or more yoke-fel¬
lows, the difference betwixt the root and thefe yoke¬
fellows muft be placed right againft the faid branch,
one after another, and added into one fum. 2. In fome
queftions, the branches may be alligated more ways
than one ; and a queftion will always admit of fo many
anfwers, as there are different ways of linking the
branches.
Alligation alternate admits of three varieties, viz.
1. The queftion may be unlimited, with refpedl both
to the quantity of the fimples, and that of the mix¬
ture. 2. The queftion may be limited to a certain
quantity of one or more of the fimples. 3. The quef¬
tion may be limited to a certain quantity of the mixture.
Variety I. When the queftion is unlimited, with
refpedt both to the quantity of the fimples, and that
of the mixture, this is called Alligation Simple.
Examp. A grocer would mix fugars, at 5 d. 7 d.
and 10 d. per ft. fo as to fell the mixture or compound
at 8 d. per ft : What quantity of each muft he take ?
lb.
SiiL
Here the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left
fide of the brace, as the root; and on the right fide of
the fame brace are fet the rates of the feveral fimples,
viz. 5, 7, 10, under one another, as the branches;
according to Rule I.
The branch 10 being greater than the root, is alli¬
gated or linked with 7 and 5, both thefe being lefa
than the root; as direfted in Rule II.
The difference between the root 8 and the branch 5,
viz. 3, is fet right againft this branch’s yoke-fellow 10.
The difference between 8 and 7 is likewife fet right a-
gainft the yoke-fellow 10. And the difference betwixt
8 and 10, viz. 2, is fet right againft the two yoke-fel¬
lows 7 and 5 ; as preferibed by Rule III.
As the branch 1 o has two differences on the right,
viz. 3 and 1, they are added; and the anfwer to the
queftion is, that 2 ft at 5 d. 2 ft at 7 d. and 4 ft at
xod. will make the mixture required.
The truth and reafon of the rules will appear by con-
fidering, that whatever is loft upon any one branch is
gained upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, in the above ex¬
ample, by felling 4 ft of 1 o d. fugar at 8 d. per ft
there is 8 d. loft : but the like fum is gained upon its
two yoke-fellows; for by felling two 2 ft of 5 d. fu¬
gar at 8 d. per ft. there is 6 d. gained ; and by felling
2 ft of 7 d. fugar at 8 d. there is 2 d. gained; and 6 d.
and 2 d. make 8 d.
Hence it follows, that the rate of the mixture muft
always be mean or middle with refpect to the rates of
the
A L L
Alligation
: I!
Allium.
[ 2J7 ]
ALL
the fimples ; that is, it piuft be lefs than the greateft, nogynia order belonging to the hexandria clafs of Ailium.
and, greater than the leaft ; otherwife a folution would plants. Of this genus no fewer than 33 different fpe-
be impoffible. And the price of the total quantity cies are enumerated by Linnssus, among which he in-
mixed, computed at the rate of the mixture, will al- eludes the cepa and porrum; but as thefe are fo gene-
ways be equal to the fum of the prices of the feveral rally known by the names of onions and leeks, we have
quantities call up at the refpe&ive rates of the limples. given the defeription of them under thefe words Cepa
Variety II. When the queftion is limited to a cer- and Porrum.
tain quantity of one or more of the fimples, this is call- The roots of garlic are of the bulbous kind, of an
ed Alligation Partial. irregularly roundifh drape, with feveral fibres at the
If the quantity of one of the fimples only be limited, bottom ; each root is compofed of a number of leffer
alligate the branches, and take their differences, as if bulbs, called cloves of garlic^ inclofed in one common
there had been no fuch limitation ; and then work by membranous coat, and. Cafily feparable from one another.
r n  ‘‘ All the parts of this plant, but more efpecially the
have an acrimonious, and almoft cauftic tafte,
the following proportion
As the difference right againft the rate of the fimple
whofe quantity is given.
To the other dift’erences refpe&ively;
So the quantity given,
To the feveral quantities fought.
Examp. A diftiller would, with 40 gallons of bran¬
dy at 12 s. ptr gallon, mix rum at 7 s. per gallon, and
gin at 4 s. per gallon : How much of the rum and gin
mud he take, to fell the mixture at 8 s. per gallon ?
Gal.
C 1 4> I 5 I 4° °f brandy.}
8 ; U 32 of rum. C Anf.
C 4-/4. I 4 I 32 of gin- J
The operation gives for anfwer, 5 gallons of brandy,
4 of rum, and 4 of gin. But the queftion limits the
quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; therefore fay,
If 5 : 4 : : 40 : 32
The quantity of gin, by the operation, being alfo 4,
the proportion needs not be repeated.
Variety' III. When the queftion is limited to a
certain quantity of the mixture, this is called Alliga¬
tion Total.
After linking the branches, and taking the differen¬
ces, work by the proportion'following :
As the fum of the differences,
To each particular difference ;
So the given total of the mixture,
To the refpeCtive quantities required.
Examp. A vintner hath wine at 3 s. /er gallon, and
would mix it with water, fo as to make a compofition
of 144 gallons, worth 2 s. 6 d. gallon: How much
wine, and how much water, muft he take ?
Gal.
^3D3;
120 of wine. ~l j c
er. 3 n^‘
24 of water. J
36 I 144 total.
120 X 36 = 4320
24 X o = o
Proof 144)4320(30
As 36 : 30 : : 144 : 120
As 36 : 6 : : 144 : 24.
There being here only two fimples, and the total of taneous diforders.
  * .4.   i: 4.1  fl.’ Tne arrimnmon
roots, have an acrimonious,
with a ftrong offenfive fmell, which laft has induced
thofe who preferved fome of the fpecies in gardens on
account of their yellow flowers, to eradicate them.
Culture. All the fpecies of Garlick are very hardy,
and will thrive in almoft any foil or fituation. They
are eafily propagated either by the roots or feeds. If
from the roots, they ought to be planted in autumn,
that they may take good root in the ground before the
fpring, which is neceffary to make them flower ftrong
the following fummer. If they are propagated by feeds,
they may be fown on a border of common earth, either
in autumn, foon after the feeds are ripe, or in the fpring
following; and will require no farther care than to keep
them clear from weeds. In the following autumn, they
may be tranfplanted into the borders where they are to
remain.
Medicinal Ufes. This pungent root warms and fti-
mulates the folids, and attenuates tenacious juices;
for which it is well adapted, on account of its being
very penetrating; infomuch, that, when applied to the
feet, its feent is foon difeovered in the breath; and, when
taken internally, its fmell is communicated to the urine,
or the matter of an iffue, and perfpires through the
pores of the flein. Hence, in cold leucophlegmatic ha¬
bits, it proves a powerful expectorant, diuretic, and
emmenagogue ; and, if the patient is kept warm, fudo-
rific. It is alfo of great fervice in humoral afthmas and
cattarhous diforders of the breaft, and in other diforders
proceeding from a laxity of the folids, and cold fluggilh
indifpofition of the fluids. It is alfo frequently of fer¬
vice in the dropfy; in the beginning of which it is parti¬
cularly recommended by Sydenham, as a warmftrength-
ening medicine. By him it is alfo recommended as a
moft powerful revellent; for which purpofe he was led
to make ufe of it in the confluent fmall-pox. His me¬
thod was to cut the root in pieces, and apply it, tied
in a linnen cloth, to the foies of the feet, about the
eighth day of the difeafe, after the face began to fwell;
renewing it once a-day till the danger was over. 
When made into an unguent with oils, and applied ex •
ternally, garlic is faid to refolve and difeufs cold tu¬
mours, and has been by fome greatly celebrated in cu-
the mixture limited, the queftion admits but of one an¬
fwer.
ALLIGATOR, in zoology, a fynonime of the la-
certa crocodilus. See Lacerta.
ALLIOTH, a ftar in the tail of the greater bear,
much ufed for finding the latitude at fea.
ALLIUM, (from to avoid or ftiun, becaufe
many ftiun the fmell of it), Garlic ; a genus of the mo-
Vol. I.
The acrimonious qualities of this root, however, ren¬
der it manifeftly improper on many occafions.—Its li¬
beral ufe is apt to occafion headachs, flatulencies, thirft,
febrile heats, inflammatory diftempers, and fometimes
difeharges of blood from the hsemorrhoidal veffels. In
hot bilious conftitutions, where there is already a degree
of irritation, where the juices are too thin and acrimo¬
nious, or the vifeera unfound, it never fails to aggra-
K k vate
L
ALL [ 258 ] A L
Allix vate the diftemper. See Materia Medica, n° 85.
II. ALLIX (Dr Peter), a learned French proteftant
urainor. divine, born at Alencon, in 1641. He became min'i-
fter of the reformed church at Roiien, where he pub-
lifhed many learned and curious pieces; the credit of
which induced the reformed to call him to Charenton,
about a league from Paris, being the principal church
they had in France. On the revocation of the edict of
Nantz, he retired to England; where he ftudied the
language with fo much fuccefs, as to publifh a work,
intitled Reflexions on the books in the Holy Scriptures,
to ejlablijh the truth of the Ckriftian Religion, 2 vols;
which he dedicated to James II. acknowledging his
obligations to that prince, and his kind behaviour to
the diftreffed refugees in general. He wrote feveral
other treatifes relating to ecclefiaftical hiftory; which
rendered him as famous in England as in France, for
his ingenious and folid defences of the reformed reli¬
gion. He was complimented with the degree of D. D.
and in 1690 was made treafurer of the church of Sa-
lifbury. He died in 17x7.
ALLOA, or Alloway, a fea-port town of Men-
tieth, in Scotland, feated on the river Forth, five miles
eaft of Stirling; and remarkable for its fine caftle, the
feat of the earl of Mar, and for the coal-mines near it.
W. Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 56. 10.
ALLOBROGES, (Infcriptions, Livy, Velleius,
Florus) ; from Allobrox, (Horace) : a people of Gallia
Narbonenfis, fituated between the rivers Kara and Rho-
danus, and the Lacus Lemanus ; commended- by Ci¬
cero for their fidelity, difcommended by Horace on
account of their fondnefs for novelty.
ALLOCATION denotes the admitting or allow¬
ing of an article of an account, efpecially in the ex¬
chequer. Hence,
AllocationeFacienda, is a writ directed to the lord
treafurer, or barons of the exchequer, commanding
them to allow an accountant fuch fums as he has law¬
fully expended in the execution of his office.
ALLODIUM, or Alleud, denotes lands which
are the abfolute property of their owner, without being
obliged to pay any fervice or acknowledgment what¬
ever to a fuperior lord.
ALLOY, or Allay, properly fignifies a propor¬
tion of a bafer metal mixed with a finer one. The al¬
loy of gold is eftimated by carats, that of filver by
penny-weights. See Gold, eirc. In different nations,
different proportions of alloy are ufed; whence their
moneys are faid to be of different degrees of finenefs or
bafenefs, and are valued accordingly in foreign ex¬
changes.
In a more general fenfe, the word is employed in
chemiflry to fignify the union of different metallic mat¬
ters.—As an infinity of different combinations may be
made according to the nature, the number, and the
proportions of the metallic matters capable of being al¬
loyed, we fhall not -here enter into the detail of the
particular alloys, all which are not yet nearly known.
Thofe which are ufed, as Bronze, Tombac, Brafs, White
Copper, &c. may be found under their particular names;
and what is known concerning other allays may be
found under the names of the different metals and femi-
metals.
ALLUMINO R, a perfon who colours or paints
upon paper or parchment.—The word is derived from
the French allumer, to lighten. Allufio*
ALLUSION, in rhetoric, a figure by which fbme- II
thing is applied to, or underftpod of, another, on ac- . n,anac
count fome fimilitude between them.
ALLUVION, in law, denotes the gradual increafe * See iaiJ)
of land along the fea-fhore, or on banks of rivers*. Part lij.
ALLY, in matters of polity, a fovereign prince or N° dxii. <j.
ftate that has entered into alliance with others f. | See Al~
ALMACANTARS. See Almucantars. liance.
ALMACARRON, a fea-port town of Spain, in the
province of Murcia, at the mouth of the river Guada-
lantin. It is about twenty miles weft of Carthagena,
and is remarkable for the prodigious quantity of alum
found in its territory. W. Long. 1.15. N. Lat. 37. _j o.
ALMADE, a town of Spain, in the province of La
Mancha, in the kingdom of Caftile, fituated upon the
top of a mountain, where are the moft ancient as well
as the richeft filver mines in Europe.
ALMADIE, a kind of canoe, or fmall veffel, about
four fathoms long, commonly made of bark, and ufed
by the negroes of Africa.
Almadie is alfo the name of a kind of long-boats,
fitted out at Calicut, which are eighty feet in length,
and fix or feven in breadth. They are exceedingly fwift,
and are otherwife called catburi.
ALMAGEST, in matters of literature, is particu¬
larly ufed for a collection or book compofed by Ptole¬
my, containing various problems of the ancients both
in geometry and aftronomy.
Almagest is alfo the title of other collections of
this kind. Thus, Riccioli has publifhed a book of a-
ftronomy, which he calls the New Almagejl\ and Pluc-
kenet, a book which he calls Altnagejiruni Botanicum.
ALMAGRA, a fine deep red ochre, with fome ad¬
mixture of purple, very heavy, and of a denfe yet fri¬
able ft met u re, and rough dufty furface. It adheres
very firmly to the tongue, melts freely and eafily in the
mouth, is of an auftere and ftrongly affringent tafte, and
ftains the fkin in touching. It is the Sil Atticum of the
ancients: itfermentsvery violently with acid menftruumsir
by which fingle quality, it is fuificiently diftinguilhed
from the Sil Syricuin, to which it has in many refpects
a great affinity. It is found in immenfe quantities, in
many parts of Spain ; and in Andalufia there are in a
manner whole mountains of it. It is ufed in painting,
and in medicine as an aftringent.
ALMAGRO, a fortrefs of Spain, the capital of
one of the diftri&s of La Mancha. It was built by
the archbifhop Roderic of Toledo, who finiftied it in
1214, and put a confiderable garrifon into it to reftrain
the incurfions of the Moors. This was hardly done,
when the fortrefs was befieged by an army of 5000
horfe and foot, under the command of a Moorifh offi¬
cer of great reputation ; but the prelate, its founder,
took care to fupply thofe within with fuch plenty of ne-
ceffaries, that at length the enemy found themfelves o-
bliged to raife the fiege and retire with great lofs.
ALMANACK, a book, or table, containing a ca¬
lendar of days and months, the riling and fetting of
the fun, the age of the moon, the eclipfes of both lu¬
minaries, &c.—Authors are divided with regard to the
etymology of the word ; fome deriving it from the A-
rabic particle al, and manach, to count; fome from al-
manah, new-years gifts, becaufe the Arabian aftrolo-
gers ufed, at the beginning of the year to make prefents
A L M t 259 ] A L M
Almanack. Gf their ephemerides ; and others, from the Teutonic
almaen^acf)te^ obfervations on all the months. Mr John-
fon derives it from the Arabic particle al, and the
Greek a month. But the moft fimple etymology
appears from the common fpelling ; the word being
compofed of two Arabic ones, Jll Manack, which
fgnify the Diary. AP the claffes of Arabs are com¬
monly much given to the ftudy of aftronomy and aftro-
logy ; to both which a paftoral life, and a fort of huf-
bandry, not only incline them, but give them time and
leifure to apply themfelves to them. They neither fow,
reap, plant, travel, buy or fell, or undertake any expe¬
dition or matter, without previoufly confultingthe liars,
or, in other words, their almanacks, or fome of the ma¬
kers of them.' From thefe people, by their vicinity to
Europe, this art, no lefs ufeful in one fenfe than.ftupid
and ridiculous in another, hath palled over hither: and
thofe aftronomical compofitions have Hill every where
not only retained their old Arabic name; but were,
like theirs, for a long while, and Hill are among many
European nations, interfperfed with a great number of
altrological rules for planting, fowing, bleeding, pur¬
ging, See. down to the cutting of the hair and paring
of the nails.—Regiomontanus appears to have been the
firll in Europe, however, who reduced almanacks into
their prefent form and method, gave the charadlers of
each year and month, foretold the eclipfes and other
phafes, calculated the motions of the planets, &c. His
lirll almanack, was publilhed in 1474..
Almanacks differ from one another, chiefiy, in con¬
taining fome more, others fewer; particulars.
The effential part is the calendar of months and days,
with the rifings and fettings of the fun, age of the
moon, See. To thefe are added various parerga, allro-
nomical, meteorological, chronological, political, ru¬
ral, Sic. as calculations and accounts of eclipfes, folar
ingreffes, prognoffics of the weather, tables of the
tides, terms, See. lifts of pofts, offices, dignities, pub¬
lic inftitutions, with many other articles political as
well as local, and differing in different countries.—
A great variety are annually publifhed in Britain; fome
for binding, which may be denominated book-alma¬
nacks; others in loofe papers, called Jheet-almanacks.
The modern almanack anfwers to the Fajli of the
ancient Romans. See Fasti.
Conftrutlion of Almanacks. The firft thing to be
done is, to compute the fun’s and moon’s place for
each day of the year, or it 'may be taken from fome
ephemerides and entered into the almanack ; next, find
the dominical letter, and, by means thereof, diftribute
the calendar into weeks; then, having computed the
time of eafter, by it fix the other moveable feafts; ad¬
ding the immoveable ones, with the names of the mar¬
tyrs, the rifing and fetting of each luminary, the length
of day and night, the afpedfts of the planets, the pha¬
fes of the moon, and the fun’s entrance into the car¬
dinal points of the ecliptic, i. e. the two equinoxes and
See folftices *. By the help of good aftronomical tables
stro- or ephemerides, the conftruAion of almanacks is ex-
o m y ,-paf- tremeiy ea{y.
Almanack, among antiquaries, is alfo the name
given to a kind of inftrumeut, ufually of wood, in -
feribed with various figures and Ru nic charafters, and
reprefenting the order of the feafts, dominical letters,
days of the week,^ and golden number, with other mat¬
ters neceffary to be known throughout the year ; ufed A1
by the ancient northern nations, in their computations
of time, both civil and ecclefiaftical. Almanacks of
this kind are known by various names, among the dif¬
ferent nations wherein they have been ufed; as rim-
ftocks, primftaries, runftocks, runftaffs, Scipiones Ru-
nici, Bacculi Annales, clogs, &c. They appear to
have been ufed only by the Swedes, Danes, and
Norwegians. From the fecond of thefe people, their
ufe was introduced into England, whence divers remains
of them in the counties. Dr Plot has given the de-
fcription and figure of one of thefe clogs, found in
Staffordihire, under the title of The perpetual Stafford-
fiire Almanack. The external figure and matter of
thefe calendars appear to have been various. Some¬
times they were cut on one or more wooden leaves,
bound together after the manner of books ; fometimes
on the fcabbards of fwords, or even on daggers; fome¬
times on tools and implements,- as portable fteelyards,
hammers, the helves of hatchets, flails, &c. Some¬
times they were made of brafs or horn ; fometimes of
the fkins of eels, which, being drawn over a flick pro¬
perly inferibed, retained the impreffions of it. But
the moft ufual form was that of walking-ftaves, or
flicks, which they carried about with them to church,
market, &c. Each of thefe ftaves is divided into three
regions, w hereof the lirft indicates the figns, the fecond
the days of the week and year, and the third the gol¬
den number. The charadlers engraven on them are,
in fome, the ancient Runic; in others, the later Gothic
characters of Ulfilus. The faints days are expreffed
in hieroglyphics, fignificative either of fome endow- •
ment of the faint, the manner of his martyrdom, or the
like. Thus, again!! the notch for the firft of March,
or St David’s day, is reprefented a harp ; againft the
25th of O&cber, or Crifpin’s day, a pair of fhoes ;
againft the 10th of Auguft, or St Lawrence’s day, a
gridiron ; and, laftly, againft New-year’s day, a horn,
the mark of good drinking, which our anceftors gave
a loofe to at that feafon.
ALMANZA, a little town of New-Caftile, on the
frontiers of the kingdom of Valencia in Spain, fituated
in W. Long. 1. 19. N. Lat. 38. 54. It is remarkable
for the defeat of the allies in 1707, under the Marquis
de las Minas and the Earl of Galw’ay. In the begin¬
ning of this aftion, the Englifti troops penetrated thro’
the centre of the Spanifh army; but the Portuguefe
cavalry being broken by the Spanifti, and the French in¬
fantry making a dreadful fire on their flanks, the allied
army was at laft broken, and began their retreat when
it was almoft dark. Colonel Hill carried off the re¬
mains of thirteen battalions towards the river Xucar,
which, if they could have paffed, they might have
been fafe : but being very much fatigued, they were
obliged to halt; by which means they were furrounded,
and forced to furrender prifoners of war. In this bat¬
tle, the allies loft 120 ftandards, together wutli all their
artillery and baggage; a great number were killed, and
feveral thoufands taken prifoners. The Marquis de las
Minas was dangeroufly wmunded ; and his miftrefs, in
the garb of an amazon, killed by his fide. The earl
of Galway had two cuts crofs the face, which, though
not dangerous, had prevented him from feeing, or gi¬
ving orders properly.
Heresy of ALMARIC, a tenet broached in
K k 2 France
A L M I 260 1 A L M
Almedia France by one Almaric, in the year 1209. It confift-
A II . ed in affirming, that every' Chriftian was afhually a
meria‘ member of Chrift ; and that without this faith no one
could be faved. His followers went farther, and af¬
firmed, that the power of the Father lafted only during
the continuance of the Mofaic law ; that the coming
of Chrift introduced a new law ; that at the end of this
began the reign of the Holy Ghoft ; and that now
confeffion and the facraments were at an end, and that
every one is to be faved by the internal operations of the
Holy Spirit alone, without any external act of reli¬
gion.
ALMEDIA, a frontier-town of Portugal, in the
province of Tralos Montes, on the confines of Leon,
where there was a very briflc adtion between the French
and Portuguefe in 1663; 17 miles N. W. of Cividad*
Rodrigo. W. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 40. 41.
ALMEHRAB, in the Mahometan cuftoms, a nich
in their mofques, pointing towards the kebla or temple
of Mecca, to which they are obliged to bow in pray¬
ing. See Kebla.
ALMENE, in commerce, a weight of two pounds
ufed to weigh faffron in feveral parts of the continent
of the E. Indies.
ALMERIA, a fea-port town in the kingdom of
Granada in Spain, pleafantly fituated in a fine bay at
the mouth of the river Almeria, on the Mediterranean :
W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 36. 51. This town is by
fome thought to have rifen upon the ruins of the an¬
cient Abdera, and was formerly a place of great con-
fequence. It was taken from the Moors in 1147, by
the emperor Conrad III. in conjun&ron with the
French, Genoefe, and Pifans.—It was at that time the
ftrongeft place in Spain, held by the infidels; from
which their privateers, which were exceedingly nume¬
rous, not only troubled the fea-coafts inhabited by the
Chriftians, but gave equal difturbance to the maritime
provinces of France, Italy, and the adjacent iflands.
The city being well fortified, having a ftrong ca¬
ttle, a numerous garrifon, and being excellently pro¬
vided with every thing neceffary, made a vigorous re-
fiftance ; but was at laft taken by ftorm, when the vic¬
tor put to the fword all the inhabitants who were found
in arms, diftributing the beft part of the plunder a-
mong his allies, whom he fent away thoroughly fatis-
fied. The Genoefe, particularly, acquired here that
emerald veffel which ftills remains in their treafury, and
is deemed invaluable.
Upon its redu&ion by the Chriftians, Almeria be¬
came a biffiopric; but is, at prefent, very little better
than a village, indifferently inhabited, and has nothing
to teftify fo much as the probability of its former great-
nefs, except certain circumftances which cannot be
effaced even by the indolence of the Spaniards them-
felves. What thefe are, Udal ap Rhys, a Welfhman,
thus defcribes, in his tour through Spain and Portugal.
“ Its climate,” fays he, “ is fo peculiarly bleffed, that
one really wants words to exprefs its charms and excel¬
lence. Its fields and meads are covered with flowers
all the year round ; they are adorned alfo with palms,
myrtles, plane-trees, oranges, and olives; and the moun¬
tains and promontories near it are as noted for their
producing a great variety of precious ftones, infomuch
that the next promontory to it is called the Cape of
Gates, which is a corruption from the word agates, the
hills thereabouts abounding in thatfortof precious ftones, Almiggitn
as well as in emeralds and amethyfts, granites or coarfe
rubies, and extreme curious alabafter in the mountains L.,
of Filaures.”
ALMIGGIM-wood, (Scripture), is thought to be
that of the Indian pine-tree ; which being light and
white, was greatly efteemed for making muiical inftru-
ments.
ALMISSA, a fmall but ftrong town at the mouth
of the Cetina, in Dalmatia, famous for its piracies ;
ten miles Eaft of Spalatro. E. Long. 39. 33. N. Lat.
43- 56-
ALMOND, the fruit of the almond-tree *. * See
Almond, in commerce, a meafure by which the Por- talus.
tuguefe fell their oil; 26 almonds make a pipe.
Almonds, in anatomy, a name fometimes given to
two glands, generally called the tonfils.
ALMOND-Ewr^ce, among refiners, that in which the
flags of litharge, left in refining filver, are reduced to
lead again, by the help of charcoal.
Almonds, among lapidaries, fignify pieces of rock-
cryftal, ufed in adorning branch-candlefticks, &c. on
account of the refemblance they bear to the fruit of that
name.
ALMONDBURY, a village in England, in the
weft-riding of Yorkihire, fix miles from Halifax.
ALMONER, in its primitive fenfe, denotes an officer
in religious houfes, to whom belonged the management
and diftribution of the alms of the houfe. By the an¬
cient canons, all monafteries were to fpend at leaft a
tenth part of their income in alms to the poor. The
almoner of St Paul’s is to difpofe of the monies left for
charity, according to the appointment of the donors,
to bury the poor who die in the neighbourhood, and
to breed up eight boys to finging, for the ufe of the
choir. By an ancient canon, all biftiops are required
to keep almoners.
Lord Almoner, or Lord High Almoner, of Eng¬
land, is an ecclefiaftical officer, generally a bifliop, who
has the forfeiture of all deodands, and the goods of
felos de fe, which he is to diftribute among the poor.
He has alfo, by virtue of an ancient cuftom, the power
of giving the firft difti from the king’s table to what¬
ever poor perfon he pleafes, or, inftead of it, an alms
in money.
Great Almoner, Grand Aumonier, in France, is
the higheft dignity in that kingdom. To him belongs
the fuperintendency of all hofpitals and houfes of le¬
pers. The king receives the facrament from his hand;
and he fays mafs before the king, in all grand ceremo¬
nies and folemnities.
ALMONRY, Aumbry, Ambry. See Ambry.
ALMS, a general term for what is given out of cha¬
rity to the poor.
In the early ages of Chriftianity, the alms of the
charitable were divided into four parts ; one of which,
was allotted to the bifliop, another to the priefts, and
a third to the deacons and fub-deacons, which made
their whole fubfiftence ; the fourth part was employed
in relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches.
No religious fyftem is more frequent or warm in its
exhortations to alms-giving, than the Mahometan. The
Alcoran reprefents alms as a 'neceffary means to make
prayer be heard. Hence that laying of one of their
kalifs: “ Prayer carries us half-way to God, failing
brings
A L N [ 261 ] A L O
Aims brings r.s to the door of his palace, and alms introduces
aj!Jus us into the prefence-chamber.” Hence many illuftri-
” ous examples of this virtue among the Mahometans.
Hafan, the fon of Ali, and grandfon of Mohammed,
in particular, is related to have thrice in his life divided
his fubftance equally between himfelf and the poor, and
twice to have given away all he had. And the gene¬
rality are fo addifted to the doing of good, that they
extend their charity even to brutes.
Alms, alfo denotes lands or other effe&s left to
churches or religious houfes, on condition of praying
for the foul of the donor. Hehce,
Free Alms was that which is liable to no rent or
, fervice.
Reafonable Alms was a certain portion of the eftates
of inteilate perfons, allotted to the poor.
Alms Box, or Cheji, a fmall cheft, or coffer, called
by the Greeks wherein anciently the aims were
colleAed, both at church and at private houfes.
The alms-cheft, in Englifh churches, is a ftrong box,
with a hole in the upper part, having three keys, one
to be kept by the parfon or curate, the other two by
the church-wardens. 4 The erecting of fuch alms-cheft
in every church is enjoined by the book of canons, as
alfo the manner of' diftributing what is thus colle&ed
among the poor of the pariflr.
A.LMS-Hoicje, a petty kind of hofpital, for the main¬
tenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or difabled
people.
ALMUCANTARS, in aftronomy, an Arabic word
denoting circles of the fphere palling through the cen-
’ ter of the fun, or a ftar, parallel to the horizon, being
the fame as Parallels of Altitude.
ALMUCANTARS-iSta^j is an inftrument ufually made
of pear-tree or box, having an arch of fifteen degrees;
ufed to take obfervations of the fun, about the time of
its riling and fetting; in order to find the amplitude,
and confequently the variation of the compafs.
ALMUCIUM, denotes a kind of cover for the head,
worn chiefly by monks and ecclefiallics : It was of a
fquare form, and feems to have given rife to the bon¬
nets of the fame fliape ftill retained in univerfities and
cathedrals.
ALMUG-TREE, mentioned in Scripture, is fup-
pofed to be the fame with that which produces the gum
arabic.
ALMUNECAR, a fea-port town in the kingdom
of Granada, feated on the Mediterranean, with a good
harbour, defended by a ftrong caftle, twenty miles louth
of Alhama. W. Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 36. 50.
ALNAGE, or Aulnage, the meafuring of wool¬
len manufaftures with an ell. It was at firft intended
as a proof of the goodnefs of that commodity, and ac¬
cordingly a feal was .invented as a mark that the com¬
modity was made according to the ftatute; but, it be¬
ing now poffible to purchafe thefe feals, they are affix-
1 ed, whenever the vender pleafes, to all deaths indiferi-
minately, to the great prejudice of our woollen manu-
faftures.
ALNAGER, a public officer, whofe duty it is to
examine into the affize of all woollen cloth, fix feals
upon the various pieces, and colled the alnage-duty for
the king.
ALNUS; a fpecies of the alder tree. See Betula.
Alnus, in the ancient theatres, that part which was
moft diftant from the ftage. Alnwick
ALNWICK, a thoroughfare town in Northumber- |
land, on the road to Scotland. Here Malcom, king °e'.
of Scotland, making an inroad into Northumberland,
was killed, with Edward his fon, and his army defeated
by Robert Mowbray, earl of this county, anno 1092.
Likewife William, king of Scotland, in 1174, inva¬
ding England with an army of 80,000 men, was here
encountered, his army routed, and himfelf made pri-
foner. The town is populous, and in general well
built; it has a large town-houfe, where the quarter-
feffions and county-courts are held, and members of
parliament ele&ed. It has a fpacious fquare, in which -
a market is held every Saturday. Alnwick appears
to have been formerly fortified, by the veftiges of a
wall ftill vifible in many parts, and three gates which
remain almoft entire. It is governed by four chamber¬
lains, who are chofen once in two years out of a com¬
mon council, confifting of 24 members. It is orna¬
mented by a ftately old Gothic caftle, which has been
the feat of the noble family of Piercy, earls of North¬
umberland. As the audits- for receipt of rents have
ever been in this caftle, it has always been kept in to¬
lerable repair; and not many years ago, it was repaired
and beautified by the earl of Northumberland, who
made very confiderable alterations, upon a moft elegant
plan, with a view to refide in it fome part of the fum-
mer-feafon. The manner of making freemen is pecu¬
liar to this place, and indeed is as ridiculous as Angu¬
lar. The perfons who are to be made free, or, as the-
phrafe is, leap the well, affemble in the market-place,
very early in the morning, on the 25th of April, being
St Mark’s day. They appear on horfe-back, with e-
very man his fword by his fide, dreffed in white, and
with white night-caps, attended by the four chamber¬
lains and the caftle-bailiff, mounted and armed in the
fame manner; from hence they proceed, with rnufic
playing before them, to a large dirty pool, called Free¬
man's-’well, where they difmount, and draw up in a
body, at fome diftance from the water; and then rufli
into it all at once, and fcramble through the mud as
fail as they can. As the water is generally very foul,
they come out in a dirty condition; but taking a dram,
they put on dry cloaths, remount their horfes, and
ride full gallop round the confines of the diftridt;
then re-enter the town, fword in hand, and are met
by women dreffed in ribbons with bells and garlands,
dancing and finging. Thefe are called timber-’wajls'.
The houfes of the new freemen are on this day diftin-
guiftied by a greatholly-bufli, as a fignal fortheir friends
to affemble and make merry with them after their re¬
turn. This ceremony is owing toi King John, who was
mired in this well; and who, as a puniftiment for not
mending the road, made this a part of their charter.
Alnwick is 310 miles north by weft from London, 33.
north of Newcaftle, and 29 fouth of Berwick. Long.
1. 10. Lat. 55. 24.
ALOA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival kept in ho¬
nour of Ceres by the hu lb and men, and fuppofed tej re-
femble our harveft-home.
ALOE, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the hexandriaclafs of plants. Of this
genus, botanical writers enumerate 23
Specie*. 1. The mitriformis, or mitre-fhaped aloe-
The leaves of this clofely embrace the ftalks; they
A L O [ 262 ] A L O
are thick, fucculent, broad at their bafe, growing nar-
' rower, and ending in a point; they draw together to¬
wards the top, where they fomewhat referable a mi¬
tre, from whence the fpecies takes its name. The
flower-ftem rifes about three feet high; on the top of
which the flowers come out in a fort of globular fpike,
which afterwards becomes cylindrical. They have
long footftalks, which come out horizontally, fo that
the flowers hang downward. They are tubulous, and
cut into fix unequal fegments to thedbottom, three be¬
ing alternately broader than the others. The tube of
the flower is of a fine red colour, and the brim of it a
pale green, fo that they make a fine appearance when
the fpikes of flowers are large. 2. The barbadenfis,
common, or Barbadoes aloe. The leaves of this fort
are about four inches broad at their bafe, where they
are near two inches thick, and diminifir gradually to a
point, having a few indentures on their edges, and when
young are fpotted with white. The flower-ftem rifes
near three feet high. The flowers ftand in a flender
loofe fpike with very fhort footftalks, hanging down¬
wards. They are tubulous, cut into fix parts, and of
a bright yellow colour. 3. The arborefcens, or fword-
aloe. This grows to theheight of 10or 12 feet,.with
a ftrong naked ftem, the leaves growing at the top,
which clofely embrace the ftalk; they are about two
inches broad at their bafe, growing narrower to a point,
and are indented on their edges, each being armed
with a ftrong crooked fpine. The flowers grow in a
pyramidal fpike, of a bright red colour ; and are in
beauty in November and December. 4. The africana,
or African aloe. This fpecies refembles the former;
but the leaves are broader, and have feveral fpines on
the back fide towards the extremities, and the flowers
grow in a loofer fpike. 5. The difticha, by feme call¬
ed the foap-aloe, by others Carolina-aloe. This feldom
rifes above two feet high. The leaves are very broad
at the bafe, where they clofely embrace the ftalk, and
gradually decreafe to a point. The edges are fet with
iharp fpines, and the under leaves fpread open horizon¬
tally every way. Thefe are of a dark green colour
fpotted with white, fomewhat refembling the colour
of foft foap, from whence the plant got the name of
foap-aloe. The flowers grow in umbels on the tops of
the ftalks, are of a beautiful red colour, and appear
in Auguft and September. 6. The obfeura, with
very broad fpotted leaves embracing the ftalk, whofe
edges are fet with fpines, and flowers growing in an
umbel. This very much refembles the former; only
the leaves are broader, and of a lighter green. The
edges and alfo the fpines are of a copper colour, and
the flowers grow in loofe fpikes. They appear in
September. 7. The plicatilis, with fword-fhaped
fmooth leaves, grows to the height of fix or feven feet.
It has a ftrong ftem, towards the upper part of which
are produced two, three, or four heads, compofed of
long, compreffed, pliable leaves, placed two ways, ly¬
ing over one another, with their edges the fame way.
The flowers are produced in fliort loofe fpikes of a red
colour, and appear at different times of the year.
8. The brevioribus, with leaves embracing the ftalks,
which are prickly on every fide. This is an humble
plant, feldom riling more than a foot high. The
leaves grow near the ground, are broad at the bafe,
where they embrace the ftalk, and gradually dimi-
nilh to a point. Their edges, and alfo their upper Aloe.
parts, are befet with pretty Iharp fpines. The flowers   
grow in loofe fpikes, the tubulous part being red, and
the brim of a light green colour. 9, The variegata,
or partridge-breaft aloe, is a low plant, feldom rifing a-
bove eight inches high. The leaves of this are trian¬
gular, and curioufly veined and fpotted, fomewhat like
the feathers of a patridge’s breaft. The flowers grow
in very loofe fpikes, and are of a fine red colour tipped
with green. 10. The hedge-hog aloe is a very low
plant, never rifing to have ftalks. The leaves are befet
on their edges and both furfaces, with foft fpines, very
clofely; from whence its name. The flowers grow on a
loofe head; and are of a fine red colour below, but of
a pale green above, x X. The vifeofa, with funnel-fha-
ped flowers, grows near a foot -high, with triangu¬
lar leaves of a dark green colour. The flowers grow
thinly upon very flender footftalks, are of an herba¬
ceous colour, and their upper part turns backward.
12. The fpiralis, with oval crenated flowers, grows fome¬
what like the former ; only the flowers grow upon tal¬
ler ftalks, which branch out and grow in very long
clofe fpikes. 13. The linguiforme, or tongue-aloe,
has its leaves about fix inches in length, and fhaped like
a tongue. The flowers grow in flender loofe fpikes,
each hanging downward, of a red colour below, and
green at the top. 14. The margaritifera, or large
pearl aloe, is a very beautiful plant. It is fmaller than
moft of the aloe kind. The leaves are ftiort, very thick,
ftiarp pointed, and turning down, with a large thick
end, appear there triangular. The colour of the leaves
is a fine green, ftripped in an elegant manner with
white, and frequently tipped with red at the point.
The flov/er-ftalk, which rifes in the midft of the leaves,
is round, fmooth, of a purple colour, and generally
about eight inches high. When the plant has been
properly cultivated, the flowers are ftripped with green
and white ; and fometimes they are entirely white.
This aloe is Angular in not having the bitter refinous
juice with which the leaves of moft; others abound;
when a leaf of this fpecies is cut, what runs from it is
watery, colourlefs, and perfe&ly infipid *. 15. The * Plate X.
vera, or focotorine aloe, hath long, narrow, fucculent fio- ,-
leaves, which come out without any order, and form
large heads. The ftalks grow three or four feet high;
and have two, three, and fometimes four, of thefe
heads branching out from it. The flowers grow in
long fpikes, each {landing on a pretty long footftalk;
they are of a bright red colour tipped with green,
and generally appear in the winter feafon. 16. The
glauca, with a ihort ftalk, and flowers growing in
a head. This refembles the eighth in fome particu¬
lars; but the leaves are much broader, and fpread wide
on etfery fide, whereas thofe of the eighth are ranged
only two ways, and are narrow. The brevioribus al¬
fo flowers but feldom, whereas the glailca flowers an¬
nually in the fpring. 17. The arachnoidea, or cob¬
web-aloe, never rifes from the ground, but the leaves
fpread flat on the furface; The flower-ftalk rifes about
a foot high, is very flender, and hath three or four
fmall herbaceous flowers Handing at a diftance from
each other. Thefe are tubulous, and, at the brim,
cut into fix parts which turn backward. 18. The her-
bacea, with oval leaves, is alfo a fmall plant grow¬
ing near the ground. The leaves are almoft cylin¬
drical
A L O [ 263 ] A L O
drical toward their bafe, but angular near their ends,
and are fet with ihort foft fpines at the angles. Thefe
leaves are ihorter, and of a darker green colour, than
thofe of the former fort. 19. The retufa, or craihicn-
aloe, hath very Ihort, thick, fucculent leaves, com-
p re fled on the upper fide like a cufhion. This grows
very clofe to the ground; the flowers grow on flender
ftalks, and are of an herbaceous colour. 20. The
verrucofa, or pearl-tongue-aloe, hath long, narrow,
tongue-fhaped leaves, which are hollowed on their up¬
per fide, but keel-ihaped below. They are clofely
fludded on every fide, with fmall white protuberances:;
from whence the plant hath had the name ofpearl-tongue-
aloe. The flowers grow on pretty tall ftalks, and form
loofe fpikes, each hanging downward. They are of
a beautiful red colour, tipped with green. 21. The ca-
rinata, or low aloe, with flelhy, keel-ftiaped, fpotted
leaves. This hath fome refemblance to the laft, but
the leaves are much broader and thicker ; the flow¬
ers alfo are of a paler colour, and the fpikes fhort-
er. 22. The ferox, with dark green leaves, befet
with fpines on every fide. This fpecies grows to the
height of eight or ten feet, with a ftrong ftem. The
leaves grow on the top, and clofely embrace the ftalk.
They come out irregularly, and fpread every way.
They are near four inches broad at the bafe ; and
diminifti gradually to the top, where they end in a
fpine. This fort hath not as yet flowered in Britain.
23. The uvaria, with reflexed flowers, lying over each
other like tiles on a houfe. This fpecies hath very
long, narrow, triangular leaves, fliaped like thofe of
the bulrufli. The flowers are produced in clofe thick
fpikes, upon ftalks near three feet high. They are of
an orange colour, having fix yellow ftamina, which
come out beyond the tube of the flower ; fo that when
the plants are ftrong, and produce large fpikes, they
make a fine appearance. The flowers appear in Au-
guft and September. There is a variety of this fpe¬
cies with narrower leaves, and longer fpikes of flow-
Culture. The proper earth for planting thefe vege¬
tables in, is, one half frefti light earth from a com¬
mon, and the reft an equal mixture of white fea-fand
and lifted lime-rubbilh. This mixture Ihould be al¬
ways made fix or eight months before the plants are to
be let in it. The common aloe will live in a dry gfeen-
houfe in winter; and may be placed in the open air in
fummer, in a flickered fituation, but muft have very little
water. Moft of the other aloes are bell preferred in an
airy glafs-cafe, in which there is a ftove, to make a little
fire in very bad weather. The tendereft kinds require
a greater lhare of heat to preferve them in winter, and
Ihould be kept in a good ftove, in a degree of heat ten
degrees above temperate. Many other kinds may alfo
be kept in this heat ; but the greater the heat, the
more water they always require. About the beginning
©f June, it is ufual in England to fet the pots of aloes
out of the houfe: but they fliould be fet under the Yhel-
ter of hedges, or trees, to keep them from the violence
of the fun; the rains alfo,. which ufually fall in this.and
the following .month, are apt to rot them. It is there¬
fore beft to keep them under cover the greateft part of
the year. The beft time to fhift thefe plants is the
middle of July. They are, on this occafion, to be ta¬
ken out of the pots, the loofe earth to be picked from
about their roots, and the decayed or mouldy parts of
them cut off; then a few ftones are to be put at the
bottom of the pot, and it is to be filled with the com-
pofition before deferibed, and the plants carefully put
in, the roots being fo difpofed as not to interfere with
one another. They are to be carefully watered after
this, at times, for three weeks, and fet in a (hady place.
The common kind will bear the open air from May to
Oftober, and ihould be fhifted every year. All the
aloes are propagated by off-fets, or by planting the
leaves. The off-fets fhould be taken from the mother
plant, at the time when it is fliifted: they are to be
planted in very fmall pots of the proper mixed earth;
and if that part of them which joined to the mother-
plant be obferved to be moift when taken off, it ftxould
lie on the ground in a ihady place two or three days
before it is planted, otherwife it will rot. After plant-
ting thefe, they fliould remain in a ihady place a fort¬
night ; and then be removed to a very moderate hot¬
bed, plunging the pots therein, which will help their
ftriking new roots. Towards the end of Auguft they
muft be, by degrees, hardened to the open air, by ta¬
king off the glaffes of the hot-bed; and in September
they may be removed into the green-houfe.
Aloes, in medicine, the infpiffated juice of fome of
the abovementioned fpecies. The ancients diftinguiih-
ed two forts of aloes: the one was pure and of a yel-
lowiih colour, inclining to red, refembling the colour
of a liver, and thence named hepatic; the other was
full of impurities, and hence fuppofed to be only the
drofs of the better kind. At prefent, various forts are
met with in the {hops ; which are diftinguifhed either
from the places, from the fpecies of the plants, or from
fome differences in the juices themfelves. Thefe may
be all ranged in three cla'ffes :
1. Aloe Socotorina, focotorine aloes, brought from
the.ifland Socotora in the Indian ocean, wrapt in {kins;
it is obtained from the 15th fpecies abovementioned.—
This fort is the pureft of the three: it is of a gloffy
furface, clear, and in fome degree pellucid; in the
lump, of a yellowifli red colour, with a purple caft;
when reduced to powder, of abright golden colour. It
is hard and friable in the winter^ fomewhat pliable in
fummer, and grows foft betwixt the fingers. Its tafte
is bitter, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but
infufficient to prevent its being difagreeable : the fmeli
is not very unpleafant,. and fomewhat refembles that of
myrrh.
2. Aloe Hepatica, hepatic, Barbadoes,. or common
aloes, (the juice of the fecond fpecies), is not fo clear
and bright as the foregoing fort; it is alfo of a darker
colour, more compadt texture, and for the moft part
drier. Its fmell is much ftronger and more .difagree¬
able;. the tafte intenfely bitter and naufeous, with lit¬
tle or nothing of the fine aromatic flavour of .tlie Soco-
torine,—The beft hepatic aloes come from Barbadoes
in large gourd {hells; an inferior fort of it (which is ge¬
nerally foft and clammy) is brought over in cafies.
3. Aloe Caballina, fetid, caballine, or horfe aloes,
(the produce of an African aloe,) is eafily diftinguHhed
from both the foregoing, by its .ftrong rank fmell .; al¬
though, in other refpe&s, it agrees pretty much with
the hepatic, and‘is not unfrequently fold in its ftead.
Sometimes the caballine aloes is prepared fo pure and
bright, as not to be diftinguifuable by the. eye even
from.
Aloes
||
Aloft.'
* See Luff,
* See the ar¬
ticle Grafs.
A L O [ 264 ] A L O
from the Socotorine ; but its offenfive fmell, which it
cannot be divefted of, readily betrays it.
Aloes is a ftimulating cathartic bitter: if given in fo
large a dofe as to purge effe&ually, it often occafions
an irritation about the anus, and fometimes a difeharge
of blood. Small dofes of it frequently repeated, not
only cleanfe the prim# vice, but likewife attenuate and
difiblve vifeid juices in the remoter parts, warm the ha¬
bit, quicken the circulation, and promote the uterine
and haemorrhoidal fluxes. This medicine is particular¬
ly ferviceable to perfons of a phlegmatic temperament
and fedentary life, and where the ftomach is opprefled
and weakened : in dry bilious habits, aloes prove inju¬
rious, immoderately heating the blood, and inflaming
the bowels.
This juice is likewife, on account of its bitternefe,
fuppofed to kill worms, either taken internally, or ap¬
plied in plafters to the umbilical region. It is alfo cele-
brated for reftraining external haemorrhages, and clean-
flng and healing wounds and ulcers.
.Socotorine aloes contains more gummy matter than
the hepatic; and hence it is likewife found to purge
more, and with greater irritation. The firfl: fort there¬
fore is moft proper where a ftimulus is required, as for
promoting or exciting the menftrual flux ; whilft the
latter is better calculated to aft as a common purge.
ALOGIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of ancient
heretics, who denied that Jefus Chrifl: was the Logos,
and confequently rejefted the gofpel of St John.
ALOGOTROPHIA, among phyficians, a term
flgnifying the unequal growth or nourifliment of any
part of the body, as in the rickets.
ALOOF, has frequently been mentioned as a fea-
term; but whether juftly or not, we ftiall not prefume
to determine. It is known in common difeourfe to im¬
ply at a diflance; and the refemblance of the phrafes keep
a loof, and keep a luff. Or keep the luff, in all probability
gave rife to this conjefture. If it was really a fea-phrafe
originally, it feems to have referred to the dangers of
a lee-fhore, in which fituation the pilot might naturally
apply it in the fenfe commonly underltood, viz. keep
all of, or quite off: it is,"'however, never expreffed in
. that manner by feamen now *. It may not be improper
to obferve, that befides uiing this phrafe in the fame
fenfe with us, the French alfo call the weather-fide of
a fliip, and the weather-clue of a courfe, le lof.
ALOPECIA, in medicine, fignifies a falling off of
the hair, occafioned either by want of nourifliment, or
by a bad ftate of the humours. It is alfo ufed by Galen
for a change in the colour of the hair.—See Medicine,
n° 853.
ALOPECURUS, or Fox-tail grass, in botany,
a genus of the triandria digynia clafs. There are feven
fpecies, viz. the pratenfis, or meadow fox-tail grafs ;
the bulbofus, or bulbous fox-tail grafs; the genicula-
tus, or flote fox-tail grafs; and the myofuroides, or field
fox-tail grafs; thefe four grow wild in Britain: the a-
greftis, the monfpelienfis, the paniceus, and the hordei-
formis, are all natives of France and the fouthern parts
of Europe, except the laft, which is a native of India*.
ALOSA, the (had, or mother of herrings, a fpecies
of the clupea. See Clupea.
ALOST, a town in Flanders, belonging to the
houfe of Auftria, feated on the river Dender, in the
midway between Bruffels and Ghent. It has but one
parifli; but the church is collegiate, and has a provoft, Alpha v
a dean, and twelve canons. Here is a convent of Car- .. £
melites, another of capuchins, another of bare-footed p
Carmelites, three nunneries, anhofpital, and a convent
of Guillemins, in which is the tomb of Theodore Mar¬
tin, who brought the art of printing out of Germany
into the Low Countries. He was a friend of Erafmus,
who wrote his epitaph. E. Long. 4. 1 o. N.n Lat.
49- 55-
ALPHA, the name of the firfl; letter of the Greek
alphabet, anfwering to our A.—As a numeral, it Hands
for one, or the firfl; of any thing. It is particularly
ufed, among ancient writers, to denote the chief or firfl;
man of his clafs or rank. In this fenfe, the word Hands
contradiflinguifhed from beta, which denotes the fe-
cond perfon. Plato was called the Alpha of the wits:
Eratoflhenes, keeper of the Alexandrian library, whom
fome called a Second Plato, is frequently named Beta.
Alpha is alfo ufed to denote the beginning of any
thing. In which fenfe it Hands oppofed to omega,
which denotes the end. And thefe two letters were
made the fymbol of Chriflianity; and accordingly were
engraven on the tombs of the ancient ChriHians, to di-
ftinguifli them from thofe of idolaters. Moralez, a Spa-
nifli writer, imagined that this cuHom only commen¬
ced fince the rife of Arianifm; and that it was peculiar
to the orthodox, who hereby made confeflion of the
eternity of ChriH: but there are tombs prior to the age
of ConHantine whereon the two letters were found, be¬
fides that the emperor juH mentioned bore them on his
labarum before Arius appeared.
ALPHABET, the natural or cuHomary feries of
the feveral letters of a language *. The word is form- * See Lan-
ed from alpha and beta, the firfi and feeond letters of ZuaZe> an<1
Greek alphabet. The number of letters is different in ^mnZ'
the alphabets of different languages. The Englifli al¬
phabet contains 24 letters; to which if we add j and v
confonant, the fum will be 26: the French contains 23 ;
the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan, 22 each ;
the Arabic 28 ; the Perfian 31 ; the Turkifli 33 ; the
Georgian 36 ; the Coptic 32 ; the Mufcovite 43 ; the
Greek 24; the Latin 22; the Sclavonic 27; the
Dutch 26 ; the Spanifli 27 ; the Italian 20; the E-
thiopic and Tartarian, each 202; the Indians of Ben¬
gal 21; the Baramefe 19. The Chinefehave, proper¬
ly fpeaking, no alphabet, except we call their whole
language by that name ; their letters are words, or ra¬
ther hieroglyphics, amounting to about 80,000.
ALPHEUS, (Strabo); Alpheius, (Ptolemy); a
noted and large river of the Peleponnefus; which, ri-
fing in, and after feveral windings running through,
Arcadia, and by Olympia in Elis, with a fouth-weff
courfe, pours into the Sinus Chelonites, about ten miles
to the fouth of Olympia. It has a common fpring with
the Eurotas, at the foot of mount Parthenius, near the
village Afea, (Strabo.) The Alpheus and Eurotas
mix and run together for 20 fladia; after which, they
enter a fubterraneous paffage at Mantinea; then again
emerge, the Eurotas in Laconica, and the Alpheus in the
territory of Megalopolis, (Paufanias.) The poets fable
Hrange things of this river; particularly, that, out of love
to the nymph Arethufa, it runs under the fea to Sicily,
and burHs out at the fountain of that name in Syra-
cufe, (Virgil). Its waters were reckoned good in the
leprofy, which is called Axpor by the Greeks; and hence
the
ALP [ 269 ] ALP
the name Alpheus.—Paufanias adds, that the Eleans
had a law, which condemned any woman to death that
{hould either appear at the Olympic games, or even
crofs this river during that folemnity: and the Eleans
add, that the only woman who tranfgrefied it, had dif-
guifed herfelf in the habit of a mailer or keeper of thefe
games, and conduced her fon thither; but when Ihe
iw him come off victorious, her joy made her forget
her difguife, fo that her fex was difcovered. She was
pardoned, but from that time a law was made that the
keepers Ihould appear there naked.
ALPHONSIN, in furgery, an inftrument for ex¬
tracting bullets out of gun-lhot wounds. This inllru-
ment derives its name from the inventor Alphonfus Per¬
rier, a phyfician of Naples. It confifts of three branch¬
es, which are clofed by a ring. When clofed and in¬
troduced into the wound, the operator draws back the
ring towards the handle, upon which the branches o-
pening take hold of the ball; and then the ring is pulh-
ed from the haft, by which means the branches grafp
the ball fo firmly, as to extra£1 it from the wound.
ALPHONSUSX. king of Leon and Callile, fur-
named the Wife, was author of the aftronomical tables
called Alphonfins. Reading of Quintus Curtius gave
him fuch delight, that it recovered him out of a danger¬
ous illnefs. He read the Bible fourteen times, with fe-
veral comments on it. He is faid to have found fault
with the llrutlure of the mundane fyftem, and has been
charged with impiety on that fcore; but unjuftly, for
he only found fault with the involved fyftem of fome
aftronomers. He was dethroned by his fon Sancho ;
and died of grief, A. D. 1284.
ALPINI (Profpero), a famous phyfician and bo-
tanift, born in the Venetian territory, in 1553. He
travelled in Egypt to acquire a knowledge of exotic
plants, and was the firft who explained the fructifica¬
tion and generation of plants; by the fexual fyftem.
Upon his return to Venice, in 1586, Andrea Doria,
prince of Melfi, appointed him his phyfician; and he
diftinguifhed himfelf fo much in this capacity, that he
was efteemed the firft phyfician of his age. The repu¬
blic of Venice began to be uneafy, that a fubjeCt of
theirs, of fo great merit as Alpini, ftiould continue at
Genoa, when he might be of fo much fervice and ho¬
nour to their ftate : they therefore recalled him in
1593, to fill the profefforfhip of botany at Padua;
and he had a falary of 200 florins, which was after¬
wards raifed to 750. He difcharged this office with
great reputation ; but his health became very precari¬
ous, having been much broke by the voyages he had
made. According to the regifter of the univerfity of
Padua, he died the 5th of February 1617, in the 64th
year of his age; and was buried the day after, without
any funeral pomp, in the church of St Anthony.—Al¬
pini wrote the following works in Latin: 1. Of the phy-
fic of the Egyptians, in four books. Printed at Ve¬
nice, 1591, 104'°. 2. A treatife concerning the plants
of Egypt. Printed at Venice, 1592, in 4'°. 3. A
dialogue concerning balfams. Printed at Venice, 1592,
in 4to. 4. Seven books concerning the method of form¬
ing a judgment of the life or death of patients. Print¬
ed at Venice, 1691, in 4'°. 5. Thirteen Books con¬
cerning methodical Phyfic. Padua, 1611, folio; Ley¬
den, 1719, in 4t0. 6. A Difputation held in the fchool
at Padua, concerning the Raphonticum. Padua, 1612,
VOL. I.
and 1629, 4t<>. 7. Of exotic plants, in two books. Ve¬
nice, 1699, in 4to. He left feveral other works, which
have never been printed; particularly, 8. The fifth book
concerning the phyfic of the Egyptians. 9. Five books
concerning the natural hiftory of things obferved in E-
gypt, adorned with a variety of draughts of plants,
ftones, and animals.
ALPINIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants. Of
this genus there is but one fpecies, which is a native
of the Weft Indies, where it grows naturally in moift
places. The leaves decay every winter, and are pufh-
ed out from the roots in the fpring, like the ginger and
maranta; fo muft be managed in the fame manner as
dire&ed for thefe two plants, and may be propagated
by parting the roots when the leaves decay.
ALPS, a range of high mountains, feparating Italy
from Gaul and Germany, in the form of a crefcent.
They take their rife from the Vada Sabatia, or Savo¬
na ; and reach to the Sinus Flanaticus (now Golfo di
Carnaro of the Adriatic), and the fprings of the river
Colapis (now the Kulpe); extending, according to Li¬
vy, 2000 ftadia in length, or 250 miles: they are di¬
vided into feveral parts, and accordingly have different
names. From Savona to the fprings of the Varus, where
the Alps lie againft the fea of Genoa, they are called
Maritima, now le Montagne di Tenda. Thefe extend
from fouth to north, between Gaul to the weft, and
Genoa to the eaft, beginning at Monaco on the Medi¬
terranean ; then running out thro* the eaft of the coun¬
ty of Nice, and between that and the marquifate of
Saluzzo, terminate at length at mount Vifo, between
Dauphine and Piedmont. Hence to Sufa run the Alpes
Cottiie, (Sueton.); Cottana, (Tacitus); mountains ex¬
tremely high, feparating Dauphine from Piedmont, and
extending from mount Vifo to mount Cenis, between
the Alpes Maritima to the fouth, and the Graia to
the north. The Alpes Graia, (Pliny), fo called from
the paffage of Hercules, begin from mount Cenis, where
the Cottia terminate; and run out between Savoy and
the Tarentefe to the weft, and Piedmont and the Duche
d’Aoufte to the eaft, quite to the Great St Bernard,
where the Alpes Pennina begin. They are alfo called
by fome Graia Alpes, and Grains Mans, (Tacitus);
which extend from weft to eaft, between St Bernard
and the Adula, or St Godard; and thus they run out
between the Valefe to the north, and the Milanefe to
the fouth. With thefe are continued the Alpes Rha-
tica, to the head of the river Piave; a part of which
are the Alpes Tridentina, to the north of Trent. To
thefe join the Alpes Norica, reaching to Doblach ia
Tyrol, to the north of the river Tajamento: thence
begin the Alpes Carnica, or of Carniola, extending to
the fprings of the Save: and the laft, called Alpes Pan-
nonica, and Julia, extend to the fprings of the Kulpe.
Some, however, extend the Alps to the north of Dal¬
matia; others again to Thrace and the Euxine. But
their termination at the Kulpe, as above, is more ge¬
nerally received. They were formerly called Albia, and
Alpionia, (Strabo.) Through thefe mountains Annibal
forced his paffage into Italy, by pouring vinegar on
the rock, heated by burning large piles of wood on
them, by which means they became crumbled; (Livy.)
They are covered with perpetual fnow.—Alpes or Alpen
is a Celtic term for high mountains. Cluverius makes
L 1 the
Alpinia,
Alps.
A L S [ 270 ] A L S
Alpuxarras the height of fome 30, of others 50 miles; a height al-
II together incredible, even fuppoling we reckon from the
a‘ level of the fea: the manner by which he found this
height is nowhere faid. According to the calculations
of fome geometricians, thefe mountains are fomewhat
lefs than two miles in perpendicular height.
ALPUXARRAS, or Alpaxares, mountains of
Spain, in the province of Granada, on the coaft of the
Mediterranean fea. They are about 17 leagues in
length, and 11 in breadth, reaching from the city of
Velez to Almeria. They are inhabited by Moors, who
are the remains of the difperfion and ruin of their em¬
pire. They embraced the Chriftian religion; but pre-
ferve their own manner of living, and their language,
though much corrupted. Here is a rivulet between
Pitros and Portugos, which dyes linen that is dipt in it
black in an inttant. Near this rivulet is a cavern, from
which proceeds fo malignant a fteam, that it deftroys
fuch animals as come near it. The Morifcos culti¬
vate the foil extremely well, and plant-fiuit trees; fome
of which grow to a prodigious height and thickriefs,
and give the mountains a very agreeable afpedt.
ALQUIER, a liquid meafure, ufed in Portugal to
* See Al- meafure oil, two of which make an almond *.
mond. ALQUIFOU, or Arquifou, is a fort of lead-ore,
which, when broken, looks like antimony. It is ufed
by the potters to give a green varnifh to their works,
and thence is called potter’s ore. It is met with in
Cornwall, See. The potters mix a fmall portion of man-
ganeze with the alquifou, and then the varnilh or gla¬
zing on their ware is of a blackifh hue.
ALREDUS, Alured, or Alfredus, of Bever¬
ley, one of the moft ancient and beft Englilh hiftorians.
He wrote in the reign of Henry I. There are no cir-
cumftances of his life known with any degree of cer¬
tainty. It is generally believed that he was educated
at Cambridge, and that he afterwards became one of
the canons and treafurer of St John’s at Beverley. And
we learn in a note of bifhop Tanner’s, that, for the fake
of improvement, he travelled thro’ France and Italy;
and that at Rome he became domeftic chaplain to car¬
dinal Othoboni. He died in the year 1128, or 1129;
leaving behind him the following works: 1. The An¬
nals of Alured of Beverley. Oxford, 1726. Publifhed
by Mr Hearne, from a manufeript belonging to Tho¬
mas Rawlinfon, Efq. It contains an abridgement of our
hiftory from Brutus to Henry I. written in good La¬
tin, and with great accuracy. 2. Likert ates ecclefi*
S. Johannis de Beverlac, See. a manufeript in the Cot¬
ton Library. It is a colledtion of records relative to
the church at Beverley, tranflated by our author from
the Saxon language. The Biographia Britannica evi¬
dently proves thefe to be all that were written by Al-
redus.
ALRESFORD, a town of Hamplhire, feated on
the road from London to Southampton, clofe by the
river Itching, which feeds a great pond to the left of
the town. Part of a Roman highway runs from hence
to Alton. It is a reftory, with the mediety of Old Al-
resford, of 49/: 12/. 8^/. in the king’s books. It con-
ifts of about zoohoufes; has one church; two princi¬
pal ftreets, which are large and broad; and a fmall ma-
sufacture of linfeys.
ALSA, a river of Carniola, (Pliny;) now the Aufa;
running by Aquileia, with a ihort courfe from north to
fouth, into the Adriatic; where Conftantine, the fon of AI face
Conftantine the Great, fighting againft Conftans his II
brother, loll hit life. S * *
ALSACE, a province of France, bounded on the
eaft by the Rhine, on the fouth by Swifferland, on the
weft by Lorrain, and on the north by the palatinate of
the Rhine. It was formerly a part of Germany, but
was given to France by the treaty of Munfter. It is
one of the moft fruitful and plentiful provinces of Eu¬
rope, abounding in corn, wine, wood, flax, tobacco,
pulfe, fruits, &c. The mountains which divide it from
Lorrain are very high; and generally covered with fir,
beech, oak, and horn-beam. Thofe on the fide of
Swifferland are lefs high; and furnifhed with all forts of
wood, as well for fuel as building. The country itfelf
is diverfified with rifing hills and fertile vales, befides
large forefts; but that between the rivers 111, Hart, and
the Rhine, as far as Strafourgh, is inferior to the reft,
on account of the frequent Overflowing of the Rhine.
In High Alfaee, there are mines of filver, copper, and
lead. They however work none but thofe of Giromany,
from which are annually drawn 1600 marks of filver,
each mark being eight ounces; and 24000 pounds of
copper: but the expence of working them is almoft e-
qual to the profit. There are iron-works in feveral
parts of Alface, and particularly at Betford. There is
a mineral fpring at Sultlbach, near Munfter, in High
Alface; which is in great reputation for the pally,
weaknefs of the nerves, and the gravel.—The original
inhabitants of Alface are honeft and good-natured,
but wedded to their own manners and cuftoms. The
fruitfulnefs of their country renders them indolent and
inactive; for the Swifs make their hay and reap their
corn, as well as manage the vintage of High Alface,
which fends a great deal of money out of the province.
The common language is the German: however, the
better fort of people fpeak French in the towns; and
even in the country, they fpeak French well enough to
be underftood.
ALSEN, an ifland of Denmark in the leffer Belt,
or entrance into the Baltic fea, between Slefwick and
Funen. It is remarkable for nothing except two caftles,
and producing large crops of anifeeds, a carminative
much ufed in feafoning the food and mixing with the
bread all over the Damfli dominions. E. Long. 1 o. 12.
N. Lat. 55. 12.
ALSFIELD, a town of Germany, in the landgra-
vate of Heffe Caffel, ten miles north-weft of Marpurg,
and thirty-five fouth of Heffe Caffel. It is tin ancient
town, and well-built; and the inhabitants were the firft
of this country who embraced the Reformation. E.
Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 50. 40.
ALSHASH, a very beautiful city in Bukharin,
fuppofed to be the fame with that which is now called
Tajhcant, the capital of the eaftern part of Turkeftan,
poffeffed by the Kaffats. It is fituated on the river Si-
hun, now Sir, and had a well watered garden for every
houfe ; but was ruined by Jenghiz Khan, who took the
city, and caufed a great number of its inhabitants to be
maffacred.
ALSHEDA, a parifti of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland, where a gold mine was difeovered in 1738.
ALSINA, in botany, a fynonime of the theligo-
num. See Theligonum.
ALSINASTRUM, in botany, the trivial name and
alfo.
1*1 at <\ X
IB unit OfleTmu?
/.
Jloribus I’cirjKl iiir lulitln ;Ki >
or T:E.ATiJ-.
ALT [ 271 ] ALT
Alfme
, 1)
Ahamora.
alfo a fynonime of the elatine. See ElAtine.
ALSINE, Chickv/eed; a genus of the trigynia or-
der, belonging to the pentandria elafs of plants. Of
this genus a great number of fpecies are enumerated
by fome botanical writers; but none of them poffefs any
remarkable properties, except the media, or common
chick weed, with white bloffoms, which is fo well known
as to need no particular defcription.—This fpecies af¬
fords a notable inftance of what is called the of
plants: for, every night, the leaves approach in pairs,
fo as to include within their upper furfaces the tender
rudiments of the new (hoots ; and the uppermoft pair
but one at the end of the (talk are furnifhed with lon¬
ger leaf-ftalks than the others ; fo that they can clofe
upon the terminating pair, and proteft the end of the
branch. The young fiioots and leaves, when boiled, can
hardly be diftinguifhed from fpring fpinach, and are e-
qually wholefome.—Swine are extremely fond of chick-
weed ; cows and horfes eat it; fheep are indifferent to
it; and goats refufe it.
ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan theology, denotes
a bridge laid over the middle of hell, the padage or
path whereof is (harper than the edge of a fword; over
which every body muil pafs at the day of judgement,
when the wicked will tumble headlong into hell, where¬
as the good will fly over it like the wind.
ALSIUM, a city of ancient Etruria, occupying
(according to Cluverius) the fpot on which Pala now
ftands. We are told by Dionyfius Halicarnaflenfis, that
Allium was built by the Aborigines, long before the
Tyrfenians invaded Italjr. In this cafe it muft have
been founded not long after the difperfion in the days
of Peleg. Its founder is faid to have been one Alafus,
Alefus, or Alifa; whom fome conjecture to have been
Alifah, or Elifha, the fon of Javan, mentioned in Scrip¬
ture.
ALSTEDIUS (John-Henry), a German Prote-
ftant divine, and one of the mod indefatigable writers
of the 17th century. He was fome time profeflbr of
philofophy and divinity at Herborn in the county of
Naffau: from thence he went into Tranfylvania, to be
profeflbr at Alba Julia; where he continued tillhis death,
which happened in 1638, being then 50 years of age.
His Encyclopaedia has been much efteemed even by the
Roman-catholics; it was printed at Lyons, and fold
very well throughout all France. His Thefaurius Cbro-
mlogicus is by fome efteemed one of his bed works,
and has gone through feveral editions. He alfo wrote
T"riumphus Biblicus, to (how that the principles of all
arts and fciences are to be found in the Scriptures; but
he gained very few to his opinion. He was a Millena-
rian ; and publidied, in 1627, a treatife De mille annis,
in which he aflerted that the reign of the faints on earth
was to begin in 1694.
ALSTON-MORE, a town in Cumberland, feated
on a hill, at the bottom of which runs the river Tyne,
with a done bridge over it. Near this place is plenty
of lead ore. W. Long. 2* 4. N. Lat. 54. 45.
ALT, in muflc, a term applied to the high notes in
the fcale.
ALTAMONT, a very handfome town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and in Calabria Citerior, 15
miles north-wed of Rafigniano. E. Long. 16. 22. N.
Lat. 39. 40.
ALT AMUR A, a town of Naples, in the territory
of Bari, with the title of a principality, feated on the
foot of the Apennine mountains. E. Long. 16. 54.
N. Lat. 41.0.
ALTAR, a place upon which facrifices were an¬
ciently offered to fome deity.
The heathens at firft ihade their altars only of turf;
afterwards they were made of done, of marble, of
wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Delos.
Altars differed in figure as well as in materials. Some
were round, others fquare, and others oval. All of
them were turned towards the eaft, and flood lowrer
than the datues of the gods; and were generally ad¬
orned with fculpture, inferiptions, and the leaves and
flowers of the particular tree confecrated to the deity.
Thus, the altars of Jupiter were decked with oak,
thofe of Apollo with laurel, thofe of Venus with myr¬
tle, and thofe of Minerva with olive.
The height of altars alfo differed according to the
different gods to whom they facrificed. Thofe of the
celeftial gods were raifed to a great height above the
ground; thofe appointed for the terreftrial, were ai¬
med on a level with the furface of the earth. On the
contrary, they dug a hole for the altars of the infernal
gods.
Before temples were in ufe, altars were eredted fome-
times in groves, fometimes in the highways, and fome-
times on the tops of mountains ; and it was a cudom
to engrave upon them the name, enfign, or charadler,
of the deity to whom they were confecrated.
In the great temples of ancient Rome, there were
ordinarily three altars: The firft was placed in the fanc-
tuary, at the foot of the ftatue of the divinity, upon
which incenfe was burnt and libations offered; the fe-
cond was before the gate of the temple, and upon it
they facrificed the victims; and the third was a portable
altar, upon which were placed the offering and the fa-
cred veffels.
Befides thefe ufes of altars, the ancients fwore upon
them, and fwore by them, in making alliances, con¬
firming treaties of peace, and other folemn occafions.
Altars alfo ferved as places of refuge to all thofe who
fled to them, whatever crime they had committed.
Among the Jews, altars in the patriarchal times were
very rude. The altar which Jacob fet up at Beth-el
was nothing but a done, which ferved him inftead of
a bolder; that of Gideon, a done before his houfe:
and the firft which God commanded Mofes to erett
was probably of earth, or unpoliftied ftones, without
any iron; for if any ufe was made of that metal, the
altar was declared impure.
The principal altars of the Jews were, The altar of
incenfe; that of burnt-offering; and the altar, or table*
for the foe’w-bread.
The altar of incenfe was a fmall table of (hittim-
wood, covered with plates of gold, of one cubit in
length, another in width, and two in height. At
the four corners, were four kinds of horns, and all
round a little border or crown over it. This was
the altar hidden by Jeremiah before the captivity; and
upon it the officiating prieft offered, every morning
and evening, incenfe of a particular compofition. See
Plate X. fig. 3.
The altar of burnt-offerings was made of Shittim-
wood, and carried upon the (houlders of the priefts by
ftaves of the fame wood overlaid with brafs. In the
L 1 2 time
ALT [ 272 ] ALT
Altar time of Mofes, this altar was five cubits fquare, and
4lJna three high ; but in Solomon’s temple it was much lar-
' ger, being twenty cubits fquare, and ten in height. It
was covered with brafs; and at each corner was a horn
or fpire, wrought out of the fame wood with the altar
to which the facrifices were tied. Within the hollow
was a grate of brafs, on which the fire was made ;
through it fell the allies, and were received in a pan
below. At the four corners of the grate were four
rings and four chains, which kept it up at [the horns.
This altar was placed in the open air, that the fmoke
of the burnt-offerings might not fully the infide of the
tabernacle. See Plate X. fig. 2.
The altar, or table, for the Jhenu-bread, was like-
wife of Ihittim-wood, covered with plates of gold, ha¬
ving a little border round it, adorned with fculpture.
It was two cubits long, one wide, and one and an half
in height. Upon this table, which flood in the holy
of holies, were put, every fabbath-day, twelve loaves,
with fait and incenfe.
The Jewifh altars, after their return from the capti¬
vity, and the building of the fecond temple, were in
fome refpefts different from thofe defcribed above.
That of burnt-offerings was a large pile, built of un¬
hewn ftone, thirty-two cubits fquare at the bottom,
and twenty-four fquare at the top. The afcent was by
a gentle riling, thirty-two cubits in length, and fixteen
in breadth.
Altar, is alfo ufed among Chriftians for the com¬
munion-table.
ALTAR-thane, orAcTARisr, in old law-books,
ah appellation given to the prieft or parfon of a parifh,
to whom the altarage belonged. See Altarage.
ALTARAGE, in law, altars erected in virtue
of donations, before the Reformation, within a paro¬
chial church, for the purpofe of finging of mafs for de¬
ceased friends.
Altarage likewife fignifies the profits ariling to
the prieft on account of the altar.
AL-TAYEF, a town of Hejaz, a diftrift of Ara¬
bia Felix. It is fituated about 60 miles eaft of Mecca,
behind mount Gazwan, where the cold is more intenfe
than in any other part of the diftri£t, but the air very
wholefome. Its territory abounds in fountains, and
produces excellent raifins. The town is furrounded
with a wall, but is not very large.
ALTDORF, a large handfome town in Swifferland,
and the chief of the canton of Uri. It is fituated below
the lake of the four cantons, in a plain, at the foot of
a mountain, whofe paffages are difficult, and ferve in-
ftead of fortifications. It has four churches and two
convents; St Martin’s church and that of the Holy
Crofs are the fineft. The town-houfe and the arfenal
are alfo worth feeing. E. long. 8. 30. N. lat. 46. 50.
ALTEA, a fea-port town of Valencia, in Spain.
It was taken in 1705, in favour of the archduke
Charles; but loft, after the battle of Almanza. W. long,
o. 15. N. lat. 46. 34.
ALTEMBURG, a town of Tranfylvania, 17 miles
S. W. of Wifemburg, and 35 S. of Claufenbourg.
E. long. 23. 5. N. lat. 46. 25.
ALTENA, a fea-port town of Germany, in the
duchy of Holftein, in Lower Saxony. It is a modern
town, built by the king of Denmark, and was burnt
by the Swedes in 1712 ; but has fince been beautiful¬
ly re-built. The merchandife brought from Afia, by Altenburg
the Danifti Eaft-India company, is fold here. E. lone:. , II
IO.O. N. lat. 53. 51. * Altbg:a-
ALTENBERG, an ancient town of Germany, fi¬
tuated on the river Pleifs, with a good caftle placed on
a rock, in Mifnia, in the circle of the Upper Saxony.
It was formerly an imperial city, but at prefent belongs
to the houfe of Saxony. Here is a college which has
always been in a flouriftiing condition. In 1705, there
was a nunnery founded for women of a high rank, who
are Proteftants. E. Long. 15. 8. N. Lat. 50. 59.
ALTENBURG, a fmall fortified town of Hun-
ary, in the territory of Mofon, near the Danube, a-
out 55 miles from Vienna. E. long. 35. 30. N. lat.
48. 15.
Altenburg, or Owar, a fmall but ftrong town of
Hungary, feated in a marfh, with wide ftreets. It is near
the river Danube, and is furrounded with deep ditches.
It is 15 miles fouth of Prelburg, 40 fouth-eaft of Vien¬
na, and 65 fouth-weft of Buda. E. long. 17. 56.
N. lat. 44. o.
ALTERANTS, or Alterative Medicines, fuch
as correft the bad qualities of the blood and other hu¬
mours, without occafioning any fenfible evacuation *. * SeeMedi-
ALTERATION, in a general fenfe, denotes fome
variation in the qualities or circumftances of a thing,
without wholly changing its nature.
Alteration, in mufic, the diftance of any interval
increafed or diminifhed, which of conlequence muft
ffiarpen or flatten the chords which thefe altered in¬
tervals compofe.
ALTERN-BASE, in trigonometry, a term ufed
in contradiftinftion to the true bafe. Thus in oblique
triangles, the true bafe is either the fum of the fides,
and then the difference of the fides is called the altern-
bafe; or the true bafe is the difference of the fides, and
then the fum of the fides is called the altern-bafe.
ALTERNATE, in a general fenfe, a term applied
to fuch perfons or things as fucceed each other by
turns. Thus, two who command each his day, are
faid to have an alternate command, or to command al¬
ternately.
Alternate, in heraldry, is faid in refpedt of the
fituation of the quarters. Thus the firft and fourth
quarters, and the fecond and third, are ufually of the
fame nature, and are called alternate quarters.
Alternate, in botany, when the leaves or branch¬
es of plants arife higher on oppofite fides alternately.
ALTHALA, Marshmallow; a genus of the po-
lyandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants. There are three
Species. 1. The vulgaris, or common marlhmallow,.
is a native of Britain, and hath a perennial root, and
an annual ftalk, which perifties every autumn. The
ftalks grow ereft to the height of four or five feet.
Thefe are garnifhed with leaves which are hoary, foft to
the touch, and placed alternately on the branches. The
flowers come out from under the wings of the leaves,
like the mallow, and are of a purplifh white. 2. The
hirfuta, or hairy marftimallow, is a native of Spain and
Portugal. It is a low plant, whofe branches traij on
the ground, unlefs they are fupported by ftakes. The
leaves and ftalks are befet with ftrong hairs, the flowers
come out like thofe of the common fort, but are fmall-
er, and have purplilh bottoms. 3. The cannabina, or
ftirubby
p
ALT [ 273 ] ALT
-Althxa flirubby marftimallow, is a native of Hungary and If-
Altfni? tr‘a’ ■^t ^as a woody ftem, which pfes to the height of
    four or five feet; and puts out many fide-branches. The
flowers come out in the fame manner as in the others,
but are of a deeper red colour. This fort feldom flow¬
ers the firfl: year, unlefsthe fummer proves warm; but,
when the plants live thro’ the winter, they will flower
early in the following fummer, and produce good feeds.
Culture. Though the firft fort is found naturally in
fait marflres, it will thrive when tranfplanted into any
foil, or in any fituation; however, it will always grow
larger in moift than in dry foil. It may be propagated
either by parting the roots in autumn when the ftalks
decay, or by fowing the feeds in the fpring. If the
feeds of the fecond fpecies are fown in April, the plants
will flower in July, and carry ripe feed in September.
They ought to be fown in the places where they are to
remain, as the roots fhoot deep into the ground; fo that,
unlefs the plants are removed very young, they feldom
furvive it. The feeds of the cannabina ought alfo to
be fown where the plants are to remain, for the reafon
juft now given. They (hould have a flickered fituation
and a dry foil, otherwife they will not live through the
winter. Indeed they feldom continue in this country
above two years, with all the care that can be taken of
' them.
Medicinal Ufes. The firft is the only fpecies ufed in
medicine. The whole plant, efpecially the root, a-
bounds with a mild mucilage. It has the general vir¬
tues-of an emollient medicine; and proves ferviceable
in a thin acrimonious ftate of the juices, and where the
natural mucus of the inteftines is abraded. It is chief¬
ly recommended in fliarp defluxions upon the lungs,
hoarfenefs, dyfenteries; and likewife in nephritic and
calculous complaints: not, as fome have fuppofed, that
this medicine has any peculiar power of difiblving or
expelling the calculus ; but as, by lubricating and re¬
laxing the veffels, it procures a more free and eafy paf-
fage. The root is fometimes employed externally for
foftening and maturating hard tumours; chewed, it is
to g‘ve eak *n difficult dentition of children #.
n°9o.f Ka> Althaea Frutex. See Hibiscus and Lavatera.
f See Ain- ALTIMETRY, the art of meafuring altitudes or
ude. heights, whether acceffible or inacceffible *.
ALTIN, a lake in Siberia, from whence iflues the
river Ob, or Oby, in N. lat. 52. o. E. long. 85° 55'.
This lake is called by the Ruffians 'Telojkoi Oferoy from
the Teleffi, a Tartarian nation, who inhabit the borders
of it, and who give it the name of Altin-Kul. By the
Calmucks it is called Altinnor. It is near ninety miles
long and 50 broad, with a rocky bottom. The north
part of it is fometimes frozen fo hard as to be pafiable
on foot, but the fouthern part is never covered with
ice. The water in the Akin lake, as well as in the ri¬
vers which run through the adjacent places, only rifes
in the middle of fummer, when the fnows on the moun¬
tains are melted by the heat of the fun.
ALTING (Henry), profeflbr of divinity at Hei¬
delberg and Groningen, born at Embden, Feb. 17.
1583, of a family which had been long eonfpieuous in
Frifeland. His father, Menfo Alting, was the firft,
who, with two others, preached the reformation in the
territory of Groningen, about the year 1566, under
the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva; and
the firft that preached in the great church of Gronin¬
gen, after the redu&ion of that town by the States Ge- Alting
neral in 1594. Henry was chofen, in 1605, preceptor H
to the three young counts of Naffau, Solms, and Izen- tqn*-
berg. After various difficulties, he fettled at Gronin¬
gen, where he continued till his death, Auguft 25.
1644. -He was a found proteftant divine, a pious
Chriftian, a ufeful member of fociety in many refpefts,
and one who fuffered much for the truth. Moft of his
works were never publifhed; thofe which have been, are
the following : Not# in decadentproblematum J. Bebm,
1618. Loci communes cxplicatio catechefeos Palatine,
1646, in 3 vols. Exegefts Auguftanee confef. 1647. Me-
thodus tbeologiee, 1650. It appears from the catalogue
of his works annexed to his life, that the Medulla
hijl. prophauee, publilhed by D. Pareus, was compofed
by Airing. The moft remarkable piece among Ai¬
ring’s MSS. is The ecclefiaftical hiftory of the Palati¬
nate, from the reformation to the adminiftration of
John Cafimir.
Alting (James), fon of the former, was born at
Heidelberg, September 27. 1618. He travelled into
England in 1640, where he was ordained by the learn¬
ed Dr Prideaux, bifliop of Worcefter. He afterwards
accepted of the profeflbrfhip of Groningen, vacant by
the death of Gomarus ; but his fituation was rendered
very difagreeable by the continual difputes which he
had with his colleague Sam. des Marets, who favoured
the fchool-divinity. He made a pious exit, Auguft
20, 1679, recommending the edition of his works to
Menfo Alting (author of Notitia German. Infer. An-
tiqua, fol, Amft. 1697); but they were publilhed in
5 vols folio, with his life, by Mr Bekker of Amfter-
dam. They contain various analytical, exegetical,
pradlica], problematical, and philofophical trails, which
fhew his great induftry and knowledge. Airing was a
divine greatly addiiled to the text of the fcripture, to
Cocceianifm, and Rabbiniftn. He preached well in
German, Dutch, and Englifti.
ALTITUDE, acceffible, and inacceffible. See
Geometry, Part II. chap. i.
The method of taking confiderable terreftrial alti¬
tudes, of which thofe of mountains are the greateft, by
means of the barometer, is very eafy and expeditious. It
is done by obferving, on the top of the mountain, how
much the mercury has fallen below what it was at the
foot of the mountain. See Barometer.
ALTKIRK, a town of Alface in Germany, fituated
on the river 111, in N. lat. 47. 40. and E. Ion. 7. 15.
ALTMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Tyrone, and province of Ulfter, fituated in N. lat.
54. 34, and W. long. 7. 2.
ALTON, a town in Hamplhire, feated on the ri¬
ver Wey; W. long. o. 46. N. lat. 51.5. It is go¬
verned by a conftable; and confifts of about 250 hou-
fes, indifferently built, chiefly laid out in one pretty
broad ftreet, a part of which only is paved. It has-
one church, a Prefbyterian, and a Quaker’s meeting,
a famous free-fehool, a large manufacture of plain and
figured baragons, ribbed druggets, and ferge de Nif-
mes; and round the town is a large plantation of hops.
Alton, or Avelton, a village in Statfordftiire,
five miles north of Utoxeter. There are the ruins of
a caftle here, which fome would have to J>e built before
the Norman conqueft ; but Dr Plot is pretty certain
that it was erected by Theobald de Verdun, in the be¬
ginning,
Alto-
relievo
Alumium.
* See Apts.
+ See Ana-
lomy, n° 19,
aj.
* See Chemi-
firy, n° 119.
f See Mate¬
ria Medico,
B° 91.
ALU f 274 J A M A
ginning of the reign of Edward II. A great part of
the walls are ftill Handing, but they are in a very rui¬
nous condition.
ALTO-RELIEVO. See Relievo.
ALTO-RIPIENO, in mufic, the tenor of the great
chorus which lings and plays only now and then in fome
particular places.
ALTORF, a town of the circle of Franconia, in
Germany. It has a phyfic-garden, with 2000 differ¬
ent plants; a theatre for diffe&ions, which has many
curiofities in the anatomical way; and a handfome li¬
brary. It is fubjedl to the houfe of Brandenburg; and
is feated 'on the confines of Bavaria, 15 miles from Nu¬
remberg. E. Ion. 9. 35. N. lat. 47. 46.
ALT-RANSTADT, a town in Saxony, famous
for the treaty between Charles XII. king of Sweden,
and Auguftus eleftot of Saxony, in 1706, wherein the
latter refigried the kingdom of Poland.
ALTRINCHAM, a town of Chelhire in England,
upon the borders of Lancafhire, feven miles from Man-
chefter. W. long. 1. 30. N. lat. 53. 25.
ALTZEG, a town of Germany in the Lower
Palatinate, the capital of a territory of the lame
name, with an oldcaftle. W. long. 7. 25. N. lat. 49.
44.
ALVA de Tormes, a confiderable town in Spain,
in the kingdom of Leon, and territory of Salamanca,
with a very handfome caftle. It is feated on the north
bank of the river Tormes. W. long. 6. 1. N. lat. 41.0.
ALVARISTS, in eccleliallical hiltory, a branch
of the Thomifts, fo called from Alvares their leader,
•who afferted the doftrine of fufficient grace, inllead of
the efficacious grace of the ancient Thomifts. The Al-
varifts come near to the Jefuits, the ancient Thomifts
to the Janfenifts.
ALUDELS, in chemiftry, are earthern pots with¬
out bottoms, inferted into each other, and ufed in fub-
limations. See Chemistry, n° 80.
ALVEOLUS, iii natural hiftory, the name of the
waxen cells in bee-hives *. Alfo the name of a fea-
foffil of a conic figure, compofed of a number of cells,
like bee-hives, joined into each other, with a pipe of
communication.
Alveolus, inanatomy, thefockets inthe jawswhere-
in the teeth are fixed f.—Some writers fpeak of teeth
growing without alveoli. Pliny mentions a perfon
who had a tooth in his palate. Euftachius relates, that
he faw a man who at 60 had a tooth growing out of
the middle of his fauces. Holler gives an inftance of
a perfon, whofe teeth were of a piece with his jaws,
without any infertion into alveoli.
ALUM, or Alumen, in natural hiftory, a pecu¬
liar kind of fait, fometimes found pure, but oftener fe-
parated from feveral fubftances; as, a foft reddiih ftone
in' Italy; feveral kinds of earth; and, in England, from
a whitilh or bluilh ftone, called Irifli flate *.—In me¬
dicine, it is a powerful aftringent f. In dyeing, it fixes
the colours upon the ftuffs. See Dyeing.
ALUNTIUM, Alontium, (anc. geogr.) a town
in the north of Sicily, fituated on a fteep eminence, at
the mouth of the Chydas, (Ptolemy, Pliny, Cicero;)
laid to be as old as the war of Troy, (Dionyf. Halicar.)
Now in ruins ; from which arofe the hamlet St Fila-
delfo, in the Val di Demona. The inhabitants were
called Haluntini, (Cicero.)
ALVUS, in anatomy, a term ufed for the belly in
general, but more frequently applied to the bowels.
ALWAIDII, a left of Mahometans who believe ‘
all great crimes to be unpardonable—The Alwadii
ftand in oppofition to the Morgii. They attribute lefs
efficacy to the true belief in the falvation of men, than
the reft of the Muffelmans.
ALYSSUM, Allyson, or Allysoides, Madwort;
(from axuiro-a, to be mad; becaufe it was believed to
have the property of curing madnefs): a genus of the
filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants.
Species. Of this genus, Linnaeus enumerates 19
fpecies; but none of them are remarkable either for
beauty, or any other property, except the halimifo-
lium, or madwort with whole fpear-fhaped leaves.
This fpreads itfelf upon the ground, and never rifes
to any height. It produces, at the extremity of its
branches, very pretty tufts of fmall white flowers; of
which it is feldom deftitute for fix or feven months
fucceffively; for which reafon it well deferves a place in
the gardens of the curious.
Culture. Though thefe plants are natives of the
fouthern parts of Europe ; yet, if planted on a dry,
lean, or rubbilhy foil, they will endure our fevereft win-
teis in the open air.—The halimifolium feldom conti¬
nues above two or three years, and muft therefore be
often fown to preferve it; or if the feeds are fuffered
to fall, the plants will rife without any trouble. It
may alfo be propagated by cuttings, which ought to
be planted in April or May, and are very apt to take
root, if kept (haded in the heat of the day, and gently
refreftied with water.
This plant, as already obferved, was thought to
cure fome kinds of madnefs; but the prefent practice
has entirely reje&ed it for this or any other purpofe.
ALYTA,RCHA, a prieft of Antioch in Syria, who,
in the games inftituted in honour of the gods, prefided
over the officers who carried rods to clear away the
crowd and keep order.
In the Olympic games, the alytarches had the fame
command, and obliged every perfon to preferve order
and decency.
ALZIRA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Valencia, feated on the river Xucar, E. Lonu. o. 20.
N. Lat. 39. 1 o'.
AMABYR, a barbarous cuftom which formerly
prevailed in feveral parts of England and Wales, be¬
ing a fum of money paid to the lord, when a maid was
married within his lordfhip. The word is old Britifti,
and fignifies “ the price of virginity.”
AMADABAT, a corruption from Ahmed abad,
Or Ahmed's city, (fo called from a king of that name) ;
a large and populous city of Indoftan, and the capital
of the province of Guzerat. It is fituated in E. Long.
72. 12. N. Lat. 23.0. Amadabat was formerly called
Guzerat; and by Shah Jehan nicknamed Gherd-abad,
or the habitation of duft, becaufe it was much incom¬
moded therewith. It was the feat of the Guzerat
kings, as it is now of the Mogul governor. The city
Hands in a beautiful plain; and is watered by the little
river Sabrernetti, which, though not deep, in time of
rains overflows the plains prodigioufly. The walls
ate built with ftone and brick, flanked at certain di-
ftances with great round tow'ers and battlements. It
has
Alvus
il
4madabat.
A M A [ 275 ] A M A
l Amadan has twelve gates ; and, including the fuburbs, is about
II four miles and an half long. The llreets are wide,
magda* The meyddn Jhdh, or king’s fquare, is 700 paces
1-... . , long, and 400 broad, planted round with trees. On
the weft fide is the caftle, well walled with free ftone,
and as fpacious 5^ t'little city; but its inward appear¬
ance is not conformable to its external magnificence.
The caravanfera is on the fouth of the fquare, and its
chief ornament. Near the meydan alfo is the king’s
palace, whofe apartments are richly ornamented : and
in the midft of the city is the Englifh factory, where
they purchafe fine chints, callicoes, and other Indian
"merchandize. The place is fo full of gardens ftored
with fruit-trees, that from an eminence it looks like a
wood. The Hindoos have here an hofpital for fick
beafts, and another for fick birds, which they take
great care of. According to fome late accounts, this
city is little inferior to the beft in Europe, and is
thought to yield ten times as much revenue as Surat.
AMAJDAN, or Hamadan, a town of Perfia, be¬
tween Tauris and Ifpahan, E. Long. 47. 4. N. Lat.
35. 15. It is feated at the foot of a mountain, where
there are a great many fprings, which water the adja¬
cent country. The extent of the city is very large; but
there are a great many wafle fpots within it, as well as
cultivated land. The houfes are built of brick harden¬
ed in the fun, and have but a very indifferent afpe£t.
There is but one tolerable ftreet; and that is where
fluffs, garments, and the like, are expofed to fale : it
is ftraight, long, and wide; and the fhops are very well
furnifhed. The adjacent parts are fruitful in corn and
rice, infomuch that the neighbouring provinces are fup-
plied from hence. It is faid to enjoy a very falubrious
air, but the cold in winter is intenfe. The Armenians
have a church in this town, but it is a very ill-contrived
ftrudture. The Jews have a fynagogue near a tomb
where they prefend Either and Mordecat lie interred.
To this place they come in pilgrimage from feveral
parts of the Levant. About a league from Amadan,
there is a mountain called Nalbana, which abounds with
all forts of curious herbs. In the fpring, people flock
to this mountain from all parts to recover their health,
by fucking in the falutary effluvia with their breath.
Amadan is a very ancient city. It is faid to have
been deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and rebuilt by
Darius, who brought hither all his riches. The kings
of Perfia frequently retired to this place on account of
its delightful fituation; for which reafon it obtained
the name of the Royal city. It was conquered by the
khalif Othman, and narrowly efcaped being deftroyed
by Jenghiz Khan in 1220. It had then ftrong walls
and a good caftle, which are now in ruins. Its prefent
beauty confifts in its gardens and fprings.
AMADANAGER, a town in the hither peninfu*
la of India, in the province of Decan. E. Long. 74.
15. N. Lat. 18. 10.—It was taken by the Moguls in
1598, after a fiege of fix months; being at that time
defended by a ftrong caftle, fituated on an eminence,
and furrounded with deep ditches, into which feveral
fprings difcharged their waters.
AMADIA, a trading town of Afia, in Curdiftan,
belonging to the Turks ; feated on a high mountain.
E. Long. 43. 1. N. Lat. 36. 25.
AMADMAGDA, an Abyfiinian plant, faid to be
afird by the inhabitants of that country for facilitating
the confolidation of fractures, and the difcharge of bo- Amain
ny fplinters from wounds. II
AMAIN, in the fea-language, a term importing Amaltha53-
to lower fomething at once. Thus, to Jlrike amain, is
to lower, or let fall, the top-fails; to wave amain is to
make a fignal, by waving a drawn fword, or the like,
as a demand that the enemy ftrike their top-fails.
AMAK, a fmall ifland in the Baltic fea, near Co¬
penhagen, from which it is feparated by a canal,
over which there is a draw-bridge. There is a good
citadel, which they call Chriftian-Haven. It is re¬
markable for a village of Dutch, who are defcended
from a colony that fettled there to make butter and
cheefe for the court. They retain their own language,
manner of drefs, and other cuftoms. E. Long. 12. 10.
N. Lat. 55. 20.
AMAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Da-
land, feated on the river Wefer. It has a good har¬
bour; and carries on a great trade, efpecially in tim¬
ber, deals, and tar. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 58. 50.
AMALEKITES, by fome thought to be the de-
fcendents of Anjalek the grandfon of Efau;, by others,
with more probability, to have been a Canaanitifh
tribe. They were a wicked people, and therefore de¬
voted to deftrudlion. They lived to the eaft of the
Lacus Afphaltites; next the Moabites to the fouth,
and the Ammonites to the north. A branch of them
dwelt to the fouth of Canaan.
AMALFI, an ancient city of Italy, fituated in E.
Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 40. 35.—It is generally fup-
pofed to have been founded about the year 600. It was
at firft fubjeft to the dukedom of Naples, and was go¬
verned by annual prefects; but being afterwards erec¬
ted into a duchy, it extended its territory, which reach¬
ed eaftward from Vico Vecchio, and weftward to the
promontory of Minerva, including likewife the ifland
of Caprea, and the two iflands of the Galli. Towards
the north it comprehended the cities of Lettere, Grag-
nans, Pimontio, and Capule di Franchi; towards the
fouth, thofe of Scala, Ravelli, Minori, Majuri, Atra-
ni, Tramonti, Agerula, Citara, Prajano, and Rofi-
lano.—The laws which this republic made with regard
to trade and commerce, afterwards had the fame autho¬
rity in the kingdom of Naples as the Rhodian laws
had among the Romans At prefent Amalfi is fub-
je6t to Naples, and is the fee of an archbifhop. It is
famous for giving birth to Flavius Blendus, inventor of
the mariners compafs.
AMALGAM, mercury united with fome metal.
AMALGAMATION, the operation of making an
amalgam, or mixing mercury with any metal *. *SteChim*
AMALTHiEA, the name of the Cumsean Sibyl, ^ n04i,*■
who offered to Tarquinius Superbus nine books, con¬
taining the Roman deftinies, and demanded 300 pieces
of gold for them. He derided her, whereupon fhe
threw three of them into the fire; and returning, afked
the fame price for'the other fix : which being denied,
fhe burnt three more; and returned, ftill demanding the
fame price. Upon which, Tarquin confulting the
pontiffs, was advifed to buy them, Thefe books were
in fuch efteem, that two magiftrates were created to
confult them upon extraordinary occafions.
Amalthea, in pagan mythology, the daughter of
Meliffus, king of Crete, and the nurfe of Jupiter,
whom fhe fed with goat’s milk and honey. Accord-.
i«g
A M A [ 276 ] A M A
Amahhseus Jng to others, Amalthea was a goat, which Jupiter gulph of the fame name, in the Pacific ocean.
Am| aua tranflated into the Iky, with her two kids, and gave Long. 63. 20. N. Lat. 12. 30.
  1 one of her horns to the daughters of Meliffus, as a re¬
ward for the pains they had taken in attending him.
This horn had the peculiar property of furniftiing them
with whatever they wilhed for ; and was thence called
the cornucopia, or horn of plenty.
AMALTHJEUS (Jerome, John Baptifta, and Cor¬
neille), three celebrated Latin poets of Italy, who flou-
W. Amarante
ig. 63. 20. N. Lat. 12. 30.
AMARANTE, an order of knighthood, inftituted
in Sweden by Queen Chriftina, in 1653, at the clofe -
of an annual feali, celebrated in that country, called
Wirtfchaft. This feaft was folemnized with entertain¬
ments, balls, mafquerades, and the like diverfions, and
continued from evening till the next morning.—That
princefs, thinking the name too vulgar, changed it into
rifhed in the 16th century. Their compofitions were that of the feaji of the gods, in regard each perfon here
printed at Amfterdam in 1685. One of the prettieft reprefented fome deity as it fell to his lot. The Queen
pieces in that colledfion is an epigram on two children, affumed the name of Amarante; that is, unfading, or
whofe beauty was very extraordinary, though each of immortal. The young nobility, dreffed in the habit of
’ ' ’ “ nymphs and fiiepherds, ferved the gods at the table.—
At the end of the feaft, the queen threw off her habit,
which was covered with diamonds, leaving it to be
pulled in pieces by the mafques ; and, in memory of fo
gallant a feaft, founded a military order, called in Swe-
dilh Cefchilfchafft, into which all that had been prefent
at the feaft were admitted, including 16 lords and as
many ladies, befides the queen. Their device was the
cypher of Amarante, compofed of two A’s, the one e-
re£i, the other inverted, and interwoven together; the
whole inclofed by a laurel crown, with this motto,
Dolce nella memoria.
Bulftrode Whitlock, the Englilh ambaffador from
Cromwell to the court of Sweden, was made a knight
of the order of Amarante: on which account it feems
to be, that we fometimes find him ftyled Sir Bulftrode
Whitlock.
AMARANTHOIDES,in botany, the trivial name
of a fpecies of illecebrum. See Illecebrum,
AMARANTHUS, (of « privative, and to
wither, becaufe the flower of this plant when cropped
does not foon wither,) Amaranth, or flower-gen¬
tle ; a genus of the pentandria order belonging to the
moncecia clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus, Linnaeus enumerates 19
fpecies ; the moft remarkable of which are the follow¬
ing. 1. The tricolor, or three-coloured amaranthus.
This has been long cultivated in gardens, on account
of the beauty of its variegated leaves, which are of
three colours, green, yellow, and red; and very ele¬
gantly mixed. When the plants are in full vigour,
the leaves are large, and clofely fet from the bottom
to the top of the ftalks, and the branches form a fort
of pyramid; fo that there is not a more beautiful plant
than this, when it is in full luftre. 2. The melancho-
licus, bicolor, or two-coloured amaranthus. This
greatly refembles the former in its manner of growth;
but the leaves have only two colours, which are an
obfcure purple, and a bright crimfon. Thefe are fo
them was deprived of an eye:
‘ Lumine Aeon dextro, capta eft I.eonilla finiftro:
‘ Et poterat forma vincere uterque decs.
‘ Parve puer, lumen quod habes concede forori;
‘ Sic tu cscus Amor, fic erit ilia Venus.’
AMAMA (Sixtinus),profefforof the Hebrewtongue
in the univerfity of Franeker, a man of great learning,
was born in Friefland, and had ftudied under Drufius.
He publiftied a criticifm upon the tranflation of the
Pentateuch; collated the Dutch tranflation of the Bi¬
ble with the original and the moft accurate tranflations;
and wrote a cenfure of the Vulgate tranflation of the
hiftorical books of the Old Teftament, Job, the Pfalms,
and Canticles. It is impofiible to anfwer the reafons
whereby he Ihews the neceffity of confulting the origi¬
nals. This he recommended fo earneftly, that fome
fynods, being influenced by his reafons, decreed, that
none Ihould be admitted into the miniftry but fuch as
had a competent knowledge of the Hebrew and Greek
text of the Scripture. He died in 1629.
AMANCE, a town in the duchy of Lorrain, upon
a rivulet of the fame name. E. Long. 6. ro. N. Lat.
48. 45.
AMAND (St), a city of France, in Bourbonois, on
the confines of Berry, feated upon the river Cher. It
was built in 1410 on the ruins of Orval. E. Long. 3.
30. N. Lat. 46. 32.
Amand (St), a city of the Low Countries, in the
earldom of Flanders, feated upon the river Scarpe. It
contains about 6oohoufes, and3000or4000inhabitants.
The abbot.of the place is the temporal lord, and difpo-
fes of the magiftracy. It was given to France by the
treaty of Utrecht. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 50. 27.
AMANICiE PYLjE, (Ptolemy); Amanides Py-
1.x., (Strabo) ; Amani Port.*, (Pliny) : ftraits or
defiles in mount Amanus, through which Darius en¬
tered Cilicia; at a greater diftance from the fea than
the Pylae Ciliciae or Syriae, through which Alexander
pafled.
AMANTEA, a fea-port town and biftiop’s fee of blended as to fet off each other, and, when the plants are
the kingdom of Naples, lituated near the bay of Eu- vigorous, make a line appearance. 3. The triftis, with
phemia, in the province of Calabria, in E. Long. 16. oval heart-lhaped leaves. This has very little beauty;
20. N. Lat. 39. 15. and is mentioned only on account of its being ufed by
AMANUS, a mountain of Syria, feparating it from the Indians as an efculent plant, and fubftituted for fpi-
Cilicia; a branch of mount Taurus, (Cicero, Strabo, nach. 4. The caudata, with very long hanging cy-
‘ ' ■** * • « « ' * “ 1 • j *—1 r *i  r :— a
Pliny); extending chiefly eaftward, from the fea of Ci¬
licia, to the Euphrates: now called Monte Negro, or
rather Montagna Neres, by the inhabitants; that is,
the watery mountain, as abounding in fprings and rivu¬
lets.
AMAPALLA, a city and port-town of north A-
merica, in the province of Guatimala, feated on the
lindrical fpikes. This fpecies is a native of America.
It hath an upright ftem three feet high; the leaves and
ftalks are of a pale green colour. The fpikes of flow¬
ers are produced from the wings of the ftalks, and al-
fo at the extremities of the branches. They are of a
bright purple colour, and hang downward, fometimes
to the length of two feet and an half, fo that many of
them
A M A L 277 ] A M A
:Awaran- them touch the ground. 5. The maximus, or tree-
thus. jj-jjg amaranthus, grows with a ftrong ftem, to the
height of feven or eight feet. Towards the top it fends
forth many horizontal branches, garni (hed with oblong
rough green leaves. At the extremity of every fhoot,
the cylindrical fpikes of flowers are produced. They
are of a purple colour, and hang downward like the
laft; but are feldom half the length, tho' much thick¬
er than the former. 6. The hvidus, with roundilh
fpikes of flowers. This grows near three feet high,
putting out feveral fide-branches, which are garnilhed
with oval blunt leaves. At the ends of the branches
the fpikes of flowers are produced in clutters, and grow
ere£t. Thefe are of a deep purple colour. 7. The
flavus, with oval pointed leaves. This grows naturally
in Portugal, where it is accounted a culinary herb. It
grows to the height of four feet; the ftalks are inclined
to red ; the leaves are of an oval figure, marked with
purple fpots, and have very long foot-ftalks. The
fpikes of flowers are of a pale green colour, and grow
ereft. They come out from the extremity of the bran¬
ches in clutters, and alfo from the wings of the ftalks.
8. The fanguineus, with compound fpikes, and oblong
oval leaves. This is a native of the Bahama iflands.
It is an efculent plant, and bears fine flowers. It grows
to the height of three feet, with purple ftalks and leaves.
The fpikes are (hort and cylindrical, of a bright purple
at firft, but afterwards fade to a darker colour. They
are frequently produced from the wings of the ftalks ;
but at the extremity of the ftalk arifes a large clutter
of fpikes, which are placed crofs-wife, with one up-
righ ftalk in the middle. 9. The oleraceus, with
obtufe indented leaves. This has no beauty; but it is
ufed by the Indians as a fubftitute to fpinach, to which,
however, it is greatly inferior.
Culture. The fpecies moft worthy of cultivation are
the firft and fecond. Next to thefe are the fourth, fifth,
and eighth forts.—The two firft being tender plants,
■require fome art and care to bring them to perfection
in Britain. They ftiould be fown on a good hot-bed
in February, or in the beginning of March; and in a-
bout a fortnight’s time the plants will rife. Another
hot-bed muft then be prepared, covered with fine
mould to about four inches deep, and the young plants
muft be carefully raifed, and removed from the other,
and planted at about four inches diftance every way,
and gently watered, to fettle the earth to their roots. In
the middle of the day they muft be fcreened with mats
from the heat of the fun; and they muft have air given
them, byraifing the glafs that covers the bed; and the
laffes muft be either turned, or wiped from their moi-
ure, as often as they appear wet. In about three
weeks or a month’s time, thefe plants will have grown
fo large as to require another hot-bed; this muft be of a
moderate temperature, and covered fix inches deep with
fine earth: then take them carefully up, and preferve
as much of the earth about their roots as may be, and
plant them in this bed at eight inches diftance; then
let them be watered frequently a little at a time, and
liiaded with mats in the heat of the day. In the be-
ninning of May another hot-bed muft be prepared,
with a deep frame, that the plants may have room to
grow: in this fet as many pots as it will conveniently
hold; let thefe be filled with frefh earth, and the inter¬
mediate fpaces every way be filled alfo with earth.
VOL. I.
The plants are now to be raifed with as much earth a- Aroarin-
bout their roots as may be, and planted in thefe pots. ,llus’
In about three weeks more, thefe plants will be grown niary IS‘
to a large fize, and muft have air given them more and
more every day in good weather; and in July they are
to be fet out in their places, often watering them. The
feeds of the fourth, fifth, and eighth fpecies, (hould be
fown upon a moderate hot-bed, towards the end of
March ; and when the plants come up, they ftiould
have a large fliare of air admitted to them in mild wea¬
ther, to prevent their drawing up weak. When they
are large enough to tranfplant, another moderate hot¬
bed muft be provided, in which they ftiould be planted
at fix inches diftance every way, obferving to water
them, as alfo to fhade them from the fun, until they
have taken new root. After this the air may be free¬
ly admitted to them at all times, when the weather is
favourable; their waterings fhould be frequent, but not
in great quantities. As the plants advance, and the
warmth of the feafon increafes, they {hould have a
reater {hare of air, that by degrees they may be har-
ened to bear the open air. The beginning of June
they may be taken up, with large balls of earth to their
roots, and planted, fome into pots, and others into
borders, obferving to fhade them well until they have
taken good root; after which they muft be watered
frequently, efpecially thofe in the pots, which in warm
dry weather will require it every evening. The fifth
fort will not thrive in pots ; fo {hould be planted in a
rich, light foil; where if it is allowed room, and plen¬
tifully watered in dry weather, the plants will grow to
a very large fize, and make a fine appearance.
Where people are curious in having thefe annual
plants in great perfection, there {hould be a glafs-cafe
erefted, with upright and Hoping glafles on every fide,
with a pit in the bottom for tan, in which the pots
{hould be plunged. If this is raifed eight or nine feet
to the ridge, and the upright glafles are five feet, there
will be room enough to raife thefe and other annual
plants to great perfection; and, in fuch a building,
many tender vegetables, which rarely perfeCt their feeds
in this climate, may be every year brought forward fo
as to ripen their feeds.
Amaranthus Cristatus. See Celosia.
AMARYLLIS, lily daffodil; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria dafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The lutea, or autumnal narciflus. This
is ufually fold by gardeners, along with colchicums, for
autumnal ornaments to gardens. For this purpofe it is
very proper, as it will keep flowering from the begin¬
ning of September to the middle of November, provided
the froft is not fo fevere as to deftroy the flowers. Al¬
though there is but one flower in each cover, yet there
is a fucceffion of flowers from the fame root, efpecially
when they are fuffered to remain three or four years
unremoved. The flowers feldom rife above three or
four’inches high. They are {haped fomewhat like the
flowers of the yellow crocus; the green leaves come up
at the fame time, like the faffron; and, after the flow¬
ers are paft, the leaves increafe all the winter. The
roots are bulbous, and ftiaped like thofe of the narcif-
fus; fo are proper ornaments for fuch borders as are
planted with cyclamens, faffron, autumnal crocus, col¬
chicums, and fuch low autumnal flowers. Z. The alta-
M m mafco,
A M A [ 278 ] A M A
Amaryllis, mafco, or atamufco lily, is a native of Virginia and
Carolina, where it grows plentifully in the fields and
woods, making a very beautiful appearance when in
flower. The flowers of this fort are produced Angle ;
and, at their firft appearance, have a fine carnation co¬
lour on the outfide: but this fades away to a pale, or al-
moil white colour, before they decay. The flowers of
this fort are almoft as large as thofe of the fmall orange-
lily, but do not grow above fix or eight inches high.
They appear the latter end of May, or beginning of
June, or fometimes it flowers in Auguft in this country.
3. The formofiflima, or jacobasa lily, produces its
flowers two or three times in a year, without being re¬
gular to any feafon. The flowers are of a deep red, the
under petals very large, and the whole flower hands
nodding on one fide of the {talk, making a beautiful ap¬
pearance. The {terns of thefe flowers are produced from
the fides of the bulbs; fo that when the flowers produ¬
ced on one fide are decayed, another {talk arifes from
the other fide of the bulb ; but there is no more than
one flower produced on the fame ftalk. When the
roots are in vigour, flowers will be produced from
March to the beginning of September. 4. The far-
nienfis, or Guernfey lily, is fuppofed to have come ori¬
ginally from Japan, but has been many years cultivated
in the gardens of Guernfey and Jerfey ; in both which
places they feem to thrive as well as if it was their na¬
tive country, and from thefe iflands their roots are
fent annually to the curious in moft parts of Europe.
The flowers of this fpecies are admired for the richnefs
of their colour, which is commonly red, though they
have no fcent. They appear towards the end of Sep¬
tember ; and, if properly managed, will continue a
month in beauty. The roots of thefe plants do not
flower again the fucceeding year, as is the cafe with
many other bulbs: but if their bulbs contain two buds
in their centre, which is often the cafe, they frequent¬
ly flower twice in three years ; after which the fame in¬
dividual root does not flower again in feveral years, but
only the offsets from it. 5. The regina, or belladon¬
na lily, is a native of Portugal, where it was formerly
cultivated in great plenty ; but of late it has been fup-
planted by the jacobaea lily, fo that the roots which
have been brought from that country for fome time
pail, for the belladonna, have generally proved the ja-
eobaea lily. This kind, if properly managed, will
fometimes put out two or three Items, growing near
three feet high, and produce many flowers in each um¬
bel, which make a fine appearance during the month
of Oftoben 6. The belladonna, or Mexican lily, fel-
dom rifes more than one foot high j each Item fupport-
ing two, three, or four flowers, but rarely more than
that number. The flowers are of a bright copper co¬
lour, inclining to red; the fpatha or {heath, which co¬
vers the buds before they open, divides into two parts
to the bottom, Handing on each fide the umbel of the
flowers, joined'to the fmall footftalks. 7. The longi-
folia, with many flowers in one cover, produces, in each
umbel, a great number of flowers, which appear in De-
•cember;-on which account they are the more valuable,
there being few flowers at that feafon. They are of a
deep purple-colour; but the ftalk, which fupports them,
feldom rifes to more than three or four inches high!.
The roots of this fpecies are large, and the leaves long
and narrow. 8. The zeylanica, or Ceylon lily, is a.
native of the Weft Indies, and ufually flowers in June. Amaryllis
Sometimes the fame root will flower again in autumn,
but the flowers are of no long duration. 9. The cilia-
ris, or African fcarlet lily, feldom flowers in Britain.
The leaves are long and narrow, not unlike the fnow-
drop. The roots are fmall: the petals of the flower
turn back, like thofe of the Guernfey lily; but are of
a lighter colour, inclining to fcarlet. 10. The verna-
lis, or fpring yellow lily narciflus, grows naturally in
Spain and Portugal, where it flowers early in January.
In this country it flowers in April and the beginning
of May ; but the flowers are of no long duration. It
was formerly kept in feveral curious gardens; but as it
flowers at a feafon when there are fo many finer kinds
in beauty, it was negledled, fo that it is at prefent al¬
moft loft in Britain, xi. The orientalis, or lilydaffo- Plate XI,
dil, with leaves fliaped like a tongue. This is a native ,-
of the Cape of Good Hope. The bulbs of the root are
large and almpft round; the leaves long, broad, and
rounded at their extremities ; thefe fpread two ways on
the furface of the ground, and do not come up till af¬
ter the flower-ftem appears, which is generally in No¬
vember. After the flowers are pall, the leaves increafe
till fpring, and in May they begin to decay ; fo that
from the middle of June to O&ober, the roots are en¬
tirely deftitute of leaves. 12. The capenfis, with three
leaves in one cover. This is alfo a native of Africa.
The ftems rife near two feet high, and have commonly
three flowers inclofed in each {heath or cover. The
flowers appear in February and March. They are as
large as thofe of the belladonna lily, and of the fame
form, but of a deeper red colour. The leaves are long
and narrow; have a hollow furrow on their upper
fide, where there is a pale ftripe running the length of
the leaves; and are very like thofe of the American
pancratium. Thefe leaves decay in fummer, about the
fame time as thofe of the former, and appear again at.
the fame feafon.
Culture. The firft fort is very hardy, and will thrive
in almoft any foil or fituation ; but will fucceed beft in
a frefti light dry foil, and not too near the dripping of
trees, or too near walls. It increafes very faft by off-
fets, by which all the other fpecies are alfo to be pro¬
pagated. Thefe roots may be tranfplanted any time,
from May to the end of July; after which it will be
too late to remove them.—The fecond kind is likewife.
hardy enough to thrive in the open air in Britain, pro¬
vided the roots are planted in a warm fituation, and in
a dry foil. The jacobaea ought to be kept in a mo¬
derate ftove all winter; in which cafe it will fend forth
plenty of offsets, that will produce vigorous plants.—
The roots of the Guernfey lily are generally brought:
over in June and July ; but the fooner they are taken
out of the ground after the leaves decay, the better: for,,
altho’ the roots which are taken up when their flower-
ftems begin to appear, will flower; yet their flowers will
not be fo large, nor will their roots be near fo good af¬
ter, as. thofe which were removed before they fent forth
frefti fibres.
When thefe roots come over, they-ftiould be planted
in pots filled with frefti, light, fandy earth, mixed with
a little very rotten dung, and placed in a warm fitua¬
tion, o.bferving now and then to refrefti the earth with
water: but by no means let them have too much wet,
which would rot their roots, efpecially before they come
up..
Amaryllis
n
Amatoiii.
A M A [ 279 ] A M A
up. About the middle of September, fuch of the roots
as are ftrong enough to flower, will begin to (how the
. bud of their flower-ftem; therefore thefe pots ought to
be removed into a fituation where they may have the
benefit of the fun, and be flickered from ftrong winds ;
but by no means place them too near a wall, nor un¬
der glaffes, as this would draw them up weak, and ren¬
der them lefs beautiful. At this feafon they fliould
be gently refrefhed with water, if the weather be warm
and dry ; but if wet, they ftiould be fcreened from it.
When the flowers begin to open, the pots ftiould be
removed under flicker, to prevent the flowers from be¬
ing injured by too much wet: but they muft not be
kept too clofe, nor placed in a fituation too warm, as
this would occafion their colour to be lefs lively, and
haften their decay.—After the flowers are decayed, the
green leaves will begin to ftioot forth in length ; and,
if flickered from fevere cold, will continue growing all
winter : but they muft have as much free air as pomble
in mild weather, and are to be covered only in great
rains or frofts. For this purpofe, a common hot-bed
frame is the mofl: proper flicker for them; the glafles
of which may be taken off every day in dry open wea¬
ther, which will encourage the leaves to grow ftrong
and broad. The roots ftiould be tranfplanted every
fourth or fifth year, toward the end of June, or begin¬
ning of July; the offsets alfo fliould be taken off, and
planted in pots, where in three years time they will
produce flowers.
The other fpecies of the amaryllis may eafily be rai-
fed by taking care to flicker them in a ftove from the
winter’s cold.
AMARYNTHUS, (anc. geogr.) a hamlet of Ere-
trias, in theifland of Euboea, about feven ftadia diftant
from its walls, (Strabo.) Here Diana was worftiip-
ped by an annual folemnity, at which thofe of Caryftus
afiifted; hence the title of the goddefs was Amarynthis,
and Amaryfia, (Livy, Paufanias).
AMASIA, an ancient town of Turkey, in Natolia,
remarkable for the birth of Strabo, the geographer.
It is the refidence of a bafhaw, and gives its name to
the province it ftands in, where there are the beft wines
and the beft fruits in Natolia. It is feated near the ri¬
ver Cafalrnack. E. Long. 36. 10. N. Lat. 39. 33.
AMATHUS, a very ancient town in the fouth
of Cyprus, (Strabo, Ptolemy) fo called, from A-
mathus the founder; or, according to others, from
Avtath, a Phoenician town facred to Venus, with a
very ancient temple of Adonis and Venus: and hence
Venus is denominated Amathufia, (Tacitus). Accord¬
ing to Ovid, it was a place rich in copper-ore, and
where the inhabitants became Cerajhx, or horned. Now
called Limijfo.
Amathus, (Jofephus), a town of the tribe of
Gad, beyond Jordan ; but whether at a greater or
lefs diftance from it, is not fo eafy to determine. Eu-
febius places it in the Lower Peraea ; Reland, in Ra-
moth-Gilead; Gabinius, proconful of Syria, eftablifli-
ed five juridical conventions in Judea ; two of which
were on the other fide Jordan; one at Gadara, the other
at Amathus, (Jofephus).
AMATORII musculii, in anatomy, a term fome-
fimes ued for the obliquus fuperior and obliquus infe¬
rior mufcles of the eye, as thefe mufcles aflift in oggling
or drawing the eye Tideways.
AMATRICE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in
the farther Abruzzo, upon the confines of the pope’s
territories, and the marquifate of Ancona.
AMAUROSIS, in medicine, a diftemper in the eye,
occafioned by an infenfibility of the retina *.
AMAZONS, a nation of female warriors, whofe
exiftence has been efteemed merely fabulous by Strabo,
Arrian, Palephates, and fome of the moderns : while
others maintain that their exiftence is fufficiently pro¬
ved, by the teftimony of fuch of the hiftorians of anti¬
quity as are moft worthy of credit; by the monuments
which many of them have mentioned; and by medals,
fome of which are ftill remaining; and that there is not
the leaft room to believe that what is faid of them is
fabulous.
The Scythians had a great part of Afia under their
dominion upwards of 400 years, till they were con¬
quered by Ninus, the founder of the Affyrian empire.
After his death, which happened about 1150 years be¬
fore the Chriftian sera, and that of Semiramis and their
fon Ninias, Ilinus and Scolopites, princes of the royal
blood of Scythia, were driven from their country by
other princes, who like them afpired to the crown.
They departed with their wives, children, and friends;
and being followed by a great number of young peo¬
ple of both fexes, they paffed into Afiatic Sarmatia,
beyond mount Camaffus, wdiere they formed an efta-
bliftiment, fupplying themfelves with the riches they
wanted, by making excurfions into the countries bor¬
dering on the Euxine Sea. The people of thofe
countries, exafperated by the incurfions of their new
neighbours, united, furprifed, and maffacred the men.
The women then refolving to revenge their death,
and at the fame time to provide for their own fecurity,
refolved to form a new kind of government, to chufe
a queen, enaft laws, and maintain themfelves, without
men, even againft the men themfelves. This defign
was not fo very furprifing as at firft fight appears : for
the greateft number of the girls among the Scythians
had been inured to the fame exercifes as the boys; to
draw the bow, to throw the javelin, to manage other
arms; to riding, hunting, and even the painful labours
that feem referred for men; and many of them, as a-
mong the Sarmatians, accompanied the men in war.
Hence they had no fooner formed their refolution, than
they prepared to execute it, and exercifed themfelves
in all military operations. They foon fecured the peace¬
able poffeflion of the country ; and not content with
{hewing their neighbours that all their efforts to drive
them thence or to fubdue them were ineffeftual, they
made war upon them, and extended their own frontiers.
Tliey had hitherto made ufe of the inftru&ions and af-
fiftance of a few men that remained in the country; but
finding at length that they could Hand their ground,
and aggrandize themfelves, without them, they killed
all thofe whom flight or chance had faved from the fury
of the Sannatians; and for ever renounced marriage,
which they now confidered asan infupportable flavery.
But as they could only fecure the duration of their new
kingdom by propagation, they made a law to go e-
very year to the frontiers, to invite the men to come
to them; to deliver themfelves up to their embraces,
without choice on their part, or the leafl; attachment;
and to leave them as foon as they were pregnant. AU
thofe whom age rendered fit for propagation, and were
Mm2 willing
Ama trice
II
Amazons.
* See Medi¬
cine, under
n° 790.
Amazons.
A M A [ 280 ] A M B
willing to ferve the ftate by breeding girls, did not go
at the fame time in fearch of men: for in order to ob¬
tain a right to promote the multiplication of the fpe-
cies, they muft firft have contributed to its deftru&ion;
nor was any thought worthy of giving birth to chil¬
dren, till fhe had killed three men.
If from this commerce they brought forth girls, they
educated them ; but with refpedl to the boys, if we
may believe Juftin, they ftrangled them at the moment
of their birth: according to Diodorus Siculus, they
twifted their legs and arms, fo as to render them unfit
for military exercifes; but Quintus Curtius, Philo-
ftrates, andjordarus, fay, that the lefsfavage fent them
to their fathers. It is probable, that at firft, when their
fury againft the men was carried to the greateft height,
they killed the boys: that when this fury abated, and
moft of the mothers were filled with horrror at depriving
thelittle creatures of the lives they hadjuft received from
them, they fulfilled the firft duties of a mother; but, to
prevent their caufing a revolution in the (late, maim¬
ed them in fuch a manner as to render them incapable
of war, and employed them in the mean offices which
thefe warlike women thought beneath them : in fhort,
that, when their conquefts had confirmed their power,
their ferocity fubfiding, they entered into political en¬
gagements with their neighbours; and the number of
the males they had preferred becoming burthenfome,
they, at the defire of thofe who rendered them pregnant,
fent them the boys, and continued ftili to keep the girls.
As foon as the age of the girls permitted, they took
away the right breaft, that they might draw the bow
with the greater force. The common opinion is, that
they burnt that breaft, by applying to it, at eight
years of age, hot iron, which infenfibly dried up the
fibres and glands : fome think that they did not make
ufe of fo much ceremony, but that when the part was
formed they got rid of it by amputation: fome, again,
with much greater probability, affert, that they em¬
ployed no violent meafures; but, by a continual com-
preffion of that part from infancy, prevented its growth,
at leaft fo far as to hinder its ever being incommodious
The Amazons were commonly cloathed in the Ikins
of the beafts they killed in hunting; which were tied
on the left (houlder, and, leaving the right fide unco¬
vered, fell down to their knees. In war, the queens
and other chiefs carried a corfelet, or flight armour for
the body, formed of fmall pieces of iron, in the man¬
ner of leaves or fcales, fattened by a girdle, below which
the coat of arms hung to the knee. The head was arm¬
ed with a helmet and plume of feathers. The reft of
their arms were a bow and arrows, lances, javelins, a
battle-axe (faid to be invented byPenthefilea one of their
queens), and buckler nearly in the form of a crefeent,
about a foot and a half in diameter, with the points
upward. Thaleftris appeared before Alexander with
two lances in her hand, though (he only came to make
him a gallant requeft. Thofe who accompanied her
bore battle-axes with two edges, the handles of which
were as long as the wood of a javelin.
They are faid to have made great conquefts, and to
have obtained very extenfive dominions^ particularly
Crimea and Circaffia; and to have rendered Iberias,
Colchis, and Albania, tributary to them. They enjoyed
their power for feveral centuries; but an expedition in¬
to Greece, and into the ifland of Achilles, is faid to
have ruined their empire.
The Amazons of Africa were female warriors, who
were obliged to continue virgins to a certain period of
their military fervice. When that period was elap-
fed, they married, merely with the view of propaga¬
ting the fpecies. All the offices of ftate were filled by
them. The men were employed in domeftic affairs, and
pafled their whole life in the houfe, as women did in o-
ther countries: for thefe imperious females ufurped from
them every fundtion that might awake their valour.
As foon as the Amazons were delivered, they commit¬
ted their children to the care of the men, who nourifti-
ed them with milk, and other food proper for infancy.
If the child was a female, they burned its breafts to
prevent their growth, which would have been inconve¬
nient in battle. Hiftorians inform us, that they in¬
habited an ifland which was called Hefperia, becaufe
it lay to the weft of the lake Tritonis.
Amazons, (the river of), called by the Spaniards
Maranon, is the greateft river in the world. It recei¬
ved the name of Amazons^ becaufe the Spaniards who
firft pafled through the country on its banks, having
fome fmart fkirmifhes with the natives, and afterwards
examining the flain, found the bodies of fome womerr
among them. Orellana was the firft who difcovered
this river, about the year 1539. The Maranon, after
iffuing from the lake from whence it takes its rife, in
about eleven degrees of fouth latitude, runs towards
the north to Jaen de Bracamoros, for the length of fix.
degrees, from whence it directs its courfe towards the
eaft, almoft parallel to the equinoftial line, as far as the
north cape, where it difcharges itfelf into the ocean
diredlly under the equator, by a mouth 50 or 60 leagues
broad. It runs from. Jaen, where it begins to be na¬
vigable, thirty degrees of longitude, according to Con-
damine, who was fent into thefe parts by the French
king to difcover the true meafure of the earth. This
is equal to 1800 miles of 60 to a degree. But if the
turnings and windings are reckoned, it will then be at
leaft 2700 miles. It receives from the north and fouth
a prodigious number of rivers, fome of which run 1500
miles, and are not inferior to the Danube or Nile. The
country through which this river runs, is very little
known to the Europeans.
AMBA, an Abyffinian or Ethiopic word, fignify-
ing a rock. The Abyffinians give names to each of
their rocks, as Amha-Dorho, the rock of a hen, &c.
Some of thefe rocks are faid to have the name of Aorni;
and are of fuch a ftupendous height, that the Alps and
Pyrenees are but low hills in comparifon of them. A-
mongft the mountains, and even frequently in the plains,
of this country, arife fteep and craggy rocks of various
fefi-ms, fome refembling towers, others pyramids, &c.
fo perpendicular, and fmooth on the fides, that they feem
to be works of art; infomuch, that men, cattle, &c. are
craned up by the help of ladders and ropes: and yet
the tops of thefe rocks are covered with woods, mea¬
dows, fountains, fifliponds, &c. which very copioufly
fupply the animals feated thereon with all the conve-
niencies of life. The moft remarkable of thefe rocks
is called Amba-Gefhen. It is prodigioufly fteep, in the
form of a caftle built of free-ftone, and almoft impreg¬
nable. Its fummit is about half a Portuguefe league
in breadth, and the circumference at the bottom about
half.
Amazons
Amba
A M B [2
Ambages half a day’s journey. The afcent at firft is eafy; but
■ I! grows afterwards fo tteep, that the Abaffine oxen, which
IjAmba^ador w|]j 0therwife clamber like goats, mult be craned up,
and let down with ropes.. Here the princes of the blood
were formerly confined, in low cottages amongft fhrubs
and wild cedars, with an allowance barely fufficient to
keep them alive. There is, according to Kircher, in
this country, a rock fo curioufly hollowed by nature,
that at a diftance it refembles a looking-glafs; and op-
pofite to this, another, on the top of which nothing
can be fo foftly whifpered but it may be heard a great
way off. Between many of thefe rocks and mountains,
are vaft abyfles, which appear very dreadful to the eye.
AMBAGES. See Circumlocution.
AMBARVALIA, in antiquity, a ceremony among
the Romans, when, in order to procure from the gods
an happy harvett, they conduced the vidtims thrice
round the corn-fields in proceffion, before facrificing
them.—Ambarvalia were either of a private or public
nature: the private were performed by the matter of a
family; and the public by the priefts who officiated at
the folemnity, called fratres ovales. The prayer preferred
on this occafion, the formula of which we have in Cato
dc Re RuJIica, cap. cxlii. was called carmen ambarvale.
At thefe feafts they facrificed to Ceres a fow, a ffieep,
and a bull or heifer, whence they took the name of
fuovetaurilia. The method of celebrating them, was,
to lead a vi&im round the fields, while the peafants
accompanied it, and one of their number, crowned with
oak, hymned forth the praifes of Ceres, in verfes com-
pofed on purpofe. This feftival was celebrated twice,
a-year ; at the end of January, according to fome, or
in April, according to others ; and for the fecond time,
in the month of July.
AMBASSADOR, or Embassador, a public mini-
fter fent from one fovereign prince, as a reprefentative
of his perfon, to another.
Ambafiadors are either ordinary or extraordinary.
Ambaflador in ordinary, is he who conftantly refides
in the court of another prince, to maintain a good un-
derftanding, and look to the intereft of his matter.
Till about two hundred years ago, ambafladors in or¬
dinary were not heard of: all, till then, were ambaf-
fadors extraordinary; that is, fuch as are fent on fome
particular occafion, and who retire as foon as the affair
is difpatched.
By the law of nations, none under the quality of a
fovereign prince can fend or receive an ambaffador. At
Athens, ambaffadors mounted the pulpit of the public
orators, and there opened their commiffion, acquaint¬
ing the people with their errand. At Rome, they were
introduced to the fenate, and delivered their commiffions
to the fathers.
Ambaffadors ffiould never attend any public folemni-
ties, as marriages, funerals, &c. unlefs their matters
have fome intereft therein: nor muft they go into mourn¬
ing on any occafions of their own, becaufe they repre-
fent the perfon of their prince. By the civil law, the
moveable goods of an ambaffador, which are accounted
an acceffion to his perfon, cannot be feized on,, neither
as a pledge, nor for payment of a debt, nor by order
or execution of judgment, nor by the king’s or ftate’S
leave where he refides, as fome conceive; for all actions
ought to be far from an ambaffador, as well that which
toucheth his neceffaries, as his perfon: if, therefore, he
81 ] A M B
hath contracted any debt, he is to be called upon kind- Atnhe
ly; and if he refufes, then letters of requeft are to go
to his matter. Nor can any of the ambaffador’s dome- '
ftic fervants that are regiftered in the fecretaries of
ftate’s office be arretted in perfon or goods; if they are,
the procefs ftiall be void, and the parties fueing out and
executing it ffiall fuffer and be liable to fuch penalties
and corporal punifhment as the lord chancellor or ei¬
ther of the chief juftices /hall think fit to inflift. Yet
ambaffadors cannot be defended when they commit any
thing againft that ftate, or the perfon of the prince, with
whom they refide; and if they are guilty of treafon,
felony, &c. or any other crime againft the law of na¬
tions, they lofe the privilege of an ambaffador, and may
be fubjeCt to puniffiment as private aliens.
AMBE, in Jurgery, the name of an inftrument for
reducing diflocated bones. In anatomy, a term for the
fuperficial jutting out of a bone.
AMBER, in natural hiftory. See the article Suc-
cinum; and Chemistry, n° 313, 511-
AMBERG, a city of Germany, the capital of the
palatinate of Bavaria, with a good cattle, ramparts, ba-
ftions; and deep ditches. It is feated near the confines
of Franconia, on the river Wils. It drives a great trade
in iron and other metals, found in the neighbouring
mountains. E. Long. 12. 4. N. Lat. 29. 46.
AMBERGREASE, or Ambergrise, in natural
hiftory, is a folid, opaque, a(h-coloured, fat, inflamma¬
ble fubftance, variegated like marble, remarkably light,
rugged and uneven in its furface, and has a fragrant o-
dour when heated. It does not effervefce with acids;
it melts freely over the fire, into a kind of yellow rofin;
and is hardly foluble in fpirit of wine.
Ambergrife is in general the moft agreeable of the
perfumes, and rarely accompanied with the inconveni-
encies which other fubftances of this clafs frequently oc¬
cafion. It is looked upon as an high cordial; and e-
fteemed of great ferviee in all diforders of the head, and
in nervous complaints: a folution of it in fpirit diftilled
from rofes, Hands recommended by Hoffman as one of
the moft efficacious corroborants of the nervous fyftem.
The Orientals entertain an high opinion of the aphro-
difiac virtues of this concrete; and likewife fuppofe that
the frequent ufe of it conduces to long life.
Ambergrife is found in great quantities in the Indian
ocean, near the Molucca ifles; as alfo near Africa; and
fometimes near the northern parts of England, Scot¬
land, and Norway. There have been many different
hypothefes concerning its origin; but the moft proba¬
ble is that which fuppofes it to be a foffile bitumen,
or naphtha, exfuding out of the bowels of the earth, in
a fluid form, and diftilfing-into the fea, where it har¬
dens and floats on the furface. See Chemistry, ^513,
AMBERT, a fmall town of France, in Lower Au¬
vergne, the chief place of a fmall territory called Liv-
radois. It is remarkable for its paper manufactory and
camblets. E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 45. 28.
AMBETTUWAY, in botany, a barbarous name
of a tree, the leaves of which, when boiled in wine, are
faid to' create an appetite, and is ufed by the people in
Guinea with that intention.
AMBIANI,or Ambianensis civitas,now
a city of Picardy. It is called Samarobriva by Caefar
and Cicero; which, according to Valefius, fignifies the
bridge of the Samara or Somme. Ambiani is a later
name,.
A M B [ 282 ] A M B
Ambrdex* name, taken from that of the people, after the ufual
‘‘j'.1’ manner of the lower age.
Ambit. AMBIDEXTER, a perfon who can ufe both hands
——  with the fame facility, and for the fame purpofes, that
the generality of people do their right hands.—As
to the natural caufe of this faculty, tome, as Hcefer,
attribute it to an extraordinary fupply of blood and
fpirits from the heart and brain, which furnifh both
hands with the neceffary ftrength and agility : others,
as Nicholas Mafia, to an ereft fituation of the heart,
inclining neither to the right-hand nor left; and o-
thers to the right and left fubclavian arteries being of
the fame height, and the fame diftance from the heart,
by which the blood is propelled with equal force to
both hands.—But thefe are only conjeftures, or rather
chimeras. Many think, that, were it not for educa¬
tion and habit, all mankind would be ambidexters; and
in faft, we frequently find nurfes obliged to be at a
good deal of pains before they can bring children to
forego the ufe of their left hands. How far it may be
an advantage to be deprived of half our natural dex¬
terity, may be doubted. It is certain, there are in¬
finite occations in life, when it would be better to have
the equal ufe of both hands. Surgeons and oculifts
are of neceflity obliged to be ambidexters; bleeding,
&c. in the left-arm or left ancle, and operations on
the left-eye, cannot be well performed but with the
theleft-hand.—Variousinftancesoccur in hiftory, where
the left-hand has been exercifed preferably to the
right. But by the laws of the ancient Scythians, peo¬
ple were enjoined to exercife both hands alike; and
Plato enjoins ambidexterity to be obferved and encou¬
raged in his republic.
Ambidexter, among Englifh lawyers, a juror or
embracer, who accepts money of both parties, for gi¬
ving his verdift; an offence for which he is liable to be
imprifoned, for ever excluded from a jury, and to pay
ten times the fum he accepted of.
AMBIEGNiE oves, in the heathen facrifices, an
appellation given to fuch ewes as, having brought forth
twins, were facrificed together with their two lambs,
one on each fide. We find them mentioned among
other facrifices to Juno.
AMBIENT, a term ufed for fuch bodies, efpecially
fluids, as encompafs others on all fides: thus, the air is
frequently called an ambient fluid, becaufc it is diffufed
round the earth.
AMBIGENAL hyperbola, a name given by Sir
Ifaac Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the
fecond order, having one of its infinite legs falling with¬
in an angle formed by the affymptotes, and the other
without.
AMBIGUITY, a defedf of language, whereby
words are rendered ambiguous. . See the next article.
AMBIGUOUS, a term applied to a word or ex-
preffion which may be taken in different fenfes.—An
anonymous writer has publifhed a di&onary of ambi¬
guous words : Lexicon Philofophicum de Ambiguitate
Vocabulorum, Francof. 1597. 410.—The refponfes of
the ancient oracles were always ambiguous.
AMBIT, in geometry, is the fame with what is o-
• See Peri- therwife called the perimeter of a figure *.
vteter. Ambit was particularly ufed, in antiquity, to de¬
note a fpace of ground to be left vacant betwixt one
building and another. By the laws of the twelve ta¬
bles, houfes were not to be built contiguous, but an Ambitioa |
ambit or fpace of aj- feet was to be left about each AmJ[teuft
for fear of fire.—The ambitus of a tomb or monu-  LI
ment, denoted a certain number of feet, in length and
breadth, around the fame, within which the fanftity
affigned to it was limited. The whole ground wherein
a tomb was eredted, was not to be fecreted from the
common ufes; for this reafon, it was frequent to in-
fcribe the ambit on it, that it might be known how far
its fandtity extended : thus, in fronte pedes totx in a-
grum pedes tot.
AMBITION, (ambitio), is generally ufed in a bad
fenfe, for an immoderate or illegal purfuit of power.
In the Itridt meaning, however, of the word, it fig-
nifies the fame with the ambitus of the Romans. See
the next article.
AMBITUS, in Roman antiquity, the fetting up
for feme magiftracy or office, and formally going round
the city to folicit the intereft and votes of the people.
Ambitus differed from ambition, as the former lies
in the adt, the latter in the mind.
Ambitus was of two kinds; one lawful, the other
infamous. The firft, called alfo ambitus popularis,
was when a perfon offered his fervice to the republic
frankly, leaving it tb every body to judge of his pre-
tenfions as they found reafonable. The means and in-
ftruments here made ufe of were various. 1. Amici,
or friends, under different relations, including cognati,
affines, necejfarii, familiares, vicini, tribules, clientes,
7iiunicipes, fodales, college. 2. Nomenclatura, or the
calling and faluting every perfon by his name; to which
purpofe, the candidates were attended with an officer,
under the denomination of interpres, or nomenclator.
3. Blandiiia; or obliging perfons, by ferving them, or
their friends, patrons, or the like, with their vote and
intereft on other occalions. 4. Prenfatio; the fliaking
every perfon by the hand, offering him his fervice,
friendlhip, &c.—The fecond kind was that wherein
force, cajoling, money, or other extraordinary influence,
was made ufe of. This was held infamous, and fevere-
ly puniflied, as a fource of corruption and other mif-
chiefs.
Ambitus was praclifed not only at Rome and in the
forum, but in the meetings and affemblies of other
towns in Italy, where numbers of citizens were ufually
found, on account of trade and bulinefs.—The prac¬
tice ceafed in the city from the time of the emperors,
by reafon polls were not then to be had by courting
the people, but by favour from the prince.
Perfons who had caufes depending praftifed the fame,
going about among the judges to implore their favour
and mercy. They who praftifed this, were called Am-
bitiofi. Hence we alfo meet with ambitiofa decreta,
and ambitiofa juffa, ufed for fuch fentences and de¬
crees as were thus procured from the judges, contrary
to reafon and equity, either gratuitoufly, or for money.
AMBLE, in horfemanlhip, a peculiar pace by which
a horfe’s two legs of the fame fide move at the fame
time.
AMBLESIDE, a town in Weftmoreland, feated
at one end of Winandermeer, W. long. o. 49. N. lat.
54. 30.
AMBLETEUSE, a fea-port town of France, in
Picardy, defended with a battery of canon. E. long.
1. 30. N. lat. 49. 40.
AM-
Amblygon
.ft Amboule.
A M B [ 283 ] A M B
AMBLYGON, in geometry, denotes an obtiife-
angled triangle, or a triangle one of whofe angles con-
lifts of more than ninety degrees.
AMBLYOPY, among phyficians, fignifies an ob-
fcuration of the fight, fo that objefts at a diftance can¬
not be clearly diftinguifhed. The word is Greek?
and compounded of dull, and «4') the eye.
AMBO, or Ambon, a kind of pulpit or delk, in
the ancient churches, where the priefts and deacons
ftood to read, or ling part of the fervice, and preach to
the people ; called alfo Analogium. The term is de¬
rived from to mount.—The ambo was moun¬
ted upon two fides; whence fome alfo derive the ap¬
pellation from the Latin antbo, both.
The ambo was afcended by fteps ? which occafioned
that part of the office performed there, to be called
the Gradual. See Gradual.
Befides the gofpel, which was read at the top of the
ambo, and the epiftle, which was read a ftep lower,
they likewife publilhed from this place the afts of the
martyrs, the commemoration of departed faints, and
the letters of peace and communion fent by one church
to another : here, too, converts made a public profef-
fion of their faith; and bilhops, their defence, when
accufed: treaties alfo were fometimes concluded, and
the coronations of emperors and kings performed, in
the fame place.
The modern reading-delks and pulpits have been
generally fubftituted to the ancient Ambos ; though,
in fome churches, remains of the ambos are ftill feen.
In that of St John de Lateran at Rome, there are two
moveable ambos.
AMBOHITSMENE, or Vohitsanghombe, a
province of the ifland of Madagafcar, fo called from
fome red mountains of the fame name, lying in S. lat.
20°. Thefe mountains are very high, refembling the
Tafelberg of the Cape of Good Hope. On one fide of
this ridge the fea extends into the country for fifteen
leagues ; on the other is a flat country abounding in
ponds and marfltes. Here is alfo a lake fifteen leagues
in length, and the fame in breadth, containing many
fmall iflands. The inhabitants of the mountains are
called Zaferahongs ; and have plenty of gold, iron, cattle,
filk, &c.
AMBONUM. See Oculus Beli.
AMBOISE, a town of France, in Touraine, feated
at the confluence of the rivers Loire and Maffee. E.
Lon. 1. 30. N. Lat. 47. 25.
AMBOULE, a province of Madagafcar, fomewhat
to the northward of S. lat. 230. It is a fertile and a-
greeable country, watered by the river Manampani,
whofe mouth lies in S. lat. 23. 30. The country pro¬
duces plants and fruits in plenty. Iron mines are alfa
found here. The black cattle are extremely fat, and
their flefh excellent. In this province Hands a large
town of the fame name; near which is a fountain of
hot water, within 20 feet of a fmall river whofe fand
is almoft burning8. The water of the fountain is faid
to boil an. egg hard in two hours; and the inhabitants
affirm it to be a fovereign remedy againft the gout.
The people here are employed in different preparations
of iron and fteel, which they have from their own mines,
and forge feveraTinftruments with tolerable fkill. Their
governor is honoured with the title of Rabertau, or
Great Lord. He exercifes fovereign authority and ah-
folute power; but is frequently, in times of diftrefs, Amboyna;
furprifed by his fubjefts, who afiemble in great num- ’
bers, feize his perfon, and threaten him with death un-
lefs they are relieved. To extricate himfelf from this
dilemma, he is inftantly obliged to iffue orders for dif-
tributing provifions among them; but is ufually repaid
with intereft, a quadruple return being made in a plen¬
tiful harveft. The people of Amboule live in great
licentioufnefs with their fuperiors, and their country is
generally a reti-eat for the roguifh and lazy.
AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca iflands, in the
Eaft Indies. It lies in S. lat. 3. 36. and E. long. 126.
20. and is remarkable for being the centre of the com¬
merce for nutmegs and cloves, which is entirely mo¬
nopolized by the Dutch Eaft-India company. It is
about 24 leagues in circumference. The air is but in¬
different ; and infefts the body with a fcrophulous dif-
order, not unlike the French-pox, except its not being
fo painful, and not corroding the bones. This difor-
der is faid to be eafily cured in the firft ftage; but very
difficultly, if allowed to proceed to any height.
The ifland is fertile in millet, tobacco, fugar, coco,
potatoes, oranges, lemons, citrons, &c. Here is like¬
wife the fago tree, a kind of palm, of the pith of which
they make bread; and by cutting off one of the branch¬
es near the top, the fap will flow out: this juice is
very fweet, and will ferment into a fort of wine. A
bitter root, called oubat, is made ufe of to prevent it
from turning, otherwife it would-foon grow four as
vinegar. Some trees will yield 30 quarts in 2-4 hours.
The men wear large whilkers, and but little hair up¬
on their chin; and have only a flight piece of fluff" wrapt
round their middle. The women tie their hair in knots;
the maids are bought of their fathers before they are
married; and if the wife proves barren, the marriage is
difiblved. Some of the natives are Mahometans, and
fome Chriftians: but they are all faid to be lazy, de¬
ceitful, and treacherous; and will rather die than
leave their ancient cuftoms. They make war with
fmall fwift veflels, in fliape like dragons with regard
to the head and tail. Their houfes are built of bam¬
boo canes and fago-trees. They fleep on mats. Their
weapons, are bows and arrows, javelins, fcymitars, and
targets. They have likewife trunks, out of which they
(hoot poifoned arrows. The women are very amorous ?
and if they are deceived by their gallants, they give
them a flow poifon, which caufes them to linger a great
while before they die.
Amboyna was firft difcovered by the Portuguefe,
who built a fort upon it, which was taken from them
by the Dutch in 1605. They did not, however, be
come matters of the whole ifland at once. The Engliffi
had here five factories, which lived under the pro-
teftion of the Dutch caftle; holding themfelves fafe,
in refpeft of the friendfhip between the two nations.
Great differences had arifen between the DutchandEng-
lifli colonifts in this part of the world ? till at laft, the
Englifti Eaft-India company applying to King James, a
treaty was concluded in 1619, by which the concerns
both of the Englifh and Dutch were regulated, and
certain meafures agreed upon for preventing future dif-
putes. This was an additional fecurity to the Englifti;
and, by virtue of the treaty, they continued two years
in Amboyna, trading with the Dutch. During this
time, however, feveral differences happened; which oc-
cafioning
Anboyna.
A M B [ 284 ] A M B
cafioning mutual difcontents, the complaints were fent
to Jaccatra, in the ifland of Java Major, to the coun¬
cil of defence of both nations there refiding : but they
not agreeing, a ftate of the cafe was fent over to Europe,
to be decided by the Eaft-India Companies of both
nations; or, in cafe they could not agree, by the King
of England, and the States of Holland, according to
an article in the treaty of 1619.—But before thefe dif-
putes could be decided in a legal way, the Dutch at
Amboyna thought proper to invent a report of a plot
intended by the Englifh to furprife the Dutch fort and
deftroy them.
To give credit to this report, and to obtain a plau-
fible pretext for deftroying the Englifh, a Japanefe fol-
dier was apprehended for a (king fome queftions at a
centinel concerning the ftrength of the caftle. Being
cruelly tortured, he figned a confefiion that he himfelf
and feveral others of his countrymen had contrived the
taking of the caftle. Upon this, fome other Japanefe
were alfo feized and tortured; as alfo a Portuguefe, the
guardian of the flaves of the Dutch. This happened
about the iith of February 1622.—At this time there
was one Abel Price, furgeon to the Engliih, in prifon,
for threatening to fet a Dutchman’s houle on fire. Him
they tortured, and foon made to confefs whatever they
pleafed. The fame day, (Feb. 15th) they fent for
Captain Towerfon, and all the Englilh who were in the
town, to come to fpeak with the governor of the caftle.
They all went except one, who was left to keep the
houfe. Being come to the governor, he told Captain
Towerfon, that himfelf and others of his nation were
accufed of a confpiracy to furprife the caftle; and there¬
fore, until further trial, were to remain prifoners. Im¬
mediately alfo they feized him who was left alone in
the houfe; took the merchandife of the Englifli com¬
pany into their own cuftody, by an inventory; and
feized all the chefts, boxes, books, and papers, in the
Engliih houfe.
The Dutch, having now got them into their power,
proceeded to torment them in the moft horrid manner.
The cruelties praftifed upon them were of the fame na¬
ture with thofe inflidted by the inquifitors on fuch un-
happy people as fell into their hands.—The miferable
viftim was firft hoifted up by the hands with a cord, on
a large door, where they made him fail, upon two
ftapples of iron fixed on both fides at the top of the
door-pofts, hauling his hands one from the other as
wide as they could ftretch. Being thus made faft, his
feet were alfo ftretched afunder as far as they could,
and made faft beneath under the door-trees on each
fide. Then they tied a cloth about his neck and face,
fo clofe that little water could get out. This being
done, they poured water foftly upon his head, which
running down, filled up the napkin, and ftretched it
out all round. They fuffered the water to afcend a
little above his noftrils, fo that he could not draw breath
without fucking in a great quantity of water ; with
which he foon was filled to fuch a degree as to be ready
to burft. If he happened to faint, which was often the
cafe, the barbarians took him down, making him
quickly vomit up the water, and then tied him up a-
gain. If this torture did not produce the confeffion
they defired, they burnt the foies of his feet, arm-pits,
and the moft fenfible parts of his body, with candles,
till the fat dropped out upon them.
The unhappy fufferers, exhaufted with thefe tortures,
confefied whatever they thought would be agreeable to
their favage tormentors ; who having caufed them fign
their confeffions, and thereby obtained a colour of ju-
ftice for their proceedings, put as many to death as they
thought proper, and out of their gi eat clemency fpaied
the reft.
That fuch an unheard-of proceeding as this ftiould
neither be refented by the Britifti, nor the perpetrators
of it called to an account in their own country, may
appear very furprifing. It muft, however, be confi-
dered, that at that time the liberty of the prefs was not
fo great as it is now. It was not till long after that
the account was allowed to be publifhed; and the trou¬
bles in which the nation was then involved, prevented
much attention being paid to it.
By this tranfaftion, the clove-trade fell entirely into
the hands of the Dutch; and the more effectually to
preferve it, the company takes care to have all the
clove-trees in the adjacent iflands grubbed up. Some¬
times alfo, when the harveft is very large, part of the
produce of Amboyna itfelf is burnt.—To prevent the
rearing of cloves in any of the neighbouring iflands, or
the inhabitants from felling them to ftrangers, the go¬
vernor of Amboyna makes the tour of his government
with a fleet of curricurries, confifting fometimes of 20,
and at others of 30^ 40, or 50 fail. This expedition
is made with all the pomp imaginable, in order to gra¬
tify the pride and folly of the Indian chiefs. The true
reafon of their taking all this pains is, becaufe expe¬
rience has Ihewn, that no contrails, however folemn,
can prevent the inhabitants of thofe iflands from felling
their fpice to ftrangers; and even now, frauds are fo
frequently praitifed by the Dutch themfelves, tho’ the
company is inexorable in puniihing them, that the com¬
mon people call the cloves galken-kruid, that is, the
gallows-fpice.
Befides the cloves, coffee is alfo cultivated here by
the Dutch, and a gold mine has been lately found out.
This was difcovered by the quantities of gold-duft that
were wafhed from fome mountains by the torrents.
Here alfo grows a kind of red wood, which, befides
the beauty of its colour, is exceedingly firm and du¬
rable; and, which is ftill more remarkable, its grain
is naturally embelliftied with abundance of beautiful fi¬
gures. Of this wood they make tables, chairs, efcri-
toires, &c. for the principal perfons in the government;
and the reft is fold all over the Indies at a very extra¬
vagant rate.
Amboyna is divided into two parts, viz. a greater
and lefler peninfula. The former, called Hiton, is 12
leagues in length, and two and a half broad. In this
the Dutch have no lefs than five forts, or rather ftrong
redoubts, mounted with cannon. The other is called
Leytimor, five leagues in length, and one and a half
broad, which is the fouthern part of the ifland; on this
ftands the fort of Viftoria, which is the refidence of
the governor, and his council, compofed of 15 gentle¬
men or merchants. The fortrefs is a fquare, the ram¬
parts mounted with 60 pieces of brafs cannon, and the
garrifon ufually compofed of 600 men. It is fo ftrong
by nature and art, as to be in a manner impregnable;
and fo effeflually does it command the harbour, that no
veffel could come in or go out without being funk by
the cannon, if the governor chofe. The inhabitants of
Amboyna,
Amboyna
7
A M B
mbracia, Amboy na, are computed at 70 or 80,000, of whom but
a fmall number are Dutch; and this obliges them to be
continually upon their guard, and to keep a competent
number of troops in each of their forts, particularly in
that of Middleburgh, which Hands upon the ifthmus
that connefts thefe peninfulas. There are alfo redoubts
and garrifons in all the iflands of this government.
AMBRACIA, one of the moft confiderable cities
of ancient Epirus, fituated on the river Arafthus, at a
fmall diftance from the fea. At firft it was a free city;
but was afterwards reduced by the TEacidas kings of Epi¬
rus, who chofe it for the place of their refidence. In
procefs of time, the iEtolians made themfelves matters
of it, and held it till the year before Chrift 189, when
it fell into the hands of the Romans.
At this time Ambracia was a place of great ftrength.
It was defended on one fide by the river Ara&hus, and
on the other by fteep and craggy hills; and furround-
ed with an high and thick wall, above three miles in
compafs. The Roman conful Fulvius began the fiege
by forming two camps, feparated by the river, but with
a communication between them; the Romans were pott¬
ed in one, and the Epirots their allies in the other.
He then threw up two lines, one of circumvallation,
and the other of contravallation ; and built a wooden
tower, in form of a cattle, over againft the citadel,
which ftood on a hill. The JEtolians, however, be¬
fore the lines were quite finifhed, found means to throw
about 1000 men into the place.
The lines being completed, the city was attacked in
five different places at once. The battering -rams fliook
the walls on all fides; and the Romans, from their move-
able towers, pulled down the battlements with a kind
of fithes which they fattened to long beams. The be-
fieged made a vigorous defence. They were night and
day on the walls, and indefatigable in preventing the
effefts of the rams and fy thes. The ftrokes of the for¬
mer they deadened, by letting down beams, large ftones,
lumps of lead, &c. by means oftpullies, upon them when
they were in motion; the others they rendered ufelefs,
by pulling the beams to which they were fattened into
the city with hooks contrived for the purpofe.
While Fulvius was carrying on the fiege, Nicander
the ^Etolian praetor found means to throw 500 men in¬
to the city, under the command of one Nicodamus, with
whom Nicander agreed to attack the Roman camp in
the night-time; not doubting, that, if the garrifon from
within, andthe army from without, fell upon them at the
fame time, they would be obliged to raife the fiege.
Nicodamus narrowly watched the time at which he was
ordered to fally; and, though Nicander did not appear,
marched out at the head of the garrifon, armed with
fire-brands and torches. The Roman centinels, fur-
prifed at this fight, ran to wake the legionaries, and
foon fpread a general alarm all over the camp. The le¬
gionaries marched in fmall bodies as they happened to
meet, to repulfe the enemy, whom they engaged in
three different places. Two parties of the garrifon were
driven back: but the third, commanded by two JEtolian
generals, made a great flaughter of the Romans; and,
not finding themfelves feconded by Nicander, retired in
good order into the city.
Though the befieged were thus abandoned, and had
no hopes of afliftance, they continued to defend them¬
felves with incredible vigour and refolution. The Ro-
Vol. I.
A M B
mans had no fooner made a breach in the wall, but it Ambref-
was repaired, and a new one built behind it. The con- be[ry
ful, therefore, altered his meafures; and, infteadof ma- Ambrones.
king breaches with the ram, began to undermine the   
wall, in hopes of throwing down great part of it at
once, and entering the city before the befieged could
have time to build a new wall. The miners being co¬
vered, were not obferved by the garrifon, till the great
quantities of earth brought out of the mine gave the
alarm. The iEtolians immediately began to counter¬
mine ; and, having dug a trench of the depth they fup-
pofed the mine to be, they carried it along the wall
where they heard the ftrokes of the pick-axes of the
Romans. When the two mines met, a battle enfued,
firft with pick-axes and fpades, and then with fwords
and fpears : but this attack did not laft long, each par¬
ty making themfelves a kind of rampart with the loofe
earth. The iEtolians, in order to drive their enemies
quite out of the mine, invented a machine, which they
brought to the place where the two mines met: this
was an hollow veffel, with an iron bottom, bored thro’
in many places, and armed with fpikes at proper di-
ftances to prevent the enemy from approaching it: this
veffel they filled with feathers, which they fet on fire,
and with bellows driving the fmoke on the befiegers,
obliged them to leave the mine, half-fuffocated. This
interval the iEtolians made ufe of in repairing the foun¬
dations of the wall.
The vigorous refiftance made by the Ambracians,
however, did not raife the courage of the nation in ge¬
neral, who were determined on a peace with Rome at
all events. Fulvius, in the mean time, being defirous
of getting poffeffion of Ambracia before the conclufion
of the peace, employed Amynander, king of the Atha-
manes, to perfuade the inhabitants to furrender. As
Amynander had great intereft in Ambracia, having long
refided there, he eafily perfuaded them to capitulate on
the following terms, viz. That the iEtolian garrifon
fhould have leave to march out of the city; that the
inhabitants fhould pay 500 talents, 200 down, and the
reft at fix equal payments; and that they fhould deliver
to the conful all the prifoners and deferters that were in
the city. The gates were then opened to Fulvius; and
he was prefented with a crown of gold, together with
many fine ftatues and pidtures, of which there were
great numbers in the city, it having been the capital of
Pyrrhus, who had enriched it with many valuable mo¬
numents.
From this time the city of Ambracia made no figure
in hiftory. It is fcarce known at prefent where the
city ftood; but that called Arba, in upper Albania,
feems beft to agree with what is faid of the ancient fi-
tuation of this city. The river Arafthus, on which
Ambracia was fituated, is now called, by the natives,
Spagmagm uriji.
AMBRESBERRY, a market-town in Wiltfhire,
about fix miles north of Saiifbury, and fituated in W.
Long. r. 40. and N. Lat. 51. 20.
AMBRONES, a Gaulifh people who lived near the
foot of the Alps, between Switzerland and Provence.
They invaded the Roman territories in conjunction with
theCimbri andTeutones; but were defeated with great
flaughter by Marius, about 101 years before Chrift.
Their women, who had ftaid during the engagement
in a kind of fortification made with their carts, on fee-
N n ing
[ 285 ]
.Ambrofe-
Hland,
A M B [ 286 ] A M B
ing their hufbands flying, and the Romans at their heels,
armed themfelves with axes, and, gnafhing with their
teeth, fell with fury on the purfuers and the purfued.
Their firft rage being fpent, they defired to furrender
themfelves, upon the Angle condition, that their chafti-
ty fhould not be violated; but this equitable requeft be¬
ing denied, they firft killed their children, and then
themfelves, not one remaining alive out of the whole
multitude.
AMBROSE-ilsand, a fmall ifland laid down in
fome of the moft approved charts, and particularly men¬
tioned in Mr Robertfon’s Elements of Navigation, as
lying in S. Lat. 25. 30. W. Long. 82. 20. It was
fearched for, however, in 1767, by Captain Carteret,
with fuch diligence, that he concludes it to have no ex-
iftence, as he could not difcover land any where near
that place.
AMBROSE (St), bifliop of Milan,one of the moft
eminent fathers of the fourth century, born in Gaul
in the year 333, according to Dr Cave, or in 340, as
Mr Du Pin affirms. His father was at this time pra-
fettus praitorio in Gaul; and refided at Arles, the capi¬
tal of Gallia Narbonenfis. The birth of Ambrofe is
faid to have been followed with a remarkable prefage
of his future eloquence; for we are told, that a fwarm
of bees came and fettled upon his mouth as he lay in
his cradle. He foon made himfelf matter of the feveral
parts of fecular learning; and pleaded caufes before
Probus with fo much eloquence, that he was appointed
his afleflbr, and foon after governor of the provinces
of Liguria and ^Emilia. He fettled at Milan; where,
in the year 374, upon the death of Auxentius bifliop of
that city, there being a great conteft between the Catho¬
lics and Arians concerning the choice of a new bifhop,
Ambrofe thought it his duty, as governor, to go to the
church, in order to compofe the tumult. He accord¬
ingly addrefled himfelf to the people in a gentle pathe¬
tic fpeech, exhorting them to proceed to their choice
in a calm and friendly manner: while he was fpeaking
to them, the whole affembly cried out with one voice,
“ Let Ambrofe be bifliop l” Such a fudden and un-
expefted incident furprifed him extremely'; fo that he
retired immediately, and ufed every method to divert
them from their refolution of chufing him : but at laft
he was obliged to comply; and was baptifed, (being but
a catechumen before,) and ordained bifliop, towards
the latter end of the year 374, or beginning of 375.
About the year 377, the barbarous nations making an
incurfion into the Roman empire, he fled to Ulyricum,
and afterwards to Rome. In the year 384, he was
fent to the tyrant Maximus, who had ufurped the em¬
pire, and prevailed upon him not to pafs over into
Italy. The heathens being encouraged by thefe inte-
ftine commotions in the empire, attempted to reftore
their religion, and employed Aurelius Symmachus,
prefeft of Rome, a man of great eloquence, to plead
their caufe. This gave rife to the famous co-nteft be¬
tween St Ambrofe and him, about repairing the altar
of Victory. But Symmachus having loft his caufe, was
expelled the city, and commanded not to aproach with¬
in an hundred miles of it. The petition which he pre-
fented to,.the emperor Valentinian the younger,. isftill
extant; we find in it the ftrongeft figures of rhetoric
and the greateft force of eloquence. St Ambrofe wrote
a CQnfuta.tioo.of this petition; hut he has been thought
guilty of many paralogifms: and yet he protefts, “ that Ambrofe.
he endeavoured only after the folidity of reafoning, lea¬
ving Symmachus all the glory of eloquence and polite-
nefs; it being (fays he) the peculiar privilege of the pa¬
gan philofophers to amufe the mind with colours as falfe
as their idols; and to fay great things, not being capable
of faying true ones.’, Ambrofe met with a good deal
of oppofition from the Arians, againft whom he afted
with great fpirit and intrepidity. Juftina the emprefs
and mother of Valentinian, who was an Arian, refol-
ving to reftore Arianifm at Milan, began with demand¬
ing of St Ambrofe one of the churches, which was
called the Portian church : but he refufed it; and the
people furrounding the palace in a body, flie was ob¬
liged to leave him in poffefiion of his church, and e-
ven defire him to pacify the people.
Ambrofe was a fecond time fent to the tyrant Max¬
imus, for Valentinian found no perfon fo proper to ne¬
gotiate with him. He fpoke to him with great cou¬
rage and boldnefs, but could obtain nothing; for Maxi¬
mus foon after marched into Italy, and made himfelf
mafter of the weftern empire: fo that Valentinian was
obliged to retire, with his mother Juftina and his fi-
fter Galla, to Theffalonica in Illyricum, in order to
defire Theodofius’s afliftance; who defeated Maximus,
and reftored Valentinian to the empire.
While Theodofius continued in Italy, after the de¬
feat of Maximus, an infurre&ion happened at Thefla-
lonica, in which feveral of the magiftrates were ftoned,
and their bodies dragged along the ftreets. Theodo¬
fius being informed of this, raffdy commanded a certain
number of the inhabitants to be put to death promif-
cuoufly; by which means the city was filled with
the blood of many innocent perfons, and amongft the
reft feveral ftrangers who were but juft come there :
no-regard was’ had to any diftin&ion of perfons, no
form of trial was obferved; but they were cut down
like corn in the harveft, as Theodoret exprefles it, to
the number of 7000. At this time an affembly of bi-
fhops was held at Milan, who all exprefled an abhorrence
of fuch cruelty in the emperor. Ambrofe wrote a let¬
ter to him, in which he reprefented the enormity of his
crime, and exhorted him to make fatisfa&ion by a fin-
cere fubmiffion and repentance. Sometime after, Theo ■
dofius coming to Milan, went to receive the facrament
at the great church ; where Ambrofe meeting him at
the door, denied him entrance, and reprefented his guilt
in the moft forcible and pathetic terms. The emperor
was ft ruck with his words, and with great uneafinefs
of mind returned to hispalace; but about a year after,
Ambrofe, being convinced of the fincerity of his repen¬
tance, admitted him into the church.
In. 392, Valentinian the emperor being aflaflinated
by the contrivance of Argobaftes, and Eugenius ufurp-
ing the empire, Ambrofe was obliged to leave Milan;
but he returned the year following, when Eugenius
was defeated. He died at Milan the 4th of April
397; being 57 years of age, according to Mr Du Pfn
and fome other writers; but Dr Cave and Olearius fay.
that he was 64 years old at his death. He was‘buried
in the great church at Milan. He wrote feveral works, '
the moft confiderable of which is that De Officiis. He
is coneife and fententious in his manner of writing, and
full of turns of wit; his terms are well chofen, and his
expreffions noble; he diverfifies his fubjeft by an ad,
mirable
A M B [ 287 ] A M B
Ambrofe rnirable copioufnefs of thought and language; he is
Ambrofius very ingeni°us giving an eafy and natural turn to
 _! every thing which he treats of, and is not without
ftrength and pathos when there is occafion for it. This
is part of the character which Du Pin gives him as a
writer ; but Erafmus obferves that he has many quaint
and affe&ed fentences, and frequently very obfcure ones;
and it is certain that his writings are intermixed with
many tlrange and peculiar opinions. Paulinus wrote
his life, and dedicated it to St Auguftin: this life is pre¬
fixed to St Ambrofe’s works; the beft edition of which
is reckoned to be that publifhed by the Benedi&ine
monks, in two volumes in folio, at Paris, in 1686 and
1690.
Ambrose (Ifaac), an eminent preibyterian minifter,
' was educated at Brazen-nofe college Oxford, where he
took the degree of bachelor of arts, and became mini¬
fter of Prefton, and afterwards of Garftang in Lanca-
Ihire, where he was in 1662 ejefted for non-conformity.
It was ufual with him to retire every year for a month in¬
to a little hut in a wood; where he fliunned all fociety,
and devoted himfelf to religious contemplation. Dr Ca-
lamy obferves, that he had a very ftrong impulfe on his
mind of the approach of death, and took a formal leave
of his friends at their houfe, a little before his departure;
and tlm laft night of his life he fent his difcourfe con¬
cerning angels to the prefs. The next day he fhut him¬
felf up in his parlour, where, to the great furprife and
regret of all who faw him, he was found juft expiring.
He died in 1663-4, in 72ti year age"
wrotefeveral other books; as \\\z Prima, Media, <bUl~
tima, or the Firft, Middle, and Laft Things; War with
devils; Looking unto Jefus; &c.
Ambrose, or St Ambrose in the Wood, an order of
religious, who ufe the Ambrofian office, and wear an i-
mage of that faint engraven on a little plate : in other
refpects, they conform to the rule of the Auguftins. See
Ambrosian Office, and Augustins.
AMBROSIA, in heathen antiquity, denotes the fo-
lid food of the gods, in contradiftin&ion from the drink,
which was caWed nectar. It had the appellation amhro-
fia, (compounded of the particle *. and fieri®-, immor¬
tal,') as being fuppofed to render thofe immortal who fed
on it.
Ambrosia, a genus of the pentandria order, be¬
longing to the moncecia clafs of plants. Of this genus
five fpecies are enumerated; but having no properties
worthy of notice, we omit any farther account of them.
AMBROSIAN office, in church-hiftory, a parti¬
cular formula of worfiiip in the church of Milan, which
takes its name from St Ambrofe, who inftituted that
office in the fourth century. Each church originally
had its particular office; and when the Pope, in after¬
times, took upon him to impofe the Roman office up¬
on all the weftern churches, that of Milan ffieltered
itfelf under the name and authority of St Ambrofe;
from which time the Ambrofian ritual has prevailed.
AMBROSIN, in middle-age writers, denotes a
coin ftruck by the lords or dukes of Milan, whereon
was reprefented St Ambrofe on horfeback, with a whip
in his right hand. The occafion of this coinage is faid
to have been a vifion of that faint, who appeared to
the Milanefe general in 1339, during the time of a
battle.
AMBROSIUS Aurelianus, or Aurelius Am-
brosius, a famous general of the ancient Britons, of Ambrofius.
Roman extradlion. He was educated at the court of
Aldroen of America; who, at the requeft of the Bri¬
tons, fent him over with ten thoufand men, to affift
them againft the Saxons, whom Vortigern had invited
into Britain. Ambrofius had fuch fuccefs againft the
Saxons, that the Britons chofe him for their king, and
compelled Vortigern to give up to him all the weftern
part of the kingdom divided by the Roman highway
called Watling-ffireet. Some time after, the Britons
being difeontented with Vortigern, and having with¬
drawn their allegiance from him, he returned to a caftle
in Wales, where being befieged by Ambrofius, and
the caftle taking fire, he periftied in the flames, and
left his rival foie monarch of Britain; who now took
upon him the imperial purple, after the manner of the
Roman emperors. Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us, that
Ambrofius built Stonehenge near Salifbury, in Wilt-
flnre. Ambrofius, according to this hiftorian, coming
to a monaftery near Caercaradoc, now Salijhnry, where
three hundred Britifti lords, maffacred by Hengift, lay
buried, and refolving to perpetuate the memory of this
aftion, he ordered his workmen to prepare a large
quantity of ftones and other materials. But haying,
at the inftigation of Tremounus archbifliop of Caer-
leon, confulted the famous Merlin, this magician ad-
vifed him to fend over to Ireland for certain great
ftones, caMed choreagigantum, the giant’s dance, placed
in a circle on a hill called Killair, having been brought >
thither by giants from the fartheft borders of Afri¬
ca. A body of forces were accordingly fent into Ire¬
land, under Pendragon, Ambrofius’s brother, to fetch
thefe ftones; but were oppofed in their attempt by Gil-
liomanus king of the country, who derided the folly
of the Britons in undertaking fo ridiculous an expedi¬
tion. Neverthelefs, the Britons having vanquiflied this
prince in battle, brought away the ftones; and by the
direftion and affiftance of Merlin, who had accompa¬
nied them, thefe wonderful ftones, by order of Am¬
brofius, were placed over the graves of the Britiffi
lords, and are now what is called Stonehenge. Alex¬
ander Mecham celebrates this fable in his poem De di-
vinee fapientia laudibus. Polydore Virgil affigns ano¬
ther origin of Stonehenge: he tells us it was erefted by
the Britons as a monument to their general Ambrofius,
on the place where he fell in battle, to perpetuate the
memory of his glorious a&ions and fervices done to his
country. Both thefe ftories are rejefted by our belt
antiquaries; who, however, are by no means agreed as
to the true origin of this famous piece of antiquity *.
After the Britons had defeated the Saxons, and ob¬
liged them to retire northward, Ambrofius is faid to
have convened the princes and great men at York,
where he gave orders for repairing the churches deftroy-
ed by the Saxons, and reftoring the exercife of religion
to its former luftre. This is confirmed by Matthew of
Weftminfter; who highly applauds the great zeal of
Ambrofius in repairing the churches, encouraging the
clergy, and reftoring the honour of religion. The
Monmouth hiftorian gives this prince a very high cha-
racter: “ He was a man (fays he) of fuch bravery and
courage, that when he was in Gaul no one durft enter
the lifts with him; for he was fure to unhorfe his anta-
gonift, or to break his fpear into ftiivers. He was,
moreover, generous in beftowing, careful in perform-
N n 2 ing
See-Slone-
bengo.
—
A M E [ 288 ] A M E
Ambrun $ng religious duties, moderate in all things, and more
II efpecially abhorred a lie. He was ftrong on foot,
Ame 1's’ ftronger on horfeback, and perfeftly qualified to com¬
mand an army.” The fame author tells us he was poi-
foned at Winchefter by one Eopa a Saxon, difguifed
as a phyfician, and hired for that purpofe by Pafcentius
one of the fons of Vortigern: but the generally received
opinion is, that he was killed in a battle which he loft
in the year 508, againft Cerdric, one of the Saxon ge¬
nerals.
AMBRY, a place in which are depofited all uten-
► fils neceffary for houfe-keeping. In the ancient ab¬
beys and priories, there was an office under this deno¬
mination, wherein were laid up all charities for the poor.
AMBUBAJiE, in Roman antiquity, were immodeft
women, who came from Syria to Rome, where they
lived by proftitution, and by playing on the flute : the
word is derived from the Syriac abub, which fignifies a
flute; altho’ others make it to come from am an&Baia,
becaufe thefe proftitutes often retired to Baiae. Accord-
ding to Cruquius, thefe women ufed likewife to fell paint
for ornamenting the face, <&c.
AMBURBIUM, in Roman antiquity, aproceffion
made by the Romans round the city and pomoerium,
in which they led a viftim, and afterwards facrificed
it, in order to avert fame calamity that threatened the
city.
AMBURY, or Anbury, among farriers, denotes a
tumour, wart, or fwelling, which is foft to the touch,
and full of blood.
This diforder of horfes is cured by tying a horfe-
hair very hard about its root; and, when it has fallen
off, which commonly happens in about eight days,
ftrewing fome powder of verdigris upon the part, to
prevent the return of the complaint. If the tumour be
fo low that nothing can be tied about it, they cut it
out with a knife, or elfe burn it off with a fharp hot
iron; and, in finewy parts, where a hot iron is im¬
proper, they eat it away with oil of vitriol, or white
fublimate.
AMBUSCADE, or Ambush, in the military art,
properly denotes a place where foldiers may lie con¬
cealed, till they find an opportunity to iurprife the e-
nemy.
AMBY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Limburg, fituated oppofite to Maeftricht,
on the eaft-fide of the river Maefe> in E. Long. 5, 45.
N. Lat. 50. 57.
AMEDIANS, in church-hiftory, a congregation
of religious in Italy, fo called from their profeffing
themfelves amantes Deum, lovers of God; or rather,
amati Deor beloved of God.
AMELIA, an epifcopal city of Italy, in the ftate
of the church, feated on a mountain, in the duchy of
Spoletto. E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat. 42. 33.
AMELLUS, Starwort, a genus of the polyga-
mia fuperfiua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants.—Of this there are two
Species. 1. The lynehitis, with one flower on each
footftalk. This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
It is a perennial plant, rifing about three feet high,
fending out many branches on each fide, fo as to form
a bufhy plant; the branches are garniftied with obtufe
fpear-lhaped leaves placed oppofite, and are terminated
by Angle naked flower-ftalks, each fupporting one vio¬
let-coloured flower, having a yellow dilk, which is fuc- Amsn
ceeded by oblong feeds. 2. The umbellatus, with
flowers growing in umbels, is a native of Jamaica; and • *_
rifes from two to three feet high, fending out many
branches cloathed with oppofite leaves, which are ter¬
minated by fmall flowers in umbels.
Culture. The firft is eafily propagated, either by
cuttings planted in the fummer-months, or by feeds
fown on a moderate hot-bed in the fpring, but the
plants require a flight Ihelter in winter. The fe nd is
much more tender, and therefore requires to be pre¬
ferred in a ftove during the winter-feafon.
AMEN, in the fcripture-language, a folemn for¬
mula, or conclufion to all prayer, fignifying fo be it.
The term amen is Hebrew, being derived from the
verb aman, i. e. to be true, faithful, <bc. So that,
ftri&ly fpeaking, it fignifies truth; and ufed adverbial¬
ly, as is frequently done in the gofpels, truly or verily.
Sometimes it is repeated twice together, and then it
ftands for the fuperlative: as. Amen, amen, dico vobis;
“ Verily, verily, I fay unto you.”
AMEND, or Amende, in the French cuftoms, a
pecuniary punifhment impofed by a judge for any crime,
falfe profecution, or groundlefs appeal.
Amende Honorable, an infamous kind of punifh¬
ment inflicted in France upon traitors, parricides, or
facrilegious perfons, in the following manner : The of¬
fender being delivered into the hands of the hangman,
his fhirt is ftripped off, a rope put about his neck, and
a taper in his hand; then he is led into court, where he
muft beg pardon of God, the king, the court, and his
country. Sometimes the punifhment ends here; but ^
fometimes it is only a prelude to death, or banifhment
to the galleys.
Amende Honourable is a term alfo ufed for making
recantation in open court, or in prefence of the perfon
injured.
AMENDMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes fome
alteration or change made in a thing for the better.
Amendment, in law, the correftion of an error com¬
mitted in a procefs, which may be amended after judg¬
ment, unlefs the error lies in giving judgment; for in
that cafe it is not amendable, but the party muft bring
a writ of error. A bill may be amended on the file at
any time before the plea is pleaded; but not afterwards,
without motion and leave of the court.
Amendment of a Bill, in parliament, is fome altera¬
tion made in the firft draught of it.
AMENTUM, in botany, the name of a fpecies of
calix, confifting of valves, and hanging down in diffe¬
rent dire&ions from the caulis. Common oats afford a
good example of the amentum.
Amentum, in Roman antiquity, a thong tied about
the middle of a javelin or dart, and faftened to the fore¬
finger, in order to recover the weapon as foon as it
was difcharged. The ancients made great ufe of the
amentum, thinking it helped to enforce the blow. It
alfo denotes a latchet that bound their fandals.
AMERCEMENT, or Amerciament, in law, a
pecuniary puniftiment impofed on offenders at the mer¬
cy of the court. It differs from a fine in being im¬
pofed arbitrarily in proportion to the fault; whereas a
fine is a certain puniftiment fettled exprefsly by fome
ftatute.
AMERICA, (from Americas Vefputius, falfely faid
to
A M E [ 289 ] A M E
erica, to be the firft difcoverer of the continent); one of the
~ four quarters of the world, probably the largelt of the
whole, and, from its late difcovery, frequently denomi-
, nated the Nenu World. .
laries. This vaft country is bounded, on the eaft, by the At¬
lantic ocean, which feparates it from Europe and Afri¬
ca ; on the weft, by the Pacific ocean, or great South
fea, by which it is feparated from Afia. On the fouth,
it is bounded by the Frozeq ocean. But its boundaries
towards the north have never been afcertained; nor is
it known whether the northern parts of America jpin to
thofe of Europe and Afia or not. As far as it is known,
America extends from Lat. 8o° N. to 56° S. and from
350 to 136° Long. W. from London; its length being
between 8000 and 9000 miles, and its gre^teft breadth
i 3690-
1 and America is by no means of equal breadth through-
conti- out its whole extent; but is divided into two great con¬
tinents, called North and South America, by an Ifthmus
1500 miles long, and which at Darien, about Lat. 90 N.
is only 60 miles over. This ifthmus forms, with the.
northern and fouthern continents, a vaft gulph, in which
lie a great number of iflands, called the Wejl Indies, in
contradiftinftion to the eaftern parts of Afia, which are
3 called the Eaft Indies.
jemarkable Between the New Work! and the Old, there are fe-
revalence Veral very ftriking differences; but the moft remarkable
rn ' is the general predominance of cold throughout the
whole extent of America. Though we cannot, in any
country, determine theprecife degree of heat, merely by
the diftance from the equator; becaufe the elevation a-
bove the fea, the nature of the foil, &c. affedt the cli¬
mate ; yet, in the ancient continent, the heat is much
more in proportion to the vicinity to the equator, than
in any part of America. Here the rigour of the frigid
zone extends over half that which Humid be temperate by
its pofition. Even in thofe latitudes where the winter is
fcarcely felt on the did continent, it reigns with great
feverity in America, tbo’ during a ftiort period. Nor
does this cold, prevalent in the New world, confine it-
felfto the temperate zones; but extends its influence to
the torrid zone alfo, confiderably mitigating the excefs
of its heat.—Along the eaftern coaft, the climate, tho’
more fimilar to that of the torrid zone in other parts of
the earth, is neverthelefs confiderably milder than in
thofe countries of Afia and Africa which lie in the fame
latitude. From the fouthern tropic, to the extremity
of the American continent, the cold is faid to be much
greater than in parallel northern latitudes even of Ame¬
rica itfelf.
For this fo remarkable difference between the climate
of the New continent and the Old, various caufes have
^ been afiigned by different authors. The following is
br Robert- the opinion of the learned Dr Robertfon on this fub-
•on’sreafonsjedt. “ Though the utmoft extent of America to-
B- l' de^U" war(k t^1€ north be not yet difcovered, we know that
|ree°of cold ** advances nearer to the pole than either Europe or
Mftory of Afia. The latter have large feas to the north, which
'4mer. vol. I. are open during part of the year; and, even when co-
jf. tjj. vered with ice, the wind that blows over them is lefs
intenfely cold than that which blows over land in the
fame latitudes. But, in America, the land ftretches
from the river St Lawrence towards the pole, and fpreads
out immenfely to the weft. A chain of enormous moun¬
tains, covered with fnow and ice, runs through all this
dreary region. The wind palling over fuch an extent
of high and frozen land, becomes fo impregnated with
cold, that it acquires a piercing keennefs, which it re¬
tains in its progrefs through warmer climates ; and is
not entirely mitigated until it reach the Gulph of Mex¬
ico. Over all the continent of North America, a north-,
wefterly wind and exceffive cold, are fynonimous terms.
Even in the moft fultry weather, the moment that the
wind veers to that quarter, its penetrating influence is
felt in a tranfition from heat to cold, no lefs violent
than hidden. To this powerful caufe we may afcribe
the extraordinary dominion of cold, and its violent in¬
roads into the fouthern provinces in that part of the
globe.
“ Other caufes, no lefs remarkable, diminilh the ac¬
tive power of heat in thofe parts of the American con¬
tinent which lie between the tropics. In all that por¬
tion of- the globe, the wind blows in an invariable di-
recxion from eaft to weft. As this wind holds its courfe
acrofs the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries
which ftretch along the weftern fnore of Africa, infla¬
med with all the fiery particles which it hath collected
from the fultry plains of Afia, and the burning fands in
the .African defarts. The coaft of Africa is, accord¬
ingly, the region of the earth which feels the moft fer¬
vent heat, and is expofed to the unmitigated ardour of
the torrid zone. But this fame wind, which brings fuch
an acceffion of warmth to the countries lying between
the river of Senegal and Cafraria, traverfes the Atlantic
ocean before it reaches tl* American (hore. It is cool¬
ed in its paffage over this vaft body of water; and is felt
as a refrefhing gale along the coafts of Bralil and Gui¬
ana, rendering thofe countries, tho’ amongft the warm-
eft in America, temperate, when compared with thofe
which lie oppolite to them in Africa. As this wind ad¬
vances in its courfe acrofs America, it meets with im-
menfe plains, covered with impenetrable forefts; or oc¬
cupied by large rivers, marfiies, and ftagnating waters,,
where it can recover no confiderable degree of heat. At
length it arrives at the Andes, which run from north to
fouth thro’ the whole continent. In pafiir.g over their
elevated and frozen fummits, it is fo thoroughly cool¬
ed, that the greater part of the countries beyond them
hardly feel the ardour to which they 'feem expofed by
their fituation. In the other provinces of America,
from Terra Firma weftward, to the Mexican empire,
the heat of the climate is tempered, in fome places, by
the elevation of the land above the fea; in others, by
their extraordinary humidity; and in all, by the enor¬
mous mountains fcattered over this trad. The iflands
of America in the torrid zone are either fmall or mou*n-
tainous, and are fanned alternately by refrefhing fea
and land breezes.
“ The caufes of the extraordinary cold towards the
fouthern limits of America, and in the feas beyond it,
cannot be afcertained in a manner equally fatisfying.
It was long fuppofed, that a vaft continent, diftinguifii-
ed by the name of Terra Aujlralis Incognita, lay be¬
tween- the fouthern extremity of America and the ant-
ardic pole. The fame principles which account for
the extraordinary degree of cold in the northern regi¬
ons of America, were employed in order to explain that
which is felt at Cape Horn and the adjacent countries.
The immenfe extent of the fouthern continent, and the
rivers which it poured into the ocean, were mentioned
' and
America.
A M E [ 290 ] A M E
America, and admitted by philofophers as caufes fufScient to oc-
cafion the unufual fenfation of cold, and the ftill more
uncommon appearances of frozen feas in that region of
the globe. But the imaginary continent to which fuch
influence was afcribed having been fearched for in vain,
and the fpace which it was fuppofed to occupy having
been found to be an open fea; new conje£tures muft be
formed with refpeft to the caufes of a temperature of
climate, fo extremely different from that which we ex¬
perience in countries removed at the fame diftance from
the oppofite pole.
wfrxxxt*1' “ r^e mo^ °^v*ous and probable caufe of this fu-
x ' perior degree of cold, towards the fouthern extremity
of America, feems to be the form of the continent
there. Its breadth gradually decreafes as it ftretches
from St Antonio fouthwards, and from the bay of St
Julian to the ftraits of Magellan its dimenfions are much
contra&ed. On the eail and weft fides, it is waflied
by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. From its fouth¬
ern point, it is probable, that an open fea ftretches to
the antar&ic pole. In which ever of thefe diredtions
the wind blows, it is cooled before it approaches the
Magellanic regions, by paffing over a vaft body of wa¬
ter; nor is the land there of fuch extent, that it can
recover any confiderable degree of .heat in its progrefs
over it. Thefe circumftances concur in rendering the
temperature of the air in this diftridl of America, more
fimilar to that of an infular, than to that of a continen¬
tal climate; and hinder it from acquiring the fame de¬
gree of fummer-heat, with pkces in Europe and Afia,
in a correfponding northern latitude. The north wind
is the only one that reaches this part of America, after
blowing over a great continent. But, from an atten¬
tive furvey of its poiition, this will be found to have a
tendency rather to diminilh than augment the degree
of heat. The fouthern extremity of America, is pro¬
perly the termination of the immenfe ridge of the An¬
des, which ftretches nearly in a diredt line from north
to fouth, through the whole extent of the continent.
The moft fultry regions in South America, Guiana,
Brafil, Paraguay, and Tucuman, lie many degrees to
the eaft of the Magellanic regions. The level country
of Peru, which enjoys the tropical heats, is fituated con-
fiderably to the weft of them. The north wind, then,
though it blows over land, does not bring to the fouth¬
ern extremity of America an increafe of heat colledted
in its paffage over torrid regions; but, before it arrives
there, it muft have fwept along the fummit of the An¬
des, and come impregnated with the cold of that fro-
s zen region.”
Thefe rea- Was the fouthern part of America only moderately
tons infuffi- cool, no doubt the above reafons would be entirely fa-
cient. tisfadtory; but it muft be remembered, that the cold
at the fouthern extremity of America is not only much
greater than in thofe parts of Europe or Afia lying un¬
der equal parallels of north latitude, but even the places
in North America itfelf which lie in the fame latitudes.
We muft even obferve, with all due deference to the abili-
tiesof our learned and eloquenthiftorian, that the reafons
he gives, as a philofopher, for the extreme cold in North
and South America, contain a diredlcontradidtion,.—The
wind which blows over frozen land, he tells us, p. 253.
is colder than that which blows over frozen fea. This
of itfelf is fomewhat problematical; however, we ftiall
accept of it without difpute. North America, then, is
colder than Europe or Afia, becaufe the continent is America,;
larger than the northern parts of Europe and Afia put ~"-
together. This hath never been proved, and is not far
from being incredible; but ftill we ftiall not difpute.
North America is exceffively cold becaufe it is a large
continent; but why is South America ftill colder?—Be¬
caufe it is a frnall one. 6
We are now led into a difculfion of the philofophi- Difcuffion i
cal queftion concerning the reafon why cold predomi- the que*
nates more in large continents than in iflands; and if we ftion. wliy ?
determine this queftion in the common way, namely, ^ colder 1
that the vicinity of the fea keeps the cold from becoming than iflandst
fo violent in the latter as in the former, it is plain, we
ftiall then run into the fame difficulty wEich we have juft
now obferved Dr Robertfon unfuccefsfully endeavour-
ing to folve. It will be proper, however, before enter¬
ing upon either of thefe queftions, to confider the ge¬
neral caufes by which different degrees of heat are pro¬
duced in different parts of the world ; and then to ex¬
amine the ftate of fafts with regard to the different de¬
grees of cold in North and South America.
Though the fun is the prime agent in nature by
which every degree of fenfible heat is produced, and to
the prefence or abfence of his rays heat and cold are
to be ultimately afcribed ; yet fo many circumftances
concur in augmenting or diminifhing the effedt of his
light, that fome philofophers have not fcrupled to af-
fert, that this luminary does not produce heat, but only
regulate that which is produced from other' caufes *. * See HeatM
The determination of this queftion we reckon to be
of no importance at prefent; for if the fun produces heat,
why does he not produce it equally in countries equally
expofed to his action ? If he only regulates it, why does
he not regulate the heat equally in fimilar parallels of
northern or fouthern latitude ? Whether, therefore, we
allow the fun to be the original fountain, or only the
regulator of heat, we muft own that there are certain
circumftances peculiar to different.countries, which tend
very much to fuperfede his aftion. 7 l|
It is certain;- that there are fome kinds of bodies of Some bodies
fuch a nature, that, though they are expofed to equal morefufcep-j
degrees of heat, one of them will become much hotter t?ble 0f.heat!
to the touch than the other, in the fame time. All an ° er 1
folid bodies will become hot much fooner than water,
and will be alfo fooner fufceptible of a violent degree of
cold. Earth is therefore always difpofed to be fooner
affedled than water by the influence of the fun’s rays;
and confequently to become much hotter in fummer, as
well as more violently cold in winter, than that element.
The great quantity of moifture with which the earth
is always impregnated, can be no objedlion to the truth
of this obfervation: for it is certain, that moift earth
will be affefted by froft much fooner than an equal fur-
face of water; and it is a well known fad, that water
can by no means be made to evaporate by heat fo faft as
when it is mixed with earth, or fome other folid fub-
ftance in powder, fo as to form a kind of pafte; pro¬
vided that pafte is not fuffered to harden in fuch a man¬
ner as to detain the aqueous moifture in the middle of it.
This Angle principle, therefore, namely, that water
is lefs fufceptible of heat than earth, wall in a great 8
meafure determine what muft be thi difference of cli- The fum-
mate between a large trait of land, and an equal one mer neceffa-
of fea.—Infummer, the land, being expofed to the fun’s very b<>t
rays ailing more powerfully than at other times, muft ■
neceffarily
A M E
[ 291 ]
A M E
9
Spol on
li|n the 0-
,||fan, cool.
neceffarlly acquire a great degree of heat, as long as
their operation continues with much force. But as fo¬
il'd bodies are apt to part readily with their heat, the
fuperfluous quantity will be daily difcharged into the
atmofphere; and the earth will have loft fo much heat
during the night, as will enable it to receive a frefh
quantity next day without injury to plants or animals.
In confequence of this, the air will gradually come to
be very hot; and if there was not fome caufe whereby
this continual increafe of heat is limited, it might cer¬
tainly become intolerable.
e Where there is a vaft tra6l of fea, the cafe muft be
widely different. Water is an element in itfelf not fo
eafily heated as earth. By reafon of its fluidity, alfo,
the heat will penetrate deeper into it than into the
earth; hence, in the courfe of one fummer, equal trails
of land and fea will be very unequally heated. The
warmth of the latter will be much lefs, but it will ex¬
tend much deeper, and will be more durable ; and ha¬
ving lefs heat to communicate to the atmofphere than
earth, the climate, even in fummer, muft be much
colder than on an equal trail of land.—On the approach
of winter, the atmofphere is firft cooled by reafon of
its wanting the ufual influence of the fun’s rays. The
furface of the earth then communicates part of its heat
to the air, which abforbs it with avidity; but, as the
heat could not penetrate far into the earth, neither can
the cold, and confequently the dry land is expofed to
the ailion of heat or cold only for a fmall fpace down¬
wards.—In water, the cafe is different: that element
conliderable degree to the atmofphere. America.
From what we have juft now faid, it muft be eafy to ’ *
difcover, what will be the difference between the cor- Conclufion
refponding feafons on fea and on land.—On fea, where
there is much ice, the heat of the fummer is in a man¬
ner totally abforbed in a latent ftate*, fo as fcarcely to * s.ee Co,1ge~
be perceived. In winter, the extreme cold is moderated latt<>n‘
by the emiffion of the latent heat formerly abforbed on
the melting of the ice, but now again difcharged on
its fecond freezing. The whole year, therefore, on a
large tradl of fea, will be in a manner one continued
winter. On a continent, as the land does not abforb
much heat, the greateft part will be reverberated into
the atmofphere, fo that the fummer muft be extremely
hot; and, in winter, as the ground has not abforbed
much heat, fo it can communicate little to moderate
the cold, which, of confequence, will be exceflive.—
We may conclude, therefore, that, in a large continent,
the winter will be exceflively cold, and the fummer ex-
ceffively hot; but, on the Ocean, or in iflands at a con-
fiderable diftance from the continent, the fummer will
neither be fo hot nor the winter fo cold as in the cor-
refponding places on the continent; and if the heat of
fummer is not fufficient to thaw the ice collefled during
the winter, there muft be afterwards a perpetual ab-
fence of fummer without any violent degree of winter. »3
What we have here advanced is fupported by the
teftimonies of all refpeftable authors who have treated monies cf'
of the different degrees of heat found in different parts different au-
of the world.—In Lapland, the moft northerly part of thors.
See Cold,
id %ngelafion,
> bd Evapo-
ill on.
becomes fpecincally heavier by cold: in confequence the continent of Europe, the winters are fo fevere, that
r  /L r r— r —1-J   it is not unufual for people’s lips to be frozen to the
cup while they are attempting to drink, the limbs of
the inhabitants very often mortify with cold, and the
ground is covered with fnow to the depth of feveral
feet; but, in fummer, the heat is exceflive for a fhort
time. The heats of fummer in Norway,, alfo, are very
great,’ according to. the biftiop of Pontopiddan’s ac¬
count. The fame thing is likewife-related of Sweden,,
where, though the winter is extremely fevere, the fum-
mer’s heat is faid to be fo great as fometimes to fet fo-
refts on fire;, but this is undoubtedly an exaggeration.
Certain it is, however, that in thefe. northern coun¬
tries, where the fummer is very fhort; it muft be pro¬
portionally hotter than in this country, otherwife no
kind of grain could be brought to perfection. In Si¬
beria,. the winter cold is exceffive beyond what in this
Country we can have any notion of: and it may be well
fuppofed to be fo; as being environed by land on all
fides except the north, where it is probably bounded
by the. frozen ocean. According to fome obfervations
communicated to the Royal Academy of Sciences by
of which, its uppermoft furface is no fooner cooled, ever
fo little beyond that which lies immediately below, than
it finks down, and prefents a new furface to the aftion
of the air ; and, it is plain, that this muft be re¬
peated, till the whole body of water is reduced to the
fame temperature. In the inftant of freezing, water
difcharges a great quantity of heat, as has been ob-
fervedby Dr Black and others *. This affords a new
fupply to the atmofphere; fo that all the time water is
freezing, the cold of the atmofphere will be confide-
rably moderated by the heat difcharged from the new¬
ly formed ice. When the ice is once formed, indeed,
the atmofphere ftill continues to aft upon it, and to
cool it ftill more ; but as it is now a folid body, this
aftion will be confined to its. furface, the under parts,
remaining pretty much inaftive either as to the pro-
duftion of heat or cold beyond the freezing point.
On the return of fummer, the ice, which has been
formed during the winter, will require as much heat
merely to melt it, as would be fufficient to heat a folid
body of an equal bulk almoft to 1750 of Fahrenheit,
« ■ See Conge- as Dr Black’s experiments have undeniably proved f ; M. de Lifle of Peterfburg, the mercury in Fahrenheit’s
and tho’ the fnow and ice on land, will require the fame
degree of heat to melt them , as on fea, yet their quan¬
tity at land muft always be much lefs than at fea, be-
eaufe of the final! quantity of water on the land.—
When the fnow, with which the ground was covered;
is totally melted, the fun has then liberty to aft upon
the ground itfelf, and will heat it accordingly. Thus,
on account of the much greater quantity of ice on
fea than on land, a great part of the fummer will be
fpent before the water can be reduced to a temperature
thermometer, in the ymiter 1737, fell to 1 r8° below o;
and this at Kirenga,. a place lying only in N. Lat. 58°
IQ’, fcarce fo far to the northward as the (hire of Caith-
nefs in.Scotland. Yet even in Siberia, much farther
north, within the arftic circle itfelf, we find feveral
towns marked on our maps ; and were not fuch excef¬
five cold balanced in fome degree by a warm fummer,
it is utterly impoflible that human creatures could fup-
port the climate. At Peterftmrg, lying in Lat. 6o°,
the cold was lately fo intenfe, as to fink the thermome-
barely above the freezing point; while the land will ter 40° below o, when the remarkable experiment con- * See
have received as much' heat as to communicate a very cerning the freezing of quickfilver was tried * : hut even laikn.
this.
A M E [ 292 ]~ A M E
America, this extreme cold was far fhort of that juft now menti-
. one(j at ]^irenga . probably owing to the latter being
more to the eaftward, and farther in the continent, than
Peterlburg. The cold at Kirenga was only 22° below
what is fufficient to freeze quickfilver, as Dr Black hath
rendered very probable ; and in fome places of Siberia,
lying near the polar circle, it is not improbable that
mercury might freeze naturally without the help of ar-
I4 tificial cold.
NorthAme- Though the climate of North America certainly ap-
rican win- pears colder to thofe who have vifited it, than the cor-
refponding places of Europe, yet we have no proof
of AffV ° * that the colds in that part of the world are abfolutely
fuperior to thofe on the eaftern continent; indeed we
cannot well fuppofe any degree of cold fuperior to what
we have already mentioned. At Albany-fort, on
Hudfon’s-bay, fituated in Lat. 530. 20'. N. the ther¬
mometer in winter 1775 ftood at 28° below o. This
was certainly very great, but far inferior to the above-
mentioned Siberian cold in Lat. 58° 10'; and it can¬
not be thought, that the fmall difference in latitude
would occafion fuch an enormous difference in the de¬
gree of cold.
In a ftrift fenfe, then, we muft allow the climate of
North America to be warmer than that of the ealtern
continent; for no experiments made with the thermo¬
meter have hitherto ftiewn fuch a degree of cold to exift
in North America as in Alia. It is colder, however,
in this refpett, that the winter is, as it were, mixed
with the fummer; and this undoubtedly is owing to
the continent being fmaller, not larger as Dr Robert-
fon afferts, than Europe and Afia put together. It
is certain, that where any country is fo iituated that
great part of it is covered with fnow throughout the
whole year, thofe places which lie near the fnowy re¬
gions will be fenfible of winter even in the midft of fum¬
mer. From the principles already laid down, if the
fummer heat is infufficient to melt the fnow, the air will
continue almoft as cold in fummer as in winter, becaufe
whatever quantity of heat is fent forth by the fun, it is
all abforbed and in a latent ftate. Here we cannot
help remarking, that, notwithftanding the learned Doc¬
tor’s affertion, it is utterly impofiible that a traft of land
covered with fnow, and a traeft of fea covered with fnow,
can affeft the temperature of the atmofphere differently.
The reafon is plain; becaufe it is only the fnow or ice,
and neither the land below it nor the fea below it, that
affefts the atmofphere. The vicinity of a tratt of land
covered with fnow, or a tract of fea covered with fnow,
muft therefore prodigioufly affed the fummer of coun¬
tries adjacent to them, and will undoubtedly produce
chilling blafts as often as the wind blows from that
quarter; and this jis the.cafe with North America, as
already mentioned.
The reafon why fuch large trads in North America
are conftantly covered with fnow, is probably the pro¬
digious number and fize of its mountains, greatly ex¬
ceeding what are to be found on the eaftern continent.
The tops of high mountains are always exceflively cold,
even in the warmeft regions; and they neceffarily keep
off the warmth of the fun in fummer from large trads
of ground. For this reafon, they naturally produce
cold fummers; but they alfo afford fhelter to the trees
and other vegetables in winter; fo that wood is found
in America much farther north than in Afia. This,
which is a very ftrong proof of the greater cold of the America.
Afiatic winters than the North American, will appear ^
from the following account * of the climate of North * Dumc-
America, contrafted with that of the eaftern coaft o£ refque's trauf.
Afia. _ Kralfni-
“ The American land is in a much better ftate, with coff'/account
regard to climate, than the farthermoft eaftern part of ofKamtcbat-
Alia, though it lies near the fea, and has every where ka-
high mountains, fome of which are covered with per- rj
petual fnows ; for that country, when its qualities are ^T°rthAme-
compared with thofe of Afia, has by far the advan- ^7^//
tage. ■ The mountains of that part of Afia are every trailed with1
where ruinous and cleft; from whence they have, long that of Afia,
fince, loft their confiftency, and likewife their inward
warmth; upon which account, thfey have no good metal
of any kind; no wood nor herbs grow there, except in
the valleys, where is feen fmall brufti-wood and ftiff
herbs. On the contrary, the mountains of America are
firm, and covered on the furface, not with mofs, but
with fruitful earth or mold ; and therefore, from the
foot to the very top, they are decked with thick and
very fine trees. At the foot of them, grow herbs pro¬
per to dry places, and not to marfhy ones; befides that,
for the moil; part, thofe plants are of the fame largenefs
and appearance both on the lower grounds and on the
very tops of the mountains, by reafon that there is e-
very where the fame inward heat and moifture. But, in
Afia, there is fo great a difference between them, that
of one kind of plants growing there, one would be apt
to make feveral kinds, if one did not obferve a rule,
which holds generally with regard to thofe places, v/z.
That, in lower grounds, herbs grow twice as large as
on the mountains.
“ In America, even the fea-fhotes, at 6o° latitude,
are woody ; but in Kamtchatka, at 510 lat. no place
fet with fmall willows and alder trees is found nearer
than. 20 verftes from the fea: plantations or woods of
birch-trees are, for the moft part, at the diftance of 30
verftes; and with regard to pitch-trees, on the river
Kamchatka, they are at the diftance of 50 verftes, or
more, from its mouth. At 62°, there is no wood at
Kamtchatka.
“ In Steller’s opinion, from the aforementioned la¬
titude of America, the land extends as far as 70°, and
farther; and the chief caufe of the aforefaid growth
of woods in that country, is the cover and fhelter it has
from the weft. On the other hand, the want of wood
on the Kamtchadalian fhores, efpecially on the fhore of
the Penfhinian fea, doubtlefs comes from a fharp north
wind, to which it is much expofed. That thofe parts
which lie from the Lopatka, farther to the north, are
more woody and fruitful, is owing to cape Tchukotlki,
and the land that has been obferved over againft it, by
which thofe parts are fheltered from the fharp winds.
“ For this reafon, alfo, fifh come up the rivers of A-
merica earlier than thofe of Kamtchatka. The 20th of
July, there has been obferved a great plenty of fifh in
thofe rivers; whilft at Kamtchatka, it is then but the
beginning of an abundant fifhery.”
In the fouthern hemifphere the water bears a much
larger proportion to the land than in the northern. From
the chart prefixed to Mr Forfter’s account of Cap' Cook’s
voyages in 1772, 1773, I774> anci I775> it appears,
that the whole fpace contained between the fouth pole,
and 3oq of lat. all round the globe, is entirely occu¬
pied
3 Iferpetual
ic fou them
Uimates.
A M E
rtf/,America, pied by the ocean, except a fmall part of South America,
a ftili fmaller part of Africa, the iflands of New Zealand,
and a very inconfiderabk portion of New Holland.
Here, according to what we have advanced, a perpe¬
tual winter ought to take place ; and for a great part
of the fpace it adlually does fo. In 1766, 061. 30th,
Commodore Byron, while in lat. 35. 50 S. found fhe:
weather as cold as in the fame month in England. In
1766, Nov. 12. Captain Wallis found it very cold in
Lat. 30° S. though the month of November in that cli¬
mate corre^sonds to that of May with us.—-In 1769,
January 3. Captain Cook’s people complained of cold
in lati 47. 17. S. and were cloathed in their winter-
garments; though this was the month which corre-
fponds to July with us, and confequently the warmefl
in the whole year: nay, on the 16th of this month,
Dr Banks and Dr Solander having gone aihore on
Tierra del Fuego, lying in a fouth latitude correfpond-
ing to that of England, they were overtaken by a vio¬
lent ftorm of fnow, and the cold was fo exceffive as to
kill two of their attendants. In 1770, March 18th,
correfponding to the fame day of September with us,
the whole country of New-Zealand, in lat. 43. 4. S.
was covered with fnow. In November 1772, Captain
Cook’s people put on their winter-drefs in lat. 420 S.
and on December 5th, correfponding to the fame day
of June in this country, the thermometer funk to 38°
during the night; and fome fnow fell next morning.
Five days after, having advanced as far as lat. 49. 45.
S. the thermometer funk to 320, and ffelh water began .
to freeze aboard their fhip. The next morning, they
fell in with ice floating on the fea. Proceeding ftili to
the fouthward, they were flopped in lat. 67, 15. S.
by field ice, fuch as is met with in the high northern
latitudes, only much thicker.
When they had once fallen in with the ice, it does
not appear that the cold had greatly increafed: for
though they afterwards proceeded as far as 710 10'. S.
the weather was far from being intolerable; for at that
latitude, on January 30th 1774, the thermometer flood
only at 3 2°.
We fhall conclude this fubjeft with fome obfervations
made by Mr Forfter, on the climate of different places
in the fouthern hemifphere. The following is an ac-
ii 'Climate of count of the climate of New Zealand in Novr. 1773.—
I Kew Zea- « Scarce a day paffed without heavy fqualls of wind,
II and' which hunied down with redoubled velocity from the
mountains; and ftrongfhowers of rain, which retarded
all our occupations. The air commonly was cold and
raw, vegetation made flow advances, and the birds were
only found in the valleys flickered from the chilling
fouthern blaft. This kind of weather, in all likelihood,
prevails throughout the winter ; and likewife, far into
the middle of fummer, without a much greater degree
of cold in the former, or of warmth in the latter feafon.
[ 293 ]
A M
E
make the climate
able difference of fite, will naturally n
infinitely milder than that of Falkland’s Iflands, but
cannot affefl: the general hypothefis concerning the tem¬
perature of all iflands; and the immenfe height of the
mountains in New Zealand, fome of which are covered
with fnow throughout the year, doubtlefs contributes
to refrigerate the air, fo as to aflimilate it to that of the
Falkland’s Ifles, which are not fo high.”
Tierra del Fuego, the fouthem extremity of Ame-^'5ena
rica, is thus defcribed. “ On the 2d of December 1774,
after a fliort calm, we had a frertr breeze, which con¬
tinued to blow without intermiffion, but with different
degrees of velocity, till the 18th, when we made the
land, a little after midnight, near Cape Defeado, on one
of the weftermoft iflands of Tierra del Fuego. The
part of the world which was now in fight, had a very
unfavourable afpe6t. About 3 o’clock in the morning,
we ran along it, and found it for the greateft part hid
in a thick haze. The parts near us feemed to be fmali
iflands, which, though not very high, were, however,
very black, and almoft entirely barren. Beyond them
we faw fome broken high lands, which were covered,
with fnow, almoft to the water’s edge.—In the after¬
noon, we paffed the ifland upon which cape Noir is fi-
tuated, mentioned by M. Frezier.—We found many
feparate iflands, from the place where we made the
coaft, to Cape Noir; and fhould perhaps have feen many
more, if the weather had not been very hazy.
“ We found the land to all appearance much more
compaft after palling Cape Noir; and the next morn¬
ing, December 19th, in particular, the coaft feemed to
be entirely conne61:ed ; the mountains rofe to- a much
greater height, immediately from the fea-frde, and were
covered with fnow in every part. The wind gradually
leffened, and towards noon we were entirely becalmed,
having the fineft funftiine and mild weather.—It was
very amufing to us to meet with mild weather in the
neighbourhood of that tempeftuous cape, of which the
name alone has affrighted the mariners ever fince Lord
Anfon’s voyage. The deftrudfion of vulgar prejudices
is of fo much fervice to fcience, and to mankind in ge¬
neral, that it cannot fail of giving pleafure to every one
fenfible of its benefits. We had this day the thermo¬
meter at 48°; which, confidering the neighbourhood
of the huge heaps of fnow on Ihore, was very mode¬
rate. This part of the world has been called the Coaft
of Deflation by the navigators who firft vifited it,
and feems fully to deferve the appellation. Here we
difcovered nothing but vaft mountains, of which the
fpiry fummits were every where covered with eternal
fnow. Along the fea, the neareft rocks were clear of
fnow; but black, and deftitute of graffes and ftirubbe-
ry. Some inlets appeared in different parts, where a
few iflands feemed to have a covering of green. We
flood in to one of thefe in the evening, having obtained ,
Iflands far from any continent, or at leaft not fituated an eafterly breeze. A huge perpendicular wall of rock
near a cold one, feem in general to have an uniform
temperature of air; owing, perhaps, to the ocean which
every where furrounds them. It appears from the me¬
teorological journals kept at Port Egmont, on the Falk¬
land Iflands; that the extremes of the greateft cold and
the greateft heat obferved there throughout the year,
do not exceed 30° on Fahrenheit’s fcale. The latitude
of that port is 51. 25. S. and that of Ship-cove, in
Queen Charlotte’s found, only 41. 5. This confider-
Vol. i.
formed its weftern entrance, and Captain Cook called it
the York Minfter; having difcovered a ftrong refem-
blance between that Gothic building, and this dreary
chaotic rock. It lies in 55. 30. S. and 70. 28. W.
Along the coaft we found regular foundings.; but, in
the mouth of the inlet, we could not reach the bottom
with 150 fathom of line. This circumftance had al¬
ready happened to us before, at Dufley Bay (New-Zea¬
land) ; but, as we faw a very fpacious found before us,
O o we
A M E [ 294 ] A M E
America. ■we ventured to ftand on, amidft different rude iflands;
on which the fummitsdf the hills were fometimes capped
with ftiow.—After being much retarded by calms, we
arrived about 9 o’clock in a fmall cove, indifferently
Iheltered either from wind or fea, but a welcome place
of refuge on account of the approach of night.
“ The next morning Captain Cook, &c. went in a
boat in queft of a more fafe and convenient anchorage.
We only rowed round a Angle point of the ifland under
which our (hip lay, and immediately found a fine cove
Iheltered from all winds, and perfectly land-locked,
with a little rill of water, and a fhrubbery. The weather
was mild, confidering the climate ; and feveral birds were
heard on Ihore. We found many little clefts, which
cannot properly be called valleys, where a few flirubs
of different fpecies fprung up in a thin layer of fwam-
py foil, being defended againff the violence of ftorms,
and expofed to the genial influence of reverberated fun-
beams. The rock, of which the whole ifland confifted,
is a coarfe granite, compofed of feld-fpath, quartz,
and black mica or glimmer. This rock is in molt places
entirely naked, without the fmalleft vegetable particle;
but wherever the rains or melted fnows have waffled
together feme little rubbifb, and other particles in de¬
cay, it is covered with a coating of minute plants, in
growth like moffes, which forming a kind of turf about
an inch or more in thicknefs, very eafily flip away un¬
der the foot, having no firm hold on the rock. In
flickered places, a few other plants thrive among thefe
moffy fpecies, and thefe at laft form a fufficient quan¬
tity of-foil for the nutriment of fhrubs, efpecially in
fuch fpots as I have mentioned before. Barren as
thefe rocks appeared, yet almoft every plant we gather¬
ed on them was new to us ; and fome fpecies were re¬
markable for the beauty of their flowers, or their fmell.
“ Early the next morning, Captain Cook fet out to
take bearings in the found, and we took that opportu¬
nity to examine its natural productions. The found is
very fpacious, and furrounded to the north and eaft
by feveral ranges of high mountains, which feem cover¬
ed with permanent fnow arid ice.—On entering this
found, and taking notice of its dreary defolate ap¬
pearance, we had fuppofed that the natives of Tierra
del Fuego never touch upon this inhofpitable part, but
confine themfelves to the neighbourhood of the ftrait#
of Magalhaens, and to the eaftern fide of Tierra del
Fuego ; but it feems that human nature is capable of
withftanding the greateft inclemencies of weather, and
of fupporting its exiftence alike in the burning fands of
Africa, and in the frozen extremities of the globe.
We landed on feveral other iflands, from whence we
had a moft extenfive profpeft acrofs the found, which
looked wild and horrid in its wintery drefs. This was,
however, the firft fummer month of thefe regions; moft
of the plants we faw were in flower, and the birds were
everywhere bringing up their young. From thence we
may eafily form an adequate idea of the torpid ftate of
thefe regions, where the fun-beams cannot melt the
fnow, at a feafon when their influence is the ftrongeft.
The farther we advanced from the fea, the more fnow
appeared on the mountains. In fome places, we faw
cafcades, and ftreanls, gufliing down over the friow, e-
fpecially where the rays of the fun tookeffedf by being
frequently refle&ed. We found a moft beautiful cove
onthis coaft, which formed a circular bafon,. where the
water was fmooth and tranfparent as a mirror. All the America,
lower parts were fringed with trees, which we had no * '
where feen fo tall in the neighbourhood, and many
ftreams guflied down with great impetuofity between
their roots, making a moft convenient watering place.
A prodigious number of fmall birds fat on every branch,
and twittered around us in the fun-ftiine. They were
of many different fpecies; but, unacquainted with menj-
hopped lb near us,- that it was impoflible to fhoot them,
efpecially as we had no other than coarfe fliot left, and
that in very fmall quantity. Abundance of moffes,
ferns, and climbers, grew up between the trees, and
were no fmall impediment to us in walking. Various
flowers enlivened thefe woods, and increaied our col-
leftion with new fpecies. Here, then, there was the ap¬
pearance of fummer ; but if we looked up to the mon-
ftrous cloud-capt mountains which formed almoft per¬
pendicular walls on all fiftes of the harbour, and beheld
them covered with fnow and ice, which had fometimes
a blue, and fometimes a yellowifti tinge, we thought
ourfelves tranfported to the Glaciers of Switzerland,
where the feafons feem likewife to be loft and confound¬
ed in each other. The height of thefe mountains was
very confiderable, tho’ riot equal to the Alps; and their
fummits were divided into many fliarp and craggy
points, between which the interval was filled with fnow.
We landed here; and walked along the ftiore to another
port, formed by a number of low iflands, which en¬
tirely Iheltered it from all winds.—We were fortunate
enough to meet with an ifland entirely covered with
the fhrubs of a fpecies of arbutus, loaded with red
fruit, of the fize of fmall cherries, which were very
well tafted, and combined an agreeable tartnefs with a
fweet and a bitter flavour. The rocks of the fame
ifland, at the water’s edge, were covered with large
mufcle-fliells, of which we found the fifli more delicious
than oyfters.—To add to our good fortune, we met with
feveral iflands on our return, covered with excellent ce¬
lery, which, tho’much ftnaller than that of New Zea¬
land, was much higher flavoured, its juices being pro¬
bably more concentrated. We loaded our boat with
it, and returned late on board, after being overtaken
by feveral fmart. fhowers. On our return, we found
that the neighbourhood of the fhip was very fenfibly
warmer than the northern parts of the found, where
the air was refrigerated by the abundance of fnow on
the mountains. • Wretched
December 25th. “ During our abfence, fome of the ftate of the
natives, in four fmall canoes, had vifitedthe fhip : they natives of
were deferibed to us as wretched and poor; but inoffen- T‘“rra t!e!
five, and ready to part with their fpears, feal-lkins, and i'uegc’-
the like. We now regretted that we hadloftthe opportu¬
nity of feeing them; but fortunately they returned the
next morning, tho’ the weather was rainy. The four
canoes in which they came were made of the bark of
trees, which could hardly have grown in this found, on;
account of‘ their fize. Several fmall flicks are the ribs
which diftend this bark, and another flick forms the
gunwale, over which' they have wrapped the extremity
of the bark and fewed it on. A few ftones, with a
firiall quantity of earth, are laid in the bottom of each,
canoe, and on this the natives keep a conftant fire-
Their paddles are fmall, and rudely formed, and they
work very flowly with them. Each canoe contained:
from five to eight perfons, including children, who,.
con-
A M E
[ 295 ]
A M E
contrary to the cuftom of all the Rations in the fouth
“ fea, were very filent in their approach to the fhip, and
when aboard hardly pronounced any other word than
Pejjeray, Thofe whom M. Bougainville faw in the
ftrait of Magalhaens, not far from hence, ufed the fame
word, from whence he gave them the general name of
Pecherais. We beckoned to them to come into the
fhip; and fome accepted the invitation, tho’ without
the leaft fign of being pleafed, and feemingly without
the fmalleft degree of curiofity. Their perfons were
indifference, and ina&ivity.”
From this defcription of the country and inhabitants ~
ofTierra del Fuego, we might reafonably enough con¬
clude that no fpot on earth can be in a more wretched
ftate, unlefs it lies much nearer the fouth-pole : but bad
as this country is, it appears to profit confiderably by
the neighbourhood of the continent of South America;
for fmall iflands lying at a great diflance from the con¬
tinent, and nearly in the fame latitude with Tierra tie!
Fuego, are in a much worfe ftate; as evidently appears
fhort, not exceeding five feet fix inches at moft, their from the defcription given by our author of South
heads large, the face broad, the cheek-bones very pro- Georgia, and the fouthern Thule.
minent, and the nofe very flat. They had little brown
eyes without life. ; their hair was black and lank, hang¬
ing about their heads in diforder, and befmeared with
train-oil. On the chin they had a few ftraggling fhort
hairs inftead of a beard, and from their note there was
1774, January 16th.—“ We had very cold weather south Geor-
all this time, the thermometer being at 34J-, and great gia defcri-
falls of fnow covering our decks. This morning we bed.
had fight of the land again, and found its mountains
of a vaft height, covered with loads of fnow and ice.
a conftant difcharge of mucus into their ugly open in moft places down to the water’s edge. The only parts
mouth. The whole affemblage of their features form¬
ed the moft loathfome pitture of mifery and wretched-
nefs to which human nature can poffibly be reduced.—
The fhoulders and cheft were broad and bony ; but the
reft of the figure was fo lean and fhrivelled, that to
have feen it feparate, we could not have believed that it
belonged to the fame perfon. Their legs were lean and
which were clear of fnow were a few black and barren
cliffs, and particularly fome huge hollow rocks, that
 o’er their wave-worn bafis bowed. Shakespeare.
“ Towards the fouth end of this land we faw feveral
low iflands, like the New-year’s iflands, which appeared
to have fome verdure upon them, and were therefore
called the Green Iflands. As it had been the main ob-
bowed, and their knees difproportionaliy large. They je<ft of our voyage to explore the high fouthern lati-
had no other cloathing than a fmall piece of old feal- tudes, my father fuggefted to Captain Cook, that it
fkin, which hung from their fhoulders to the middle of  1J 1 '  1 * ''
the back, being faftened round the neck with a firing.
The reft of their body was perfe&ly naked, not the
leaft regard being paid to what Europeans would term
decency. Their natural colour appeared to be an olive-
would be proper to name this land after the monarch
who had fet on foot our expedition, folely for the im¬
provement of fcience, and whofe name ought therefore
to be celebrated in both hemifpheres.—It was accor¬
dingly honoured with the name of Southern Georgia,
brown, with a kind of glofs, which has really fome which will give it importance, and continue to fpread a
refemblance to that of copper ; but many of them had luftre over it, which it cannot derive from its barrennefs
difguifed themfelves with ftreaks of red paint, and and dreary appearance.
fometimes, tho’ feldom, with white.—The women were
nearly formed as the men, though fomewhat lefs in fta-
ture ; their features were not lefs uncouth and ugly,
apd their drefs exaftly the fame. They had only add¬
ed a fmall piece of feal-fkin, not fo large as the palm
of the hand, which hung down before, fixed to a firing
wliich was tied about the waift. Round their necks
they wore leather firings, on which they had hung a
number of fhells ; and on their heads they had a kind
In the afternoon we faw two rocky iflands at the
north end of Georgia, which lay about a league afun-
der, and were of a dull black colour. We fleered to¬
wards them, and about five o’clock paffed in the middle
between them. The northernmoft was a craggy cliff,
nearly perpendicular, which contained the nefts of
many thoufand fhags, and was named Willis's Ifland;
it is fituated in 54° S. and 38. 25. W. The fouthern-
moft Hoped gradually to the weftward, being covered
of bonnet, confifting of a few white quill-feathers of on that fide with fome grafs, and with innumerable
c ’ ■ ’ •’ ^ 11 1 J -- ^ flocks of birds of all forts, from the largeft albatroffes
down to the leaft petrels; for which reafon, it was named
Bird Ifland. Great numbers of fhags, penguins, di¬
vers, and other birds, played about, and fettled in the
water around us, this cold climate feeming to be per-
_ fe£lly agreeable to them. Several porpeffes were like-
like their mothers, huddled continually about the fire, wife noticed, and many feals, which probably came to
:n each canoe, fhivering continually with cold, and rare- breed on thefe unhofpitable fhores.
geefe, which they occafionally placed upright on the
head, by that means giving them a refemblance to the
French head-dreffes of the laft century. There was
but one fingle perfon among them, who had a fmall
piece of a guanaco’s fkin fewed on his feal-fkin, to
lengthen it. The children were perfedlly naked ; and,
ly uttering any other word than Pefferay, which fome-
! We ran along the north-eaft coaft of the land, till
times founded like a word of endearment, and fome- it was dark, when we brought to, and did not refume
times feemed to be the expreffion of complaint. Thofe our courfe till the next morning at three o’clock. The
of the men who had come on deck, fpoke a few other afpe& of the land was extremely unpromifing ; the
words, which contained many confonants and guttu- mountains were the moft craggy we had ever feen, and
rals, particularly the ll of the Welfh ; and all feemed formed many fharp points, between which the intervals
to lifp very flrongly, which contributed to make them were filled with fnow. We paffed a bay, which, from
wholly unintelligible. . They accepted trifles, fuch as the numbers of low green iflands in it, was named the
beads, without feeming to value them; but, at the fame Bay of Iflands ; and opened another towards which we
time, they alfo gave away their own arms, or even their flood with the fhip, having foundings at the diftance of
ragged feal-fkins, without the leaft concern; their whole two or three miles.—Upon advancing into the furtheft
charafter being the ftrangeft compound of ftupidity, recefs of the bay, we foon obferved a folid mafs of ice,
O o 2 fuck
A M E L 296 ] A M E
America, fuch as is found in the harbours of Spitzbergen (N. Lat.
79. 30.) This mafs of ice bore a great refemblance to
thofe detached iflands of which we faw fuch numbers
floating upon the ocean in the high fouthern latitudes.
The fliores of the bay nearer the fea were clear of
fnow, but exceffively dreary, and almoft perpendicular.
We landed in a fpot which was perfe&ly flieltered from
the fwell, and where the land formed a long projecting
point. Here we faw a number of feals affembled on a
ftony beach; and among them a huge animal, which
■we had taken to be a rock at a diftance, but which
proved to be exaftly the fame animal with Lord An¬
ion’s fea-lion.—The feals which we found here, were
more fierce than any we had feen on the New-year’s Ifles,
and did not run out of our way. The youngeft cubs
barked at us; and ran after our heels when we palled
by them, trying to bite our legs.—We climbed upon
a little hummock, about eight yards high, where we
found two fpecies of plants ; one was the grafs which
grows plentifully on the New-year’s Ifles (daftylis glo-
merata), and the other a kind of burnet (fdnguiforba).
Here Captain Cook difplayed the Britifh flag, and per¬
formed the ceremony of taking pofleflion of thefe bar¬
ren rocks, “ in the name of his Britannic Majefty,
and his heirs for ever.” A volley of two or three muf-
quets was fired into the air, to give greater weight to
this aflertion ; and the barren rocks re-echoed with the
found, to the utter amazement of the feals and pen¬
guins, the inhabitants of thefe newly difcovered domi¬
nions. The rocks confifted of a bluilh grey flate, in
horizontal llrata, of which many fragments every where
covered the beaches. As far as we were able to ex¬
amine them, they contained no other minerals of any
kind ; the whole country being ufelefs, and frightfully
barren, in every refpeCt. During our flay on Ihore, we
faw fome fmall fragments of ice floating out to fea, and
heard the huge maffes in the fartheft part of the bay
crack very loud from time to time. We continued to
coaft the land during the two following days, and dif¬
covered feveral bays and headlands upon it.—The ap-
, pearance of the land was always nearly the fame ; its
mountains towards the fouth were excellively high: and
divided into innumerable ragged points, like the flames
in a raging fire.—On the 19th, we reached the S. E.
extremity of fouthern Georgia, which we now difco¬
vered to be an ifland, between 50 and 60 leagues in
length.
“ It has been fuppofed, that all parts of this globe,
including thofe which are barren and dreary in the
higheft degree, are fit to become the abode of men.
Before we arrived at this ifland of Georgia, we had no¬
thing to oppofe to this opinion, fince even the wintery
fliores of Tierra del Fuego were inhabited by human
Beings, who were ftill one ftep removed from brutes.
But the climate of Tierra del Fuego is mild with re-
fpeft to that of Georgia, the difference in the thermo¬
meter which we obferved being at lead ten degrees.
It has befides the advantage of producing a quantity of
flirubbery and wood fufficient to fupply the wants of
the natives, who are by that means enabled to reft
fheltered from the inclemencies of the air, and to light
fires, which give them warmth, and may ferve to make
their food eatable and wholefome. As New Georgia
is wholly deftitute of wood, and of any other combu-
ftible to ferve as a fuccedanenum, I apprehend it would
be impoflible for any race of men to live upon it, though America,
they fhould, inftead of the ftupidity of the Pefferais, be
poffeffed of the ingenuity of the Europeans. The fum-
mers of this new ifland are rigoroufly cold, the ther¬
mometer having never rifen ten degrees above the free¬
zing point during our ftay on the coaft; and though
we have reafon to fuppofe, that the winters are not
colder in the fame proportion as in our hemifphere, yet
it is probable there will be at leaft a difference of 20 or
30 degrees. This I think is fufficient to kill any men
who may furvive the fummer there, fuppofing them pro¬
vided with no other defence than that which the coun¬
try affords. But South Georgia, befides being uninha¬
bitable, does not appear to contain any fingle article
for which it might be occafionally vifited by European
ftiips. Seals and fea-lions, of which the blubber is ac¬
counted an article of commerce, are much more nume¬
rous on the defart coafts of South America, the Falk¬
land and the New-Year’s iflands, where they may like-
wife be obtained at a much fmaller rifle.”
We can hardly expeft an account of a country where
winter prevails more perfectly than in New Georgia ;
yet even this ifland appears to have been greatly fuperior
to that named the fouthern1 Thule, of which we have
the following account. SI
“ The difeovery of this land happened on the 31st Southern
of January, at feven in the morning, when the weather Thule de-
was fo hazy, that we could not fee four or five miles 'cribe<i.
around us. We ran towards it near an hour, when we
were within half a mile of the rocks, which were black,
cavernous, and perpendicular to a vaft height, inhabited
by flocks of (hags, and beaten by dreadful breakers.
Thick clouds veiled the upper parts of the mountains;
but one immenfe peak appeared towering beyond them,
covered with fnow. It was agreed by all prefent, that
the perpendicular height of this mountain could not
be far fhort of two miles. We founded with 170 fa¬
thom clofe in Ihore; and then put about, ftanding to
the fouth, in order to weather the weftern point, which
we had now difcovered. We had not run above an
hour on this tack, when we faw high mountains to the
S. S. E. about five or fix leagues diftant; which, from
the courfe we had kept, we muft have narrowly efcaped
about midnight. This being the fouthernmoft extre¬
mity of the land, my father named it the Southern
Thule, a name which Captain Cook has preferved. It
is lituated in 59. 30. S. and 27. 30. W.—Captain
Cook, however, did not venture to lofe any time in the
inveftigation of this coaft, where he was expofed to im¬
minent danger from the violence of wefterly winds. He
chofe rather to explore its northern extremities, which
befides were doubtlefs the moft likely to be of impor¬
tance to navigators. We kept at the diftance of two
or three leagues from the land, having little winds, and
feeing the coaft every where fteep and inacceffible.
The mountains appeared to be of vaft height, their
fummits being conftantly wrapped in clouds, and the
lower part covered with fnow down to the water’s edge,
in fuch a manner, that we fhould have found it difficult
to pronounce whether we faw land or ice, if fome hol¬
low rocks had not (hewn their black and naked caverns
ih feveral places.
Feb. 1. “ We found ourfelves abreaft of another
projecting point in the morning, which Captain Cook
has fince named Cape Montague. Beyond it we difco¬
vered
A M E [ 297 ] A M E
America, vered another point to the north, which, upon our
' nearer approach, was difcovered to be a feparate ifland,
and named Saunders's IJland'. It was not inferior in
height to the mountainous coaft to the fouth of it, and
was covered with fnow and ice in the fame manner. It
is fituated in 57. 48. S. and 26. 35. W.
“We had little wind during the night; but, with the
return of day-light, flood to the eaflward, in order to
weather Saunders’s Ifland.—We could not accomplifh
our point with a Tingle board; but, the wind being con¬
trary, tacked all the afternoon, in order to double the
northern extremity of Saunders’s ifland. We came very
near it feveral times, and obferved a flat point or beach
running out to the northward, covered with heaps of
fhingle, which were piled up in the wildeft manner,
and offered nothing but fharp points and ridges to the
eye. The whole country bad the moft defolate and
horrid appearance which can pofiibly be conceived;
not a Angle grafs could be difcerned upon it, and it
feemed to be forfaken even by the amphibious and lum-
pifli animals which dwelt on Southern Georgia. In
fhort, we could not help applying to it that remarkable
expreflion of Pliny,
Pars mundi damnata a rerum natura, et denfa merfa caligine.
Wift. Nat. lib. xv. c. 36.
Iflands na- We have now abundant reafon to conclude, that all
rurally cold- iflands are colder than continents lying in the fame pa-
tinents C°n' ra^e^s latitude; and that the vicinity of the ocean by
no means contributes to produce warmth, but the con¬
trary : and though water, by its property of abforb-
ihg heat in a latent ftate, and then difcharging it in a
fenflble one, may be faid to regulate the cold, fo as to
prevent its going to great extremes at any feafon; yet,
by this very property, the diftinftion of feafons is loft,
fo that an ifland fituated at a great diftance from land
may be uninhabitable by reafon of the cold, while parts
of a continent much nearer the pole than that ifland
24 might furnifli mankind with a comfortable abode.
Coldnefs in From its ftiape, America may almoft be confldered
America ac- as confifting of two iflands ; for only a narrow ifthmus
counted for. prevents the fouthern continent from being entirely fur-
rounded with water. Thefe, though very large, are
far from equalling the bulk of Europe, Afla, and A-
frica, put together. The fbuthern continent is not fo
big as Africa, and it is doubtful whether Afla does
not equal the bulk of both North and South America,
efpecially if we take in the new-difcovered ifland of
New Holland, which is very little if at all inferior in
bulk to Europe.—The three old continents are con-
nefted with one another, and are no doubt conflder-
ably warmer on that account. America is at a vaft di¬
ftance; and cannot proflt by the warmth either of A-
frica or Afla, let it be ever fo great. It is impofiible,
then, that the climate of New-York, New-England, and
New-Scotland, can be fo mild as that of France and
Spain ; becaufe the winter in them is moderated by
their having the Mediterranean fea to the fouth, and the
Atlantic ocean to the weft and north, at the fame time
that the vicinity of Africa prevents this vaft quantity
of \vater from abforbing much of their fummer-heat.
The American countries juft now mentioned, have in¬
deed the Atlantic Ocean on one fide, but are furrounded
with land on every other, nor have they any warm con¬
tinent fo near them as Afia and Africa are to the fou-
thern parts of Europe ; and hence they are fubjedl to
violent extremes of heat and cold; fo that, in the ftreets America,
of Bofton, the capital of New-England, the ice fre-
quently lies a foot thick, for feveral months in winter;
while the fummer-heats are very great. In like man¬
ner is South America colder than Africa, becaufe of its
inferiority in fize, and its diftance from any other con¬
tinent ; while the fmall iflands in the fouthern ocean ly¬
ing in latitudes correfponding to that of Britain, are
utterly uninhabitable, and covered with perpetual fnow
and ice. 4J
Another particularity in the climate of America is Extreme
its exceflive moifture in general, In fome places, in- ™°'^ure of
deed, on the weftern coaft, rain is not known ; but, in ca' cj[^e'£
all other parts, the moiftnefs of the climate is as re¬
markable as the cold ; and this moifture undoubtedly
contributes to render America in general very un¬
healthy. The forefts wherewith it is every where
covered, no doubt, partly occafion the moifture of
its climate; but the moft prevalent caufe is the vaft.
quantity of water in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
writh which America is xnvironed on all fides. Hence
thofe places where the continent is narroweft are de¬
luged with almoft perpetual rains, accompanied with
violent thunder and lightning, by which fome of them,
particularly Porto Bello, are rendered in a manner un¬
inhabitable- 26
This extreme moifture of the American climate is Large ri-
produ&ive of much larger rivers there, than in any other vers, and
part of the world. The Danube, the Nile, the Indus, j^un'Ince
or the Ganges, are not comparable to the Miffiflippi, 0f vegeta-
the River St Lawrence, or that of the Amazons; nor tion.
are fuch large lakes to be found any where as thofe
which North America affords.—To the fame caufe we
are alfo partly to afcribe the exceflive luxuriance of all
kinds of vegetables in almoft all parts of this country-
In the fouthern provinces, where the moifture of the cli¬
mate is aided by the warmth ofthe fun, the woods are
almoft impervious, and the furface of the ground is hid
from the eye, under a thick covering of fhrubs, herbs,
and weeds.—In the northern provinces, the forefts are
not encumbered with the fame luxuriance of vegetation;
neverthelefs, they afford trees much larger of their kind
than what are to be found any where elfe. 2T
The fame moifture which is fo favourable to vegeta- Moil hi re of
tion, is found to be very unfavourable to animal life, the climate
The brute creatures of America are generally of a
fmall fize when compared with thofe of Europe, Afia, mais-
or Africa; nay, thofe which have been imported by the
Europeans, though they multiplied exceflively, have
never failed to degenerate in fize, as well as in ftrength
and vigour. We may with the more certainty afcribe
this to the pernicious influence of the moifture, as it is
obferved, that black cattle brought from other parts of
the continent to Porto Bello, where the moifture is ex¬
ceedingly great, lofe their flefli fo faft, as to become in
a few weeks fcarce eatable.—To this, however, there
is one exception; for America produces a fpecies of
ravenous birds called condor, fuperior both in fize and
ftrength to any that are to be found in other parts of
the world. . 18
The fame caufes which check the growth and vigour Produces,
of the more noble animals, are friendly to the propa-
gation* and increafe of infers. Accordingly, thefe, e-
fpecially fuch as delight in taking up their habitation
in moift earth, are to be found in immenfe. quantities
throughout
A M E [ 298 ] A M E
America, throughout the continent. At Porto Bello, toads are
_ £ouncj jn fuch multitudes that they hide the furface of the
earth. At Guyaquil, fnakes and vipers are hardly lefs
numerous. It doth not appear, however, that ferpents
abound more, or even fo much, in America, as in fome
places of Africa ; for there, according to the accounts
given by Mr Adanfon, large plains are to be met with
entirely covered with them. Nor have we any accounts
of the locufts, which fometimes commit fuch devaftations
on the eaftern continent, being ever found in America.
Inftead of thefe, they have a kind of ants, which, in
fome of the iflands, have frequently confumed every ve¬
getable produ&ion, and left the earth entirely bare, as
if it had been burnt with fire. In Decr 1768, Captain
Cook found the air at Rio Janeiro loaded with butter¬
flies. They were chiefly of one fort; but in fuch num¬
bers, that thoufands might be feen in every direction,
29 and the mofl: of them flew above the mall head.
Account of the t;me America was difcovered, it was found
the natives. injiabjte(i |)y a race Gf men no ]efs different from thofe
in the other parts of the world, than the climate and
natural productions of this continent are different from
thofe of Europe, Alia, or Africa.—One great pecu¬
liarity in the native Americans is their colour, and the
indentity of it throughout the whole extent of the con¬
tinent. In Europe and Alia, the people who inhabit
the northern countries are of a fairer complexion than
thofe who dwell more to the fouthward. In the tor¬
rid zone, both in Africa and Alia, the natives are en¬
tirely black, or the next thing to it. This, however,
muff be underllood with fome limitation. The people
of Lapland, who inhabit the moll northerly part of
Europe, are by no means fo fair as the inhabitants of
Britain ; nor are the Tartars fo fair as the inhabitants
of Europe, who lie under the fame parallels of latitude.
Neverthelefs, a Laplander is fair when compared with
an Abyffinian, and a Tartar if compared with a native
of the Molucca illands—In America, this diftindlon
of colour was not to be found. In the torrid zone there
were no negroes, and in the temperate and frigid zones
there were no wdiite people. All of them were of a kind
of red copper-colour, which Mr Forfter obferved, in the
Pefferays of Terra del Fuego, to have fomething of a
glofs refembling that metal. It doth not appear, how¬
ever, that this matter hath ever been inquired into with
fufficient accuracy. The inhabitants of the inland parts
of South America, where the continent is wideft, and
confequently the influence of the fun the moll power¬
ful, have never been compared with thofe of Cana¬
da, or more northerly parts, at leaft by any perfon of
credit. Yet this ought to have been done, and that
in many inllances too, before it could be afferted fo
pofitively as mofl: authors do, that there is not the leall
difference of complexion among the natives of America.
Indeed, fo many fyllems have been formed concerning
them, that it is very difficult to obtain a true know¬
ledge of the moll fimple fa£ts.—If we may believe the
Abbe Raynal, the Californians are fwarthier than the
Mexicans; and fo pofitive is he in this opinion, that he
.gives a reafon for it. “This difference of colour,” fays
he, “ proves, that the civilized life of fociety fubverts,
or totally changes, the order and laws of nature, fince
we find, under the temperate zone, a favage people that
are blacker than the civilized nations of the torrid zone.”
—On the other hand, Dr Robertfon claffes all the in¬
habitants of Spanilh America together with regard to America,
colour, whether they are civilized or uncivilized; and ~~
when he fpeaks of California, takes no notice of any
peculiarity in their colour more than others.—Certain
it is, however, that the northern inhabitants of Ame¬
rica are of a colour very different from the Europeans,
or even the Afiatics, in the fame latitudes; nor are thofe
who dwell under the line fo black as negroes.—The Robertfon’s
general appearance of the Americans in various diftridts Hiflery of
is thus defcribed by Don Antonia Ulloa. They have ^"^r.vol. I
a very fmall fore-head, covered with hair towards its P‘4S<>"
extremities, as far as the middle of the eye-brows; little
eyes; a thin nofe, fmall, and bending towards the up-
er lip ; the countenance broad; the ears large ; the
air very black, lank, and coarfe ; the limbs well turn¬
ed ; the feet fmall; the body of juft proportion, and al¬
together fmooth and free from hair, until old age, when
they acquire fome beard, but never on the cheeks.”
— The chevalier Pinto gives the following account of
them. “ They are all of a copper colour, with fqme
diverfity of fliade, not in proportion to their diftance
from the Equator, but according to the degree of ele¬
vation of the territory in which they refide. Thofe
who live in a high country are fairer than thofe in the
marftiy low lands on the coaft. Their face is round;
farther removed, perhaps, than that of any people,
from an oval fhape. Their fore-head is fmall; the ex¬
tremity of their ears far from the face; their lips thick;
their nofe flat; their eyes black, or of a cheftnut colour,
fmall, but capable of difcerning objedts at a great di¬
ftance. Their hair is always thick and fleek, and with¬
out any tendency to curl. They have no hair on any
part of their body but the head. At the firft afpedl,
a South-American appears to be mild and innocent;
but, on a more attentive view, one difcovers in his coun¬
tenance fomething wild, diftruftful, and fullen.”
The Americans were alfo remarkable for their de¬
bility of body. They were'not only averfe to toil, but
incapable of it; and when roufed by force from their
native indolence, and compelled to work, they funk un¬
der talks which people of the other continent would
have performed with eafe. On the continent, however,
where many tribes employed themfelves in hunting,
they acquired greater firmnefs; but ftill they were
more remarkable for agility than ilrength. Of their
fwiftnefs, indeed, furprifing accounts are given. Adair Hiftory of
relates the adventures of a Chikkafah warrior, who run America,
through woods and over mountains, 300 computed miles P- 39$-
in a day and an half and two nights.
Another particularity in thefe people is the fmallnefs
of their appetite for food. This was fo remarkable,
that the Spaniards confidered the conftitutional tem¬
perance of the Americans, not only in the iflands, but
in feveral parts of the continent, as far exceeding the
abftinence of the moll mortified hermits. On the o-
ther hand, the appetite of the Spaniards appeared to
to them to be infatiably voradous. They affirmed,
that one Spaniard devoured more food in a day than
was fufficient for ten Americans. Nay, they even ima¬
gined, that the Spaniards had left their own country
beeaufe they could not find provifions in fufficient quan- 30
tity to fatisfy their ravenous appetites. Underftanc-
Nor were the Americans lefs lingular in their men- ing of. the
tal than their corporeal qualities. The underftandings Amei.ica.n*
of many nations feemed to be fo limited, that they were ej,ry imU*
neither
A M E [ 299 ] A M E
America, neither capwble of forming an arrangement for futurity,
_ _____ nor t}lejr folicitude or forefight extend fo far. They
fet no ^alue upon thofe things of which they were not
in fome immediate want. In the evening, when a Car-
ribbee is going to reft, no confideration will tempt him
to fell his hammock; but in the morning, he will part
with it fov the flighteft triffe. At the clofe of winter,
a North-American, mindful of what he has fuflered
from the cold, fets himfelf with vigour to prepare ma¬
terials for erefting a comfortable hut to protect him
againft the inclemency of the fucceeding feafon; but as
foon as the weather becomes mild, he abandons his
work, and never thinks of it more, till the return of
the cold compells him to refume it.—In ftiort, to be
free from labour, feems to be the utmoft wi(h of an
American. They will continue whole days ftretched
in their hammocks, or feated on the earth, without
changing their pofture, raifing their eyes, or uttering
a fingle word. The men feem to be poflefied of a de¬
gree of infenfibility towards the women which is not
to be found in any other part of the world; but it was
not fo with the women at the arrival of the Spaniards
among them. Their paffions in this refpeft feemed to
be fo ftrong as to fwallow up every other confideration,
infomuch that-they would have trampled over heaps of
their countrymen, in order to give themfelves up to the
embraces of the barbarians who had deprived them of
life; nor woUld they helitate at betraying their country,
their neareli relations not excepted, into the hands of
31 thefe ftrangers.
Infatiable Notwithftanding the feeming imbecillity of their
venae.0 ^ m*nds m moft refpects, there is one purfuit in which
the Americans are indefatigable beyond what is record¬
ed of any race of men either ancient or modern ; and
that is revenge. This they carry fuch a length as we
could fcarce think would be done by any other than
infernal fpirits themfeives.—Among thefe favages the
forgivenefs of enemies is never heard of. They will
not attack enemies who are prepared for them; but
watch their opportunity to murder them when afleep
or incapable of making any refiftance. If they find it
impofiible to revenge themfelves when the injury is com-
mitted, they will difiemble their refentment, but no
length of time is fufficent to eradicate that pafiion from
their breafts; and whenever an opportunity offers, they
will revenge themfelves with the fame Ivellifh fury as if
the offence was but juft then committed. A fingle war¬
rior has been known to march feveral hundred miles to
furprife and cut off a ftraggling enemy. If a quarrel
is once begun, thefe wretches are not fatisfied with the
deftru&ion of the perfon who gave the offence ; nor
will their revenge be fatiated with the death of all his
family or relations, nothing lefs is aimed at than the
extermination of the whole tribe or nation to which he
belongs. — Agreeably to this principle their wars are
carried on; and by ailing upon this principle the Iro¬
quois actually exterminated a nation called the Eries,
from which one of the lakes of Canada took its name,
fo that now there is not the leaft trace of their exiftence-
When two nations, at war, make peace with one ano¬
ther, it is not becaufe they are weary of (laughter, or
that they think they have had revenge enough; but be¬
caufe they find themfelves unable to carry on the war
any longer. Hence the peace which the favage nations
make with one_ another, may be confidered only as a
kind of truce, till both parties have recovered ftrength Amenea.
enough to renew their hoftilities.
As the Indian nations are not populous, and many
of them lie at a great diftance from one another, it is
impoffible there could be any animofities between them
was the defire of revenge to abate.—For declaring war,
againft a nation no new provocation is neceffary, nor
is it even pretended that any has been received. It is
the memory of paft quarrels only, which are thought
not to be fufficiently revenged,' that incites them to
war.—Private chiefs fometimes invade their neighbours
territories without confulting the rulers of the commu¬
nity; nay, often finglc perfons will take the field; and
thefe expeditions are connived at by the elders, as ten¬
ding to cherifh a martial fpirit, and to accuftom their
people to enterprife and danger. If a chief wiflies to
allure a band of warriors to follow him in invading an
enemy’s country, his perfuafions are adreffed to their
favourite paffion revenge. “ The bones of our coun¬
try-men,” fays he, “ lie uncovered, their bloody bed
has not been waffled clean. Their fpirits cry againft us;
they muft be appeafed. Let us go and devour the people
by whom they were flain. Sit no longer ina&ive upon-
your mats ; lift the hatchet; confole the fpirits of the
dead, and tell them that they fhall be avenged.”—Ani¬
mated byfuch exhortations as thefe, the young men feize
their arms, and fally forth againft their enemies, fing-
ing the war-fong, which may be expreffed in the fol¬
lowing words. “ I go to war to revenge the death of
my brothers; I (hall kill, I fliall exterminate, I (hall
burn my enemies ; I fhall bring away flaves ; I fhall
devour their heart, dry their flefh, and drink their
blood. I fhall tear off their fcalps, and make cups of
their fculls.”
Such is the implacable nature of thefe favages,
that they will go, for the purpofe of revenge, x090-
miles in pathlefs woodsy over hills and mountains, thro’
huge" fwamps, expofed to the extremities of heat and
cold, the viciffitude of feafons, and to hunger and thirft.
All thefe difficulties they defpife as trifles, provided"
they can obtain the fealps of tlieir enemies.—A remark¬
able inftance of their innate defire of blood we have
in the following anecdote of an Algonquin woman. •
That nation being at war with the Iroquois, fhe Anecdote cf
happened to be taken prifoner, and was carried to one 3a.Ai8ori‘
of the villages belonging to them. Here fhe was ft rip- w°'
ped naked, and her handjs and feet bound witn ropes
in one of their cabbins. In this condition fhe remained
ten days, the favages fleeping round her every night.
The eleventh night, while they were afleep, fhe found
means to difengage one of her hands, with which fhe im¬
mediately freed herfelf from the ropes, and went to the
door. Tho’ fhe had now an opportunity of efcaping un¬
perceived, her revengeful temper could not let flip fo
favourable an opportunity of killing one of her enemies.
The attempt was manifeftly at the hazard of her own
life ; yet, fnatching up a hatchet, fhe killed the favage
that lay next her,.and; fpringing out of the cabbin, con¬
cealed herfelf in a hollow tree which fhe'had obferved
the day before. The groans of the dying perfon foon
alarmed the other favages, and the young ones im¬
mediately fet out in purfuit of her.—Perceiving from
her tree, that they all directed their courfe one way,,
and that no favage was near her, flie left her fan&uary,,
and,, flying by an oppofite duecLon, raq into'a forcu
1
A M E [ 300 ] A M E
America, without being perceived. The fecond day after this
_ happened, her fbotfteps were difcovered; and they pur-
fued her with fuch expedition, that the third day Hie dif¬
covered her enemies at her heels. Upon this Hie threw
herfelf into a pond of water, and, diving among fome
weeds and bulrufhes, ftie could juft breathe above wa¬
ter without being perceived. Her purfuers, after ma¬
king the moft diligent fearch, were forced to return.
—For 35 days this woman held on her courfe through
woods and defarts, without any other fuftenance than
roots and wild berries. When (he came to the river
St Lawrence, Ihe made with her own hands a kind of
a wicker raft, on which ftie crofted it. As (he went by
the French fort Trots Rivieres, without well knowing
where fhe was, Ihe perceived a canoe full of favages;
and fearing they might be Iroquois, ran again into the
woods, where (he remained till funfet Continuing
her courfe foon after, ftie faw Trois Rivieres, and was
then difcovered by a party whom fiie knew to be Hu-
rons, a nation in alliance with the Algonquins. She
then fquatted down behind a bufti, calling out to them
that ftie was not in a condition to be feen, becaufe ftie
was naked. They inimediately.threw her a blanket,
and then conducted her to the fort, where die recounted
33 her ftory.
Method of The defire of revenge being fo excefiively prevalent
making war. among the Americans, we can fcarce expedt that their
wars ftiould be any thing elfe than a feries of the moft
deliberate and diabolical murders that can be conceived.
If the war is national, and undertaken by public autho¬
rity, all their determinations are formal and flow. The
elders sflemble, and deliver their opinions in folemn
fpeeches. They exprefs themfelves in a bold figurative
ftyle, with violent geftures. After this, if they hap¬
pen to be well provided with food, they appoint a feaft,
of which almoft the whole nation partakes. This feaft
is accompanied with dancing, and fongs, in which the
real or fabulous exploits of their forefathers are re¬
counted. A leader offers himfelf to condtnft the expe •
dition; but no one is compelled to follow him contrary
to his own inclination. All the young men, who are
difpofed to go to war, give a bit of wood to the chief,
as a token of their defign. The leader fafts feveral
days, during which he cqnverfes with nobody, and is
peculiarly careful to obferve his dreams, which are ge¬
nerally as favourable as he could with. A number of
other ceremonies are made ufe of, fuch as fetting the
war-kettle on the fire, as an emblem of their going
out to devour their enemies ; and a large fliell is dib
patched to their allies, inviting them to come and drink
their blood. Having finifhed all the ceremonies pre¬
vious to the war, they ifiue forth with their faces black¬
ened with charcoal, intermixed with ftreaks of vermi¬
lion, which gives them a moft horrid appearance. Then
they exchange their cloaths.with their friends, and dif-
pofe of their ornaments to the women, who generally
accompany them to a confiderable diftance.
As the intention of the Americans in going to war,
is, not to conquer, but to deftroy, they watch for their
34 enemies in the fame manner as they would do for wild
Amazing beafts.—Being accuftomed to perpetual wandering in
quicknef's of the forefts, their fenfes are ftiarpened to a degree in-
of their conceivable by us. They can trace out their enemies
cn es' by the fmoke of their fires, which theyfmell at an im-
menfe diftance. They can diftinguifti the tra&s of
their feet on the ground, which would be impercep- An,erlea-
tible to an European eye. They can even, in thefe
traces, diftinguilh the footfteps of the different nations
with which they are acquainted, and determine the
precife time when they pafled. But thefe precautions
avail them little, as their enemies are no lefs quickfight-
ed than they; When they go out, therefore; they take
care to make ufe of nothing which might endanger a
difcovery. They light no fire to warm themfelves, or
to prepare their victuals; they lie clofe to the ground
all day, and travel only in the night. They march a-
long in files ; and he that clofes the rear, diligently co¬
vers their tra& with leaves.—As war is begun with¬
out provocation, and no declaration of it made, the
nation they attack is very often entirely ignorant of
their defign s, and not at all on their guard. In this
cafe, they follow their track through the foreft. They
endeavour to become acquainted with their haunts.
They lurk in fome thicket near thefe, with the patience
of a fportfman waiting for game; and will continue
their ftation day after day, till they can rufti upon
their prey when moft fecure, and leaft able to refill
them. If they meet with no ftraggling party of the e-
nemy, they advance towards their villages; but with
fuch folicitude to conceal their approach, that they of¬
ten creep on their hands and feet through the wood, and
paint their fkins of the fame colour with the withered
leaves, in order to avoid detection. If they are fo for¬
tunate as to remain unobferved, they fet on fire the huts
in the dead of the night, and maffacre the inhabitants
as they fly naked and defencelefs from the flames. If
they hope to effedl a retreat without being purfued,
they carry off fome prifoners, either to adopt them in
place of thofe who may be loft in the war, or to wreak
their revenge upon them to the utmoft. 3J
After they are all returned home, the elders appoint Shocking
a diftribution of the captives ; upon which, every per- cruelties
fon, who has taken a prifoner, prefents him where the ffaftifetl on
chiefs direft. If thofe to whom he is prefented re- grjirpfli°n“
ceive him, he is immediately adopted, and becomes
from that time forward a member of the community ;
but if he is refufed, from whatever motive, his death is
unavoidable.—Was it limply death, which was now to
be infli&ed, the fame thing has often been praftifed by
other nations on their prifoners; but here a feene of
' cruelty is difplayed, which, though the invention of
thofe who in other refpefts feem fcarce a degree above
brutes, is fufficient to make even an inquifitor tremble.
All the captives who are fentenced to death, being
collefted together, the whole nation is affembled at
the execution, as for fome great folemnity. A fc&f-
fold is erefted, and the prifoners are tied to the Hake,
where they begin their death-fong, and prepare for
their torments with the greateft refolution. The con¬
querors, on the other hand, refolve to put the conftancy
of the captive to the moft fevere trial. They begin at
the extremity of his body, and gradually approach the
more vital parts. One plucks out his nails by the roots,
one by one; another takes a finger into his mouth, and
tears off the flelh with his teeth; a third thrufts the fin¬
er, mangled as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red
ot, which he fmokes like’ tobacco ; then they pound
his toes and fingers to pieces between two Hones ; they
pull off the flelh with their teeth, cut circles about his
joints, and make galhes in the flelhy parts of his limbs,
which
A M E [30
America, which they fear immediately with red-hot irons, cut¬
ting, burning, and pinching them alternately; they pull
off his flefh, thus mangled and roafted, bit by bit, de¬
vouring it with greediilefs, and fmearing their faces with
the blood in an enthufiafm of horror and fury. When
they have thus torn off the flefh, they twitt the bare
nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and fnapping
them, whilft others are employed in pulling and ex¬
tending the limbs in every way that can increafe the
torment. This continues often five or fix hours, and
fometimes days together. Then they frequently un¬
bind him to give a breathing to their fury, to think
what new torments they (hall inflift, and to refrefh the
ftrength of the fufferer, who, wearied out with fuch a
variety of unheard-of torments, often falls into fo pro¬
found a fleep, that they are obliged to apply the fire
to awake him and renew his fufferings. He is again
faftened to the ffake, and again they renew their cruel¬
ty ; they flick him all over with fmail matches of
wood, that eafily take fire, but burn flowly; they con¬
tinually run fharp reeds into every part of his body;
they drag out his teeth with pincers, and thruft out his
eyes ; and, laftly, after having burned his flefh from the
bones with flow fires; after having fo mangled the bo¬
dy that it is all but one wound; after having mutilated
the face in fuch a manner as to carry nothing human in
it; after having peeled the fkin from the head, and
poured a heap of red-hot coals, or boiling water, on the
naked fkull; they once more unbind the wretch, who,
blind, and ftaggering with pain and weaknefs, affault-
ed and pelted upon every fide with clubs and ftones,
now up, now down, falling into their fires at every
ftep, runs hither and thither, until one of the chiefs,
whether out of compaffion, or weary of cruelty, puts
an end to his life with a club or a dagger. The body
is then put into a kettle, and this barbarous employ-
ment is fucceeded by a feaft as barbarous.
Surprifing The fame" infernal fpirit which prompts the conquer-
conftancy of ors to inflidff thefe tortures, prompts the fufferer to bear
the fuffer- them without a Angle complaint. In the midft of the
crs' molt excruciating torments, he informs his enemies what
cruelties he has inflidled on their countrymen, and
threatens "them with the revenge that will attend his
death. Though his reproaches exafperate them to mad-
nefs, yet he continues his infults; even telling them that
they are ignorant of the art of tormenting; and point¬
ing out to them more exquifite methods than what they
T ufe, and more fenfible parts of the body to be afHi&ed.
Miferable ^ we take a view of the Americans in their dome-
ftate of the flic capacities, we fhall find their character no better
American than what we have deferibed. We have already taken
women. notice of the uncommon indifference of the men to¬
wards the women. This, of itfelf, caufes them treat
their wives with contempt. Among thefe favages, alfo,
the man properly buys his wife. In fome places, he
devotes his fervice for a certain time to the parents of
the maid whom he courts; in others, he hunts for them
occafionally, or affifls in cultivating their fields and
forming their canoes; in others, he offers fuoh prefents
as are deemed moft valuable on account of their ufeful-
nefs or rarity. In return for thefe, he receives his wife;
and this circumftance, added to the low eftimation of
women among favages, leads him to confider her as a
female- fervant, whom he has a title to treat as an in¬
terior. In all unpolilhed nations, the women muff bear
Vol. I.
1 ] A M E
more than their Ihare of the common burden; but in America,
America, their condition is peculiarly grievous, and —'
their depreffion is fo complete, that fervitude is a name
too mild to deferibe their wretched ftate. A wife, a-
mong moft tribes, is no better than a bead of burden,
deftined to every office of labour and fatigue. While
the men loiter out the day in floth, or fpend it in a-
mufement, the women are condemned to inceffant toil.
Talks are impofed upon them without pity, and fervices
are received without complacence or gratitude. They
muff approach their lords with reverence; they muff re¬
gard them as more exalted beings; and are not permit¬
ted to eat in their prefence. There are diftri&s in A-
merica where this dominion is fo grievous, and fo fen-
fibly felt, that fqme women, in a wild emotion of ma¬
ternal tendernefs, have deftroyed their female children
in their infancy, in order to deliver them from that in¬
tolerable bondage to which they knew they were
doomed. 38
It is not to be expefted, that fuch hulbands will in- Revenge the
culcate upon their children any kind of filial duty to- [in¬
wards their mothers. Indeed, with the American chil- t0 the Ame-
dren, neither their fathers nor mothers are objedls of rican chil-
greater regard than other perfons. They treat them al- dren-
ways with negledt; and often with fuch harfhnefs and
infolence, as to fill thofe with horror who have been
witneffes of their conduft. The only piece of educa¬
tion which the favages take care to give their children
is, to revenge themfelves on their enemies. For this
purpofe, they teach them to fuffer pain in the moft ex¬
treme degree without uttering the leaft complaint; that,
in cafe they fall into the hands of their enemies, they
may die like men, as they term it: and to fuch an ex¬
traordinary length do they go in this refpedl, that an
American boy and girl will often, by way of amufe-
ment, hold a burning coal between their naked hands
or arms, to try who will fooneft fhrink, or utter a com¬
plaint. 39
As this horrid, implacable defire of revenge is the Terrible
only mental qualification which the Americans endea- tnals un<ler~
vour to cherifh, the above-mentioned paffive kind of e][icf?,
courage becomes the only teft of their capacity for any
public office. Among the tribes on the banks of the
Oroonoko, if a warrior afpires to the poll of captain,
his probation begins with a long fall, more rigid than
any ever obferved by the moft abftemious hermit. At
the clofe of this, the chiefs affemble; and each gives
him three lafhes with a large whip, applied fo vigorouf-
ly, that his body is almoft flayed. If he betrays the
leaft fymptom of impatience, or even of fenfibility, he
is difgraced for ever, and rejected as unworthy of the
honour. After fome interval, his conftancy is proved
by a more excruciating trial. He is laid in his ham¬
mock with his hands bound fall; and an innumerable
multitude of venomous ants, whofe bite occafions a
violent pain and inflammation, are thrown upon him.
The judges of his merit ftand around the hammock; and
whilft thefe cruel infeifts fatten upon the moft fenfible
parts of his body, a figh, a groan, or an involuntary
motion expreffive of what he fuffers, would exclude him
from the dignity of which he is ambitious. Even after
this evidence, his fortitude is not deemed to be fuffi-
ciently afeertained, till he has flood another tell more
fevere, if poffible, than the former. He is again fuf-
pended in his hammock, and covered with the leaves of
P p the
A M E [ 3°i ] A M E
America, the palmetto. A fire of Jlinkmg herbs is kindled un-
derneath, fo as he may feel its heat, and be involved in
fmoke. Though fcorched and almoft fuffocated, he
muft continue to endure this with the fame patient in-
fenfibility. Many perifli in this effay of their firmnefs
and courage; but fuch as go through it with applaufe,
receive the enfigns of their new dignity with much fo-
lemnity, and are ever after regarded as leaders of ap¬
proved refolution, whofe behaviour, in the moft trying
fituations, will do honour to their country. In North
America, the previous trial of a warrior is neither fo
formal, nor fo fevere : Though, even there, before a
youth is permitted to bear arms, his patience and for¬
titude are proved by blows; by fire; and by infults,
40 more intolerable to a haughty fpirit than either.
Charafter of Thus we have given a particular account of the moft
,lle remarkable differences between the natives of America,
entirel^de- an(^ thofe of other countries. In their character, we
flitute of a with, indeed, it were in our power to balance the bad
good princi- qualities we have mentioned, with fome good ones;
P*6, but we are forry to fay, that in all the different ac¬
counts of the native Americans which have fallen into
our hands, the virtuous part of their chara&er hath
conftantly been invifible. Their conftancy in bearing
the moft horrid tortures without a complaint, hath been
extolled as the greateft heroifm and magnanimity; but
we cannot help thinking, it very naturally flows from
their inconceivably cruel and blood-thirfty difpofition,
along with theit infatiable defire of revenge, the mean-
41 eft as well as the moft diabolical paffion in the human
Inftances of nature. Perfonal courage they have not; as appears
their cow- from the following incidents, quoted from Charlevoix,
ardice. ^ Lord Kaimes, in his Sketches of the Hiftory of
*B. I. Sk.I. Man *. “ The fort de Vercheres in Canada, belong¬
ing to the French, was, in the year 1690, attacked by
fome Iroquois: they approached filently, preparing to
fcalet he palifade, when fome mufquet-ftiot made them
retire. Advancing a fecond time, they were again re-
pulfed, wondering that they could difcover none but a
woman, who was feen every where. This was Madame
de Vercheres, who appeared as refolute as if fupport-
ed by a numerous garrifon. The hopes of ftorming a
place without men to defend it, occafioned reiterated
attacks. After two days fiege, they retired, fearing to
be intercepted in their retreat. Two years after, a party
of the fame nation appeared before the fort fo unex-
peftedly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter of the pro-
prietor, had but time to fhut the gate. With the young
woman, there was not a foul but one raw foldier. She
fliewed herfelf with her afliftant, fometimes in one
place, and fometimes in another; changing her drefs
frequently, in order to give fome appearance of a gar¬
rifon ; and. always fired opportunely. The faint-heart¬
ed Iroquois decamped without fuccefs.”
We are fenfible, that, in denying perfonal courage to
the Americans, we differ from the learned Dr Robert-
fon ; who attributes their method of making war to a
policy adapted to the fmallnefs of their number, and
urges their defperate valour on fome extraordinary oc ■
cafions as a proof of their courage. To this it might
eafily be replied, that, none will fight fo defperately as
cowards, when they are prevented from running away;
and, therefore, it was a maxim among the Spartans,
never to purfue a flying enemy too clofely, “ left he
fhould. think it better to fight, than run away.” Be-
fides, favage cruelty hath in all ages been reckoned a America,
fign of cowardice: and we believe there are but few,
(in which number we would not wifh to include the’
Doftor) that will not ftigmatize, as the moft infamous
cowards, thofe who will not face their enemies in the
open field, but murder them, together with their help- 42
lefs women and infants, when afleep. But as it is fo- Whether
reign to our purpofe to enter into difputes of this kind,J^ey^re to
we fhall now proceed to conlider whether thefe pecu- a
liarities in the Americans give fufficient grounds for fpecies of
determining them, as fome authors have done, to be a men.
race of men fpecifically diftinft from all others.
In this queftion, to avoid being tedious, we ftiall
confine ourfelves to what hath been advanced by Lord
Kaimes; who is of opinion, that there are many differ¬
ent fpecies of men, as well as of other animals; and gives
an hypothefis, whereby his opinion may be maintain- 43
ed in a confiftency with Revelation. “ If (fays he) Lord
the only rule afforded by nature for claffing animals
can be depended on, there are different races of men as °r
well as of dogs: a maftiff differs not more from a fpa- fpecies.
niel, than a white man from a negro, or a Laplander
from a Dane. And, if we have any faith in Provi¬
dence, it ought to be fo. Plants were created of dif¬
ferent kinds, to fit them for different climates ; and fo
wrere brute animals. Certain it is, that all men are
not fitted equally for every climate. There is fcarce a
climate but what is natural to fome men, where they
profper and flourifh; and there is not a climate but
where fome men degenerate. Doth not then analogy
lead us to conclude, that, as there are different climates
on the face of this globe, fo there are different races of
men fitted for thefe different climates?
“ M. Buffon, from the rule, That animals which can
procreate together, and whofe progeny can alfo pro¬
create, are of one fpecies; concludes, that all men are of
one race or fpecies ; and endeavours to fupport that fa¬
vourite opinion, by aferibing to the climate, to food, or
to other accidental caufes, all the varieties that are
found amonghnen. But is he ferioufly of opinion, that
any operation of climate, or of other accidental caufe,
can account for the copper-colour and fmooth chin u-
niverfal among the Americans; the prominence of the
pudenda univerfal among the Hottentot women, or .the
black nipple no lefs univerfal among the female Sa-
moiedes?—It is in vain to aferibe to the climate, the
low ftature of the Efquimaux, the fmallnefs of their
feet, or the overgrown fize of their heads. It is equally
in vain to aferibe to climate, the low ftature of the
Laplanders, or their ugly vifage. The black colour
of negroes, thick lips, flat nofe, crifped woolly hair,
and rank fmell, diftinguifh them from every other race
of men. The Abyflinians, on the contrary, are tall .
and well made, their complexion a brown olive, features
well proportioned, eyes large and of a fparkling black,
thin lips, a nofe rather high than flat. There is no fuch
difference of climate between Abyffinia and Negro-
land, as to produce thefe ftriking differences.
“ Nor (hall our author’s ingenious hypothefis con¬
cerning the extremities of heat and cold, purchafe him
impunity with refpeft to the fallow complexion of the
Samoiedes, Laplanders, and Greenlanders. The Fin¬
landers, and northern Norwegians, live in a climate
not lefs cold than that of the people mentioned; and
yet are fair beyond other Europeans. I fay morej
there
A M E
[ 303 ]
A M E
' language, and of one fpeech; that they united to America.
‘ build a city on a plain in the land of Shinar, with a "
1 tower, whofe top might reach unto heaven; that the
' Lord, beholding the people to be one, and to have
'*all one language, and that nothing would be re-
‘ {trained from them which they imagined to do, con-
‘ founded their language that they might not under-
1 ftand one another, and fcattered them abroad upon
‘ the face of all the earth.’ Here light breaks forth
a the midft of darknefs. By confounding the language
il$ 1 HU hypo¬
thecs con-
jcerning the
origin of the
> different
| fpecies.
there are many inltances of races of people preferving
~ their original colour, in climates very different from
their own; but not a fingle inftance of the contrary, as
far as I can learn. There have been four complete ge¬
nerations of negroes in Penfylvania, without any vifible
change of colour; they continue jet black, as original¬
ly. Thofe who afcribe all to the fun, ought to confi-
der how little probable it is, that the colour it impref-
fes on the parents Ihould be communicated to their in¬
fant children, who never faw-the fun: I fhould be as
foon induced to believe with a German naturalift, whofe of men, and fcattering them abroad upon the f
name has efcaped me, that the negro colour is owing all the earth, they were rendered favages. And to har-
to an ancient cuftom in Africa, of dying the {kin black, den them for their new habitations, it was neceffary
Let a European, for years, expofe himfelf to the fun in that they (hould be divided into different kinds, fitted
a hot climate, till he be quite brown ; his children will for different climates. Without an immediate change
neverthelefs have the fame complexion with thofe in of conftitution, the builders of Babel could not poffibly
Europe. From the a£Uon of the fun, is it poffible have fubfifted in the burning region of Guinea, nor in
to explain, why a negro, like a European, is born with the frozen region of Lapland; houfes not being prepa-
a ruddy lkin, which turns jet black the eighth or ninth red, nor any other convenience to proteft them againft
day.” a deftruftive climate.” 4S
Our author next proceeds to draw fome arguments We {hall firft remark, on his Lordfhip’s hypothefis, Incomplete,
for the exiftence of different fpecies of men, from the that it is evidently incomplete: for, allowing the human
various tempers and difpofitions of different nations; race to have been divided into different fpecies at the
which he reckons to be fpecific differences, as well as confufion of languages, and that eaeh fpecies was ad-
thofe of colour, ftature, &c.; and having fummed up his apted to a particular climate; by what means were
evidence, he concludes thus: “ Upon fumming up the they to get to the climates proper for them, or how
whole particulars mentioned above, would one hefitate were they to know that fuch climates exifted? How was
a moment to adopt the following opinion, were there an American, for inftance, when languilhing in an im-
no counterbalancing evidence, viz. ‘ That God crea- proper climate at Babel, to get to the land of the A-
‘ ted many pairs of the human race, differing from mazons,or the banks ofthe Oroonoko, in his own coun-
* each other, both externally and internally; that he try ? or how was he to know that thefe places were more
‘ fitted thofe pairs for different climates, and placed proper for him than others ?—If, indeed, we take the
4 each pair in its proper climate ; that the peculiari- fcripture-phrafe, “ The Lord fcattered them abroad up-
4 ties of the original pairs were preferved entire in on the face of all the earth,” in a certain fenfe, we may
4 their defcendents; who, having no afliftance but their account for it. If we fuppofe that the different fpecies
4 natural talents, were left to gather knowledge from were immediately carried off by a whirlwind, or other
4 experience; and, in particular, were left (each tribe) fupernatural means, to their proper countries, the dif-
4 to form a language for itfelf; that figns were fuffi- ficulty will vaniff : but if this is his Lordftiip’s inter-
4 cient for the original pairs', without any language pretation, it is certainly a very fingular one. 4g
4 but what nature fuggefts; and that a language was Before entering upon a confideration of the particu- General
4 formed gradually, as a tribe increafed in numbers, lar arguments ufed by our author for proving the di- principles to
4 and in different occupations, to make fpeech necef- verfity of fpecies in the human race ; it will be proper ^jewe?^
4 fary?’ But this opinion, however plaufible, we are to laydown the following general'principles, which foning on
not permitted to adopt; being taught a different leffon may ferve as axioms. (1.) When we affert a multi- this fubjeft,
by Revelation, viz. That God created but a fingle plicity of fpecies in the human race, we bring in a fu-
pair of the human fpecies. Though we cannot doubt pernatural caufe to folve a natural phenomenon : for
of the authority of Mofes, yet his account of the crea- thefe fpecies are fuppofed to be the immediate work of
tion of man is not a little puzzling, as it feemsto con- the Deity. (2.) No perfon has a right to call any
tradi61 every one of the facts mentioned above. Ac- thing the immediate effeft of omnipotence, unlefs by
cording to that account, different races of men were exprefs revelation from the Deity, or from a certain-
sot formed, nor were men formed originally for differ- ty that no natural caufe is fufficient to produce the ef-
ent climates. All men muft have fpoken the fame lan- feft. The reafon is plain. The Deity is invifible, and
guage. viz. That of our firft parents. And what of fo are many natural caufes: when we fee an’effeft there-
all feems the moft contradi6lory to that account, is the fore, of which the caufe does not manifeft itfelf, we
favage ftate: Adam, as Mofes informs us, was endued cannot know whether the immediate caufe is the Deity,
by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge; or an invifible natural power. An example of this we
and he certainly was an excellent preceptor to his chil- have in the phenomena of thunder and earthquakes,
dren and their progeny, among whom he lived many which were often afcribed immediately to the Deity,
generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men but are now dilcovered to be the effefts of eleftricity.
unto the favage ftate ? To account for that difmal ca- (3.) No perfon can affert natural caufes to be infuffi-
taftrophe, mankind muft have fuffered fome terrible con- cient to produce fuch and fuch effe6ls, unlefs he per-
vulfion. That terrible convulfion is revealed to us in the fe6Uy knows all thefe caufes, and the limits of their
hiftory of the tower of Babel, contained in the 11th power in all pofiible cafes; and this no man has ever
chapter of Genefis, which is, 4 That, for many cen- known, or can know.
* turies after the deluge, the whole earth was of one By keeping in view thefe principles, which we hope
P p 2 are
A M E
[ 304 ]
A M E
America. are felf-evident, we will eafily fee Lord Kaimes’s ar- garians are both of the fame fpecies, and yet the for- America,
guments to confift entirely in a petitio principii.—In mer are generally almoft a foot fhorter than the latter ; ’
lubftance they are all reduced to this fingle fentence : -and if a difference of climate, or Other accidental cau-
4T
Inconfift-
ency inLord
Kaimes’s ar¬
guments.
Natural philofophers have been hitherto unfuccefs-
ful in their endeavours to account for the differences
obferved among mankind, therefore thefe differences
cannot be accounted for from natural caufes.”
But, befides this negative evidence againfl his Lord-
fes, can make the people of one country a foot fhorter
than the common fize of mankind, undoubtedly acci¬
dental caufes of a contrary nature may make thofe of
another country a foot taller than other men.
Though the fun has undoubtedly a fliare in the pro- Different
fhip, we have pofitive proofs againft him, and thofe of dudlion of the fwarthy colour of thofe nations which are caufes c<
the moft unexceptionable kind.-—The firft evidence we
fhall produce is himfelf. He tells us in the paffages
already quoted, that, “ a mattiff differs not more from
a fpaniel, than a Laplander from a Danethat “ it
is vain to, aferibe to climate the low ftature of the
Laplanders, or their ugly vifage.”—Thefe laft words
are fcarce out of his mouth, when he tell us, in a note
on the word Laplanders, that “ by late accounts it ap¬
pears, that the Laplanders are only degenerated Tar-
moft expofed to his influence; yet the manner of living
to which people are accultomed, their victuals, their teratjon ;n
employment, !&c. muft contribute very much to a dif- colour,
ference of complexion. There are fome kinds of co¬
louring roots, which, if mixed with the food of certain
animals, will tinge even their bones of a yellow colour.
—It cannot be thought any great degree of credulity
to infer from this, that if thefe roots were mixed with
the food of a white man, they might, without a mi-
tars; and that they and the Hungarians originally rack, tinge his Hdn of a yellow colour. If a man and
48
Remarkable
difference of
colour from
accidental
caufes.
fprung from the fame breed of men, and from the fame
country.”—The Hungarians are generally handfome
and well made, like Danes, or like other people. The
Laplanders, he tells us, differ as much from them as a
mattiff from a fpaniel. Natural caufes, therefore, ac¬
cording to Lord Kaimes himfelf, may caufe two indi¬
viduals of the fame fpecies of mankind differ from each
other as much as a mafliff does from a fpaniel.
While we are treating this fubjeft of colour, it may
not be amifs to obferve, that a very remarkable diffe¬
rence of colour may accidentally happen to individuals
of the fame fpecies. In the iflhmus of Darien, a fingu-
woman Were both to ufe food of this kind for a length
of time, till they became as it were radically dyed, it is
impoffible, without the intervention of divine power,
or of fome extraordinary natural caufe, but their chil¬
dren muft be of the fame colour; and was the fame
kind of food to be continued for feveral generations,
it is more than probable that this colour might refift
the continued ufe of any kind of food whatever.
Of this indeed we have no examples, but we have Habit capa-
an example of changes much more wonderful.— It is ^!e ^eaj^r’
allowed on all hands, that it is more eafy to work a ftjnftofani-
change upon the body of a man, or any other animal, mal?.
lar race of men have been difeovered.—They are of than upon his mind. A man that is naturally cho-
49
Chlour no
charafteri-
flic of a dif¬
ferent fpe-
low ftature, of a feeble make, and incapable of endu¬
ring fatigue. Their colour is a dead milk white ; not
refembling that of fair people among,Europeans, but
without any blufh or fanguine complexion. Their fkin
is covered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white ;
the hair of their heads, their eye-brows, and eye-lafhes,
are of the fame hue. Their eyes are of a fingular form;
and fo weak, that they can hardly bear the light of the
fun ; but they fee clearly by moon-light, and are moft
aftive and gay in the night. Among the negroes of
Africa, as well as the natives of the Indian iflands, a
fmall number of thefe people are produced. They are
called Albioas by the Portuguefe, and Kackerlakes by
the Dutch.
This race of men is not indeed permanent; but it is
leric may indeed learn to prevent the bad effefts of his
pafiion by reafon, but the paffion itfelf will remain as
immutable as his colour. - But, to reafon in a manner
fimilarto Lord Kaimes; though a man fhould be na¬
turally choleric, or fubje6t to any other paffion, why
fhould his children be fo ? This way of reafoning,
however plaufible, is by no means conclufive, as will
appear from the following paflage in Mr Forfter's
Voyage.
June 9th. “ The officers who could not yet relifh Voyage
their fait provifions after the refrefhments of New Zea- ‘
land, had ordered their black dog, mentioned p-135, Vol.I.p.a34.
to be killed: this day, therefore, we dined for the firft
time on a leg of it roafted; which tafted fo exaftly like
mutton, that it was abfolutely undiftinguifhable. In
fufficient to fhew, that mere colour is by no means the our cold countries, where animal-food is fo much ufed.
charatfteriftic of a certain fpecies of mankind. The dif- —J ~'1   1 ' — 1:—  *—
ference ofcolour in thefe individuals is undoubtedly ow-
and where to be carnivorous perhaps lies in the nature
of men, or is indifpenfibly neceflary to the prefervation
ing to a natural caufe. To conftitute, then, a race of of their health and ftrength, it is ftrange that there
men of this colour, it would only be neceffary that this
caufe, which at prefent is merely accidental, ftiould be¬
come permanent, and we cannot know but it may be
fo in fome parts of the world.
ftiould exift a Jewifti averfion to dogs-flefh, when hogs,
the moft uncleanly of all animals, are eaten without
fcruple. Nature feems exprefsly to have intended them
for this ufe, by making their offspring fo very nume-
If a difference in colour is no chara&eriftic of a dif- rous, and their increafe fo quick and frequent. It may
ferent fpecies of mankind, much lefs can a difference in be objected, that the exalted degree of inftirnft, which
ftature be thought fo.—In the fouthern parts of Ameri- we obferve in our dogs, infpires us with great unwih
ca, there are faidto be a race of men exceeding the com-
* See Fata- mon fize in height and ftrength*. This account, how-
gonia. ever, is doubted of by fome; but be that as it will, it is
certain that, the Efquimaux are as much under the com¬
mon fize, as the Patagonians are faid to be above it.
Nevetthelefs we are not to imagine, that either of thefe
axe fpecific differences; feeing the Laplanders and Hun-
lingnefs to kill and eat them. But it is owing to the
time we fpend on the education of dogs, that they ac¬
quire thofe eminent qualities which attach them fo much
to us. The natural qualities of our dogs may receive a
wonderful improvement; but education muft give its
affiftance, without which the human mind itfelf, though,
capable of an iramenfe expanfion, remains in a very con-
trafted
A M E
[ 3°5 ]
A M E
difpofition. Education may perhaps likewife graft
new inftinfts: the New Zealand dogs are fed on the re¬
mains of their matter’s meals; they eat the bones of o-
ther dogs; and the puppies become true canibals from
their birth. We had a young New Zealand puppy on
board, which had certainly had no opportunity of tatt¬
ing any thing but the mother’s milk before we pur-
chafed it: however, it eagerly devoured a portion of the
tra&ed ftate. In New Zealand, and (according to either from their colour, fize, or prevailing difpofitions, America.
_ former accounts of voyages) in the tropical ides of the feeing we have undeniable proofs that all thefe may be 
fouth fea, the dogs are the moft ftupid, dull animals changed, in the moft remarkable manner, by natural
imaginable, and do not feem to have the leaft advan- caufes, without any miraculous interpofition of the Deity,
tage in point of fagacity over our fheep, which are com- Having thus, we hope, fufficiently fliewn, that there Conjfftnrcs
monly made the emblems of fillinefs. In the former are no good reafons for fuppofing the Americans to be concerning
country they are fed upon fiflr, in the latter on vegeta- fpecifically different from other nations, we mutt now thepeopling
bles, and both thefe diets may have ferved to alter their confider from what part of the old world America has of America.
vi.—^ —u— i;i—iTA. —r* moft probably been peopled. This fubject hath been
very much canvaffed; and many conjectures, derived
from the fimilarity of words, cuftoms, have been
advanced. All thefe are very clearly refuted by Dr Hi ft ory of
Robertfon; who hath evinced, to the fatisfadtion of e- ■Amcr. vol. I.
very rational inquirer, that proofs of that kind are en- p' 2<S7*
tirely fanciful, and may be made to ferve any pur- ss
pofe. He himfelf is of opinion, that it was peopled Dr Rofcert-
flelh and bones of the dog on which we dined to-day; from the north-eaftern part of Alia, on account of the fon’s opini*
while feveral others of the European breed, taken on vicinity of the two continents to each other. His rea- on'
board at the Cape, turned from it without touching it. fons we fhall give in his own words.
“ On the 4th of Auguft, a young bitch, of the terrier “ The aftual vicinity of the two continents is fo l&i, p, 273.
breed, taken on board at the Cape of Good Hope, and clearly eftablittied by modern difcoveries, as removes the
covered by a fpaniel, brought ten young ones, one of chief difficulty with refpe£t to the peopling of Ameri-
which was dead. The New Zealand dog mentioned a- ca. While thofe immenfe regions which ftretched eaft-
bove, which devoured the bones of the roafted dog, now ward from the river Qby to the fea of Kamchatka
fell upon the dead puppy, and eat of it with a ravenous, were unknown, or imperfeftly explored, the north-eaft
appetite. This is a proof how far education may go in extremities of our hemifphere were fuppofed to be fo
producing and propagating new inftinfts in animals, far diftant from any part of the New World, that it
European dogs are never fed on the meat of their own was not eafy to conceive how any communication fhould
fpecies, but rather feem to abhor it.' The New Zea- have been carried on between them. But the Ruffians,
land dogs, in all-likelihood, are trained up from their having fubje&ed the weftern part of Siberia to their
earlieft age to eat the remains of their matter’s meals: empire, gradually extendedtheir knowledge of that vaft
they are therefore ufed to feed upon fifh; their own fpe- country, by advancing towards the eaft into unknown
cies ; and perhaps human flefh; and what was only provinces. Thefe were difcovered by hunters in their
owing to habit at 'firft, may have become inftinft by excurfions after game, or by foldiers employed in levy-
length of time. This was remarkable in our canibal- ing the taxes ; and the court of Mbfcow eftimated the
dog; for he came on board fo young, that he could not importance of thofe countries only by the fmail addition
have been weaned long enough to have acquired a ha- which they made to its revenue. At length;. Peter the
bit of devouring his own fpecies, and much lefs of eat- Great afeended the Ruffian throne: His enlightened,
rng human flefh; however, one of our feamen having comprehenlive mind, intent upon every circumftance
cut his finger, held it out to the dog, who fell to greed- that could aggrandize his empire, or render his reign
Hy, licked it, and then began to bite it.” illuftrious, difeerned confequences of thofe difcoveries.
From this account it appears, that even the inftindts which had efcaped the obfervationof his ignorant pre-
of animals are not unchangeable by natural caufes; deceffors. He perceived, that, in proportion as the re-
and if thefe caufes are powerful enough to change gions of Afia'extended towards the eaft, they mutt ap-
the difpofitions of fucceeding generations, much more proach nearer to"America; that the communication be-
may we fuppofe them capable of making any poffible tween the two continents, which had long been fearch-
j3 alteration in the external appearance. ed for in vain, would probably be found in this quar-
Con firmed We are not here neceffitated to confine ourfelves to ter; and that, by opening this intercourfe, fome part of
By an obfer- obfervations made on brute animals. The Franks are the wealth and commerce of the weftern world might
Franks an example of the produftion of one general charafter, be made to flow into his dominions by a new channel,
formed by feme natural caufe from a mixture of many a—u
different nations.—They were a. motley multitude, eon-
fitting of various German nations dwelling beyond the
the Rhine; who, uniting in-defence of their common
liberty, took thence the name of Franks; the word
frank fignifying in their language, as it ftill does in
ours, free. Among them the following nations were
mentionedj viz. the Adtuarii, Chamavi, Brufteri, Salii,
Frifii, Chauci, Amfwarii, and Catti. We cannot fup-
Such an objeeft fuited a genius that delighted in grand
fchemes. Peter drew up inftruftions with his own hand
for profecuting this defign, and gave orders for carry¬
ing it into execution.
“ His fucceffors adopted his ideas, and purfued his
plan. The officers whom the Ruffian court employed
in this fervice, had to ftruggle with fo many difficulties,
that their progrefs was extremely flow. Encouraged
by fome faint traditions among the people of Siberia
pofe one charadfer to belong to fo many different na- concerning a fucceisful voyage in the year 1648 round
tions: yet it is certain that the Franks were nationally • the north-eaft; promontory of Afia, they attempted to
characterized as treacherous-; and fo deeply feems this follow the fame courfe. Veffels were fitted out, with
quality to have been rooted in their nature, that their this view, at different times, from the rivers Lena and.
defeendents have not got quite free of it in 1500 years. Kolyma ; but in a frozen ocean, which nature feems
It-is in vain, then, to talk of different fpecies of men, not to have deftined for navigation, they were expofed
A M E [ 306 ] A M E
to many difafters, without being able to accomplifh
their purpofe. No veflel fitted out by the Ruffian court
ever doubled this formidable cape; we are indebted for
v/hat is known of thofe extreme regions of Afia, to the
difcoveries made in excurfions by land. In all thofe
provinces, an opinion prevails, that countries of great
extent and fertility lie at no confiderable diftance from
their own coafts. Thefe the Ruffians imagined to be
part of America ; and feveral circumftances concurred
not only in confirming them in this belief, but in per-
fuading them that fome portion of that continent could
not be very remote. Trees of various kinds, unknown
in thofe naked regions of Afia, are driven upon the
coaft by an eafterly wind. By the fame wind, floating
ice is brought thither in a few days; flights of birds
arrive annually from the fame quarter; and a tradition
obtains among the inhabitants, of an intercourfe for¬
merly carried on with fome countries fituated to the
eaft.
“ After weighing all thefe particulars, and compa¬
ring the pofition of the countries in Afia which they
had difcovered, with fuch parts in the north-weft of A-
merica as were already known ; the Ruffian.court form¬
ed a plan, which would have hardly occurred to any
nation lefs accuftomed to engage in arduous underta¬
kings and to contend with great difficulties. Orders
were ifliied to build two vefiels at Ochotz, in the
fea of Kamchatka, to fail on a voyage of difcovery.
Though that dreary uncultivated region furniflied no¬
thing that could be of ufe in conftrufting them, but
fome larch-trees; though not only the iron, the cor¬
dage, the fails, and all the numerous articles requifite
for their equipment, but the provifions for victualling
them, were to be carried through the immenfe deferts
of Siberia, along rivers of difficult navigation, and roads
almoft impaflable, the mandate of the fovereign, and
the perfeverance of the people, at laft furmounted every
obftacle. Two veffels were finiftied; and, under the
command of the captains Behring and Tfchirikow, fail¬
ed from Kamchatka in queft of the New World, in a
quarter where it had never been approached. They
ffiaped their courfe towards the eaft ; and tho’ a ftorm
foon feparated the veffels, which never rejoined, and
many difafters befel them, the expectations from the
voyage were not altogether fruftrated. Each of the
commanders difcovered land, which to them appeared
to be part of the American continent; and, according
to their obfervations, it feems to be fituated within a
few degrees of the north-weft coaft of California. Each
fet fome of his people alhore: but in one pl^ce the in¬
habitants fled as the Ruffians approached; in' another,
they carried off thofe who landed, and deftroyed their
boats. The violence of the weather, and the diftrefs of
their crews, obliged both to quit this inhofpitable coaft.
In their return they touched at feveral iflands, which
ftretch in a chain from eaft to weft between the country
which they had .difcovered and the coaft of Afia. They
had fome intercourfe with the natives, who feemed to
them to refemble the North Americans. They pre-
fented to the Ruffians the calumet, “or pipe of peace,
which is a fymbol of friendftiip univerfal among the peo¬
ple of North America, and an ufage of arbitrary infti-
tution peculiar to them.
That America may have been peopled from the
north-eaftern part of Afia, is certainly poffible; though
that it actually was fo, can by no means be evinced. America.
Indeed, we are led into great difficulties, from what-
ever place we fuppofe its inhabitants to have come :
for the whole continent, from north to fouth, was peo¬
pled with tribes almoft equally favage; and it is not
eafy to imagine how a few individuals, for we cannot
fuppofe many to have come from thefe frozen parts of
Afia, could have formed themfelves into fo many dif¬
ferent tribes, each having the moft inveterate malice
againft the others. Their colour, too, would incline us
to think that their progenitors had been negroes rather
than Tartars. S55
It is certain, that there is a poffibility of this conti- Another
nent having blen peopled from the Eaft Indies. We eonje<^ure-
do not fuppofe that any nation ever .fent a colony thi¬
ther. If they had done fo, the chara&eriftic marks of
that nation would have remained in fome degree; but
the moft favage tribes we have ever heard of on the an¬
cient continent, were civilized nations, when compared
with the Americans. So low, indeed, is their capacity
faid to be, that the very African negroes defpife them . ,
as a race of men inferior to themfelves.
We have already had occafion to obferve *, that the
general character of a nation depends in a confiderable ^
degree upon that of the firft founders of it. It is alfo
a certain fa£t, that living in fociety will improve the
moft barbarous nations. Had America, then, been
peopled at once, or only received one colony of men
into it, it is impoffible but the nations muft have be¬
gun fome improvements through length of time.—We
ftrall fuppofe a colony of Tartars had been by fome ac¬
cident driven on the coaft of North America. They
would have remembered their ancient cuftoms, and tranf-
mitted them to their pofterity. Thefe people, we know,
have the art of taming animals; and though they could
not find animals of the fame kind with thofe they left
in their own country, they would undoubtedly have
endeavoured to render fuch as they found in America
fubfervient to them; and the great utility of this prac¬
tice would infallibly have preferved it when once be¬
gun. It is very probable, therefore, that as the A-
mericans had not this art, neither had their anceftors;
whom, for that reafon, we can fcarce fuppofe to have
been any nation in the northern parts of Afia, where
that art has been always known.
The exceffively favage ftate of the Americans we may
account for by fuppofing them to have come originally
from the fouthern parts of Afia. From thefe places
of the old continent lie a chain of iflands with but very
moderate diftances between them, till we come to the
Marquefas and Society Iflands, lying between 138° and
1550 of W. long, and between io° and 20° of S. lat.
Then, indeed, the connexion is in a great meafure bro¬
ken off; but not fo much that we can fuppofe an im-
poffibility of fome of the inhabitants of thofe iflands
reaching the continent of America. The folitary Ifland
of Eafther or S. Carlos lies at a very confiderable di¬
ftance from the Society Ifles in lat. 270 4' S. long. 109°
46' W. and yet the inhabitants are manifeftly of the
fame race, as they fpeak almoft the fame language.
Here they have very few domeftic animals, and confe-
quently muft be very deficient in the art of taming them,
as they muft likewife be in all the fouth-fea iflands for
the fame reafon.
The prodigious inclination the natives of America
have
A M E [ 307 ] A M E
fj Ljnerica. have for war and cruelty, would alfo lead us to fufpeft
_ ^ that its firft inhabitants have been very foon harrafled
by others, who might have arrived (hortly after. Being
extremely deficient in .the neceffary arts of life when
they arrived, and prevented by the attacks of invaders
from paying attention to any thing but their own de¬
fence, and having fo much room in the immenfe conti¬
nent of America to feparate, and thereby grow daily
more and more favage, they might at laft degenerate
into a ftate below what is to be found in any other part
of the globe.
That the immenfe extent of their country conduced
veryconfiderably to their extreme favagenefs, is evident;
becaufe in the empires of Mexico and Peru, where the
inhabitants were reduced under one governor, and ob¬
liged to live in fociety, they .had made a confiderable
progrefs in civilization.
Thus have we, as well as others, made a pojfible con-
jefture concerning the origin of the Americans. Per¬
haps it may be thought the more probable, becaufe the
countries lying under or near the equator were better
peopled than thofe much to the fouthward or north¬
ward, and we may always fuppofe thofe places of a
country to be the molt populous near which the firll
inhabitants have arrived. Add to this, that the colour
of the natives of the fouth-fea illands correfponds much
better with the general colour of the Americans than
that of any other people who are yet known.—We do
not here mean to include the Efquitnaux, who inhabit
the eaftern coaft of Hudfon’s bay, as they are evidently
a difl.in£l race, and probably the fame with the Green¬
landers.—But we mull now leave thefe regions of con-
je&ure, to give fome account of the difcovery of this
, I ^ vail continent.
ncients It is believed by many, that the ancients had fome
o< /ppofed to imperfect notion of a new world, and feveral ancient
|: av.c fon,e authors are quoted in confirmation of this.—In a book
v aIcr'be(I to t*16 philofopher Ariftotle, we are told that
! the Carthaginians difcovered an ifland far beyond the
pillars of Hercules, large, fertile, and finely watered
with navigable rivers, but uninhabited, This illand
was diftant a few days failing from the continent: its
beauty induced the difcoverers to fettle there ; but the
policy of Carthage dillodged the colony, and laid ftrift
prohibition on all the fubje&s of the ftate not to at¬
tempt any future eftablilhment. This account is alfo
confirmed by an hiftorian of no mean credit, who re*
lates, that the Tyrians would have fettled a colony on
the new-difcovered ifland, but were oppofed by the
Carthaginians for ftate reafons. The following paffage
has alfo been quoted from Seneca’s Medeat in confirma¬
tion of this notion.
 Venient annii
Sxcula feris, quibus occanus
Vincula rerum laxet, & ingens
Patent tellus, Typbifque novas
Detegat orbes ; nec fit terns
Ultima Thule. - ■ -.
58 Act ver. 37J.
fofyifcovery Other authors are alfo quoted in fupport of this be-
o3^Co*tim~ lief: but, however this may be, nobody ever believed
*' the exiftence of this continent fo firmly as to go in queft
of it; and the difcovery of America was by no means
owing to any previous knowledge of its exiftence, but
to the following circumftances.—Towards the clofe of
the J£th century, Venice and Genoa being rivals in com¬
merce, in which the former had greatly the fuperiority; America.
Chriftopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, whofe know-
ledge of the true figure of the earth, however attained,
was much fuperior to the general notions of the age in
which he lived, conceived a project of failing to the
Eaft-Indies by dire&ing his courfe weftward. This
defign was founded upon a miftake of the geographers
of thofe days, who placed the eaftern parts of Afia im-
menfely too far to the eaftward; fo that, had they been
in the right, the ftiorteft way would have been to fail
directly weftward.—He applied firft to his own coun¬
trymen ; but being rejefted by them, he applied to
France, where he was laughed at and ridiculed. He
next applied to Henry VII. of England; but meeting
with a difapointment there, he made an application to
Portugal, where he met with the fame mortifying re¬
ception. Spain was his next refource; where, after eight
years attendance, he obtained, in 1492, a fleet of three
(hips, with which he fet fail in queft of the Eaft Indies.
He quitted Spain on the 3d of Auguft 1492; and af¬
ter a tedious navigation, during which his failors often
mutinied, arrived at Guinaya, one of the Lucayo iflands,
on the 12th of Oftober.
In Columbus’s firft voyage he contented himfelf with
difcovering feveral of the Lucayo or Bahama iflands,
with thofe of Cuba and Hifpaniola. On his return to
Spain, he found himfelf as much carefled as he had be¬
fore been mortified and difappointed. His fuccefs im¬
mediately produced a crowd of adventurers from all na¬
tions, who embarked in hopes of making themfelves
rich by new difcoveries ; but it was not till 1519, that
the extremity of the continent was difcovered by a ce¬
lebrated Portuguefe navigator, whofe true name was
Fernando deMagalkaens, by the Spaniards called Her¬
nando Magalhanes, and by the French Magellan, from
whom the ftraits between the fouthern point of the
continent and. the ifland of Terra del Fuego take their
name. ^
Notwithftanding the many fettlements of the Euro- Divifion of
peans in this continent, great part of America remains tlie conti-
ftill unknown. The northern continent contains the nent‘
Britifti colonies of Hudfon’s bay, Canada, Nova Scotia,
New England, New York, New Jerfey, Penfylvania,
Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Geor¬
gia, Eaft and Weft Florida. It contains alfo the Spanifti
territories of Louifiana, New Mexico, California, and
Mexico. Befides thefe, there are immenfe regions to the
weft and north, the boundaries of which have never yet
been difeovered. In fuch as are in any degree known,
dwell the Efquimaux, the Algonquins, the Hurons,
the Iroquois, the Cherokees, the Chikafaws, and many
other tribes of Indians.—In the fouthern continent lie
the Spanifti provinces of Terra Firma, Guiana, Peru,
Paraguay, and Chili; together with that of Brafil, be¬
longing to the Portuguefe; and the country of Surinam,
belonging to the Dutch. Vaft trafts, however, in the
inland parts, are unknown, being comprehended under
the general name of Amazonia. . A large di ft rift alfo,
faidto be the refidence of a gigantic race of men, lies
on the eaft fide of the continent, between the ftraits of
Magellan and the province of Paraguay.
The acquifition of thefe countries was not effefted Advantages-
without the moft horrid devaftations, and maflacres of from
the inhabitants, by the Spaniards. The riches they af- dlfcovery>
ford have alfo been the occafion of much bloodlhed a-
mong
A M E [ 308 ] A M E
America mong the Europeans themfelves ; and indeed, were the
Amelrata a^vantages which the Europeans have gained from
 1 their conquefts in America, duely contrafted with the
Ioffes they have fuftained from them, it is doubtful whe¬
ther the latter would not preponderate. It is unde¬
niable, however, that many real and folid advantages
have accrued to the Europeans by their connexions with
this continent. Gold and filver have been rendered more
plentiful in the European regions than ever they were
before. The Materia Medica hath been enriched by
the acquifition of the Peruvian bark and Ipecacuanha ;
medicines of fo great efficacy, that their good effeXs
may juftly be fuppofed to balance the bad confequences
of the venereal difeafe faid to be imported from thence.
But of the riches of America, as well as the hiftory of
its different provinces, their inhabitants, manners and
cuftoms, Sec. we fhall treat particularly under the names
of each, as they occur in alphabetical order.— \_Erratum,
in marginal note, n° 11. For cool, write moderate.']
AMERICUS VESPUCIUS, by the encouragement
of Emanuel king of Portugal, made, in 1497, fome ad¬
ditional difcoveries of that part of the world, which
from him is called America, tho’ firft difcovered by Co¬
lumbus, a Genoefe, in 1492, as narrated in the pre-
ceeding article.
AMERSFORT, a city in the Netherlands, in the
province of Utrecht, feated on the river Ems, E. long.
5. 20. N. lat. 52. 14. The moft remarkable things
are, The town-houfe; the grand palace, which is trian¬
gular; the public walk, planted with trees; and the great
church, dedicated to St George. The la rid to the call
and fouth of this city is very fruitful; on the north
there is nothing but pafture-ground, and on the weft
it is woody. Not far from hence is a mountain called
Amersfort-berg, on which they have planted a vifta of
trees, which reaches to Utrecht.
AMERSHAM, or Agmondesham, a market-
town in Buckinghamlhire, confifting of about 200
houfes, with a free-fchool, and four alms-houfes. It
fends two members to parliament, and has a market on
Tuefday. It is a reXory rated at 48 1. 16 s. 8 d. in
the king’s books. The market-houfe is a very handfome
ftruXure. W. long. o. 15. N. lat. 51. 47.
AMES (William) D. D. a learned independent di¬
vine, famous for his controverfial writings, was born in
15:76, and educated at Chrift’s college, in Cambridge.
In the reign of King James I. he left the univerfrty,
and foon after the kingdom, on account of his being
Unwilling to conform to the rules of the church ; and
retired to the Hague, where he had not been long be¬
fore he was invited to accept of the divinity-chair in
the univerfity of Franeker, in Friefland, which he fill¬
ed, with admirable abilities, for above twelve years,
during which his fame was fo great, that many came
from remote nations to be educated under him. He
from thence removed to Rotterdam, for a change of
air which his health demanded; and here he continued
during the remainder of his life. His controverfial
writings, which compofe the greateft part of his works,
are chiefly againft Bellarmine and the Arminians. He
alfo wrote, 1. A frefh Suit againft the Ceremonies.
2. Leftiones in Pfalmos Davi'dis. 3. Medulla Theologies
and feveral pieces relative to the fciences. He died of
an afthma, at Rotterdam, in Nov .1633.
AMESTRATA, a town of Sicily, (Cicero); A?nt-
Jlratos, (Stephanus) ; Amajlra, (Silius Italicus) ; Mul- Amethyft,
tiftratos, (Polybius); now Mijlretta, in the Val di De- II
mona, on the river Halefus ; a very ftrong fort of the
Carthaginians, befieged in vain by the Romans for feven -   
months with confiderable lofs; at length, after another
fiege, taken and rafed, (Diodor. Siculus.) The ap¬
pellation is Phcenician, according to Bochart, Math-
AJlrata, and Am-AJlrata, the city and people of -the
goddefs Aftarte. The inhabitants are called by Ci-
xero Amejlratini, and Mutijlratini by Pliny.
AMETHYST, a tranfparent gem of a purple co¬
lour, which feems compofed of a ftrong blue and a
deep red; and, according as either of thofe prevails,
affording different tinges of purple, fometimes ap¬
proaching to violet, and fometimes even fading to a
pale rofe colour. Though the amethyft is generally of
a purple colour, it is neverthelefs fometimes found na¬
turally colourlefs, and may at any time be eafily made
fo by putting it into the fire ; in which pellucid or
colourefs ftate, it fo refembles the diamond, that its want
of hardnefs feems the only way of diftinguiftiing it.
Some derive the name amethyjl from its.colour, which
refembles wine mixed with water : whilft others, with
more probability, think it got its name from its fup¬
pofed virtue of preventing drunkennefs ; an opinion,
which, however imaginary, prevailed to that degree a-
mong the ancients, that it was ufual for great drinkers
to wear it about their necks. Be this as it will, the
amethyft is fcarce inferior to any of the gems in the
beauty of its colour ; and in its pureft ftate is of the
fame hardnefs, and at leaft of equal value, with the ru¬
by and fapphire. It is found of various fizes, from the
bignefs of a fmall vetch, to an inch and an half in dia¬
meter, and often to much more than that in length.
Itsftiape is extremely various, fometimes roundilh, fome¬
times oblong, and at others flatted, at leaft on one
fide : but its moft common appearance is in a cryftal-
liform figure, confifting of a thick column, compofed
of four plants, and terminated by a flat and fhort py¬
ramid, of the fame number of fides ; or elfe, of a thin¬
ner and longer hexangular column ; and fometimes of
a long pyramid, without any column. It makes the
gaydl figure in the laft of thefe ftates, but is hardeft
and moft; valuable in the roundifh and pebble-like form.
The amethyft is found in the Eaft and Weft Indies,
and in feveral parts of Europe ; the oriental ones, at
leaft fome of the finer fpecimens, being fo hard and
bright as to equal any of the coloured gems in value.
However, by far the greater number of amethyfts fall
infinitely (hort of thefe; as all the European ones, and
not a few of thofe brought from the Eaft and Weft In¬
dies, are very little harder than common cryftal.
Counterfeit or Amethyst, a kind of glafs
made of cryftal frit, manganefe, and zaffer ; which, in
colour, greatly refembles the natural amethyft.
Amethyst, in heraldry, a term for the purple co¬
lour in the coat of a nobleman, in ufe with thofe who
blazon with precious ftones, inftead of metals and co¬
lours. This, in a gentleman’s efcutcheon, is called
Purpure; and in thofe of fovereign princes, Mercury.
Amethystea, amethyst ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order belonging to the diandria clafs of plants,
of which only one fpecies is known.
This plant is a native of Siberia, from whence the
feeds were fent to the imperial garden at Peterfburgh,
and
A M E [ 309 ] AMI
Amhar and tlience brought to Britain. It is an annual plant,
Amicable WI‘t^1 an uPrigllt: ftalk, which rifes about a foot high.
 - Towards the top it puts forth two or three fmall late¬
ral branches, garniihed with fmall trifid leaves, fawed
on their edges, of a very dark green colour. The
flowers appear in June or July, and are produced in
fmall umbels at the extremities of the branches. They
are of a fine blue colour, as are alfo the upper part of
the branches, and the leaves immediately under the
umbel, fo that they make a fine appearance.
Culture. The feeds of the amethyftea (hould be
fown in autumn, as they are apt to remain a whole year
in the ground if kept till the fpring. When the plants
come up, nothing elfe is lieceflary than to keep them
clear of weeds, and to thin them where they are too
clofe. They ought to be fown where they are to re¬
main, as they do not thrive when tranfplanted.
AMHAR, or Amhara, a province of Abyffinia,
faid to extend forty leagues from eaft to weft. It
is confidered as the moft noble in the whole empire,
both on account of its being the ufual refidence of the
Abyfiinian monarchs, and having a particular dialeft
different from all the reft, which, by reafon of the em¬
perors being brought up in this province, is become
the language of the court and of the politer people.
Here is the famed rock Amba-gefhen, where the young
monarchs were formerly confined. See Amba.
AMHURST (Nicholas), an Englifti poet and poli¬
tical writer, was born at Marden in Kent, and entered of
St John’s college Oxford; from whence he was expel¬
led for irregularity of conduft and libertine principles.
Retaining great refentment againft the univerfity on
this account, he abufed its learning and difcipline, and
fome of the moft refpedlable charafters in it, in a poem
publilhed in 1724, called Oculus Britannia, and in a
book entitled Terra Filius. He publiftied, A Mifcel-
lany of poems, facred and profane; and, The Convo¬
cation, a poem in 5 cantos, which was a fatire on the
bilhop of Bangor’s antagonifts. But he is beft known
for the fhare he had in the political paper called The
Craftfman ; tho’, after having been- the drudge of his
party for near 20 years, he was as much forgot in the
famous compromife of 1742, as if he had never been
born ; and, when he died in that year of a broken
heart, was indebted to the charity of his bookfeller for
a grave.
AMIANTHUS, or earth-flax, in natural hiftory,
a fibrous, flexile, elaftic, mineral fubftance, confifting
of fhort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It is found
in Germany, in the ftrata of iron ore, fometimes form¬
ing veins of an inch in diameter. There is another
kind of amianthus, which is to be met with in the mar¬
ble quarries of Wales. But this kind Linnaeus affirms
See Ash- to be an albeftos *. The amianthus does not give fire
■PjS' with fteel, nor' ferment with acids. It endures an in-
tenfe heat without injury to its texture.
AMICABLE, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
done in a friendly manner, or to promote peace.
Amicable Benches, in Roman antiquity, were, ac¬
cording to Pitifcus, lower and lefs honourable feats al¬
lotted for the judices pedanei, or inferior judges, who,
upon being admitted of the emperor’s council, were dig¬
nified by him with the title amici.
Amicable Numbers, fuch as are mutually equal to
the fum of one-another’s aliquot parts. Thus the num>
Vol. I.
bers 284 and 226 are amicable numbers : for the all- Amitfus
quote parts 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, no, H
of 220, are together equal to the other number 284; ~
and the aliquot parts 1, 2, 4, 71, 142, of 284, are
together equal to 220.
AMICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper
garment worn over the tunica.
Amictus, among ecclefiaftical writers, the upper-
moft garment anciently worn by the clergy ; the other
five being the alba, fingulum, ftola, manipulus, and
planeta. The amiftus was a linen garment, of a fquare
figure, covering the head, neck, and ftioulders, and
buckled or clafped before the breaft. It is ftill worn
by the religious abroad.
AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a womans up¬
per garment, which differed from the pala. It was
worn both by matrons and courtefans.
AMICUS cdRiiE, a law-term, to denote a by-
ftander who informs the court of a matter in law that
is doubtful or miftaken.
AMID A, (anc. geog.) a principal city of Mefo-
potamia, (Liber Notitix) ; Ammtea, (Ptolemy); fitu-
ated on a high mountain, on the borders of Affy-
ria, on the Tigris, where it receives the Nymphius.
—It was taken from the Romans, in the time of the em¬
peror Conftans, by Sapores king of Perfia. The fiege
is faid to have coft him 30,000 men; however, he redu¬
ced it to fuch ruin, that the emperor afterwards wept
over it. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the city
was rafed; the chief officers were'crucified; and the reft,
with the foldiers and inhabitants, either put to the
fword, or carried into captivity, except our hiftorian
himfelf, and two or three more, who, in the dead of
the night, efcaped thro’ a poftern unperceived by the
enemy. The inhabitants of Nifibis, however, being
obliged to leave their own city by Jovian’s treaty with
the Perfians, foonreftpred Amida to its former ftrength;
but it was again taken by Cavades in 501, but was
reftored to the Romans in 503. On the declenfion
of the Roman power, it fell again into the hands of the
Perfians ; but was taken from them by the Saracens in
899. It is now in the poffeffion of the Turks. Here
are above 20,000 Chriftians, who are better treated by
the Turks than in other places. A great trade is carried
on in this city, of red Turky leather, and cotton cloth
of the fame colour. The Arabian name of Amida is
Diarbeker, and the Turkiftione Kara-Amed. E. long.
39. o. N. lat. 36. 58.
AMIENS, a handfome, large, and ancient town
of France, the capital of Picardy, and a bilhop’s fee.
The nave of the cathedral church is a finiflied piece of
building, and the whole ftrudlure ftately ; befides
which, there are ten parilh-churches, and one in the
fuburbs, feveral religious houfes, an academy of belles
lettres, five gates, and about 35,000 inhabitants. Three
branches of the river Somme enter this city, over which
there are as many bridges. It lies in the road from
Calais to Paris, and was taken by the Spaniards in
1597, by the following ftratagem: Soldiers, difguifed
like peafants, conduced a cart loaden with nuts, and
let a bag of them fall juft as the gate wras opened;
while the guard was bufy in gathering up the nuts,
the Spaniards entered, and became mafters of the
town. It was re-taken by Henry IV. who built a ci¬
tadel here. It has manufadtures in linen and woollen
Qjj cloth;
A M M [ 3io ] A M M
Amilcar cloth; and lies in E. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 49. 34. whofe feeds are ufed in medicine. 2. The glaucifo-
AMILCAR, the name of feveral Carthaginian cap- Hum, with all its leaves cut in the lhape of a fpear. 3.
mm1' tains. The moft celebrated of them is Amilcar Barcas, The copticum, or Egyptian bilhop’s-wecd.
the father of Hannibal, who, during five years, in- Culture, &.c. The firft is an annual plant; and there-
feiled the coaft of Italy; when the Romans fending fore is to be propagated by feeds fown in the autumn,
out their whole naval ftrength, defeated him near Tra- in the place where the plants are to remain. In the
pani, 242 years before Chrift ; and this put an end to fpring, the ground fhould be hoed, to cut up the weeds,
the firft Punic war. Amilcar began the fecond, and and alfo to thin the plants, in the fame manner as is
landed in Spain, where he fubdued the moft warlike na- praftifed for carrots, leaving them four or five inches
tions; but, as he was preparing for an expedition againft afunder; or if the ground is good where they grow,
Italy, he was killed in battle, 228 years before the they muft be left atTeaft fix inches diftant. After this
Chriftian aera. He left three fons, whom he had educa- they will require no farther care than to keep them
ted, as he faid, like three lions, to tear Rome in pieces; clear of weeds. They will flower in June, and the
and made Hannibal, his eldeft fion, fwear to an eternal feeds will ripen in Auguft. They ftioujd be gathered
enmity againft the Romans. as they ripen, otherwife they will foon fcatter. This
AMILICTI, in the ancient €haldean theology, plant will grow in any open fituation, but thrives beft
one of the triads of perfons in the third order of the in a light fandy foil. The fecond fort is perennial, and
divine hierarchy. See Hierarchy. very hardy. It thrives beft in a moift foil, and may be
AMIRANTE, in the Spaniih polity, a great offi- propagated by feeds in the fame manner as the former,
cer of ftate, anfwering to our lord high-admiral. The third fpecies is now no otherwife known, than
AMISUS, the chief city of the ancient kingdom of by the figure of its feeds, which were formerly ufed in
Pontus. It was built by the Milefians, and peopled medicine, but have long fince given place to thofe of
partly by them, and partly by a colony from Athens, the common kind. The feeds of the ammi copticum
It was at firft a free city, like the other Greek cities in are fmall, ftriated, of a reddifh brown colour, a warm
Afia ; but afterwards fubdued by Pharnaces king of pungent tafte, and a pleafant fmell approaching to that
Pontus, who made it his metropolis. It was taken by of origanum. They are recommended as ftomachic,
Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, who reftored it to its carminative, and diuretic; but have long been ftrangers
ancient liberty. Clofe by Amifus flood another city to the (hops. The feeds of the ammi majus, which are
called Eupatoria, from Mithridates Eupator its foun- ufed in their place, are much weaker both in tafte and
der. This city was likewife taken by Lucullus, who fmell, and without the origanum flavour of the other,
levelled it with the ground; but it was afterwards rebuilt AMMIANUS (Marcellinus,) an hiftorian, born at
by Pompey, who united it with Amifus, giving them Antioch. He wrote in Latin, an interefting hiftory,
the name of Pompeiopolis. It was taken during the of which there are now only 18 books extant. Though
war between Casfar and Pompey, by Pharnaces king of a Pagan, he fpeaks with candour and moderation of
Pontus, who put moft of its inhabitants to the fword; the Chriftian religion, and even praifes it: his hero is
butCsefar, having conquered Pharnaces, made it again the emperor Julian. He died about the year 390.
a free city. The beft edition of his hiftory is that of Grotiovius, in
AMITTERE legem terra:, among lawyers, a 1693.
phrafe importing the lofs of liberty of fwearing in any AMMIRATO (Scipio), an eminent Italian hifto-
court: The punifhment of a champion overcome or rian, born at Lecca in Naples in 1531. After travel-
yielding in battle, of jurors found guilty in a writ of ing over great part of Italy, without fettling to his
attaint, and of a perfon outlawed. fatisfa&ion, he was engaged by the great duke of
AMITERNUM, a town of the Sabines, in Italy, Tufcany to write The Hijlory of Florence; for which
(Livyj Pliny); now extinft: The ruins are to be feen he was prefented to a canonry in the cathedral there,
on the level ridge of a mountain, near S. Vittorino, He wrote other works while in this ftation; and died
and the fprings of the Aternus; not far from Aquila, in 1600.
which rofe out of the ruins of Amiternum. The inha- AMMODYTES, or sand-eel, in ichthyology,
bitants are called Amiternini, (Livy, Pliny.) The a genus of fifties belonging to the order of apodes.
epithet, Amiternus, (Virgil.) This fifh refembles an eel, and feldom exceeds a foot
AMMA, among ecclefiaftical writers, a term ufed in length. The head of the ammodytes is compreffed,
to denote an abbefs or fpiritual mother. and narrower than the body ; the upper jaw is larger
AMMAN, or Ammant, in the German and Bel- than the under; the body is cylindrical, with fcales
gic policy,, a judge who has the cognizance of civil hardly perceptible. There is but one fpecies of the am-
caufes.-—It is alfo ufed among the French for a public modytes, viz. thetobianus, or launce,anative of Europe,
notary, or officer who draws up inftruments and deeds. This fifti gathers itfelf into a circle, and pierces the
AMMANIA, a genus of the monogynia order be- fand with its head in the centre. It is found in moft
longing to the tetrandria clafs of plants.—Of this ge- of our fandy ftiores during fome of the fummer-months:
nus there are three fpecies enumerated; all of them na- it conceals itfelf, on the recefs of the tides, beneath
lives of warm climates. They have ho beauty or o- the fand, in fuch places where the water is left, at the
ther remarkable property, and confequently merit no depth.of about a foot; and is in fome places dug out,
further defcription. in others drawn up by means of a hook contrived for
AMMI, bishop'S-weed, a genus of the digynia that purpofe. They are commonly ufed as baits
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. Of for other fifti, but they are alfo very delicate eating,
this there are three Thefe fifti are found in the ftomach of the Porpefs ;
Species, 1. The majus, or common biftiopVweed, an argument that the laft roots up the fand with its
nofe
dytes.
A M M [ 311 ] A M M
Ammon.
nofe, as hogs do the ground.
AMMON, anciently a city of Marmarica, (Ptolemy ).
Arrian calls it a place, not a city, in which ftood the
temple of Jupiter Ammon, round which there was no¬
thing but fandy waftes. Pliny fays. That the oracle
of Ammon was twelve days journey from Memphis,
and among the Nomi of Egypt he reckons the Nomos
Ammoniacus: Diodorus Siculus, That the diftrift where
the temple ftood, tho’ furrounded with defarts, was wa¬
tered by dews which fell nowhere elfe in all that coun¬
try. It was agreeably adorned with fruitful trees, and
fprings, and full of villages. In the middle ftood the
acropolis or citadel, encompafled with a triple wall; the
firft and inmoft of which contained the palace; the o-
thers the apartments of the women, the relations and
children, as alfo the temple of the god, and the facred
fountain for luftrations. Without the acropolis ftood,
at no great diftance, another temple of Ammon, Iha-
ded by a number of tall trees: near which there was
a fountain, called that of the fun, or Solis Fans, be-
caufe fubjeft to extraordinary changes according to the
time of the day ; morning and evening warm, at noon
cold, at midnight extremely hot. A kind of fofiil fait
was faid to be naturally produced here. It was dug
out of the earth in large oblong pieces, fometimes three
lingers in length, and tranfparent as cryftal. It was
thought to be a prefent worthy of kings, and ufed by
the Egyptians in their facrifices.—From this, our fal-
ammoniac has taken its name.
AMMON, or Hammon, in heathen mythology,
the name of the Egyptian Jupiter, worlhipped under
the figure of a ram.
Bacchus having fubdued Afia, and palling with his
army through the defarts of Africa, was in great want
of water: but Jupiter, his father, affuming the lhape
of a ram, led him to a fountain, where he refrelhed
himfelf and his army; in requital of which favour,
Bacchus built there a temple to Jupiter, under the title
of Ammon, from the Greek xw-®', which fignifies fand,
alluding to the fandy defart where it was built. His
oracles lafted till the time of Theodofius.
AMMON, the father of the Ammonites, was the
fon of Lot by his youngeft daughter. Gen. xix. 38.
AMMON ( Andreas), an excellent Latin poet, born
at Lucca in Italy, was fent by Pope Leo X. to England,
in the chara&ers of prothonotary of the Apoftolic See,
and colleftor-general of this kingdom. Being a man
of lingular genius and learning, he foon became ac¬
quainted with the principal literati of thofe times; par¬
ticularly with Erafmus, Colet, Grocin, and others,
for the fake of whofe company he refided fome time at
Oxford. Ammon was Latin fecretary to Henry VIII.
but at what time he was appointed does not appear.
In 1512, he was made canon and prebendary of the
collegiate chapel of St Stephen, in the palace of Weft-
minfter. He was likewife prebendary of Wells; and
in 1514, was prefented to the reftory of Dychial in
that diocefe. About the fame time, by the king’s
fpecial recommendation, he was alfo made prebendary
of Salilbury. He died in the year 1517, and was bu¬
ried in St Stephen’s chapel in the palace of Weftmin-
fter. He was etteemed an elegant Latin writer, and
an admirable poet. The epiftles of Erafmus to Am¬
mon abound with encomiums on his genius and learn-
ning.—His works are, 1. Epijlolx ad Erafmum, lib. i.
2. Scotici confliflus hijloria, lib. i. 3. Bucolka vel ec-
logse, lib. i. Bafil 1546, 8vo. 4. De rebus nihil, lib. i.
5. Panegyricus quidam, lib. i. 6. Varii generis epi-
grammata, lib. i. 7. Poemata diverfa, lib. i.
AMMONIAC, a concrete gummy refinous juice,
brought from the Eaft-Indies, ufually in large maffes,
compofed of little lumps or tears, of a milky colour,
but foon changing, upon being expofed to the air, of
a yellowilh hue. We have no certain account of the
plant which affords this juice; the feeds ufually found
among the tears refemble thofe of the umbelliferous
clafs. Such tears as are large, dry, free from little
ftones, feeds, or other impurities, fhould be picked out,
and preferred for internal ufe : the coarfer kind is pu¬
rified by folution and colajure, and then carefully in-
fpiffating it; unlefs this be artfully managed, the gum
will lofe a confiderable deal of its more volatile parts.
There is often vended in the ftiops', under the name of
ftrained gum ammoniacum, a compofition of ingredients
much inferior in virtue.
Ammoniac has a naufeous fweet tafte, followed by a
bitter one; and a peculiar fmell, fomewhat like that of
galbanum, but more grateful: it foftens in the mouth,
and grows of a whiter colour upon being chewed.
Thrown upon live coals, it burns away in flame: it is
in fome meafure foluble in water and in vinegar, with
which it affumes the appearance of milk ; but the re¬
finous part, amounting to about one half, fubfides on
ftanding.
Ammoniac is an ufeful deobftruent, and frequently
prefcribed for opening obftruftions of the abdominal
vifcera, and in hyfterical diforders occafioned by a de¬
ficiency of the menftrual evacuations. It is likewife
fuppofed to deterge the pulmonary veffels; and proves
of confiderable fervice in fome kinds of afthmas, where
the lungs are oppreffed by vifcid phlegm: in this inten¬
tion, a folution of gum ammoniac in vinegar of fquills
proves a medicine of great efficacy, though not a little
unpleafant. In long and obftinate colics proceeding
from vifcid matter lodged in the inteftines, this gummy
refin has produced happy effects, after the purges and
the common carminatives had been ufed in vain. Am¬
moniac is moft commodioufly taken in the form of pills;
about a fcruple may be given every night, or oftener.
Externally, it foftens and ripens hard tumours: a folu¬
tion of it in vinegar Hands recommended by fome for
refolving even fchirrhous fwellings.
Sal Ammoniac, a volatile fait, of which there are
two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient fort, de-
fcribed by Pliny and Diofcorides, was a native fait,
generated in thofe large inns or caravanferas, where the
crowd of pilgrims, coming from the temple of Jupiter
Ammon, ufed to lodge ; who, in thofe parts, travel¬
ing upon camels, and thofe creatures when in Cyrene,
a province of Egypt, where that celebrated temple
ftood, urining in the ftables, or (fay fome) in the parch¬
ed fands, out of this urine, which is remarkably ftrong,
arofe a kind of fait, denominated fometimes, from the
temple, Ammoniac, and fometimes, from the country,
Cyreniac. Since the ceffation of thefe pilgrimages, no
more of this fait is produced there; and, from this de¬
ficiency, fome fufpedt there never was any fuch thing :
But this fufpicion is removed, by the large quantities
of a fait, nearly of the fame nature, thrown out by
mount iEtna. The chara&ers of the ancient fal armo-
Q^q 2 niac
Ammoniac-
AMO [3:
Aramonit* niac arer that it cools water, turns aqua fortis into
II aqua regia, and cotifequently diffolves gold.
—“I0”1"1!1-! The modem fal armoniac is entirely factitious; for
which, fee Chemistry, n° 125, 189, 232, 234, 276,
331*
AMMONITtE, in natural hiftory. See Cornu
Ammonis.
AMMONITIS, (anc. gcogr.) a country of Arabia
Petraea, occupied by the children of Ammon, whence
the appellation. Its limits partly to the weft and part¬
ly to the north were the river Jabbok, whofe courfe is
no where determined; though Jofephus fays, that it
runs between Rabbath-Ammon, or Philadelphia, and
Gerafa, and falls into the Jordan.
AMMONIUS, furnamed Saceas, was born in A-
lexandria, and flourifhed about the beginning of the
third century. He was one of the moft celebrated phi-
lofophers of his age. He took great pains in recon¬
ciling the differences between the Platonifts and Peripa¬
tetics, in which he gained great reputation. Plotinus
and Origen were both his difciples. He died about the
year 230.
Ammonius, furnamed Lithotome, a celebrated
furgeon of Alexandria, fo called from his inventing the
operation of drawing the ftone out of the bladder.
AMMUNITION, a general term for all warlike
provifions, but more efpecially powder, ball, <bc.
Ammunition, arms, utenfils of war, gun-powder,
imported without licence from his Majefty, are, by the
laws of England, forfeited, and triple the value. And
again, fuch licenfe obtained, except for furnifliing his
Majefty’s public ftores, is to be void, and the offender
to incur a premunire, and to be difabled to hold any
office from the crown.
Ammunition Bread, Shoes, &c. fuch as are ferved
out to the foldiers of an army or garrifon.
AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a par¬
don granted by a prince to his rebellious fubjedts,
ufually with fome exceptions : fuch was that granted
by Charles II. at his reftoration.—The word is form¬
ed from the Greek a^fo-r/a, the name of an edidt of
this kind publiffied by Thrafibulus, on his expullion of
the tyrants out of Athens.
AMNIOS, in anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane
* See H'ictus- which furrounds the foetus in the womb *.
AMOEBjEUM, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem
reprefenting a difpute between two perfons, who are
made to anfwer each other alternately : fuch are the
third and feventh of Virgil’s eclogues.
AMOL, a town of Afia, in the country of the Uf-
becks, feated on the river Gihon. E. Long. 64. 30
N. Lat. 39. 20.
AMOMUM, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants.—Of
this genus there are four
Species. 1. The zingiber, or common ginger, is
a native of the Eaft, and alfo of fome parts of the
Weft Indies; where it grows naturally without cul¬
ture. The roots are jointed, and fpread in the
ground : they put out many green reed-like ftalks
in the' fpring, which arife to the height of two
feet a»d an half, with narrow leaves. The flower-
ftems arife by the fide of thefe, immediately from the
root; thefe are naked; ending with an oblong fcaly
Ipike. From each of thefe fcales is produced a fingle
[2 ] AMO
blue flower, whofe petals are but little lower than the Amomum.
fquamous covering. 2. The zerumbet, or wild ginger, 1
is a native of India. The roots are larger than thofe
of the firft, but are jointed in the fame manner. The
ftalks grow from three to near four feet high, with
oblong leaves placed alternately. The flower-ftems
arife immediately from the root: thefe are terminated
by oblong, blunt, fcaly heads ; out of each fcale is
produced a fingle white flower, whofe petals extend a
confiderable length beyond the fcaly covering. 3.
The cardamomum, or cardamom, is likewife a na¬
tive of India; but is little known in this country ex¬
cept by its feeds, which are ufed in medicine. Of
this there is a variety, with fmaller fruit, which makes
the diftinftion into cardamomum majus and minus.
The firft, when it comes to us, is a dried fruit or pod
about an inch long, containing, under a thick fkin,
two rows of fmall triangular feeds of a warm aromatic
flavour. The cardamomum minus is a fruit fcarce half
the length of the foregoing, but confiderably ftronger
both in fmell and tafte. 4. The grana paradifi fpecies
is likewife a native of the Eaft-Indies. The fruit
containing the grains of paradife is about the fize of
a fig, divided into three cells, in each of which are
contained two roots of fmall feeds like cardamoms.
They are fomewhat more grateful, and confiderably
more pungent, than cardamoms.
Culture. The firft two fpecies are tender, and require
a warm ftove to preferve them in this country. They
are eafily propagated by parting the roots in the fpring.
Thefe fhould be planted in pots filled with light rich
earth, and plunged intoa hot-bed of tanner’s-bark, where
they muft conftantly remain. Cardamoms and grains
of paradife are not cultivated in this country. If we
may believe the Abbe Raynal, the former propagate
themfelves, in thofe countries where they are natives,
without either fowing or planting. Nothing more is
required than, as foon as the rainy feafon is over, to
fet fire to the herb which has produced the fruit.
Ufes. The dried roots of the firft fpecies are of great
ufe in the kitchen, as well as in medicine. They fur-
nifli a confiderable export from fome of the American
iflands. The green roots, preferved as a fweet-meat,,
are preferable to every other kind. The Indians mix
them with their rice, which is their common food, to
correct its natural infipidity. This fpice, mixed with
others, gives the difhes feafoned with it a ftrong tafte,
which is extremely difagreeable to ftrangers. The
Europeans, however, who come into Afia without for¬
tunes, are obliged to conform to it. The others ad¬
opt it out of complaifance to their wives, who are ge¬
nerally natives of the country.—Ginger is a very ufe-
ful fpice, in cold flatulent colics, and in laxity and de¬
bility of the inteftines; it does not heat fo much as thofe
of the pepper kind, but its effefts are much more du¬
rable. The cardamoms and grains of paradife have the
fame medicinal qualities with ginger.
Amomum Verum, or True Amomum,. is a round
fruit, about the fize of a middling grape ; containing,
under a membranous cover, a number of fmall rough
angular feeds, of a blackifh brown colour on the out-
fide, and whitilh within : the feeds are lodged in three
diftinft cells ; thofe in each cell are joined clofely to¬
gether, fo as that the fruit, upon being opened, ap¬
pears to contain only three feeds. Ten or twelve of
thefe
AMP
1
i
AMO [ V3]
lAmontons thefe fruits grow together in a duller; and adhere,
II. without any pedide, to a woody ftalk about an inch
t.Amonum. jong. eac}1 fingle fruJt is furrounded by fix leaves, in
form of a cup; and the part of the ftalk void of fruit
is clothed with leafy fcales.—The hulks, leaves, and
Items, have a light grateful fmell, and a moderately
warm aromatic tafte : the feeds, freed from the hulks,
are in both refpefts much ftronger; their fmell is
quick and penetrating, their tafte pungent, approach¬
ing to that of camphor. Notwithftanding amomum
is an elegant aromatic, it has long been a ftranger to
the Ihops. See Materia Medica, n° 97.
Amomum Vulgare. See Sison;
AMONTONS (William), an ingenious experimen¬
tal philofopher, was born at Paris in 1663. While
he was at the grammar-fchool, he by ficknefs contrac¬
ted a deafnefs that almoft excluded him converfation :
in this fituation, he applied himfelf to mechanics and
geometry; and, it is faid, refufed to try any remedy for
his diforder, either becaufe he deemed it incurable, or
becaufe it increafed his attention. He ftudied the na¬
ture of barometers and thermometers with great care ;
and wrote Obfervations and Experiments concerning a
new Hour-glafs, and concerning Barometers^ Thermo¬
meters, and Hygrofcopes ; which, with fome pieces in
the Journal des S9avans, are all his literary works.
When the royal academy was new regulated in 1699,
he was admitted a member ; and read his New Theory
of Friftion, in which he happily cleared up an impor¬
tant objeft in mechanics. He died in 1705.
AMORiEANS, a feft or order of gemaric dodtors,
or commentators on the Jerufalem Talmud. The A-
morasans fucceeded the Mifchnic dodlors. They fub-
fifted 250 years; and were fucceeded by the Seburaeans.
AMORGOS, or Amurgus, (anc. geogr.) now
Morgo, not far from Naxus to the eaft, one of the Eu¬
ropean Sporades ; the country of Simonides the fam-
bic poet, (Strabo.) To this illand criminals wereba-
nilhed, (Tacitus.) It was famous for a fine flax called
Emorgis. See Morgo.
AMORITES. See Amorrhitis.
AMORIUM, a town of Phrygia Major, near the
river Sangarius, on the borders of Galatia.—It was
taken from the Romans by the Saracens in 668 ; but
foon after retaken by the Romans.—A war break¬
ing out again between thefe two nations in 837,
the Roman emperor Theophylus deftroyed Sozopetra
the birth-place of the khalif Al’ Motafem, notwith¬
ftanding his earneft intreaties to him to fpare it. This
fo enraged the khalif, that he ordered every one to en¬
grave upon his ftiield the word Amorium, the birth¬
place of Theophylus, which he refolved at all events to
deftroy. Accordingly he laid fiege to the place, but
met with a vigorous refiftance. At length, after a fiege
of 55 days, it was betrayed by one of the inhabitants
who had abjured the Chriftian religion. The khalif,
exafperated at the lofs he had fuftained during the fiege,
put moft of the men to the fwcrd, carried the women
and children into captivity, and levelled the city with
the ground. His forces being diftrefled for want of
water on their return home, the Chriftian prifoners rofe
upon fome of them, and murdered them ; upon which
the khalif put 6000 of the prifoners to death.—Ac¬
cording to the eaftern hiftorians, 30,000 of the inha¬
bitants of Amorium were flain, and as many carried
into captivity.
AMORPHA, bastard indigo, a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants.
Of this there is only one known fpecies, a native of
Carolina, where the inhabitants formerly made from it
a coarfe kind of indigo, whence the plant took its
name. It rifes, with many irregular ftems, to the
height of 12 01-14 feet, garnifhed u-ith very long wing¬
ed leaves, in ftiape like thofe of the common acacia. At
the extremity of the fame year’s (hoots, the flowers are
produced in long flender fpikes of a deep purple colour.
After they are paft, the germen turns to a ftiort pod,
having two kidney-fhaped feeds ; but thefe do not ri-.
pen in Britain. The feeds of this plant were firft fent
to England by Mr Mark Catefby in 1724, from which,
many plants were railed in the gardens near London.
Thefe were of quick growth, and feveral of them pro¬
duced flowers in three years.
Culture. The amorpha is moft readily propagated
by feeds, which ought to be procured annually from
America. It may alfo be propagated by laying down
the young branches, which in one year will make good
roots; and may then be taken off, and planted either
in the nurfery, or in the places where they are defign-
ed to remain. If they are put into a nurfery, they
ftiould not remain there more than one year; for as
the plants make large (hoots, they do not remove well
when they have remained long in a place.
AMORRHITIS, (anc. geogr.) the country of the
Amorites, fituated, according to Jofephus, between
three rwers, like an illand: the Arnon on the fouth,
the Jabbok on the north, and the Jordan on the weft.
The Amorita, or Amorrhai, took their name from A-
mor, or Emor, the fon of Canaan. They dwelt in the
mountains of Judah to the fouth, and in fome parts
mixed with the Hethaei; alfo about Sichem : but a
great part of them croffed the Jordan, and in a hoftile
manner occupied a confiderable part of the country of
the Moabites and Ammonites; which afterwards fell to
the Ifraelites, on the defeat of Sihon their king.
AMORTIZATION, inlaw, the alienation of lands
or tenements to a corporation or fraternity and their
fucceffors. See Mortmain.
AMOS, the third of the twelve leffer prophets, was
an herdfman of the city of Tekoa. He prophefied un¬
der Uzzias and Jeroboam II. and foretold the captivity
and re-eftabli(liment of the ten tribes. He was put
to death by Amafius prieft of Bethel, about 785 years
before Chrift.—He ought not to be confounded with
Amos, the father of Ifaiah.
AMOY, an ifland in the province of Fokien, in
China, where the Englifti had a faftory: but they
have abandoned it, on account of the impofitions of
the inhabitants. Long. 136. 0. lat. 24. 30. It has
a fine port, that will contain many thoufand veffels.
The emperor has a garrifon here of 7000 men.
AMPELIS, the vine, in botany. See Vitis.
Am.rel.is, the Chatterer, in zoology, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of pafferes; the diftin-
guifhing characters of which are, that the tongue is
furniftied with a rim or margin all round, and the bill
is conical and ftrait. There are fcven fpecies, all na¬
tives of foreign countries, except the garrulus, which
is a native both of Europe and the Weft-Indies.. In
Amor)n!ia
II .
Ampehs.
AMP [3
•A-mpeUs the former, the native country of thefe birds is Bohe-
II mia; from whence they wander over the reft of Eu-
raus. rope, and were once fuperftitioufly confidered as pre-
  fages of a peftilence. They appear annually about E-
dinburgh, in February; and feed on the berries of the
mountain-alh. They alfo appear as far fouth as North¬
umberland ; and, like the field-fare, make the berries
of the white-thorn their food. It is but by accident
that they ever appear further fouth. They are grega¬
rious ; feed on grapes, where vineyards are cultivated;
are eafily tamed; and are efteemed delicious food. This
fpecies is about the fize of the black-bird: the bill is
fhort, thick, and black; on the head is a ftiarp point¬
ed creft reclining backwards: the lower part of the tail
is black ; the end of a rich yellow: the quill-feathers
are black, the three firft tipt with white; the fix next
have half an inch of their exterior margin edged with
line yellow, the interior with white. But what diftin-
guiflies this from all other birds, are the horny appen¬
dages from the tips of feven of the fecondary feathers,
of the colour and glofs of the beft red wax.
AMPELITES, cannel-coal, a hard, opaque,
foffile, inflammable fubftance, of a black colour. It
does not effervefce with acids. The ampelites, though
much inferior to jet in many refpetts, is yet a very beau¬
tiful foflile ; arid, for a body of fo compact a ftruc-
ture, remarkably light. Examined by the micro-
fcope, it appears compofed of innumerable very fmall
and thin plates, laid clofely and firmly on one another;
and full of very fmall fpecks of a blacker and more fhi-
ning matter than the reft, which is evidently a purer
bitumen than the general mafs. Thefe fpecks are equally
diffufed over the different parts of the maffes. There is
a large quarry of it near Alen5on in France. It is dug
in many parts of England, but the fineft is in Lan-
cafliire and Chefliire ; it lies ufually at confiderable
depths. It makes a very brilk fire, flaming violently
for a fhort time, and after that continuing red and
glowing hot a long while ; and finally is reduced into
a fmall proportion of grey allies, the greater part of its
fubftance having flown off in the burning. — It is capa¬
ble of a very high and elegant polilh ; and, in the coun¬
tries where it is produced, is turned into a vaft number
of toys, as fnuff-boxes and the like, which bear all the
nicety of turning, and are made to pafs for jet.—Huf-
bandmen fmear their vines with it, as it kills the ver¬
min which infefts them. It is likewife ufed for the
dyeing of hair black. In medicine, it is reputed good
in colics, againft worms, and of being in general an
emollient and difcutient; but the prefent praftice takes
no notice of it.
AMPELUSIA, a promontory of Mauritania Tin-
fitana, called Cottes by the natives, which is of the fame
gnification, (Mela); with a town of the fame name,
(Pliny); not far from the river Lixus, near the ftraits
of Gibraltar: now Cape Spartel. W. Long. 6. 30.
Lat. 36. o.
AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of veffels where¬
in the rowers plied two oars at the fame time, one with
the right hand, and another with the left.
AMPH1ATHROSIS, in anatomy, atermforfuch
junctures of bones as have an evident motion, but dif¬
ferent from the diarthrofis, &c. See Diarthrosis.
AMPHIARAUS, in pagan mythology, a celebra¬
ted prophet, who poffefled part of the kingdom of Ar-
14 ] AMP
gos. He was believed to excel in divining by dreams, Amphibia,
and is faid to be the firft who divined by fire. Am-
phiaraus knowing, by the fpirit of prophecy, that
he ftiould lofe his life in the war againft Thebes, hid
himfelf in order to avoid engaging in that expedi¬
tion : but his wife Eriphyle, being prevailed upon by
a prefent, difcovered the place in which he had con¬
cealed himfelf; fo that he was obliged to accompa¬
ny the other princes who marched againft; Thebes.
This proved fatal to him; for the earth being fplit a-
funder by a thunder-bolt, both he and his chariot were
fwallowed up in the opening.—Amphiaraus, after his
death, was ranked among the gods; temples were de¬
dicated to him; and his oracle, as well as the fports in-
ftituted to his honour, were very famous.
AMPHIBIA, in zoology, the name of Linnaeus’s
third clafs of animals; including all thofe which live
partly in water, and partly on land. This clafs he fub-
divides into four orders, viz. The amphibia reptiles;
the amphibia ferpentes; the amphibia nantes; and the
amphibia meantes. See Zoology.
It has been a queftion whether the animals common¬
ly called amphibious, live moft in the water or on land.
If we confider the words (utrinque, both ways),
and (vita, life), from which the term amphibious is
derived; we ftiould underftand, that animals, having this
title, ftiould be capable of living as well by land, or in
the air, as by water; or of dwelling in either conftant-
ly at will: but it will be difficult to find any animal
that can fulfil this definition, as being equally qualified
for either. An ingenious naturalift *, therefore, from * Dr Par-
confidering their ceconomy refpe&ively, divides them fins; in a
into two orders, viz. 1. Such as enjoy their chief func-
tions by land, but occafionally go into the water. Roya| So_
2. Such as chiefly inhabit the water, but occafionally ctety, 17(17.
go afhore. What he advances on this fubjett is curious,
and well illuftrates the nature of this clafs. r. Of the
firft order, he particularly confiders the phocae ; and
endeavours to fhew, that none of them can live chiefly
in the water, but that their chief enjoyment of the func¬
tions qf life is on ftrore.
Thefe animals (he obferves) are really quadrupeds*; *Sce the ar-
but, as their chief food is fifh, they are under a ne- tlc^e Moca.
ceffity of going out to fea to hunt their prey, and to
great diftances from ftiore; taking care that, however
great the dlftance, rocks or fmall iflands are at hand,
as refting-places when they are tired, or when their
bodies become too much macerated in the water; and
they return to the places of their ufual refort to fleep,
copulate, and bring forth their young, for the follow¬
ing reafons, viz. It is well known, that the only effen-
tial difference (as to the general ftruAure of the heart)
between amphibious and mere land animals, or fuch as
never go into the water, is, that in the former the oval
hole remains always open. Now, in fuch as are with¬
out this hole, if they were to be immerfed in water for
but a little time, refpiration would ceafe, and the ani¬
mal muft die; becaufe a great part of the mafs of blood
paffes from the heart by the pulmonary artery through
the lungs, and by the pulmonary veins returns to the
heart, while the aorta is carrying the greater part of
the mafs to the head and extremities, &c.
Now, the blood paffes through the lungs in a conti¬
nual uninterrupted ftream, while refpiration is gentle
and moderate : but when it is violent, then the circu¬
lation
Amphibia*
AMP [ 315 1 AMP
A Amphibia, lation is interrupted, for infpiration and exfpiration are
ij r” — now carried to their extent; and in this ftate the blood
cannot pafs through the lungs either during the total
infpiration or total exfpiration of the air in breathing:
for, in the former cafe, the inflation comprefles the re¬
turning veins; and, in the latter, by the collaplion of the
lungs, thefe veins are interrupted alfo; fo that it is only
between thefe two violent actions that the blood can
pafs: and hence it is, that the lives of animals are fhort-
ened, and their health impaired, when they are fubjec-
ted to frequent violent refpiration; and thus it is, that
when animals have once breathed, they muft conti¬
nue to refpire ever after, for life is at an end when that
ceafes.
There are three neceflary and principal ufes of refpi¬
ration in all land-animals, and in thofe kinds that are
counted amphibious.—The firft is that of promoting
the circulation of the blood through the whole body
and extremities. In real fifties, the force of the heart is
alone capable of fending the blood to every part, as
they are not furniftied with limbs or extremities; but
in the others mentioned, being all furniftied with
extremities, refpiration is an affiftant force to the arte¬
ries in fending blood to the extremities, which, being
fo remote from the heart, have need of fuch afiillance,
otherwife the circulation would be very languid in thefe
parts: thus we fee, that, in perfons fubjedt to afthmatic
complaints, the circulation grows languid, the legs grow
cold and oedematous, and other parts fuffer by the de-
fed! in refpiration.—A fecond ufe of breathing is, that,
in infpiration, the variety of particles, of different qua¬
lities, which float always in the air, might be drawn in¬
to the lungs, to be infmuated into the mafs of blood,
being highly neceffary to contemperate and cool the 2-
itated mafs, and to contribute refined pabulum to the
ner parts of it, which, meeting with the daily fupply
of chyle, ferves to affimilate and more intimately mix
the mafs, and render its conflitution the fitter for fup-
porting the life of the animal. Therefore it is, that
valetudinarians, by changing foul or unwholefome air
for a free, good, open air, often recover from lingering
difeafes.—A third principal ufe of refpiration is, to
promote the exhibition of voice in animals; which all
thofe that live on the land do according to their fpeci-
:jfic natures.
From .thefe confiderations it-appears, that the phocs
of every kind are under an abfolute neceflity of ma¬
king the land their principal refidence. But there is
another very convincing argument why they refide on
fhore the greateft part of their time; namely, that the
flefh of thefe creatures is analogous to that of other land
animals; and therefore, by over long maceration, added
to the fatigue of their chacing their prey, they would
fuffer fuch a relaxation as would deftroy them. It is
well known, that animals, which have lain long under
water, are reduced to a very lax and even putrid ftate;
and the phoca,muft balk in the air on fhore: for while
the folids are at reft, they acquire their former degree of
tenfiqn, and the vigour of the animal is reftored; and
while he has an uninterrupted placid refpiration, his
blood is refrefhed by the new fupply of air, as explain¬
ed above, and he is rendered fit for his next cruife: for
aftiqn waftes the moft exalted fluids of the body, more
or lefs, according to its duration and violence; and the
neftorative reft muft continue a longer or Hunter time,
according to the quantity of the previous fatigue.
Let us now examine by what power thefe animals
are capable of remaining longer under water than land-
animals.
All thefe have the oval hole open between the right
and left auricles of the heart; and, in many, the cana-
lis arteriofus alfo : and while the phoca remains under
water, which he may continue an hour or two more or
lefs, his refpiration is flopped'; and the blood, not find¬
ing the paflage thro’ the pulmonary artery free, rufhes
through the hole from the right to the left auricle, and
partly through the arterial canal, being a fhort paffaga
to the aorta, and thence to every part of the body,
maintaining the circulation: but, upon rifing to come
afhore, the blood finds its paffage again through the
lungs the moment he refpires.
Thus the foetus * in utero, during his confinement, * See Fxiu;.
having the lungs comprefled, and confeqifently the pul¬
monary arteries and veins impervious, has the circula¬
tion of the blood carried on through the oval hole and
the arterial canal. Now, fo far the phoca in the water,
and the foetus in utero, are analogous ; but they differ
in other material circumftances. One is, that the foetus,,
having never refpired, remains fufficiently nourifhed
by the maternal blood circulating through him, and
continues to grow till the time of his birth, without
any want of refpiration during nine months confine¬
ment : the phoca, having refpired the moment of his
birth, cannot live very long without it, for the reafons
given before ; and this hole and canal would be clofed
in them, as it is in land-animals, if the dam did not,
floon after the birth of the cub, carry him fo very fre¬
quently into the water to teach him; by which prac¬
tice thefe paffages are kept open during life, other-
wife they would not be capable of attaining the food
defig-ned for them by Providence.
Another difference is, that the phoca, as was faid be¬
fore, would be relaxed by maceration in remaining too
long in the water; whereas the foetus in utero fuffers
no injury from continuing its full number of months
in the fluid it fwims in: the reafon is, that water is a
powerful folvent, and penetrates the pores of the fkins
of land-animals, and in time can diffolve them; where¬
as- the liquor amnii is an infipid foft fluid, impregnated
with particles more or lefs mucilaginous, and utterly
incapable of making the leaft alteration in the cutis of
the foetus.
Otters, beavers, and fome kinds of rats, go occafion-
ally into the water for their prey, but cannot remain
very long under water. “ I have often gone to fhoot
otters, (fays our author),and watched all their motions:
I have feen one of them go foftly from a bank into the
river, and dive down; and in about two minutes rife, at
ten or fifteen yards from the place he went.in, with a
middling falmon in his mouth, which he brought on
fhore : I fhot him, and laved the fifh whole.” Now,
as all foetufes have thefe paffages open, if a whelp of a
true water-fpaniel was, immediately after its birth, .ler-
ved as the phoca does her cubs, and immerfed in water,
to flop refpiration for a little time every day, it is pro¬
bable that the hole and canal would be kept open, and
the dog be made capable of remaining as long under
water as the phoca.
Frogs, how capable foever of remaining in the wa¬
ter, yet cannot avoid living on land, for they refpire;;
and.
AMP [ 316 ] AMP
Amphibia, and jf a fr0g be thrown into a river, he makes to the
fliore as fail as he can.
The lizard kind, fuch as may be called water-liz-
f See Lacer- ardsf, are all obliged to come to land, in order to de-
ta- pofit their eggs, to reft, and to fleep. Even the cro¬
codiles, who dwell much in rivers, fleep and lay their
eggs on fliore; and, while in the water, are compelled
to rife to the furface to breathe : yet, from the tex¬
ture of his fcaly covering, he is capable of remaining
in the water longer by far than any fpecies of the pho-
ca, whofe {kin is analogous to that of a horfe or cow.
* See Hippo- The hippopotamus *, who wades into the lakes or
potamus. rivers, is a quadruped, and remains under the water a
confiderable time; yet his chief refidence is upon land,
and he muft come on fliore for refpiration.
| See Te/iu- The teftudo, or fea-tortoife t, though he goes out to
^ fea and is often found far from land; yet being a re-
fpiring animal, cannot remain long under water. He has
indeed a power of rendering himftif fpecifkally heavier
or lighter than the water, and therefore can let himfelf
down to avoid an enemy or a ftorm: yet he is under a
neceflity of riflng frequently to breathe, for reafons gi¬
ven before ; and his moft ufual fituation, while at fea,
is upon the furface of the water, feeding upon the va¬
rious fubftances that float in great abundance every
where about him; thefe animals fleep fecurely upon the
furface, but not under water; and can remain longer
at-fea than any other of this clafs, except the crocodile,
becaufe, as it is with the latter, his covering is not in
danger of being too much macerated; yet they muft go
on ftiore to copulate and lay their eggs.
2. The confideration of thefe is fufficient to inform
us of the nature of the firft order of the clafs of amphi¬
bious animals; let us now fee what is to be faid of the
fecond in our divifion of them, which are fuch as chiefly
inhabit the waters, but occafionally go on fliore.
Thefe are but of two kinds: the eels, and water fer-
pents or fnakes of every kind. It is their form that
qualifies them for loco-motion on land, and they know
their way back to the water at will; for by their ftruc-
ture they have a ftrong periftaltic motion, by which
they can go forward at a pretty good rate: whereas all
other kinds of fifli, whether vertical or horizontal, are
incapable of a voluntary loco-motion on ftiore ; and
therefore, as foon as fuch fifti are brought out of the
water, after having flounced a while, they lie motion-
lefs, and foon die.
Let us now examine into the reafon why thefe ver¬
micular fifli, the eel and ferpent kinds, can live a confi¬
derable time on land, and the vertical and horizontal
kinds die almoft immediately when taken out of the
water: and, in this refearch, we fliall come to know
what analogy there is between land animals and thofe
of the waters. All land-animals have lungs, and can
live no longer than while thefe are inflated by the am¬
bient air, and alternately comprefled for its expulfion;
that is, while refpiration is duly carried on, by a regu¬
lar infpiration and exfpiration of air.
In like manner, the fifli in general have, inftead of
lungs, gills or branchiae: and as in land-animals the
lungs have a large portion of the mafs of blood circu¬
lating through them, which muft be flopped if the air
has not a free ingrefs and egrefs into and from them;
fo, in fifli, there is a great number of blood-veflels that
pafs through the branchiae, and a great portion of their
blood circulates through them, which muft in like man-^AmphiLia,
ner be totally flopped, if the branchiae are not perpe- ■,,,
tually wet with water. So that, as the air is to the lungs
in land-animals a conftant affiftant to the circulation ;
fo is the water to the branchiae of thofe of the rivers
and feas: for when thefe are out of the water, the bran¬
chiae very foon grow crifp and dry, the blood-veflels arc
ftirunk, and the blood is obftrufted in its paflage; fo,
when the former are immerfed in water, or otherwife
prevented from having refpiration, the circulation ceafes,
and the animal dies.
Again, as land-animals would be deftroyed by too
much maceration in water ; fo fifties would, on the other
hand, be ruined by too much exficcation; the latter be¬
ing, from their general ftru&ure and conftitution, made
fit to bear, and live in, the water; the former, by their
conftitution and form, to breathe and dwell in the air.
But it maybe afked, why eels and water-fnakes are
capable of living longer in the air than the other kinds
of fifti ? This is anfwered, by confidering the providen¬
tial care of the great Creator for thefe and every one
of his creatures: for, fince they were capable of loco¬
motion by their form, which they need not be if they
were never to go on (hore, it feemed neceflary that they
fhould be rendered capable of living a confiderable time
on ftiore, otherwife their loco-motion would be in vain.
How is this provided for ? Why, in a moft convenient
manner : for this order of fifties have their branchise
well covered from the external drying air; they are alfo
furniftied with a flimy mucus, which hinders their be¬
coming crifp and dry for many hours; and their very
{kins always emit a mucous liquor, which keeps them
fupple and moift for a long time: whereas the branchiie
of other kinds of fifti are much expofed to the air, and
want the flimy matter to keep them moift. Now, if
anyof thefe, when brought out of the water, were laid in
a veflel without water, they might be preferved alive
a confiderable time, by only keeping the gills and fur¬
face of the {kin conftantly wet, even without any water
to fwim in.” 
It has been advanced, that man may, by art, be ren¬
dered amphibious, and able to live under water as well
as frogs. As the foetus lives in utero without air, and
the circulation is there continued by means of the fora¬
men ovale; by preferring the paflage open, and the o-
ther parts in Jiatu quo, after the birth, the fame facul¬
ty would ftill continue. Now, the foramen, it is al¬
leged, would be preferved in its open ftate, were peo¬
ple accuftomed, from their infancy, to hold their breath
a confiderable time once a-day, that the blood might
be forced to refume its priftine paflage, and prevent its
drying up as it ufually does. This conjedlure feems,
in fome meafure, fupported by the practice of divers,
who are taught from their childhood to hold their
breath, and keep long under water, by which means the
ancient channel is kept open.—A Calabrian monk at
Madrid laid claim to this amphibious capacity, making
an offer to the king of Spain, to continue twice twen¬
ty-four hours under water, without ever coming up to
take breath. Kircher gives an account of a Sicilian,
named the fijh Colas; who, by a long habitude from his
youth, had fo accuftomed himfelf to live in water, that
his nature feemed to be quite altered; fo that he lived
rather after the manner of a fifti than a man.
AMPHIBOLOGY; in grammar and rhetoric, a
term
AMP [ 317 ] AMP
Amphtbra- term ufed to denote a phrafe fufceptible of two differ-
ent interpretations. Arpphibology arifes from the or-
Amphic-’ ^er t^ie pbrafe, rather than from the ambiguous
tjous. meaning of a word.
   AMPHIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, the name
of a foot conlifting of three fyllables, whereof that in
the middle is long, and the other two fliort; fuch is the
word [ablre].
AMPHICOME, in natural hiftory, a kind of figu¬
red ftone, of a round fhape, but rugged, and befet with
eminences, celebrated on account of its ufe in divina¬
tion. The word is originally Greek, q, d, u-
trinque. cotnata, or hairy on all fides. This ftone is
alfo called ILrotylos, Amatoria, probably on
account of its fuppofed power of creating love. The
amphicome is mentioned by Democritus and Pliny,
tho’ little known among the moderns. Mercatus takes
it for the fame with the lapis lumbricatus, of which he
gives a figure.
AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an affem-
bly compofed of deputies from the different ftates of
Greece; and refembling in fome meafure, the diet of
the German empire.—Some fuppofe the word A^T>*hovc(
to be formed of~<w<, about, and or in
regard the inhabitants of the country round about met
here in council : others, with more probability, from
Amphiciyon, fon of Deucalion, whom they fuppofe to
have been the founder of this affembly; though others
will have Acrifius, king of the Argives, to have been
the firft who gave a form and laws to it.
Authors give different accounts of the number of the
Amphi&yons, as well as of the ftates who were enti¬
tled to have their reprefentatives in this council. Ac¬
cording to Strabo, Harpocration, and Suidas, they
were twelve from their firft inftitution, fent by the fol¬
lowing cities and ftates; the lonians, Dorians, Per-
rhasbians, Boeotians, Magnefians, Achseans, Phthians,
Melians, Dolopians, iEnianians, Delphians, and Pho-
ciaas. JEfchines reckons no more than eleven; in-
ftead of the Achxans, iEnianians, Delphians, and
Dolopians, he only, gives the Theffaliahs, Oetians,
and Locrians. Laftly, Paufanias’s lift contains only
ten, viz. the lonians, Dolopians, Theffalians, iEnia-
nians, Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, Dorians, Phfci-
ans, and Locrians.
In the time of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians
Were excluded the alliance, for having plundered the
Delphian temple, and the Lacedxmonians were ad¬
mitted in their place; but the Phocians, 60 years af¬
ter, having behaved gallantly againft Brennus and his
Gauls, were reftored to their feat in the Amphi&yonic
council. Under Auguftus, the city Nicopolis was ad¬
mitted into the "body; and to make room for it, the
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, and iEnianians, who
till then had diftinft voices, were ..ordered to be num¬
bered with the Theffalians, and to have only one com¬
mon reprefentative. Strabo fpeaks as if this council
were extinft in the times of Auguftus and Tiberius :
but Paufanias, who lived many years after, under An¬
toninus Pius, affures us it remained entire in his time,
and'that the number of Amphiftyons was then thirty.^
The members were of two kinds. Each city fent
two deputies, under different denominations; one called
w'hofe’bufinefs feems to have been more im¬
mediately to infpeft what related to facrifices and cere-
Vol. I.
monies of religion; the other charged with
hearing and deciding of caufes and differences between
private perfons. Both had an equal right to delibe¬
rate and vote, in all that related to the common inte-
refts of Greece. The hieromnenion was elected by lot;
the pylagoras by plurality of voices.
Tho’ the Amphidtyons were firft inftituted at Ther¬
mopylae, M. de Valois maintains, that their firft place
of refidence was at Delphi; where, for fome ages, the
tranquillity of the times found them no other employ¬
ment than that of being, if we may fo call it, church¬
wardens of the temple of Apollo. In after-times, the
approach of armies frequently drove them to Thermo-
pylx, where they took their ftation, to be nearer , at
hand to oppofe the enemies progrefs, and order timely
fuccour to the cities in danger. Their ordinary refi¬
dence, however, was at Delphi,
Here they decided all public differences and difputes
between any of the cities of Greece; but before they
•entered on bufinefs, they jointly facrificed an ox cut in¬
to fmall pieces, as a fymbol of their union. Their de¬
terminations were received with the greateft Veneration,
and even held facred and inviolable.
The Amphiftyons, at their admiffion, took a folemn
oath never to diveft any city of their right of deputa¬
tion; never to avert its running waters; and if any at¬
tempts of this kind were made by others, to make mor¬
tal war againft them: more particularly, in cafe of any
attempt to rob the temple of any of its ornaments, that
they would employ hands, feet, tongue, their whole
power, to revenge it.—This oath was backed with ter¬
rible imprecations againft fuch as (hould violate it; e.gr.
May they meet all the vengeance of Apollo, Diana,
Minerva, &c. their foil produce no fruit, their wives
bring forth nothing but monfters, &c.
The ftated terms of their meeting was in fpring and
autumn ; the fpring meeting was called Eafiv» nu*a<ay
that in autumn Milrragivn. On extraordinary occafions,
however, they met at any time of the year, or even con¬
tinued fitting all the year round.
Philip of Macedon ufurped the right of prefiding in
the affembly of the Amphiftyons, and of firft confulting
the oracle which was called n^avtua.
AMPHIDROMIA, a feaft celebrated by the an¬
cients on the fifth day after the birth of a child.
AMPHIDRYON, in ecclefiaftieal writers, denotes
the veil or curtain which was drawn before the door
of the bema in ancient churches.
AMPHILOCHIA, the territory of the city of Ar¬
gos in Acarnania ; Amphilochium, (Thucydides); call¬
ed Amphilochi (from the people,) in the lower age, (Ste-
phanus.) A town alfo of Spain, in Gallicia, built by
Teucer, and denominated from Amphilochus one of
his companions, (Strabo :) now Or'enfe. W. long. 8.
20. lat. 42. 36.
AMPHILOCHIUS, bilhop of Iconium, in the
fourth century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazian-
zen and St Bafil. He affifted at the firft general coun¬
cil of Conftantinople in 381; prefided at the council of
Sids; and was a ftrenuous oppofer of the Arians. He
died in 394; and his works were publiftred in Greek
and Latin, at Paris 1644, by Francis Combefis.
AMPHILOCHIUS, .fon of Amphiaraus and Eri-
phyle, was a celebrated diviner. He had an altar erec¬
ted to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallus in Ci-
R r licia,
Amphic-
tyofts
Amphilo-
A M P [ 31
Ampin- Kcla, which city was founded by him and Mopfus. The
mafer anfwers of this oracle were given by dreams; the party
Amphif- inquiring ufed to pafs a night in the temple, and that
basna. night’s dream was the anfwer. Dion Camus mentions
 a pi&ure done by order of Setftus Condianus, reprefent-
ing the anfwer he received of the oracle, in the reign
of the emperor Commodus.
AMPHIMA.CER, in ancient poetry, a foot con¬
fiding of three fyllables, whereof the firft and laft are
long, and that in the middle ffiort; fuch is the word
£Caftitas.]
AMPHION, fon of Jupiter and Antiope; who, ac¬
cording to the poets, made the rocks follow his mufic ;
and at his harp the ftones of Thebes danced into walls
and a regular city.
AMPHIPOLES, in antiquity, the principal ma-
giftrates of Syracufe. They were eftablilhed by Ti-
moleon in the loq'6 Olympiad, after the expulfion of
the tyrant Dionyfius. They governed Syracufe for the
fpace of 300 years : and Diodorus Siculus affures us,
that they fubfifted in his time.
AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Macedonia, an Athe¬
nian colony, on the Strymon, but on which fide is not
fo certain : Pliny places it in Macedonia, on this lide;
but Scylax, in Thrace, on the other. The name of the
town, Amphipolit, however, feems to reconcile their dif¬
ference ; becaufe, as Thucydides obferves, it was walk¬
ed on two fides by the Strymon, which dividing itfelf
into two channels, the city flood in the middle, and on
the fide towards the fea there was a wall built from
channel to channel. Its ancient name was Ewe* oAn, the
Nine Ways, (Thucydides, Herodotus.) The citizens
were called Amphipolitani, (Livy.) It was afterwards
called Cbrijlopolis; now Cbrifopoli, or Chifopoli, (Hol-
ftenius.)
Amphipolis, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates,
built by Seleucus, called by the Syrians Turtneda,
(Stephanus:) the fame with 'Thapfacus, (Pliny) ; and
fuppofed to have been only renewed and adorned by
Seleucus, becaufe long famous before his time, (Xeno¬
phon. )
AMPHlPPlI, in Grecian antiquity, foldiers who,
in war, ufed two horfes without faddles, and were dex¬
terous enough to leap from one to the other.
AMPHlPRORiE, in the naval affairs of the an¬
cients, veflels with a prow at each end. They were
ufed chiefly in rapid rivers and narrow channels, where
it was not eafy to tack about.
AMPHIPROSTYLE, in the architefture of the
ancients, a temple which had four columns in the front,
and as many in the afpeA behind.
AMPHISBiENA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents
belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes, fo called
from the falfe notion of its having two heads, becaufe
it moves with either end foremoft.
The head of the amphiibaena is fmall, fmooth, and
blunt; the noftrils are very fmall; the eyes are minute
and blackifh ; and the mouth is furniihed with a great
number of fmall teeth. The body is cylindrical, about
a foot longhand divided into about 200 annular convex
fegments like thofe of a worm ; and it has about 40
longitudinal ftreaks, of which 12 on each fide are in
the form of fmall crofles like the Roman X; the anus
is a tranfverfe flit; and the laft ring or fegment of the
belly has eight fmall papillx, forming a tranfverfe line
8 ] AMP
before-the antis; the tail, /. e. all the fpace below the Amphif-
anus, is fhort, confifting of thirty annular fegments, b^na
without being marked with the crofs-lines, and is thick Amphithc-
and blunt at the point. The colour of the whole ani- atre.
mal is black, variegated with white; but the black  
prevails moft on the back, and the white on the belly.
It has a great refemblance to a worm, living in the
earth, and moving equally well with either end fore¬
moft. There arc but two fpecies, viz. 1. The fuligi-
nofa, which anfwers exactly to the above defcription,
and is found in Libya and in different parts of Ame¬
rica. 2. The alba, which is totally white, is a native
of both the Indies, and is generally found in ant-hil¬
locks. The bite of the amphilbaena is reckoned to be
mortal by many authors ; but as it is not furnifhed
with dog-fangs, the ufual inftruments of conveying the
poifon of ferpents, later writers efteem it not to be poi-
fonous. They feed upon ants and earth-worms, but
particularly the latter. See Plate XL fig. 2.
AMPHISCII, among geographers, a name applied
to the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Am-
phifcii, as the word imports, have their ftiadows one
part of the year towards the north, and the other to¬
wards the fouth, according to the fun’s place in the ec¬
liptic. They are alfo called Afcii. See Ascii.
AMPHISSA, the capital of the Locri Oxolae, one
hundred and twenty ftadia (or 15 miles) to the weft of
Delphi, (Paufanias.) So called, becaufe furrounded on
all hands by mountains, (Stephanus.) lUencz Amp hif-
f<ei, the inhabitants; who plundered the temple at
Delphi, (Demofthenes.)—Alfo a town of Magna Grse-
cia, at the mouth of the Sagra, on the coaft of the
Farther Calabria, fituated between Locri and Caulona ;
now called Roctlla. Amphiffius the epithet, (Ovid.)
AMPHITANE, among ancient naturalifts, a ftone
faid to attraA gold, as the loadftone does iron. Pliny
fays it was found in that part of the Indies where the
native gold lay fo near the furface of the earth as to
be turned up in fmall maffes, among the earth of ant¬
hills ; and defcribes it to have been of a fquare figure,
and of the colour and brightnefs of gold. The defcrip¬
tion plainly points out a well-known fofiil, called, by
Dr Hill, pyricubium: this is Common in the mines of"
moft parts of the world; but neither this nor any other
ftone was ever fuppofed, in our times, to have the power
of attracting gold.
AMPHITHEATRE, in antiquity, a fpacious e-
difiee, built either round or oval, with a number of ri¬
fling feats, upon which the people ufed to behold the
combats of gladiators, of wild beafts, and other fports.
Amphitheatres were at firft only of wood; and it was
not till the reign of Auguftus, that Statilius Taurus
built one, for the firft time, of ftone. The loweft part
was of an oval figure, and called arena, becaufe, for the
conveniency of the combatants, it was ufually ftrewed
with fand ; and round the arena were vaults ftyled ca-
vea, in which were confined the wild beafts appointed
for the flbews.
Above the caveae was ere&ed a large circular peri-
ftyle, or podium, adorned with columns. This was the
place of the emperors, fenators, and other perfons of
diftinftion.
The rows of benches were above the podium. Their
figure was circular ; and they were entered by avenues^,
at the end of which were gates called vomitorix.
The
Amphitrite
il
Amplitude.
* See Al-
gien,
AMP [ 31
The moft perfeft remains we now liave of amphi¬
theatres, are that of Vefpaiian called the colife urn, that
at Verona in Italy, and that at Nifmes in Languedoc.
AMPHITRITE, daughter of Oceanus and Doris,
and wife to Neptune.
AMPHITRYON, fon of Alcxnus, lefs known by
his own exploits than from his wife Alcmena’s adven¬
ture. See Alcmena.
AMPHORA, in antiquity, a liquid meafure among
the Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora con¬
tained forty-eight fextaries, and was equal to about
feven gallons one pint Engliih wine-meafure ; and the
Grecian or Attic amphora contained one third more.
Amphora, was alfo a dry meafure ufed by the Ro¬
mans, and contained about three bulhels.
Amphora, among the Venetians, is the largeft mea¬
fure ufed for liquids, containing about 16 quarts.
AMPHORARIUM vinum, in antiquity, denotes
that which is drawn or poured into ampkoree, or pitch¬
ers ; by way of diftin£tion from vinum doliare, or calk
wine.—The Romans had a method of keeping wine in
amphoric for many years to ripen, by faftening the lids
tight down with pitch or gypfum, and placing them
either in a place where the fmoke came, or under
ground.
AMPHOTIDES, in antiquity, a kind of armour
or covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles,
to prevent their adverfaries from laying hold of that
part.
AMPHTHILL,a town in Bedfordlhire, feated plea-
fantly between two hills, but in a barren foil. W. Long,
o. 29. N. Lat. 52. 2.
AMPLIATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the aft
of enlarging or extending the compafs of a thing.
On a medal of the emperor Antoninus Pius, we find
tl^e title Ampliator civium given him, on account of
his having extended the jus civitatis, or right of ci-
tizenfiiip, to many ftates and people before excluded
from that ^privilege. In efleft, it is generally fuppofed
to have been this prince that made the famous conftitu-
tion, whereby all the fubjefts of the empire were made
citizens of Rome.
Ampliation, in Roman antiquity, was the defer¬
ring to pafs fentence in certain caufes. This the judge
did, by pronouncing t\\<z yiox<S. amplius ; or by writing
the letters N. L. for non liquet; thereby fignifying,
that, .asthe eaufe was not clear, it would be neceflary to
bring further evidence.
AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric. See Exagge¬
ration.
AMPLITUDE, in allronomy, an arch of the ho¬
rizon intercepted between the eaft or weft point, and
the centre of the fun, or a planet, at its rifing or fet-
ting; and fo is either north and fouth, or ortive and
occafive.
Magnetical Amplitude, the different rifing or fet-
ting of the fun from the eaft or weft points of the com¬
pafs. It is found by obferving the fun, at his rifing
and fetting, by an amplitude-compafs.
AMPSAGA, a river of ancient Numidia *.
AMPSANCTI VALLIS, or Ampsancti Lacus.,
a cave or lake in the heart of the Hirpini, or Principa-
to Ultra, near the city Tricento, (Cicero, Virgil, Pli¬
ny ;) it is now called Mufti, from Mephitis, the god-
defs of ftench, who had a temple there. The ancient
9 J AM S
poets imagined that this gulf led to hell. It is alfo call¬
ed Anfanfti.
AMPULLA, in antiquity, a round big-bellied vef-
£el which the ancients ufed in their baths, to contain oil
for anointing their bodies.^-Alfo the name of a cup for
drinking out of at table.
AMPURA, a province of the kingdom of Peru,
before its conqueft by the Spaniards. Here the inha¬
bitants worfhipped two lofty mountains from a princi¬
ple of gratitude, becaufe of the defcent of the water
from them by which their lands were fertilized. It is
faid to have been conquered by Virachoca the 8th inca.
AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of Am-
purdan, in Catalonia, feated at the mouth of the river
Fluvia, in E. Long. 2. 56. N. Lat. 42. 5. The land
about it is barren, full of briars and bulruflies, except
in fome places, which produce flax.
AMPUTATION, in furgery, the cutting off a
limb, or any part, from the body *.
AMRAS, a ftrong caftle of Germany, feated in Ti¬
rol. E. Long. 11. 40. N. Lat. 47. o. It is full of
rarities of every kind ; and has a library, with the por¬
traits of many learned men.
AMSBURY, or Ambersbury, a town in Wilt-
fhire, lying in W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 51. 29. It
is the Pagus Ambri, famous for a monaftery built by
one Ambrus, and afterwards for a nunnery of noble
women. There is a nobleman’s feat here, built by I-
nigo Jones, to which new works were added under the
direftion of Lord Burlington. It is 80 miles weft of
London, and fix miles north of Salisbury.
AMSDORFIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of
Proteftants in the XVIth century, who took their name
from Amfdorf their leader. They maintained, that
ood works were not only unprofitable, but were ob-
acles to falvation.
AMSTERDAM, the capital city of the province
of Holland and of the United Netherlands, is feated
on the river Amftel and an arm of the fea called the
Wye. The air is but indifferent, on account of the
marlhes that furround it, and render the city almoft in-
acceffihle : but this inconvenience is abundantly recom-
penfed by the utility of its commerce, which the port,
ferves greatly to promote ; for it will contain above a
thoufand large (hips.
In 1204, it was nothing but a fmall caftle, called
Arnfel from the name of the river, which its lords
made a retreat for fiftiermen, who at firft lived in huts
covered with thatch : but it foon became confiderable,
and had a bridge and towers built about it, infomuch
that it rofe to a fmall city ; though, till the year 1490,
it was furrounded with nothing but a weak pallifado.
The walls were then built with brick, to defend it
from the incurfions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, with
whom the Hohanders were often quarrelling ; but fome
months afterwards it was almoft reduced to allies. In
1512, it was befieged by the people of Guelderland ;
who, not being able to take it, fet fire to the Ihips in
the harbour. In 1525, an Anabaptift leader, with 600
of his followers, got into the city in the night-time, at¬
tacked the town-houfe, and defeated thofe that made,
any refiftance. At length they barricaded, with wool
and hop-facks, the avenues to the market-place, where
thefe enthufiafts were polled; and fo put a flop to then-
fury till day appeared, at which time the citizens fell
R r 3 upon
Ampulla
Amfte*.
* See Surge¬
ry, n° i8,
39-
AMS [ 3^0 ] AMS
Amfter- upon them on all Tides, and forced them to retire into
<lanK the town-houfe, where moft of them were cut to pieces.
About ten years after, there was another tumult raifed
by a parcel of fanatics, confifting of men and women,
who ran about the ftreets Hark naked, and had a de-
fign of making themfelves matters of the town-houfe.
Their ftirieks and tfries, which were dreadful enough,
foon alarmed the inhabitants, who feized the greateft
part of them, and gave them the chaftifement they de-
lerved.
Amfterdam was one of the laft cities that embraced
the reformed religion. It was befieged by the Hollan¬
ders in 1578, and fubmitted after a liege of ten months.
One article of the capitulation was, a free exercife
of the Roman-catholic religion : but this was not ob-
ferved by the Proteftants; for they foon drove the eccle-
fiaftics, monks, and nuns, out of the city, broke the
images, and demolilhed the altars. From this time it
became the general rendezvous of all nations and of e-
very feft, which raifed it to that degree of grandeur
and opulence it now enjoys. The inhabitants were of¬
ten obliged to enlarge the bounds of their city, and in
1675 it was increafed to its prefent extent. It was fur-
rounded with a brick wall, and a large ditch, 80 feet
broad, full of running water. The walls were fortified
with 26 baftions, on each of which there is now a wind¬
mill. There are eight gates towards the land, and one
towards the water.
Amfterdam being feated in a marlhy foil, is built on
piles of wood, for which reafon no coaches are allow¬
ed, except to great men and phyficians, who pay a tax
for that privilege; and all kinds of goods are drawn on
fledges. It Hands fo low, that they would be expofed
to inundations, if they did not fecure themfelves by
dikes and Unices. The fineft ftreets are, the Keyfar’s
Graft, or Emperor’s Canal; the Heer Graft, or Lords
Canal; the Cingel; and the ftreet of Haerlem. The
principal canal is ^remarkable for its houfes, which are
magnificent ftruffures, of an equal height. Here are
three prodigious fluices, and a great number of canals,
which crofs the city in many parts, and render the ftreets
clean and pleafant. The canals are deep, their Tides are
lined with hewn ftone, they have generally rows of trees
planted on each fide, and many ttone-bridges over dif¬
ferent parts of them.
The fineft is that called the Ammarack, which is
formed by the waters of the Amftel, into which the
tide comes up, and on the fides of which are two large
quays. This canal has feveral bridges. The principal
is that next the fea, called Pont-Neuf, or the New
Bridge: it is 660 feet long, and 70 broad, with iron
baluftrades on each fide ; it has 36 arches, of which 11
are very high, and eight are fhut up to inclofe the
yachts. From this bridge there is a moft charming
profpeft of the city, port, and fea. The port is a
mile and half in length, and above a thoufand paces
in breadth : it is always filled with a multitude of vef-
fels, which look like a foreft, or rather a floating eity.
The ftreets in general are well paved, and" the houfes
built of brick or ftone. Towards the Tides of the ha¬
ven, the city is inclofed with great poles driven into
the ground, which are joined by large beams placed
horizontally. There are openings to let the fhips in
and out> which are flint every night at the ringing of a
hell. Amfterdam is computed, to be half as big as
London; and the number of houfes are faid to amount Amfler-
to 26,035. dam-
The public buildings are very magnificent. The T
ftadt-houfe was founded in 1648 ; it is built upon
14,000 wooden piles; and its front is 282 feet long, its
Tides 255 feet, and its height to the roof 116. There
is a marble pediment in the front, whereon a woman is
carved in relievo, holding the arms of the city ; fhe is
feated in a chair, fupported by two lions, with an olive-
branch in her right hand; on each fide are four Naiads,
who prefent her with a crown of palm and laurel, and
two other marine goddefles prefent her with different
forts of fruit; befides, there is Neptune with his tri¬
dent, accompanied with Tritons, a fea-unicorn, and a
fea-horfe. On the top ftand three ftatutes in bronze,
reprefenting Juftice, Strength, and Plenty. On the
top of the ttru&ure is a round tower, 50 feet above
the roof, adorned with ftatues, and an harmonious
chime of bells, the biggeft of which weighs about
7000 pounds, and the next 6000; they are made to
play different tunes every month. It has not one
handfome gate, but only feven doors to anfwer to
the number of the United provinces. On the floor
of the great hall are two globes, the celeftial and ter-
reftrial, which are 22 feet in diameter, and 69 in cir¬
cumference ; they are made of black and white marble,
and are inlaid with jafper and copper. In general, all
the chambers are enriched with paintings, carvings,
and gildings. While this ftadt-houfe was building, the
old one was fet on fire, and confumed with all the ar¬
chives and regifters.
Under the ftadt-houfe is a prodigious vault, wherein
is kept the bank of Amfterdam, where there is vaft
quantity of ingots both of gold and filver, as alfo bags,
which are fuppofed to be full of money. The doors
are proof againft petards, and are never opened but in
the prefence of one of the burgomafters. The prifons
for debtors and criminals are likewife under the ftadt-
houfe; as alfo the guard-room for the citizens, wherein
the keys of the city are locked every night. At the
end of the great hall is the fchepens or aldermens cham¬
ber, where civil caufes are tried. Befides thefe, there
are the chambers of the fenate and council, the burgo-
mafter’s chamber, the chambers of accounts, &c. In
the fecond ftory is a large magazine of arms; and on
the top of the building are fix large cifterns of water,
which may be conveyed to any room in the houfe in
cafe of fire, to prevent which the chimneys are lined
with copper.
The bourfe, or exchange, where the merchants af-
femble, is all of free-ftone, and built upon two thoufand
wooden piles; its length is about two hundred feet, and
its breadth one hundred and twenty-four; the galleries
are fupported by twenty-fix marble columns, upon each
of which are the names of the people that are to meet
there; they are all numbered, and there is a place fix- ~
ed for every merchandife under fome one of thefe num¬
bers. On the right hand of the gate is a fuperb ftair-
cafe, which leads to the galleries, on one fide of which
there are feveral (hops, and on the other a place to fell
clothes. It is not unlike the royal exchange in London.
The houfe belonging to the Eaft-India company
contains large magazines, full of the different forts of
commodities brought from the Eaft-Indies. The
Building was formerly ufed for the city arfenal. There
are.
AMS [3:
Amfler- are feveral magnificent new buildings added to it. The
dam- dire&ors hold their aflemblies there twice a-week.
The academy called the Illujirious School, is likewife
a very fine building : it was formerly a convent be¬
longing to the nuns of St Agnes. Here they teach
Latin, the oriental languages, theology, philofophy,
hiftory, 6^. The lawyers and phyficians have likewife
their fchools. There are eleven churches belonging to
the eftablifhed religion, and one for Englifh Prefbyte-
rians, none befides which are allowed to have bells.
Other fefts may have churches, except the Roman-ca¬
tholics, who meet in private houfes without molefta-
tion. The Jews have two fine fynagogues, one for the
Portuguefe, and the other for the Germans. Some
of the churches are very ftately buildings, but not fo
remarkable as to deferve a particular defcription.
Befides thefe, there are feveral hofpitals, or houfes
for orphans, for poor widows, for fick perfons, and for
mad people ; all which are regulated with much pru¬
dence. The Rafp-Houfe, which was formerly a nun¬
nery, is now a fort of a work-houfe for men that be¬
have ill. They are commonly fet to faw or rafp Brafil
wood ; and if they will not perform their talk, they are
put into a cellar which the water runs into, where if
they do not almoft conftantly ply the pump, they run
the rifle of being drowned. There is likewife a fpin-
houfe for debauched women, where they are obliged to
fpin wool, flax, and hemp, and do other work. All
the hofpitals are extremely neat, and richly adorned
with piilures. They are maintained partly by volun¬
tary contributions, which are raiftd by putting money
into the poor’s-boxes fixed up all over the city ; and
partly by taxing all public diverfions, as well at fairs
as elfewhere. Likewife every perfon that pafles thro’
any of the gates at candle-light pays a penny for the
fame ufes. Thefe charities are taken care of by cer¬
tain officers called deacons. The governors are nomi¬
nated by the magiftrates out of the moft confiderable
men in the city.
The common fort have places of diverfion called
Spiel-Hoitfes, where there are mufic and dancing.
'They are much of the fame kind as the hops which
were fo frequent about London. If ftrangers go there,
they muft take care not to make their addreffes to a
woman that is engaged to any other man.
This city is governed by a fenate or council, which
confifts of 36 perfons, called a Vrocdjhap, who enjoy
their places for life ; and when any of them dies, the
remainder chufe another in his head. This fenate e-
lefts deputies to be fent to the States of Holland, and
appoints the chief magiftrates of the city, called Burgo-
majlers, or Echevins, who are like our aldermem The
number is twelve, out of which four are chofen every
year to execute the office, and are caWed. Burgomajlers'-
regent. Three of thefe are difeharged every year, to
make room for three others. One of the four is kept
in to inform the new ones of the ftate of affairs, and alfo
prefides the three firft months in the year, and the others
three months each; fo that, when they are in this of¬
fice, they may be compared to the lord-mayor of the
city of London. Thefe alterations and appointments
are made by their own body. They difpofe of all in¬
ferior offices which become vacant during.their regency.
They have likewife the direction of all public works,
which regard the fafety, tranquillity, and embellilh-
ii ] AMS
ment of the city. The keys of the famous bank of -Aroftc-
this city are in the hands of thefe magiftrates.
The college confifts of new burgomafters or echevins, Amulet.
who are judges in all criminal affairs, without appeal;   “
but in civil caufes they may appeal to the council of the
province. There are two treafurers, a bailiff, and a
penfionary. The bailiff continues in his office three
years; and fearches after criminals, takes care to pro-
fecute them, and fees their fentence executed. The
penfionary is the minifter of the magiftracy, is well
verfed in the laws, makes public harangues, and is
the defender of the interefts of the city. The city of
Amfterdam contributes to the public income above
50,000 livres per day, befides the excife of beer, flefti,
and corn; which in all amounts to above one million fix
hundred thoufand pounds fterling a-year. This is more
than is paid by all the reft of the provinces put toge¬
ther ; and yet Amfterdam bears but the fifth rank in
the affembly of the ftates of Holland, with this diftinc-
tion, that whereas other cities fend two members, this
fends four.
The militia of Amfterdam is very confiderable; they
have fixty companies, each of which has from 200 to
300 men. Jews and Anabaptifts are excluded from this
fervice, not being admitted to bear arms. But they
are obliged to contribute to the maintainarice of the
city-guard, which confifts of 1400 foldiers; as alfo
to the night-watch, who patrole about the ftreets, and
proclaim the hour. Befides thefe, there are trumpeters
on every church fteeple, who found every half hour;
and if there happens a fire, they ring the fire-bell, and
ftiow where it is. The inhabitants have excellent con¬
trivances to extinguilh it fpeedily.
The trade of Amfterdam is prodigious: for almoft
the whole trade of the Eaft-India company centres in
this city, which befides carries on a commerce with all
the reft of the world, infomuch that it may be called
the magazine or ftore-houfe of Europe. They import
a vaft deal of corn from the Baltic, not fo much for
prefent confumption, as to lay up againft times of fcar-
city. The richeft fpices are entirely in the hands of
the Eaft-India company, who furnifh all Europe there¬
with. They have vaft quantities of military ftores, with
which they fupply feveral nations ; which is owing to
their engroffing moft of the iron works on the Rhine
and other great rivers that run into Holland. The longi¬
tude of Amfterdam is 4.30. E.; the latitude, 52. 25. N.
Amsterdam, is alfo the name of an ifland in the
fouth-fea, faid to have been difeovered by Tafman a
Dutch navigator, but not taken notice of in our later
difeoveries.
AMULET, a charm, or prefervative againft mif-
chief, witchcraft,, or difeafes.
Amulets were made of ftone, metal, fimples, animals,
and in a word of every thing that imagination fuggefted.
Sometimes they confifted of words, chara£ters,*and
fentences, ranged in a particular order, and engraved
upon wood, <fac. and worn-about the neck, or fome
other part of the body . cadllrt™*
At other times they were neither written nor engra¬
ved; but prepared with many fuperftitious ceremonies,
great regard being ufually paid to the influence of the
ftars. The Arabians have given to this fpecies of a-
mulet the name of talifman f. f See Taltf-
All nations have been fond of amulets : the Jews man.
were
AMU [ 322. ] AMY
Amulet, were extremely fuperftitious in the ufe of them, to
^ f drive away difeafes ; and the Mifna forbids them, un-
— ....... 3 ‘. lefs received from an approved man who had cured at
leaft three perfons before by the fame means.
Among the Chriftians of the early times, amulets
were made of the wood of the crofs, or ribbands with
a text of fcripture written in them, as prefervatives a-
gainft difeafes. Notwithftanding the progrefs of lear¬
ning and refinement, there is not any country in Eu¬
rope, even at this day, who do not believe in fome
charm or other. The pope is fuppofed to have the vir¬
tue of making amulets, which he exercifes in the con-
| See Agnm fecrating of Agnus Dei's, J &c. The fpunge which has
®et' wiped his table, was formerly in great veneration on
this accbunt, as a prefervative from wounds, and death
itfelf: on this account it was fent with great folemnity
by Gregory II. to the duke of Aquitain.
AMURAT, or Amurath, I. the fourth emperor
of the Turks, and one of the greateft princes of the
Ottoman empire, fucceeded Solyman in 1360. He
took from the Greeks Gallipoli, Thrace, and Adriano-
ple, which laft he chofe for the place of his refidence.
He defeated the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Mifnia,
chaftifed his rebellious balhaws, and is faid to have gain¬
ed 36 battles. This prince, in order to form a body
of devoted troops that might ferve as the immediate
guards of his perfon and dignity, appointed his offi¬
cers to feize annually, as the imperial property, the
fifth part of the Chriftian youth taken in war. Thefe,
after being inftrufted in the Mahometan religion, inu¬
red to obedience by fevere difcipline, and trained to
warlike exercifes, were formed into a body diftinguifh-
ed by the name of jfanijfaries, or Ne*u> Soldiers. E-
very fentiment which enthufiafm can infpire, every
mark of diilindtion that the favour of the prince could
confer, were employed in order to animate this body
with martial ardour, and with a confcioufnefs of its
own pre-eminence. The Janiflaries foon became the
chief ftrength and pride of the Ottoman armies, and
were diftinguifhed above all the troops whofe duty it
was to attend on the perfon of the fultan.—At length
the death of Lazarus, defpot of Servia, who had en¬
deavoured in vain to flop the progrefs of Amurath’s
arms, touched Milo, one of his fervants, in fo fenfible
a manner, that, in revenge, he ftabbed the fultan in
the midft of his troops, and killed him upon the fpot,
A. D. 1389, after he had reigned 23 years.
Amurat II. the 10th emperor of the Turks, was
the eldeft fon of Mahomet I. and fucceeded his fa¬
ther in 1421. He befieged Conftantinople and Bel¬
grade without fuccefs; but he took Theflalonica from
the Venetians, and compelled tlie prince of Bofnia
and John Caftriot prince of Albany to pay him tri¬
bute. He obliged the latter to fend his three fons as
hoftages ; among whom was George, celebrated in hif-
tory by the name of Scanderbeg. John Hunniades de¬
feated Amurat’s troops, and obliged him to makepeace
with the Chriftian princes, in 1442. Thefe princes
afterwards breaking the peace, Amurat defeated them
in the famous battle of Varna, November 10th 1444,
which proved fo fatal to the Chriftians, and in which
Ladiflaus king of Hungary was killed. He afterwards
defeated Hunniades, and killed above 20,000 of his
men ; but George Caftriot, more known by the name
of Scanderbeg, being re-eftablifhed in the eftates of
his father, defeated the Turks feveral times, and obli- Amurta
ged Amurat to raife the fiege of Croia, the capital of U
Albany. Araurat died, chagrined with his ill fuccefs, . ‘
and infirm with age, February 11th 1451, at Adrian-
ople. It is obferved to this prince’s honour, that he
always kept his treaties with the greateft fidelity.
AMURCA, the name of an antiquated medicine,
prepared by boiling the recrement or dregs of oil of
olives to the confiftence of honey, and ufed as an a-
ftringent.
AMYCLAL, a city of Laconia, diftant about 18
miles from the metropolis, founded by Amyclas the
fon of Lacedaemon, and famed afterwards for the birth
of Caftor and Pollux the fons of Tyndareus, eighth
king of Sparta. It was afterwards famed for fending
a confiderable colony of its own inhabitants into Upper
Calabria, who built there a city which they called by
the fame name. This laft city was fituated between
Caieta and Terracina, and gave its name to the neigh¬
bouring fea. According to Pliny and Solinus, the
territory of Amyclae was fo infeftedwith vipers and o-
ther ferpents, that the inhabitants were obliged to a-
bandon their dwellings and fettle elfewhere.—Among
the ancient poets, the Amycli, or inhabitants of this
city, obtained the epithet of taciti or filent. The rea-
fon of this was, either becaufe it was built by the La-
cecbemonians, who, as they followed the dodtrine of
Pythagoras, were always inculcating the precept of
file nee, and thence called taciti; or becaufe of a law
which obtained in this place, forbidding any one, un¬
der fevere penalties, to mention the approach of an e-
nemy. Before this law was made, the city was daily
alarmed by falfe reports, as the enemy had been already
at the gates. From terrors of this kind the abovemen-
tioned law indeed delivered them; but in the end
it proved the ruin of the city: for the Dorians ap¬
pearing unexpectedly under the walls, no one ventured
to tranfgrefs the law ; fo that the city was eafily taken.
They reduced it to an inconfiderable hamlet; in which,
however, were feen fome of the remains of its ancient
grandeur. One of the find! buildings that efcaped the
common ruin, was the temple and ftatue of Alexan¬
dra, whom the inhabitants pretended to be the fame
with Caflandra the daughter of Priam.
AMYGDALUS, the almond-tree ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs
of plants.—Linnaeus claffes the perfica or peach-tree
along with the amygdalus; but for this, on account of
the univerfally received diftinftion, we refer to the ar¬
ticle Persica.
Species. 1. The communis, or common almond.
This is cultivated more for the beauty of its flowers,
than for its fruit. There are two varieties of this, one
with fweet, the other with bitter kernels, which often
arife from the fruit of the fame tree. 2. The dulcis,
or jordan-almond, has a tender fhell, and a large fweet
kernel. The leaves are broader, fliorter, and grow
much clofer, than thofe of the common fort. The flow¬
ers are very fmall,^nd of a pale colour inclining towhite.
3. The fativus, with narrow fpear-lhaped leaves. The
flowers of this fpecies are white, and much fmaller than
thofe of the common almond; its Ihootsare alfo fmaller,
and itsjoints clofer; nor is the tree fo hardy, and therefore
it fhould have the advantage of a warm fituation, other-
wife it will not thrive. This fort flowers early in the
fpring,
0
AMY [ 3
rj.'imygdalu!, fpring, but rarely bears fruit in Britain. 4. The ori-
! il entalis, with fpear-fhaped filvery leaves, was found
rmyra” t‘ growing near Aleppo, from whence the fruit was fent
to France, and thence into Britain. The leaves of the
orientalis very much refemble fea-purflane. The flow¬
ers are very fmall, and are not fucceeded by fruit in
Britain. 5. The nana, or dwarf-almond, feldom rifes
more than three feet high, and fends out many fide
branches. The roots are very much fubjeft to put out
fuckers, by which it may be increafed in plenty ; but if
thefe are not annually taken away, they will ftarve the
old plants. This fpecies flowers in April, and makes a
fine appearance.
Culture. See Persica.
Medicinal Ufes. Sweet almonds are of greater ufe
in food than as medicines : but they are reckoned to
afford little nourifhment; and, when eaten in fuftance,
are not eafy of digeftion, unlefs thoroughly comminu¬
ted. They are fuppofed, on account of their foft unc¬
tuous quality, to obtund acrimonious juices in the pri-
mse vias: peeled fweet almonds, eaten fix or eight at a
time, fometimes give prefent relief in the heart-burn.
Bitter almonds have been found poifonous to dogs
and fundry other animals; and a water diftilled from
them, when made of a certain degree of ftrength,
has had like effe&s. Neverthelefs, when eaten, they
appear innocent to men, and have been not unfre-
quently ufed as medicines: Boerhaave recommends
them, in fubftance, as diuretics which heat but mode¬
rately, and which may therefore be ventured upon in
acute difeafes.
The oils obtained by expreflion from both forts of
almonds are in their fenfible qualities the fame. The
general virtues of thefe oils are, to blunt acrimonious
humours, and to foften and relax the folids: hence
their ufe, internally, in tickling coughs, heat of urine,
pains, and inflammations ; and, externally, in tenfion
and rigidity of particular parts.
The milky folutions of almonds in watery liquors,
commonly called einulfions*, contain the oil of the fub-
jeft, and participate in fome degree of the emollient
virtue thereof: but have this advantage above the pure
oil, that they may be given in acute or inflammatory
diforders, without danger of the ill effe&s which the
oil might fometimes produce ; fince emulfions do not
turn rancid or acrimonious by heat, as all the oils of
this kind in a little time do. Several unftuous and re-
fmous fubftances, of themfelves not mifcible with wa¬
ter, may by trituration with almonds be eafily mixed
with it into the form of an cmulfion ; and are thus ex¬
cellently fitted for medicinal ufe. In this form, cam¬
phor and the refinous purgatives may be commodioufly
taken. See Materia Medica, [99.3
AMYRAULT (Mofes), an eminent French Pro-
teftant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in 1596.
He ftudied at Saumur, where he was chofen profeflbr
of theology ; and his learned works gained him the e-
fteem of Catholics as well as Proteftants, particularly
of cardinal Richelieu, who confulted him on a plan of re-
1. uniting their churches, which, however, as may well be
fuppofed, came to nothing. He publifhed a piece in
which he attempted to explain the myftery of prede-
ftination and grace, which occafioned a controverfy
between him and fome other divines. He alfo wrote,
An Apology for the Proteftants; a Paraphrafe on the
23 ] ANA
New Teftament ; and feveral other books. This emi- Amyrberi*
nent divine died in 1664. .
AMYRBER1S in botany. See Berberis. t"fts!P'
AMYRIS, a genus of the monogynia order, belong- ————
ing to the decandria clafs of plants.—The moft remark¬
able fpecies are, 1. The elemifera, or Ihrub which bears
the gum elemi, a native cf America. It grows to the
height of about fix feet, producing trifoliated ftifF
fliining leaves, growing oppofite to one another on foot-
ftalks two inches long. At the ends of the branches
grow four or five flender ftalks fet with many very
firnall white flowers. 2. The opobalfamum is an
ever-green flirub, growing fpontaneoufly in Arabia,
from whence the opobalfam, or balm of gilead, is
procured. 3. Toxifera, or poifon-wood, is a fmall
tree, with a finooth light-coloured bark. Its leaves
are winged ; the middle rib is feven or eight inches
long, with pairs of pinnae one againft another on inch-
long footftalks. The fruit hangs in bunches, is flia-
ped like a pear, and is of a purple colour, covering
an oblong hard ftone. From the trunk of this tree di-
ftils a liquid as black as ink. Birds feed on the fruit;
particularly one, called the purplegrofs-beak, on the mu¬
cilage that covers the ftone. It grows ufually on rocks,
in Providence, Ilathera, and others of the Bahama
iflands. The other fpecies of this plant mentioned by
Linnasus are, the filvatica, the maritima, gileadenfis,
protium, and balfamifera.
ANA, among phyficians, denotes a quantity equal
to that of the preceding ingreditnt. It is abbreviated
thus, aa, or a.
ANABOA, a fmall ifland fituated near the coaft of
Loango in Africa, in E. Long. 90. N. Eat. i°. Here
are feveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of ba¬
nanas, oranges, pine-apples, lemons, citrons, tama¬
rinds, coeoa nuts, &c. together with vaft quantities
of cotton.—In this ifland are two high mountains,
which, being continually covered with clouds, occafion
frequent rains.
ANABAPTISTON, the fame with Abaptiston.
ANABAPTISTS, a Protellant fe£l which fprung
up in Germany immediately after the Reformation. It
was founded in the year 1521, by Nicholas Storck,
Mark Stubner, and Thomas Muncer ; who had been
followers of Luther, but abandoned him on pretence
that his doctrine was imperfeft. Storck being a man
of no learning, boafted of infpirations j Stubner, who
had wit and fome learning, applied himfelf to find out
fuitable explications of the word of God ; and Mun¬
cer, who was bold and zealous, played the enthufiaft
in the moft extravagant manner.
The moft remarkable of their religious tenets related
to the facrament of baptifin ; which, as they contend¬
ed, ought to be adminiftcred only to perfons grown up
to years of underftanding, and fiioald be performed
not by fprinkling them with water, but by dipping
them in it : for this reafon they condemned the baptifin
of infants; and, re-baptizing all whom they admitted
into their fociety, the feft came to be diftinguiftied by
the name of Jlnabaptijls. To this peculiar notion con¬
cerning baptifm, which has the appearance of being-
founded on the praftice of the church in the apoftohc
age, and contains nothing inconfiftent with the peace
and order of human fociety, they added other princi¬
ples of a moft enthufiaftic as well as dangerous na¬
ture.
ANA [ 324 ] ANA
-Anabap- ture. They maintained, that among Chriftians, who
had the precepts of the gofpel to direft and the
fpirit of- God to guide them, the office of magi-
ftracy was not only unnecefiary, but an unlawful en¬
croachment on their fpiritual liberty; that the diflinc-
tons occafioned by birth, or rank, or wealth, being
contrary to the fpirit of the gofpel, which confiders
all men as equal, fhbuld be entirely abolifhed ; that
all Chriftians, throwing their pofleffions into one com¬
mon ftock, fhould live together in that ftate of e-
quality which becomes members of the fame family;
that as neither the laws of nature, nor the precepts of
the New Teftament, had placed any reftraints upon men
with regard to the number of wives which they might
marry, they fhould ufe that liberty which God himfelf
had granted to the patriarchs.
By thefe doctrines they foon drew over vaft numbers
to their fide ; in fo much that Muncer ventured openly
to exhort the people to refift the magiftrates, and con-
ftrain princes to diveft themfelves of their authority.
Accordingly the peafants of Germany, to whom the
idea of unlimited independence was peculiarly flattering,
rofe in many places, and committed a thoufand a£ts of
violence. But they were defeated by the troops of the
empire, with great daughter; and Muncer, who had
deluded them, was taken, and beheaded in the year
I525*
But though the infurre&ion excited by that fanatic
was fo foon fuppreffed, feveral of his followers lurked
in different places, and endeavoured privately to propa¬
gate his opinions.
In thofe provinces of Upper Germany which ha dal-
ready been fo cruelly wafted by their enthufiaftic rage,
the magiftrates watched their motions with fuch fevere
attention, that many of them found it neceffary to retire
into other countries; fome were punifhed, others driven
into exile, and their errors were entirely rooted out.
But in the Netherlands and Weftphalia, where the per¬
nicious tendency of their opinions was more Unknown,
and guarded againft with lefs care, they got admit¬
tance into feveral towns, and fpread the infe&ion of
their principles.
In particular, two Anabaptift prophets, John Mat¬
thias, a baker of Haerlem, and John Boccold, or Beu-
kels, ajourneymantaylorof Leyden, poffeffed with the
rage of making profelytes, fixed their refidence at Man¬
lier, an imperial city in Weftphalia, of the firft rank, un¬
der the fovereignty of its bifhop, but governed by its own
fenate and confuls. As neither of thefe fanatics
wanted the talents neceffary for fuch an undertaking,
great refolution, the appearance of fan&ity, bold pre-
tenfions to infpiration, and a confident and plaufible
manner of difcourfing, they foon gained many con¬
verts. Among thefe were Rothman, who had firft
preached the Proteftant doblrine in Munfter, and Cnip-
perdoling, a citizen of good birth and confiderable
eminence. Emboldened by the countenance of fuch
drfciples, they openly taught their opinions; and not
fatisfied with that liberty, they made feveral attempts,
tho* without fuccefs, to feize the town, in order to get
their tenets eftablifhed by public authority. At laft,
having fecretly called in their aflbciates from the neigh¬
bouring country, they fuddenly took poffeffion of the
arfenal and fenate-houfe in the night-time; and running
through the fleets with drawa fwords, and horrible
bowlings, cried out alternately, “ Repent, and be Anabap-
“ baptized,” and “ Depart ye ungodly.” The fe-
nators, the canons, the nobility, together with the
more fober citizens, whether Papifts or Proteftants,
terrified at their threats and outcries, fled in confufion;
and left the city under the dominion of a frantic mul¬
titude, confifting chiefly of ftrangers. Nothing now
remaining to overawe or controul them, they fet about
modelling the government according to their own wild
ideas: and though at firft they fhowed fo much reve¬
rence for the ancient conftitution, as to ele£l fenators
of their own feci, and to appoint Cnipperdoling and
another profelyte confuls, this was nothing more than
form; for all their proceedings were direfted by
Mattjiias, who in the ftyle and with the authority of a
prophet uttered his commands, which it was inftant
death to difobey. Having begun with encouraging
the multitude to pillage the churches, and-deface their
ornaments; he enjoined them to deftroy all books, ex¬
cept the bible, as ufelefs or impious; he appointed
theeftatesof fuch as fled to be confifcated, and fold to
the inhabitants of the adjacent country ; he ordered
every man to bring forth his gold, filver, and precious
effefts, and to lay them at his feet: the wealth amafled
by thefe means, he deppfited in a public treafury,
and named deacons to difpenfe it for the common ufe
of all. The members of his commonwealth being thus
brought to a perfe6t equality, he commanded all of them
to eat at tables prepared in public, and even prefcribed
the difties which were to be ferved up each day. Ha¬
ving finiftied his plan of “reformation, his next care was
to provide for the defence of the city; and he took
meafures for that purpofe with a prudence which fa¬
voured nothing of fanaticifm. He colledled vaft ma¬
gazines of every kind ; he repaired and extended the
fortifications, obliging every perfon to work in his
turn ; he formed fuch as were capable of bearing arms
into regular bodies, and endeavoured to add, the vigour
of difcipline to the impetuofity of enthufiafm. He
fent emiflaries to the Anabaptifts in the Low Countries,
inviting them to aflemble at Munfter, which he digni¬
fied with the name of Mount Sion, that from thence
they might fet out to reduce all the nations of the earth
under their dominion. He himfelf was unwearied in
attending to every thing mecefiary for the fecurity or
increafe of the feft ; animating his difciples by his
own example to refufe no labour, as well as to repine
at no hardfhip ; and their enthufiaftic paflions being
kept from fubfiding by a perpetual fucceffion of ex¬
hortations, revelations, and prophecies, they feemed
ready to undertake or to fuffer any thing in mainte¬
nance of their opinions.
Meanwhile, the bifhop of Munfter having afiembled
a confiderable army, advanced to befiege the town. On
his approach, Matthias fallied out at the head of fome
chofen troops; attacked one quarter of his camp; for¬
ced it; and, after great daughter, returned to the city,
loaded with glory and fpoil. Intoxicated with this fuc¬
cefs, he appeared next day brandifhing a fpear; and de¬
clared, that, in imitation of Gideon, he would go forth
with a handful of men and finite the hoft of the un-
odly. Thirty perfons, whom he named, followed
im without hefitation in this wild enterprize, and
rufhing on the enemy with a frantic courage were cut
off to a man. The death of their prophet occafioned
at
ANA [ 325 1 ANA
Analiap- firft great confternation among his difciples; but Boc-
s~ cold, by the fame gifts and pretenfions which had
gained Matthias credit, foon revived their fpirits and
hopes to fuch a degree, that he fucceeded him in the
fame abfolute direftion of all their affairs. As he did
not poffefs that enterprifing courage which diftinguiihed
his predeceflfor, he fatisfied himfelf with carrying on
a defenfive war; and, without attempting to annoy the
enemy by fallies, he waited for the fuccours he expec¬
ted from the Low Countries, the arrival of which was
often foretold and promifed by their prophets. But
though lei's daring in aftion than Matthias, he was a
wilder enthufiaft, and of more unbounded ambition.
Soon after the death of his predeceffor, having by ob-
fcure vifions and prophecies prepared the multitude for
feme extraordinary event, he dripped himfelf naked,
and, marching through the itreets, proclaimed with a
loud voice, “ That the kingdom of Zion tvas at hand;
that whatever was higheft on earth ihould be brought
low, and whatever was lowed diould be exalted.” In
order to fulfil this, he commanded the churches, as the
mod lofty buildings in the city, to be levelled with the
ground ; he degraded the fenators chofen by Matthias;
and depriving Cnipperdoling of the confulfhip, the
higheft office in the commonwealth, he appointed him
to execute the lowed; and mod. infamous, that of com¬
mon hangman; to which ftrange tranfition the other a-
greed, not only without murmuring, but with the ut-
mdft joy; and fuch was the defpotifm and rigour of
Boccold’s adminiftration, that he was called almoft e-
very day to perform fome duty or other of his wretch¬
ed funftion. In place of the depofed fenators, he na¬
med twelve judges, according to the number of tribes
in Ifrael, to prefide in all affairs; retaining to himfelf
the fame authority which Mofes anciently poffeffed as
legidator of that people.
Not fatisfied, however, with power or titles which
were not fupreme, a prophet, whom he had gained and
tutored, having called the multitude together, declared
it to be the will of God, that John Boccold fliould be
King of Sion, and fit on the throne of David. John
kneeling down, accepted of the heavenly call, which
he folemnly protefted had been revealed likewife to
himfelf; and was immediately acknowledged as a mo¬
narch by the deluded multitude. From that moment
he affumed all the ftate and pomp of royalty. He
wore a crown of gold, and the richeft and moft fump-
tuous garments. A bible was carried on his one hand,
a naked fword on the other. A great body of guards
accompanied him when he appeared in public. He
coined money ftamped with his own image, and ap¬
pointed the great officers of his houfehold and king¬
dom, among whom Cnipperdoling was nominated go¬
vernor of the city, as a reward for his former fubmif-
fion.
Having now attained the height of power, Boccold
began to difcover paffions, which he had hitherto re-
ftrained, or indulged only in fecret. As the exceflfes of
enthufiafm have been obferved in every age to lead to
fenfual gratifications, the fame conftitution that is fuf-
ceptible of the former being remarkably prone to the
latter, he inftrufted the prophets and teachers to ha¬
rangue the people for feveral days concerning the law-
fulnefs and even, neceffity of taking more wives than
©ne, which they afferted to be one of the privileges!
Vol. I.
granted by God to the faints. When their ears were Analiap-
once accuftomed to this licentious dotftrine, and their
paffions inflamed with the profpeft of fuch unbounded
indulgence, he himfelf fet them an example of ufmg
what he called their Chriftian liberty, by marrying at
once three wives, among which the widow of Matthias,
a woman of lingular beauty, was one. As he was al¬
lured by beauty, or the love of variety, he gradually
added to the number of his wives, until they amounted
to fourteen, though the widow of Matthias was the
only one dignified with the title of queen, or who (hared
with him the fplendor and ornaments of royalty. Af¬
ter the example of their prophet, the multitude gave
themfelves up to the moft licentious and uncontrouled
gratification of their defires. No man remained fatif-
fied with a Angle wife. Not to ufe their Chriftian li¬
berty was deemed a crime. Perfons were appointed to
fearch the houfes for young women grown up to ma¬
turity, whom they inftantly compelled to marry. Tor-
gether with polygamy, freedom of divorce, its ihfe-
parable attendant, was introduced, and became a new
fource of corruption. Every excefs was committed of
v/hich the paffions of men are capable, when reftrained
neither by the authority of laws nor the fenfe of de¬
cency ; and by a monftrous and almoft incredible con-
junftion, voluptuoufnefs was engrafted on religion, and
diflblute riot accompanied the aufterities of fanatical
devotion.
Meanwhile, the German princes were highly offend¬
ed at the infult offered to their dignity by Boccold’s
prefumptuous ufurpation of royal honours; and the
profligate manners of his followers, which were a re¬
proach to the Chriftian name, filled men of all profef-
fions with horror. Luther, who had teftified againft
this fanatical fpirit on its firft appearance, now deeply
lamented its progrefs; and, expofing the delufion with
great ftrength of argument, as well as acrimony of
ftyle, called loudly on all the ftates of Germany to put
a flop to a phrenzy no lefs pernicious to fociety than
fatal to religion, The emperor, occupied with other
cares and projefts, had no leifure to attend to fuch a
diftant objeft. But the princes of the empire, affem-
bled by the king of the Romans, voted a fupply of men
and money to the bifliop of Munfter, who, being unable
to keep a fufficient army on foot, had converted the
fiege of the town into a blockade. The forces raifed
in confequence of this refolution wrere put under the
command of an officer of experience; who, approaching
the town towards the end of fpring in the year 1535,
preffed it more clofely than formerly; but found the for¬
tifications fo ftrong, and fo diligently guarded, that he
durft not attempt an affault. It was now above fifteen
months fince the Anabaptifts had eftabliffied their do¬
minion in Munfter ; they had during that time under¬
gone prodigious fatigue in working on the fortifica¬
tions, and performing military duty. Notwithftanding
the prudent attention of their king to provide for their
fubfiftence, and his frugal and regular ceconomy in their
public meals, they began to feel the approach of fa¬
mine. Several fmall bodies of their brethren, who
were advancing to their affiftance from the Low-Coun¬
tries, had been intercepted, and cut to pieces ; and
while all Germany was ready to combine againft them,
they had no profpeCt of fuccour. But fuch was the
afcendant which Boccold had acquired over the multi-
S f tude,
ANA [ 326 ] ANA
Anahap- tude, and fo powerful the fafcinntion of enthufiafm, fettled in England, retain its peculiar tenets concerning Anabaptift*
n^s- that their hopes were as fanguine as ever ; and they baptifm, but without any dangerous mixture of enthu-
hearkened with implicit credulity to the vifions and fiafm.
predictions of their prophets, which a flared them, that Within thefe 12 years, the Anabaptifts have form- _
the Almighty would fpeedily interpofe, in order to de- ed a congregation in Edinburgh, (which is the firft
liver the city. The faith, however, of fome few, fliaken appearance they ever made in Scotland.) They pray
by the violence and length of their fnfferings, began for the king and all inferior magiftrates; and fubjedt
to fail; but being fufpeCted of an inclination to fur- themfelves (in civil matters) to every ordinance of man,
render to the enemy, they were punifhed with imme- for the Lord’s fake. They confider the kingdom of
diate death, as guilty of impiety in diftrufting the Chrift to be fpiritual, and not of this world ; and are
power of God. One of the king’s wives, having ut- ftriftly upon the congregational or independent plan,
tered certain words that implied fome doubt concerning admitting of no jurifdi&ion or authority (in matters of
his divine rhiffion, he inftantly called the whole num- religion) but that of the Great Lawgiver. Their church-
ber together; and commanding the blafphemer, as he officers are bifhops (or elders) and deacons, and thefe
called her, to kneel down, cut off her head with his they generally chute from among themfelves. They
own hands; and fo far were the reft from expreffing any make the reading of the fcriptures a part of their pub-
horror at this cruel deed, that they joined him in dan- lie fervice, and eat the Lord’s fupper every fabbath-
cing with a frantic joy around the bleeding body of day. Their difciples, before they are admitted into
their companion. communion, are firft baptized in the Water of Leith,
By this time, the befieged endured the utmoft rigour which they do at all feafons of the year ; and, on thefe
of famine; but they chofe rather to fuffer hardfhips, the occafions, they are generally attended by a great num-
recital of which is fhockingto humanity, than to liften ber of fpettators.
to the terms of capitulation offered them by the bifhop. ANABASCII, in antiquity, were courriers who
At laft, a deferter, whom they had taken into their were fent on fiorfeback, or in chariots, with difpatches
fervice, being either lefs intoxicated with the fumes of of importance.
enthufiafm, or unable any longer to bear fuch diftrefs, ANABLEPS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of
made his efcape to the enemy. He informed their ge- a fpecjes of cobitis. See Cobitis.
neral of a weak part in the fortifications which he had ANABOA, a fmall ifland fituated near the coaft of
obferved; and affuring him that the befieged, exhcuift- Loango in Africa, in E. Long. 90. N. Lat. 1
ed with hunger and fatigue, kept watch there with lit- ~ * r 1 r  11— —^ ~1~ “
are feveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of ba-
tle care, he offered to lead a party thither in the night, nanas, oranges, pine-apples, lemons, citrons, tamarinds,
The propofal was accepted, and a chofen body of troops cocoa nuts, &c. together with vaft quantities of cotton,
appointed for the fervice; who, fcaling the walls un- In this ifland are two high mountains, which, being
perceived, feized one of the gates, and admitted the continually covered with clouds, occafion frequent rains,
reft of the army. The Anabaptifts, tho’ furprifed, ANABOLiEUM, or Anabole, in antiquity, a
defended themfelves in the market-place with valour, kindof great or upper coat, worn over the tunica,
heightened by defpair; but, being overpowered by num- A,NABOLEUS, in antiquity, an appellation given
hers, and furrounded on every hand, moft of them were to grooms of the ftable, or equerries, who aflifted their
flain, and the remainder taken prifoners. Among the mailers in mounting their horfes. As the ancients had
laft were the king and Cnipperdoling. The king, no ftirrups, or inftrunaents that are now in ufe for
loaded with chains, was carried from city to city as a mounting a horfe, they either jumped upon his back,
fpe&acle to gratify the curioiity of the people, and was or were aided in mounting by anabolei.
expofed to all their infults. His fpirit, however, was ANACALYPTERIA, according to Suidas, were
not broken or humbled by this fad reverfe of his con- prefents made to the bride by her huiband’s relations
dition ; and he adhered with unfliaken firmnefs to the and friends when fhe firft uncovered her face and ftiew-
diftinguiftiing tenets of his fe£l. After this, he was ed herfelf to men. Thefe prefents were alfo called
brought back to Munfter, the fceneof his royalty and : for, among the Greeks, virgins before mar-
crimes, and put to death with the moft exquifite and riage were under ftridl confinement, being rarely per-
lingering tortures, all which he bore with aftonifti- mitted-to appear in public, or converfe with the other
ing fortitude. This extraordinary man, who had been fex ; and when allowed that liberty, wore a veil over
able to acquire fuch amazing dominion over the minds of their faces, termed Kaxual/x™, or Kawarfy«, which was
his followers, and to excite commotions fo dangerous not'left off in the prefence of men till the third day af-
to fociety, was only 26 years of age. ter marriage; whence, according to Hefychius, this
Together with its monarch, the kingdom of the A- day was alfo called anacalypterion.
nabaptifts came to an end. Their principles having ta- ANACAMPSEROS, in botany, a fynonyme of
ken deep root in the Low-Countries, the party ftill the portulaca, and feveral other plants,
fubfifts there, under the name of Mennonitei; but by ANACAMPTERIA, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a
a very Angular revolution, this fedl, fo mutinous and kind of little edifices adjacent to the churches, defign-
fanguinary at its firft origin, hath become ahoge- ed for the entertainment of ftrangers and poor perfons.
ther innocent and pacific. Holding it unlawful to, ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients
wage war, or to accept of civil offices; they devote to that part of optics which treats of refledtion,. being
themfelves entirely to the duties of private citizens, and the fame with whatis now called Catoptrics.
by their induftry and" charity endeavour to make repa- ANACARDIUM, or cashew-n-ut tree, age-
ration to human fociety for the violence committed by mis of the monogynia order, belonging to the decan-
their founders. A fmall number of this fedl, which is dria clafs of plants.—Of this only one fpecies is as yet
known.
Anachoret
m
Anacar-
diuni
iAi'acharCs
ANA [ 327 ] ANA
known to the botanifts, viz. the occidentale. It grows
naturally in the Weft-Indies, and arrives at the height
of 20 feet in thofe places of which it is a native, but
cannot be preferved in Britain without the greateft dif¬
ficulty. The fruit of this tree is as large as an orange;
and is full of an acid juice, which is frequently made
ufe of in making punch. To the apex of this fruit
grows a nut, of the fize and (hape of a hare’s kidney,,
but much larger at the end which is next the fruit than
at the other. The Ihell contains an inflammable oil,
which is very cauftic, fo that it will raife blifters on
the fliin, and has often been very troublefome to thofe
who put the nuts into their mouth to break the Ihell.
The milky juice of this tree will ftain linen of a deep
black, which cannot be walhed out; but it is not
known whether the tree which produces the Eaft India
nuts called likewife anacardium, is of the fame fpecies
with this or not. In 1770, Mr Banks and Dr Solan-
der found feveral of thefe nuts lying on the ground jn
a deep valley in New Holland ; upon which they made
a moft diligent fearchfor the tree which bore them, (and
which no European botanift ever faw), without being
able to find it.
Culture. This plant is eafily raifed from the nuts,
which (hould be planted each in a feparate pot filled
with light fandy earth, and plunged into a good hot¬
bed of tanners bark ; they muft alfo be kept from moi-
fture till the plants come up, otherwifethe nuts are apt
to rot. If the nuts are frefti, the plants will come up
in about a month ; and in two months more, they will
be four or five inches high, with large leaves : from
which quick progrefs many people have Been deceived,
imagining they would continue the like quick growth
afterwards ; but with all the care that can be taken,
they never exceed the height of two feet and an half,
and for the moft part fcarce half as much.
Medicinal Ufes. The medical virtues of anacardia
have been greatly difputed : many have attributed to
them the faculty of comforting the brain and nerves, for¬
tifying the memory, and quickening the intelleft; and
hence a confection made from them has been dignified
with the title of confedio fapientuni: others think it
better defervcs the name of confeflio Jlultorum, and
mention inftances of its continued ufe having rendered
people maniacal. But the kernel of anacardium is not
different in quality from that of almonds. The ill ef¬
fects attributed to this fruit belong only to the juice
contained betwixt the kernels; whofe acrimony is fo
great, that it is faid to be employed by the Indians as
a cauftic. This juice is recommended externally for
tetters, freckles, and other cutaneous deformities;
which it removes only by exulcerating or excoriating
the part, fo that a new ikin comes underneath.
ANACATHARSIS, fignifies a falivation, or dif-
charge of noxious humours by fpitting.
ANACATHARTICS, properly fignify fuch me¬
dicines as promote the difcharge of faliva.
ANACEPHALiEOSIS, in rhetoric, the fame with
recapitulation. See Recapitulation.
ANACHARSIS, a famous Scythian philofopher,
converfed with Solon, and lived an auftere life. Upon
his return from his travels through Greece, he attemp¬
ted to change the ancient cuftoms of Scythia, and to
eftaBlifh thofe of Greece; which proved fatal to him.
The king {hot him dead in a wood with an arrow. A
great many ftatues were erefted to him after his death.
He is faid to have invented tinder, the anchor, and the
potter’s wheel; but the latter is mentioned by Homer,
who lived long before him. Anacharfis flourifhed in
the time of Crcefus. Diogenes Laertius made an epi¬
gram upon his attempt to introduce the Grecian man¬
ners into his country, and his fate on that account.
. ANACHORET, in church-hiftory, denotes a her¬
mit, or folitary monk, who retires from the fociety of
mankind into fome defart, with a view to avoid the
temptations of the world, and to be more at leifure for
meditation and prayer.
Such were Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion, the firft
founders of monaftic life, in Egypt and Paleftine.
Anachorets, among the Greeks, confift principally
of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave
of the abbot, and an allowance from the monaftery;
or who, weary of the fatigues of the monaftery, pur-
chafe a fpot of ground, to which they retreat, never
appearing again in the monaftery, unlefs on folemn oc-
cafions.
ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an er¬
ror with refpeft to chronology, whereby am event is
placed earlier than it really happened *.
ANACLASTICS, that part of optics which con-
fiders the refraftion of light, and is commonly called
Dioptrics. See Dioptrics.
Anaclastic Glajjesy a kind of fonorous phials, or
glaffes, chiefly made in Germany, which have the pro¬
perty of being flexible ; and emitting a vehement noife
by the human breath. —They are alfo called vexing
glaffes by the Germans (vexier glafer), on account of
the fright and difturbance they occafion by their refili-
tion.—The anaclaftic glaffes are a low kind of phials
with flat bellies, refembling inverted funnels, whofe
bottoms are very thin, fcarce furpaffing the thicknefs
of an onion peel: this bottom is not quite flat, but a
little convex. But upon applying the mduth to the o-
rifice, and gently infpiring, or as it were finking out
the air, the bottom gives way with a prodigious crack,
and of convex becomes concave. On the contrary,
upon exfpiring or breathing gently into the orifice of
the fame glafs, the bottom with no lefs noife bounds
back to its former place, and becomes gibbous as be¬
fore.—The anaclaftic glaffes firft taken notice of were
in the caftle of Goldbach; where one of the academifts
Naturce Curioforum, having feen and made experiments
on them, publiftied a piece exprefs on their hiftory and
phenomena. They are all made of a fine white glafs.
It is to be obferved in thefe, 1. That if the bottom be
concave at the time of infpiration, it will burft; and
the like will happen if it be convex at the time of ex-
fpiration. 2. A ttrong breath will haVe the fame effect
even under the contrary circumftances.
ANACLETERIA, in antiquity, a folemn feftival
celebrated by the ancients when their kings or princes
came of age, and affumed the reins of government. It
is fo called, becaufe proclamation being made of this
event to the people, they went to falute their prince du¬
ring the anacleteria, and to congratulate him upon his
new dignity.
ANAGLINOPALE, Avay-Xivoa-aX*, in antiquity, a
kind of wreftling, wherein the champions threw them-
felves voluntarily on the ground, and continued the
combat by pinching, biting, fcratching, and other me-
S f 3 thods
Anaclino-
pale.
* See Chra*
nology.
ANA [ 3*8 ] ANA
-Anaclin- thods of offence. The Anaclinopale was contradiftin-
terla guifhed from the Ortbopalc,^\\txt\\\ the champions ftood
Analrifis. ereft. In the Anaclinopale, the weaker combatants
—  fometimes gained the viftory.
ANACLINTERIA, in antiquity, a kind of pil¬
lows on the dining-bed, whereon the guefts ufed to
lean. The ancient tricliniary beds had four ev»*a7«, one
at the head, another at the feet, a third at the back,
and a fourth at the breaft. That on which the head
lay, Was properly called by the Greeks iuv, or
KvuK\iv1gov; by the Romans fulcrum, fometimes pluteus.
ANACOLLEMA, a compofition of aftringent
powders, applied by the ancients to the head, to pre¬
vent defluxions on the eyes.
ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a city
of Ionia, flourilhed about 532 years before the Chrif-
tian asra. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, invited him
to his court, and made him fhare with him in his bu-
finefs and his pleafures. He had a delicate wit, as may
be judged from the inexpreffible beauties and graces
that jfhine in his works : but he was fond of pleafure,
was of an amorous difpofition, and addifted to drunk-
ennefs: yet, notwithftanding his debaucheries, he lived
to the age of 85 ; when, we are told, he was choaked
by a grape-ftone which ftuck in. his throat as he was
regaling on fome new wine.
There is but a fmall part of Anacreon’s works that
remain; for, befides his odes and epigrams, he com-
pofed elegies, hymns, and iambics. His poems which
are extant were refcued from oblivion by Henry Ste¬
phens, and are univerfally admired. The verfes of
Anacreon are fweeter, fays Scaliger, than Indian fu-
gar. His beauty and chief excellence, fays Madam
Dacier, lay in imitating nature, and in following rea-
fon, fo that he prefented to the mind no images but
what were noble and natural. The odes of Anacreon,
fays Rapin, are flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces;
it is familiar to him to write what is natural and to the
life, he having an air fo delicate, fo eafy, and graceful,
that among all the ancients there is nothing comparable
to the method he took, nor to that kind of writing he
followed. He flows foft and eafy, every where diffu-
fxng the joy and indolence of his mind thro’ his verfe,
and tuning his harp to the fmooth and pleafant temper
of his foul. But none has given a jufter chara&er of
his writings than the God of Love, as taught to fpeak
by Mr Cowley:
All thy vepfe is fofter far
Than the downy feathers are,
0f my wings, or of my arrows.
Of my mother’s doves andfparrows:
Graceful, cleanly, fmooth, or round,
All with Venus’ girdle bound.
ANACREONTIC verse, in ancient poetry, a kind
®f verfe, fb called from its being much ufed by the poet
Anacreon. It confifts of three feet and an half, ufually
fpondees and iambufes, and fometimes anapefts: Such
is that of Horace, Lydia, die per cmnes.
ANACRISIS, among the ancient Greeks, is ufed
for a kind of trial, or examination, which the archons,
or chief magittrates of Athens, were to undergo before
their admiflion into that office. The anaert/is Hands
diftinguifhed from the docimafia, which was a fecond
examination, in the forum. The Anacritis was per¬
formed iu the fenate-houfe. The queftion. here propo-
fed to them were concerning their family, kindred, be¬
haviour, ellate, &c. Some will have it that all magi-
ftrates underwent tjie anacrifls.
Anacrisis,amongeivilians, an inveftigationof truth,
interrogation of witneffes, and inquiry made into any
fa&, especially by torture.
ANACYCLUS, in botany, a genus of the poly-
gamia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. It has neither beauty nor ufe, and therefore
merits no defeription.
ANADAVADiEA, in ornithology, a barbarous
name of a fpecies of alauda. See Alauda.
ANADEMA, among the ancients, denotes an or¬
nament of the head, wherewith vigors at the facred
games had their temples bound.
ANADIPLOSIS, in rhetoric and poetry, a repe¬
tition of the latt word of a line, or claufe of a fentence,
in the beginning of the next: Thus,
■ Piet ides, vos htc facietis maxima Gallo : \
Gallo, cujus amor, &c.
Et matatinis accredula vocibus injlat,
Vocibus inftat, & ajjiduas jacit ore querelas.
ANADOSIS, among phyficians, the diftribution of
the aliment over the body.
ANADROMOUS, among ichthyologifts, a name
given to fuch fifhes as go from the fea to the frefli
waters at ftated feafons, and return back again; fuch as
the falmon, &c. See Salmo.
ANiEDEIA, in antiquity, a denomination given to
a lilver ftool placed in the Areopagus, on which the
defendent-, or perfon accufed, was feated for examina¬
tion. The word is Greek, Ava^iia, which imports im¬
pudence; but, according to Junius’s correftion, it fhould
rather be Av«i7<«, q. d. innocence. The plaintiff, or ac-
cufer, was placed on an oppofite ftool called bybris, or
injury ; here he propofed three queftions to the party
accufed, to which politive anfwers were to be given.
The firft, Are you guilty of this fail ? The fecond. How
did you commit the faft? The third. Who were your
accomplices ?
ANAESTHESIA, fignifies a privation of the fenfes.
ANAGALLIS, pimpernel ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. Of this there are four
Species. 1 - The arvenfis, or common pimpernel, with
a red flower. 2. The faemina, with a blue flower. 3.
The monelli, or narrow-leaved pimpernel. 4. The
latifolia, or Spaniffi pimpernel.—The firft fort is very
common in corn-fields, and other cultivated places in
Britain. The fecond is fometimes found wild in the
fields, but is not fo common as the firft. The third is a
beautiful fmall perennial plant, and produces numbers-
of fine blue flowers. The fourth is a native of Spain,
and likewife produces blue flowers. All the fpecies
are eat by cows and goats, but refufed by Iheep; fmall
birds are greatly delighted with the feeds.
Thefe plants are very eafily propagated by feeds;
and if fuffered to remain till their feeds fcatter, they
become troublefome weeds.- Great medicinal virtues
were formerly expe&ed from the firft two fpecies; but
they are now juftly difregarded, though they ftill re¬
tain a place in the materia medica.
ANAGNIA, a town of Latium, capital of the Her-
nici, (Livy, Pliny, Virgil); which, after a faint refift-
ance, fubmitting to the Romans, was admitted to the
freedom.
ANA
ANA [ 329 ]
>6iijAnagnofta freedom of the city, yet without the right of fuffrage,
II (Livy.) It was afterwards a colony of Drufus Caefar,
,_J g and walled round, and its territory affigned to the ve¬
terans, (Frontinus.) Here Antony married Cleopatra,
and divorced Oftavia. Now Anagni, 36 miles to the
call of Rome. Long. 13. 45. Lat. 42. 48.
ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, in antiquity, a
kind of literary fervant, retained in the families of per-
fons of diftindtion, whofe chief bufinefs was to read to
them during meals, or at &ny other time when they
were at leifure. Cornelius Nepos relates of Atticus,
that he had always an agnoftes at his meals. He ne¬
ver fupped without reading; fo that the minds of his
guefts were no lefs agreeably entertained than their ap¬
petites. The fame cuftom, Eginhard obferves, was
kept up by Charlemagne, who at table had the hiftories
and adb of ancient kings read to him. This cuftom
feems to have been a relic of that of the ancient Greeks,
who had the praifes of great men and heroes fung to
them while at table. The ancient monks and clergy
kept up the like ufage, as we are infbrmed by St Au-
guftin.
ANAGOGICAL, fignifies myfterious, tranfport-
ing; and is ufed to exprefs whatever elevates the mind,
not only to the knowledge of divine things, but of di¬
vine things in the next life. This word is feldom ufed,
but with regard to the different fenfes of Scripture.
The analogical fenfe is, when the facred text is explain¬
ed with a regard to eternal life, the point which Chri-
ftians ftiould have in view: for example, the reft of the
fabbath, in the anagogical fenfe, fignifies the repofe of
everlafting happinefs.
ANAGOGY, or Anagoge, among ecclefiaftical
writers, the elevation of the mind to things celeftial and
eternal.—dt is particularly ufed, where words, in their
natural or primary meaning, denote fomething fenfible,
but have a further view to fomething fpiritual or invi-
fible.
Anagogv, in a more particular fenfe, denotes the
application of the types and allegories of the Old Te-
ftament to fubjefts of the New; thus called, beeaufe
the veil being here drawn, what before was hidden, is
expofed to open fight.
ANAGRAM, (from the Greek «»« backwards, and
letter), in matters of literature, a tranfpofition
of the letters of fome name, whereby a new word is
-formed, either to the advantage or difadvantage of the
perfon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus, the
anagram of Galenus is angelus; that of Logica, cali-
go; that of Alftedius, fedulitas; that of Loraine is
alerion, on which account it was that the family of Lo¬
raine took alerions for their armoury.—Calvin, in the
title of his InftHutions, printed at Strafburg in 1539,
calls himfelf Alcuinus, which is the anagram of Calvi-
nus, and the name of an eminently learned perfon in
the time of Charlemagpe, who contributed greatly to
the reftoration of learning in that age.
Thofe who adhere ftrialy to the definition of an a-
nagram, take no other liberty than that of omitting
or retaining the letter h, at pleafure; whereas others
make no fcruple to ufe e for /£, v for w, s for z, and
c for x; and vice verfa.
Befides anagrams formed as above, we meet with an¬
other kind in ancient writers, made by dividing a fingle
word into feveral; thus, fus tinea mus, are formed out
of the word fuftineamus. Anagram-
Anagrams are fometimes alfo made out of feveral
words : fuch is that on the queftion put by Pilate to Anakmma.
our Saviour, ^jiid eji veritas ? whereof we have this —-    
admirable anagram, viz. eji vir qui adeji.
The Cabbalifts among the Jews are profeffed ana-
grammatifts; the third part of their art, which they call
themuru, i. e. changing, being nothing but the art of
making anagrams, or of finding hidden and myftical
meanings in names ; which they do by changing, tranf-
pofing, and differently combining, the letters of thofe
names.—Thus, of m the letters of Noah’s name, they
make rn grace; of twa the Mejjiah, they make rrau* he
Jhall rejoice.
ANAGRAMMATIST, a maker or compofer of
anagrams. Thomas Billon, a provincial, was a celebra¬
ted anagrammatift, and retained by Lewis XIII. with
a penfion of 1200 livres, in quality of anagrammatift;
to the king.
ANAGROS, in commerce, a meafurefbr grain ufed
in fome cities of Spain, particularly at Seville; 46 ana-
gros make about 10^ quarters of London.
ANAGYRIS, stinking bean-trefoil; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria
clafs of plants.
Of this genus there is but one fpecies, which grows
naturally in the fouthern parts of Europe. It is a
ftirub which ufually rifes to the height of eight or ten
feet, and produces its flowers in April or May. Thefe
are of a bright yellow colour, growing in fpikes, fome-
what like the laburnum.
Culture. This plant may be propagated either by
feeds, or by laying down the tender branches in the
fpring; but the fir ft method is preferable. The feeds
fliould be fown toward the end of March in pots filled
with light earth, and plunged in a gentle hot-bed.
The plants ufually appear in a month, when they fhould
be gradually inured to the open air, that they may be
hardened before winter. In the autumn and winter,
they muft be flickered under a hot-bed frame : the
fpring following, they muft be tranfplanted, each into
a feparate fmall pot, placed in a flickered fituation, and
again removed into a frame to flicker them during the
following winter. The fecond fpring after the plants
come up, fome of them may be taken out of the pots,
and planted in a border near a fouth-wall, where, if
they are protected in winter, they may remain.
Anagyris, or anagyrus, the name of a place in
Attica, of the tribe Erechtheis, where a fetid plant,
called Anagyris, probably the fame with the forego-
ing, grew in great plenty, (Diofcorides, Pliny, Ste-
phanus;) and the more it was handled, the ftronger it
fmelled: hence commovere anagyrin (or anagyrum), is
to bring a misfortune on one’s felf, (Ariftophanes.)
ANALECTA, or Analectes, in antiquity, a fer¬
vant whofe employment it was to gather up the off-falls
of tables.
Analecta, Analetts, in a literary fenfe, is ufed
to denote a colle&ion of fmall pieces;, as effays, re¬
marks, &c.
ANA LEMMA, in geometry, a proje&ion of the
fphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographically
made by ftraight lines and ellipfes, the eye being fup-
pofed at an infinite diftance, and in the eaft or weft,
points of the horizon.
Analemma,
ANA [ 330 ] ANA
A^alemma AnAlemma, denotes Hkewife an inftrument of brafs
An J ,fl or wood, upon which this kind of projeftion is drawn,
—- na } l5‘ with an horizon and curfor fitted to it, wherein the fol-
ftitial colure, and all circles parallel to it, will be con¬
centric circles; all circles oblique to the eye, will be
ellipfes ; and all circles whofe planes pafs through the
eye, will be right lines. The ufe df this inftrument is
to fhew the common^aftronomical problems ; which it
will do, though not very exaftly, unlefs it be very large.
ANALEPSIS, the augmentation or nutrition of an
emaciated body.
ANALEPTICS, reftorative or nourilhing medi¬
cines.
ANALOGY, in matters of literature, a certain re¬
lation and agreement between two or more things,
which in other refpefls are entirely different.
There is likewife an analogy between beings that
have fome conformity or refemblance to one another;
for example, between animals and plants; but the ana¬
logy is ftill ftronger between two different fpecies of
certain animals.
Analogy enters much into all our reafoning, and
ferves to explain and illuftrate. A great part of our
philofophy has no other foundation than analogy, the
utility of which confifts in fuperfeding all neceffity of
examining minutely every particular body ; for it fuf-
fices us to know that every thing is governed by gene¬
ral and immutable laws, in order to regulate our con-
duft with regard to all fimilar bodies, as we may rea-
fonably believe that they are all endowed with the fame
properties: Thus, we never doubt that the fruit of the
fame tree has the'fa me tafte.
Analogy, among grammarians, is the correfpon-
dence which a word or phrafe bears to the genius and
received forms of any language.
ANALYSIS, in a general fenfe, implies the refo-
lution of fomething compounded into its original and
conftituent parts. The word is Greek, and derived
from a-vxKvj, to refolve.
Analysis, in mathematics, is properly the method
t of refolving problems by means of algebraical equa¬
tions ; whence we often find that thefe two words, a-
nalyfis and algebra, are ufed as fynonymous.
Analyfis, under its prefent improvements, muff be al¬
lowed the apex or height of all human learning: it is
this method which furnilhes us with the moll perfeft
examples of the art of reafoning ; gives the mind an un¬
common readinefs at deducing and difcovering, from a
few data, things unknown ; and, by ufing figns for i-
deas, prefents things to the imagination, which other-
wife feemed out of its fphere : by this, geometrical
demonftrations may be greatly abridged, and a long
feries of argumentations, wherein the mind cannot with¬
out the utmoft effort and attention difcover the connec¬
tion of ideas, are hereby converted into fenfible figns,
and the feveral operations required therein effe&ed by
the combination of thofe figns. But, what is more
extraordinary, by means of this art, a number of truths
are frequently expreffed by a fingle line, which in the
common way of explaining and demonftrating things
would fill whole volumes. Thus, by mere contempla¬
tion of one fingle line, whole fciences may be fometimes
learnt in a few minutes time, which otherwife could
fcarce be attained in many years.
Analysis is divided, with regard to its objedt, into
that of finites, and infinites. Analyfis
Analysis of Finite Quantities, is what we otherwife jf ,
call fpecious arithmetic or algebra. See Algebra. na ^tics‘
Analysis of Infinites, called alfo the New Analyfis,
is particularly ufed for the method of fluxions, or the
differential calculus. See Fluxions.
Analysis, in logic, fignifies the method of tracing
things backwards to their lource, and of refolving know¬
ledge into its original principles. This is alfo called
the method of refolution ; and Hands oppofed to the
fynthetic method, or that of compofition.—The art of
logical analyfis confifts principally in combining our
perceptions, clafling them together with addrefs, and
contriving proper expreflions for con veying our thoughts,
and reprefenting their feveral divifions, claffes, and re¬
lations.
Analysis, in chemiftry, the reducing of an hetero¬
geneous or mixed body, into its original principles or
component parts. See Chemistry.
Analysis is alfo nfed for a brief but methodical
illuftration of the principles of a fcience; in which fenfe,
it is nearly fynonymous with what we otherwife call a
fynopfts.
ANALYTIC, or Analytical, fomething that
belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of analyfis.—
Thus we fay, an analytical demonftration, analytical
procefs, analytical table or fcheme, analytical method
of inveftigation, &c.
The analytic method Hands oppofed to the fynthe¬
tic. In natural philofophy, as in mathematics, the in¬
veftigation of difficult things by the analytic method
ought to precede the method of compofition. This a-
nalyfis confifts in making experiments and obfervations,
and in drawing general conclufions therefrpm by in~
du&ion ; and admitting of no obje&ions againft the
conclufions, but fuch as are drawn from experiments,
and other certain truths • and though the reafoning
from experiments and obfervations by indu&ion be no
demonftration of general conclufions, yet it is the bell
method of reafoning which the nature of things admits
of; and may be efteemed fo much the ftronger, as the
indu&ion is more general; and, if no exception occur
from phenomena, the conclufion may be pronounced
general. By this way of analyfis, we may proceed
om compounds to their ingredients; from motions to
the forces producing them ; and in general from effects
to their caufes, and from particular caufes to more ge¬
neral ones, until we arrive at thofe which are the moft
general. This is the analytic method, according to
the illuftrious Newton.
The fynthetic method confifts in affuming the caufes
difcovered and received as principles; and by them ex¬
plaining the phenomena proceeding from them, and
proving the explanations. See Synthesis.
ANALYTICS, Analytica, the fcience and ufe of
analyfis. The great advantage of the modern mathe¬
matics above the ancient is in point of analytics.
Pappus, in the preface to his feventh book of Mathe¬
matical Collections, enumerates the authors on the an¬
cient analytics; being Euclid, in his Data and Porif-
mata; Apollonius, de Seilione Rationis, and in his Co-
tiics ; Ariftasus, de Locis Solidis ; and Eratofthenes, de
Mediis Proportionalibus. But the ancient analytics
were very different from the modern.
To the modern analytics principally belong algebra;
ANA L 331 ] ANA
Anamahoa an hiftorical account of which, with the feveral authors
Anania= thereon, fee under the article Algebra.
-- ANAMABOA, a populous town in the kingdom
of Fantin, in Guinea. The natives are generally great
cheats, and muft be carefully looked after in dealing
with, them, and their gold well examined, for it is
commonly adulterated. It lies under the cannon of
the EngHfh caftle. The landing is pretty difficult, on
account of the rocks; and therefore thofe that come
here to trade are forced to go afhore in canons. The
earth here is very proper to make bricks; the oyfters,
when burnt, afford good lime ; and there is timber in
reat abundance; fo that here are all the materials for
uilding. The country at Anamaboa is full of hills, be¬
ginning at a good diftance from the town, and afford¬
ing a very pleafant profpeft. Indian corn and palm-
wine are in great plenty. They have a green fruit
called papas, as big as a fmall melon, and which
has a tafte like cauliflower. Anamaboa is much fre¬
quented by the Engliffi ffiips and others for corn and
(laves, which laft are fometimes to be had in great
numbers. The Engliffi fort is built on the foundation
of a large old houfe, which fubfifted entire in 1679.
It is a large edifice, flanked by two towers, and forti¬
fied towards the fea with twobaftions: the whole of brick
and ftone cemented with lime. It (lands upon a rock
at the diftance of 30 paces from the fea. It is mounted
with 12 pieces of canon and 12 patereroes;; and defend¬
ed by a garrifon of 12 whites and 18 blacks, under the
command of the chief faftor.
The natives treat the garrifon of this fort with great
infolence, infomuch as often to block them up, and fre¬
quently, if they diflike the governor, fend him off in
a canoe to Cape Coaft with marks of the utmoft con¬
tempt. Far from being able to oppofe them, the En¬
gliffi are glad to obtain their favour with prefents. In
17 01, they declared war againft the Engliffi; and having
affembled in a tumultuous manner before the fort, they
fet fire to the exterior buildings, and went on with
their outrages, till they were difperfed by a difeharge
of the cannon from the batteries. The night following
the Engliffi took their revenge, by fetting fire to the
town of Anamaboa ; and thus hoftilities continued
for 20 d?ys, till at laft the natives were obliged to
fue for peace. This fort was abandoned in 1733 ; ^ut
has been refumed by the Engliffi, who have continued
in it ever fince.
ANAMELECH, an idol of the Sepharvaites, who
are faid in Scripture to have burned their children in
honour of Adrammelech and Anamelech.—Thefe idols
probably fignified the fun and moon. Some of the
rabbins reprefent Anamelech under the figure of a
mule ; others under that of a quail or pheafant.
ANAMORPHOSIS, in perfpe&ive and painting,
a monftrous projeftion, or reprefentation of an image,
on a plane or curve furface, which, beheld at a proper
diftance, (hall appear regular and in proportion.
ANANAS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
ofbromelia. See Bromelja.
ANANCITIS, in antiquity, a kind of figured
ftone, otherwife calledfynocktiis, celebrated for its ma¬
gical virtue of raffing the ffiadows of the infernal gods.
ANANIAS, a Sadducee, high-prieft of the Jews,
who put to death St James the brother of our Lord,
and was depofed by Agrippa..
ANANISABTA, or Ananjsapta, a magical Ananifabta.
word frequently found inferibed on coins and other . ^ ,
amulets, fr.ppofed to have a virtue of preferving the narc ‘‘
wearer from the plague.
ANAPEST, in ancient poetry, a. foot confiding pf
two ftort fyllables, and one long : Such is the wotd
fcopulos. It is juft the reverfe of the dadlyl.
ANAPESTIC verses, thofe confiding wholly or
chiefly of anapefts.
ANAPHE, (anc. geogr.) an ifland fpontaneoufly
emerging out of the Cretan fea, near Thera, (Pliny,
Strabo.) Now called Naii/io. Its name is from the
fudden appearance of the new moon to the Argo¬
nauts in a ftorm, (Apollonius.) Anaphxus, an epithet
of Apollo, who was worffiipped there. Anaphai, the
people.
ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, the repetition of the
fame word or words in the beginning of a fentence or
verfe : Thus Virgil,
Pan rtimn ArcaSa me cum fs judice certet.
Pan etiam Arcadia dkatfe judice -viflurn.
Anaphora, among phyficians, the throwing off pu¬
rulent matter by the mouth.
ANAPHRODISIA, fignifies impotence, or want
of power to procreate.
ANAPIS, a river of Sicily. See Sicily.
ANAPLASIS, fignifies the replacing or fetting a
fra&ured bone.
ANAPLEROTICS, medicines that promote the
growth or granulation of the fleffi, in wounds, ulcers,
&c.
ANARCHI, Av«?/^ot, in antiquity, a name given
by the Athenians to four fupemumerary days in their
year, during which they had no magiftrates. The At¬
tic year was divided into ten parts, according to the
number of tribes, to whom the precedency of the fe-
nate fell by turns. Each divifion confided of 35 days ;
what remained after the expiration of thefe, to make
the lunar year complete, which according to their com¬
putation confided-of 354 days, were employed in the
creation of magidrates, and called and
ANARCHY, the want of government in a nation,
where no fupreme authority is lodged, either in the
prince or other rulers; but the people live at large,
and all things are in confufion. The word is derived
from the Greek privative and “PX”’ command, prin¬
cipality. Anarchy is fuppofed to have reigned after the
deluge, before the foundation of monarchies. We dill
find it obtain in feveral parts, particularly of Africa
and America.
Anarchy is alfo applied to certain troublefome and
diforderly periods, even in governments otherwsfe regu¬
lar. In England, the period between the death of Crom¬
well and King Charles’s reftoration is commonly re-
prefented as an anarchy. Every month produced a new
fcheme or form of government. Enthufiafts talked of
nothing but annulling all the laws, abaliffiing all wri¬
tings, records, and regiders, and bringing all men to
the primitive level. No modern nation is more fubjeefc
to anarchies than Poland; where every interval between
the death of one king and the eleftion of. another is a
perfedt picture of confufion, infomuch that it is a pro¬
verb among that people, Poland is governed by coriftt-
fton. The Jewilh hiftory prefents numerous inftances of
ANA L 33* 1 ANA
Anarrhieas. anarchies in that ftate, ufualiy denoted by this phrafe,
that in thofe days there was no king in Ifrael, hut every
man did that which was right in his own eyes; which is
a juft pi&ure of an anarchy.
ANARRHICAS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties
of the order of apodes. There is but one fpecies of this
prenus, viz. the anarrhicas lupus, or fea-wolf; which
feems to be confined to the northern parts of the globe.
We find it iathe feas of Greenland; in thofe of Ice¬
land and Norway; on the coafts of Scotland, and of
Yorkfhire; and laftly, in that part of the German o-
cea'n which wafties the ftiores of Holland, the moft
fouthern of its haunts that we can with any certainty
mention.
It is a moft ravenous and fierce fifti, and, when taken,
faftens on any thing within its reach : the fiftiermen
dreading its bite, endeavour as foon as poflible to beat
out its fore-teeth, and then kill it by ftriking it behind
the head. Schonevelde relates, that its bite is fo hard,
that it will feize on an anchor, and leave the marks of
its teeth in it; and the Danifh and German names of
fleenbider and JieinbeiJfer, exprefs the fenfe of its great
ftrength, as if it was capable of eruftiing even ftones
with its jaws.
It feeds almoft entirely on cruftaceous animals and
ftiell-fiih, fuch as crabs, lobfters, prawns, mufcles, fcol-
lops, large whelks, &c. thefe it grinds to pieces with
its teeth, and fwallows with the leffer ftiells. It does
not appear they are diflblved in the ftomach, but are
voided with the faeces, for which purpofe the aperture
of the anus is wider than in other fifh of the fame fize.
It is full of roe in February, March, and April, and
fpawns in May and June.
This fifti has fo difagreeable and horrid an appear¬
ance, that nobody at Scarborough except the fifliermen
will eat it, and they prefer it to holibut. They always
before dreffing take off the head and ikin.
The fea-wolf grows to a large fize: thofe on the
Yorkftiire coaft are fometimes found of the length of
four feet; acccording to Dr Gronovius, they have been
taken near Shetland feven feet long, and even more.
The head is a little flatted on the top ; the nofe blunt;
the noftrils are yery fmall; the eyes fmall, and placed
near the end of the nofe.
The teeth are very remarkable, and finely adapted to
its way of life. The fore-teeth are ftrong, conical, diver¬
ging a little from each other, ftand far out of the jaws,
and are commonly fix above and the fame below, tho’
fometimes there are only five in each jaw: thefe are fup-
ported within-fide by a row of leffer teeth, which makes
the number in the upper jaw 17 or J 8, in the lower
xi or 12. The fides of the under jaw are convex in¬
wards, which greatly adds to their ftrength, and at the
fame time allows room for the large mufcles with which
the head of this fifh is furniftied. The dentes molares,
or grinding teeth of the under jaw, are higher on the
outer than the inner edges, which inclines their furfaces
inward : they join to the canine teeth in that jaw, but
in the upper are feparate from them. In the centre are
two rows of flat ftrong teeth, fixed on an oblong bafis
upon the bones of the palate and nofe. n
The teeth of the anarrhicas are oftai found foffil;
and in that ftate called bufonites, or toad-Jiones: thefe
were formerly much efteemed for their imaginary vir¬
tues, and were fet in gold, and worn Ss rings.
The two bones that form the under jaw are united Anarrliicai
before by a loofe cartilage; which mechanifm admit- i
ting of a motion from fide to fide, moft evidently con- Ana
tributes to the defign of the whole, viz. a facility of
breaking, grinding, and comminuting, its teftaceous
and cruftaceous food. At the entrance of the gullet,
above and below, are two echinated bones : thefe are
very fmall, being the lefs peceffary, as the food is in a
great meafure comminuted in the mouth by aid of the
grinders.
The body is long, and a little compreffed fidewife;
the fkin fmooth and flippery: it wants the lateral line.
The peftoral fins confift of 18 rays. The dorfal fin ex¬
tends from the hind-part of the head almoft to the tail;
the rays in the frefti fifti are not vifible. The anal fin
extends as far as the dorfal fin. The tail is round at
its end, and confifts of 13 rays. The fides, back, and
fins, are of a livid lead colour; the two firft marked
downwards with irregular obfcure duftcy lines: thefe
in different fifti have different appearances. The young
are of a greenifti caft, refembling the fea-wrack, amongft
which they refide for fome time after their birth.
ANARROPIA, among phyficians, a tendency of
the humours to the head or fuperior parts.
ANAS, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of anferes. The beak of this genus is a
little obtufe, covered with an epidermis or Ikin, gib¬
bous at the bafe, and broad at the apex ; the tongue is
obtufe and fldhy; the feet are webbed and fitted for
fwimming. The fpecies are,
1. The cygnus, ferns & manfuetus.
«, Theferus, with a femicylindrical black bill, yellow
wax, and a white body, .is the wild fwanof Englifh au¬
thors, and a native of Europe and North America. Lin¬
naeus fays, they frequently vifit Sweden after a thaw, and
are caught with apples in which, a hook is concealed.
The wild fwan frequents our coafts in hard winters in
large flocks, but as far as we can inform ourfelves does
not breed in Great Britain. Martin * acquaints us, * Defcrip.
that fwans come in O&ober in great numbers to Lin- ib'ej}. JJIest
gey, one of the Weftern Ifles ; and continue there till 7I’
March, when they retire northward to breed. A few
continue in Mainland, one of the Orkneys, and breed
in the little ifles of the frefti-water lochs; but the mul¬
titude retires at the approach of fpring. On that ac¬
count, fwans are there the country-man’s almanack: on
their quitting the ifle, they prefage good weather; on
their arrival, they announce bad. Thefe, as well as
moft other water-fowl, prefer, for the purpofe of incu¬
bation, thofe places that are leaft frequented by man¬
kind: accordingly we find that the lakes and foreftsof
the diftant Lapland are filled during fummer with my¬
riads of water-fowl; and there fwans, geefe, the duck-
tribe, goofanders, divers, &c. pafs that feafon; but in
autumn return to us, and to other more hofpitable ftiores.
This fpecies is lefs than the tame fwan: length, five
feet to the end of the feet; to that of the tail, four feet
ten inches : extent of wing, feven feet three inches :
weight, from thirteen to fixteen pounds. The cry of
this kind is very loud, and may be heard at a great di-
ilance, from which it is fometimes called the Hooper.
/?, The manfuetus, or tame-fwan. This is the largeft Plate XII.
of the Britifti birds. It is diftinguiftied externally from ,-
the wild fwan; firft, by its fize, being much larger;
fecondly, by its bill, which in this is red, and the tip
and
ANA [ 333 ] ANA
M ; Anas; an(l fides black, and the ndli between the eyes and bill
ifl an°r 0f6 is of the fame colour. Over.the bafe of the upper tnan-
if and duck. ’ dible, projefts a black callous knob : the whole plu-
 mage, in old birds, is white; in young ones, afh-colour1-
ed till the fecond year: the legs are dulky; but Dr Plott
mentions a variety found on the Trent near Rugely,
with red legs. The fwan lays feven or eight eggs, and
is near two months in hatching: it feeds on water-
plants, infefts, and Ihells. No bird, perhaps, makes
fo inelegant a figure out of the water, or has the com¬
mand of fuch beautiful attitudes in that element, as the
fwan: almoll every poet has taken notice of it; but
none'with that jflftnefs of defcription, and in fo pi£tu-
refque a manner, as our Milton :
The fwan, with arched neck
between her white wings mantling, proudly rows
Her Hate with oary feet. Par. Loft. B. vii.
In former times, it \As ferved Up at every great feaft,
when the elegance of the table was meafured by the lize
and quantity of the good cheer. Cygnets are to this
day fattened at Norwich, about Chriltmas; and are fold
for a guinea a-piece.
Swans were formerly held in fuch great efteem in
England, that by an aft of Edward IV. c. 6. “ no one
that poffelfed a freehold of lefs clear yearly value than
five marks, was permitted to keep any, other than the
fon of our fovereign lord the king.” And by the eleventh
of Henry VII. c. 17. the punifhment for taking their
eggs was imprifonment for a year and a day, and a
fine at the king’s will. Though at prefent they are
not fo highly valued as a delicacy, yet great numbers
.are preferved for their beauty; we fee multitudes on
the Thames and Trent, but no where greater numbers
than on the falt-water inlet of the fea near Abbotibury
in Dorfetlhire.
Thefe birds were by the ancients confecrated to A-
pollo and the Mufes;
• svS'a xuKvof /juKutof
Mouo-ao S-sgxxivti. Eurip. Iphig. in Taur. 1104.
And Callimachus, in his hymn upon the ifland of De¬
los, is ftill more particular:
 When from Paftolus’ golden banks
Apollo's tuneful fongfters, fnowy fwans,
Steering their flight, feven times their circling courfe
Wheel round the illand, caroling mean time
Soft melody, the favourites of the Nine,
Thus ufltering to birth with dulcet founds
The God of harmony : and hence fev’n Brings
Hereafter to his golden lyrfe he gave ;
For ere the eighth foft concert was begun,
He fprung to birth. Dodd's Callimachus,- p. nf.
(Upon this idea of their being peculiarly confecrated to
Apollo and the Mufes (the deities of harmony,) feems
to have been ingrafted the notion the ancients had of
_ fwans being endowed with a mufical voice. Though
this might be one reafon for the fable; yet there ap¬
pears another ftronger, which arofe from the Pytha¬
gorean doiStrine of the tranfmigration of the foul into
the bodies of animals; from the belief,- that the body
of the fwan was allotted for the manfion of depar! d
11 poets. Thus Plato makes his prophet fay, Hnv yap
4/u^dv ipv tdv iron Opprdf ytvOjicivwv xvxvb/3io* a/pn,«fv»v ; “ I
faw the foul of Orpheus prefer the life of a fwan.”
, After the ancients had thus furnilhed thefe birds with
fuch agreeable inmates, it is not to be doubted but
they would attribute to them the fame powers of har-
Vol. I.
mony that poets poflefled previous to their tranfmi-
gration: but the vulgar, not diftinguifhing between the fwan°r 0fc
fweetnefs of numbers and that of voice, ignorantly be- an(; *
lieved that to be real, which philofophers and poets 
only meant metaphorically.
In time, a fwan became a common trope for a hard.
Horace calls Pindar, Dircaum Cygnum; and in one ode,
even fuppofes himfelf changed into a fwan. Virgil
fpeaks of his poetical brethren in the fame manner,
Van, tuum nomen
Cantatites fubiime ferent ad fydera cygni. Eddg. lx.
When he fpeaks of them figuratively, he afcribes to them
melody, or the power of mufic; but when he talks of
them as birds, he lays afide fiftion, and, like a true na-
turalift, gives them their real note:
Dant fonitum rand per flagna loquaeia cygni.
JEndd. JLib. X. J o.
Thus he, as well as Pliny, in faft, gave no credit to
the mufic of fwans. Ariftotle fpeaks of it only by hear-
fay. But, when once an error is ftarted, it is not furpri-
fing that it is adopted; efpecially by poets, genuifes of
all others of the moft unbounded imaginations. For
this reafon, poets were faid to animate fwans, from the
notion that they flew higher than any other birds;
and Hefiod diitinguiflies them by the epithet of xux»o»
cupoiaoTcn, “ the lofty flying fwans.”
Befides thefe opinions, the ancients held another ftill
more Angular, imagining that the fvvan foretold its
own end. To explain this, we muft confider the twofold
character of the poet, vates and poet a, which the fablb
of the tvanfmigration continues to the bird; of they
might be fuppofed to derive that faculty from Apollo
their patron deity, the god of prophecy and divination.
As to their being fuppofed to fing more fweetly at
the approach of death, the caufe is beautifully explain¬
ed by Plato, who attributes that unufiial melody to
the fame fort of ecftacy that good men are fometimes
faid to enjoy at that awful hour, forefeeing the joys
that are preparing for them on putting off mortality:
Mxvhxoi ri eitri, xai irgnatorsl to. tv Afs dyuSx, aSwi Tt, xae
TtptfovTXi txstvxv rnv n/xsgav fiaftpovtde >1, tv t« x-pocrSrtv xgova 1
“ They become prophetic; and, forefeeing the happi-
nefs which they fliall enjoy in another ftate, are in great¬
er ecftacy than they have before experienced.”
2. The cygnoides, with a femicylindrical bill, gib¬
bous wax, and tumid eye-brows: It is the fwan-goofe
of Ray, from Guinea. There is likewife a variety of
this fpecies, of a lefs fize, called the goof of Mufcovy.
3. Thetadorna, or fheOdrake, has a flat bill, a com-
preffed forehead, a greenifli black head, and the body is
variegated with white. This fpecies frequents the fea-
coafts of Europe, and breed in rabbit holes. When a
perfon attempts to take their young, the old birds fhe#
great add refs in diverting his attention from the brood;
they will fly along the ground as if wounded, till the
former are got into a place of fecurity, and then return
and colleft them together. From this inftinftive cun¬
ning, Turner, with good reafon, imagines them to be
the chenatopex, or fox-goof, of the ancients: the natives
of the Orkneys to this day call them the fy-goofi, from
an attribute of that quadruped. They lay 15 or 16
eggs, white, and of a roundiih fliape. In winter they
colleft in great flocks. Their flefti is very rank and bad.
4. The fpeftabilis, has a compreffed bill, gibbous at
T t the
ANA [ 334, ] ANA
Anas; the bafe, a black feathery carina, and a hoary head. It
fwan°goofe ’s t^ie grey*headed duck of Edwards, and is a native of
and duck. * Sweden and Canada.
—  5. The fufca, or velvet duck, is of a blackifh colour,
has a white fpot behind the eyes, and a white line on
the wings. The male of this fpecies is diftinguifhed by
a gibbofity at the bafe of the bill. It is the black duck
of Ray, and a native of the European feas.
6. The nigra, or footer, is totally black, and has a
gibbofity at the bafe of the bill; the tail refembles a
wedge; the female is brownilh. It is the leffer black
diver of Ray, and a native of Britain and Lapland.
. This bird is allowed in the Romilh church to be eaten
in Lent; and is the macreufe of the French. It is a
great diver, faid to live almoft conftantly at fea, and to
be taken in nets placed under water.
7. The anfer, ferus & manfuetus; or grey lag, and
bean-goofe. The grey lag is two feet nine inches in
length, and five feet in extent. The bill is large and
elevated; of a fldh colour, tinged with yellow; the head
and neck cinereous; bread; and belly whitiih, clouded
with grey or afh colour; back, grey; the legs of a flefh
colour. This fpecies refides in the fens the whole year;
breeds there, and hatches about eight or nine young,
which are often taken, eafily tamed, and edeemed moft
excellent meat, fuperior to the domedic goofe. The
old geefe which are Ihot, are plucked, and fold in the
market as fine tame ones; and readily bought, the
purchafer being deceived by the fize, but their fiedi is
coarfe. Towards winter they collect in great docks,
but in all feafonslive and feed in the fens. The grey lag
is the origin of the domedic goofe; it is the only fpe¬
cies that the Britons could take young, and familiarize:
the other two never breed here, and migrate during
fummer. The mallard comes within the fame deferip-
tion, and is the fpecies to which we owe our tame breed
of ducks: both preferve fome of the marks of their
wild date; the goofe, the whitenefs of the coverts of
the tail and vent feathers; the drake, its curled fea¬
thers.—Tame geefe are of vad longevity. Mr Wil-
lughby gives an example of one that attained to 80
years. They are kept in great multitudes in the
fens of Lincolndiire: a fingle perfpn will have 1000
old geefe, each of which will rear feven ; fo that
towards the end of the feafon he will become mader
of 8000. Luring the breeding feafon thefe birds are
lodged in the fame houfes with the inhabitants, and
even in their very bed-chambers : in every apartment
are three rows of coarfe wicker pens, placed one above
another; each bird has its feparate lodge divided from
the other, which it keeps pofleffion of during the time of
fitting. A perfpn, called zgozzard, i. e. goafe-herd, at¬
tends the dock, and twice a-day drives the whole to.
water; then brings them back to their habitations,
helping thofe that live, in the upper dories to their neds,
without ever mifplacing a fingle bird. The geefe are
plucked, five times in the year: the fird plucking is at
Lady-day, for feathers and quills; and the fame is re¬
newed, for feathers only, four times more between that
and Michaelmas. The old geefe fubmit quietly to the
operation, but the. young ones are very noify and un¬
ruly. If the feafon proves cold, numbers of them die
by this barbarous cudom. Vad numbers of geefe are
driven annually to London to fupply the markets; a-
mong them, all the fuperannuated geefe and ganders,
which, by a long courfe of plucking, prove uncom- An; s;
monly tough and dry. fwan^oof
The bean-goofe is two feet feven inches in length; in e
extent, four feet eleven. The bill, which is the chief 
didinftion between this and the former, is fmall, much |?lae
compreffed near the end, whitifh, and fometimes pale
red in the middle, and black at the bafe and nail: the
head and neck are cinereous brown, tinged with ferru¬
ginous ; bread and belly, dirty white, clouded with ci¬
nereous; the back of a plain alh colour; feet and legs
of afaffron colour; claws black. This fpecies arrives in
Lincolnfhire in autumn; and is called the bean-goofe,
from the likenefs of the nail of the bill to a horfe-bean.
They always light on corn-fields, and feed much on the
green wheat.
They never breed in the fens ; but all difappear in
May. They retreat to the fequedered wilds of the north
of Europe; in their migration they fly a great height,
cackling as they go. They preferve a great regularity
in their motions; fometimes forming a draight line; at
others, affuming the fliape of a wedge, which facilitates
their progrefs, for they cut the air readier in that form
than if they flew pell-mell.
8. The erythropus, or laughing-goofe of Edwards,
is a native of Europe and America. The length of
this fpecies is about two feet four; the extent four feet
fix; the bill elevated, of a pale yellow colour, with a
white ring at the bafe ; the forehead is white; the
bread and belly are of a dirty white, marked with great
fpots of black; and the legs yellow.
Thefe vifit the fens and other parts of England du¬
ring winter, in fmall flocks; they keep always in marfliy
places, and never frequent the corn-lands. They dif¬
appear in the earlied fpring, and none are feen after the
middle of March. Linnaeus makes this goofe the fe¬
male of the bernacle; but Mr Pennant thinks his opinion
not well founded.
The bernack (erythropus mas, Lin.) is two feet one
inch in length ; the breadth four feet five inches ; the
bill is black; the forehead and cheeks are white; from
the bill to the eyes, there is a black line; the hind,
part of the head, the whole neck, and upper part of the
bread and back, are of a deep black; the tail is black,
the legs of the fame colour, and fmall.
Thefe birds appear in vad flocks during winter, on
the north-wed coads of this kingdom: they are very
fliy and wild; but on being taken, grow in a few days
as familiar as our tame geefe. In February they quit
our fliores, and retire as far as Lapland, Greenland, and
even Spitzbergen, to breed.
They live to a great age: the Rev. Dr Buckworth
of Spalding, had one which was kept in the family a-
bove 32 years, but was blind during the two lad; what
its age was when fird taken, was unknown.
Thefe are the birds that about 200 years ago were
believed to be generated out of wood, or rather a fpe¬
cies of fiiell that is often found dicking to the bottoms
of fliips,. or fragments of them;, and were called tree-
eefe *. Thefe1 were alfo thought by fome writers to * See Lepe:
ave been the chenalopeces of Pliny; they fliould have
faid chenerotes, for thofe were the birds which that na-
turalid faid were found in Britain: but as he has fcarce
left us any defeription of them, it is difficult to fay which
fpecies he intended. Mr Pennant imagines it to be
the following^; which is far inferior in fize to the wild-,
goofe,.
^——
fiVan, goofe
and duck.
Plate XII.
fig. 5.
ANA [ 335 ] ANA
goofcj and very delicate food; in both refpe&s fuiting
his account of the cheneros.
' 9. The bernicla, is of a brown colour; with the
head, neck, and breaft, black; and a white collar. The
birds of this fpecies frequent our coafts in the winter;
in Ireland they are called bernacles, and appear in great
quantities in Auguft, and leave it in March. They feed
on a fort of long grafs growing in the water; prefer¬
ring the root and lome part above it, which they dive
for, bite off, and leave the upper part to drive on fliore.
They abound near Londonderry, Belfaft, and Wex¬
ford ; are taken in flight-time, in nets placed acrofs
the rivers; and are much efteemed for their delica¬
cy. Mr Willughby, Mr Ray, and Mr Briflbn, very
properly defcribe the bernacle and brent as different
fpecies ; but Linnaeus makes thefe fynonymous, and
defcribes the true bernacle as the female of the white-
fronted wild-goofe.
10. The canadenfis is brown ; its neck and head are
black, and the throat is white. It is a native of Ca¬
nada.
1 i. The ccerulefcens, is greyilh above, and white un¬
derneath ; the covert-feathers of the wings and back
are bluiih. It is the blue-winged goofe of Edwards,
and a native of Canada,
12. The moliffima, or eider-duck, is double the fize
of the common duck, has a cylindrical bill, and the
wax is divided behind, and wrinkled. The feathers,
which are very foft and valuable, fall off during incu¬
bation. The male is white above, but black below and
behind: the female is greenilh. This fpecies is found
in the Weftern Ifles of Scotland, particularly on Oran-
fa, Barra, Rona, and Heilker, and on the Earn ifles;
but in greater numbers in Norway, Iceland, and Green¬
land ; from whence a vaft quantity of the down, known
by the name of eider or edder, which thefe birds fur-
nifli, is annually imported: its remarkably light, ela-
flic, and warm qualities, make it highly efteemed as a
fluffing for coverlets, by fuch whom age or infirmities
render unable to fupport the weight of common blan-
kets? This down is produced from the breaft of the birds
in the breeding feafon. It lays its eggs among the ftones
or plants, near the fhore ; and prepares a foft bed for
them, by plucking the down from its own breaft: the
natives watch the opportunity, and takeaway both eggs
and neft : the duck lays again, and repeats the pluck¬
ing of its breaft: if fhe is robbed after that, fhe will ftill
lay; but the drakes muft fupply the down, as her flock
is now exhaufted: but if her eggs are taken a third
time, fhe wholly deferts the place.
Mr Pennant, when on the Earn ifles, founu the ducks
fitting; and took fome of the nefts, the bafe of which
were formed of fea-plants, and covered with the down.
After feparating it carefully from the plants, it weigh¬
ed only three quarters of an ounce ; yet was fo elaftic
as to fill a larger fpace than the crown of the greateft,
hat. Thefe birds are not numerous on the ifles; and
it is obferved that the drakes keep on thofe moft re¬
mote from the fitting places. The ducks continue on
their nefts till you come almoft clofe to them ; and when
they rife, are very flow fliers. The number of eggs in
each neft are from three to five, warmly bedded in the
down; of a pale olive colour; and very large, gloffy,
and fmooth.
13. The marila, or fcaup-duck, is lefs than the com¬
mon duck. The bill is broad, flat, and of a greyifh Anas;
blue colour; the head and neck are black, glofled with or
green; the breaft is black; the back, the coverts of jndduck
the wings, and the fcapulars, are finely marked with nu- - - i—
merous narrow tranfverfe bars of black and grey; the
legs are dufky. Mr Willughby acquaints us, that
thefe birds take their name from feeding on fcaup, or
broken fhell-fifh; they differ infinitely in colours, fo that
in a flock of 40 or 50 there are not two alike.
14. The mofehata, or Mufcovy duck of Ray, has a
naked papillous face, and is a native of India.
15. The bahamenfis, or Bahama duck, is grey, with
a lead-coloured bill. It has a tawny fpot on the fides,
and a green yellowifh fpot on the wings. It is a na¬
tive of Bahama.
16. The albeola, or little black and white duck, has
a black back and wings; the head is bluifh, and white
on the hinder part. It is a native of Attierica.
17. The clypeata, or fhoveler of Ray, has the end
of its bill broad, rounded, and furnifhed with a fmall
hook. It is found near the European fhores.
18. The ftrepera, or gad-wall, has the wings varie¬
gated with black, white, and red. It frequents the freflt
waters of Europe.
19. The bucephala, or leffer duck of Catefby, has
the back and wings black ; and the head, both above
and below, is interfperfed with fhining filky feathers.
It frequents the frefh waters of North America.
20. The clangula, or golden-eye of Ray, is varie¬
gated with black and white, and the head is interfper¬
fed with blackifh green feathers; it has a white fpot
near the mouth; and the eyes are of a fhining gold co¬
lour. It dives much in queft of fhell-fifh. It frequents
frefh water as well as the fea, being found on the Shrop-
fhire meres during winter.
21. The ruftka, is brownifh, or afh-coloured, with
a white fpot on the ears and wings. It is a native of
North America.
22. The perfpicillata, or great black duck, is white
on the top of the head and of the neck; and has a black
fpot on the bill, immediately behind the noftrils. It is
a native of Canada.
23. The glaucion, or greater wild-duck of Ray, has
the iris of the eyes yellow, a grey head, and white col¬
lar. It frequents the northern fhores of Europe.
24. The penelops, or widgeon of Ray, has a fharpifh
tail, black below; the head is brown, and the forehead
white. It inhabits the marfhy parts of Europe.
25. The acuta, pin-tail, or fea-pheafant of Ray, has
a long acuminated tail, black below, with a white line
on each fide of the back part of the head. It is a na¬
tive of Europe. Mr Hartlib, in the appendix to his
legacy, tells us, that thefe birds are found in great a-
bundance in Connaught in Ireland, in the month of
February only; and that they are much efteemed for
their delicacy.
26. The glacialis, or long-tailed duck, is inferior in
fize to the former. The bill is fhort, black at the tip
and bafe, orange-coloured in the middle; the cheeks are
of a pale brown; the hind-part of the head, and the
neck both before and behind, are white; the breaft and
back are of a deep chocolate colour ; the four middle
feathers of the tail are black, and two of them near
four inches longer than the others, which are white:
the legs dufky. Thefe birds breed in the moft north-
T t 2 em
ANA
[ 336 ]
ANA
Plate XIT.
%3-
* See Decoy.
ern parts of the world; and only viiitour coafts in the kind. Nature fports in the colours of all domeftic a- Ana*
fevereft winters. nimals; and for a wife and ufeful end. That man- ^ 1! ,
’ 27. The ferina, pochard, or red-headed widgeon of kind may the more readily diftinguilh and claim their na a!ica
- Ray, has a lead-coloured bill: the head and neck are refpecVive property,
of a bright gay colour: the bread; and part of the 35. The adunca, or hook-billed domeftic duck of
back where it joins the neck, are black : the coverts of Ray, has the fame chara&ers with the bofehas, except-
the wings, the fcapulars, back and fides under the ing that the bill is brooked.
wings are of a pale grey, elegantly marked with nar- 36. The galerieulata, or Chinefe teal of Edwards,
row lines of black: the tail confifts of twelve Ihort fea- has a hanging creft ; and on the hinder part of the
thers, of a deep grey colour : the legs are lead colour- back, on both fides, there is a crooked, flat, elevated
ed: and the irides of a bright yellow, tinged with red. feather ; the creft is green and red ; and the back is
The head of the female is of a pale reddifh brown: brown, and fpotted with blue; and ereft feathers on the
Thefe birds frequent frdh water as well as the fea; and back are red and blunt; one edge of the inmoft wing¬
being very delicate eating, are much fought for in the , feather, when the wings are ftuit, is raifed over the
London markets, where they are known by the name back, and is red, and like a fickle before. It is a na-
«f duu birds. tive of China.
28. The querquedula, garganty, or firft teal of Al- 37. The fponfa, or fummer-duck of Catelby, has a Plate XII.
drovandus, has a green fpot on the wings, and a white depending green creft, variegated with blue and white; %• 4-
line above the eyes. It frequents the frdh waters of the back is likewife variegated with blue and white;
Europe. In many places it is called the fummer-teal. the breaft is grey, and fpotted with white ; and the
29. The creca, or common teal, has a green fpot throat is white. It is a native of North America.
©n the wings, and a white line both above and below 38. The arborea, or black-billed whiftling-duck of Plate XL
the eyes. It frequents the frdh waters of Europe. Edwards, is of a reddifti brown colour, with a fort of % 3-
This fpecies is to be met with in Duddingfton-loch, a creft on the head ; the belly is fpotted with black and
frefti-water lake, within a mile of Edinburgh. white. It is a native of America. Sloane informs us,
30. The hiftrionica, or dufley-fpotted duck of Ed- that this duck perches on trees'; that it is about 20
wards, is of a brown colour, variegated with white and inches long, from the end of the bill to the point of the
blue ; has a double line on the ears and temples; the fail; and that it makes a kind of whiftling noife,
collar is white, and there is a white ftreak on the neck, from which circumftance it has received its name.
It is a native of America. 39. The fuligula, or tufted duck of Ray, has a
31. The minuta, or little white and brown duck of hanging creft, a black body, and the wings and belly
Edwards, is of a greyifh colour, with white ears, and fpotted with white. It is a native of Europe. The
the prime feathers of the wings blackilh. It is a na- male of this fpecies difappears during the incubation of
tive of Canada. the female
32. The circia, or fummer-teal of Ray, with the 40. The rufa, or ferruginous duck, deferibed by
wings variegated with white fpots, a white line above Mr Pennant from one which was killed in Lincoln- Plate XIL
the eyes, and the beak and feet of an alh-colour. It fre- Ihire. The bill is long and flatted, rounded a little at % i*
quents the lakes of Europe. the bafe, ferrated along the edges of each mandible,
33. The autumnalis, or red-billed whiftling duck of and furnilhed with a nail at the end of the upper. The
Edwards, is of a grey colour, with the prime fea- colour, a pale blue. The head, neck, and whole upper
thers of the wings, the tail, and belly black; and the part of the bird, are of an agreeable reddifh brown; the
area of the wings yellow and white. It is a native of throat, breaft, and belly, of the fame colour, but paler,
America. the legs of a pale blue, but the webs of the feet black.
34. The bofehas, or common wild-duck of Ray; the —This fpecies is not mentioned by any other writer,
intermediate tail-feathers of the drake are turned back- except Linnaeus, who took his defeription from Rud-
ward, and the bill is ftrait. It frequents the lakes of beck’s paintings; and adds, that it is found, tho’ rare-
Europe. This duck feeds upon frogs and feveral forts ly, in the Swedifb rivers.
of infe&s.—The wild ducksfpair in the fpring; build ANASARCA, a fpecies of dropfy. See Medi-
their nefts among rufhes orhelth, near the water; and cine, n° 760, 761.
lay from 10 to 16 eggs. At mounting-time, when. ANASTASIS, a term among ancient phyficians,
they cannot fly, they are caught in great numbers- for a rifing up to gp to ftool. It alfo fignifi.es the paf-
They abound particularly in Lincolnlhire, the great fage of any humour, when expelled from one part, and
magazine of wild-fowl in this kingdom ; where prodi- obliged to remove to another.
digious numbers are taken annually in the decoys *- ANASTA3IUS, furnamed Bi.bliothecarius, a
Birds with flat bills, that find their food by groping, Roman abbot, library-keeper of the Vatican, and
have three pair of nerves that extend to the end of their one of the moft learned men of the ninth century,
bills: thefe nerves are remarkably conlpicuous in the affifted in 869 at the fourth general council, the aits
head and bill of the wild-duck ; and are larger than and canons of which he tranflated from the Greek inta
thofe of a goofe, or any other bird yet known: This Latin. He alfo compofed the lives of feveral popes,
is the reafon they grope for food more than any other and other works;; the beft edition of which is that of
bird whatever.—The common tame fpecies of ducks the Vatican.
take their origin from thefe, and may be traced to it ANASTATICA, the rose of Jericho; a genus
by unerring characters. The drakes, howfoever they of the filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
vary in colours, always retain the curled feathers of the clafs of plants.—Of this genus there are two
t-ail, and both fexes the form of the bill, of the wild Species. 1. The fyriaca, a native of Syria, is not
cifttiva-
ANA L 337 ] ANA
Anaftatka cultivated or known in Britain. 2. The hierochun-
H tica is a native of the fandy parts of Paleftine and the
Anathema. j-ea> j-t a jqw annuai plant, dividing into many
irregular woody branches near the root. At each joint
is placed a Angle, oblong, hairy leaf; and at the fame
places come out fmall Angle flowers, of a whitifli green
colour, compofed of four leaves placed in the form of
a crofs. Thefe are fucceeded by ftiort wrinkled pods,
having four fmall horns ; thefe open into four cells, in
each of which is lodged a Angle brown feed.—When
the feeds of this plant are ripe, the branches will draw
up and contraft ; fo that the whole plant forms a kind
of ball or globular body, which will expand on laying
it a fliort time in warm water. This property it retains
for many years, on which account it is preferved as a
curioAty by fome people. From this property the
monks have given it the name of Rofa Mari#, pretend¬
ing that the flowers open on the night in which our
Saviour was born.
Culture. This plant is propagated by feeds, which
fhouldbe fown in the beginning of March, in a mode¬
rate hot-bed in pots, in which the plants are deflgned
to remain. When they come up, the plants fliould be
thinned, leaving them about Ax inches afunder, and
obferving to keep them clear of weeds, which is all
the care they require. If the feafon proves favourable,
they will flower in Augufl ; but unlefs the autumn
proves warm and dry, they will not perfeft their feeds in
Britain.
ANASTOMOSIS, in anatomy, the opening of the
mouths of veffels, in order to difcharge their contained
fluids. It is likewife ufed for the communication of
two vefiels at their extremities ; as the inofculation of a
vein with a vein, of an artery with an artery, or of an
artery with a vein.
ANASTOMATICS, medicines fuppofed to have
the power of opening the mouths of the veffels, and
promoting the circulation ; fuch as deobftruent, ca¬
thartic, and fudoriAc medicines.
ANASTROPHE, in rhetoric and grammar, de¬
notes the inverAon of the natural order of the words:
fuch is, fax a per et fcopulos, for per faxa et fcopulos.
ANATHEMA, among eccleAaitical writers, im¬
ports whatever is fet apart, feparated, or divided; but
A N A n
is moll ufually meant to exprefs the cutting off a perfon Anathema
from the privileges of fociety, and communion with . II
the faithful. Anatoh;1-.
The anathema differs from excommunication in the
circumllances of being attended with curfes and exe¬
crations. It was praftifed in the primitive church a-
gainll notorious offenders ; and the form of that pro¬
nounced by Synecius againft one Andronicus, is at
follows : “ Let no church of God be open to Andro-
“ nicus, but let every fan&uary be fhut againll him.
“ I admonilh both private men and magiftrates, to
“ receive him neither under their roof, nor to their
“ table ; and priefts more efpecially, that they neither
“ converfe with him living, nor attend his funeral
“ when dead.”
Several councils alfo have pronounced anathemas a-
gainll fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of the
faith, and their decifions have been conceived in the
following form : Si quis dixerit, &c. anathemafit.
There are two kinds of anathemas, the one judici-
ary, and the other abjuratory. The former can only
be denounced by a council, a pope, or a bifhop ; the
latter makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration, the
convert being obliged to anathematize the herefy he
abjures.
Anathema, in heathen antiquity, was an offering
or prefent made to fome deity, and hung up in the
temple. Whenever a perfon left off his employment,
it was ufual to dedicate the tools to the patron-deity of
the trade. Perfons too who had efcaped from immi¬
nent danger, as Ihipwreck and the like, or had met
with any other remarkable inftance of good fortune,
feldom failed to teftify their gratitude by fome prefent
of this kind.
Anathema likewnfe denotes Chrillian offerings, o-
therwife called donations. See Donations.
ANATHOTH, a hamlet of Paleftine, very near
Jerufalem, (Jofephus;) about three miles and a half
to the north; the ruins of which are ftill to be feen.
It was the birth-place of the prophet Jeremiah, and
one of the Levitical towns in the tribe of Benjamin.
ANATIFERA concha, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of the lepas, a teftaceous animal. See Lepas.
ANATOLIA. See NatqMa.
O M Y,
nnHE art of differing, or artiflcially feparating and
-L taking to pieces, the different parts of the human
body, in order to an exaft difeovery of their Atuation,
ftruilure, andceconomy.—The word is Greek, avaTo^x;
derived from avar^va, to difleCt, or feparate by cutting.
INTRODUCTION.
§. i. Hijlary of Anatomy.
This art feema to have been very ancient; though,
for a long time, known only in an imperfeft manner.
-—It probably Arft took its origin from the cuftom of
facriftcing animals to the Deity; and as fome parts
only were appointed for facriflce, and others for the
ufe of the priefts, thofe who were concerned in perform¬
ing this religious ceremony behoved tobeasmuch mailers
of anatomy as to diftinguifh the one part from the other.
It was indeed impoffible that any number of animals
could be flaughtered, either for faeriAce or food, but
thofe who performed the butcher’s part behoved t@
be acquainted with the general Atuation of the vifeera;
and accordingly we And, by the directions given to
the Jews concerning their facriflces, that thefe things
were well known in the time of Mofes. It is alfo pro¬
bable, that as for a long time every man was butcher
for himfelf, the flight knowledge of anatomy which
butchers can acquire was pretty general in every na¬
tion.
By viewing the bodies of flaughtered animals, how¬
ever, only a knowledge of Comparative Anatomy, as
it is called, could be acquired. The knowledge of the
internal parts of the human body might poflibly origi¬
nate from the barbarous cuftom of human facriflces on
certain occaflons. This made it neceflary for the priefts
to
338
ANATOMY.
to acquire fome knowledge of the internal ftru&ure of
the human body, and they would not want opportuni¬
ties from thpfe flain in battle, or torn by wild beafts :
accordingly we find in Homer’s Iliad fome degree of
anatomical knowledge difplayed, by his accurate de¬
tails of fome of the vifcera wounded by vreapons pafs-
ing from certain external parts of the body.
The firft hints we have of anatomy being adopted as
a fcience or part of natural philofophy, are, That Thales
of Miletum, and Pythagoras, about 700 years before
Chrift, made it a part of their ftudies.—An hundred
years after this, Empedocles, in a little fragment pre-
ferved by Galen, difcovers confiderable anatomical
knowledge, and is thought to have prevented Fallopius
in the difcovery of the cochlea and tube of the ear.
Alcmaon of Crotona, a difciple of Pythagoras, is
thought to have been the firll who difTe&ecl animals
with a view to learn their internal ftrufture. This
was done by Democrates of Abdera, with a philpfo-
phical, and by Hippocrates with a medical view, about
500 years before Chrift.—Diodes the Caryfithian is
faid to have been the firft who vvrote the method and
order of differing the parts of animals; but his works
are now loft.—The next who had any reputation in a-
tomy was Praxagoras the Coan; of whom all we know
is, that he diftinguifhed the veins from the arteries, and
believed that the latter became nerves as they grew
fmaller.
It is probable that the Greeks learned their know¬
ledge of the arts from the eaftern nations, as all the
Grecian worthies efteemed it one of the beft parts of
their education to travel into thofe parts.—Egypt feems
to have been originally a great femiuary of learning.
Under the firft Ptolemies, Soter and Philadelphus, a
fchool was ere&ed at Alexandria, where, among other
fciences, anatomy was publicly taught: the kings were
fometimes prefent at the difleftions of human bodies,
and brutes were furniftied by their command. Hero-
philus and Erafiftratus were the fucceffors of two of the
lirft mafters in this fchool, and each of them is faid to
have diffected feveral hundred bodies, from which pro¬
bably the report arofe of their having differed living
men. Erafiftratus defcribed the lacteal veflels of a kid,
and the true origin and ufe of the nerves, in which laft
difcovery Herophilus of Carthage has lhared with him.
By fome he has been fuppofed to have known the cir¬
culation of the blood; and we are certain that he ac¬
counted for digeftion by the mechanical action and
preflure of the ftomach, as fome moderns have done.
The works of thefe great men are loft, and all we know
of them is from little fcraps of improvements interfper-
fed in the works of Galen.
Among the Romans, though it is probable they had
phyficians and furgeons from the foundation of the city,
yet we have no account of any of thefe applying them-
felves to anatomy for a very long time. Archagathus
was the firft Greek phyfician eftablifhed in Rome, and
he was banilhed the city on account of the feverity of
his operations.—Afclepiades, who flouriftied in Rome
101 years after Archagathus, in the time of Pompey,
attained iuch a high reputation as to be ranked in the
fame clafs with Hippocrates. He feemed to have fome
notion of the air in refpiration ailing by its weight;
and in accounting for digeftion, he fuppofed the food
to be no farther changed than by a comminution into
Hiftory
extremely fmall parts, which being diftributed to the
feveral parts of the body, is affimilated to the nature
pf each. One Caflius, commonly thought to be a dif¬
ciple of Afclepiades, accounted for the right fide of the
body becoming paralytic on hurting the left fide of the
brain, in the lame manner as has been done by the mo¬
derns, viz. from the crofting of the nerves from the right
to the left fide of the brain.
From the time of Afclepiades to the fecond century,
phyficians feem to have been greatly encouraged at
Rome; and in the writings of Celfus, Rufus, Pliny,
Coelius Aurelianus, and Aretaeus, we find feveral anato¬
mical obfervations, but moftly very fuperficial and in¬
accurate. Towards the end of the fecond century lived
Claudius Gallenus Pergamus, whofe name is fo well
known in the medical world. He applied himfelf par¬
ticularly to the ftudy of anatomy, and did more in that
way than all that went before him. He feems, however,
to have been at a great lofs for human fubjects to ope¬
rate upon; and therefore his defcriptions of the parts
are moftly'taken from brute animals. His works con¬
tain the fulleft hiftory of anatomifts, and the mofi:
complete fyftem of the fcience, to be met with any
where before him, or for feveral centuries after; fo
that a number of paflages in them were reckoned abfo-
lutely unintelligible for many ages, until explained by
the difcoveries of fucceeding anatomifts.
About the end of the fourth century, Nemefius bi-
fhop of Emifia wrote a treatife on the nature of man,
in which it is faid were contained two celebrated mo¬
dern difcoveries; the one, the ufes of the bile, boafted
of by Sylvius de la Boe; and the other, the circulation
of the blood. This laft, however, is proved by Dr
Friend, in his Hiftory of Phyfic, p. 229. to be falfely
afcribed to this author.
The Roman empire beginning now to be opprefled
by the barbarians, and funk in grofs fuperftition, learn¬
ing of all kinds decreafed; and when the empire was
totally overwhelmed by thofe barbarous nations, every
appearance of learning was almoft extinguifhed in Eu¬
rope. The only remains of it were among the Ara¬
bians in Spain and in Afia. They applied themfelves
chiefly to the ftudy of phyfic; but as the Mahometan
law, like that of the Jews, forbad its fubje6ts to touch
dead bodies, anatomy could be but little improved by
them. Avicenna, however, applied himfelf to read and
underftand the works of Galen. By difleftion, he found
out what is commonly afcribed to Fallopius, namely,
the mufcles attollens palpebram fuperiorem.
By the intercourfe of the Europeans next to Spain
with the Arabians, learning began to be again intro¬
duced ; and in the eleventh century, the fchool of Sa-
lernum in Sicily made a confiderable figure in medicine.
The grofs ignorance and fuperftition of thofe days,
however, prevented for a long time any improvements,
and nothing was taught for two centuries afterwards but
to underftand the Arabian doctors. Anatomical im¬
provements were particularly retarded by its being ima¬
gined a crime to difleft a human body; and this opinion
prevailed till the i6th century. The emperor Charles V.
ordered a confultation to be held by the divines of
Salamanca, in order to detefmine whether or not it was
lawful in point of confcience to difledl a dead body.
In Mufcovy, till very lately, both anatomy, and the
ufe of ikeletons were forbidden, the firft as inhuman,
and
339
itiHiftory.
ANATOMY.
and the latter as fubfervient to witchcraft.
Mundinus was the European author who joined
difleftions to the authority of Galen and the • Arabs.
He flourilhed in the beginning of the 14th century, and
his fyftem was in fuch high reputation as to be the on¬
ly one taught in the fchools for a good number of years.
In the univerfity of Padua particularly, the profeffors
were tied down by an exprefs order of the academy to
teach this book and no other.
In the beginning of the 15th century, learning revived
confiderably in Europe, and particularly phyfic, by means
of copies of the Greek authors brought from the fack
of Conftantinople ; after which the number of anato-
mifts and anatomical books increafed to a prodigious
degree.—The Europeans becoming thus poffeffed of the
ancient Greek fathers of medicine, were fora longtime
fo much occupied in corre&ing the copies they could
obtain, ftudying the meaning, and commenting upon
them, that they attempted nothing of their own, efpe-
cially in anatomy.
Towards the end of this century, Jacobus Berenga-
rius Carpus, became the reftorer of anatomy and fur-
gery at Bononia in Italy. He fays that he had dilfec-
ted above an hundred dead bodies ; which procured
him the fame character that had formerly been given
to Herophilus and Erafiftratus, namely, that of diifeft-
ing living men.—He publifhed two anatomical works;
the one intituled Ifagoga; and the other, commentaries
on Mundinus, in which he corrected fome erroneous
deferiptions,’ and added feveral difeoveries of his own.
For fome time the ftudy of anatomy feems to have
been peculiar to Italy, and feveral treatifes were pub-
liftied on this fubjeft by the Italians before any thing
of a fimilar kind was produced in any other nation; but
about the year 1536, Johannes Guinterius of Anderon,
who had taught anatomy for fome years at Paris, pub-
liihed his Anatomical Inftitutions. He was the firft a-
natomift who gave a full and exa6t defeription of the
mufcles: he affirmed, that the mufcles which furround
the neck of the bladder confifted of tranfverfe fibres ;
that they had feveral functions, fuch as (hotting the
bladder, and, after the emiffion of the urine, evacuating
what is left in the paflage.
In 1543, Andreas Vefalius of Brufiels publiflied his
anatomy; which was of the utmoft fervice, not only by
the many important difeoveries he made, but by hi3
daring to correct Hippocrates, Galen, and the Arabi¬
ans ; which paved the way for others to rid themfelves of
the flavery to thefe authors, which univerfal cuftom had
impofed upon them. His deferiptions are minute, efpe-
cially of the hones and mufcles; in which he not only
outdid all that went before him, but is fcarce to be
equalled by any modern author. His figures were alfo
efteemed mafter-pieces of painting’; though they would
probably have been more ferviceable to young anato-
mifts, had they been reprefentedin a flaccid (late, as they
are by Euftaqhius, and as they are to be feen in .a dead
body, than when reprefented in a ftrong (late of adtion.
He was the firft anatomift that profeffed for a (alary.
The criticifms on Galen and the ancients publiftied by
Vefalius when only 28 years of age,'could not fail of
procuring him a number of enemies; which, however,
ihcreafed, inftead of diminifliing, his reputation. A-
mong the reft, Jacobus Sylvius of Amiens who had
been Vefalius’s inftrudtor, endeavoured to decry him;
and befides thundering againft him in his colleges, he
wrote a fcurrilous treatife againft Vefalius, and in de¬
fence of Galen, which he entitled Calumniatorum Ve-
falii repulfio. Befides this he publiflied feveral other a-
natomical treatifes. He has been particularly ferviceable
by impofing names on the mufcles, moft of which are
retained to this day. Formerly they were diftinguiflied
by numbers, wdiich were differently applied by almoft
every author.
In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius, profeffor of anatomy
at Padua, publiflied a treatife of anatomy under the
titleof Obfervationes Anatnmicx. This was defigned as
a fupplement to Vefalius; many of whofe deferiptions
he corrects, though he always makes mention of him
in an honourable manner. Thefe criticifms, however,
were not well reliftied by Vefalius, though he was ob¬
liged to own himfelf handfomely dealt by. He pub¬
liflied an’anfwer, under the title of ObfervatiotiumFallopii
Examen. Fallopius made many great difeoveries, and
his book is well worth the perufal of every anatomift.
In 1563, Bartholomaeus Euftachius publiflied his 0-
pufcula Anatomica at Venice which have ever finee, been
juftly admired for the exadtnefs of the deferiptions, and
the difeoveries contained in them. He publiflied after¬
wards fome other pieces, in which there is little of ana¬
tomy; but never ptiblifhed the great work he had pro-
mifed, which was to be adorned with copper-plates -
reprefenting all the parts of the human body. Thefe
plates, after lying buried in an old cabinet for upwards
of 150 years, were at laft difeovered, and publifhed, in
the year 1714, by Lancifi the pope’s phyficiaH; who
added a (hort explicatory text, becaufe Euftachius’s
own writing could not be found.
From this time to the year 1628, though the num¬
ber of anatomical authors was very much increafed,.
there feems to have been no remarkable difeovery made :
only Andreas Libavius, tho’ not properly an anatomift,
ought not tobe paffed over in fiience,; becaufe in 1616,
from fome unknown Paracelfian, he deferibes a method
of transfufing the blood of one animal into another, as a
cure for various difeafes. But this year (1628) was ren¬
dered remarkable by the difeovery of the circulation o£
the blood. This important phenomenon was firft obfer-
ved and demonftrated by Dr William Harvey, who now
publiflied his obfervations. Numbers of opponents im¬
mediately appeared; but he had the happinefs in his
own life to fee them all give up their caufe, and the.
whole medical world embrace his doctrine. Some, in¬
deed have endeavoured to rob him of the honour of this
important difeovery, by pretending that he received it
from fome cotemporary who durft not publifli it him¬
felf, as it would have been reckoned a mortal herefy
in fome countries. This, however, was never proved.
We now confider anatomical knowledge as approach¬
ing to its ne plus ultra.—So many and fo great difeo¬
veries were already made, that only the minutite re¬
mained to be difeuffedby fucceeding anatomifts. Im¬
provements,. however, were ftiil going on. In 1642,
Wirtfungus, or Virtfungus, difeovered the pancrea¬
tic du£t; but he did hot live to publifli hny treatife on,;
this difeovery, being killed by a bravo at his. own
door in Padua.—In 1651, or 1652, the lymphatic vef-
fels were difeovered by Thomas Bartholine ; but this
honour was alfo claimed by Olaus Rubick the Swede,,
and by the. cotemporary Englifh .writers aferibed to,
34°
ANATOMY.
their countryman Jolivius.
Numberlefs other difcoveries, though of the lefs im¬
portant kind, continued to be made.—In 1660, or foori
after, Marcellus Malphigius began to outdo all his pre-
deceffors in the exadtnefs of his defcriptions, and the
new difcoveries he made in the ftru&ur? of the partSi
What gave him fo much the advantage over others was
his extreme patience, and his methods of preparing the
parts, particularly by long maceration. He had alfo
the advantage of microfcopes, which before his time
were either never ufed, or in a very inaccurate manner.
At the fame time flouriftied Laurentius Bellinus at Flo¬
rence, and was the firft who introduced mathematical
reafoning in phyfic. In 1662, Simon Pauli publilhed
a treatife de Albandis Ojfibus. He had long been ad¬
mired for the white Ikeletons he prepared ; and at lail
difcovered hi?method, which was by expofing the bones
all winter to the weather.
Johannes Swammerdam of Amfterdam alfo publifh-
ed fome anatomical treatifes; but was rrioft remarkable
for his knowledge" of preferving the parts of bodies en¬
tire for many years, by injecting their veffels. He
alfo publifhed a treatife on refpiration; wherein he men¬
tioned his having figures of all the parts of the body, as
big as the life, cut in copper, which he defigned to pub-
lifh, with a complete fyftem of anatomy. Thefe, how¬
ever, were never made public by Swammerdam} but,
in 1683, Gothofridus Bidloo, profeflbr of anatomy at
Leyden, publifhed a work intitled Anatomia Corporis
Humani, where all the parts were delineated in very
large plates almoft as big as the life. Mr Cowper, an
Englifh furgeon, bought 3occopies of thefe figures; and
in 1698, publifhed them, with an Englifh text, quite
different from Bidloo’s Latin one; to which were ad¬
ded letters in Bidloo’s .figures, and fome few figures
of Mr Cowper’s own. To this work Cowper’s name
was prefixed, without the leafl mention of Bidloo, ex¬
cept on purpofe to confute him. Bidloo immediately
publifhed a very ill-natured pamphlet, called Gulielmus
Conuperus citatus coram tribanali; appealing to the
royal fociety, how far Cowper ought to be punifhedas
a plagiary of the worft kind, and endeavouring to prove
him an ignorant deceitful fellow. Cowper anfwered
him in his own ftyle, in a pamphlet called his Vindicite;
endeavouring to prove, either that Bidloo did not un-
derftand his own tables, or that they were none of his.
This laft is moft probable; and many people believe
that thefe are the tables promifed by Swammerdam,
and which Bidloo had got from his widow.
Soon after, Ifbrandus Diembroeck,profefibr of anato¬
my at Utrecht, began to appear as an author. His
work contained very little original; but he was at great
pains to collect from others whatever was valuable in
their writings, and his fyftem was the common ftandard
among anatomical ftudents for many years.
About the fame time, Antonius Liewenhoeck of
Delft improved confiderably on Malphigius’s ufe of
microfcopes, and fupplied what was wanting in Har¬
vey’s demonftration of the true circular motion of the
"blood. He was alfo the author of an hypothefis con¬
cerning the different texture of the blood and ferum ;
but herein he is found to have been miftaken.
Frederic Ruyfch firft appeared in print in 1665, and
died only in 1730, occafionally publifhing anatomical
pieces during a courfe of 65 years. He was for a great
Hiftory,
many years famous for his method of injeftingthe moft
fubtile veffels of the body, and for preferving all the
parts in their natural colour and texture; both of which
arts he is faid to have received from Swammerdam, tho*
he himfelf protefts fcletnnly that he found them out by
his own induftry.
It would be in a manner impoffible to give an ac¬
count of all the authors that have contributed fince the
beginning of the prefent century to bring the fcience
of anatomy to that ftate of perfe&ion in which it now .
is. The writings of Keil, Douglas, Cheffelden, Win-
flow, &c. are too well known to need defcription. The
latter is generally recommended as a ftandard for the
ftudents of anatomy. It is alfo fuperfluous to mention
the reputation which Dr Monro at Edinburgh, and Dr
Hunter at London, have defervedly acquired, on ac¬
count of their anatomical knowledge. We (hall only
take notice of two remarkable improvements, not in
the fcience itfelf, but in the method of teaching it,
tha£ have been made fince the commencement of this
century. The one is, by Joannes Baptifta Bianchi,
profeffor firft at Bononia, and afterwards at Turin. He
{hewed his fcholars a body entire, fo prepared that he
took off one part from another, and finifhed a complete
fyftem of anatomy before he had done : then he artifi¬
cially joined all the parts together for a new demonftra¬
tion, fo that it could not be known they were ever fe-
parated. The other is the art of imitating all the parts
of the body in wax; which was brought to the utmoft
perfection by Georgius des Noves, vel Novefias, pro¬
feffor of anatomy at Bononia; and figures of this kind
were publicly {hewn at London and Paris.
§. 2. Plan of the following Treatife.
The etymology of the word anatomy, as above gi¬
ven, implies {imply dijfeciion; but by this term fome-
thing more is ufually underftood.
It is every day made ufe of to exprefs a knowledge
of the human body; and a perfon who is faid to un-
derftand anatomy, is fuppofed to be converfant with the
ftructure and arrangement of the different folid parts of
the body.
It is commonly divided into Anatomy, properly fo
called; and Comparative Anatomy : the firft of thefe is
confined folely to the human body; the latter includes
all animals, fo far as a knowledge of their ftrufture
may tend to perfeA our ideas of the human body *. * gee Com-
The term anatomy may alfo have another and more parative A-
extenfive fignification: it may be employed to exprefs, natomy.
not only a knowledge of the ftru&ure and difpofition of
the parts, but likewife of their ceconomy and ufe. Con-
fidered in this light, it will feldom fail to excite the cu-
riofity of people of tafte, as a branch of philofophy;
fince, if it is pleafing to be acquainted wuth the ftrufture
of the body, it fs certainly more fo to difeover all the
fprings which give life and motion to the machine,
and to obferve the admirable mechanifm by w'hich fo
many different functions are executed.
The human body is compofed of folid and fluid
parts. We fliall notfatisfy ourfelves with giving a de¬
scription of the former alone; but we {hall hkewife
fpeak of the nature of the fluids, and of the reciprocal
aCtion of both upon each other.
PART
Part I.
34i
ANATOMY.
PartI. OS
Chap. I.
Of the Bones in General.
T.TrE begin with the bones, which may be confider-
* » ed as the great fupport of the body, tending to
give it fhape and firmnefs. But before entering into
the detail of each particular bone, it will be neceffafy
to defcribe their compofition and conneftions, and to
explain the nature of the different parts which have an
immediate relation to them; as the cartilages, liga-
1 ments, periofteum, marrow, and fynovial glands,
potkion'^'of k°nes are °f a firm and hard fubftance, of a
theVones.0 wfi'te colour, and perfe&ly infenfible. They are the
moft compaft and folid parts of the body; and ferve for
the attachment or fupport of all the other parts.
b, Three different fubftances are ufually diftinguifh-
ed in them ; their exterior or bony part, properly fo
called ; their fpongy cells ; and their reticularfubjlance.
The /fry? of thefe, is formed of many laminae, or plates,
compofing a firm, hard, fubflance. The fpongy, or cel¬
lular part, is fo called, on account of its refemblance to
a fponge, from the little cells which compofe it. This
fubftance forms almoft the whole of the extremities of
cylindrical bones. The reticular part is. compofed of
fibres, which crofs each other in different dire&ions :
this net-work forms the internal furface of thofe bones
which have cavities.
c, The flat bones, as thofe of the head, are compo¬
fed only of the laminas and the cellular fubftance: this
laft is ufually found in the middle of the bone, dividing
it into two plates; and is there called diploe.
d, Gagliardi, who pretended to have difcovered an
infinite number of claviculi, or bony proceffes, which
he defcribes as traverfing the laminae to unite them to¬
gether, has endeavoured to fupport this pretended dif-
covery by the analogy of bones to the bark of trees, in
which certain woody nails have been remarked : but
this opinion has not been confirmed by any certain ob-
fervation. The refemblance of bones to trees has, with
more probability, been obferved in their formation. In
bones it is by many fuppofed to arife from layers of the
periofteum, which gradually oflify; and it is by the
hardening of the alburnum (a) in trees that the timber
is formed. M. Duhamel, the celebrated academician,
has endeavoured to prove the truth of this obfervation
by a great number of fa6ts (b).
e, We ufually confider in a bone, its body and its ex-
tremities. The ancients diftinguifhed the body or
middle part, by the name of diaphyfts ; and divided the
extremities into apophyfts and epiphyfis; an apopbyfis, or,
as it is more ufually termed, procefs, is an eminence
,or continuation of the body of the bone ; whereas an
epiphyfis, is a part attached to the bone by means of an
intervening cartilage. A great number of epiphyfes,
' which in young fubjefts appear as feparate bones, be-
VoL. I.
T E O L O G Y.
come, in procefs of time, fo perfeftly united to the
body of the bone, by the olfification of the cartilage,
as not to be diftinguifhed from it in the adult ftate.
f, Different names are given to the proceffes of bones,
varying according to their figure and fize. If a pro¬
cefs is Targe, and of a fpherical ftiape, it is called caput,
or head; if the head is flatted, it takes the name of
condyle. Other proceffes are called mafloid, Jlyloid, co¬
racoid, from their refemblance to a breaft, a ftiletto, or
the beak of a crow. Some are ftyled ridges or fpines.
All thefe terms are eafily underftood; we ftiall however
fpeak of them again, when we confider the bones which
have apophyfes.
g, There are, in bones, cavities as well as proceffes:
thefe cavities either extend quite through the bones, or
appear only as depreflions. The firft of thefe receive
the name of foramina, or holes ; and thefe foramina are
fometimes called canals, or conduits, according to their
form and extent. Of the cavities which do not pene¬
trate through the bones, fome are formed for the arti¬
culations ; when thefe are deep, they are called cotyloid;
as the great articulating cavity of the thigh, with the
os innbminatum; glena, ox glenoid, when they are fuper-
ficial; as the cavity of the fcapula, which receives the
head of the os humeri.
h, Of the depreffions which are not ufeful in articu¬
lation, the largeft, and thofe which are not equally fur-
rounded by high brims, are calledOn the con¬
trary, cavities with fmall apertures, are termedfnufes:
other depreffions take the name offurronvs and fmuofi-
ties, when they are long and narrow ; and there are
fome called digital mprejfwns, from their refemblance
to the traces of a finger on foft bodies. a
a, We Aiall abridge this article, which is exceed- of the con-
ingly diffufe in the generality of anatomical books; and
will endeavour to defcribe it with all the clearnefs it
will allow.
b, The fkeleton is compofed of a great number of
bones, which are all fo admirably conftrutfted, and with
fo much affinity to each other, that the extremity of
every bone is perfedtly adjufted to the end of the bone
with which it is connected; and this connexion is term¬
ed their articulation.
c, Articulation is divided into mo.veable and im¬
moveable. The firft of thefe is named diarthrofts, and
the fecond fynarthrofis.
When a large hcad fis received into a deep cavity,
as is the head of the os femoris, it is called enarthro-
fis ; anthrodia, when a round head is admitted into a
fuperficial cavity; as the articulation of the arm bone,
with the fcapula. Both thefe allow motion to all fides.
d, If the articulation permits only flexion and ex-
tenfion, as the articulation of the tibia with the os fe¬
moris, it is called ginglimus; which properly fignifies
the hinge of a door, or window. In this the parts of the
bones mutually receive and are received.
U u e, The
(a) The alburnum is the foft, white fubftance, which in trees is found between the liber, or inner bark, and the
wood.
(b^ M. Duhamel, with a view to fupport his fyftem of offification, fed different animals with madder and their or¬
dinary food, alternately, during a certain time; and conftantly obferved, in diffedting their bones, diftinft layers of
red and white, which correfponded with the length of time they had lived on madder, or their ufual aliment. The
fame trials, however, have been finCe made with the madder in England, and were found not to correfpond with Du-
hamel’s account of its effects.
342
ANATOMY.
Part I.
e. The fynarthrofis, or immoveable articulation of
bones, is divided into the future and gomphojis. In the
future, the two bones are mutually indented into each
other : and of this, the junction of the parietal bones
is an example. When the marks of this articulation
were more minute, the ancients gave it the name of
harmonia ; but this variety of names feems to be ufe-
' lefs. Gomphofis, is the fixing one bone into another, as a
nail is fixed into a board ; and thus the teeth are fecured
in their fockets. The perfect union or concretion of
two bones, is called fymphafis ; as the lower jaw, which
in infancy is compofed of two di ft in ft bones ; but be¬
comes one in a more advanced age, by the offification
of the uniting cartilage.
f, When bones are thus joined by the means of car¬
tilages, the union is ftiled fyncondrofis ; if by ligaments,
3 fyneurofts.
Of the car- a> Cartilages are white, folid, fmooth, and elaftic
ti ages- fubftances, between the hardnefs of bones and liga¬
ments ; and are ufually placed at the extremities of
bones.
b, Many of them oflifying in procefs of time, a great¬
er number are obferved in the foetus, than in the adult
ftate: from the fame caufe the number of bones is greater
in young than in old people ; becaufe it fometimes hap¬
pens that a cartilage placed between two bones offifies;
and the three parts, which were before diftinft, are
united together. This takes place in the fternum.
c, The great ufe of the cartilages is in the articula¬
tions ; where, by their fmoothnefs, they facilitate mo¬
tions which the bones alone could not execute with fo
much freedom. They are likewife ufeful in the for¬
mation of the voice, and for the attachment of mufcles.
The cartilages, as well as the bones, are infenfi-
ble (c), not becaufe they are deftitute of nerves, (be¬
ing formed, according to M. Duhamel’s obfervations,
from the periofteum) ; but becaufe the clofenefs of their
texture prevents their nerves from receiving, or tranf-
mitting any impreffions. The foft parts, which be¬
come callous or fcirrhous, lofe (d) their fenfibility
from a fimilar caufe. 4 .
a, The periofteum is a fine (e) membrane, which per5
covers almoft all the bones. This membrane, though
of a very thin texture, is compofed of a great num¬
ber of layers, which ufually offify one after the other,
as the body advances in age.
b, Havers pretended to have difcovered, that the pe¬
riofteum is compofed of two forts of fibres; one of
which are placed clofe to the bone, longitudinally
from one end to the other, deriving their origin from
the dura mater, which pafies out of the cranium in dif¬
ferent places ; and goes to diftribute itfelf to all the
bones in the body. The other order of fibres he fup-
pofed to arife from the tendons and mufcles. He af-
ferts that they are not longitudinal like the firft, but
that they follow the fame direftion as the parts from
which they are produced.
c, The periofteum has fanguiferous and lymphatic
veffels, and is faid to be fupplied with nerves (f) from
the neighbouring parts: it fupports the veffels which go
to diftribute themfelves through the fubftance of the
bones, the periofteum internum, and the marrow.
d, In
(c) In the courfe of this treatife mention is often made of the fenfibility or infenlibility of different parts, and it
will perhaps not be amifs to give the outlines of a fyftem, which cannot but be interefting to all anatomical readers.—
Baron Haller was the firft who publickly afferted, that living animals, whofe cartilages, ligaments, capfulae of the
joints, tendons or periofteum were cut, burnt or torn, Ihewed no figns of uneafinefs; and that the wounds of all
thefe parts were cured without any bad fymptoms.—In his publication on this fubjedt, he allows feeling fo the teeth ;
but not to the other bones ; becaufe they are deftitute of nerves.—He ventures to deny fenfibility to the marrow, not
from any experiments of his own on living animals, but becaufe it is a fatty fubftance without nerves.—He tells us,
that when the dura mater was torn or burnt, with oil of vitriol, the animal feemed infenfible of the injury; that with
the pia mater it was the fame; but that the moment the brain itfelf was wounded, the body of the animal was ex¬
ceedingly convulfed—he makesthefameconclufionsfrom fimilar experimentson the peritoneum, pleura,andpericardium,
and concerning the mediaftinum, from its analogy to them as a membrane. He defcribes the cornea as infenfible, becaufe
it nerves cannot be demonftrated, and it is often pierced with a needle without pain.—From a variety of interefting
experiments, which he has fully related, he concludes, that all thefe parts are perfedlly infenfible; that they have been
unjuftly accufed by phyficians as the feat of many painful difeafes; and that their infenfibility argues their being defti¬
tute of nerves—he will not allow the pain and inflammation of the arm, which fometimes are the confequences of
bleeding, to proceed from the tendon or aponeurofis in that part; but attributes them to an injury done to the me¬
dian nerve; or to fome branch of the mufculo-cutaneous nerve.—He afierts, that the phrenitis has not its feat in the
dura mater, orthe pleuiify in the pleura.—That in the gout, the Ikin and fubcutaneous nerves, and not the ligaments
or capfuls of the joints, are the feat of pain —Thefe are the moft important points of the Baron’s fyftem, but his opi¬
nions have been much controverted ; and the late Dr Whytt, in particular, favoured the public with many fenfible ar¬
guments in refutation of this dodtrine, which, however, if not thoroughly received in its full extent, is now in a great
meafure admitted.—The ingenious Dr Hunter, who appears to have remarked the infenfibility of fome of thefe parts
before the Baron’s publication of his fyftem, fufpedts that the Baron has gone too far in aflerting, that they have ab-
folutely no fenfe of feeling. He thinks that experiments on brutes are not fufficient to afeertain the more exquifite fen-
fations of the human body ; and is of opinion, that the Baron has been led into an error in furgery, in fuppofing that
the effedts of wounds of the tendons, ligaments, &c. are fo very fimple as to heal without any bad fymptoms.—-Be¬
fore concluding this note, however, it is proper to obferve, that fome of the parts fuppofed by Baron Haller and o-
thers to be wholly infenfible, and which really appear to be fo in a found ftate, have been found to acquire confiderable
fenfibility by difeafe; an inattention to which circumftance has been the principal caufe of that apparent contrariety of
fadts with which this fubjedt has been perplexed.
(d) The growth of a new nail is a familiar inftance of what is here advanced.—At its firft formation it is foft, and of
exquifite fenfibility; but as it approaches to a harder texture, its fenfibility gradually decreafes, and it becomes at
length capable of being cut or pared, without any appearance of pain or feeling.
(e) It is common with the generality of anatomical authors, toaferibe great fenfibility to the periofteum. But this
opinion is repugnant to the fyftem mentioned in a former note; and it appears to be very probable, that this membrane,
if not quite infenfible, poffeffes, however, but a very obfeure degree of feeling.
(f) Authors, who allow great fenfibility to a part, cOnfequently fuppofe it to be plentifully fupplied with nerves.—
But the nerves'of the periofteum, if it contains any, have never yet been demonftrated.
Part I.
ANATOMY.
d, In all parts of the bones which are expofed to
friftion, theperiolleum is wanting; as at the joints, and
in the parts of the teeth which are above the fockets :
it is likewife deficient where-ever tendons or mufcles
are attached to bones; the tendons in thefe places
performing the office of the periofteum.
e, Cartilages are covered with a membrane, called
perichondrium, which, in its ufe and ftuufture, refembles
the periofteum.
Of the mar- a> T*16 marrow is a fat, oily fubftance, filling the
row. cavities of bones. That which is found in the great
• cavities of long bones, is of a much firmer confiftence,
than that which is found in the cells of their fpongy
part. The firft of thefe only is known by the name
of marrow, the latter being ufually called the medul¬
lary fuhjlance.
b, The marrow is inclofed by a very fine and tranf-
parent membrane ; in fome places it is of a reddilh co¬
lour, where it is fupplied with a great number of
blood-veflels, which it receives from thofe of the pe¬
riofteum. Anatomifts ftile this membrane, membrana
medullaris, or periojleum internum; from its lining the
345
of the bones, or the claws of craw-fiffi ; than it has o-
ver an infinite number of other things which it was fup-
pofed to influence, before a tafte for true philofophy
took place amongft us. 6
a, The fynovial glands are fmall fpherical bodies (i), Of thefyno-
and exceedingly vafcular, fuppofed to fecrete a fluid of vial glands,
a white mucilaginous nature, which ferves to lubricate
the joints. They are placed in fmall cavities in the ar¬
ticulations, fo as to be capable of being gently com-
preffed by the motion of the joint, which expreffes
their juice in proportion to the degree of friftion.
When the fynovia is wanting, or is of too thick a con¬
fiftence, the joint becomes ftiff and incapable of flexion
or extenfion. This is what is termed anchylojis. The
fynovia, become acrid and infpiffated, is ufually confide-
red as the caufe of the gout; which the Greeks have
called arthritis, a word fignifying a difeafe of the joints. ?
a, Ligaments are white, gliftening, inelaftic bands, of the liga-
of a compaft fubftance, more or lefs broad or thick; ments.
and fervitig to connect the bones together. They are
diftinguiftred by different names, adapted to their dif¬
ferent forms and ufes. Thofe of the joints are called
cavities of bones. It furniflies an infinite number of either round or burfal. The round ligaments are white,
tendinous, and inefafi'
veficular proceffes (g) which inclofe the marrow. The
medullary fubftance is likewife furrounded by a very
delicate membrane; fo that neither the marrow, nor
the medullary fubftance, are in immediate contact with
the bones.
c, There are, in the periofteum internum, veffels de-
ftinedforthe fecretion of the marrow; and likewife ab-
forbents which take up the oil and return it again to
the circulation.
d, It is probable that the marrow is renewed by a
a kind of circulation. When the abforbents take up
more of it than the fecretory veffels are able to fepa-
rate, it gradually decreafes. It is for this reafon, that
fo little is found in the bones of people who die of lin¬
gering difeafes.
e, The marrow was formerly fuppofed to be inten¬
ded for the nourifhment and renewal of the bones ; but
its oily confiftence feems fufficiently to contradict this
opinion. Its principal ufe is, probably that of prefer-
ving the bones moift (h), the natural heat of the body
keeping it conftantly fufficiently liquid to beinfinuated
between the bony fibres, which it may foften and ren¬
der lefs brittle.
f, The ancients were of opinion, that the bones were
more filled with marrow at the new than at the full
moon. The claws of craw-fifti too, which are not fill¬
ed with marrow, but with aftual mufcles, were likewife
confidered as being more or lefs filled according to the
ftate of the moon: but a thoufand obfervations have
convinced us of the abfurdity of this and many other
opinions ; and we are in thefe days thoroughly perfuad-
ed, that the moon has no more power over the marrow
laftic. They are ftrong and flexible,
and are chiefly found in thofe articulations which are
capable of flexion and extenfion ; as in the joints of the
elbow and knee. The burfal or capfular ligaments,
furround the whole joint like a purfe, and are to be
found in the articulations which allow motion every
way ; as in the articulation of the arm with the fca-
pula- _ . .8
a, The word ikeleton, which by its etymology im- Ofthefkele*
plies fimplyadry preparation, isufuallyunderftoodtofig- ton.
nify an affemblage of all the bones of an animal united
together in their natural order. It is faid to be a na¬
tural ikeleton, when the bones are connected together
by their own proper ligaments; and an artificial one,
when they are joined by means of wire.
b, The ikeleton is generally divided into the head,
trunk and extremities. The firft divifion includes the
bones of the cranium and face. The bones of the
trunk, are the fpine, ribs, fternum, and bones of the
pelvis.
c, The upper extremities on each fide, contain the
two bones of the ihoulder, viz. the fcapula, and clavi¬
cle ; the bone of the arm or os humeri; the bones of
the fore arm; and thofe of the hand.
d, The lower extremities, on each fide of the trunk;
confift of the thigh-bone, and the bones of the leg and
foot.
Of the Bones of the Head (k).
a, The head is of a roundiih figure, and fomewhat
U u 2 oval (n.)
(g) The marrow is likewife fupported in thefe cavities by the bony filaments of the reticular fubftance of the bones.
(h) Havers, who has written profefiedly on the bones, defcribes the canals by which the marrow is conveyed thro’
every part of their fubftance; and divides them into longitudinal and tranfverfe ones.-—He fpeaks of the firft as exten¬
ding through the whole length of the bone; and of the latter, as the paflages by which the longitudinal ones commu¬
nicate with each other. The tranfudation of the oil through the bones of the tkeleton, feems to prove that fome fuclt
paflages do actually exift; but it is very difficult, if not impofiible, to demonftrate them fatisfaCtorily.
(i) It is now much doubted, however, whether the appearances in the joints, which are generally c&\\e& glands,
are any thing more than afiemblages of fat.
(k) The defcription of the bones will be, to many readers perhaps, dry, tedious, and difficult to be underftood.—
It is a fubjeCt which feems to preclude all attempts at variety or elegance of ftyle.—-All the bones have one great ufe,
that of inclofing and fupporting the other parts of the body : and the reader may defer the reading this part of the
work
344
10
©f the (
frontis.
ANATOMY. partl.
oval (l). Its greateft diameter is from the forehead
to the occiput; its upper part is called finciput, or the
crown of the head ; its anterior or fore part, is called
the face ; and the upper part of this is called the fore¬
head; its pofterior or hind part, is called the occiput; its
fxdes are called the temples; and its inferior part, the
lafts.
b, The bones of the head may be divided into thofe
of the cranium, and face.
Se£l. i. Of the Bones of the Cranium.
a, There are eight bones of the cranium, viz. the
coronal bone or os frontis; the two parietal bones or
ofla bregmatis; the os occipitis ; the two temporal
bones; the fphenoid bone; and the os ethmoides or
cribriforme.
b, The fix firft are confidered as proper to the cra¬
nium, and the two latter as common both to the cra¬
nium and face.
c, Thefe bones are all harder at their furface than in
their middle ; and on this account they are divided in¬
to two tables, and a middle fpongy fubftance called
diploe.
a, In this, as in all the other bones, we fhall con-
fider its figure, ftnnfture, proceifes, depreffions, and
cavities ; and the manner in which it is articulated with
the other bones.
b, The os frontis has fome refemblance in fhape to
the fhell of the cockle. Externally it is convex, its
concave fide being turned towards the brain. This
bone, in the places where it is united to the temporal
bones, is very thin ; and has there no diploe. It is
likewife exceedingly thin in that part of the orbit of
the eye which is neareft to- the nofe. Hence it is that
a wound in the eye, by a fword, or any other pointed
inftrument, is fometimes productive of immediate death.
In thefe cafes, the fword paffing through the weak part
of the bone, penetrates the brain, and divides the
nerves at their origin ; or perhaps, opens fome blood-
veflel, the confequences of which are foon fatal.
c, We obferye, on the exterior furface of this bone, five
apophyfes or proce{fes; which are eafily to be diftin-
guiihed. One of thefe is placed at the bottom and
narroweft part of the bone, and is called the nafal pro-
cefs, from its fupporting the upper end of the bones of
the nofe. The four others are called orbitar procejfes.
They ferve to form the orbits, which are the cavities
in which the eyes are placed. In each of thefe orbits
there are two proceffes, one at the interior or great
angle, and the other at the exterior, or little angle of
the orbit. They are called the angular procejfes.. Be¬
tween thefe a ridge is extended in form of an arch, and
on this the eyebrows are placed. It is called the orbi¬
tar or fuperciliary ridge; and in fome meafure covers
and defends the globe of the eye. This arch is inter¬
rupted near the nofe by a fmall pit, in which the ten¬
don of the mufculus obliquus major of the eye is fix¬
ed. In each orbit, under the external procefs, a con-
fiderable depreffion is obferved, in which the lachrymal
gland is lodged.
d, In the anterior part of the os frontis, there is a
confiderable difcontinuation of it, which is filled up
by the cribriform part of the os ethmoides.
e, The internal view of this bone affords us an eleva¬
tion in form of a ridge, which has been called the
fpinous procefs: it paffes from the anterior to the pofte¬
rior part of the bone, dividing it into two confiderable
foffse, in which the anterior lobes of the brain are pla¬
ced. To this ridge is attached the extremity of the
falx, as the membrane is called which divides the brain
into two hemifpheres. Befides thefe two foffse, there
are many depreffions which appear like digital im-
preflions, and owe there formation to the prominent
circumvolutions of the brain.
f, In young fubjefts the forehead is formed of two
diftinft bones ; fo that in them the fagittal future ex¬
tends from the os occipitis to the nofe. This bone is
almoft every where compofed of two tables and a di¬
ploe. Thefe two tables feparating from each other un¬
der the eyes, form two cavities, one on each fide of the
face, called the frontalfinufes. Thefe finufes are lined
with a foft membrane, called membrana pituitaria. In
thefe finufes a mucus is fecreted, which is conftantly
palling, through two fmall holes, into the noftrils which
it ferves to moiften.
g, The os frontis is joined by future to many of
the bones of the head, viz. to the parietal, maxillary,
and temporal bones; to the os ethmoides; os fphe-
noides; os unguis ; and offa nafi. The future which
connects it with the parietal bones, is called the coro¬
nal future.
a, The parietal bones are two in number; they are ofthe pane
very thin, and even tranfparent in fome places. The tal bones,
particular figure of each of thefe bones, is that of an
irregular fquare, bordered with indentations thro’ its
whole circumference, except at its lower part. It will
be eafily conceived that thefe bones, which compofe
the fuperior and lateral parts of the cranium, and cover
the greateft part of the brain, form a kind of vault.
On their inner furface we obferve the marks of the
veffels of the dura mater.
b, The ofla parietalia, are joined to each other by
the fagittal future ; to the os fphenoides, and offa tem-
porum, by the fquamous future; to the os occipitis, by
the lambdoidal future (m); fo called from its refem
blance to the Greek letter lambda ; and to the os fron¬
tis, by the coronal future.
c, In new-born infants, the offa parietalia are fepa-
rated from the middle of the divided os frontis, by a
portion of the cranium then unofiified. When the
finger is applied to this part, which is called the fon-
tandle, the dilatation of the brain, and of the veffels
of the dura mater, may be eafily felt. And in mid¬
wifery, the feel of this part, which, in natural labours,
is
work till he meets with a lkeleton.---That part, however, which relates to the teeth is excepted,, as being a branch
which ought to be underftood by every body, independent of the Ikeleton.
(l) The bones of the fsetus being perfectly diftin<5t,_ and the mufcles in young perfons not adting much, the fhape
of the head is fuppofed to depend much on the management of children, when very young. Vefalius, who has re¬
marked the difference in people of different nations, obferves for inftance, that the head of a Turk is conical, from the
early ufe of the turban ; whilft that of an Englifhman is flattened by the chin-ftay.
(m) The lambdoidal future is fometimes very irregular; being compofed of many fmall futures, which furround fo
many tittle bones called'^? triquetra, tho’ fometimes improperly, as they are not always triangular.
1
I art I.
345'
ANATOMY.
i is the firft to prefent itfelf, is an indication of the ftate
of the foetus, whether it be living or dead. Every
1 blow on this part, in children, is liable to be attended
with the moft fatal confequences; and it is not without
reafon, that experienced nurfes cautioufly defend it
from injury, by applying a linen cloth to it feveral
, times doubled.
6 ie occi• a, The occipital bone forms the pofterior and infe-
bone. rior parts of the fkull: it approaches near to the
ftiape of a lozenge, and is indented throughout three
parts of its circumference.
b, There is a confiderable hole in the inferior por¬
tion of this bone, called the foramen magnum; thro’
which the medulla oblongata pafies into the fpine. The
nervi accefibrii, and vertebral arteries, likewife pafs thro’
it. Befides this, there are ufually four other holes pe-
| culiar to this bone, and two which are common to it
and the offa temporum; thefe foramina ferve for the
paflage of the blood-veffels and nerves. At the fides,
and a little on the anterior part of the foramen mag¬
num, are two proceffes called the condyles., one on
each fide; they are of an oval figure, and are covered
with cartilage.
c, The external furface of this bone, which is very
irregular, affords attachment to feveral mufcles. On
; looking over its internal furface, we perceive the ap¬
pearance of a crofs, formed by a very prominent ridge;
. which rifes upwards from near the foramen magnum,
and by two tranfverfe finuofities, one on each fide of
the ridge. This crofs occafions the formation of four
foffae, two above and two below the finuofities. In the
| latter are placed the lobes of the cerebellum ; and in
the former, the pofterior lobes of the brain. The two
j finuofities ferve to receive the lateral finufes.
d, In the upper part of this bone is feen a continu-
I ation of the finuofity of the longitudinal finus. The
' cuneiform procefs (which is the name given to the great
apophyfis at the fore part of this bone) is made con¬
cave for the reception of the medulla oblongata.
e, The occipital bone is thicker and ftronger than
f either of the other bones of the head, tho’ irregularly
fo; at its inferior part where it is thinneft, it is covered
by a great number of mufcles.
f, The reafons forfo much thicknefs and ftrength in
this bone feem to be, that it covers the cerebellum, in
i which the leaft wound is of the utmoft confequence;
and, that it is by its fituation more liable to be frac¬
tured by falls than any other bone of the cranium.
For if we fall forwards, the hands are naturally put
out to prevent the forehead’s touching the ground; and
if to one fide, the ftioulders in a great meafure protect
the fides of the head ; but if a perfon falls backwards,
the hind part of the head confequently ftrikes againft
the earth, and that too with confiderable violence. Na¬
ture then has wifely conftru&ed this bone fo as to be
capable of the greateft reiiftance.
g, The os occipitis, is joined by means of the cunei¬
form procefs to the fphenoid bone, with which it often
offifies and makes but one bone in thofe who are advan-
f ced in life- It is conne&ed to the parietal bones by
the lambdoidal future; and to the temporal bones, by
the additamentaof the fame future. This head is like¬
wife united to the trunk by means of this bone. The
two condyles of the occipital bone; are deceived into the
fupericr oblique proceffes of the firft vertebrae of the
neck; and it is by means of this articulation that a cer¬
tain degree of flexion-and extenfion, or rather of mo¬
tion of the head forwards and backwards, is perform¬
ed. We fay a certain degree of motion, becaufe that
. which is performed on the firft vertebra alone, and inde¬
pendent of the other vertebras, is very inconfiderable.
h. In flexion, the vertebrae form a kind of bow, and
ftreighten themfelves again in extenfion.
a, There are two temporal bones, one on each fide, of the tetn-
They are ufually divided into two parts, one of which poral bons
is called the fquamous, or fcaly part; and the other os
petrofum, from its inequality and hardnefi. This laft
is ftiaped like a pyramid.
b, In both thefe parts there are proceffes and cavi¬
ties to be deferibed ; externally there are three procef¬
fes, one anterior, called the zygomatic procefs; one po¬
fterior, called the mafioid or mamillary procefs, from its
refemblance to a nipple; and one inferior, called the
Jlyloid procefs, becaufe it is ftiaped like a ftiletto, or
dagger.
c, The cavities are, i. The meatus auditorius ex-
ternus. 2. A large foffa which ferves for the articu¬
lation of the lower jaw; it is before the meatus audi¬
torius, and immediately under the zygomatic procefs.
3. The ftylo-maftoid hole, fo called from its fituation
between the ftyloid and maftoid proceffes ; it is like¬
wife ftyled the aqueedutt of Fallopius, and affords a
paffage to the portio dura of the auditory, or feventh
pair of nerves. 4. Below, and on the fore part of the
laft foramen, we obferve part of the jugular foffa; a
thimble-like cavity, in which the beginning of the in¬
ternal jugular vein is lodged. Anterior and fuperior
to this foffa, is the orifice of a foramen through which
the carotid artery paffes. This conduit runs firft up¬
wards and then forwards, forming a kind of elbow,
and terminates at the end of the os petrofum: at this
part of each of the offa temporum we obferve the open¬
ing of the Euftachian tube, a canal which paffes from
the ear to the mouth.
d, In examining the internal furface of thefe bones,,
we remark the triangular figure of their petrous part
which feparates two foffae ; one fuperior and anterior,
the other inferior and pofterior; the latter of thefe
compofes part of the foffa, in which the cerebellum is
placed;. and the former, a portion of the leaft foffa for
the bafis of the brain; on the pofterior fide of the os
petrofum, we obferve the meatus auditorius internus,.
into which enters the double nerve of the feventh pair,
viz. the portio dura, and portio mollis of that pair.
e, The os petrofum contains feveral little bones call¬
ed the bones of the ear ; which, as they do not enter
into the formation of the cranium, fhall be deferibed
when we are treating of the organs of hearing.
f, The offa temporum are joined to the offa malarum
by the zygomatic futures ; to the parietal bones by the
fquamous future ; to the os occipitis by the lambdoidal
future; and, to the fphenoid bone by the future of that
name. 1 $
a. The os fphenoides, or cuneiforme as it is fome- the os
times called from its wedge-like fituation amidft the o- fphenoides,
ther bones of the head, is of a more irregular figure
than any other bone. It has been compared to a bat
with its wings extended. This refemblance is but faint,
but it would be difficult perhaps to find any thing it
refembles more.
b, We
346
Part
ANATOMY.
b, We diftinguifti in this bone its body or middle
part, and its wings or Tides, which are much more ex-
tenfive than its body.
c, On whatever fide we view it, we difcover only
proceffes and cavities. The procefles, both external
and internal, are fo very numerous, that it will be
fufficient for us to defcribe the principal ones, of
which there are three on the outfide : one of thefe is in
the middle, and is fliaped like a creft, making part of
the feptum narium ; the other two are the pterygoid
or aliform procefles, one on each fide of the body of
the bone, and at no great diftance from it; each of thefe
procefies is divided into two wings; and of thefe the
exterior one is the wideft; the other terminates in a
hook-like procefs.
d, This bone on its inner furface affords three foffae,
two of which are confiderable ones; they are formed by
the wings of the bone, and make part of the leffer fof-
fas of the bafis of the fkull. The third, which is fmall-
er, is on the top of the body of the bone, and is call¬
ed fella turcica; from its refemblance to a Turkifh fad-
dle. This foffa, in which the pituitary gland is pla¬
ced, has pofteriorly and anteriorly proceffes, called the
clinoid proceffes.
e, There are eight holes in this bone, viz. four on
each fide ; feveral pair of nerves and fome blood vef-
fels pafs through them. ''
f, Within the fubftance of the os fphenoides, there
are two finufes feparated by a bony plate. They are
lined with the pituitary membrane ; and like the fron¬
tal finufes, feparate a mucus which paffes into the no-
ftrils.
g, The os fphenoides is joined to all the bones of
the cranium, and like wife to the offa maxillaria, ofia
malarum, offa palati, and vomer.
h; This bone makes part of the bafis of the fcull,
ferves to form in fome meafure the orbits, and affords
16 attachment to feveral mufeles.
Of the os a, The os ethmoides, or fieve-like bone, as it is call-
or^cribrU* ec^ fr°m the great number pf fmall holes with which it
forme. is pierced, is placed in the anterior part of the bafis of
the fcull, and is the laft bone that enters into the com-
pofition of the cranium. It is nearly of a cubical fi¬
gure.
b. There are three parts to be defcribed in this bone,
viz. one in the middle, and two at its fides ; the middle
part, from which it derives its name, is a thin lamella,
or bony table, pierced with an infinite number of holes,
through which pafs as many filaments of the olfa&ory
nerve. From the middle of this plate, both on the
outfide and from within, there rifes up a procefs which
is eafily obferved. The inner one is called criflagalli,
from its fuppofed refemblance to a cock’s comb; to
this procefs the falx is attached, which divides the
brain into two hemifpheres. The exterior procefs,
which has the fame common bafis as the crifta galli, is
a fine lamella, which is united to the vomer, and di¬
vides the cavity of the noftrils, tho’ unequally; it be¬
ing ufually inclined to one fide or other.
c, The lateral parts of this bone are compofed of a
cellular fubftance, and thefe cells are fo very intricate,
that their figure or number cannot be defcribed. Many
writers have on this account, called this part of the bone
the labyrinth. Thefe cells are externally covered with
bony lamina, thin like the cells themfelves, but very
fmooth and plain. This part of the bone is called os
planum ; and forms part of the orbit.
d. The different cells of this bone, which are fo ex¬
ceedingly numerous, and which are every where lined
with the pituitary membrane, evidently ferve to enlarge
the cavity of the nofe in which the organ of fmelling
refides.
e. This bone is joined to the qs fphenoides, os
frontis, offa maxillaria, offa palati, offa nafi, offa un¬
guis, and vomer.
f. The ancients, who confidered the brain as the feat
of all the humours, were of opinion, that this vifcus dif-
charged its redundant moifture through the holes of
the ethmoid bone. But in thefe times they only can
adopt fo erroneous a notion, who have not exaft ideas
of the human anatomy. The vulgar ftill think that
abfceffes of the brain difcharge themfelves through the
mouth and ears, and that fnuff is liable to get into the
head ; but neither fnuff, nor the matter of an abfcefs,
are more capable of palling thro’ the cribriform bone,
than the ferofity which they fuppofed was difcharged
thro’ it in a common cold ; all the holes of the ethmoid
bone are filled up with branches of the olfa&ory nerve.
Its inner part is likewife covered with the dura mater,
and its cells are every where lined with the pituitary
membrane ; fo that neither matter, nor any other fluid
can poffibly pafs through this bone either externally,
or internally. Matter is, indeed, fometimes difcharged
through the noftrils; but the feat of the difeafe is in
the finufes of the nofe, and not in the brain ; and im-
pofthumations are obferved to take place in the ear,
which fuppurate and difcharge themfelves externally.
g. Before we leave the bones of the head, we wilh
to make fome general obfervations on its ftru&ure and
figure. As the cranium might have been compofed of
a fingle bone, the articulation of its feveral bones being
abfolutely without motion, it may be alked, perhaps,
why fuch a multiplicity of bones, and fo great a num¬
ber of futures ? Many advantages may poffibly arife
from this plurality of bones and futures, which have
not yet been obferved. We are able, however, to
point out many ufeful ends which could only be ac-
compliflied by this peculiarity of ftrufture: in this, as
in all the other works of nature, the great wifdom of
the Creator is evinced, and cannot fail to excite our
admiration and gratitude.
h. The cranium, by being divided into feveral bones,
grows much fafter and with greater facility than if it
was compofed of one piece only. In the foetus, the
bones as we have before obferved, are perfectly diftindt
from each other. The offification begins in the middle
of each bone, and proceeds gradually to the circum¬
ference. Hence the offification, and of courfetheincreafe
of the head, is carried on from an infinite number of
points at the fame time; and the bones confequently
approach each other in the fame proportion. To illuf-
trate this do&rine more clearly, if it can want further
illuftration; fuppofe it neceffary for the parietal bones,
which compofe the upper part of the head, to extend
their offification, and form the fore part of the head
likewife; is it not evident, that this procefs would be
much more tedious than it is now, when the os frontis
and the parietal bones are both growing at the fame
time ? Hence it happens that the heads of young peo¬
ple, in which the bones begin to touch each other, in-
creafe.
347
' •
’art I.
Si >T
’’the bones
the face.
iS
Hf the ofla
alarum.
»9
the olFa
laxillaria
iperiora.
ANATOMY.
creafe flowly; and that the proportionate increafe of
the volume of the head is greater in three months in
the foetus, than it is perhaps in 24 months, at the age
of 14 or 15 years.
i, The futures, exclufive of their advantages in fuf-
pending the proceffes of the dura mater, are evidently
of great utility to prevent the too great extent of frac¬
tures of the fkull. Suppofe, for inftance, that by a
fall or blow, one of the bones of the cranium becomes
fraftured. The fiifure which, in a head compofed of
only one bone would be liable to extend itfelf through
the whole of it, is flopped by the firft future it meets,
and the effefts of the injury are confined to the bone
on which the blow was received.
k, The fpherical ftiape of the head feems likewife to
render it more capable of refifling external violence than
any other ftiape would do. In a vault the parts mu¬
tually fupport and ftrengthen each other; and this hap¬
pens in the cranium.
Se£t. ii. 0/ the Bones of the Face.
a, The face, which confifts of a great number of
bones, is ufually divided into the upper and lower jaws:
of thefe the latter is capable of motion, but the former
is immoveable. The bones of the upper jaw are thir¬
teen in number, exclufive of the teeth, which we ftiall
deferibe feparately, after having finiftied the other bones
of the head. Of thefe thirteen bones, there are fix on
each fide of the maxilla fuperior, or upper jaw; and one
in the middle.
b, The bones, which are in pairs, are the ofla ma-
larum ; ofla maxillaria; ofla nafi ; ofla unguis; ofla
palati; and ofla fpongiofa inferiora. The Angle bone
is the vomer.
a, The ofla malarum are the prominent fquare bones
which form the upper part of the cheeks; they are fi-
tuated clofe under the eyes, and make part of the orbits.
Each of thefe bones have three furfaces to be confider-
ed. One of thefe is exterior and fomewhat convex;
the fecond is fuperior and concave, ferving to form
the lower and lateral parts of the orbit. The third,
which is pofterior, is very unequal, and concave for
the lodgment of the lower part of the temporal mufcle.
b, Each of thefe bones may be deferibed as having
four procefles formed by their four angles. Two of
thefe may be called orbitar procefles. The fuperior
one is united by future to the os frontis, and that be¬
low, to the maxillary bone. The third is conneAed
with the os fphenoides by means of the tranfverfe future;
and the fourth is joined to the zygomatic procefs of the
temporal bone, with which it forms the zygoma.
a, Thefe bones are fo called, becaufe they conftitute
the moft conliderable portion of the upper jaw. They
are two in number, and generally remain diftinft thro’
life. Their figure is exceedingly irregular, and not
eafily to be deferibed.
b, Of the many procefles which are to be feen on
thefe bones, and which are conne&ed with the bones
of the face and fcull, we ftiall deferibe only the moft
remarkable.
c, One of thefe procefles is at the upper and fore¬
part of the bone, making part of the fide of the nofe,
and called the nafal procefs. Another forms a kind of
circular fweep at the inferior part of the bone, in which
are the alveoli, or fockets for the teeth; this is called
the alveolar procefs. A third procefs is united to the
os malas on each fide. The alveolar procefs has, pofte-
riorly, a confiderable tuberofity on its internal furface,
called the maxillary tuherofity.
d, There are two horizontal lamellae behind the al¬
veolar procefs, which uniting together, form part of
the roof of the mouth, and divide it from the nofe.
This partition, being feated fomewhat higher than the
lower edge of the alveolar procefs, gives the roof of the
mouth a confiderable hollownefs.
e, In viewing thefe bones internally, we obferve a
fofla in the inferior portion of the nafal procefs; which
with the os unguis, forms a paflage for the lachrymal
duft.
f, Where thefe two bones are united to each other,
they project fomewhat forwards, leaving between them
a furrow which receives the inferior portion of the fep-
tum nafi.
g, Each of thefe bones is hollow, and forms a con¬
fiderable finus under its orbitar part. This finus, which
is ufually called antrum highmorianum is lined with the
pituitary membrane, it anfwers the fame purpofes as
the other finufes of the nofe ; and communicates with
the noftrils, by an opening which appears to be a large
one in the ikeleton, but in the recent fubjeft is much
fmaller.
h, The ofla maxillaria, not only ferve to form the
cheeks, but likewife the palate, nofe, and orbits; and
befides their union with each other, they are conne&ed
with the greateft part of the bones of the face and cra¬
nium, viz. with the ofla nafi, ofla malarum, ofla un¬
guis, ofla palati, os frontis, os fphenoides, and os
ethmoides.
a, The oflanafi refemble two irregular fquares. They of the oft*
are narrower and thicker above than below; externally nafi.
they are fomewhat convex, and internally a little con¬
cave. Thefe bones conftitute the upper part of the
nofe; at their fore part they are united to each other ;
above to the os frontis; by their fides to the ofla max¬
illaria fuperiora; pofteriorly and interiorly, to the fep-
tum narium; and below to the cartilages which com-
pofe the reft of the noftrils. 4r
a, Thefe bones derive their name from their tranf- of the oft*
parency, and figure which refembles that of a finger- unguis,
nail; they are likewife ftyled ojfa lachrymalia, becaufe
they help to form, with the nafal procefs of the os max-
illare fuperius on each fide, an excavation for the lodg¬
ment of the lachrymal fac; and to compofe part of the
lachrymal duel through which the tears pafs into the
noftrils.
b, Thefe bones, which are the fmalleft bones of the
face, are of an irregular lhape ; and may be deferibed
as having two fmooth parts, divided by a middle ridge
on their external furface. One of thefe parts which is
flat, forms a fmall part of the; orbit; the other, which
is next to the nofe, is concave,, and makes, as we have
before obferved, part of the lachrymal du6l; by its
union with the canal formed by the nafal procefs of the
fuperior maxillary bone. That part of the bone which
forms the dutt is cribriform, being pierced with a great
number of holes.
c, Each of thefe bones is joined to the os maxillars
fuperius, os frontis, and os ethmoides. j*
a, Thefe bones are of a very irregular figure ; they Of the oSi
are placed at the back part of the roof of the mouth,
and
348
ANATOMY.
Part I,
and fevve to form the nafal and maxillary fofla, and a
fmall portion of the orbit. Where they are_ united to
each other they rife up into a fpine on their internal
furface; this fpine appears to be a continuation of that
of the fuperior maxillary bones, and helps to form the
feptum narium.
b, Thefe bones are joined to the ofla maxillaria fu-
periora, os fphenoides, os ethmoides, and vomer.
Of the vo- a, This bone derives its name from its refemblance
nier* to a plough-fhare. It is a long and flat bone, fome-
what thicker at its back than at its fore part. At its
upper part we obferve a furrow extending through its
whole length. The back of this furrow which is the
largeft, receives a procefs of the fphenoid bone; from
this the furrow advances forwards, and becoming nar¬
rower and Ihallower, receives fome part of the nafal
lamella ethmoidea; the reft ferves to fnpport the middle
cartilage of the nofe.
b. The inferior portion of this bone is placed on the
nafal fpine of the maxillary and palate bones, which
we mentioned in our defcription of the pfla palati.
c, The vomer is united to the os fphenoides, os eth¬
moides, ofia maxillaria fuperiora, and ofla palati. It
forms part of the feptum narium, by dividing the back
j,4 part of the nofe into two noftrils.
Of the ofla a. The parts which are ufually defcribed by this
fpongiofa name, do not feem to deferve to be diftinguilhed as
inferiora. bones. They confift of a fpongy lamella in
each noftril, which is united to the fpongy lamina of
the ethmoid bone, of which they are by fome confider-
ed as a part.
b. Each of thefe lamellae is longeft from behind,
forwards ; with its convex furface turned towards the
i'eptum narium, and its concave part towards the max¬
illary bone; covering the opening of the lachrymal duft
into the nofe.
c, Thefe bones are covered with the pituitary mem¬
brane ; and, befides their connexion with the ethmoid
bone, are joined to the ofla maxillaria fuperiora; ofla
vJ palati; and ofla unguis.
Of the max- a> The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw ; which in its
Hla inferior, figure refembles a bow with its end elevated; is at firft
compdfed of two diftinA bones; but thefe foon after
birth unite into one at the middle of the chin, fo as to
form only one bone. The fuperior edge of this bone
has, like the maxilla fupefior, a procefs called the al¬
veolar procefs. This as well as that of the upper jaw
to which it is in other refpedts a good deal fimilar, is
likewife furnifhed with cavities for the reception of the
teeth.
b, The pofterior part of the bone on each fide rifes
almoft perpendicularly into two procefles, one of which
is called the caronoid, and the other the condyloid pro-
refs. The firft of thefe is the higheft; it is thin and
pointed, and the temporal mufcle which is attached to
it, ferves to elevate the jaw. The condyloid procefs
is narrower, thicker, and fhorter than the other; ter¬
minating in an oblong rounded head, which is made for
a moveable articulation with the cranium, and is recei¬
ved into a folia of the temporal bone. In this joint
there is a moveable cartilage, which being more clofely
connefted to the condyle than to the cavity, may be
confidered as belonging to the former. At the bottom
of each coronoid procefs, on its inner part, is a fora¬
men or canal, which extends under the roots of all the
teeth, and terminates at the outer furface of the bone
near the chin. Each of thefe foramina affords a paf-
fage to an artery, vein, and nerve, which fend of
branches to the feveral teeth.
c, This bone is capable of a great many motions.
The condyles, by Aiding from the cavity towards the
eminences on each fide, bring the jaw horizontally for¬
wards, as in the aftion of biting : or the condyles on¬
ly may be brought forwards while the reft of the jaw
is tilted backwards, as in the cafe when the mouth is
open. The condyles may alfo Aide alternately back- jj
wards and forwards, from the cavity to the eminence,
and vice verfa; fo that, while one condyle advances, the
other moves backwards, turning the body of the jaw
from fide to fide, as in grinding tlrt; teeth. The great
ufe of the cartilages feems, to be that of fecuring the ar¬
ticulation, by adapting themfelves to the different ine¬
qualities in thefe feveral motions of the jaw, and to pre¬
vent any injuries from fri&ion. This laft circumftance
is of great importance where there is fo much motion;
and Mr J. Hunter has accordingly found this cartilage I
in the -different tribes of carnivorous animals where
there is no eminence nor cavity, nor other apparatus for
grinding.
d. The alveolar proceffes are formed of an external
and internal plate united together by thin bony parti¬
tions, which divide the proceffes at the' fore part of the
jaw into as many fockets as there are teeth ; but at the
pofterior part where the teeth have more than one root,
each root has a diftinft cell. Thefe proceffes in both
jaws begin to be formed with the teeth, accompany them
in their growth, and difappear when the teeth fall; fo
that the lofs of the one feems conftantly to be attended
with the lofs of the other. a(J jk
a, The teeth are bones of a particular ftru&ure, for- Of theteejwi
med for the purpofes of maftication, and the articulation
of the voice.
b, Each tooth may be divided into its body, neck, and
root, or fangs. The body of the tooth is that part
which appears above the gums. The root is fixed in¬
to the focket, and the neck is the middle part between
the two. The teeth are compofed of two fubftances,
viz, enamel, and bone. The enamel, or as it is fome*
times called, the vitreous, or cortical part of the tooth,
is a very hard and compaft fubftance, of a white co¬
lour, and peculiar to the teeth. When broken, it ap¬
pears fibrous or ftriated ; and all the ftrise are direfted
from the circumference to the center of the tooth.
This enamel is thickeft on the grinding furface, becom¬
ing gradually thinner as it approaches the neck, where
it terminates infenfibly. Ruyfch affirmed, that he could
trace the arteries into the hardeft part of the teeth ; ,: 1
Lewenhoeck fufpe&ed the fibres of the enamel to be fo | i
many veffels ; and, Monro fays, he has frequently in- U
jefted the veffels of the teeth in children fo as to make
the infide of the cortex appear perfeftly red. But Mr
J. Hunter who has written profeffedly on the teeth,
fays, that no injection will ever reach this fubftance;
that it receives no tinge from madder; and that it has
no marks of being vafcular, or of having a circulation
of fluids.
c, The bony part of a tooth refembles other bones
in its ftru&ure, but is much harder than the moft com-
paft part of bones in general. It compofes the inner
part of the body, neck and root of the tooth. From
certain
Part I.
349
ANA’
certain circumftances (n) this part of a tooth appears
to be vafcular, but there are many others which tend
to prove that it is not.
d, Each tooth has an inner cavity, which beginning
by a fmall opening, becomes larger and terminates in
the body of the tooth.
e, This cavity is fupplied with an artery, vein, and
nerve, which pafs through the fmall hole in the root.
In old people this hole fometimes clofes, and the tooth
becomes then infenfible.
f, The teeth are invefted with a periofteum from
their fangs to a little beyond their bony fockets, where
it is attached to the gums. This membrane feems to
be common to the tooth which it inclofes, and to the
fockets which it lines.
g, The teeth are likewife fecured in their fockets by
a red fubftance called the gums, which every where co¬
vers the alveolar proceffes, and has as many perfora¬
tions as there are teeth. The gums are exceedingly
vafcular, and have fomething like a cartilaginous
hardnefs and elafticity, but do not feem to have much
fcnfibility. The gums of infants, which perform the
offices of teeth, have a hard ridge extending through
their whole length, but in old people who have loft their
teeth this ridge is wanting.
h, The number of the teeth in both jaws at full ma¬
turity, ufually varies from 28 to 32. They are com¬
monly divided into three claffes, viz. incifores, canini,
and grinders, or molares (o). The incifores are the
four teeth in the fore part of the jaws ; they derive
their name from their ufe in dividing and cutting the
food, and have each of them two furfaces which meet
in a {harp edge. Of thefe furfaces, the anterior one
is convex, and the pofterior one fomewhat concave. In
the upper jaw they are ufually broader and thicker,
VOL. I.
r O M Y.
efpecially the two firft, than thofe of the under jaw,
over which they generally fall by being placed a little
obliquely.
i. The canini are the longeft of all the teeth, deri¬
ving their name from their refemblance to a dog’s
tulks (p.) There is one of thefe teeth on each fide of
the incifores, fo that there are two in each jaw. Then-
fang differs from that of the incifores, only in being
much larger; and their (hape may be eafily defcribed
to be that of an incifor with its edge worn off fo as to
end in a narrow point inftead of a thin edge.
k, Thefe teeth not being calculated for dividing like
the incifores, or for grinding, feem to be intended for
laying hold of fubftances (qJ. .
l, The grinders, or molares, of which there are ten
in each jaw, are fo called, becaufe from their fize and
figure they are calculated for grinding the food. The
canini and incifores have only one fang, but the three laft
grinders in the under jaw have conftantly two fangs ;
and the fame teeth in the upper jaw three fangs. Some¬
times thefe fangs are divided into two points near their
bafe, and each of thefe points has, perhaps, been fome¬
times corifidered as a diftinft fang. The grinders like¬
wife differ from each other in their appearance. The
two firft on each fide, which Mr Hunter appears to
have diftinguifhed very properly by the name of licuf-
pides, feem to be of a middle nature, between the in¬
cifores and grinders; and have fometimes only one
root. The two beyond thefe on each fide are much
larger. The laft grinder is ftiorter and fmaller than the
reft, and from its coming through the gums later than
the reft, and fometimes not appearing till late in life,
is called dens fapientiec. The variation in the number
of teeth ufually depends on the dentes fapientiae.
m, There is in the ftru&ure and arrangement of all
X x thefe
(n) Thefe circumftances are, that the teeth like other bones are liable to fwellings; and that they are found anchy-
lofed with the focket. But Mr J. Hunter fuppofes that both thefe may be original formations. He never faw the vef-
fels of the teeth inje<5ted in any preparation, either of young or old fubje<fts; and as the moft convincing proof of their
not being vafcular, he reafons from the analogy between them and other bones. He obferves, for inftance, that in a
young animal that has been fed with madder, the parts of the teeth which were formed before it was put on the mad¬
der diet will appear of their natural colour, but that fuch parts as were formed while the animal was taking the madder
will be of a red colour, whereas in other bones, the hardeft parts are fufceptible of the dye, tho’ more flowly than the
parts which are growing. Hence, he fuppofes, that the teeth when completely formed ceafe to be vafcular. Again,
he tells us, that if you leave off feeding the animal with madder a confiderable time before you kill it, you will find the
above appearances ftill fubfifting, with this addition, that all the parts of the teeth which were formed after leaving off
the madder will be white. This experiment proves, that a tooth once ting’d does not lofe its colour, whereas other
bones do (tho’ very flowly) return again to their natural appearance: and as the dye in this cafe muft be taken into the
habit by the abforbents, he is led to fufpedtthat the teeth are without abforbents as well as other veffels. Tho’ from,
thefe and other reafons, they feem to appear as extraneous bodies with refpedt to a circulation thro’ their fubftance, yet
they moft certainly poffefs a living principle. They are not eafily affedted by the difeafes to which other bones are
liable. They do not become foft in a mollities oflium, nor is their growth evidently retarded in rickety children : but
they are, as we often experience, exquifitely fenfible ; and are capable of being tranfplanted into other fockets when
recently drawn. This fenfibility evidently arifes from the expofure of the nerve in a caries of the tooth; and their
difpofition to unite with the fockets into which they are tranfplanted, tho’ a proof of their living principle (fora tooth
that has been long drawn before it is tranfplanted, and which ofcourfe has loft this principle will never become fixed)
does not abfolutely prove their having a circulation.
(o) Mr Hunter has thought proper to vary this divifion. He retains the old name of incifores to the four fore teeth,
but he diftinguifties the canine teeth by the name of the cufpidati. The two teeth which are next to thefe, and which
have been ufually ranked with the molares, he calls the bicufpides; and he gives the name oigrinders only, to the three
laft teeth on each fide.
(p) The canine teeth of the upper jaw are likewife fometimes called eye teeth, from their fuppofed connexion with
the eyes, and the great danger to which the eye-fight is thought to be expofed by their being drawn. - Although thefe
are vulgar notions, real evils are fometimes occafioned by extracting them. They are feparated from the maxillary
finus, only by a very thin bony partition : this partition is liable to be injured in the operation, and the pituitary mem¬
brane being in this cafe torn, inflammation and the moft difagreeable confequences have often enfued.
(q) Mr Hunter remarks of thefe teeth, that we may trace in them a fimilarity in fliape, fituation and ufe, from the
moft imperfectly carnivorous animal, which we believe to be the human fpecies, to the lion, which is the moft per¬
fectly carnivorous.
35°
ANATOMY.
thefe teeth an art which cannot be fufficiently admired.
To underftand it properly, it will be neceflary to con-
fider the under jaw as a kind of lever, with its fixed
points at its articulations with the temporal bones: it
will be right to obferve too, that its powers arife from
its different mufcles, but in elevation chiefly from the
temporalis ; and that the aliment conftitutes the objedf
of refiftance. It will appear then that the molares, by
being placed neareft the centre of motion, are calculated
to prefs with a much greater force than the other teeth,
independent of their grinding powers, and that it is
for this reafon we put between them any hard body we
wifh to break.
n, The caniniand incifores, are placed farther from
this point, and of courfe cannot exert fo much force ;
but they are made for cutting and tearing the food;
and this form feems to make amends for their deficien¬
cy in ftrength.
o, There are examples of children who have come
into the world with two, three, and even four teeth;
but thefe examples are very rare, and it is feldom be¬
fore the feventh, eighth or ninth month after birth that
the incifores begin to pafs through the gum. The
fymptoms of dentition, however, in confequence of ir¬
ritation from the teeth, frequently take place in the
fourth or fifth month. One of the incifores ufually
appears firft in the lower jaw, and is followed by one
in the upper jaw ; and fo on alternately, till thefe eight
teeth are cut after this: the child continues eafy during
one, two, or three months, when the fymptoms of irrita¬
tion take place again; and continue till about the ele¬
venth or twelfth month, when one and fometimes two
of the canini begin to appear at a time, but moft ufual¬
ly in fucceflion. Here then are twelve teeth in the firft
year.
p, About the feventeenth, eighteenth, or twentieth
month, and fometimes later, two of the molares ap¬
pear in each jaw, and enable children to take folid
nouriffiment.
q, We all know the danger to which children are
expofed during the time of dentition ; and we ftiall not
be furprized at it, if we confider that every tooth be¬
fore it makes its appearance mu ft pafs through a bony
lamella which covers the focket; and likewife thro’ the
periofteum and gums.
r, The fymptoms are more or lefs alarming, in pro¬
portion to the refiftance which thefe parts afford to the
teeth; and, according to the number of teeth which may
chance to feek a paffage at the fame time. Were they
all to appear at once, children would fall viftims to the
pain and exceflive irritation ; but nature has fo very
wifely difpofed them, that they ufually appear one af¬
ter the other, with fome diftance of time between each.
f. About the age of two years, four other dentes
molares ufually appear; four others in the fourth or
fifth year, and four more about the feventh year. Thefe
make up the twenty-eight teeth, which continue to be
the number till the twentieth, twenty-fecond, or twen¬
ty-fifth year; and fometimes later, when four more
grinders make their appearance, and thefe are the den¬
tes fapientiee. Thefe teeth have been in fome inftances
Part. I
cut at the age of eighty years ; and it fometimes hap¬
pens that they do not appear at all. This then is the
number of teeth, and the order in which they appear ;
but it is to be obferved, that about the feventh, eighth,
ninth or tenth year; fometimes a little fooner, fome¬
times later, the incifores begin to fall out of their fock-
ets ; and that, between the feventh and fourteenth year,
not only the incifores, but likewife the canini, and fome¬
times the four firft molares, making in all twenty teeth,
are fhed, and their place fuppliedby others of a firmer
texture, with larger fangs, which remain till they be¬
come affe&ed by difeafe, or fall out in old age. The
firft teeth are called the temporary or milk teeth, to di-
ftinguifh them from the adult teeth. The rudiments of
both thefe feries of teeth are originally formed together
in the foetus, and are to be feen in the jaws of very
young fubjefts in two rows, and in a diftinft fet of al¬
veoli ; fo that it is not by the growing of one tooth
under another in the fame focket, that the uppermoft
tooth is mechanically pulhed out, as is perhaps com¬
monly imagined ; but the temporary teeth, and thofe
which are to fucceed them, being as we have juft now
obferved, placed in feparate alveoli; the upper fockets
gradually difappear, as the under ones increafe in fize,
till at length the teeth they contain having no longer
any fupport, confequently fall out.
Se£I. iii. Of the Os Hyoides. (r).
a, The os hyoides which is placed at the root of the *7
tongue, wasfo called by the ancients on account of its
fuppofed refemblance to the Greek letter u.
b, It will be neceffary to diftinguifh in it, its body,
horns, and appendices.
c, The body is the middle and broadeft part of the
bone, fo placed that it may be eafily felt with the
finger in the fore part of the throat. Its fore part is
irregularly convex, and its inner furface unequally con¬
cave. The cornua or horns, which are flat and a little
bent, are confiderably longer than the body of the
bone, and may be fa id to form the fides of the w
The appendices, or little horns, as they are called by
M. Winflow and fome other writers, are two proceffes
which rife up from the articulations of the cornua with
the body, and are ufually connefted with the ftyloid
procefs on each fide by means of a ligament.
d, This bone ferves to fupport the tongue, and af¬
fords attachment to a variety of mufcles, fome of which
perform the motions of the tongue, and others ad on
the larynx and fauces.
Chap. III.
Of the Bones of the Trunk.
a, The trunk of the fkeleton is compofed of the fpine, j*
the thorax, and the pelvis.
Se£h i. Of the Spine.
a, The fpine is a long bony column, in figure not 23
much unlike the letter S, which extends from the head
to the lower part of the trunk, and is the great fupport
of the whole body. b, It
(r) Thisboneis very feldom preferved with the fkeleton, and cannot be included amongft thebones of the head
or in any other divifion of the fkeleton. Thomas Bartholin, has perhaps v'ery properly defcribed it among the Par^s
contained in the mouth ; but the generality of anatomical writers have placed it, as it is here, after the bones of the
face..
Part I.
ANATOMY.
351
b, It Is made of a great number of bones called ver¬
tebra.
c, It may be confide red as being compofed of two
irregular pyramids, which are united to each other in
that part of the loins where the laft of the lumbar ver¬
tebrae is united to the os facrum.
d, The vertebrae which form the upper and longeft
pyramid, are calledvertebrae; and thofe whichcom-
pofe the lower pyramid, are termed falfe vertebrae; be-
caufe they do not in every thing referable the others;
and particularly, becaufe in the adult date they be¬
come perfe&ly immoveable, whilft the upper ones con¬
tinue to be capable of motion ; for it is upon the bones
of the fpine that the body turns, and their name has its
derivation from the Latin verb vertere, which fignifies
to turn.
e, The vertebrae are likewife divided into five claffes,
viz. i. The cervical or vertebrae of the neck; 2. the
dorfal or vertebrae of the back ; 3. the lumbar or ver¬
tebrae of the loins ; 4. the os facrum ; and, 5. the
coccyx.
f, We will firft point out what thefe bones, and
efpecially the true vertebrae, have in common with each
other ; and then feparately deferibe thefe five clafles.
g, In each vertebra, as in all other bones, it will be
neceflary to remark the body of the bone, its proceffes,
and cavities,
h, The body of one of the vertebrae may be compa¬
red to part of a cylinder cut off tranfverfely: convex
before, and concave at its pofterior furface where it
makes part of the cavity of the fpine.
i, Each vertebra has commonly feven proceffes.
k, The firft of thefe is, the fpinous procefs, which is
placed at the back part of the vertebra, and gives the
name of fpine to the whole of this bony canal; two o-
thers are called tranfverfe proceffes, from their fituation
with refpedl to the figure of the fpine ; and are placed
on each fide of the fpinous procefs. The four others
which are called oblique or articular proceffes are much
fmaller than the other three; there are two of thefe on
the upper, and two on the lower part of each vertebra,
rifing from near the bafis of the tranfverfe proceffes.
They are called articular procejfesy becaufe they are ar¬
ticulated with each other; that is, the two fuperior pro¬
ceffes of one vertebra, are articulated with the two infe¬
rior proceffes of the vertebra above it; and they are
called oblique proeeffes from their fituation with refpeft
to the proceffes with which they are united : thefe o-
blique procefl'es are articulated to each other by a fpe-
cies of ginglimus, and each procefs is covered at its ar¬
ticulation with cartilage.
l, There is in every vertebra, between its body and
apophyfes, a foramen large enough to admit a finger.
Thefe foramina correfpond with each other through all
the vertebrae, and form a long bony conduit for the
lodgment of the fpinal marrow.
m, Befides this great hole, there are four notches on
each fide of every vertebra, between the oblique procef¬
fes and the body of the vertebra ; two of thefe notches
are at the upper, and two at the lower part of the bone;
each of the inferior notches meeting with one of the
fuperior notches of the vertebra below it, forms a fora¬
men ; whilft the fuperior notches do the fame with the
inferior notches of the vertebra above it. Thefe four
foramina, form paffages for blood veffels, and for the
nerves that pafs out of the fpine : the vertebrae are u-
nited together by means of a cartilaginous fubftance,
which forms a kind of partition between the feveral
vertebrae ; thefe cartilages are thicker and more flex¬
ible between the lumbar vertebrae than in other parts
of the fpine; the moft confiderable motions of the
trunk being performed on thefe vertebrae, Thefe car¬
tilages being very elaftic, the extenfion and flexion of
the body, and its motion backwards and forwards, or
to either fide, are performed with great facility. This
elafticity feems to be the reafon why people who have
been long ftanding, or have carried a confiderable
weight, are found to be {hotter than when they have
been long in bed. In the two firft inftances, the liga¬
ments are evidently more expofed to compreflion than
when we are in bed in an horizontal pofture.
n. The change which takes place in thefe cartilages
in advanced life, occafions the decreafe in ftature,and the
{looping forwards which are ufually to be obferved in
old people. The cartilages then become fhrivelled,
and consequently lofe in a great meafure their elafticity.
o. Befides this connexion of the feveral vertebras
by means of thefe cartilages, there are likewife parti¬
cular ligaments which unite the feveral bones to each
other; and the periofteum externum, the membrane
which inclofes the marrow, and the mufcles which are
attached to the fpine, all ferve toftrengthen this union.
p. We may venture to remark, that all the vertebrae
diminifh in denfity and firmnefs of texture in propor¬
tion as they increafe in fize; fo that the lower vertebrae,
though larger, are not fo heavy as thofe above them ;
in confequence of this mode of ftrufture, the fize of the
vertebrae is increafed without adding to their weight;
and this is an objedt of no little importance in a part of
the body, which befides flexibility and fupplenefs, feems
to require lightnefs as one of its effential properties.
q. In very young children, each vertebra is compofed
of three bony pieces connefted by cartilages which af¬
terwards oflify.
a. There are feven vertebrae of the neck; they are of Vertebrse of
a firmer texture than the other bones of the fpine. The the neck,
tranfverfe proceffes of thefe vertebrae are forked for the
lodgment of mufcles; and, at the bottom of each of
thefe proceffes, there is a foramen for the paffage of the
cervical artery and vein. The firft and fecond of thefe
vertebrae muft be deferibed more particularly. The firft
approaches almoft to an oval fliape; on its fuperior fur-
face it has two cavities, which admit the condyles of
the occipital bone with which it is articulated. This
vertebra which is called Atlas, from its fupporting the
head, cannot well be deferibed as having either body
or fpinous procefs, being a kind of bony ring. Ante¬
riorly where it is articulated to the odontoid procefs of
the fecond vertebra, it is very thin.
b. The fecond vertebra which is called dentata, has
at its upper and anterior part, a procefs called the odon¬
toid procefs; from its refemblance to a large tooth,
which is articulated with the atlas; to which this fecond
vertebra may be faid to ferve as an axis.
c. It is commonly obferved that the head turns to
the right or left upon this vertebra; but this fuppofi-
tion feems to be erroneous.
d. The face cannot turn the quarter of a circle, that
is, to the fhoulder, upon this vertebra alone, without
being; liable to injure the fpinal marrow, which would
S X x 2 probably
352 ANA
probably be divided tranfverfely by the firft vertebra ;
lb that all the feven vertebrae feem to concur in this mo-
31 tion when it is in any confiderable degree,
ifertebrae of a, We have nothing particular to obferve in thefe
e ac • vertebrae, which'are twelve in number; except two la¬
teral depreffions in the fides of each vertebra, and another
in each tranfverfe procefs, by means of which thefe
3a bones are articulated with the ribs.
Lumbar a, Thefe five vertebrae differ only from thofe of the
?erte rx. ;n their being larger; and in having their fpinous
proceffes at a greater didance from each other. The
moft confiderable motions of the trunk are made on
thefe vertebrae; and thefe motions could not be per¬
formed with-fo much eafe, were the proceffes placed
33 nearer to each other.
3s facrum. a> The os facrum which is compofed of five or fix
pieces in young fubjefts, becomes one bone in more ad¬
vanced age.
b. It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior
portion being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior part
has two oblique proceffes which are articulated with the
laft of the lumbar vertebrae, and it has likewife a fmall
fpinous procefs. Its concave or anterior fide has many
prominences, which are filled up and covered with the
mufcular and tendinous parts behind.
, This bone has five pair of holes, which afford a
T O M Y. Parti.
means the body is eafily kept in an ere& pofture ; for
otherwife we fhould be liable to fall forwards. But
at its inferior part, it again recedes backwards, and helps
to form a cavity called the pelvis ; in which the urina¬
ry bladder, inteftinum rectum, and other vifcera are
placed.
h. Whoever contemplates and clearly underflands the
ftru&ure of this part of the human body, cannot but ac¬
knowledge that it is admirably adapted to the ufes to
which it is deftined; and that it is evidently the work
of a divine author.
i, If this bony column had been formed only of one
piece, it would have been much more eafily fra&ured
than it is now; and, by confining the trunk to a fliff fi-
tuation, a variety of motions would have been altoge¬
ther prevented, which are now performed with eafe by
the great number of bones of which it is compofed.
k, It is firm, and yet to this firmnefs there is added
a perfeft flexibility. If it is required to carry a load
upon the head, the neck becomes fliff with the afliii-
ance of its mufcles, and accommodates itfelf to the load
as if it was compofed only of one bone. In Hooping
likewife, or in turning to either fide, the fpine turns it¬
felf in every direction, as if all its hones were/eparated
from each other.
l, In a part of the body which is compofed of fo
paffage to the blood veffels, and likewife to the nerves great a number of bones, and conftru&ed for fuch
which are derived from the fpinal marrow ; for the mar¬
row is continued even in the os facrum.
d, This bone is united laterally to the offa innomi-
nata or hip-bones, and below to the coccyx.
a, The coccyx, which like the os facrum, is in young
people made up of feveral diftinft parts, ufually becomes
one bone in the adult flate.
b, It ferves to fupport the inteftinum rectum ; and,
by its being capable of fome degree of motion at its
articulation with the facrum, and being like that hope
bent forwards, we are enabled to fit with eafe.
c, This bone is about three inches long; it is broadeft
at its upper part, and from thence grows narrower to
its apex, where it is not bigger than the little finge
riety of motion as the fpine is, luxation is more to be
expelled than fra&ure; and this is very wifely guarded
againft in every direction, by the many procefles which
are to be found in each vertebra ; and by the cartilages,
ligaments, and other means of connedtion, which we
have defcribed as uniting them together.
Se£l. ii. Of the Bones of the Thorax.
a, The thorax, or cheft, is compofed of many bones, 33
viz. the fternum, which is placed at its anterior part;
twelve ribs on each fide which make up its lateral parts;
and the dorfal vertebrae, which conftitute its pofterior
part. Thefe laft have been already defcribed. 3^
, The fternum is the long bone which extends itfelf 0f‘be ftei>
d. This bone, which has got its name from its fup- from the upper to the lower part of the breaft anterior- ;
pofed refemblance to a cuckow’s beak; differs very much
from the vertebrae, being ufually without proceffes, and
having no cavity for the medulla fpinalis, or foramina
for the paffage of nerves.
e, The fpine, of which we have now finiflied the ana¬
tomical defcription, is dettined for many and important
ufes. The medulla oblongata is lodged, in its bony
canal, fecure from external injury ; it defends the
thoracic and abdominal vifcera ; it ferves to fupport
the head, and gives a general firmnefs to the whole
trunk.
f, We have before compared it to the letter S, and
its different turns will be found to render it not very un¬
like the figure of that letter.
g, In the neck we fee it projedting fomewhat for¬
wards. to fupport the head, which, without this af-
fiftance, would require a greater number of mufcles ;
through the whole length of the thorax it is carried in
a curved diredlion backwards; and thus adds confide-
rably to the cavity of the cheft, and confequently af¬
fords more room to the lungs, heart, and large blood
veffels. In the loins, the fpine again proje&s forwards
in a diredlion with the centre of gravity; by which
ly, and to which the ribs and the clavicles are articu¬
lated.
b, In children it is compofed of feveral bones united
by cartilages ; but as we advance in life, moft of thefe
cartilages offify, and the fternum in the adult ftate is
found to coniift only of two pieces; and fometimes be¬
comes one bone. It is, however, generally defcribed as
being compofed of two parts; one fuperior, which is
broad, thick, and Ihort; and one inferior, which is
thinner, narrower, and longer than the other.
c, It terminates at its lower part by a cartilage, which
is called the xyphoid, or fword-like cartilage; from its
fuppofed refemblance to the point of a fword; but its
ftiape is much more like that of a myrtle leaf,
d, We have already obferved, that this bone is articu¬
lated with the clavicle on each fide; it is likewife join¬
ed to the fourteen true ribs; viz. feven on its right, and.
feven on its left fide. 37
a, The ribs are bones ftiaped like a bow, which com- Of the riba,
pofe the fides of the cheft. There are twelve on each
fide. They are diftinguiihed into true and falfe ribs ;
the feven upper ribs, which are articulated to the fter¬
num, are called true ribs ; and the five lower ones, which
353
'art I.
ANATOMY.
are not immediately attached to that bone, are called
falfe ribs.
b, On the inferior and anterior furface of each rib,
we obferve a finuofity for the lodgment of an artery,
vein, and nerve.
c, The ribs are not bony through their whole length,
their anterior part being cartilaginous. They are ar¬
ticulated-with the vertebras and fternum ; every rib, or
at leaft the great eft number of them, has at its pofte-
rior part, two proceffes; one at its extremity, by means
of which it is articulated with the body of two verte¬
bras ; and another, which is a very evident tuberofity,
by which it is articulated with the tranfverfe procefs of
the loweft of thefe two vertebrae; the firft rib is not ar¬
ticulated by its extremity to two vertebrae, being Amply
attached to the upper part of the firft vertebra of the
back; the feven fuperior or true ribs, are articulated an¬
teriorly with the fternum by their cartilages ; but the
falfe ribs are fupported in a different manner; the
eighth, which is the firft of thefe ribs, being attached by
its cartilage to the feventh; the ninth to the eighth,
d, The two loweft ribs differ likewife from all the
reft in the following particulars: they are articulated
with the body of a vertebra, and not with a tranfverfe
procefs; and, anteriorly, their cartilage is loofe, not
being attached to the cartilages of the other ribs ; and
this feems to be, becaufe the moft confiderable motions
of the trunk are not performed on the lumbar vertebras
alone, but likewife on the two laft vertebrae of the back;
fo that if thefe two ribs had been confined anteriorly
like the reft, and likewife attached to the bodies of two
vertebras, and to the tranfverfe procefs, this difpofition
would have impeded the motion of the two laft verte¬
brae of the back, and confequently affe&ed the motion
of the trunk in general.
e, The ribs ferve to cover and fecure the vital organs,
viz. the heart and lungs; without this bony defence,
thefe vifcera would be conftantly expofed to interrup¬
tion, and perhaps to injury; which would not fail to be
extremely prejudicial to health and even to life ; for the
fundtions of thofe organs are fo effential to life, that we
cannot long exift without them.'
Seel. ii. Of the Bones of the Pelvis.
a, The pelvis iscompofedof the os facrum, os coc-
cygis, and two offa innominata. The two firft of thefe
bones were included in our account of the fpine, to
which they more properly belong.
b. Each os innominatum in children, is compofed of
three diftinct bones; but as they advance in life, the
marks of this feparation gradually difappear, by the of-
fication of the cartilages by which they were united to
each other, and they become one bone; ftill, however,
continuing to retain the names of ilium, ifehium, and
pubis, by which their divifions were originally diftin-
guilhed; and to be deferibed as three diftindt bones by
all anatomical writers. The os ilium forms the upper
and largeft part of the bone, the os ifehium its pofterior
and interior portion, and the os pubis its anterior part.
a, The os ilium is articulated pofteriorly to the os
facrum, by a firm cartilaginous fubftance; and is united
to the os pubis before, and to the os ifehium below; its
fuperior portion is thin, and terminates in a ridge call¬
ed the crifla or fpine of the ilium, and more common¬
ly known by the name of the haunch. This crifta rifes
up like an arch, being turned fomewhat outwards; and
from this appearance, the upper part of the pelvis when
viewed together, has not been improperly compared to
the wings of a phaeton.
b, Externally, this bone is unequally prominent and
hollowed for the .attachment of mufcles, and internally,
it is fmooth and concave ; at its lower part there is a
confiderable ridge on its inner furface. This ridge
which extends from the os facrum, and correfponds
with a fimilar prominence both on that bone and the
ifehium, forms with the inner part of the offa pubis,
what in midwifery, is underftood tp be the brim of the
pelvis.
c, The os ilium has likewife a fmaller furface pofte¬
riorly, by which it is articulated to the os facrum.
d, The crifta, or fpine, which is originally an epi-
phyfis, has two confiderable tuberofities; one anterior¬
ly, and the other pofteriorly which is the largeft of the
two; the ends of this fpine too, from their projecting
more than the parts of the bone below them, are called
fpinal procejfes ; before the anterior fpinal procefs, the
fpine is hollowed where part of the fartorius mufcle is
placed; and below the pofterior fpinal procefs there is
a very large niche in the bone which is the recent fub-
jeft; has a ftrong ligament ftretched over its lower part
from the os facrum, to the flrarp pointed procefs of the
ifehium, fo that a great hole is formed, through which
pafs the great fciatic nerve, and the pofterior crural vef-
fels under the pyriform mufcle, pail of which is likewife
lodged in this hole.
a, The os ifehium, which is a bone of a very irregu- Os ifehiam.
lar figure, is ufually divided into its body, tuberofity,
and ramus. . The body externally forms the inferior
and greateftpart of the acetabulum; and fends a (harp
pointed apophyfis backwards, called the fpine of the if¬
ehium. This is the procefs to which the ligament is
attached, which we juft now deferibed as forming a
great foramen for the paffage of the fciatic nerve. The
. tuberofity is large and irregular, and is placed at the
inferior part of the bone, giving origin to feveral muf¬
cles. The tuberofity which is the loweft portion of
the trunk, fupports us when we fit; from this tubero¬
fity the bone becoming narrower and thinner forms the
ramus or branch, which palling forwards and upwards,
makes with the ramus of the os pubis a large hole, call¬
ed the foramen ovale ; this hole which is clofed by a
membrane, affords through its whole circumference atr
tachment to mufcles. 4r
a, The os pubis which is the fmalleft of the three Os pubis,
bones, is placed at the forepart of the pelvis, where it
is united to the os pubis of the other fide, by means of
a very ftrong cartilage, and conftitutes what is called
the fymphyfis pubis. This bone is diftinguilhed by the
body, angle, and ramus. The body, which is the outer
part, is joined to the os ilium. The angle comes for¬
wards to form the fymphyfis, and the ramus is a thin
apophyfis, which is united to the ramus of the ifehium.
b, The three bones we have deferibed as conftitutihg
the os innominatum on each fide, all concur to form
the great acetabulum or cotyloid cavity, which receives
the head of the thigh-bone. A little foffa is to be ob-
ferved in this cavity, in which are placed the mucilagi¬
nous glands which ferve to lubricate the joint, and fa¬
cilitate its motions. We are able likewife to difeover
the impreffion made by the round ligament, which by
being
354
'1
ANA 1
being attached both to this cavity and to the head of
the os femoris, helps to fecurc the latter in the aceta¬
bulum.
c, The bones of the pelvis ferve to lodge the intef-
cines, urinary bladder, and other vifcera; and likewife
to unite the trunk to the lower extremities: but befides
thefe ufes they are deftined in the female fubjeft, for
other and more important purpofes; and the accou¬
cheur finds in the ftudy of thefe bones, the great foun¬
dation of all midwifery knowledge.
Chap. IV,
Of the Extremities.
4* a. This part of the ofteology is divided into the up¬
per and lower extremities. We will begin with the
firft of thefe.
Se£l. i. Of the Upper Extremity.
43 a, This confifts of the fhoulder, arm, and hand.
§. i. Of the Bones of the Shoulder.
44 a, The fhoulder is compofed of two bones, the cla-
vide and fcapula.
Of the clavl- a> The clavicula or collar bone, fo called from its
cula. refemblance to the key in ufe amongft the ancients ; is
a little curved at both its extremities like an Italick f.
This bone is about the fize of the little finger, but
longer, and being of a very fpongy fubftance is very
liable to fra&ure. At its interior part where it is round
and thickeft, it is articulated to the llernum ; and its
pofterior part, which is flatter and broader than the
other, is conne&ed to a procefs of the fcapula called
acromion.
b. The clavicle ferves to regulate the motions of the
fcapula, by preventing its being brought too much for¬
wards, or carried too far backwards. It affords at¬
tachment to feveral mufcles, and helps to cover and
protect the fubclavian arteries which derive their name
from their fituation under this bone.
Of the fca- a, The fcapula which aproaches nearly to a trian-
pula. .gular figure, is fixed not unlike a buckler to the pofte¬
rior part of the true ribs. It is of a very unequal thick-
nefs, and like all other broad, flat bones, is fomewhat
cellular. Exteriorly it is convex, and interiorly con¬
cave, to accomodate itfelf to the convexity of the ribs.
We obferve in this bone three unequal fides. The lar-
geft of the three called the bafts, is turned towards the
vertebras,. Another which is lefs than the former, is be¬
low this; and the third which is the leaft of the three,
is at the upper part of the bone. Externally the bone
is elevated into a confiderable fpine, which rifing fmall
at the bafis of the fcapula, becomes gradually higher and
broader; and divides the outer furfticeof the bone into
two foffas. The fuperior of -thefe, which is the final-
left, ferves to lodge the fupra fpinatus mufcle; and the
inferior foffa which is much larger than the other, gives
origin to the infra fpinatus. This fpine terminates in
a broad and flat procefs at the top of the flioulder, cal¬
led the procejfus acromion, to which the clavicle is ar¬
ticulated. This procefs is hollowed at its lower part,
to allow a paffage to the fupra and infra fpinati mufcles.
This bone has likewife another confiderable procefs at
its fuperior part, which from its refemblance to the
beak of a bird, is called the coracoid procefs. From the
T O M Y. Parti.
external fide of this coracoid procefs, aftrong ligament
paffes to the proceffus acromion; which prevents a lux¬
ation of the os humeri upwards.
b. The fcapula is articulated to the clavicle and os
humeri, to which laft it lerves as a fulcrum; and by
altering its pofition, it affords a greater fcope to the
bones of the arm in their different motions. It like¬
wife affords attachment to feveral mufcles, and pofte-
riorly ferves as a defence to the thorax.
§. 2. Of the Bones of the Arm.
a, The arm is commonly divided into two parts, 47
which are articulated to each other at the elbow. The
upper part retains the name of arm properly fo called,
and the lower part is ufually called \\\<c fpre arm.
Art. i. Of the Arm properly fo called.
a, The arm is formed of a Angle bone, called bs hu~ 48 ;
meri. This bone which is almoft of a cylindrical form,
may be divided into its body and its extremities.
b, The upper extremity terminates in a large round
fmooth head, which is admitted into the glenoid cavity
of the fcapula.
c, The lower extremity has many proceffes and ca¬
vities. The principal proceffes are its two condyles,
one exterior and the other interior, and of thefe the
laft is the largeft ; between thefe two we obferve two
lateral protuberances, which together with a middle
cavity, form as it were a kind of pully upon which the
motions of the fore arm are chiefly performed. At
each fide of the condyles, as well exteriorly as interi¬
orly, there is another eminence which affords attach¬
ment to feveral mufcles of the hand and fingers. Pof-
teriorly and fuperiorly, fpeaking with refpeft to the
condyles, we obferve a deep foffa which receives a con¬
fiderable procefs of the ulna; and anteriorly, and oppo-
fite to this foffa, we obferve another which is much lefs,
and receives another procefs of the fame bone.
d, The body of the bone has, at its upper and ante¬
rior part, a furrow which begins from behind the head
of the bone, and ferves to lodge the tendon of a muf¬
cle. The body of the os humeri is hollow through
its whole length ; and like all other long bones, has its
marrow.
e, The humerus is articulated at its upper part to
the fcapula. This articulation, which allows motion
every way, is furrounded by a capfular ligament. Its
lower extremity is articulated with the bones of the
arm. 1
Art. 2. Of the Fore Arm.
a, The fore arm is compofed of two bones, the ulna 4j>
and radius. JO jj
a, The ulna, or elbow bone, is much lefs than the hu- of the uliilt
merus, and becomes gradually finaller as it defeends to
the wrift. At its upper part it has two proceffes and
two cavities. Of the two proceffes, the largeft, which
is fituated pofteriorly and called the olecranon, is ad¬
mitted into the pofterior foffa of the humerus. The
other procefs is placed anteriorly, and is called the co-
ronoid procefs. In bending the arm it enters into the
anterior foffa of the humerus. This procefs being much
finaller than the other, permits the fore arm to bend in¬
wards ; whereas the olecranon, which is ftiaped like a
hook, reaches the bottom of its foffa in the humerus
as
Part I.
355
ANATOMY.
•i ')f the ra-
siius.
S3
I'Of the car-
I pus.
Of the me-
i taearpus.
as foon as tlie arm becomes ftraight; and will not per¬
mit the fore arm to be bent backwards. The ligaments
likewife oppofe this motion.
b, Between the two procefles which we have deferi-
bed, there is a confiderable cavity called the fygmoid
cavity; and divided into two foffse by a fmall eminence
which pafles from one procefs to the other; it is by
means of this cavity and the two procefles, that the ul¬
na is articulated with the humerus by ginglimus.
c, At the bottom of the coronoid procefs interiorly,
there is a fmall fygmoid cavity, which ferves for the ar¬
ticulation of the ulna with the radius.
d, The body of the ulna is of a triangular ftiape, its
lower extremity terminates by a fmall head and a little
ftyloid procefs. The ulna is articulated above to the
os humeri both above and below to the radius; and to
the wrift at its loweft extremity. All thefe articula¬
tions are fecured by means of ligaments.
a, The radius is placed at the infide of the fore arm ;
it is fomewhat larger than the ulna, but not quite fo
long as that bone. Its upper part is cylindrical, hol¬
lowed fuperiorly to receive the outer condyle of the os
humeri laterally ; it is admitted into the little fygmoid
cavity of the ulna, and the cylindrical part of the bone
turns in this cavity in the motions of pronation and fu-
pination (a). This bone follows the ulna in flexion and
extenfion, without at all affifting in thofe motions. The
lower extremity of the radius is much larger and ftrong-
er than its upper part; the ulna, on the contrary is
fmaller and weaker below than above, fo that they ferve
to fupply each others deficiencies in both thefe parts.
b, On the external fide of this bone, we obferve a
fmall cavity which is deftined to receive the lower end
of the ulna ; and its loweft part is formed into a larger
cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the
bones of the wrift. This bone fupports the two firfl:
bones of the wrifl on the fide of the thumb, whereas
the ulna is articulated with that bone of the wrift which
correfponds with the little finger.
- c, Thro’ the whole length both of this bone and the
ulna, a ridge is obferved, which affords attachment to
an interoffeous ligament.. This ligament fills up the fpace
between the two bones.
Art 3. Of the Hand.
a, The carpus or wrift, includes eight bones, difpo-
fed in two ranks. Anatomical writers have not only
ufually deferibed the particular figure of thefe feveral
bones; but have likewife given to each of them a diffe¬
rent name.
b, Such minutise in this part of the ofteology, feem
to, be unneceffary in this work; and we (hall only ob¬
ferve, that they are articulated with the radius and ul¬
na, and likewife with the bones of the fore arm by
means of feveral ligaments.
a, The metacarpus confifts of four bones, which
fupport the fingers ; externally they are a little convex,
and internally fomewhat concave, where they form the
palm of the hand. They are hollow, and of a cylin¬
drical fhape.
b, At each extremity they are a little hollowed for
their articulation fuperiorly with the bones of the car¬
pus, and inferiorly with the firft phalanx of the fingers,
in the fame manner as the feveral phalanges of the fin¬
gers are articulated with each other. ^
a. Every body knows the number and the names of Of the fin-
the fingers. The five fingers of each hand are com- S6”-
pofed of 15 bones, difpofed in three ranks called pha¬
langes. The bones of the firft phalanx, which are ar¬
ticulated with the metacarpus, are the largeft; and thofe
of the laft phalanx, are the fmalleft. All thefe bones
are larger at their extremities than in their middle part.
b. We obferve at the extremities of the bones of the
carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, feveral inequalities
which ferve for their articulation with each other ; and
thefe articulations are ftrengthened by means of the li¬
gaments which furround them.
c. It will be eafily underftood that this multiplicity
of bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each hand),
is effential to the different motions we wilh to perform.
If each finger was compofed only of one bone inftead
of three, it would be impoflible for us to grafp any
thing.
Se£t ii. Of the Lower Extremities.
a, Each lower extremity is divided into four parts, 56
viz. The os femoris, or thigh bone; the rotula or
knee pan; the leg, and the foot.
§. 1. Of the Os Femoris.
a, The thigh is compofed only of this bone, which S7
is larger and ftronger than any other bone of the body.
It will be neceffary to diftinguifh its body and extre¬
mities. Its body, which is of a cylindrical ihape, is
convex before and concave behind; where it ferves to
lodge feveral mufcles. Throughout two thirds of its
length, we obferve a ridge called linea afpera, which
affords infertion to the triceps mufcle.
b, At its upper extremity, we muft deferibe the neck
and head of the bone, and likewife two confiderable
proceffes. The head, which forms the greater portion
of a fphere unequally divided, is turned inwards, and is
received into the great cotyloid cavity of the os inno-
minatum; at this part of the bone, there is a little fof-
fa to be obferved to which the round ligament is at¬
tached; and which we have already deferibed as tending
to fecure the head of this bone in the great acetabulum.
The neck is almoft horizonta, Iconfidered with refpedt to
its fituation with the body of the bone. Of the two
proceffes, the external one, which is the largeft, is call¬
ed trochanter major; and the other, which is placed on
the infide of the bone,, is called trochanter minor ; they
both afford attachment to mufcles. The articulation of
the os femoris with the trunk, is ftrengthened by means
of a capfular ligament, which is attached every whereto
the furface of the great cotyloid cavity of the os inno-
minatum, and furrounds the head of the bone.
c, The os femoris moves upon the trunk in every di¬
rection.
d, At the lower extremity of the bone are two pro¬
ceffes, called condyles; and an intermediate cavity, by
means of which it is articulated with the leg by gin-
glimus.
e, Between the condyles, there is a cavity pofterior-
ly
(r) The motions of pronation and fupination may be eafily deferibed. If the palm of the hand, for inftance, is pla¬
ced on the furface of a table, the hand will be faid to be in a ftate of pronation ; but if the back part of thehand
turned towards the table, the hand will then be in a ftate of fupination.
356 A N A T
ly In which the blood veflels and nerves are placed fe-
cure from the compreffions to which they would other-
wife be expofed in the adti'on of bending the leg; and
which would not fail to be hurtful.
f, At the fide of each condyle externally there is a
tuberofity; fi-om whence the lateral ligaments originate
which are attached to the tibia.
g, A ligament likewife arifes from each condyle po-
fteriorly, one of which paffes from the right to the
left, and the other from the left to the right; fo that
they interfeft each other; and are called the crofs li¬
gaments.
h, The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the
leg upon the thigh to the right or left, and the crofs li¬
gaments, which are alfo attached to the tibia, prevent
its being bent forwards.
i, In new-born children all the procefles of this bone
are cartilaginous.
§. 2. Of the Rotula.
58 a, The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is diffe¬
rently called; is a bone about four or five inches in
circumference, which in feme meafure refembles the
common figure of the heart with its point downwards,
and is placed at the fore part of the joint of the knee.
b, It is thicker in its middle part than at its edge ;
anteriorly it is fmooth, and a little convex; its pofterior
furface, which is more unequal, affords an elevation in
the middle which is admitted between the two condyles
of the os femoris.
c, This bone is retained in its proper fituation by a
ligament which every where furrounds it, and is at¬
tached both to the tibia and os femoris; and likewife
by the tendons of feveral mufcles, which do not how¬
ever prevent its Aiding from above downwards, and from
below upwards.
d, In very young children this bone is entirely car¬
tilaginous.
e, The ufe of this bone feems to be, to defend the ar¬
ticulation of the knee from external injury; it likewife
tends to increafe the power of the mufcles which aft in
O M Y. Part. I
b, At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, we
obferve a confiderable procefs called malleolus intertills ;
the bafis of the bone terminates in a large tranfverfe ca¬
vity, by which it is articulated with the uppermoft bone
of the foot; it has likewife another cavity at its lower
end and outer fide’; which is fomewhat oblong, and re¬
ceives the lower end of the fibula.
c. The tibia is hollow through its whole length.
a, The fibula is a fmall long bone, placed on the of the fil
outfide of the tibia; its upper extremity does not la.
reach quite fo high as that part of the tibia, but its
lower end defeends fomewhat lower ; both above and
below, it is articulated with the tibia by means of the
lateral cavities which we obferved in our defeription of
that bone.
b, Its lower extremity is ftretched out into a coro-
noid procefs, which is flattened at its infide, and is
convex externally, forming what is called the malleolus
extemus, or outer ancle ; this is rather lower than the
leolus internus of the tibia.
c, The body of this bone, which is irregularly trian¬
gular, is a little hollowed at its internal furface, which
is turned towards the tibia ; and it affords like that
bone, through its whole length, attachment to a liga¬
ment, which from its fituation is called the interoj/eous
ligament.
§. 4. Of the Bones of the Foot.
a, The bones of the foot, as well as thofe the hand,
are ufually deferibed in three divifions, but with diffe¬
rent names ; in the hand we fpoke of the carpus, me¬
tacarpus, and fingers; but the divifions of the foot are
called the tarfus, metatarfus, and toes.
Art. 1. Of the Tarfus.
the extenfion of the leg, by removing their direftion
farther from the centre of motion in the manner of a
pully.
§. 3. Of the Leg.
59 a. The leg is compofed of two bones ; of thefethe
inner one, which is the largeft, is called tibia; the o-
60 ther is much fmaller, and is called the fibula.
Of the tibia. The tibia, which derives its name from its refem-
blance to the mufical pipe of the ancients, has three
furfaces, and is not very unlike a triangular prifm ; its
pofterior furface is the broadeft; anteriorly it has a
confiderable ridge called the Jbin, between which and
the Ikin there are no mufcles ; at the upper extremity
of this bone are two furfaces, a little concave, and fe-
parated from each other by an intermediate elevation ;
the two little cavities receive the condyles of the os fe¬
moris, and the eminence between them is admitted in¬
to the cavity which we fpoke of as being between the
two condyles, fo that this articulation affords a fpecimen
of the complete ginglimus. Under the external edge
of the <upper end of this bone, is a circular flat furface
which receives the head of the fibula.
' (s) This ten
a, The tarfus is compofed of feven bones, viz. The <3 t
aftragalus, os calcis, os naviculare, os cuboides, and
three others called cuneiform bones. <54 ,
a, The aftragalus is a confiderable bone, with which Of thea£j»
both the tibia and fibula are articulated; it is the up- g8lus.
permoft bone of the foot, and has feveral furfaces to be
confidered. Its upper, and fomewhat pofterior part,
which is fmooth and convex, is admitted into the cavi¬
ty of the tibia ; its lateral parts are connefted with the
malleoli of the two bones of the leg; below, it is arti¬
culated with the os calcis; and its anterior furface is re¬
ceived by the os naviculare : all thefe articulations are j
fecured by means of ligaments. 6s 1
a, The os calcis, or calcaneum, which is the largeft Of the 0
bone of the foot, is of a very irregular figure ; behind, calcls*
it is formed into a confiderable tuberofity called the
heel; without this tuberofity which fupports us in an 1
ereft pofture, and when we walk, we fhould be liable
to fall backwards.
b, On the interval furface of this bone, we obferve
a confiderable finuofity which affords a paffage to the
tendon of a mufcle; and to the pofterior part of the
os calcis a ftrong tendinous cord called tendo achillis (s)
is attached, which is formed by the tendons of feveral
mufcles united together: the articulation of this with
the other bones is fecured by means of ligaments.
a, The os naviculare, or fcaphoides (for thefe two Of the o<
terms have the fame fignification), is fo called onaccount naviculai i
of its refemblance to a little bark. At its pofterior
part,
metimps ruptured by jumping, dancing, or other violent efforts.
ANATOMY.
Part I.
part, which is concave, it receives the aftragalus; an¬
teriorly it is articulated with the cuneiform bones, and
laterally it is connedted with the os cuboides.
Of the os a, The os cuboides forms an irregular cube. Pofte-
cuboides. riorly it is articulated with the os calcis ; anteriorly it
fupports the two laft bones of the metatarfus ; and la¬
terally it joins the third cuneiform bone and the os na-
68 viculare.
Of the ofla a> Each of thefe bones, which are three in number, re-
cunafor- fembles a wedge, and from this fimilitude their name is
derived. They are placed next to the metatarfus by the
Tides of each other, and are ufually diftinguifhed into os
cuneiforme externum, medium or minimum, and internum
or maximum. The fuperior furface of thefe bones, from
their wedge-like fiiape, is broader than that which is be¬
low, where they help to form the foie of the foot; po-
fteriorly they are united to the os naviculare, and ante¬
riorly they fupport the three firft metatarial bones.
b, the os cuneiforme externum is joined laterally to
the os cuboides.
c, Thefe bones complete our account of the tarfus;
and though what we have faid of this part of the o-
fteology has been very Ample and concife, yet, many
readers may not clearly underftand it; but if they will
be pleafed to view thefe bones in their proper fituation
in the Ikeleton, all that we have faid of them will be
eafily underftood.
Art. 2. Of the Metatarfus.
a, The metatarfus is made up of five bones, whereas
the metacarpus confifts only of four. The caufe of
this difference is, that in the hand, the laft bone of the
thumb is not included among the metacarpal bones,
whereas in the foot the great toe has only two bones. The
firft of thefe bones fupports the great toe, and is much
larger than the reft, which nearly refemble each other in
fize.
EXPLANATION of the
Plate XIII.
Figure i. A Male Skeleton.
A, Os frontis. B, Os parietale. C, Os temporum.
D, Os occipitis. E, Offa nafi. F, Os malse. G, Os
maxillare fuperius. H, Os niaxillare inferius. I, The
teeth, which are fixteen in each jaw. K, The feyen
vertebrae of the neck, with their intermediate cartila¬
ges. L, ijC. The twelve dorfal vertebrae, with their
intermediate cartilages. M, The five lumbar verte¬
brae, and, N, Their intermediate cartilages. O, Os
facrum. P,- Os coccygis. Q, Os ilium. R, Os pu¬
bis. S, Os ifchium. T, The {even true ribs. U, The
five falfe ribs. V, The fternum. X, The clavicle.
Y, The fcapula. Z, The os humeri, a, Ulna, b, Ra¬
dius. c. The eight bones of the carpus, d. The five
metacarpal bones, e, The phalanges of the fingers,
f, The os femoris. g, The patella, h, The tibia,
i, The fibula, k, The feven bones of the tarfus. 1, The
five metatarfal bones, m, The phalanges of the toes.
Fig. 2. The internal view of the Os Frontis.
a, The fuperior ferrated edge, which affifts to form the
coronal future, b, The external angular procefs. c, The
internal angular procefs. d. The nafal procefs. e, The
orbitar procefs. f, The frontal finus. g. The faggital fu¬
ture, which (as here) is fometimes continued to the nofe.
VOL. I.
b, Thefe bones are articulated by one extremity with
the cuneiform bones, and the os cuboides, and their o-
ther end, with the toes.
Art. 3. Of the Bones of the Toes,
a, All the fingers like the toes, are made up of three
bones, except the great toe, which is compofed only of
two bones; and they are likewife diftinguifhed into
three phalanges : although thefe bones do not move
upon each other with fo much cafe as the bones of the
fingers do, yet their number and arrangement feem to be
perfe&ly adapted to the funftions which they are intend¬
ed to perform. Thus we obferve, that the foies of the
feet are naturally concave, and that we can at pleafure
increafe this concavity, and form a kind of vault which
adjufts itfelf to the different inequalities, which occur
to us in walking; and which without this mode of ar¬
rangement would incommode us exceedingly, efpecially
when bare footed.
OF THE OSSA SJS SA MO ID E A.
a, Befides the bones we have already defcribed, 7*
there are others of different figures and fizes, met with
only in the adult Ikeleton; and in perfons who are ad¬
vanced in life, which from their fuppofed general re -
femblance to the feeds of the fefamum, are called ojfa fe-
fanioidea ; they are found at the articulations of the
great toes, and fometimes at the joints of the thumbs ;
in the articulation of the metacarpus with the little fin¬
ger; fometimes in the little cavity which is at the exte¬
rior part of the outer condyle of the thigh, and under
the os cuboides of the tarfus in the tendon which is at¬
tached there : age and hard labour feem to add to the
number and fize of thefe bones, and being moft com¬
monly found wherever the tendons and ligaments are
moft expofed to preffure from the aftion of the mufcles,
they are now generally confidered by anatomifts as the
oflified parts of tendons and ligaments.
PLATE S of OSTEOLOGY.
Fig. 3. The internal fide of the left Parietal bone,
a, Its fuperior edge, which, joined with the other,
forms the faggital future, b, The anterior edge, which
affifts in the formation of the coronal future, c, The
inferior edge for the fquamous future, d, The pofte-
rior edge for the lambdoid future, e, A depreffion
made by the lateral finus. f. The prints of the prin¬
cipal artery of the dura mater.
Fig. 4. The internal view of the Occipital bone,
a a, The two fides, which affift to form the lambdoid
future, b. The extremity of the cuneiform procefs,
where it joins the fphenoid bone, c c, The two con¬
dyloid proceffes, which articulate the head with the
fpine. d d. The prints made by the pofterior lobes of
the brain, e e, The prints made by the lobes of the ce¬
rebellum. f, The cruciform ridge, g, The foramen mag¬
num, thro’ which the fpinal marrow paffes. h, The fora¬
men linguale, for the paffage of the ninth pair of nerves.
Fig.‘ 5. The internal fide of the right Temporal
bone.
a, The upper edge which forms the fquamous future,
b, The pars mammillaris. c,'The pars patrofa. d, The
zygomatic procefs. e, The ftyloid procefs. f, The
entry of the auditory nerve.
y y Fig. 6.
358
ANA'
Fig. 6. The internal view of the Sphenoid bone,
a a, The temporal procefles. bb, The pterygoid pro-
cefles. cc, The fpinous procefles. d d, The pofterior
clinoid procefles. e e. The anterior clinoid procefles.
f. The fella turcica, for lodging the glandula pituitaria.
g, The anterior procefs, which joins the ethmoid bone.
Fig. 7. The exterior view of the Ethmoid bone,
a, The pars plana, which forms part of the orbit.
b, The os fpongiofum fuperius. c, The nafal lamella.
d, The ethmoid cells, e, Crifta galli.
Fig. 8. The pofterior view of the Ossa Nasi.
a, Their fuperior fides. b, Their inferior fides.
e, Their exterior fides. d, Their joining.
Fig. 9. The fide of the Os Unguis next to the
nofe.
a, The orbitar part, b, The lachrymal part, c. The
furrow between thefe two convex parts.
FiG. 10. The pofterior view of the right Os Mala;.
a, The fuperior orbitar procefs, b, The inferior or¬
bitar procefs. ,c, The malar procefs. d, The zygo¬
matic procefs. e, The internal orbitar procefs.
Fig. 11. A view of the lower part, and fide next
to the nofe, of the right Os Maxillare, with the Pa¬
late-bone, and Os Spongiosum Inferius.
a. The nafal procefs. b, The tuber, at the top of
which is the orbitar procefs, and within it, k, The an¬
trum maxillare. c. The nafal fpine. d, The os fpon¬
giofum inferius. e, The palate-plate, f, The os pa-
lati. g, The two dentes incifores. h, The dens ca-
ninus. i, The five dentes molares.
Fig. 12. The right Palate-Bone.
a, The palate-plate, b, The pterygoid procefs.
c. The nafal lamella, d, The orbitar procefs.
Fig. 13. A view of the fide next to the mouth of
the left fide of the lower jaw.
a, The fubftance in the middle of the chin, b, The
bafe. c. The angle, d, The coronoid procefs. e. The
condyloid procefs. f, The entry of the nerve and
blood-vefiels. g. The five molares.
Fig. 14. A Tooth cut perpendicularly,
a, The fibres of the enamel, b, The ofleous part,
c, The entry at the point of the root, to d, The chan¬
nel for the nerve and blood-vefiels.
Fig. 15. A view of the interior furface of the Base
of the Scull.
AAA, The two tables of the fcull, with the dif-
he. B B, The orbitar proeefles of the frontal bone.
G, The crifta galli, with the cribriform-plate of the
ethmoid lone on each fide of it. D, The cuneiform
procefs of the os occipitis. E, The cruciform ridge.
F, The foramen magnum for the paflage of the me¬
dulla fpinalis. G, The zygoma, made by the joining
of the zygomatic procefles of the offa temporum and
occipitis. H, The pars fquamofa of the os temporum.
I, The pars mammillaris. K, The pars petrofa.
JL, The temporal procefs of ihefphenoid bone. M, The
anterior clinoid procefs of the right fide. N, The po¬
fterior crftrTiTd procefs of the right fide, and between
them, O, The fella Turcica. 1. The foramen opti-
cum of the left fide. 2. The foramen lacerum. 3. The
foramen rotuq-duro.
r O M Y. Parti.
Fig. 16. The frontal, occipital, fphenoid, and eth¬
moid bones, being cut perpendicularly thro’ the middle,
and the nafal, maxillary, and palate bones feparated
from each other, the interior view of the left fide of
the Cranium, and bones of the Upper Jaw, are re-
prefented.
A A, The two tables and diploe of the frontal and
occipital bones. B, The coronal future. C, The fer-
rated edges of the parietal, for forming the faggital fu¬
ture. D, The lambdoid future. E, The fquamout
future. F, The furrows made by the vefiels of the
dura mater. G, The frontal finus. H, The crifta
galli. I, The nafal lamella of the ethmoid bone.
K, The temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. L, The
fella turcica. M, The fphenoid finus. N, The vo¬
mer. O, The palate-plate of, the fuperior maxillary
bone; and from it theprocefius alveolaris, which con¬
tains the teeth. P, Tneosnafi. The paflage in¬
to the left noftril. 1. The meatus auditorius internus
for the paflage of the auditory nerve. 2. The paflage
of the ninth pair of nerves. 3. The foramen inciiivum.
Fig. 17. The external fnrface of the bafe of the
Cranium and Upper Jaw.
A A, The lambdoid future. B, The fuperior hori¬
zontal ridge of the occipital bone, which is oppofite to
the cruciform ridge, where the fuperior longitudinal
finus divides to form the lateral finufes. C, The per¬
pendicular ridge. D, The inferior horizontal ridge.
E, The foramen magnum, for the paflage of the medulla
fpinalie. FF, The two condyles. G, The cuneiform
procefs. H H, The zygomatic procefs of the tempo¬
ral bone. 11, The maftoid procefles. K, The vomer,
which forms the back-part of the feptum nafi. L L,
The ftyloid procefles. M M, The fofiae at the root
of the maftoid procefles, for the pofterior belly of the
digaftric mufcle. N N, The cavities for receiving the
condyles of the lower jaw. O O, The ofla palati-
P, The longitudinal palate-future. The tranfverfe
palate-future. R, The alveoli, or fpongy fockets for
the teeth. S,, The zygomatic procefs of the ofla ma-
larum. T T, The zygomatic future. 1. Meatus
auditorius externus. 2. Hole for the internal carotid
artery. 3. For the artery of the dura mater. 4. Fo¬
ramen ovale, for the third branch of the fifth pair, to
the upper jaw.
Plate. XIV.
Fig. 1. A pofterior view of the Sternum and
Clavicles, with the ligament conneAing the clavicle*
to each other.
a, The pofterior furface of the fternum. b b, The
broken ends of the clavicles, c c c c, The tubercles
near the extremity of each clavicle, d. The ligament
connecting the clavicles.
Fig. 2. A fore view of the Left Scapula, and
of a half of the Clavicle, with their ligaments.
a, The fpine of the fcapula. b, The acromion,
c, The inferior angle, d. Inferior cofta. e, Cervix,
f, Glenoid cavity, covered with cartilage for the arm-
bone. g g. The capfijlar ligament of the joint,
h, Coracoid procefs. i, The broken end of the clavicle,
k, Its extremity joined to the acromion. 1, A liga¬
ment coming out fingle from the acromion to the co¬
racoid procefs. m, A ligament coming out fingle fromt
Plate XHL
—- -  ... —.—.—■   
359
Parti. ANA
the acromion, and dividing Into two, which are fixed
to the coracoid procefs.
Fig. 3. The joint of the elbow of the Left Arm,
with the ligaments.
a, The os humeri, b, Its internal condyle, cc, The
two prominent parts of its trochlea appearing through
the capfular ligament, d, The ulna, e. The radius. f,The
part of the ligament including the head of the radius.
Fig. 4. The Bones of the Right-hand, with the
Palm in view.
a, The radius, b, The ulna, c. The fcaphoid bone
of the carpus, d, The os lunare. e, The os cunei-
forme. f, The os pififorme. g, Trapefium. h, Tra-
pefojdes. i, Capitatum. k, Unciforme. 1, The four
metacarpal bones of the fingers, m, The firft phalanx,
n, The fecond phalanx, o, The third phalanx, p, The
metacarpal bone of the thumb, q, The firft joint,
r, The fecond joint.
Fig. 5. The pofterior view of the bones of the Left
Hand.
The explication of Fig 4. ferves for this figure ; the
fame letters pointing out the fame bones, though in a
different view.
Fig. 6. The upper extremity of the Tibia, with the
femilunar cartilages of the joint of the knee, and fome
ligaments.
a, The ftrong ligament which connefts the rotula to
the tubercle of the tibia, b b, The parts of the extre¬
mity of the tibia, covered with cartilage, which appear
within the femilunar cartilages, c c. The femilunar
cartilages, d. The two parts of what is called the
crofs ligament.
Fig. 7. The pofterior view of the joint of the
Right Knee.
a. The os femoris cut. b, Its internal condyle.
c, Its external condyle, d, The back-part of the tibia,
e. The fuperior extremity of the fibula, f. The edge
of the internal femilunar cartilage, g, An oblique li¬
gament. h, A larger perpendicular ligament, i, A
ligament conne&ing the femur and fibula.
Fig. 8. The anterior view of the joint of the
Right Knee^
b, The internal condyle, c, Its external condyle.
d, The part of the os femoris, on which the patella
moves, e, A perpendicular ligament, f f, The two
parts of the crucial ligaments, g g, The edges of the
two moveable femilunar cartilages, h, The tibia,
i, The ftrong ligament of the patella.—k, The back part
of it where the fat has been diffetted away. 3, The exter¬
nal depreffion. m. The internal one. n, The cut tibia.
Fig. 9. A view of the inferior part of the bones of
the Right Foot.
a, the great knob of the os calcis. b, A promi¬
nence on its outfide. c. The hollow for the tendons,
T O M Y.
nerves, and blood-vefiels. d, The anterior extremity
of the os calcis. e* Part of the aftragalus. f, Its
head covered with cartilage, g. The internal promi¬
nence of the os naviculare. h, The os cuboides.
i, The os cuneiforme internum; k,—Medium; 1,—
Externum, m, The metatarfal bones of the four lef-
fer toes, n, The firft—o, The fecond—p, The third
phalanx of the four leffer toes, q, The metatarfal bones
of the four leffer toes, n, The firft—o, The fecond.
p, The third phalanx of the four leffer toes, q, The
metatarfal bones of the great toe. r, Its firft—s, Its
fecond joint.
Fig. 10. The inferior furface of the two large
Sesamoid Bones, at the firft joint of the great toe.
Fig. 11. The fuperior view of the bones of the
Right foot.
a, b, as in Fig. 9. c, The fuperior head of the aftra¬
galus. d, eb'c. as in Fig. 9.
Fig. 12. The view of the Sole of the Foot with
its ligaments.
a, The great knob of the os calcis. b. The hollow
for the tendons, nerves, and blood-veffels. c, The
iheaths of the flexores pollicis, and digitorum longi o-
pened. d, The ftrong cartilaginous ligament fupport-
ing the head of the aftragalus. e, h, Two ligaments
which unite into one, and are fixed to the metatarfal
bone of the great toe. f, A ligament from the knob
of the os calcis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
, A ftrong triangular ligament, which fupports the
ones of the tarfus. i. The ligaments of the joints of
the five metatarfal bones.
Fig. 13. a, The head of the thigh bone of a child,
b, The ligamentum rotundum conne&ing it to the ace¬
tabulum. c. The capfular ligament of the joint with
its arteries inje&ed. d. The numerous veffels of the
mucilaginous gland inje&ed.
Fig. 14. The back view of the cartilages of the
Larynx, with the Os Hyoides.
a, The pofterior part of the bafe of the os hyoides.
b b, Its cornua, c, The appendix of the right fide.
d, A ligament fent out from the appendix of the left
fide, to the ftyloid procefs of the temporal bone.
e, The union of the bafe with the left cornu, f f, The
pofterior fides of (^) the thyroid cartilage, h h, Its
fuperior cornua, i i, Its inferior cornua, k, The cri¬
coid cartilage. 1 1, The arytenoid cartilages, m The
entry into the lungs, namedgUttis. n, The epiglottis,
o o, The fuperior cartilages of the trachea, p, Its li¬
gamentous back-part.
Fig. 15. The fuperior concave furface of the Se¬
samoid Bones at the firft joint of the great toe, witk
their ligaments.
a. Three fefamoid bones, b, The ligamentous fub-
ftance in which they are formed.
Part II. Of the SOFT PARTS in GENERAL;
AND
Of the COMMON INTEGUMENTS.
a> A Natomical writers ufually proceed to a de- the ofteology; but we ftiall deviate a little from the com-
feription of the mufclesafter having finiftied mon method, v/ith a view to deferibe every thing clear-
Y y 2 ly
360
ANATOMY.
ly and diftm&ly, and to avoid a tautology which would
otherwife be unavoidable. All the parts of the body
are fo intimately conne&ed to each other, that it feems
to be impoffible to convey a juft idea of any one of
them, without being in fome meafure obliged to fay
fomething of others; and on this account, we wifti
to mention in this place, the names and fituation of the
principal vifceraof the body; that when mention is here¬
after made of any of them in the eourfe of this treatife,
the reader may at leaft know where they are placed.
b, After this little digreffion, the common integu¬
ments, and. after them the mufcles, will be defcribed;
we then propofe to enter into an examination of the
feveral vifcera and their different funttions. In defcri-
bing the brain, occafion will be taken to fpeak of the
nerves and animal fpirits. The circulation of the
blood will follow the anatomy of the heart, and the
fecretions and other matters will be introduced in their
proper places.
c, The body is divided into three great cavities. Of
thefe,
d, The uppermoft is formedby the bones of the cra¬
nium, and inclofes the brain and cerebellum.
e, The fecond is compofed of the vertebrae of the
back, the fternum and true ribs, with the additional
affiftance of mufcles, membranes and common integu¬
ments, and is called the thorax. It contains the heart
and lungs. The third and inferior cavity is the abdo¬
men. It is feparated from the thorax by means of the
diaphragm, and is formed by the lumbar vertebrae, the
os facrum, the offa innominata, and the falfe ribs; to
which we may add the peritoneum, and a variety of
mufcles. This cavity inclofes the ftomach, inteftines,
omentum or cawl, liver, pancreas, fpleen, kidneys, uri¬
nary bladder, and parts of generation.
f, Under the divifion of common integuments, are
ufually included the epidermis, orfcarf Ikin ; the reti¬
culum mucofum of Malpighi; the cutis, or true Ikin;
and the membrana adipofa. The hair and nails, as
well as the miliary and febaceous glands, may be con-
fidered as appendages to the Ikin.
Chap. I.
Of the Epidermis.
a, The epidermis, cuticula or fcarf Ikin, is a fine,
tranfparent, and infenfible pellicle; deftitute of nerves
and blood-veffels, which invefts the body, and every
where covers the true Ikin. This fcarf Ikin which ap¬
pears to be very Ample, is compofed of feveral laminae
or fcales, which are increafed by preffure, as we obferve
in the hands and feet; where it is frequently much
thickened, and becomes perfectly callous. It may be
feparated from the true Ikin by heat, or by maceration
in water (t). Some anatomical writers have fuppofed
that it is formed by a humidity exhaled from the whole
Part 11.
furface of the body, which gradually hardens when it
comes into contact with the air. They were perhaps
induced to adopt this opinion, by obferving the fpeedy
regeneration of this part of the body when it has been
by any means deftroyed; it appearing to be renewed in
all parts of its furface at the fame time, whereas other
parts which have been injured, are found to direft their
circumference only towards their center; but a deirton-
ftrative proof that the epidermis is not a vifcous hu- •
mour hardened by means of the external air, is, that
the foetus in utero is found to have this covering. Its
true origin feems to be from the expanfion of the ex¬
tremities of the excretory veffels, which are found e-
very where on the furface of the true fkin (u). And
this formation feems to explain the caufe of its quick
growth.
b, It is pierced with an infinite number of pores, or
little holes, which afford a paffage to the hairs, fweat,
and infenfible perfpiration ; and likewife to warm wa¬
ter, mercury, and whatever elfe is capable of being
taken in by the abforbents of the Ikin. The lines
which we obferve on the epidermis belong to the true
(kin. The cuticula adjufts itfelf to them, but does not
form them.
Chap. II.
Sett. i. cy ^ Reticulum Mucosum.
a, This is a very fine membrane, pierced with an in-
finite number of pores, and moiftened by a mucus
which is fuppofed to tranfude from the furface of the
true fkin.
b, the colour of the body is found to depend on the
colour of the reticulum mucofum ; for in negroes it is
obferved to be perfectly black, whilft the true fkin is of
the ordinary colour.
c, The blifters which raife the fkin when burnt or
fcalded, are probably occasioned by the rarefaction of
this mucus.
Sett. ii. Of Cutis, or True Skin.
a, The cutis is compofed of tendinous fibres clofely 7S
compacted together, as we may obferve in leather, which
is the prepared Ikin of animals. Thefe fibres form a
thick cellular network, which every where admits the
filaments of nerves, and an infinite number of blood-
veffels and lymphatics.
b, The cutis, when the epidermis is taken off, is
found to have throughout its whole furface innumera¬
ble tendinous papillae, which appear like very minute
granulations, and feem to be calculated to receive the
imprefiions of the touch; being the moft eafily obfer¬
ved where the fenfe of feeling is the moft delicate*
as in the palms of the hands, and on the fingers.
c, Thefe papillae which are defcribed as being of a
pyramidal figure, are fuppofed by many anatomical
writers to be continuations of the pulpy fubftance of
nerves,
(t) The ingenious Mr Gooch relates the cafe of a gentleman in Norfolk, who has been frequently attacked by a
peculiar kind of fever, which has conftantly produced an univerfal feparation of the cuticle from the Ikin. This fepa-
ration, which begins to take place within twenty-four hours from the firft attack of the fever, is ufually completed
within ten or twelve days, leaving the Ikin for fometime exquifitely fenfible. The patient has fometimes turned off
the cuticle from the wrifts to his. fingers ends like gloves. One of thefe cuticular gloves, with an account of the cafe ha¬
ving been tranfmitted to the members of the Royal Society, they have given an engraving of it in their tranfadions.
See the Phil. Tranf. and Gooch’s Med. and Chirurg. Obferv.
(u) This was Leuwenhoeck’s opinion. Ruyfch attributed its origin to the nervous papillae of the Ikin, and Heifter
thinks it probable that it may owe its formation both to the papillae and the excretory veffels.
36
Part II.
ANATOMY.
nerves, whofe coats have terminated in the cellular tex¬
ture of the ikin. The great fenfibility of thefe papil¬
lae evidently proves them to be exceedingly nervous ;
but furely the nervous fibrillae of the fkin are of them-
felves fcarcely equal to the formation of thefe papillae ;
and it feems to be more probable that they are formed
like the reft of the cutis.
raife up the cuticle, the pores of which are clofed by
death; and in the living fubjeft, a looking-glafs pla¬
ced againft the Hein is foon obfeured by the vapour.
b, When the perfpiration is by any means increafed,
and feveral drops which were infenfible when feparate,
are united together and condenfed by the external air,
they form upon the Ikin fmall but vifible drops called
d, Thefe papillae being deferibed, the ufes of thee- fweat. This particularly happens after much exercife;
pidermis and the reticulum mucofum will be more eafily
underftood; the latter ferving to keep them conftantly
moift, whilft the former protects them from the ex¬
ternal air, and modifies their too great fenfibility.
Se£l:. iii. Of the Glands of the Skin.
a, We meet with two forts of glands in the Ikin,
viz. the febaceous, and miliary glands.
a, Thefe are certain membranous veficles, or fmall
cylindrical tubes, continued from the ends of arteries,
and difeharging a fat and oily humour which ferves to
lubricate and foften the Ikin. When this humour is col-
lected and long retained in thefc tubes, it infpiffates;
and by enlarging the tubes, gives them the fpherical fi¬
gure which has occafioned them to be called£•/#«(//.• and
when the fluid they fecrete has acquired a certain de¬
gree of thicknefs, it approaches to the colour and con-
fiftence of fuet: from this appearance they have de¬
rived their name of febaceous glands.
b, They are found feated in all parts of the body
that are under a neceffity of being more immediately
expofed to the air; as in the face, and wherever the
Hein is liable to much attrition, as in the arm-pits,
groin, &c. and it is the humour they fecrete which dif-
colours our linen when we are long without changing it.
f the mili-
jy glands.
the motion of the blood being then accelerated, and
more of it carried to the extremities of the veffels, a
greater quantity of the perfpirable matter is confequent-
ly forced thro’ the paffages which are diftined to carry
it off. So that the fltin is found to ferve as an emunc-
tory, thro’ which the redundant water and fometimes
other more faline parts of the blood become unfit for
circulation are carried off; but perfpiration is not con¬
fined to the {kin only; a great part of what we are
conftantly throwing off in this way is from the lungs.
The quantity of humour exhaled from the human body
by this infenfible perfpiration is very confiderable.
Sanftorius (x) an Italian phyfician, who indefatigably
pafled a great many years in a feries of ftatical experi¬
ments, demonftrated long ago wrhat has been confirmed
by later obfervations; that the quantity of vapour ex¬
haled from the {kin, and from the furface of the lungs,
amounts nearly to y-Bths of the aliment we receive.
So that if in the warm climate of Italy, a perfon eats
and drinks the quantity of eight pounds in the courfe
of a day, five pounds of it will pafs off by infenfible
perfpiration, while three pounds only will be evacuated
by ftool, urine, the faliva, &c. But in countries where
the degree of cold is greater than in Italy, the quan-
w ^ ^ tity of perfpired matter is lefs. In fome of the more
Thefe glandsfwhich are called miliary, from their northern climates it is found not to equal the difeharge
refembling millet feeds ; are deferibed as fmall fpherical
bodies placed in all parts of the {kin in much greater
abundance than the febaceous glands. Each of thefe
little glands has its excretory dudt, which palling thro’
the reticulum mucofum, opens on the furface of the
fcarf {kin, and diftills the fweat and matter of infenfi¬
ble perfpiration.
b, Befides the excretory veffels which are derived
from thefe glands for the purpofes of perfpiration, it
feems probable that a conftant exhalation is carried on
from the extremities of the minute arteries which are
7p every where difperfed thro* the flein.
f the in- a, It will perhaps not be difficult to explain how
nfible per- thefe proceffes in the animal ceconomy are conduced.
tdofThe ^le blood being carried by the circulation to the
; .icati minute arteries of the cutis, difeharges itfelf of thofe
fubtile parts which are capable of palling through the
little veffels which open on the furface of the flein.
Thefe exhaling veffels are eafily demonftrated in the
dead fubjeft by throwing water into the arteries ; for
then fmall drops exude from all parte of the lkin and
by urine. It is likewife obferved to vary according to
the feafon of the year, and according to the conftitu-
tion, age, fex, difeafes, diet, exercife, paffions, &c. of
different people.
c. From what has been faid on this fubjeft, it wilt
be eafily conceived that this evacuation cannot be either
much inereafed or diminilhed in quantity without affec¬
ting the health. If it is too copious, the mafs of
blood is foon deprived of its moft fubtile parts, and flows
with lefs freedom ; the folids being confequently ren¬
dered more dry and rigid. And if, on the contrary,
the quantity of perfpirable matter is diminilhed, it is
either carried off thro’ fome other channels, or is liable
to- produce a variety of difeafes which will be found t@
vary according to the feafon of the year, and the con-
ftitution of the body.
d, This perfpirable matter and the fweat, for they
are both evidently difeharged thro’ the fame paffages,
and differ only in quantity, are analagous to the urine j
as appears from their tafte and faline nature ( y). And
it is worthy of obfervation, that when either of thefe
fe-
(x) The infenfible perfpiration is fometimes diftinguiffied by the name of this phyfician, who was born in the ter¬
ritories of Venice, and was afterwards a profefibr in the univerfity of Padua. After eftimating the aliment he took
in, and the fenfible fecretions and difeharges, he was enabled to afeertain with great accuracy the weight or quantity
of infenfible perfpiration, by means of a ftatical chair which he contrived for this purpofe : and from his experiments,
which were condmfted with greatinduftry and patience, he was led to determine what kinds of folid or liquid aliment
increafed or diminifhed it. From thefe experiments he formed a fyftem, which he publiftied at Venice in 1614, in
the form of aphorifms, under the title of “ Ars de Medicina Statica.” Baron Haller in his Bibliotheca Anatomica,
enumerates no lefs than editions of this work; of which, 19 are of the Latin original, and the others, tranflatiejns
of it into different languages.
(y) Minute chryftals have been obferved ta {hoot upon the cloaths of men who work in glafs-houfes. Haller Elem.
Phyf.
362
Part
80
Si
ANATOMY.
fecretions is increafed in quantity, the other is dimi-
nifhed ; fo that they who perfpire the leaft, ufually pafs
the greateft quantity of urine, and vice verfa.
Sett. v. Of the Nails.
a, The nails are bodies of a hard and compatt na¬
ture, refembling horn ; formed by a continuation of
the papillae of the fkin, which enlarging, unite toge^
ther and gradually harden.
b, The origin of the nails may be eafily demonftra-
ted, by gently boiling the hands or feet of the human
fubjett in water ; for, by feparating the nails from the
fkin after this procefs, they will be found adhering to
the papillae from which they are produced.
c, The nails increafe from their roots, and not from
their upper extremity. That part of a nail which is
fartheft from the root, is the hardeft and leaft fenfible.
We cut, for inftance, the upper end of a nail without
exciting any fenfation, whilft the moft exquifite pain is
occafionedjay cutting it near its root ; that is, near the
papillae from which it derives its origin.
d, The nails ferve to cover and defend the ends of
the fingers from external injury, and are ufeful to us
when we take hold of fmall and delicate bodies; which
without their afliftance we ftiould not always be able
to accomplilh.
Sett. vi. Of the Hair.
a, The hairs, which from their being generally
known, do not feem to require any definition ; arife
from diftinft capfules or cartilaginous bulbs feated in
the interior part of the fkin (z). Some of the bulbs
inclofe feveral hairs. They may be obferved at the
roots of the hairs which form the beard or whilkers of
a cat.
b, The hairs, like the nails, grow only from below
by a regular propulfion from their roe>t where they re¬
ceive their nourifhment. Their bulbs, when viewed
with a microfcope (a), are obferved to be of an oval
fhape. The bodies of the hairs, which are the parts
without the ft in, vary in foftnefs and colour according
to the difference of climate, age, or temperament of
body (b).
c, In old people the hair ufually falls. This event
feems to be occafioned by the almoft conftant drynefs
which accompanies old age, and gradually hardens all
the folid parts of the body. The bulbs of the hair par¬
taking of this change, concrete and become impenetra¬
ble to any fupply of nourifhment. The hairs in con-
fequence of this want of moifture fall out; and if we
fometimes fee inftances of people who preferve their
hair at a very advanced age, they are to be attributed
to an uncommon degree of humidity in the conftitution,
which prolongs the fupplenefs of all the parts. Many
people believe that both the hair and the nails grow af¬
ter death; but this opinion is contradittory to expe¬
rience.
d, Their general ufe in the body does not feem to
be abfolutely determined ; but hairs in particular parts,
as on the eye-brows and eye-lids, are deftined for par¬
ticular ufes, which will be mentioned when thofe parts
are defciibed.
Sett. vii. Of the Membrana Adiposa.
a, This membrane, which is likewife called the cel¬
lular (c) or reticulur membrane; may be confidered as
the laft of the common integuments ; it is every w'here
found under the furface of the true fkin, and is compo-
fed of an infinite number of minute cells united toge¬
ther, and communicating with each other (d). Thefe
cells ferve as refervoirs to the oily part of the blood,
called fat; which is depofited in them by particular
veffels, continued from the ends of arteries.
b, The fullnefs and fize of the body are in a great
meafure proportioned to the quantity of fat contained
in thefe cells ; and it feems to be an improper mode of
exprefiion to fay, that fuch a one is well in flefh, in-
ftead of faying he is fat; for an increafe in bulk does
not at all add to the fize of the flefh, which is made up
of the mufcles. He who is lefs difpofed to be fat ap¬
pears to be more mufcular; and has indeed commonly
ftronger and finer mufcles than he who is fat.
c, The adeps feems to be renewed by a conftant ab-
forption and depofition of it by the veffels deftined for
that
Phyf.—But this may with as great reafon be fuppofed to proceed from the evaporation of thefaline matter ufed in the
compofition of glafs; as no fort of fait is found to be fixed enough for refifting the violent heat required in g'.ifs-ma-
king.
(z) Malpighi, and after him the celebrated Ruyfch, fuppofed the hairs to be continuations of nerves; being of opi¬
nion that they originated from the papillae of the fldn, which are univerfally allowed to be nervous ; and as a corro¬
borating proof of what they advanced, they argued the pain wTe feel in plucking them out ; but later anatomifts feem
to have reje&edthis dodtrine, and confider the hairs as particular bodies, not arifing from the papillae (for in the parts
where the papillae abound moft there are no hairs) but from bulbs or capfules, which are peculiar to them.
(a) It feems to be rtiuch eafier to fuppofe, than to demonftrate, the appearance of the conftituent parts of minute
bodiesdike the hairs, which require tbeaffiftance of the microfcope in examining their anatomical ftrudtu re. M. Win-
How has defcribed the membrane which inverts the bulb, and the ft nurture of the bulb itfelf, as it appears thro’ the
microfcope ; but neither the ufes nor the anatomy of the hair feem to be perfedtly underftood. The manner in which
they are affedted in the plica polqniea feems to prove them to be pervious thro’ their w’hole length, and they may per¬
haps ferve fome ufeful purpofes in perfpiration.
(b) The hairs likewife differ from each other, and may not be improperly divided into twoclaffes; one of which
may include the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axillce ; and the other, the fofter hairs which either have no bulb,
or at leaft a very minute one ; and which are to be obferved almoft every where on the furface of the body.
(c) Defcribing this membrane as a common integument, it feems right to give it the name of membrana adipofa;
for under the ikin its cells are ufually filled with fat; but the fame membrane is found to inveft the moft minute fibres
we are able to trace, and is called cellullar membrane in fome parts of the body where its cells are not filled with fat,
and reticular in others, where it appears like very minute net-work.
(d) The two difeafes which are peculiar to this .membrane, are proofs of this communication ; for in the emphyfe-
ma, all its cells are filled with air; and in the anafarea, they are univerfally diftended with water. Befides thefe proofs
of this communication from difeafe, a familiar inftance of it may be obferved amongft butchers, who ufually pun&ure
this membrane, and by inflating it with air add to the good appearance of their meat.
3^3
r
J Part III. ANA
that purpofe ; for without this renewal it would proba¬
bly become unfit for ufe. The great wafte of it in
many difeafes, particularly in the confumption, feems
to be a fufficient proof that this abforption takes place;
and it probably affords confiderable nourifhment to the
body; for in people who have long fafted, the fat has
been obferved to decreafe very faft.
d, The fat is not confined to the fkin alone, being
met with every where in the interftices of mufcles, in
the omentum, about the kidnies, at the bafis of the
T O M Y.
heart, in the orbits, &c. and fome anatomical wri¬
ters (e) of eminence, have been induced to confider it
as the univerfal connecting medium of every part of the
body.
e, The ordinary ufes of this oily humour feem to be,
to afford moifture to all the parts with which it is con¬
nected ; to facilitate the aCtion of the mufcles ; to de¬
fend the body from the attrition of external fubftances;
and laftly, to add to its beauty, by making it every
where fmooth and equal.
Part III. Of the MUSCLES.
Chap. I.
Of the Muscles in General.
a, HPHE mufcles are the flefhy parts of the body,
-1- and may be confidered as the means by which all
its movements are performed.
b, They are diftinguifhed by different names (f)
which allude to the different difpofitions of their fibres,
to their fituation, or their ufe. In fome, the fibres are
placed parallel to each other, in a flraight direction,
and form what is called a rettilinear mufcle ; in others,
the fibres are placed obliquely with refpeCt to the ten¬
dons, like the plume of a pen ; thefe are ftiled penni-
form mufehs : and there are mufcles whofe fibres crofs
and interfeCl each other. There are likewife other di-
ftindtions, but to follow them minutely would lead us
too far.
c, Anatomifts ufually diftinguifh in the generality
of mufcles, a body, or belly part, and two extremi¬
ties. The belly of the mufcle is compofed of an infi¬
nite mihiber of flefhy fibres, of a red colour, which e-
very body will underftand under the name of flejh. The
extremities include the fame number of fibres as the
belly of the mufcle ; but they are more firmly united
together,, and degenerate into a firm, gliftening, and
infenfible fubftance, of a white colour, called tendon ; if
it be round and {lender; or aponeurofts, if expanded in¬
to a broad flat furface.
d, That extremity which is attached to the moft fix¬
ed part, has been named the head of the mufcle; and
that end which is inferted into the moveable part, has
been called the tail. But thefe are arbitrary terms,
and cuftom only can be pleaded for their being retain¬
ed ; -for the extremities of a mufcle vary with the dif¬
ferent fituations of the body; and parts that in fome
motions are fixed, become moveable in others.
e, The mufcles are not only furrounded by a very
fine membrane, which envelops them feparately; but
the fibres of every mufcle, upon a nice enquiry, are
found to be divided into diftinCt fafciculi or bundles,
and thefe divifions are probably fubdivided ad infini¬
tum.
f, Leuwenhoeck fancied he had difeovered, by
means of his microfcope, the ultimate divifion of a
mufcle ; and that he could point out the Ample fibre,
which appeared to him to be an hundred times lefs
than a hair; but he was afterwards convinced how
much he was miftaken on this fubjeft, and candidly
acknowledged, that what he had taken for a Ample
fibre, was in faft a bundle of fibres.
g, It is eafy to obferve feveral of thefe fafciculi or
bundles, in a piece of beef; in which, from the coarfe-
nefs of its texture, they are very evident.
h, The mufcles owe the red colour, which fo par¬
ticularly diftinguifhes their belly part, to an infinite
number of blood-veffels, which are every where difper-
fed like net-work through their whole fubfiance; for
their fibres, after having been macerated in water, are,
like all other parts of the body divefted of their blood,
found to be of a white colour. The blood-veffels are
accompanied by nerves, and they are both diffributed
in fuch abundance to thefe parts, that in endeavouring
to trace the courfe of the blood-veflels in a mufcle, it
wrould appear to be formed altogether by their ramifi¬
cations ; and in an attempt to follow the branches of
its nerve, their number and minutenefs would foon e-
lude the eye and the knife of the anatomift ; and the
whole mufcle would appear perhaps as if compofed on¬
ly of nerves.
i, We defined the mufcles to be moving powers, and
we are all fenfible of the propriety of this definition;
but nobody feems to underftand perfeftly how thefe
powers are effefted.
k, If a mufcle is pricked or irritated, it contraftsr
and becomes firm and rigid. This is called its tonic
aftion, or irritable principle.
l, If it is much diftended or compreffed, it endea¬
vours to re-eftablifli itfelf by its fpring, like all elaftic
bodies.
m, But befides thefe two properties,, it poffefles a.
third, whichds peculiaf- to it; and this is, that with¬
out having been either pricked or irritated, drawn out
or diftended, it fhortens itfelf, or at leaft endeavours
to fhorten itfelf, at the command of the will. There
are fome mufcles, however, which are called involuntary;
becaufe they aft independent of the will, as the heart
and mufcles of refpiration. The laft of thefe may be
faid to have a mixed motion, being in fome meafure
influenced by the will.
n, It is this aftion of the voluntary mufcles which
is called mufcular motion; and of which we will en¬
deavour to convey an idea in a few words. To il-
luftrate
(e) Haller.
(f) Different authors have deferibed the fame mufcle by different names. Many new Latin ones have lately been
introduced by the celebrated Albinus with great feeming propriety ; but fuch alterations are liable to create confufion.
In France, Mr Winflow’s method is univerfally followed, who difUnguifhed all the ipufcles by French names, which
are often very different from any Latin name before in ufe. All thefe variations are pointed out in the later editions
of Douglas’s Myography.
3*>4
ANATOMY,
Pan III,
lyftrate what we (hall advance, it will be neceflary to
take a mufcle or two as examples.
o, In the ofteological part of the work, the gene¬
rality of the bones were defcribed as being articulated
to each other with fo much art, as to be capable of
motion every way; but their motions cannot be per¬
formed by themfelves, as they are perfectly paffive in
all the movements of the body. The mufcles are a
kind of cords attached to the bones, which they move
in different directions by fhorteniog their fibres. Every
one is acquainted with the motion of the lower jaw: we
are able firft to lower it, and then to raife and apply
it ftrongly againft the upper jaw. The adtion of the
maffeter mufcle, in this cafe is very fenfible above. It
is fixed to the os mala:, and part of the upper jaw ;
and below, it is attached to the lower and outer ridge
of the under jaw. When we arc willing then to raife
the jaw, its mufcles are put into adfion. The maffeter
on each fide contrails ; its flefhy part fwells and en¬
larges, and becomes harder and fhorter; and as the
upper end of this mufcle is attached to a fixed and im¬
moveable part, which is the cafe with the maxilla fu-
perior, the lower extremity is neceffarily drawn towards
the upper one, bringing with it the lower jaw. This
mufcle, when in adlion, may be eafily felt, by apply¬
ing the hand to the cheek, between the cheek bone
and the lower jaw,
p, Again, when we defire to bend the finger, the
flexor mufcles which are attached to the os humeri, and
the bones of the fore arm, and have their moveable part
fixed to the inner extremities of the fingers, contrail
and fhorten themfelves; and thus the ends of the fin¬
gers are drawn towards the palm of the hand,
q, It will here naturally be inquired by what me-
chanifm this power to contrail is occafioned. Many
opinions have been formed, .and much has been writ¬
ten on this fubjeil. Some of thefe fyftems were the
refult of much induftry and ingenuity, and required no
fmaU fhare of mathematical knowledge not only to in¬
vent, but to underftand them. Some have undertaken
to explain the caufe of contraition, by fuppofing that
every mufcular fibre forms as it were a chain of very
minute bladders ; while the nerves which are diftribu-
ted through the mufcle bring with them a fupply of
animal fpirits, which at our will fill thefe bladders, and
by increafing their diameter in width, fiiorten them,
and of courie the whole fibre. We will dwell no lon¬
ger on this ingenious hypothefis, or fay any thing of
other fyftems, which as well as that we have mentioned,
are far from being fatisfadlory; and we will only ob-
ferve, that here, as in many other of her works. Na¬
ture feems to have drawn a boundary to our inquiries,
beyond which no human penetration will probably ever
extend,
q, Some few things we know with certainty on this
fubjeft, and thefe are, that the nerves are effentially
neceflary to mufcular morion; for if we tie up or di¬
vide the nerves leading to any mufcle, that mufcle be¬
comes paralytic and incapable of a&ion; that the caufe
of palfy is ufually not feated in the part affected, but
commonly in the nerve leading to that part, and per¬
haps in the brain or fpinal marrow, from whence the
nerves originate; and that a ligature made on the ar¬
tery leading to a mufcle produces the rime effe&s as a
ligature on the nerve, by rendering it ina&m, and even
infenfible; and this laft obfervation feems to prove, that
a regular fupply of blood, if not the immediate caufe
of mufeular motion, is at leaft efientially neceelri’fy
to it,
As the enumeration and defeription of the particular
mufcles muft be dry and unentertaining to the genera¬
lity of readers, yet cannot be omitted in a work of
this nature, it appeared eligible to throw this part of
the fubjeft into the form of a table, leaving the reader
to examine or pafs it over as he inclines.
A TABLE of a
Parts of
the Body.
Integu¬
ments of
the crani-
Names of the Muscles.
i. Occipito-frontalis.
4. Conugatorfuperdlii.
ORIGIN.
Ridge near the middle of the os occipitis.
Internal angular procefs of the os frontis, above the joining of the os nafi with the fuperior maxillary
Eye-lids.
Eye-balls.
Nofe.
Mouth
and Lips.
Anterior
part of the
neck.
Between
the lower-
jaw and c
hyoides.
Between
the os hy¬
oides and
Between
the lower
jaw and os
hyoidcs
laterally.
i. Alio liens aurem.
i. Anterior auris.
3. Rctrahentes auris.
4. Helicis major.
5. He ltd \ minor.
6. Tragicus.
7. Antitragicus.
8. Tranfverfus auris.
1. Laxator tympani.
2. Tenfor tympani.
3. Stapedius.
1. Orbicularis palpebrarum.
2. Levator palpebrx-fuperioris.
1. Levator oculi.
4. Deprejfor oculi.
3. Addutior oculi.
4. Abduttor oculi.
5. Obliquusfuperior, fexitrochlearis.
6. Obliquus inferior.
Comprcjfor nans.
1. Levator anguli oris.
2. Levator labii fuperioris alxque
nafi.
3. Deprejfor labii fuperioiis aU-
que nafi.
4. Deprefibr an%uU oris.
5. Depreffor labii inferioris.
6. Levator .labii inferioris.
7. Buccinator.
8. Zygomaticus major.
1. Zygomaticus minor,
o. Orbicularis oris.
:. Temporalis.
.. Maffeter.
3. Pterygoidxus internus.
4. Pterygoidxus externus.
Platifna-myoidcs.
Sterna, ckido-mujhidaus.
Digafiricus.
Mylo-hycidxus.
Genio-byoidxus.
Genio-glqffus.
Sterno-hyoidxus.
, Omo-hyoidxus.
, Sterno-thyroidxus.
. Hyo-thyroidxus.
. Crico-lhyroidxus.
. Stylo-glqffus. '
. Stylo-hyoidxus.
. Stylo-pharyngitis.
. Circumflexus, 01 Tenfor palat:
. Levator palati.
Tendon of the occipito-frontalis where it covers the aponeurofis of the temporal mnfcle.
Pofterior part of the zygoma.
By two or three final! mufcles from the maltoid procefs.
Upper part of the helix.
Inferior part of the helix.
Middle and outer part of the concha.
In'-rnal part of the cartilage fupporting the antitragus.
Prominent part of the concha.
Spinous procefs of the os fphenoides.
Extremity of the euftachian tube, and fpinous procefs of the os fphenoides.
A little cavern in the pars petrofa near the maftoid procefs.
Orbitar proeefs of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Foramen opticum of the os fphenoides.
Foramen opticum.
Inferior part of the foramen opticum.
Between the obiiquus fuperior and depreflbr.
Bony partition between the foramen opticum and laeerum.
Edge of the foramen opticum.
Orbitar procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Root of the ala nafi externally.
Hollow of the fuperior maxillary bone, between the root of the foeket of the firll dens molaris
the foramen infraorbitarium.
Two portions. 1. Orbitar procefs; 4. Nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Os maxiliare fuperius.
Lower edge of the maxilla inferior.
Inferior part of the lower jaw.
Lower jaw, at the root of the dens caninus and two dentes inciforii.
Lower jaw, as far back as the laft dens molaris.
Os mala; near the zygomatic future.
Upper pait of the os malse.
Formed by the mufcles that move the lips.
Semicircular ridge of the parietal bone.
Superior maxillary bone.
Upper and internal part of the pterygoid procefs.
Outfide of the pterygoid, and root of the temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone from the adj
tuberofity of the os maxillare.
Cellular fubflance covering the upper parts of the deltoid and peflorai mufcles.
By two portions. 1. The top of the fternum. 2. The upper and anterior part of the clavicle.
Root of the maftoid procefs of the temporal bone.
All the infide of the lower jaw.
Internal protuberance in the middle of the lower jaw.
The fame with the former.
Bafe, cornu, and appendix of the os hyoides.
Root of the tongue laterally.
Cartilaginous extremity of the firft rib.
Superior cofta of the fcapula;
Whole edge of the uppermoft bone of the fternnm internally.
Part of the bafis and almoft all the cornu of the os hyoides.
Side and fore part of the cricoid cartilage.
Styloid procefs, and a ligament connetting it with the lower jaw.
Middle and inferior part of the flyloid procefs.
Root of the ftyloid procefs.
. Spinous procefs of the os fphenoides, and euftachian tube.
Extremity of the pars petrofa of the temporal bone, and membranous part of the euftachian t
tcTthe m
fauces.
About the
glottis,
hind the
Pofterior
partofthe
pharynx.
1. ConftriBor ifihmi faucium.
4. Palato pharyngaus.
3. Azygos uvuU.
1. Crico-arytenoidxus pofiicus.
4. Crico-arytenoidxus lateralis.
3. Arytenoidxus obliquus.
4. Arytcrwidxus traifverfus.
j. Thyro-arytenoidxus.
6. Thyro-epiglottidxus.
7. Arytcno-epiglottidxus.
1. ConflriBor pharyngis fuperior.
1. ConfiriBor pharyngis media:.
3. Conflriflor pharyngis inferior.
Side of the tongue, near its root.
Middle of the velum pendulum palati.
Extremity of the future joining the palate bones.
Back part of the cricoid cartilage.
Cricoid cartilage, laterally, where it is covered by the thyroid.
Bafe of one arytenoid cartilage, and croftes its fellow'.
Side of one arytenoid cartilage, its fibres running acrofs.
Pofterior part of the thyroid cartilage laterally.
Near the former.
Lateral and upper part of the arytenoid cartilage.
Cuneiform procefs of the os occipitis; pterygoid procefs of the os fphenoides, and from til
and upper jaw. -
Appendix of the os byoides, the cornu of the bone, and the ligament conne£ling it to the thyroid c
Side of the thyroid cartilage, and from the cricoid cartilage.
3^4
hLL THE MU SC
foB
al
ki
of
tk
hr
up
pe
th<
flej
the
fixt
anc
eha
opi
ten
joining
2 under
Orbicularis palpebrarum, de*
Inner part of the occipito-fro
Upper part of the ear oppofit
Eminence of the helix, oppoj
Back-ear, oppofite to the fep(
Cartilage of the helix. J
Crus of the helix.
Point of the tragus.
Tip of the antitragus. [i-
Oppofite to the outfide of the,1
Long procefs of the malleus,
Small procefs of the malleus.f
Poilerior part of the head of f
Nafal proeefs of the fuperiorf
Cartilage called /arfus, fuppoij
Upper and fore part of the tu
Oppofite to the former. ®
Oppofite to the inner angle.
Globe of the eye, oppofite to
Tunica fclerotica. ■
Tunica fclerotica.
Anterior extremity of the os
Angle of the mouth and undt
Upper lip, and orbicularis
Upper lip, and root of the al
Angle of the mouth.
Edge of the under lip.
Under lip and Ikin of the chi
Angle of the mouth within
Angle of the mouth.
Upper lip near the corner of
Coronoid procefs of the lowet
Angle of the lower jaw, and :
Angle of the lower jaw inter!
Condyloid procefs of the low*
Lower jaw, between its angler
Mafloid procefs.
Anterior part of the lower jai’
Lower edge of the bafis of th
Bafis of the ns hyoides.
Tip, middle, and root of thj
Side of the tongue near the
Tip of the tongue.
Bafe of the os hyoides* i
Baft of the os hyoides.
Rough line at the external pi
Rough line oppofite to the fc
By two portions, i. Into tht
Root of the tongue.
Os hyoides at the junftion off
Side of the pharynx oppofite
Velum pendulum palati, and!
Whole length of the velum ri
Middle of the velum penduh
Edge of the upper, and back
Tip of the uvula.
Pofterior part of the bafe of
Side of the bale of the aryteif
Tip of the other ary tenoid a
The other arytenoid cartilaof
Arytenoid cartilage. T
Epiglottis laterally.
Epiglottis, along with the
White line in the middle of
irtilage. Middle of the cuneiform pr<
White line in the middle ol
U
Parts of
the Body.
Anterior
part of the
abdomen.
Male or-
Anus.
Female
organs of
tron.1^'
Within
the pelvis.
Within
the cavity
of the ab¬
domen.
Anterior
part of
the tho-
Between
the ribs,
and with¬
in the
thorax.
Anterior
part of
the neck
clofe to
the verte¬
bras.
Pofterior
part of
the trunk.
Names of the Mitscles.
i. OMquus defeendens externus.
55. Obliqum afeendem internus.
3. Traxfverjalis,
4. ReBus abdominis.
j. Pyramidalis.
1. Darios.
1. Cremajler.
3. EreBor penis.
4. Accelerator urinx, feu ejacula-
tor feminis.
S- Tranfverfalis penis.
I. SphinBcr ani.
%■ Levator ani.
1. EreBor clitoridis.
I. SphinBer vagina.
3. Tranfverfus perinxi.
4. SphinBer ani.
J. Levator ani
1. Obturator internus.
1. Coccygaus.
1. The fuperior, or greater mufcle
of the diaphragm,
x. The inferior, or leffer mufcle
of the diaphragm.
3. ^uadratus lumborum.
4- Pfoas parvus.
5. Pfoas magnus.
6. Iliacus internus.
1. PeBoralis major.
z. Sulclavius.
3. PeBoralis minor.
4. Serratus magnus.
1. Intercoftales externi.
x. Intercoftalcsinterni.
3. Triangularis, or Sterno-coftalis.
1. Longus colli.
x. ReBus capitis internus major.
3. ReBus capitis internus minor.
4. ReBus capitis lateralis.
1. Trapezius feu cucullaris.
x. Latiffmus dorfi.
3. Serratus pojlicus inferior.
4. Rhomboides-Yf ^V0^
j. Splenius.
6. Serratus fuperior pojlicus.
7. Spinalis dorfi.
5. Longijfimus dorfi.
9. Sacrolumbalis.
10. Complexus.
11. Trachelo-mafioidaus.
1 x. Levatorfcapula.
13. Semifpinalis dorfi.
14. Mumfidusfpina.
IS Semifpinalis colli.
16. ReBus capitis pojlicus major.
17. ReBus capitis pojlicus minor.
18. Obliquus capitis fuperior.
19. Obliquus capitis inferior.
xo. Scalenus anticus.
x 1. Scalenus medius.
xx. Scalenus pojlicus.
Eight of the inferior ribs. I
Spine of the os ilium,the tendon of the latillf
Tranfverfe procefs of the laft vertebra of t|
the fpine of the os ilium internally, an
By two heads, from the fore and upper paJ
together.
Along with the reflus.
Cremafter mufcle.
Obliquus internus.
Tuberofity of the os ifehium.
Sphhifter ani, membranous part of the u
Membrane covering the tuberofity of tie
Skin and fat furrounding the anus. „ ■
Os pubis, or ifehium, and tendinous nei ■
Crus of the os ifehium.
Sphinfler ani, and pofterior fide of tb vl
Cellular membrane covering the os ilhiu
As in the male.
As in the male.
Os ilium, ifehium, and internal circmfe
Spinous procefs of the os ifehium.
Cartilago enfiformis, cartilages of t! fev<
Inferior part of the middle tendon
Pofterior part of the fpine and thes iliuij
Sides of the two upper vertebra; {he loj
Side of the body, and tranfverfe jeefs oi
all thofe of Lie loins.
Spine, and edge of the os ilium Ad mol
Cartilaginous extremities of the h and I
half the inferior part of the (icle.
Clavicle.
Coracoid procefs of the fcapula
Baft of the fcapula internally.
Inferior acute edge of each fup>r rib.
In the fame manner as the for.
Cartiiago enfiformis, and edg the lowe
Three fuperior vertebra: of tfick lateral
.and fixth vertebra; of the i-
Tranfverft procefles of the t, fourth,
Fore part of the body of thee vertebra I
Point of the tranfverft procef the firft I
Protuberance in the middle ot^s occipi
towards the maftoid procefoie tempi 1 ,
the neck, and from all thosthe bacfC walrfs>-
Pofterior part of the os ilium, ae fpino
ftven inferior ones of the ve® of th
Spinal proceffes of the two inf vertebr
1. From the fpinous proceftesie five ij
three inferior vertebra; of thk, andj
Four fuperior fpinous proceffehe vertj
Spinous proceffes of the two rtebra;
Spinous procelfes of the two molt ve
Side, and all the fpinal proef the oj
procefles, and the roots ofanfverft]
In common with the longifliorfi. j
Tranfverfe procefles of the firior verl
Tranfverfe procefles of the Dpermofl
Trantverfe proceflTes of the lerior vet
Tranfverfe procefles of the t, eighth
Side and fpinous procefles cos lacrun
tranfverfe procefl'es of thone of ti
and of the neck, except 6e firft. ]
Tranfverfe procefles of the toft fix ti
Exteroal part of the fpinoufs of the
Protuberance in the middle back paj
Tranfverft procefs of the fitbra of tj
Spinous procefs of the fecoibra of tj
Fourth, fifth, and fixth, tfe procei
Ail the tranfverfe proceflesvertebra
Fifth and fixth tranfverfe j> of the!
A TABLE of the MUSCLES.
insertion.
-had from almofl all the in-
uiafpera.
'jna little above the condyle,
aofterior part of its middle.
Inferior part of the tubercle of the tibia, and the upper part of its fpine.
Tibia, near the fartorius.
Upper part of the patella; and from the inferior part of this bone the tendon is fent off t
of the tibia.
A large fhare of the upper part of the patella.
Upper and infide of the patella.
Upper part of the patella.
Infide of the ridge of the tibia, a little below its tubercle.
Superior and back part of the head of the tibia.
Upper part of the head of the fibula.
Ridge at the upper and internal edge of the tibia.
Upper and poflerior part of the os calcis, by the tendo Achillis.
i; tibia, from near one half
d from the tendinous fafeia
Infide of the pofterior part of the os calcis.
Infide of the os cuneiforme internum, and pofterior end of the metacarpal bone fuftaining
Os naviculare, cuneiforme internum and medium; os calcis, cuboides, and the root of t
bone fuftaining the middle toe.
Out fide of the root of the metatarfal bone fuftaining the great toe, and os cuneiforme i
Root and external part of the metatarfal bone fuftaining the little toe.
Root of the firlt joint of each-of the fmall toes, and expanded over their upper fide as far as
Tendinous expanfion covering the fmall toes, and that covering the upper part of the g
Second phalanx of the four lefler toes.
Extremity of the laft joint of the four lefler toes.
the fame bone.
Tendon of the flexor longus.
)e of the fecond toe,
toe.
Infide of the firft joint of the four lefler toes.
Pofterior part of the firft and laft joint of the great toe.
Laft joint of the great toe.
External os fefamoidaeum, and root of the firft joint of the great toe.
The fame with the former.
External os fefamoidseum, and root of the metatarfal bone of the great toe.
Root of the firft joint of the little toe externally.
Anterior extremity of the metatarfal bone, and root of the firft joint of the little toe.
from the metatarfal befne
Infide of the root of the firft joint of the fore toe.
Outfide of the root of the firft joint of the fore toe.
Outfide of the root of the firft: joint of the fecond toe.
Outfide of the root of the firft joint of the third toe.
Infide of the root of the firft joint of the middle toe.
Root of the firft joint of the third toe.
Root of the firft joint of the little toe.
Outfide of the anterior extremity of the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
:l the MIj_
th
«p
tei. .
tdnning
Orbicularis palpebra
Inner part of the occ<> t*16 tubercle
Upper part of the e;
Eminence of the hel
Back-ear, oppofite r
Cartilage of the heli
Crus of the helix.
Point of the tragus.
Tip of the antitragu
Oppofite to the outfi
Long procefs of the
Small procefs of the
Poflerior part of the
Nafal proeefs of the
Cartilage called tarfu
Upper and fore part the g**11 toe.
Oppofite to the fornhe metatarfal
Oppofite to the inne
Globe of the eye, opternum.
Tunica fclerotica.
Tunica fclerotica. the laft joint.
Anterior extremity
Angle of the momhreat toe.
i. Upper lip, and o
Upper lip, and root
Angle of the mouth
Edge of the under 1:
Under lip and flan <
Angle of the mouth
Angle of the mouth
Upper lip near the i
Coronoid procefs of
Angle of the lower
Angle of the lower
Condyloid procefs c
Lower jaw, betweei
lYlaftoid procefs.
Anterior part of thi
Lower edge of the I
Bafis of the n? hyoit
Tip, middle, and r
Side of the tongue i
Tip of the tongue.
Bale of the os hyoid
Bale of the os hyoic
Rough line at the e
Rough line oppofit
By two portions. :
Root of the tongue
Os hyoides at the ji
Side of the pharyn:
Velum pendulum p
Whole length of t!
Middle of the vein
Edge of the upper.
Tip of the uvula.
Pofterior part of tl
Side of the bale of
Tip of the other a
The other aryteno
Arytenoid cartilaj
Epiglottis laterally
Epiglottis, along
White line in the
USES.
To move the leg obliquely inwards, or to bring one leg and thigh crofs the other.
To bend the thigh and kg inwards.
To extend the leg by means of the patella, like a pulley.
To extend the kg.
To extend the kg.
To alfift in the extenfion of the kg.
To bend the kg backwards and a little inwards.
To bend the leg and bring it direftly backwards.
To bend the leg.
To move the leg obliquely outwards, and to allift in bending it.
To extend the foot.
To aflift the former.
To bend the foot.
To bring the foot inwards and upwards.
To move the foot outwards, and bend it a little.
To pull the foot outwards and upwards.
To extend all the joints of the four fmall toes.
To extend the toes.
To bend the fecond joint of the toes.
To bend the toes.
To aflift the the former.
To alfift in bending the toes.
To extend the great toe.
To bend the laft joint of the great toe.
To bend this firlt joint.
To pull the great toe from the reft.
To bring this toe nearer the reft.
To draw the little toe outwards.
To bend the little toe.
To pull the fore toe inwards.
To pull the foretoe outwards towards the reft.
To pull the fecond toe outwards.
To pull the third toe outwards.
To pull the middle toe inwards.
To pull the third toe inwards.
To pull the little toe inwards.
To bring the little toe towards the great one.
Parts of
the Body.
Integu¬
ments of
the crani¬
um.
Ear-ex¬
ternal.
Ear-inter¬
nal.
Eye-lids.
Eye-balls.
Nofe.
Mouth
and Lips.'
Lower-
jaw.
Anterior
part of the
neck.
Between
the lower-
jaw and os
hyoides.
Between
the os hy¬
oides and
trunk.
Between
the lower-
jaw and os
hyoides
laterally.
Entry in¬
to the
fauces.
About the
glottis,
and be¬
hind the
larynx.
Poflerior
part of the
pharynx.
Names of the Muscles.
i. Occipito-frontalis.
t. Corrugatorfupercilii.
1. AUollens aurem.
а. Anterior auris.
3. Retrahentes auris.
4. Kelicis major.
y. Helkifminor.
б. Trap icus.
7. Antitragkus.
8. Tranfverfus auris.
11. Laxator tympani.
2. Tenfor tympani.
3. Stapedius.
1. Orbicularis palpebrarum.
2. Levator palpebra juperioris.
1. Levator oculi.
x. Deprejpir oculi.
3. Adductor oculi.
4. AbduBor oculi.
S- Obliquusfuperiorjeu trochlearis.
6. Obhquus inferior.
Comprejfor nans.
1. Levator dkguli oris.
2. Levator labii fuperioris al&que
nafi.
3. Deprejfor labii fuperioris ala-
que nafi.
4. Depreffor anguli oris.
;. Deprefib r labii inferioris.
6. Levator labii inferioris.
7. Buccinator.
8. Zygomaticus major.
9. Zygomaticus minor.
10. Orbicularis oris.
1. Temporalis.
1. Majfeter,
3. Pterygoidaus internus.
4. Pterygoidaus externus.
1. Platifma-myoidcs. -
2. Stcrno cleido-majloidaus.
X. Digaftricus.
1. Mylo-bycidxus.
3. Genio-byoidxus.
4. Genio-glqfius.
j. Hyo-glofius.
6. Lingualis. \
1. S ter it 0- hyoidxus.
x. Omo-hyoidaus.
3. Stcrno-thyroidxus.
4. Hyo-thyroidxus.
j. Crico-thyroidaus.
1. Stylo-glojfus... '
x. Stylo-hyoidxus.
3. Stylo-pharyngxus.
4. Circumflexus, or Tenfor palaii.
y. Levator palati.
1. ConftriBor ifihmi faucium.
x. Palato pharyngxus.
3. Azygos uvula.
1. Crico-arylenoidxus pofticus.
z. Crico-arytenoidxus lateralis. •
3. Arytenoidxus obliquus.
4. Arytenoidxus tranfverfus.
5. Thyro- arytenoidxus.
6. Thyro-epiglotiidxus,
7. Aryteno-epiglottidxus.
1. ConJiriBor pharyngis fuperior.
1. ConJiriBor pharyngis medim.
3. ConJiriBor pharyngis inferior.
A TABLE of 4ll
ORIGIN.
Ridge near the middle of the os occipitis.
Internal angular procefs of the os frontis, above the joining of the os nafi wi^h the fuperior jnaxiUaryjbone.
Tendon of the occipito-frontalis where it covers the aponeurofis of the temporal mufclet l1
Pofterior part of the zygoma.
By two or three fmalLmufclcs from the maftoid proccfs.
Upper part of the helix.
Inferior part of the helix.
Middle and outer part of the concha.
Inr-rnal part of the cartilage fupporting the antitragus.
Prominent part of the concha.
Spinous procels of the os fphenoides.
Extremity of the euftachian tube, and fpinous procefs of the os fphenoides.
A little cavern in the pars petrofa near the mafioid procefs.
Orbitar procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Foramen opticum of the os fphenoides.
Foramen opticum. -
Inferior part of the foramen opticum.
Between the obliquus fuperior and depreflbr.
Bony partition between the foramen opticum and laeerum.' !
Edge of the foramen opticum. !
Orbitar procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Root of the ala nafi externally.
Hollow of the fuperior maxillary bone, between the root of the foeket of the firft dens molarisL and
the foramen infraorbitarium. , j •
Two portions, i ’. Orbitar procefs; 2. Nafal procefs of the fupetior maxillary bone. 1
Os maxiliare fuperius.
Lower edge of the maxilla inferior.
Inferior part of the lower jaw.
Lower jaw, at the root of the dens caninus and two dentes inciforii.
Lower jaw, as far back as the laft dens molaris.
Os malte near the zygomatic futurev
Upper pait of the os malae.
Formed by the mufcles that move the lips. ^
Semicircular ridge of the parietal bone.
Superior maxillary bone.
Upper and internal part of the pterygoid procefs.
Outfide of the pterygoid, and root of the tcmpdral procefs of the fphenoid bone from the adjoining
tuberofity of the os maxilla're.
Cellular fubftance covering the upper parts of the deltoid-and pectoral mufcles.
By two portions. 1. The top of the fiernum. a. The upper and anterior part of the clavicle, i!
Root of the maftoid procefs of the temporal bone. 11
All the infide of the lower jaw.
Internal protuberance in the middle of the lower jaw. -
The fame with the former.
Bafe, cornu, and appendix of the os hyoides.
Root of the tongue laterally. i
Cartilaginous extremity of the firft rib.
Superior coda of the fcapula:
Whole edge of the uppermod bone of the dernum internally.
Part of the bafts and almod all the cornu of the os hyoides.
Side and fore part of the cricoid cartilage.
Styloid procefs, and a ligament conne£ting it with the lower jaw.
Middle and inferior part of the dyloid procefs.
Root of the dyloid procefs.
Spinous procefs of the os fphenoides, and eudachian tube.
Extremity of the pars petrofa of the temporal bone, and membranous part of the eudachian tube.
Side of the tongue, near its root.
Middle of the velum pendulum palati.
Extremity of the future joining the palate bones.
Back part of the cricoid cartilage. Jj
Cricoid cartilage, laterally, where it is covered by the thyroid,
Bafe of one arytenoid cartilage, and erodes its fellow.
Side of one arytenoid cartilage, its fibres running acrofs.
Poderior part of the thyroid cartilage laterally.
Near the former.
Lateral and upper part of the arytenoid cartilage.
Cuneiform procefs of the os occipitis; pterygoid procefs of the os fphenoides, and from the under
and upper jaw.
Appendix of the os hyoides, the cornu of the bone, and the ligament connefting it to the thyroid ojrtilage.
Side of the thyroid cartilage, and from the cricoid cartilage.
the MUSCLES m The HUMAN BODY.
INSERTION.
Orbicularis palpebrarum, defeending with a flelhy Hip to the compreflbr naris.
Inner part of the occipito-frontalis, where it joins the orbicularis palpebrarum.
Upper part of the ear oppofite to the ahtihellx.
Eminence of the helix, oppofite to the concha.
Back-ear, oppofite to the feptum dividing the fcapha and concha.
Cartilage of the helix.
Crus of the helix.
Point of the tragus.
Tip of the antitragus.
Oppofite to the outfidc of the antihelix.
Long procefs of the malleus, within the tympanum.
Small procefs of the malleus.
Poderior part of the head of the dapes.
Nafal proeefs of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Cartilage called tarfus, fupporting the upper eye-lid.
Upper and fore part of the tunica fclerotiea.
Oppofite to the former.
Oppofite to the inner angle.
Globe of the eye, oppofite to the outer canthus.
Tunica fclerotica.
Tunica fclerotica.
Anterior extremity of the os nafi.
Angle of the month and under lip.
1. Upper lip, and orbicularis labiorum, 2. Upper lip, and outer part of the ala nafi.
Upper lip, and root of the ala nafi.
Angle of the mouth.
Edge of the under lip.
Under lip and Ikin of the chin. \
Angle of the mouth within the orbicularis oris.
Angle of the mouth.
Upper lip near the corner of the mouth,
Coronoid procefs of the lower jaw.
Angle of the lower jaw, and out fide of the whole length of the coronoid procefs.
Angle of the lower jaw internally.
Condyloid procefs of the lower jaw.
Lower jaw, between its arfgle and the origin of the depreflbr angnli oris.
Madoid procefs.
Anterior part of the lower jaw.
Lower edge of the bafis of the os hyoides.
Bafis of the’ qs hyoides.
Tip, middle, and root of the tongue; alfo the bafis of the os hyoides, near its cornu.
Side of the tongue near the dylo-gloflus.
Tip of the tongue.
Bafe of the os hyoides,
Bafe of the os hyoides.
Rough line at the external part of the inferior edge of the thyroid cartilage.
Rough line oppofite to the former.
By two portions. 1. Into the lower part of the thyroid cartilage, a. Into its inferior cornu.
Root of the tongue.
Os hyoides at the junftion of the bafe and cornu.
Side of the pharynx oppofite to the fuperior cornu of the thyroid cartilage.
Velum pendulum palati,' and femi-lunar edge of the os palati.
Whole length of the Velum pendulum palati.
Middle of the velum pendulum.
Edge of the upper, and back part of the thyroid cartilage.
Tip of the uvula.
Pofterior part of the baft of the arytenoid cartilage.
Side of the bafe of the arytenoid cartilage.
Tip of the other arytenoid cartilage.
The other arytenoid cartilage.
Arytenoid cartilage.
Epiglottis laterally.
Epiglottis, along with the former.
Whitt: line in the middle of the pharynx.
Middle of the cuneiform procefs of the os occipitis.
White line in the middle of the pharynx.
U S E S.
To pull the Ikiri of the head backward, raife the eye-brows, and wrinkle the forehead.
To draw the eye-brows together, pull down and wrinkle the Ikin of the forehead.
To draw the ear upwards, and make the parts tenfe into which it is inferted.
To draw that erhinence forwards.
To draw the ear back and ftretch the concha.
To deprefs the place from whence it arifes.
To contract the fiflure of the cartilage oppofitc to the concha.
To pull forwards the point of the tragus.
To turn out the tip of the antitragus, and deprefs the antihelix.
To ftretch the fcabha and concha, and draw together the places of its origin and infertion.
To draw the mallius forwards.
To pull inwards tfte malleus and membrana tympani.
To draw the ftapes1 obliquely upwards.
To Ihut the eye, fdueeze the lachrymal gland, and convey the tears to the punfta lachrymalia.
To open the eye.
To raife the globe of the eye.
To pull down the globe of the eye.
To turn the eye towards the nofe.
To move the eye outwards.
To roll the eye.
To draw the eye forwards and inwards.
To comprefs the ala towards the feptum nafi.
To draw the corner of the mouth upwards.
1, To raile the upper lip towards the orbit, x. To draw the Ikin of the nofe upwards.
To draw the upper lip and ala nafi downwards.
To aflift the depreflbr anguli oris in drawing the Ikin of the cheek downwards.
To turn the head to one fide, and bend it forwards.
To pull the jaw outwards and downwards, and when the jaws are fliut, to raife the larynx and pharynx.
To pull the os hyoides forwards, upwards, and to a fide.
To draw the os hyoides upwards and forwards.
To thruft out, and draw backwards the tongue, to draw down its middle, and render the dorfum concave*
To pull the tongue to a fide and backwards.
To contrail the fubftance of the tongue, and bring it backwards.
To puli the os hyoides downwards.
To pull the os hyoides obliquely downwards.
To draw the larynx dowriwards.
To pull the cartilage upwards, or the os hyoides downwards. ,
To deprefs the thyroid, or elevate the cricoid cartilage. x
To draw the tongue laterally and backwards.
To pull the os hyoides urione fide and a little upwards.
To dilate and raife the pharynx upwards.
To ftretch the velum, to draw it downwards, and to a fide.
To draw the velum upwards and backwards, fo as to Ihut the paflage from the fauces into the mouth
and nofe.
To pull the velum towards the root of the tongue, and fhut the opening into the fauces.
To pull the uvula and velum backwards, and to pull upwards and fliorten the pharynx.
To raife upwards, and Ihorten the uvula.
To open the rima glottidis a little.
The fame with the former.]
To pull the arytenoid cartilages towards each other.
To Ihut the rima glottidis. I
To open the external rima, and relax the upper fide of the ventriculus laryngis, and the ligaments.
To draw the epiglottis obliftuely downwards. •
To pull the epiglottis clofeiupon the glottis.
To comprefs the upper part of the pharynx, and draw it forwards and upwards.
To comprefs and draw upwards that part of the pharynx which it covers,
j The fame with the former.
To pull down the corner of the mouth.
To pull down the lip, and Ikiq of the chin.
To pull upwards the parts into'which it is inferted.
To draw back the angle of the mouth and contrail its cavity.
To make the cheek prominent.
To draw the corner of the mouth obliquely upwards.
To Ihut the mouth.
To pull the jaw upwards. ;
To pull the lower jaw to the upper, and a little forwards and backwards.
To pull the jaw upwards, ind to one fide.
To pull the jaw forwards.
ii
Parts of
the Body.
Anterior
part of the
abdomen.
Male or¬
gans of
genera¬
tion.
Anus.
Female
organs of
genera¬
tion.
Within
the pelvis.
Within
the cavity
of the ab¬
domen.
Anterior
part of
the tho¬
rax.
between
the ribs,
and with¬
in the
thorax.
Anterior
part of
the neck
clofe to
the verte¬
bras.
Pofterior
part of
thetrunk.
Names of the Mu-scles.
1. Obllquus defeendens externus.
2. Obliquus afeendens internus.
3. Tranfverfalis,
4. Re ft us abdominis.
5. Pyramidalis.
1. Darios.
x. Cremafter.
3. Ere ft or penis.
4. Accelerator urinx, feu ejacula-
tor feminis.
5. Tranfverfalis penis.
i. Spbinfter ani.
a- Levator ani.
1. Ereftor clitoridis.
x. Sphinfter vaginx.
3. Tranfverfus perinxi.
4. Sphinfter ani.
j. Levator ani
r. Obturator internus.
x. Ccccygxus.
1. The fuperior, or greater mufcle
of the diaphragm.
x. The inferior, or leffer mufcle
of the diaphragm.
3. Iguadratus lumborum.
4. Pfoas parvus.
j. Pfoas magnus.
6. Iliacus internus.
x. Peftoralis major.
x. Subclavius.
3, Peftoralis minor.
4. Serratus magnus.
1. Intercoftales externi.
x. Intercoftales interni.
3. Triangularis, or Sterno-coflalis.
A
ORIGIN.
Eight of the inferior ribs.
Spine of the os ilium,the tendon of the latiiSttnis dorfi,Poupart’s ligamentland the forepart of the os pubis.
Tranfverfe procefs of the laft vertebra of the back, and thofe of the fouf fuperior vertebrae of the loins;
the fpine of the os ilium internally, add the tendon of the obliquus extemus.
By two heads, from the fore and upper pairt of the os pubis, and the cartilage joining the two ofla pubis
together.
Along with the re&us.
Cremafter mufcle.
Obliquus internus.
Tuberofity of the os ifehium.
Sphinfter ani, membranous part of the ujethra, crus, and beginning of the corpus cavernofum penis.
Membrane covering the tuberofity of the os ifehium.
Skin and fat furrounding the anus. j
Os pubis, or ifehium, arid tendinous piembrane covering the obturator internus and coccygsus.
Crus of the os ifehium.
Sphinfter ani, and pofterior fide of the vagina.
Cellular membrane covering the os ifthium.
As in the male.
As in the male.
Os ilium, ifehium, and internal circilmference of the foramen thyroidseum.
Spinous procefs of the os ifehium.
Cartilago enfiformis, cartilages of the feventh, and all the inferior ribs on both fides.
Inferior part of the middle tendon.
Pofterior part of the fpine and the os ilium.
Sides of the two upper vertebrae of! the loins.
Side of the body, and tranfverfe prbeefs of the laft vertebras of the Back, and in the fame manner from
all thofe of tne loins.
Spine, and edge of the os ilium, and moft of the hollow part of the ilium.
Cartilaginous extremities of the fifth and fixth ribs, almoft the whole length of the flernum, and near
half the inferior part of the clavicle.
Clavicle.
Coracoid procefs of the fcapula. )>
Safe of the fcapula internally. i
Inferior acute-edge of each fuperior rib.
In the fame manner as the former.
Cartilago enfiformis, and edge ofithe lower part of the fternum.
TABLE of the MUSCLES.
INSERTION.
USES.
Whole length of the linea alba, the ofla pubis, and fpine of the ps ilium.
Cartilago enfiformis, the cartilages of the fevehth, and all the fajfe ribs, and into the linea alba.
Whole length of the linea alba, cartilago enfiformis, and the inner part of the cartilages of the feven
lower ribs.
The cartilages of the three inferior true ribs, and the extremity of the fternum.
Linea alba, and edge of the reftus.
Lines of the ferotum.
Tunica vaginalis of the tefticle.
Tendinous membrane covering the corpora cavernofa of the penis.
Line in the middle of the bulb of the urethra.
Accelerator urinse and fphinfter ani.
Perinasum, acceleratores urinse, tranfverfalis penis, and os coccygis,
Sphinfter ani and os coccygis;
Upper part of the crus and body of the clitoris.
Body, or Union of the crura clitoridis.
Upper part of the fphinfter ani, and a white tough fubftance in the perinaeum.
White tough fubftance in the perinaeum, and into the os coccygis.
Perinaeum and fphinfter ani.
Large pit at the root of the trochanter major.
Extremity of the os facrum, and near the whole length of the os coccygis laterally.
The femilunar tendon in the middle.
Root of the tranfverfe procefs of the fecond vertebra of the loins dn both fides.
Tranfverfe proceflesof all the vertebrte of the loins,the laft rib near the fpine, and laft vertebra of the back.
Brim of the pelvis at the junftion of the os ilium and pubis.
Trochanter minor of the os femoris, and into that bone a little below it.
Along with the pfoas magnus.
Upper and inner part of the os humeri.
Cartilage joining the firft rib with the fternum.
Upper edge of the third, fourth, and fifth ribs.
The nine fuperior ribs.
Upper obtuie edge of each inferior rib.
The fame as the former.
Lower edge of the cartilages of the third, fourth, and fifth ribs.
To fupport and comprefs the peritonaeum and abdomen.
To aflift the former. '*
To alfift the two former.
To comprefs the lower part of the belly, and bend the body forwards.
To aflift the reftus.
To contraft the ferotam.
To fufpend and draw up the tefticle.
To comprefs the crus penis.
To drive forward the urine or femen, and diftend the glans.
To dilate the bulb, and draw outwards and backwards the perinaeum and verge of the anas^
To Ihut the anus, and pull down the bulb of the urethra.
To draw up the reftum.
To ereft the clitoris.
To contraft the mouth of the vagina.
To keep the perinceum in its proper place.
To Ihut the reftum, and aflift in contrafting the vagina.'
To raife the extremity of the reftum.
To move upwards the os femoris, and roll it obliquely outwards,
To move the os coccygis forwards. '
j^The principal agents in refpiration, particularly in infpiration.
To move to one fide, and bend forwards the loins.
To aflift the pfoas magnus.
To bend the thigh forwards, and to aflift in bending the body.
To aflift the pfoas in bending the thigh, and bring it direftly forwards,
To move the arm forwards and obliquely upwards.
To pull the firft rib upwards.
To raife the ribs upwards, or bring the fcapula forwards.
To dilate the thorax.
To raife the ribs in infpiration.
To deprefs thefe cartilages and the extremities of the ribs.
1. Longus colli.
x. Reftus capitis internus major.
3. Reftus capitis internus minor.
4. Reftus (tapitis lateralis.
I. ' Trapezius feu cucullaris.
x. Latifftmus dorji.
3. Serratus pofticus inferior.
4. Rhomboides.y^f^
3. Splenius.
6. Serratus fuperior pojlicus.
7. Spinalis dorfi.
5. Longijfmus dorji.
9. Sacrolumbalis.
ro. Complexus.
II. Trachelo-majloidxus.
1 x. Levator fcapula.
13. Semifpinalis dorji.
14. Multifdusfpina.
13- Semifpinalis colli.
16. Reftus capitis pojlicus major,
17. Reftus capitis pojlicus minor.
18. Obliquus. capitis fuperior.
19. Obliquus capitis inferior,
xo. Scalenus anticus.
a 1. Scalenus medius.
xx. Scalenus pojlicus.
Three fuperior vertebras of the b|ck laterally, and the tranfverfe procefles of the third, fourth, fifth,
.and fixth vertebrse of the neck;
Tranfverfe procefles of the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth vertebrse of the neck.
Fore part of the body of the firft vertebra of the neck.
Point of the tranfverfe procefs of (!he firft vertebra of the neck.
Protuberance in the middle of the os occipitis, the rough curved line extending from the protuberance
towards the maftoid procefs of the temppral bane, the fpinous prodifles of the inferior vertebrae of
the neck, and from all thofe of the back*
Pofterior part of the os ilium, all the fpinous procefles of the os facrum; and vertebrae of the loins; the
feven inferior ones of the vertebrae of the back; and the extremities of the three inferior ribs.
Spinal procefles of the two> inferior vertebras of the back, and the three fuperior of the loins.
1. From the fpinous procefles of the five fuperior vertebrae of the bade. 2. Spinous procefles of the
three inferior vertebrae of the heck, and from the ligamentum nuchae.
Four fuperior fpinous procefles 0f the vertejbra of the back; the five inferior of the neck.
**'*' M >«£ykf'T-Vi', *• ’ t
Spinous procefles of the two laft vertebrae bf the neck, and the three uppermoft of the back.
Spinous procefles of the two uppermoft veittebrae of the loins, and the three inferior of the back.
Side, and all the fpinal procefltfs of the osffacrum ; pofterior fpine of the ilium, from all the fpinous
procefles, and the roots of the tranfverfe procefles of the vertebrae cf the loins.
In common with the longifllmus dbrfi.
Tranfverfe procefles of the fix fijperior vertebras of the back, and four inferior of the neck.
Tranfverfe procefles of the three uppermoft; vertebras of the back, and the five lowermoft of the neck.
Traniverfe procefles of the five fuperior vertebras of the neck.
Tranfverfe procefles of the feventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth vertebras of the back.
Side and fpinous procefles of the os facrum, the pofterior part of the os ilium; all the oblique and
tranfverfe procefles of the vertebras of the loins; all the tranfverfe procefles of thole of the back,
and of the neck, except the throe firft.
Tranfverfe procefles of the uppermoft fix vertebrse of the back.
External part of the fpinous proceis of the fecond vertebra of the neck.
Protuberance in the middle of the back part of the firft vertebra of the neck,
Tranfverfe prpeefs of the firft vertebra of the neck.
Spinous procefs of the fecond Vertebra of the neck.
Fourth, fifth, and fixth, tranfverfe procifles of the vertebrse of the heck.
All the tranfverfe procefles of the yertebr® of the neck.
Fifth and fixth tranfverfe prodriTeS of the vertebras of the neck,
Fore part of all the bodies of the vertebrse of the neck*
Cuneiform procefs of the os occipitis.
Near the root of the condyloid procefs of the os occipitis.
Os occipitis oppofite to the foramen ftylo-maftoidasum of the temporal bone.
The pofterior half of the clavicle, the acromion; and almoft all the fpfne of the fcapula.
Inner edge of the groove for lodging the tendon of the long head of the biceps.
Lower edges of the four inferior rijaS.
1. All the bafis of the fcapula below its fpine, 2. The bafis of the fcapnla oppofite to its fpine.
Five fuperior tranfverfe proeCfles of the vertebrse of the neck, pofterior part of the maftoid procefs, and
into the os occipitis. /
Second, third, fourth-, and fifth ribs.
Spinous procefles of the nine uppermoft vertebrse of the back, except the firft.
All the tranfverfe procefles of the vertebrse of the back, aind the lower edge of all the ribs, except the
two inferior.
Into all the ribs where they begin to be curved forwards.
Inferior edge ff the protuberance in the middle of the os occipitis, and a part of the curved line that
runs forward to that protuberance.
Middle of the back part of the maftoid procefs.
Superior angle of the fcapula.
Spinous procefles of all the vertebras of the back above the eighth, and into the lowermoft of the neck.
All the ijpinous procefles of the vertebras of the loins, back, and neck, except thelfirft.
.Spinous procefles of all the vertebrse of the neck, except the firfl: and laft.
Os occipitis, near the refius capitis lateralis,- and the inlertion of the dbliquus capitis fuperior.
Sides of a dimple in the os occipitis, near its foramen magnum.
Os occipitis, behind the maftoid procefs of the temporal bone.
Tranfverfe procefs of the firft vertebra of the neck.
Upper fide of the firft rib, near its cartilage.
Upper and outer part of the firft rib.
Upper edge of the firft rib, not far from the fpine.
To bend the neck gradually forward and to one fide.
To bend the head forwards.
To nod the head forwards.
To bend the head a little to one fide.
To move the fcapula backwards, and obliquely upwards, and obliquely downwards and backwardi
To pull the arm backwards and downwards, and roll the os humeri.
To deprefs the ribs into which it is inferted.
To aflift the former.
To pull the head backwards, direftly, and laterally.
To elevate the ribs and dilate the thorax.
To ereft and fix the vertebras, and to aflift in raifing the fpine.
To extend the vertebras, and to raife and keep the trunk of the body ereft.
To-pull the ribs down.
To draw the head backwards, direftly, and laterally.
To aflift the former;- but it pulls the head more to a fide.
To pull the fcapula upwards and a little forwards.
To extend the fpine obliquely backwards.
To extend the vertebras laterally, or backward's.
To turn the neck obliquely backwards, and a little to one fide.
To pull the head a little backwards.
To aflift the reftus major in moving the head a little backwards.
To turn the head obliquely to one fide.
To aflift the former, by turning the head more to one fide.
To elevate the ribs, dilate the thorax, or bend the neck to one fide.
Parts of
the Body.
On the
fcapula.
Before the
fcapula.
Os hume¬
ri, ■
Cubit, or
fore-arm,
Hand,
Inferior
extremi¬
ties.
Names of the Museles.
13. Interfpinalei colli.
a 4. InUrtranfv erf ales colli.
aj. Interfpinales dorfi.
16. Intertranfverfalcs dorji.
17. Inlerfpinales lumboruril.
a 3. Inter trailfuerfiles lumborum.
x. Supra-fpinatus.
a. Infrafpinatus.
3. Teres minor*
4. Teres major.
r, Deltoidcs.
a. Coraco bracbialis.
3. Subfcapularis.
x. Biceps flexor cubiti.
a. Bracbialis internus.
3. Triceps extenfor cubili.
4. Anconans.
i. Palmaris lonyus.
а. Palmaris brevis.
3. Flexor carpi radialis.
4. Flexor carpi ulnars.
5. Extenfor carpi radialis longior.
б. Extenfor carpi radialis brevior.
7. Extenfor carpi ulnaris.
8. Flexor fublimis perforatus.
9. Flexor profundus perforans.
to. Lumbricales.
11. Extenfor digilorum communis.
1 a. Supinator radii longus.
13. Supinator radii brevis.
14. Pronator radii teres.
15. Pronator radii quadratu\.
i. Flexor longus pollicis manus.
а. Flexor brevis polluis manus.
3. Opponens pollicis.
4 Extenfor ojfls mctacarpi pollicis
mams.
5. Exteifor prirni internodii.
б. Extenfor fccundi internodii,
7. AbdaBor polluis manus.
8. AdduBor pollicis manus.
9. Indicator.
10. AbduBor ind'uh manvs.
it. AbduBor minimi digiti manus.
1 a. AdduBor minimi digiti manus'.
13. Flexor parvus minimi digiti.
14. Prior indicts.,
15. Poflerior indicts.
1 <5, Prior annularis.
17. InteroJJeus annularis.
18. Prior medit
19. Poflerior medii.
10. Poflcrior annularis.
t. PeBinalis.
x. Triceps adduBor ^['.brlS.
lemons. } 1© ' „
J „ (. 3. magnus.
3. Obturator exterms.
4. Glutxus maximus.
J. Glutxus medius.
■6. Glutxus minimus.
7. Pyriformis.
| 8. Gemini.
■'?
jo. ppuadratusfemoris.
f 10. Terfor vaginx femoris*
A TABLE of the MUSCLES.
— — — . . .... . .r  —i—  ^
INSERTION.
ORIGIN.
Double, from the fpinous procefles of the inferior vertebras of, the neck.
Inferior tranfverfe procefles of the vertebrae of the peck, and firft of the back.
Are fmall tendons which fill up the {paces between the fpinous proceffef of the vertebrae of the back,
and ferve to conneft them to each other.
Are tendons connecting the tranfverfe procefles of the back in the fame manner as the former do thofe
of the neck.
Are tendons connecting the fpinous procefles of the lumbar vertebrae to each other.
Are four diftinCt fmall bundles of flefh, which fill up the /paces between the tranfverle procefles of the
vertebrae of the loins, and ferve to draw them towards each other.
All the part of the bafe of the fcapula above the fpine, from the fpine and fuperior cofta.
All that part of the bafe of the fcapula between its fpinc and inferior angle; from the fpine, and the
edge of all the fofla running above the fpine.
Round edge of all the inferior cofta of the fcapula.
Inferior angle of thefcapnla, and all that portion of its inferior cofta that is rouglvand thicker than the reft.
All the pofterior part of the clavicle not poflefled by the peCtoralis; from the acromion, and Jower
margin of almoft the whole fpine of the fcapula oppofite to the cucullaris mufcle.
Fore part of the coracoid ptocefs of the fcapula.
All the bafe of the fcapula internally, and from its fuperior and inferior coftse.
Double; 1. From the upper edge of the glenoid cavity of the fcapula. a. From the coracoid procefs
of the fcapula. . : . , : i
Middle of the os humeri.
By three heads. 1. The longus> from the inferior cofta of the fcapula, near its cervix. 1. Brevis, from
the os humeri a little below its head outwardly. 3. Brachialis cxlernus, from the bs humeri, near
the infertion of the teres major.
Pofterior part of the external condyle of the os humeri.
Internal condyle of the os humeri.
Skin and fat covering the abdixftor minimi digiti, and the os pififorme.
Internal condyle of the os humeri, and the anterior part of the upper jend of the ulna.
Internal condyle of the os humeri, and outer fide of the olecranon.
Lower part of the external ridge of the os humeri, above its external condyle.
External condyle of the os humeri, and the ligament that connects the radius to it.
External condyle of the os humeri.
Internal condyle of the os humeri, coronoid procefs of the ulna, tubercle, and middle of the fore part
of the radius.
External fide and upper part of the ulna.
Outfide of the tendons of the flexor profundus.
External condyle of the os humeri.
External ridge of the os humeri above the condyle.
External condyle of the os humeri, the external and upper part of the ulna.
Internal condyle of the os humeri, and coronoid procefs of the ulna.
Lower and inner part of the ulna.
Upper part of the radius below its tubercle, and the interna.! condyle of the os humeri.
Os trapezoides, magnum, and unciforme of the carpus.
Os trapezium, and ligamentum carpi annulare.
Middle and external part of the ulna, external part of the middle of the radius, and from the inter-
ofleous ligament.
External part of the radius near the former mufcle, and from the interofleous ligament.
Ulna a little above its inferior extremity, and the ligamentum annulare,
Ligamentum carpi annulare, and os trapezium.
Almoft the whole length of the metacarpal bone fuftaining the middle finger.
Middle of the pofterior part of the ulna.
Os trapezium, and outfide of the metacarpal bone of the thumb.
I Os pififorme and ligamentum carpi annulare.
Thin edge of the os unciforme-, arid the ligament, of the wrift.
Internal fide of the os unciforme, and the ligament of the wrift.
Pofterior and inner part of the metacarpal bone fuftaining the fore-finger.
Root and outer part of the metacarpal bone fuftaining the fore-finger.
Root of the infifie of the metacarpal bone fuftaining the ring finger.
Root and inner- fide of the,metacarpal bone of the little finger.
Roots of the metacarpal bones fuftaining the fore and middle fingers.
Roots of the metacarpal bones fuftaining the middle and ring fingers.
Roots of the metacarpal bones fuftaining the ring and little fingers.'
Uppjrr and anterior part of the os pubis, above the foramen thyroidasum.
1. Upper and anterior part of the os pubis.
7,. Os pubis, xsear its joining.
3. Os pubis, a little lower than the former, and from the os ifehium.
Lower part of the os pubis and ifehium.
Pofterior part of the fpine of the os ilium ; the whole external fide of tjae os faernm ; and the pofterior
facro-ifchiatic ligament.
Anterior and fuperior prpeefs of the os ilium, and all the outer edge of the fpine of the ilium.
A ridge continued from the fuperipr anterior procefs of the os ilium, and middle of the dorfum of that bone.
Within the pelvis, from the fecon.d, third, and fourth pieces of the qsfacrum.
Double, from the fpinous procefs and tuberofity of the os ifehium, and from the pofterior facro-ifchiatic
ligament.
Outfide of the tuberofity of the %s ifehium.
External part of the anterior fuperior fpinous procefs of the os ilium.
Double, into the fuperior procefles.
Superior tranfverfe procefles of each of thefe vertebras.
Protuberance of the head of the os humeri next the groove for lodging the tendon of the'long head
of the biceps.
Upper and middle part of the protuberance on the head of the os humeri.
Outer part of the protuberance of the head pf the os humeri. !! f
Ridge at the inner fide of the groove for lodging the tendon of the long head of the biceps, {along
with the latiffimus dorfi. . / . „• , ' ‘ ' !
A rough protuberance in the middle of the os humeri.
Middle of the internal part of the os humeri. J |
Upper part of the internal protuberance at the head of the os humeri.
Tubercle on the upper end of the radius externally.
Goronoul procefs of the ulna.
Upper and external part of the procefs of the ulna called olecranon, and partly into the cpnd|les pf the
6s humeri.
A ridge on the lateral part of the ulna.
Ligamentum carpi annulare, and the tendinous membrane that covers the palm of thehaad.
The fame with the former.
Upper part of the metacarpal bone that fuftains the fore-finger. *
Os pififorme.
Fore part of the metacarpal bone that fuftains the fore-finger.
Metacarpal bone that luftains the middle finger.
Fore part of the metacarpal bone luftaining the little finger,.
Fore part of the fecond bone of each finger.
Third or laft bone of all the fingers.
Sides of the broad tendons of the interoflei mufcles. -
Pofterior part of all the four fingers.
External part of the inferior extremity of the radius.
Head and tubercle of the radius near the infertion of the biceps.
Middle of the outer edge of the radius.
External and lower part of the radius.
Laft joint of the thumb.
Ofla fefamoidea, and fecond Joint of the thumb.
Anterior*part of the metacarpal bone of the thumb.
Os trapezium, and upper part of the metacarpal bone of the thumb.
Anterior part of the fecond bone of the thumb.
Laft bone of the thumb. . - ■ I { 1
Second bone of the thumb.
Pofterior part of the fecond bone of the thumb.
Pofterior part of the fore finger.
Side of the pofterior part of the firft joint of the fore-finger.
Ppfterior part of the firft joint of the little finger laterally.
Side and anterior pajrt of the metacarpal bone of the Kttle finger.
Anterior part of the firft bone of the little finger.
Infide of the tendinous expanfion covering the pofterior part of the fore-finger.
Outfide of the tendinous expanfion along the pofterior part of the fore-finger.
Infide of the tendinous expanfion covering the ring finger.
Infide of the tendinous expanfion covering the little finger.
Infide of the tendinous expanfion covering the outfide of the middle finger.
Outfide of the tendinous expanfion running along the pofterior part of the middle finger.
Outfide of the tendinous expanfion running along the pofterior part of the ring finger.
Anterior and upper part of the linea afpera of the os femoris.
Near the middle of the poftcrior part of the linea afpera.
Anterior at. 1 upper part of the linea afpera.
Almoft the whole length of the linea afpera, upper part of the internal condyle of the. os femoris,
and a ridge above the condyle.
Cavity at the root of the trochanter major.
Upper and outer part of the linea afpera.
Outer and pofterior part of the trochanter major.
Fore and upper part of the trochanter major.
Upper part of the cavity at the root of the trochanter major.
Cavity at the root of the trochanter major.
Rough ridge on the outfide of the trochanter major.’
Doubling of the membranous fafeia that covers the thigh.
U S E S.
To draw together thefe procefles.
To draw thefc procefles towards each other, and turn the neck a little to one fide.
To raife the arm upwards, and pull the capfular ligament from between the bones.
To pull the arm upwards and backwards, and to pull the ligament from between the hones,
To afllft the former.
To move the arm backwards and downwards, and to roll the head of the os humeri.’
To pull the arm direftly upwards, and a little forwards or backwards.
To raife the arm upwards.
To bend the fore arm, and turn it fupine.
To bend the fore arm.
To extend the arm.
To affift in extending the fore arm.
To bend the hand, and ftretch that tendinous membrane.
To affift in contrafting the palm of the hand.
To bend the wrift together with the hand,
To affift in bending the hand.
To extend and bring the hand backwards.
To afllft the former.
To aflift the former in extending the hand.
To bend the laft joint of the fingers.
To affift in bending the fingers.
To extend all the joints of the fingers.
To roll the radius outwards, and palm of the hand upwards.
The fame with the former.
To roll the radius inwards.
The fame with the former.
To bend the laft joint of the thumb.
To bend the fecond joint of the thumb.
To bring the thumb inwards, oppofite to the other fingers.
To extend the thumb outwardly.
To extend the fecond bone of. the thumb obliquely outwards.
To extend the laft joint, with the thumb, obliquely backwards.
To draw the thumb from the fingers.
To pull the thumb towards the fingers.
To bring the fore finger towards the thumb.
To extend and draw the little finger from the reft.
To bend and bring this finger to the reft.
To bend the little finger and affift the adduftor.
To draw the fore-finger inwards towards the thumb,.and extend it obliquely.
To extend the fore-finger obliquely, and draw it outwards.
To extend and pull the ring finger towards the thumb.
To extend and draw the little finger inwards.
To extend and draw the fore-finger inwards.
To extend and draw the middle finger outwards.
To extend and draw the ring finger-outwards.
To bring the thigh upwards and inwards.
>To bring the thigh inwards and upwards.
To roll the thigh-bone obliquely outwards.
To extend the thigh.
To aflift the glutaeus maximus.
T o aflift the two former in pulling the thigh forwards.
To move the thigh a little upwards and roll it outwards.
To roll the thigh outwards.
The fame with the former.
To ftretch the membranous fafeia, to ottem} the leg, aod tura it a little outwards.
IV
A TABLE of the MUSCLES.
Parts of
the Body.
Names of the Muscles.
ii. Sartorius.
ti. Gracilis.
13. Rettus.
14. Vaflus externus.
15. Vafius internus.
16. Crur&us.
17. Semitendinofus.
18. Semimembranofus.
19. Biceps flexor $ 1. lo ngus.
cruris 2 z. brevis.
xo. Poplitdus.
xr. Gaftrocnemius externusy feu
Gemellus.
ii. SoUus,feu Gaflrocnemus in-
ternus.
13. Plant arts.
X4. Tibialis aniicus.
2$. Tibialis pojlicus.
16. Perenteus longus.
17. Peronctus brevis.
iQ.Extenfor longus digitorum pedis.
19. Extenfor brevis digitorum pedis
30. Flexor brevis digitorum pedis,
feu Sublimis perforatus.
31. Flexor longus digitorum pedis,
feu profundus perforonis.
31. Flexor digitorum accejforius,
feu majfa carnea Jacobi Sylvii.
33. Lumbricales pedis.
34. Extenfor proprius pollicispedis
35. Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
36. Flexor brevis pollicis pedis.
37. Abdufior pollicis pedis.
38.. Addufior pollicis pedis-
39. Abdufior minimi digitis pedis.
40. Flexor brevis minimi digiti
pedis.
41. Abdufior indicis pedis.
42. Addufior indicis pedis.
43. Abdufior medii digiti pedis.
44. Abdufior tertii digiti pedis.
4J. Addufior medii digiti pedis.
46. Addufior tertii digiti pedis.
47. Addufior minimi digiti pedis.
48. Tranfverfalis pedis.
ORIGIN.
Anterior fuperior fpinous procefs of the os ilium.
Os pubis near the fyjnphyfis.
Inferior anterior fpinous procefs of the os ilium, and from the dorfiim of that bone.
Root of the trochanter major, and upper part of the hnea dfpera.*| ■ |
Between the forepart of the os femoris and root of the trochanter minor, and from almoft all the in-
fide of the linea afpera. |
Between the two trochanters.
Poflefior part of the tuberofity of the os ifehium.
Upper and poflerior part of the tuberofity of the os ifchiuml |
1. Upper and pofterior part of the tuberofity of the os ifehium. s| Linea afpera.
External condyle of the os femoris.
Double, from the internal condyle of the os femoris, and from tilt bone a little above the condyle.
Double, from the upper and back part of the head of the fibula, and from the pofterior part of its middle.
External condyle of the os femoris.
Middle of that procefs of the tibia to which the fibula is conned tedl
Fore and upper part of the tibia; from the back part of the fib jla next the tibia, from near one half
of the upper part of the fibula ; and from the interofteous lijjansent.
Fore part of the head of the fibula.
Out fide of the upper part of the fibula.
Upper and outer part of the head of the fibula, from its interioi ifpjfie, and from the tendinous fafeia
covering the upper and outfide of the leg.
Fore and upper part of the os calcis.
Protuberance of the os calcis.
Back part of the tibia.
Sinuofity at the infide of the os calcis, and from behind the tuber fity of the fame bone.i
Quadruple, from the tendon of the flexor profundus.
Upper and anterior part of the fibula. i* '•
Pofterior part of the fibula, almoft its whole length.
Os calcis, and cuneiforme externum.
Infide of the os calcis.
Os calcis, cnboides, cuneiforme externum, and root of the metatal
Protuberance of the os calcis, and root of the metatarfal bone of tbf little toe,
Os cuboides, and outfide of the metatarfal bone fuftaining the little toe.
fal bone of the fecotld toe.
Double, from the root of the infide of the metatarfal bone of the fore toe, from the metatarfal htftie
of the great toe, and from the os cifneiforme.
Roots of the metatarfal bones of the fore and fecond toe.
Roots of the metatarfal bones of the fecond and third toes.
Roots of the metatarfal bones of the third and little toe,
Infide of the root of the metatarfal bone of the middle toe intermllyl
Root of the metatarfal bone of the third toe.
Root of the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
Metatarfal bone of the great toe, and os fefamoidxum of the firft joiit.
insertion.
Inferior part of the tubercle of the tibia, and the upper part of its fpine.
Tibia, near the fartorius.
Upper part of the patella; and from the inferior part of this bone the tendon is fent off to the tubercle
of the tibia.
A large fhare of the upper part of the patella.
Upper and infide of the patella.
Upper part of the patella.
Infide of the ridge of the tibia, a little below its tubercle.
Superior and back part of the head of the tibia.
Upper part of the head of the fibula.
Ridge at the upper and internal edge of the tibia.
Upper and pofterior part of the os calcis, by the tendo Achillis.
In fide of the pofterior part of the os calcis.
Infide of the os cuneiforme internum, and pofterior end of the matacarpa! bone fuftaining the great toe.
Os naviculare, cuneiforme internum and medium; os calcis, cuboides, and the root of the metatarfal
bone fuftaining the middle toe.
Out fide of the root of the metatarfal bone fuftaining the great toe, and os cuneiforme internum.
Root and external part of the metatarfal bone fuftaining the little toe.
Root of the firft joint of each of the fmall toes, and expanded over their upper fide as far as the laft joint.
Tendinous expanfion covering the fmall toes, and that covering the upper part of the great toe.
Second phalanx of the four lefler toes.
Extremity of the laft joint of the four lefler toes.
Tendon of the flexor longus.
Infide of the firft joint of the four lefler toes.
Pofterior part of the firft and laft joint of the great toe.
Laft joint of the great toe.
External ps fefamoidaeum, and root of the firft joint of the great toe.
The fame with the former.
External os fefamoidseum, and root of the metatarfal bone of the great toe.
Root of the firft joint of the little toe externally.
Anterior extremity of the metatarfal bone, and root of the firft joint of the little toe.
Infidc of the root of the firft joint of the fore toe.
Outfide of the root of the firft joint of the fore toe.
Outfide of the root of the firft joint of the fecond toe.
Outfide of the root of the firft joint of the third toe.
Infide of the root of the firft joint of the middle toe.
Root of the firft joint of the third toe. ,
Root of the firft joint of the little toe.
Outfide of the anterior extremity of the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
USES.
To move the leg obliquely inwards, or to bring one leg and thigh crofs the other.
To bend the thigh and leg inwards.
To extend the leg by means of the patella, like a pulley.
To extend the leg.
To extend the leg.
To aflift in the extenfion of the leg.
To bend the leg backwards and a Tittle inwards.
To bend the leg and bring it direftly backwards.
To bend the leg.
To move the leg obliquely outwards, and to aflift in bending it.
To extend the foot.
To aflift the former.
To bend the foot.
To bring the foot inwards and upwards.
To move the foot outwards, and bend it a little.
To pull the foot outwards and upwards.
To extend all the joints of the four fmall toes.
To extend the toes.
To bend the fecond joint of the toes.
To bend the toes.
To aflift the the former.
To aflift in bending the toes.
To extend the great toe.
To bend the laft joint of the great toe.
To bend this firft joint.
To pull the great toe from the reft.
To bring this toe nearer the reft.
To draw the little toe outwards.
! To bend the little toe.
To pull the fore toe inwards.
To pull the foretoe outwards towards the reft.
To pull the fecond toe outwards.
To pull the third toe outwards.
To pull the middle toe inwards.
To pull the third toe inwards.
To pull the little toe inwards.
To bring the little toe towards the great one.
—
.
V
Flafe IZST.
Part III.
ANATOMY.
355
EXPLANATION of
Plate XV.
Fig. i. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the anterior part of the body, are
reprefented on the right fide ; and on the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the extre-
rior ones are taken away.
A, The frontal mufcle. B, The tendinous aponeu-
rofis which joins it to the occipital; hence both named
occipito-frontalis. C, Attollens aurem. D, The ear.
E, Anterior auris. F F, Orbicularis palpebrarum.
G, Levator labii fuperioris alseque nafi. H, Levator
anguli oris. I, Zygomaticus minor. K, Zygomaticus
major. L, Maffeter. M, Orbicularis oris. N, De-
preflbr labii inferioris. O, Depreflbr anguli oris.
P, Buccinator. Platyfma myoides. R R, Ster-
no-cleido-maftokkeus. S, Part of the trapezius.
T, Part of the fcaleni.
Superior Extremity.—U,Deltoides. V. Peftora-
lis major. W, Part of the latiffimus dorfi. X X, Bi¬
ceps flexor cubiti. Y Y, Part of the brachialis exter-
nus. Z Z, The beginning of the tendinous aponeu-
rofis, (from the biceps) which is fpread over the muf-
cles of the fore-arm. a a, Its ftrong tendon inferted
into the tubercle of the radius, b b. Part of the bra¬
chialis internus. c, Pronator radii teres, d, Flexor
carpi radialis. e, Part of the flexor carpi ulnaris.
f, Palmaris longus. g, Aponeurofis palmaris. 3, Pal-
maris brevis. 1, Ligamentum carpi annulare. 2 2, Ab-
duftor minimi digiti. h, Supinator radii longus.
i, The tendons of the thumb, k, Abduftor pollicis.
1, Flexor pollicis longus. m m, The tendons of the
fluxor fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and
lumbricales. —The (heaths are entire in the right hand,
—in the left cut open, to (hew the tendons of the flexor
profundus perforating the fublimis.
Muscles not referred to—in the left fuperior extre¬
mity—n, Pe&oralis minor, feuferratus anticus minor,
o, The two heads of (x x) the biceps, p, Coraco-
brachialis. q q, The long head of the triceps extenfor
cubiti. r r, Texes major, ff, Subfcapularis. 11, Ex-
tenfores radiales.. u, Supinator brevis, v, The cut
extremity of the pronator teres. w, Flexor fubli¬
mis perforatus. x, Part of the flexor profundus.
, Flexor pollicis longus. z, Part of the flexor pollicis
revis. 4, Abduftor minimi digiti. 5, The four
lumbricales.
Trunk.—6, Serrated extremities of the ferratus
anticus major. 7 7, Obliquus externus abdominis.
8 8, The linea alba. 9, The umbilicus, 10, Pyra-
midalis. 11 11, The fpermatic cord. On the left
fide, it is covered by the cremafter. 12 12, Reft us
abdominis. 13. Obliquus internus. 14 14, &c. In-
tercoftal mufcles.
Inferior Extremities.—a a. The gracilis.
b b. Parts of the triceps, c c. Peftialis. d d, Pfoas
magnus. e e, Uiacus internus. f. Part of the glu-
taeus medius. g, Part of the glutaeus minimus. f>. Cut
extremity of the reftus cruris, i /, Vaftus externus.
b, Tendon of the reftus cruris. / /, Vaftus internus.
* Sartorius mufcle. * * Fleftiy origin of the tenfor
vagina; femoris or membranofus. Its tendinous aponeu-
PLATE XV. and XVI.
rofis covers (/'), the vaftus externus in the right-fide.
m m, Patella, n n. Ligament or tendon from it to
the tibia. 0, Reftus cruris, p, Cruraeus. q 7, The
tibia, r r, Part of the gemellus or gaftrocnemius ex¬
ternus. ///, Part of the foleus or gaftrocnemius
internus. /, Tibialis anticus. u. Tibialis pofticus.
v v, Peronaei mufcles. *u> w, Extenfor longus digi-
torum pedis, x x, Extenfor longus pollicis pedis.
y, Abduftor pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The Muscles, Glands, &c. of the left
fide of the face and neck, after the comffcon teguments
and platyfma myoides have been taken off.
a, The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and tempo¬
ral artery, c, Orbicularis palpebrarum, d, Levator
labii fuperioris alsequi nafi. e. Levator anguli oris,
f, Zygomaticus. g, Depreffor labii inferioris. h, De-
reffor anguli oris, i. Buccinator. k, Maffeter.
1, Parotid gland, m, Its duft. n, Sterno-cleido-
maftoidaeus. o, Part of the trapezius, p, Sterno-
hyoidaeus. q, Sterno-thyroidaeus. r, Omo-hyoidaeus.
f, Levator fcapulas. 11, Scaleni. u, Part of the fple-
nius.
Fig. 3, The Muscles of the face and neck, in view
after the exterior ones are taken away,
a a, Corrugator fupercilii. b. Temporalis, c. Ten¬
don of the levator palpebrae fuperioris. d, Tendon
of the orbicularis palpebrarum, e, Maffeter. f, Buc¬
cinator. g, Levator anguli oris, h, Depreffor labii
fuperioris alaeque nafi. i. Orbicularis oris, k, Depref¬
for anguli oris. 1, Mufcles of the os hyoides. m, Ste-
rno-cleido-maftoidams.
Fig. 4. Some of the Muscles of the os hyoides,
and fubmaxillary gland.
a, Part of the maffeter mufcle. b, Pofterior head
of the digaftric. c, Its anterior head, d d, Sterno-
hyoidaeus. e, Omo-hyoidaeus. f, Stylo-hyoidaeus.
g, Submaxillary gland in fitu.
Fig. 5. The fubmaxillary gland and duft.
a, Mufculus mylo-hyoidaeus. b, Hyo-gloffus. c, fub¬
maxillary gland extra fitu. d. Its daft.
Plate XVI.
Fig. 1. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the pofterior part of the body are
reprefented in the right fide; and on the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the .te-
rior ones are taken away.
Head—A A, Occipito-frontalis. B, Attolh n$
aurem. C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum.
D, Maffeter. E, Pterygoidaeus internus.
Trunk.—Right fide. F F F, Trapezius feu cucul-
laris. G G G G, Latiffimus dorfi. H, Part of the
obliquus externus abdominis.
Trunk.—Left fide. I. Splenius. K, Part of the
complexus. L, Levator fcapulae. M, Rhomboides.
N N, Serratus pofticus inferior. O, Part of the lon-
giflimus dorfi. P, Part of the facro-lumbalis. Q^Part
of the femi-fpinalis dorfi. R, Part of the ferratus anti¬
cus major. S, Part of the obliquus interims abdominis.
Superior Extremity.—Rightfide. T, Deltoides.
Z z U,
36?
Part IV.
ANATOMY.
U, Triceps extenfor cubiti. V. Supinator longus.
W W, Extenfores carpi radialis longior and brevior.
X X, Extenfor carpi ulnaris. Y Y, Extenfor digito-
rum communis. Z, Abduftor indicis. 123, Ex¬
tenfores pollicis.
Superior Extremity.—Left fide, a, Supra fpi-
natus. b, Infra-fpinatus. c. Teres minor, d, Te¬
res major, e, Triceps extenfor cubiti. f f, Exten¬
fores carpi radiales. g, Supinator brevis, h, Indica¬
tor. 123, Extenfores pollicis. i, Abdu&or minimi
digiti. k, Interoflei.
Inferior Extremity.—Right fide. 1, Glutasus
maximus. m, Part of the glutaeus medius. n, Ten-
for vaginae femoris. o. Gracilis, p p, Addudtor fe-
moris magnus. q, Part of the vaftus internus. r, Se-
mimembranofus. s, Semitendinofus. t, Long head
of the biceps flexor cruris, u u, Gaftrocnemius ex-
ternus feu gemellus, v, Tendo Achillis. w, Soleus
feu jpftrocnemius internus. x x, Peronaeus longus and
brevis, y. Tendons of the flexor longus digitorum
pedis;—and under them * flexor brevis digitorum
pedis, z, Abduftor minimi digiti pedis.
Inferior Extremity.—Left fide, m, n, 0, p p, q,
r, r, t, v, w nv, x x, y, z. Point the fame parts as in
the right fide, a, Pyriformis. b b, Gemini, c c. Obtu¬
rator internus. d, Quadratus femoris. e, Coccygaeus.
f, Thelhort head of the biceps flexor cruris, gg, Plan-
taris. h, Poplitaeus. /, Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The palm of the left hand after the com¬
mon teguments are removed, to fhew the Muscles of
the fingers.
a, Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b, Tendon
of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexor
fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans and lumbri-
cales. d, Abduftor pollicis. e e, Flexor pollicis
longus. f, Flexor pollicis brevis, g, Palmaris bre¬
vis. h, Abdu&or minimi digiti. i, Ligamentum car-
piannulare. k, A probe put under the tendons of
the flexor digitorum fublimis ; which are perforated by
1, the flexor digitorum profundus, m m m m, Lum-
bricales. n, Adduftor pollicis.
Fig. 3. A fore-view of the foot and tendons of the
flexores digitorum.
a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b, Upper
part of the aftragalus. c, Os calcis. d, Tendon of
the tibialis anticus. e, Tendon of the extenfor pollicis
longus. f. Tendon of the peronasus brevis, g, Ten¬
dons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the nonus
Vefalii. h h, The whole of the flexor digitorum
brevis.
Fig. 4. Muscles of the Anus.
a a, An outline of the buttocks, and upper part of
the thighs, b, The teftes contained in the fcrotum.
c c, Sphinfter ani. d, Anus, e, Levator ani. f f, E-
redlor penis, g g, Accelerator urinae. h, Corpus ca-
vernofum urethras.
Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis,
a a, b, d, e e, f f, h, point the fame as i
c, Sphin&er ani. g g, Tranfverfalis penis.
fig. 4.
PART IV. Of the ABDOMEN, or LOWER BELLY.
a, T^HE abdomen, or lower belly, extends from rangement of the feveral vifcera contained in it, de-
J- the lower extremity of the fternum, or the fcribe each of them feparately.
hollow ufually called the pit of the flomach, and more f, After having removed the Ikin, adipofe membrane,
properly fcorbiculus cordis, to the lower part of the and abdominal mufcles, of which there are five on each
trunk. fide, we difcover the peritonaeum; for fo the membrane
b, . It is diftinguifhed into three divifions, called re- is called which envelops all the vifcera of the lower belly.
gions: of thefe the fuperior one, which is called the This being opened, the firft part that prefents itfelfis,
begins immediately under the fternum, the omentum or cawl, floating on the furface of the
^nd extends to within two finger’s-breadth of the na- inteftines; which are likewife feen every where loofe
vel, where the middle or umbilical region begins, and and moift, and making a great number of circumvolu-
reaches to the fame diftance below the navel. The third, tions through the whole cavity of the abdomen. The
which is called the hypogaflric, includes the reft of the ftomach is placed in the epigaftrium, and under the
abdomen, as far as the os pubis. ftomach is the pancreas. The liver fills the right hy-
c, Each of thefe regions is fubdivided into three parts; pochondrium, and the fpleen is fituated in the left,
two of which compofe the fides, and the other the The kidneys are feen about the middle of the lumbar
middle part of each region.
d. The middle part of the upper region is called e-
pigajlrium ; and its two fides hypochondria. The middle
part of the next region is the umbilical region, properly
16 called, (g) and its two fides are the flanks, or iliac
regions. Laftly, the middle part of the lower region
retains the name of hypogajlrium, and its fides are call-
region, and the urinary bladder and parts of genera¬
tion are feated in the lower divifion of the belly.
Chap. I.
Of the Peritonaeum.
a, The peritonseum is a ftrong, fimple membrane,
ed inguina or groins. The back part of the abdomen by which all the vifcera of the abdomen are furrounded,
bears the name of lumbar region. and in fome meafure fupported. Many anatomical
e, Thefe are the divifions of the lower belly, which writers have defcribed it as being compofed of two
are neceflary to be held in remembrance as they fre- diftinS membranous laminae; but their defcriptionsfeem
quently occur in chirurgical. and anatomical writing, to be erroneous. What perhaps appeared to be a fe-
We will now proceed to examine the contents of the ab- cond lamina, being found to be Amply a cellular coat;
domen, and after having pointed out the name and ar- which, fends off produdtions to the blood veffels palling
out
(g) The navel is formed by the extremities of the vefiels which keep up a communication between the mother and
the foetus in utero. As foon as the child comes into the world, thefe vefiels are.divided and fecured by ligature, their
cavities difappear, and in progrefs of time they become a ligamentous cord.
367
ANATOMY.
Part IV.
out of the abdominal cavity. The aorta, and vena cava,
likewife, derive a covering from the fame membrane;
which feems to be a part of the cellular membrane we
have already defcribed.
b. The peritonaeum, by its produftions and redu¬
plications, envelops the greateft part of the abdominal
vifcera. It is foft, and capable of confiderable exten-
fion, and is kept fmooth and moift by a vapour which
is conftantly exhaling from its inner furface, and is re¬
turned again into the circulation by the abforbents.
c. This moifture not only contributes to the foftnefs
of the peritonaeum, but prevents the attrition, and o-
ther ill effedfs which would.otherwife probably be oc-
cafioned by the motion of the vifcera upon each other.
d. When this fluid is fupplied in too great a quan¬
tity, or the abforbents become incapable of carrying
it off, it acumulates; and conftitutes an afcites or di opfy
of the belly; and when by any means the exhalation
is difcontinued, the peritonaeum thickens ; becomes
difeafed; and the vifcera are fometimes found adliering
to each other.
e. It is fupplied with blood by branches of the mam¬
mary, epigaitric, and phrenic arteries; and the blood is
carried back by veins of the fame name. Its nerves are
derived from the fpinal marrow of the lumbar vertebrae,
andosfacrum; being branches of the nerves diftributed
to the abdominal mufcles, and it likewife receives fome
branches from the nerves which go to the diaphragm.
Chap. II.
3s« Of the Omentum.
a, The omentum or cawl is a moil delicate double
membrane, interlarded with a great deal of fat, which
is attached to the ftomach, fpleen, duodenum, and
colon; and from thence hangs down loofe and floating
on the furface of the inteftines. Sometimes it defcends
as low as the groin, and in people who are fubjeft to
ruptures, it is now and then found to pafs through the
abdominal rings, and diftend the hernial fac. The
difeafe is then called epiplocele, for the Greeks gave the
name of epiploon, to this vifeus. The omentum, by
being double, forms a kind of pouch open only at
one end, and fome French writers have on this account
compared it to a cul de fac. The celebrated M. Win-
flow has demonftrated this aperture, which is fituated
under the great lobe of the liver near the beginning
of the leffer lobe; and the wh ole pouch may be diitended
by blowing air in at this opening (h).
b, The cseliac and mefenteric arteries fend offbranch-
es to the omentum, and its redundant blood pafles
into the branches of the vena porta.
c, The ufe of this vifeus is not perfe&ly known.
It has been fuppofed, with great appearance of proba¬
bility, to contribute to the warmth and moifture of the
other vifcera ; for adheflons have been obferved to have
taken place where the fat of the omentum has been
much wafted. But there are authors who confider it
as affifting in the preparation of bile; and Malpighi
has remarked, that in warming the part which in frogs
fupplies the place of omentum, the fat was feen to dif-
folve into fpherical drops, which pafled into the vena
porta.
Chap. III.
Of the Stomach. jja
a, The ftomach is a membranous and mufcular bag,
in fhape not unlike a bag-pipe, lying acrofs the up¬
per part of the abdomen, and inclining rather more to
the left than the right fide.
b, It has two orifices, one of which receives the end
of the cefophagus, and is called the cardia ; and fome¬
times the left and upper orifice of the ftomach; though
its fituation is not much higher than the other, which
is ftiled the right and inferior orifice, and more com¬
monly the pylorus ; both thefe openings are more ele¬
vated than the body of the ftomach.
e, The aliment pafles down the cefophagus Into the
ftomach through the cardia, and after having under¬
gone the neceffary digeftion, pafles out at the pylorus
where the inteftinal canal commences.
d, The ftomach is compofed of four tunics or coats,
which are fo intimately connected together, that it re¬
quires no little dexterity in the anatomift to demonftrate
them. The exterior one is membranous, being derived
froni the peritonseum. The fecond is a mufcular tunic,
compofed of fleftiy fibres which are in the greateft num¬
ber about the two orifices. The third is called the
nervous coat, and within this is the villous or velvet¬
like coat, which compofes the infide of the ftomach.
e, The two laft coats being more extenfive than the
two firft, form the folds which are obferved-every
where in the cavity of this vifeus; and more particularly
about the pylorus, where they feem to impede the two
hafty exclufion of the aliment, making a confiderable
plait, called valvula pylori.
f, The inner coat is conftantly moiftened by a mu¬
cus which approaches to the nature of the faliva, and
is called the gajlric juice ; this liquor is fuppofed to
be fecreted by certain minute glands (i) feated in the
nervous tunic, whofe excretory dufts open on the fur¬
face of the villous coat.
g, The arteries of the ftomach called the gajlric
arteries, are derived from the casliac ; fome of its veins
pafs to the fplenic, and others to the vena porta; and
its nerves are chiefly from the eighth pair or par vagum.
h, The account given of the tunics of the ftomach
may be applied to the whole alimentary canal; for both
the cefophagus and inteftines are, like this vifeus, com¬
pofed of four coats.
i, Before we deferibe the courfe of the aliment and
the ufes of the ftomach, it will be neceflary to fpeak
of other parts which afiift in the procefs of digeftion.
C h a p. IV.
Of the Oesophagus. 3j3
a, The cefophagus or gullet, is a membranous and
mufcular canal extending from the bottom of the mouth
Z z 2 to
(h) This membranous bag, though exceedingly thin and tranfparent, is found capable of fupporting mercury
thrown into it by the fame channel.
(i) Heifter fpeaking of thefe glands very properly fays, “ in porcis facile, in homing rare obfervantur,” for altho*
many anatorhical writers have defcribed their appearance and figure, yet they do not feem to have been hitherto fatis-
faftorily demonftrated in the human ftomach.
368
ANA’
to the upper orifice of the ftomach. Its upper part
where the aliment is received, is lhaped fomewhat like
a funnel, and is called the pharynx.
b, From hence it paffes down clofe to the bodies of
the vertebrae as far as the diaphragm, where there
is an opening through which it paffes; and then termi¬
nates in the ftomach about the eleventh or twelfth ver¬
tebra of the back.
c, The cefophagus is fupplied with blood veffels from
the carotid arteries, and from the aorta; and receives
other branches from the intercoftal and caeliac arteries.
The blood is returned from thefe veffels into the jugular
veins, and the azygos.
d, Its nerves are derived from the eighth pair.
e, We likewife meet with a mucus in the cefophagus
which every where lubricates its inner furface, and
tends to affift in deglutition. -This mucus feems to be
fecreted by very minute glands, like the mucus in other
parts of the alimentary canal.
Chap. V.
3J4 Of the Intestines.
a, The inteftines form a canal which is ufually fix
times longer than the body to which it belongs. This
canal extends from the pylorus or inferior orifice of the
ftomach, to the anus.
b, It will be eafily underftood, that a part of fo great
length muft neceffarily make many circumvolutions to
be confined with fo many other vifcera in the capacity
of the lower belly.
c, Although the inteftines are in fa<ft, as we have ob-
ferved, only one long and extenfive canal; yet differ¬
ent parts have been diftinguilhed by different names.
d, The inteftines are firft diftinguilhed into two parts,
one of which begins at the ftomach and is called the
thin or fmall inteftines, from the fmall fize of the canal,
and the thicknefs of its coats when compared with the
other part, which is called the large intejlines; and in¬
cludes the lower portion of the canal down to the
anus.
e, Each of thefe parts has its fubdivifions. The
fmall inteftines being diftinguilhed into duodenum, je¬
junum, and ileum; and the larger portion into caecum,
colon, and reftum.
f, The fmall inteftines fill the middle and fore-parts
of the belly, while the large inteftines fill the fides
and both the upper and lower parts of the cavity.
g, The duodenum, which is the firft of the fmall in¬
teftines, is fo called, becaufe it is about twelve inches
long. It begins at the pylorus, and terminates in the
jejunum; which is a part of the canal obferved to be
ufually more empty than the other inteftines; this ap¬
pearance gives it its name, and likewife ferves to point
out where it begins.
h, The next divifion is the ileum, which of itfelf ex¬
ceeds the united length of the duodenum and jejunum;
and has received its name from its fituation in the lower
part of the umbilical region, near the offa innominata.
The large circumvolution of the ileum covers the firft
of the large inteftines called the ceecum, which feems
properly to belong to the colon; being a kind of pouch
about as wide as four fingers, and nearly of the fame
(k.) This, however, is not invariably the cafe; for the <
fmall inteftines, but to be voided at the mouth. Such inft
r O M Y. Part. IV.
length; having exteriorly a little appendix, called
dix caci.
i. The caecum is placed in the cavity of the os ilium
on the right fide, and terminates in the colon, which is
the largeft of all the inteftines.
k, This inteftine afcends by the right kidney to which
it is attached, paffes under the hollow part of the liver,
and the bottom of the ftomach to the fpleen to which it
is likewife fecured, as it is alfo to the left kidney; and
from hence paffes down towards the os facrum, where
from its ftraight courfe the canal begins to take the
name of rettum.
l, There are three ligamentous bands extending thro’
the whole length of the colon, which by being fliortey
than its two inner coats, fervc to increafe the plaits on
the inner furface of this gut..
m, The anus which terminates the inteftinum reftum,
is furnilhed with three mufcles; one of thefe is compo-
fed of circular fibres, and from its ufe in (hutting the
paffagc of the anus, is called fphintter ani.
n, The other two are the levatores ani; fo called,
becaufe they elevate the anus after dejedtion. When
thefe by palfy, or any other difeafe, lofe the power of
contrafting, the anus prolapfes; and when the fphinc••
ter is affedted by fimilar caufes, the fasces are voided in¬
voluntarily.
o, It has already been obferved, that the intefti-
nal canal is compofed of four tunics ; but it remains
to be remarked, that here, as in the ftomach, the two
inner tunics being more extenfive than the other two,
form the plaits which are to be feen in the inner fur¬
face of the inteftines, and are called valvulee conni-
ventes.
p, Some authors have confidered thefe plaits as
tending to retard the motion of the faeces, fo as to
afford more time for the feparation of the chyle ; but
there are others who attribute to them a different ufe :
They contend that thefe valves, by being naturally in¬
clined downwards, cannot impede the defcent of the fae¬
ces; but that they are intended to prevent their return
upwards.
q, They are probably deftined for both thefe ufes ;
for altho’ thefe folds incline to their lower fide, yet the
inequalities they occafion in the canal are fufficient to
retard in feme meafure the progreffive motion of the
faeces, and t6 afford a greater furface for the abforption
of chyle; and their natural pofition feems to oppofe it¬
felf to the return of the aliment.
r, Befides the valvula conniventes, there is one more
confiderable than the reft, called the valve of the colon;
which is found at that part of the canal where the in¬
teftinum ileum is joined to the colon. This valve per¬
mits the alimentary pulp to pafs downwards, but ferves
to prevent its return upwards ; and it is by this valve
that glyfters are prevented from palling into the fmall
inteftines (x).
f. Of the little vermiform appendix of the caecum, it
will be fufficient to fay that its ufes have never yet been
afeertained. In birds we meet with two of thefe ap¬
pendices.
t. The inteftines are lubricated by a conftant fupply
of mucus, formerly believed to be fecreted by very mi¬
nute glands, but now generally fuppofed to be exhaled
from
ontents of a glyfter have been found not only to. reach th*
ances however are not common.
3%
‘art IV. ANATOM Y.
3SS
from the minute ends of arteries. This mucus pro¬
motes the defcent of the alimentary pulp, and, in fome
meafure, defends the inner furface of the intettines from
the irritation, to which it would perhaps otherwife be
continually expofed, from the aliment; and which, when
in a certain degree, excites a painful diforder called colic,
a name given to the difeafe, becaufe its moll ufual feat is
in the inteftinum colon.
u, The inteftines are likevvife frequently diftended
•with air, and this dillenfion fometimes occafions pain,
and conftitutes the flatulent colic.
v, The arteries of the inteftines are continuations of
the mefenteric arteries, which are derived in two confi-
derable branches from the aorta. The redundant blood
is carried back into the vena portarum.
w, In the reftum the veins are called hemorrhoidal;
and are there diftinguilhed into internal and external :
Thefirft are branches of the inferior mefenteric vein, but
the latter pafs intoother veins. Sometimes thefe veins are
diftended with blood from obftruftions, from weaknefs
of their coats, or from other caufes ; and what we call
the hemorrhoids takes place. In this difeafe they are
fometimes ruptured, and the difcharge of blood which
confequently follows, has probably occafioned them to
be called hemorrhoidal veins.
x, The nerves of the inteftines are derived from the
eighth pair.
Chap. VI.
Of the Mesentery.
a, The name of the mefentery implies its fituation
amidft the inteftines. It is in fadt a part of the peri¬
tonaeum; being a reduplication (l) of that membrane
from each fide of the lumbar vertebrae to which it is
firmly attached; fo that it is formed of two laminae, con-
nedted to each other by cellular membrane.
b, The inteftines in their different circumvolutions
form a great number of arches, and the mefentery ac¬
companies them through all thefe turns; but by be¬
ing attached only to the hollow part of each arch, it
is found to have only a third of the extent of the inte¬
ftines.
c, That part of this membrane which accompanies
the fmall inteftines is the mefentery, properly fo called;
but thofe parts of it which are attached to the colon and
reflum, are diftinguifhed by the names of me fo-colon, and
mefo-re3um.
d, There are many glands difperfed thro’ this double
membrane, through which the ladleals and lymphatics
pafe in their way to the thoracic dudl. The blood vef-
fels of the mefentery were defcribed in fpeaking of the
inteftines.
e, This membrane, by its attachment to the verte¬
brae, ferves to keep the inteftines in their natural fitua¬
tion. The idea ufually formed of the colic called mi-
ferere, is perfedlly erroneous; it being impoffible that
the inteftines can be twilled, as many fuppofe they are,
in that difeafe, their attachment to the mefentery effec¬
tually preventing fuch an accident; but a difarrange-
ment fometimes takes place in the inteftinal canal itfelf,
which is produdlive of difagreeable and fometimes fatal
confequences. This is by an introfufception of the in-
teftine; an idea of which may be eafily formed by ta¬
king the finger of a glove, and involving one part of it
within the other.
f, If inflammation takes place, the ftridlure in this
cafe is increafed; and the periftaltic motion of the inte¬
ftines (by which is meant the progreffive motion of the
faeces downwards) is inverted, and what is called the
iliac pajfion takes place. The fame effedls may be oc-
. cafioned by a defcent of the inteftine, or of the omen ■
turn either with it or by itfelf; and thus conftituting
what is called an hernia or rupture, a term by which
in general is meant the falling down or protrufion of
any part of the inteftine, or omentum, which ought
naturally to be contained within the cavity of the belly.
g, To convey an idea of the manner in which fuch a
defcent takes place, it will be necefiary to obferve, that
the lower edge of the tendon of themufculus obliquus a-
fcendens is flretched from the fore-part of the os ilium or
haunch bone, to the os pubis; and conflitutes what is
called Poupart’s, or Fallopius's ligament-, forming an o-
pening, through which pafs the great crural artery and
vein. Near the os pubis the fame tendinous fibres are fe-
parated from each other, and form an opening on each
fide, called the abdominal rings, through which the
fpermatic veffels pafs in men, and the ligamenta uteri
in women. In confequence of violent efforts, or per¬
haps of natural caufes, the inteftines are found fome¬
times to pafs through thefe openings ; but the perito¬
naeum which inclofes them when in their natural cavi¬
ty, ftill continues to furround them even in their de¬
fcent. This membrane does not become torn or lace¬
rated by the violence, as might be eafily imagined, but
its dilatability enables it to pafs out with the vifcus*
which it inclofes as it were in a bag, and thus forms
what is called the hernial fac.
h, If the hernia be under Poupart’s ligament, it is
called femoral} if in the groin, inguinal; (m ) 2nd. fc ro¬
ta! if in the fcrotum : different names are likewife gi¬
ven to the hernia, as the cont ents of the fac differ, whe¬
ther of omentum only, or inteftine, or both ; but thefe
definitions more properly belong to the province of
furgery.
Chap. VII.
Of the Pancreas.
a, The pancreas is one of thofe glands which ana-
tomifts have agreed to call conglomerate; becaufe they
are compofed of an infinite number of Angle or conglo¬
bate
(l) He who only reads of the reduplication of membranes, will perhaps not eafily underftand bow the peritonaeum
and pleura are reflected over the vifcera in their ftveral cavities ; for one of thefe ferves the fame purpofes in the tho¬
rax, that the other does in the abdomen. This difpofitiqn, for the difcovery of which we are indebted to modern ana-
tomifts, feems now to be fatisfadtorily afcertained, and conftitutes a curious part of anatomical knowledge: but the
ftudent, unaided by experience, and a (lifted only by what the limits of this treatife would permit us to fay on the occa-
fion, would probably imbibe only confuted ideas of the matter; and it will perfetfly anfwer the prd'ent purpofe, if he
coafrders the mefentery as a membrane attached by one of its tides to the lumbar vertebrae; and by the other, to the
inteftines.
(m) The hernia congenita will be defcribed with the male organa of generation; with which it is iatimately coh*
Betted.
37°
1
ANATOMY. Part. IV '
foate glands collefted together.
b, It is placed behind the bottom of the ftomach,
towards the firft vertebra of the loins; being fhaped like
a dog’s tongue, with its point ftretched out towards
the fpleen, and its other end extending towards the
duodenum. It is about eight fingers breadth in length,
two or three in width, and one in thicknefs.
c, This vifcus, which is of a yellowifh colour, fome-
what inclined to red, is covered with a membrane
which it derives from the peritonaeum. Its arteries,
which are rather numerous than large, are branches of
the fplenic; and its veins pafs into the veins of the fame
name ; its nerves are derived from the intercoftal.
d, The many little glands of which it has been ob-
ferved the pancreas is compofed, all ferve to fecrete a
liquor called the pancreatic juice; which in its colour,
confiftence, and other properties, does not feem to dif¬
fer from the faliva. Each of thefe glands fends out a
little excretory duft, which uniting with others, helps
to form larger dufts; and all thefe at laft terminate in
one common excretory du£t, firft difcovered by Virt-
fungus, in 1642, which runs through the middle of the
gland, and is now ufually called Duff us Pancreaticus
Virtfungi. This canal opens into the inteftinum duo¬
denum, fometimes by the fame orifice with the biliary
du&, and fometimes by a diftindf opening ; the liquor
it difcharges being of a mild and iniipid nature, ferves
to dilute the alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it
.more eafily with the bile.
d, The blood is conveyed to the liver by the hepatic
artery and the vena porta. . This is contrary to the
mode of circulation in other parts, where veins only ferve
to carry off the redundant blood; but, in this vifcus, the
hepatic artery, which is derived from the caeliac, is
wholly deftined for its nourifhment; and the vena por¬
ta, which is formed by the union of the veins from all
the principal abdominal vifcera, only furnifhes the blood
from which the bile is to be feparated; fo that thefe
two feries of veffels ferve very diftindt purpofes. The
vena porta as it is ramified through the liver, performs
the office both of an artery and a vein ; for it not on¬
ly carries blood to the liver, but after having depo-
fited its bile, brings back not only its own redundant
blood, but likewife that of the hepatic artery into the
vena cava.
e. The nerves of the liver are branches of the inter¬
coftal and par vagum. The bile after being feparated
from the mafs of blood, in a manner of which mention
will be made in another place, is conveyed out of this
organ by very minute excretory dufts called port bilia-
rii ; thefe uniting together like the excretory dufts in
the pancreas, gradually form larger ones; which at
length terminate in a confiderable channel called duff us
hepaticus.
Chap. IX.
Of the Gall Bladder, its contents and
, office.
:
358
Chap. VIII.
Of the Liver.
a, The liver is awifcus of confiderable fize, and of
a reddifti colour; convex above, and in the forepart
where it is placed under the ribs and diaphragm, and
of an unequal furface behind. It is chiefly fituated in
the right hypochondrium, and under the falfe ribs;
but it likewife extends into the epigaftric region, where
it borders upon the ftomach. It is covered by a pro-
du&ion of the peritonaeum, which ferves to attach it by
three of its reduplications to the falfe ribs: thefe redu¬
plications are called ligaments, though very different in
their texture from what are called by the fame name in
other parts of the body. The umbilical cord too,
which in the foetus is pervious, gradually becomes a
fimple ligament after birth, and by paffing to the liver,
ferves likewife to fecure it in its fituation.
b, At the pofterior part of this organ where the um¬
bilical veffels enter, it is found divided into two lobes;
of thefe, the largeft is placed in the right hypochon¬
drium ; the other, which covers part of the ftomach,
is called the little lobe. All the veffels which go to the
liver pafs in at the fiffure we have mentioned, and the
production of the peritonaeum, which invefts the liver,
accompanies them in their paffage and furrounds them
like a glove. The credit of this difcovery is due to an
Engliffi anatomift, in honour of whom, this membra¬
nous production is now univerfally known by the name
of Glijfon's capfula.
c, The liver was confidered by the ancients as an or¬
gan deftined to prepare and perfedt the blood, but later
difcoveries have proved that this opinion was wrong; and
that the liver is a glandular fubftance formed for the fe*
cretion of the bile.
a, The gall bladder is a little membranous bag, ffia-
ped like a pear, and attached to the pofterior and almoft:
inferior part of the great lobe of the liver.
b, It has three tunics, of which the exterior one is
a production of the peritonseum ; in the fecond there
are mufcular fibres, and the interior coat which is call¬
ed the nervous tunic, forms feveral wrinkles on its inner
furface, which is fupplied with a mucus ferving to de¬
fend it from the acrimony of the bile.
c, The gall bladder is fupplied with blood veffels
from the hepatic arteries; thefe branches are, called
the cyjlic arteries,, and the cyjiic veins carry back the
blood.
d, Its nerves are derived from the fame origin as
thofe of the liver.
e, The neck of the gall bladder is continued in the
form of a canal called the duff us cyjlicus; which foon
unites with the duff us hspaticus we defcribed as the ex¬
cretory duCt of the liver, and forming one common ca¬
nal takes the name of duff us ckoledochus communis ; ‘ i
through which both the cyftic and hepatic bile are dif- ,j
charged into the duodenum : this canal opens into the
inteftine in an oblique diredion, firft paffing thro’ the
exterior tunic, and then piercing the other coats after
running between each of them a very little way ; this
ceconomy ferves two ufeful purpofes, to promote the
^difcharge of bile, and to prevent its return.
a, The bile may be defined to be a natural liquid cT;
foap, fomewhat fat and bitter, and of a yellowifh co- ,
lour. It eafily mixes with water, oil and vinous fpi-
rits, and is capable of diffolving refinous fubftan-
ces. Its chemical analyfis affords much animal oil, fome
volatile alkali, and a confiderable quantity of wa-
ter.
b, Its definition feems fufficiently to point out the
371
IV. A N A f
ufes for which it is intended (n). It blends the ali¬
mentary mafs by dividing and attenuating it; correfts
the too great difpofition to acefcency which the aliment
acquires in the ftomach, and finally by its acrimony,
tends to excite the periftaltic motion of the inteftines.
c, After what has been faid, it will be eafily con¬
ceived that there are two forts of bile ; one of which
is derived immediately from the liver thro’ the hepa-
tio duft, and the other from the gall bladder. Thefe
two biles do not effentially differ from each other. The
hepatic bile, however, is milder and more liquid than
the gall, which is conftantly thicker and yellower; and
by being more bitter, feems to poffefs greater activity
than the other.
d, It is generally known that the hepatic bile is fe-
creted from the mafs of blood by the liver ; but the
origin of the cyjlic bile has occafioned no little contro-
verfy amongft anatomical writers. There are fome who
contend that it is feparated in the fubftance of the liver,
from whence it paffes in to the gall bladder thro’ parti¬
cular veffels (o).
e, There are others who fuppofe it is fecreted by
certain veffels in the bladder itfelf; and there are fome
writers who confider the gall bladder fimply as a refer-
voir of hepatic bile, which not being perhaps at all
times permitted to pafs into the inteftine, flows back
into the cyftic dudt; and that the difference in the co¬
lour, confiftence, and tafte of the bile, is merely the re-
fult of ftagnation, increafing in proportion to the length
of time it has remained in the refervoir. Again, their
are other anatomifts who fuppofe that the bile may be
conveyed into the gall bladder by all thefe means.
f, We will not here relate all the arguments that
have been advanced in favour.of thefe feveral opinions,
nor will we aim at eftablifhing any one of them in par¬
ticular.
g, From whatever fource the cyftic bile is derived;
it feems to be certain, that the gall bladder is a refervoir
in which it is colledled, and where it gradually thickens.
When the ftomach is diftended with aliment, this refer¬
voir undergoes a certain degree of compreffion, and
the bile paffes out into the inteftinal canal; and in the
efforts to vomit, the gall bladder feems to be conftantly
affedted, and at fuch times difcharges itfelf of its con¬
tents..
r O M Y.
h, Sometimes the bile concretes in the gall bladder
fo as to forip what are called gallJlones ( p ); and when
thefe concretions pafs into the cyftic duft, they fome-
times occafion exquifite pain, by diftending the canal
in their way to the duodenum; and they frequently
produce a temporary jaundice by lodging in the duftus
choledochus communis, and preventing the bile from
flowing into the inteftine ; but the jaundice is thought
to be moft ufually produced by obftruftions in the liver
itfelf, which by preventing the feparation of bile from
the blood, tend to give that univerfal yellownefs to the
body which is the charadteriftic of the difeafe.
Chap. X.
Of the Spleen.
a, The fpleen is a foft and fpungy vifcus, of a bluifh
colour, about five or fix fingers breadth in length, and
three in width; fituated in the left hypochondrium, be¬
tween the ftomach and the falfe ribs. That fide of it
which is placed on the fide of the ribs, is convex; and
the other which is turned towards the ftomach, is con¬
cave.
b, The fplenic artery, which is a branch from the
cseliac, fupplies this vifcus with blood, and a vein of
the fame name carries it back into the vena porta.
c, Its nerves are derived from a particular plexus
called the fplenic, which is formed by branches of the
intercoftal nerve, and by the eight pair or par vagum.
d, The ufes of the fpleen have never yet been fatis-
fa&orily afcertained.
e, The ancients, who fuppofed two forts of bile,
confidered it as the receptacle of what they called atra
bilis ; and Havers, who wrote profeffedly on the bones,
determined its ufe to be that of fecreting the fynovia;
but thefe opinions have long fince been rejefted, tho-
the want of an excretory du£t has occafioned the real
ufe of it to be ftill doubtful: perhaps the blood under¬
goes fome change in this vifcus, which may affift in the
preparation of the bile. This is the opinion of the ge¬
nerality of modern phyfiologifts ; and the great quan¬
tity of blood with which it is fupplied, and the courfe
of its veins into the vena porta feem to render it pro¬
bable (eg,
Ghap. xi.
( n) The ancients, who were not acquainted with the real ufe of the liver, confidered'the bile as an excrementitious
and ufelefs fluid.
(o) In deer, and in fome other quadrupeds, there feems to be an evident communication, by means of particular
veflels, between the liver and the gall bladder. Bianchi of Turin, and the celebrated M. Winflow have both aflerted
their exiftence in the human fubjeft, and have named them hepatic-cyjtic-duftj, but later obfervations tend to prove
that no fuch dufts exift. In obftrudtions of the cyftic duft for inftance, the gall bladder has beeh found fhrivelled
and empty; and the generality of anatomifts of thefe times, feem to confider the gall bladder as a refervoir of hepatic
bile.
(p) Thefe concretionsfometimes remain in the gall bladder without caufing any uneafinefs. Dr Heberden relates,,
that a gall ftone weighing two drachms was found in the gallbladder of the late Lord Bath, though he had never com¬
plained of the jaundice, nor of any diforder which he could attribute to that caufe. Med. Tranf.
(q,) The late Mr Hewfon of London, in the fecond part of his experimental inquiries fays, he has been led to afeer-
tain the ufes of the lymphatic glands, the thymus, and the fpleen; which have fo long been confidered as the Opprobria
of anatomifts; and hepropofed to deferibe them in a future publication : but that very ingenious phyfiologift is fince
dead. An imperfeift abftradt of his difeoveries has appeared in the medical commentaries of Edinburgh, from which
we are enabled to collet, that Mr Hewfon confidered the fpleen as an organ of great importance; that he rejefted
the fuppofition of its being fubfervient to the liver, becaufe fluids of greaterconfequence in the ceconomy are prepa¬
red by one organ; that its ftnuftUre is very analogous to that of the lymphatic glands; that from its being fometimes
taken out without inconvenience, he fuppofed that fomething elfe in the fyftem is capable of performing its functions,
which he concluded to be the thymus, from their fimilarity in ftrmfture; that he confidered the lymphatic veflFels, as
the only excretory dudts of the fpleen ; and laftly, that the lymphatic glands concurred with this organ and the thy¬
mus, in the formation of the red globules of the blood.
372
A N A T
Chap. XI.
Of the Glandule Renales, Kidneys,
and Ureters.
0 M Y.
Part IVI
3*t
Glandulas
rcnaies.
351
Kidneys.
a, The glandule renales, which were by the ancients
fuppofed to fecrete the atra bills, and by them named
capfulx atrabiliares, are two flat bodies of an irregu¬
lar figure, one on each fide between the kidney and the
aorta.
b, In the foetus they are as large as the kidneys, but
they do not increafe afterwards in proportion to thofe
parts ; and in adults and old people, they are generally
found flirivelled, and much wafted. They have their
arteries and veins. Their arteries ufually arife from the
fplenic or the emulgent, and fometimes from the aorta;
and their veins go to the neighbouring veins, or to the
vena cava; their nerves are branches of the intercoftal.
c, The ufe of thefe parts is not yet perfe&ly known.
In the foetus the fecretion of urine muft be in a very
fmall quantity, and a part of the blood may perhaps
then pafs thro’ thefe channels, which in the adult is car¬
ried to the kidneys, to fupply the matter of urine.
a, The kidneys are two in number, fituated one on
the right, and the other on the left fide in the lumbar
region, between the laft falfe rib and the os ilium, by
the fides of the vertebrae. Each kidney in its figure
refembles a fort of bean (r), which from its fhape is
called kidney bean. The concave part of each kidney
is turned towards the aorta and vena cava afcendens.
They are furrounded by a good deal of fat, and re¬
ceive a coat from the peritonaeum ; and when this is
removed, a very fine membrane is found invefting their
fubftance and the veflels which ramify through them.
b, Each kidney has a confiderable artevy and vein,
which are called the emulgent. The artery is a branch
from the aorta defcendens, and the vein pafies into the
vena cava. Their nerves, which every where accom¬
pany the blood veflels, arife from a confiderable plexus,
which is derived from the intercoftal.
c, In each kidney, which in the adult is of a pretty
firm texture, there are three fubftances to be diftin-
guilhed (s). The outer part is glandular or cortical,
beyond this is the vafcular or tubular fubftance
the inner part is papillary or membranous.
unite together to form one cavity or refervoir, which is
called the pelvis of the kidney (r). From this pelvis
the urine is conveyed thro’ a membranous canal, which
paffes out from the hollow fide of the kidney, a little
below the blood veflels, and is called ureter, j
a, The ureters are each about as large as a common Ureters. It
writing pen. They are fomewhat curved in their courfe
from the kidneys like the letter f; and at length ter¬
minate in the pofterior and almoft inferior part of the
bladder, at fome diftance from each other. They pafs
into the bladder in the fame manner as the dud us cho-
ledochus communis pafies into the intejlinum duedenum,
not by a direft paffage, but by an oblique courfe be¬
tween the feveral coats ; fo that the difcharge of urine
into the bladder is promoted, whilft its return is pre¬
vented. Nor does this mode of ftrufture prevent the
paflage of fluids only from the bladder into the ure¬
ters, but likewife air: for air thrown into the bladder
inflates it, and it continues to be diftended if a liga¬
ture is palled round its neck; which feems to prove
fufficiently that it cannot pafs into the ureters.
and
Of the Urinary Bladder, its office and
contents,
354;!
a, The urinary bladder is a membranous bag, in Urinary I
ftiape not unlike a bottle with its neck downwards; fi- bladder,
tuated in the pelvis, between the inteftinum reftum and
os pubis. The bottom of the bladder is covered by a
produftion of the peritonaeum, and it has three other
tunics; of thefe, the external one is compofed of flelhy
or mufcular fibres. The fecond is called its nervous
coat, and within this is its villous coat, which refembles
the villous coat of the inteftines. The ureters have
each the fame number of coats, and the whole urinary
paffage is conftantly moiftened by a flimy liquor,' which
defends it againft the acrimony of the urine.
b, The neck of the bladder, from which a canal is
continued called the urethra, thro’ which we difcharge
the urine; is encircled by mufcular fibres, which are
diftinguilhed by the name of fphinfier veficoe (u).
c, This mufcle, by clofing the neck of the bladder,
prevents an involuntary flow of urine ; for without this
d, It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the fphinder it would conftantly fall drop by drop from the
fecretion is carried on; the urine being here received
from the minute extremities of the capillary arteries,
s conveyed out of this cortical fubftance by an infinite
urethra, as it is diftilled thro’ the ureters. ^
It will be eafily conceived from what has been The urUu
number of very fmall cylindrical canals or excretory
veflels, which conftitute the tubular part. Thefe tubes
i they approach the inner fubftance of the kidney,
faid, that the kidneys are two glandular bodies thro’
which a faline and excrementitious fluid called urine, is
conftantly feparating from the mafs of blood; but
though anatomifts generally agree in aflerting that the
gradually unite together ; and thus forming larger ca- urine is feparated from the blood by the mere action of
nals, at length terminate in ten or twelve Httle protu¬
berances called papilla, the orifices of which may be
feen without the affiftance of glafies. Thefe papillae
filtration, yet its appearance is altogether unaccounta¬
ble upon this fuppofition. It is impoffible to filter from
any thing what it does not previoufly contain ; and
both
( r) The human kidneys are in ftiape much like the kidneys of Iheep.
(s) The kidneys in the foetus are diftindtly lobulated, and apparently conglomerate in their ftrudture ; but in the a-
dult, they become perfe<ftly firm, fmooth and regular, and would feem to be glands of the conglobate kind.
(t) The pelvis is not formed by the papillae, as M. Perfon and fome other writers have believed ; but appears to be
a diftindt membranous bag, fending off procefies which embrace the papilla.
(u) In compliance with the moft general method of anatomical writers, we have deferibed the fphinfler vefica ;
but there are fome modern anatomifts who are of opinion, that the neck of the bladder has no mufcular fibres; and
of this number is M. Lieutard, who contends that the urine is confined in the bladder by means of the levatores ani,
and the particular ftrudture of the bladder itfelf, which he deferibes as being adapted for this purpofe. See Lieutard,
EJfais Anatomiques.
.373
Part IV.
ANATOMY.
both the blood itfelf, and the chyle from which it is
formed are exceedingly mild, without any faline prin¬
ciple ; whereas the urine is full of falts, and thofe too
of fuch a nature as are fcarce to be found any where
elfe. See Urine and Chemistry, n°. 308.
b, While only a fmall quantity of urine is collefted
in the bladder, it excites no kind of uneafinefs; but
when accumulated to a certain degree, the bladder be¬
comes diftended, the falts contained in the urine feem
to become more , active, and beginning to irritate the
inner coat of the bladder, excite in us a certain fenfa-
tion; which brings on as it were a voluntary contrac¬
tion of the bladder to promote its difcharge: but this
contraction is not effected by the mufcular fibres of the
bladder alone, for all the abdominal mufcles contraCl
in obedience to our will, and prefs downwards all the
vifcera of the lower belly; and thefe powers being uni¬
ted, at length overcome the refiftance of the f[>hin£Ier,
which dilates and affords a paffage to the urine thro’
the urethra,
c, The frequency of this evacuation depends on the
quantity of urine feereted, on the degree of acrimony
it pofTeffes, on the fize of the bladder, and on its de¬
gree of fenfibility.
d, When the urine is loaded with acrid falts, a very
fmall quantity of it is fufficient to irritate the inner fur-
face of the bladder, and occafion its difcharge; and
the fame effedt will take place when the bladder is by
any means inflamed.
e, Every body is converfant with the natural con-
fiftence of the urine. In a healthy ftate it is nearly of
a ftraw colour. After being kept fome time it depo-
fits a tartareous matter, which is found to be compo-
fed chiefly of earth and fait, and foon incrufts the fides
of the veflel in which it is contained. While this fe-
paration is taking place, appearances, like minute fibres
or threads of a whitifh colour, will be feen in the mid¬
dle of the urine, and an oily fcum will be obferved
floating on its furface. So that the moft common ap¬
pearances of the urine are fufficient to afcertain that it
is not pure water, but a ferofity, impregnated with
earthy, faline, and oily particles.
f, The urine is not always voided of the fame co¬
lour and confiftence ; for thefe are found to depend on
the proportion of its watery part to that of its other
conftituent principles. Its colour and degree of flui¬
dity feem to depend on the quantity of faline and in¬
flammable particles contained in it; fo that an increafed
proportion of thofe parts will conftantly give the urine
a higher colour, and add to the quantity of fediment.
g, The variety in the appearance of the urine, de¬
pends on the nature and quantity of folid and fluid ali¬
ment we take in ; and it is likewife occafioned by the
different ftate of the urinary veflels; by which we mean
the channels thro’ which it is feparated from the blood,
and conveyed thro’ the pelvis into the ureters. If thefe
pafiages are contrafted, in cqnfequence of inflammation,
or any other means, their diameter is of courfe dimi-
nifhed ; they permit only the more limpid parts of the
blood to pafs through them, and the urine is found to
be perfectly clear and colourefs like pure water. But,
Vol. I.
if, on the contrary, their diameter is encreafed, they not
only afford a pafl’age to the watery part, which prefents
itfelf for fecretion, but likewife to an increafed quan¬
tity of other particles, which confequenfly give the u-
rine a higher colour and add to its confiftence.
h, If the urinary veffels are naturally of too loofe
and foft a texture, they will fometimes admit groffer
particles (v), which they will not always be able to
carry off; and thefe particles will not fail to accumu¬
late in the canal, and occafion thofe painful diftenfions
of it, which conftitute the nephritic colic. The feat of
this difeafe is fometimes in the kidney itfelf, and fome¬
times in the ureters ; depending on the part where the
paffage of thefe concretions to the bladder is obftrufted.
When thefe concretions, or any extraneous body ad¬
mitted into the bladder, continue to refide in it, they
become a nucleus to a calculus ; and if the urine con¬
tinues to have a difpofition to add to it, it gradually
increafes in fize, and what is called a calculus or Jlone, is
formed in the bladder; which can only be extracted by
the operation of lithotomy, unlefs nature, by a favou¬
rable effort as is very often the cafe, carries it out of
the bladder before it becomes too large to pafs into the
urethra.
i, It having been obferved, that after drinking any
light wine or Spa water, it very foon pafied off by u-
rine, it was fuppofed by fome anatomifts that the urine
is not altogether conveyed to the bladder by the ordinary
courfe of circulation, but that there muft certainly ex-
ift fome other fhorter means of communication, perhaps
by certain veffels between the ftomach and the bladder;
or that the fluid tranfudes thro’ the coats of the ftomach,
and is then taken into the bladder by abforption; but,
from fome experiments on living animals, others have
denied the truth of this doftrine. If we open the bel¬
ly of a dog, prefs out the urine from the bladder, pafs
a ligature round the emulgent arteries, and then few
up the abdomen, and give him even the moft diuretic
liquor to drink, the ftomach and other channels will be
diftended with it, but not a drop of urine will be found
to have pafled into the bladder. This experiment then,
feems to prove that all the urine we evacuate is convey¬
ed to the kidneys thro’ the emulgent arteries, in the
manner already defcribed. It is true that wine and o-
ther liquors promote a fpeedy evacuation of urine, but
the difcharge feems to be merely the effeft of the ftimu-
lus they occafion ; by which the bladder and urinary
parts are folicited to a more copious difcharge of the
urine, which was before in the body, and not imme¬
diately of that which was laft drank; and this increafed
difcharge, if the fupply is kept up, will continue ; nor
will this appear wonderful, if we confider the great ca¬
pacity of the veflels which go to the kidneys, the con-
ttant fupply of frefh blood which is efiential to health,
and the rapidity with which it is inceffently circulated
through the heart to all parts of the body.
Chap. XIII.
The inftruments and procefs of Digestion.
a, By digejlion is to be underftood the changes the
A a a aliment
(v) The reader muft confider this, only as one among many other caufes of calculous concretions in the urinary
pfTages, which are to be looked for in the natural conftitution of the body, mode of life, The urine itfelf,
in people who have much natural tendency to thefe complaints, though feemingly pure and limpid when firft fecreted,
has a wonderful difpofition to concrete.
366
374
ANATOMY.
Part. IV,
aliment undergoes for the formation of chyle, fhefe
changes are effefted in the mouth, ftomach, and fmall
inteftines,
b, The 711011th, of which every body has a general
knowledge, Is the cavity between the two jaws, the
fore part and fides of which are formed by the lips,
teeth, and cheeks; the back part terminating in the
throat.
c, The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and muf-
cles, covered by the cuticle, which is continued over
the whole inner furface of the mouth, like a fine and
delicate membrane. Befides this membrane, the infide
of the mouth is furniflied with a fpongy and very vaf-
cular fubfiance, called the gums, by means of which the
teeth are fecured in their fockets. A fimilar fubflance
covers the roof of the mouth, and forming what is call¬
ed the velumpalati, terminates in a foft, fmall, and co¬
nical body, called the uvula; which appears as it were
fufpended from the middle of the arch over the bafis
of the tongue.
d, The tongue is compofed of feveral mufcles which
enable it to perform a variety of motions, for the arti¬
culation of the voice, for the purpofes of maftication,
and for conveying the aliment into the pharynx. Its
upper part is covered with papilLe, which conftitute the
organ of tafte, and are eafily to be diftinguifhed ; it is
covered by the fame membrane that lines the infide of
the mouth, and which makes at its inferior part to¬
wards its bafis a reduplication called the frauum.
e, Under the velum palati, and at the bafis of the
bafis of the tongue, is the pharynx; which is the be¬
ginning of the cefophagus, flretched out every way fo
as to refemble the top of a funnel, through which the
aliment paffes into the ftomach.
f, The mouth has a communication with the noflrils,
at its, pofterior and upper part; with the ears by the
euflachian tubes ; with the lungs by -means of the la¬
rynx; and with the ftomach by means of the oefopha-
gus.
g, The is conftantly moiftened by a fluid
fecreted by two confiderable glands, called the tonfils ;
one on each fide of the velum palati. Thefe glands,
from their fuppofed refemblance to almonds, have like-
wife been called- a mygdales. The tonfils, from fome
vicious difpofition in the fluid they fecrete, or from o-
ther caufes, fometimes fwell, and conftitute what is
called a lajlard quinfey. In the true quinfey, which is,
a very, acute difeafe, the pharynx or larynx, and fome¬
times both at the fame time, are affefted.
h, The mouth is moiftened by a confiderable quan¬
tity of faliva. This humour is derived from the parotid
glands, a name by which its etymology points out
their fituation to be near the ears. They are two in
number, one on each fide under the os malas, and are
of the conglomerate kind ; being formed of many
fmaller glands, each of which fends out a very fmall
excretory du£t, which uniting with each other, form
one common channel, that runs over the cheek, and
piercing the buccinator mufcle, opens into the mouth
on each fide, by an orifice into which a briftle may be
eafily introduced. Befides thefe, the maxillary glands,
which are placed near the inner furface of the angle of
the lower jaw on each fide; the fublingual glands,
which are fituated at the root of the tongue ; and the
glands of the palate, which are feated in the velum pa¬
lati ; together with many other lefs confiderable ones,
pour the faliva into the mouth through their feveral ex¬
cretory du£ls.
i, The faliva, like all the other humours of the bo¬
dy, is found to be different in different people ; but in
general, it is a limpid and infipid fluid, without fmell
in healthy fubjefts ; and thefe properties would feem
to prove that it contains very few faline or inflammable
particles. It is fo much difpofed to fermentation, that
the inhabitants of Otaheite, and other barbarous na¬
tions, ufe it by way of yeaft, to make their liquors
ferment.
k, The ufes of the faliva feem to be to moiften and
lubricate the mouth, and to alfift in reducing the ali¬
ment into a foft pulp before it is conveyed into the fto-
mach. 3<J7 1
a, The variety of functions which are conftantly per- Hunger and i
formed by the living body, muft neceflarily occafion thirft.
a continual wafte and diffipation of its feveral parts.
A great quantity is every day thrown off by the infen-
fible perfpiration and other difcharges; and were not
thefe Ioffes conftantly recruited by a frefh fupply of
chyle, the body would foon effeft its own diffolution.
But nature has very wifely favoured us with organs fit¬
ted to produce fuch a fupply, and has at the fame time
endued us with the fenfations of hunger and thirjl, that
our attention may not be diverted from the neceffary
bufinefs of nutrition. Hurried on by the occurrences
of life, we Ihould perhaps without thefe admonitions,
fometimes omit to take in the proper fupply of aliment;
but the demands of hunger are not to be withftood.
This fenfation is univerfally known ; but it would per¬
haps be difficult to defcribe it perfectly in words. In
defcribing the ftomach, mention was made of the gaf-
tric juice, as every where lubricating its inner coat.
This humour mixes itfelf with the aliment in the fto¬
mach, and helps to prepare it for its paffage into the
inteftines; but when the ftomach is perfectly empty, this
fame fluid irritates the coats of the ftomach itfelf, and
produces the fenfation of hunger.
b, A certain proportion of liquid aliment is required
to affift in the procefs of digeftion, and to afford that
moifture to the body, of which there is fuch a conftant
diifipation. Thirjl induces us to take this neceffary
fupply of drink; and the feat of this fenfation is in the
tongue, fauces, and oefophagus, which from their great
fenfibility are required to be kept moift; for although
the fauces are naturally moiftened by the mucus and
falival juices, yet the blood, when deprived of its wa¬
tery part, or renderedacrimonious by any natural caufes,
never fails particularly to affecft thefe parts, and the
whole alimentary canal, and to occafion thirft. This
is the common effe£t of fevers, and of hard labour; by
both which too much of the watery part of the blood
is diffipated.
a, It has been obferved that the aliment undergoes Mafticatiow
fome preparation in the mouth before it paffes into the and degluti-
ftomach ; and this preparation is the effeft of maJHca- tion-
iiotu In treating of the upper and lower jaws, men¬
tion was made of the number and arrangement of the
teeth. The upper jaw was defcribed as being immove¬
able ; but the lower jaw was fpoken of as; being ca¬
pable of elevation and depreflion, and of a grinding
motion. The aliment, when firft carried into the mouth,
is preffed between the teeth of the two jaws by a very
ftrong
375’
ANATOMY.
Part IV.
ftrong and frequent motion of the lower jaw; and the
tongue and the cheeks affifting in this procefs, conti¬
nue to replace the food between the teeth till it is per-
feftly divided, and reduced to the confiftence of pulp.
The incifores and canini, divide it firft into fmaller
pieces; but it is between the furfaces of the dentes mo-
lares, by the grinding motion of the jaw, that the malti-
cation is completed.
b, During this procefs, the falival glands being
gently comprefled by the contradlion of the mufcles
that move the lower jaw, and fomewhat ftimulated by
the faline particles of the aliment, pour out their faliva,
which helps to divide and break down the food, which
at length becomes a kind of pulp, and is then carried
over the bafis of the tongue into the fauces. But to
effe& this paffage into the oefophagus, it is neceflary
that the other openings which were mentioned as ha¬
ving a communication with the mouth as well as the
pharynx, fliould be clofed ; that none of the -aliment,
w hether folid or liquid, may pafs into them, whilft the
pharynx alone is dilated to receive it; fuch a difpofition
aftually takes place in a manner we lhall endeavour to
defcribe.
c, The trachea arteria or windpipe, through which
the air is conveyed to the lungs, is placed before the
cefophagus in the aft of fwallowing, then if the larynx
is not clofed, (for fo the upper part of the trachea is
called,) the aliment will pafs into it in its way to the
cefophagus. But this is prevented by a fmall and very
elaftic cartilage, called epiglottis, which is attached on¬
ly to the forepart of the larynx; fo that the food in its
paflage to the cefophagus, preffes down this cartilage
which then covers the glottis, or opening of the larynx;
and at the fame time the velum palati being capable of
fome degree of motion, is drawn backwards by its
mufcles, and clofes the openings into the nofe and the
euftachian tubes: this is however not all. The larynx,
which being compofed of cartilaginous rings, cannot
fail in its ordinary Hate to comprefs the membranous
canal of the cefophagus, is, in the aft of deglution, car¬
ried forwards and upwards by mufcles deftined for that
purpofe ; and confequently drawing the forepart of the
pharynx with it, that opening is fully dilated. When
the aliment has reached the pharynx, its defcent is pro¬
moted by its own proper weight, and by the mufcular
fibres of the cefophagus, which continue to contraft
from above downwards, until the aliment.has reached
the ftomach. That thefe fibres have no inconfiderable
fliare in deglutition, any perfon may experience, by fwal¬
lowing with his head downwards, when the defcent of
the aliment cannot poffibly be effefted by its weight.
d, It>is necelfary that the noftriJs and the lungs
fhould communicate with the mouth, for the purpofes
of fpeech and refpiration ; but if the moft minute part
of our food happens to be introduced into the trachea,
it never fails to produce a violent cough, and fome-
times the moft alarming fymptoms; this is liable to hap¬
pen when we laugh or fpeak, in the aft of deglutition.
The food is then faid to have paffed the wrong way; and
indeed this is not improperly expreffed, for death would
foon follow, if the quantity of aliment introduced into
the trachea ftiould be fufficient to obftruft the refpira¬
tion only during a very fliort time ; or if the irritating
particles of food fhould not foon be thrown up again
by means of the cough, which in thefe cafes very fea-
fonably increafes in proportion to the degree of irri¬
tation.
e, If the velum palati did not clofe the paffage to the
noftrils, deglutition would be performed with difficul¬
ty, and perhaps not at all; for the aliment would return
thro’the nofe, as isfometimesthecafein drinking. Chil¬
dren, from a deficiency in this velum palati, have been
feen to die a few hours after birth; and they who from
difeafe or any other caufes have not this part perfeft,
fwallow with difficulty.
f, The aliment, after having been fufficiently divided
by the aftion of the teeth, and attenuated by the faliva,
is received into the ftomach, where it is deftined to un¬
dergo a more confiderable change.
g, The properties of the aliment not being much
altered at its firft entrance into the ftomach, and be¬
fore it is thoroughly blended with the gaftric juice, is
capable of irritating the inner coat of the ftomach to a
certain degree, and occafions a contraftion of its two
orifices. In this membranous bag, furrounded by the
abdominal vifcera, and with a certain degree of natu¬
ral heat, the aliment undergoes a conftant agitation by
means of the abdominal mufcles, and of the diaphragm,
and likewife by a certain contraftion or expanfion of
the mufcular fibres of the ftomach itfelf. By this mo¬
tion, every part of the food is expofed to the aftion of
the gaftric juice, which gradually divides and attenu¬
ates it, and prepares it for its paffage into the intef-
tines (w).
h, The more the particles of food have imbibed of
the gaftric juice, the lefs obftacle do they afford to the
expanfion of the air which is fet loofe by the procefs of
digeftion; and being rarified by the warmth of the fto¬
mach, tends to complete the perfeft diffolution of the
alimentary pulp.
A a a i, The
(w) Mr J. Hunter has lately obliged the public with the account of a very lingular faft in the animal (Economy,
which feems to throw confiderable light on the principles of digeftion: he informs us, that there are few dead bo¬
dies in which the ftomach at its great end, is not found to be in fome degree digefted; he obferves, that animals, or
parts of animals, pofieffed of the living principle, when taken into the ftomach, are not in the leaft affefted by the ac¬
tion of that vifcus ; but that the moment they lofe the living principle, they become fubjedt to its digeftive powers.
This hefuppofes to be the cafe with the ftomach, which is enabled to refift the aftion of its juices in the living body,
but when deprived of the living principle, is then no longer able to refift the power of that menftruum, which it had it-
f;lf formed for the digeftion ot its contents; the procefs of digeftion appearing to be continued after death. Mr Hun¬
ter was confirmed in his ideas on this fubjeft by obferving what happens in the ftomacbs of fifties: they frequently fwal¬
low without maftication, filh which are larger than the digefting parts of their ftomach can contain, and in fuch cafes
that part which is taken into the ftomach, is more or lefs diffolved ; while that part which remains in the oefophagus,
is perfeftly found; and here, as well as in the human body, the digefting part of the ftomach is often reduced to the
fame ftate as the digefted part of the food. Thefe appearances the ingenious writer imagines, lead to prove that di¬
geftion is not effefted by a mechanical power, by contraftions of the ftomach, or by heat; but by a fluid fecreted in the
coats of the ftomach, which is poured into its cavity, and thefe animalizes the food, or affimilates it to the nature of
blood. Philof. Tranf. Vol.tfj.
376
ANATOMY.
Part IV
i, The food, after having remained during one, two,
or three hours in the ftomach, is converted into a grey-
i(h pulp, which is ufually called chynms, a word of
Greek etymology, fignifyingy‘«/Ve; and fome few milky
or chylous particles begin to appear; but the term of
its refidence in this bag is proportioned to the nature
of the aliment, and to the flate of the ftomach and its
juices. The thinner and more perfectly digefted parts
of the food, pafs by a little at a time, into the duodenum,
through the pylorus, the fibres of which relax to afford
it a paffage : and the groffer and lefs digefted particles
remain in the ftomach till they acquire a fufficient flui¬
dity to pafs into the inteftines, where the nature of the
chymus is perfectly changed. The bile and pancreatic
juice which flow into the duodenum, and the mucus
which is every where diftilled from the furface of the
inteftines, mix themfelves with the alimentary pulp,
which they ftill farther attenuate and diffolve, and in¬
to which they feem to infufe new properties.
k, Two matters very different from each other in
their nature and deftination, are the refult of this com¬
bination. One of thefe which is compofed of the liquid
parts of the aliment, and of fome of its more folid par¬
ticles, extremely divided and mixed with the juices w»
have defcribed, conftitutes a very mild, fweet, and whit-
ifh fluid, refembling milk, and diftinguiftied by the
name of chyle. This fluid is abforbed by the lafteal
veins, which convey it into the circulation, where by
being affimilated into the nature of blood, it affords
that fupply of nutrition which the continual wafte of
the body is found to require. The other is the remains
of the alimentary mafs deprived of all its nutritious par¬
ticles, and containing only fuch parts, as by their a-
crimony or their cohefion, were reje&edby the abforb-
ing mouths of the ladteals. This groffer part called
the faeces, paffes on through the courfe of the inteftines
to be voided at the anus, as will be explained hereafter,
for this procefs in the ceconomy cannot well be under-
ftood till the motion of refpiration has been explained.
But the ftru&ure of the inteftines is a fubjeft which
may be properly defcribed in this place, and deferves
to be attended to.
l, It has been already obferved, that the inteftinal
canal is five or fix times as long as the body, and that
it forms many circumvolutions, in the cavity of the ab¬
domen, which it traverfes from the right to the left,
and again from the left to the right; in one place de-
fcending, and in another extending itfelf upwards. It
was noticed likewife, that the inner coat of the intef¬
tines by being more capacious than their exterior tunics,
formed a multitude of plaits placed at a certain diftance
from each other, and called vglvule conniventes. Now
this difpofition will be found to afford a farther proof
of that divine wifdom, which the anatomift and phy-
fiologift cannot fail to difcover in all their purfuits; for
if the inteftinal. canal was much fhorter than it naturally
is, if inftead of its prefent circumvolutions it paffed in
a direft courfe from the ftomach, and if its inner fur-
face was fmooth and deftitute of valves, the aliment
would confequently pafs with great rapidity to the a-
»us, and'fufficient time would be wanting to alfimilate
the chyle, and for the neceffary abforption of it into
the lacleals ; fo that the body would be deprived of
the fupply of nutrition, which is fo effential to life and
health, but the length and circumvolutions of the in¬
teftines, the inequality of their internal furface, and the
courfe of the aliment through them, all concur to per-
feft the feparation of the chyle from the fasces, and to
afford the neceffary nourifhment to the body.
m, Digeftion is performed with more or lefs eafe,
according to the temperaments, age, fex, ftrength, ex-
ercife, paffions, &c. In fome it is long and difficult,
in others quick and eafy, in its procefs. Every one
ought to adapt the quantity and kind of aliment he
takes in, to the ftate of his ftomach and the powers of
its juices, which can only be learned by experience and
attentive obfervation.
n, It feems to be very eafy to demonftrate, that he
who loads his ftomach with more than he is able to di-
geft, will derive from it only a crude and imperfeft
chyle, by no means calculated to afford a good and
wholefome blood, and to promote a healthy conftitu-
tion of body.
o, In a recovery from ficknefs, the patient often
thinks he is making hafty advances towards health,
by eating more than his ftomach will perhaps allow
him to take in with eafe; and he is led to imagine
that his ftrength will increafe in proportion to the
quantity he eats and drinks; but on this point his no¬
tions are erroneous; for the ftomach, like all other
parts impaired by ficknefs, recovers its tone flowly,
and is unable to affimilate fuch a load of materials into
chyle; fo that the digeftion is crude and imperfeft, and
the blood, as well as the other juices of the body, par¬
taking of the vicious properties of the chyle, the reco¬
very of health is rather retarded than promoted, and
fometimes other difeafes are produced. Whereas, by ta¬
king in a lefs quantity of food at a time, the ftomach
is enabled to digeft it perfeftly, and to afford that
wholefome and perfect fupply of chyle, which will not
fail to nourifh the body and reftore it to health. For it
is worthy of obfervation, that nutrition is not derived
altogether from the quantity we eat, but from the
quantity we digeft.
Chap. XIV.
Of the courfe of the Chyle, and of the
Lymphatic System.
a, An infinite number of very minute veffels called Of the
the laBeal veins, arife like net-work from the inner teals*
furface of the inteftines, but principally from the jeju¬
num and ilium, which are deftined to imbibe the nu¬
tritious fluid or chyle. Thefe veffels pafs obliquely thro*
the coats of the inteftine, and, running along the mefen-
tery, unite as they advance, and form larger branches,,
all which pafs through the mefenteric or conglobate
glands, which are very numerous in the human fub-
je&. As they run between the inteftines and thefe
glands, they are ftyled vena la flea primi generis; but
after leaving thefe glands, they are found to be lefs nu¬
merous, and being increafed in fize, are then called w-
na lattea fecundi generis, which go to depofit their con¬
tents in the thoracic dudb, thro’ which the chyle is con¬
veyed into the blood.
b, This thoracic duft begins about the lower part of
the firft vertebra lumborum, from whence it paffes up
by the. fide of the aorta, between that and the vena
azygos clofe to the vertebrse, being covered by the
pleura. Sometimes it is found divided into two
branches'
irtIV.
ANATOMY.
branches, but they ufually unite again into one canal, rated from each other ; but the mercury they are ca-
which opens into the left fubclavian vein, after having pable of fuftaining, proves them to be very ftrong; and
run a little way in an oblique courfe between its coats, their great power to contradt after undergoing confi-
The fubclavian vein communicates with the vena cava, derable diftenfion, together with the irritability with
which pafles to the right auricle of the heart. which Baron Haller found them to be endued, feems to
c, The lower part of this dudt being ufually larger render it probable, that, like the blood-velfels, they
than any other part of it, has been named receptacu- have a mufcular coat.
him chyli, or Pecquet's receptacle^ in honour of the ana- d, The lymphatics are nOurilhed after the fame man-
tomift who firft difcovered it in 1651. In fome qua- ner as all the other parts of the body. For even the
drupeds, in turtle, and in filh, this enlargement is moft minute of thefe veifels are probably fupplied with
more confiderable in proportion to the fize of the dudt, ftill more minute arteries and veins. This feems to be
than it ufually is in the human fubjedt, where it is not proved by the inflammation of which they are fufcep-
commonly found large enough to merit the name of re- tible ; and the painful fwellings which fometimes take
eeptaculum. place in lymphatic veflels, prove that they have nerves
d, The opportunities of obferving the ladteals in the as well as blood veflels.
human fubjedt, do not often occur ; but they may ea- e, Both the ladteals, lymphatics, and thoracic dudt,
fily be demonftrated in a dog or any other quadruped are furniftied with valves which are much more common
that is killed two or three hours after feeding upon in thefe veflels than in the red veins. Thefe valves are
milk, for then they appear filled with white chyle. ufually in pairs, and ferve to promote the courfe of the
e, But thefe lafteals which we have defcribed as paf- chyle and lymph towards the thoracic dudt, and to pre-
fing from the inteftines through the mefentery to the vent its return. Mention has been made of the glands,
thoracic dudt, compofe only a part of a fyftem of vef- through which the ladteals pafs in their courfe thro’ the
fels which perform the office of abforption, and which mefentery ; and it is to be obferved, that the lympha-
conftitute with their common trunk the thoracic dudt, ties pafs through fimilar glands in their way to the tho-
and the conglobate glands which are difperfed through racic dudt. Thefe glands are all of the conglobate
the body, what may be flyled the lymphatic fyjlem. So kind, but the changes which the chyle and lymph un- .
that what is laid of the ftrudture of one of thefe feries dergo in their paflage through them have not yet been
of veflels, may very properly be applied to that of the afcertained.
other. f, The lymphatic vejjels begin from furfaces and cavi-
he lym- a, The lymphatic veins (x) are minute pellucid tubes, ties in all parts of the body as ahforbents (z). This is
:ic vcf- wh;ch, like the ladteals, diredt their courfe towards the a fadt now univerfally allowed; but how the fluids they
centre of the body, where they pour a colourlefs fluid abforb are poured into thofe cavities, is a fubjedt of
into the thoracic dudt. The lymphatics from all the controverfy among the anatomifls of thefe times. The
lower parts of the body, gradually unite as they ap- contents of the abdomen, for inftance, were defcribed
proach this dudt, into which they enter-by three or four as being conftantly moiftened by a very thin watery
very large trunks, which feem to form the lower ex- fluid. The fame event takes place in the pericardium,
tremity of this canal, or receptaculum chyli. The lac- pleura, and all the other cavities of the body, and this
teals open into it near the fame place, and the lympha- watery fluid is the lymph. But whether it is exhaled in-
tics from all the upper parts of the body, pour their to thofe cavities through the minute ends of arteries, or
lymph into different parts of this dudt as it runs up- tranfuded through their coats, are the points in dlf-,
wards to terminate in the left fubclavian vein. ' pute. We cannot here be permitted to relate the many
b, As the lymphatics commonly lie clofe to the large ingenious arguments that have been advanced in favour
blood veflels, as a ligature pafled round the crural artery of each of thefe opinions ; nor is it perhaps of confe-
in a living animal, by including the lymphatics, will quence to our prefent purpofe, to enter into the dif-
occafion a diftenfion of thefe veflels below the ligature pute. It will be fufficient if the reader can form an idea
fo as to demonftrate them with eafe ; and a ligature of what the lymph is, and: of the manner in which it is
pafled round the thoracic dudt, inftantly after killing abforbed.
an animal, will, by flopping the courfe of its contents g, The lymphr from its tranfparency and want of
into the fubclavian vein, diftend not only the ladteals, colour, would feem to be nothing but water; and hence
but alfo the lymphatics in the abdomen and lower ex- the firft difcoverers of thefe veflels ftyled them dulius a-
tremities with their natural fluids (y). quoji; but experiments prove that the lymph of an
c, The coats of thefe veffels are too thin to be fepa- healthy animal coagulates by being expofed to the air,
or
‘ (x) The arteries in their courfe through the body becoming gradually too minute to admit the red globules of the
blood, have then been ftyled capillary or lymphatic arteries. The veflels which are here defcribed as conftituting the
lymphatic fyftem, were at firft fuppofed to be continued from thofe arteries, and intended to convey back the lymph
either into the red veins or thevthoracic dudt, theotficeof abforption having been attributed to the rea? veins. But fuc-
ceeding anatomifts have clearly demonftrated, thatthe lymphatic veins art not continuations of the lymphatic arteries,
but that they conftitute the abforbentfyflem. There are ftill however fome very refpedtable names among the anato¬
mifts of the prefent age, who contend, that the red: veins adtlikewife as abforbents; but it feems to have been clearly-
proved, that the red veins do abforb no where but in the cavernous cells of the penis, the eredtion of which is occa-
fioned by a diftenfion of thofe cells with arterial blood.
(y) In the dead body they maybe eafily demonftrated by opening the artery ramifying through the vifcus, as in
the fpleen for inftance, and then throwing in air ; by which the lymphatics will be diftended. One of them may then
be pundtured, and mercury introduced into it through a blow pipe.
(z) Lymphatics have never yet been difcovered in the brain; though it would feem probable from analogy, that this
ergan is not deftitute of them.
377
373
ANATOMY.
Part
The male
•rgans.
ora certain degree of heat, and likewife by being fuf-
fered to reft ; feeming to agree in this property with
that part of the blood called the eoagulable ly?nph. This
property of the lymph leads to determine its ufe in
moiftening and lubricating the feveral cavities of the
body, in which it is found; and for which, by its ge¬
latinous principle, it feems to be much better calculated
than a pure watery fluid would be, for fuch it has been
fuppofed to be by fome anatomifts.
h, The mouths of the lymphatics and latteals, by ac¬
ting as capillary tubes, feem to abforb the lymph and
chyle, in the fame manner as a capillary tube of glafs,
when put into a bafon of water, will be enabled to attract
the water into it to a certain height. In the opinion of
moft natural philofophers, the lymph or the chyle is con-
veyed upon this principle, as far as the firft pair of valves,
which feem to be placed not far from the orifice of the
abforbing veffel, whether lymphatic or latteal; and the
fluid will then be propelled forwards by a continuation
of the abforption at the orifice. But this does not
feem to be the only inducement to its progrefs towards
the thoracic duft; thefe vefiels have probably a muf-
cular coat, which may ferve to prefs the fluid forwards
from one pair of valves to another ; and as the large
lymphatic veflels and the thoracic duft are placed dole
to the large arteries, which have a confiderable pulfa-
tion, it is reafonable to fuppofe that they derive fome
advantages from this fituation.
Chap. XV.
Of the Generative Organs.
a, The male organs of generation have been ufually
divided into the parts which ferve to prepare the femen
from the blood, and thofe which are deftined to convey
it into the womb. But it feems to be more proper to
diftinguifh them into the preparing, the containing, and
the expelling parts, which are the different offices of the
tejles, the veficuhc fe min ales, and the penis; and this is
the order in which we propofe to deferibe them.
b, The teftes are two glandular bodies ferving to fe-
crete the femen from the blood. They are originally
formed and lodged within the cavity of the abdomen,
and it is not till after the child is born, or very near that
time, that they begin to pafs into the groin, and from
thence into the ferotum. By this difpofition they are
very wifely protected from the injuries to which they
would be liable to be expofed, from the different po-
ftures and difpofitions of the child at the time of par¬
turition.
c, The tefticles in this ftate are loofely attached to
the pfoce mufcles by means of the peritonaeum by which
they are covered ; and they are at this time of Kfe con-
nefted in a very particular manner to the parietes of
the abdomen, and likewife to the ferotum, by means
of a fubftance which Mr Hunter calls the ligament, or
gubernaculum tejlis; becaufe it connects the teftis with
the ferotum ; and directs its courfe in its defeent; this
gubernaculum he deferibes, as being of a pyramidal
form, with its bulbous head fixed to the lower end of
the tejlis and epididymis, and as lofing its lower and
flender extremity in the cellular membrane of the fero¬
tum. Mr Hunter fays, it is difficult to afeertain what
the ftru&ure and compofition of this gubernaculum is;
but he thinks it is certainly vafcular and fibrous; and
from certain circumftanCes is led to fufpeft, that it is
in part compofed of the cremafter mufcle running up¬
wards to join the lower end of the teftis.
d, We are not to fuppofe that the tefticle when de¬
fended into the ferotum, is to be feen loofe as a piece
of gut or omentum would be in a common hernial fac.
We have already obferved, that during its refidence in
the cavity of the abdomen, it is attached to the peri¬
tonaeum, which defends with it; fo that when the fac
is completed in the f rotum, the tefticle is at firft at¬
tached only to the pojlerior part of it, while the fore
part lies loofe, and for fome time affords a communica¬
tion with the abdomen. The fpermatic chord, which is
made up of the fpermatic artery and vein, and of the
vas deferens or excretory dud of the tejlis, is clof ly at¬
tached behind to the pofterior part of this elongation
of the peritonasum. But the fore part of the perito-
naeal fac, which is at firft loofe, and not attached to
the tefticle, clofes after a certain time, and becomes u-
nited to the pojlerior part, and thus perfedtly furrounds
the tefticle as it were in a purfe.
e, The tefticles of the foetus differ only in their fize
and fituation from thofe of the adult; in their paffage
from the abdomen they defend through the abdominal
rings into the ferotum, where th^y are fupported and
defended by various integuments.
f, What the immediate caufe of this defeent is, has
not yet been fatisfa&orily determined. It has been a-
fcribed to the effefts of refpiration, but the teftides
have fometimes been found in the frotum before the
child has breathed; and it does not feem to be occa-
fioned by the adtion of the cremafter mufcle, becaufe
the fame effedt would be liable to happen in the hedge¬
hog, and fome other quadrupeds, whofe tefticles re¬
main in the abfiomen during life.
g, The ferotum, which is the external or common co¬
vering of both tefticles, is a kind of fac formed by the
common integuments ; and externally divided into two
equal parts by a prominent line, called raphe.
h, In the inner part of the frotum we meet with a
cellular coat called dartos, which by its duplicative, di¬
vides the ferotum into two equal parts, and forms what
is called feptum feroti, which correfponds with the ra¬
phe. The collapfion which is fo often obferved to take
place in the ferotum of the healthy fubjedt, when ex¬
cited by cold or by the ftimulus of venery, is by fome
attributed to the contractile motion of the fkin, and
not to any mufcular fibres, as is the cafe in dogs and
fome other quadrupeds.
i, The ferotum then, by means of its feptum, is
found to make two diftin^t bags in which the tefticles,
invefted by their proper tunics, are fecurely lodged and
feparated from each other. Thefe coats are the crema-
Jler, the tunica vaginalis, and the tunica albuginea.
The firft of thefe is compofed of mufcular fibres, and
is to be confidered only as a partial covering of the te¬
ftis; for it furrounds only the fpermatic chord, and ter¬
minates upon the upper and external parts of the tuni¬
ca vaginalis teftis ; ferving to draw up and fufpend the
tefticle. The tunica vaginalis teflis has already been
deferibed, as being originally a thin production of the
peritonaeum, loofely adhering every where to the te¬
fticle, which it includes as it were in a bag. The tu¬
nica albuginea, is a firm, white, and very compact mem¬
brane, of a gliftening appearance; which immediately
iaveft#
3
ANATOM Y.
tIV.
invefts the body of the teftis and the epididymis ; fer-
ving in ibme meafure to connedt them to eadi other,
but without extending itfelf at all to the fpermatic
chord. This tunica albuginea ferves. to coniine the
growth of the teftis and epididymis within certain li¬
mits, and by giving them a due degree of firmnefs, en¬
ables them to perform their proper fundlions.
k, Having removed this laft tunic, we difcover the
fubftance of the tefticle itfelf, which appears to be made
up of an infinite number of very elaftic filaments,
which may be beft diftinguifhed after macerating the
tefticle in water. Each tefticle is made up of the fper¬
matic artery and vein, and the excretory veffels or tu*
buli feminiferi. There are likewife a great number of
abforbent veffels, and fome branches of nerves to be met
with in the tefticles.
l, The fpermatic arterter arife one on each fide from
the aorta, generally about an inch below the emul-
gents. The right fpermatic vein commonly pafies into
the vena cava; but the left fpermatic vein ufually emp¬
ties itfelf into the ernulgent on that fide ; and it is fup-
pofed to take this courfe into the emulgent, that it may
avoid palling over the aorta, which it would be obli¬
ged to do in its way to the vena cava.
m, The blood is circulated very flowly through the
fpermatic artery, which makes an infinite number of
circumvolutions in the fubftance of the tefticle, where
it depofits the femen, which paffes through the tiibuli
feminiferi. Thefe tubuli feminiferi are feen running in
fhort waves from the tunica albuginea to the axis of the
tefticle ; and are divided into diftindl portions by cer¬
tain thin membranous produftions, which originate
from the tunica albuginea. They at length unite, and
by an infinite number of convolutions form a fort of ap¬
pendix to the teftis, called epididymis; which is a vafcu-
lar body of an oblong fhape, fituate upon the fuperior
part of each tefticle. Thefe tubuli of the epididymis,
at length form an excretory dwft, called vas deferens;
•which afcends towards the abdominal rings, with the
other parts that make up the fpermatic chord, and then
a feparation takes place ; the nerves and blood veflels
palling on to their feveral terminations, and the vas de¬
ferens going to depofit its femen in the veftcula Jemina-
les, which are two foft bodies of a white and convo¬
luted appearance externally, fituated obliquely between
the re&um and the lower part of the bladder, and u-
niting together at their lower extremity. From thefe
refervoirs, which are plentifully fupplied with blood-
vefiels and nerves, the femen is occafionally difcharged
thro’ two ftiort paffages, which open into the urethra,
clofe to a little eminence called verumontanum.
n, Near this eminence we meet with the proftate,
which is fituated at the neck of the bladder, andisde-
fcribed as being of a glandular ftru&ure. It is ftiaped
fome what like a heart with its fmall end foremoft, and
invefts the origin of the urethra. It is fuppofed to fe-
creteawhitilh and cream-like liquor, which is difcharged
into the urethra on each fide of the openings of the ve-
ficulae- feminales, at the fame time, and from the fame
caufes that the femen is expelled, to which it feems to
give a white colour and confiderable vifcidky; the fe¬
men we meet with in the veficulas feminales of the dead
fubjedt being exceedingly limpid.
o, The penis which is to be confidered as the vehicle,
or a&ive organ of procreation ; is compofed of two co¬
lumns, the corpora cavernofa, and corpus fpongiofum.
The corpora cavernofa, which conftitute the greateft
part of the penis, may be defcribed as two cylindrical,
ligamentous tubes, each of which is compofed of an in¬
finite number of minute cells of a fpongy texture, which
communicate with each other. Thefe two bodies are
of a very pliant texture, and capable of confiderable
diftention; and being united laterally to each other,
occafion by this union, a fpace above, and another be¬
low. The uppermoft of thefe fpaces is filled by the
blood-vefiels, and the lower one which is larger than
the other by the urethra. Thefe two cavernous bodies1
are at firft only feparated by a partition of tendinous fi¬
bres, which allow them to communicate with each other;
but they afterwards divaricate from each other like the
branches of the letter Y, and diminilhing gradually in
fize, are attached, one on each fide, by means of the li-
gamentum fufpenforium penis, to the ramus ifchii, and to
the inferior portion of the os pubis.
p, The corpus fpongiofum penis or corpus fpongiofum
urethra, as it is ftyled by fome authors, begins as foon-
as the urethra has pafied the proflate, with a thick ori¬
gin aimoft like a heart, firft under the urethra, and af¬
terwards above it, becoming gradually thinner; and
furrounding the whole canal of the urethra, till it ter¬
minates in a confiderable expanfion, and conftitutes what
is called the glans penis, which is exceedingly vafcular,
and covered with papillas like the tongue. The cu¬
ticle which lines the inner furface of the urethra, is con-1
tinned over the glans in the lame manner as it is fpread
over the lips.
q, The penis is invefted by the common integu¬
ments, but the cutis is reflefted back every where from
the glans as it is in the eye lids, fo that it covers this
part when the penis is in a relaxed ftate as it were with
a hood, and from this ufe is called prepuce.
r, Th e prepuce is tied down to the under part of the
glans by a fmall ligament called frxnum, which is in
faft only a continuation of the cuticle and cutis-
There are many Ample febaceous follicles called glan¬
dules odor if era, placed round thebafis of the glans ; and
the fluid they fecrete ferves to preferve the exquifite fen-
fibility of this part of the penis; and to prevent the ill
effects of attrition from the prepuce.
f. The urethra may be defined to be a membraneous
canal palling from the bladder through the whole ex¬
tent of the penis. Several very fmall openings called
lacunx, communicate with this canal, through which a
mucus is fuppofed to be difcharged into it; and befides
thefe, there are other glands firft defcribed by Cowper,
as fecreting a fluid for lubricating the urethra, and call-
ed Consjper’s glands; and M. Littre fpeaks of a gland
fituated near the proftate, as being deftined for the fame
ufe.
t, The urethra being continued from the neck of the
bladder, is to be confidered as making part of the u-
rinary pafiage ; and it likewife affords a conveyance to
the femen, which we have obferved is occafionally dif¬
charged into it from the veficula; feminales. The direc¬
tion of this canal being firft under, and then before the
pubis, occafions a winding in its courfe from the blad¬
der to the penis, not unlike the turns of the letter
u. The penis has three pair of mufcles, the ere Sores,
acceleratores, and tranfo erf (ties. The firft originate from,
the tuberofity of the il'chium, and terminate in thecor-
pors
3go
ANATOMY.
Part
Female or*
Sans.
pora cavernofa. The acceleratores arife from the fphinc-
ter, and by their mfertion ferve to comprefs the bul¬
bous part of the urethra; and the tranfverfales are de-
ftined to afford a paffage to the femen, by dilating the
canal of the urethra.
v, The arteries of the penis are chiefly derived from
the internal iliacs. Some of them are fuppofed to ter¬
minate by pabulous orifices within the corpora caver-
nofa, and corpus fpongiofum ; and others terminate in
veins, which atlaft make up the vena magna dorjiperns,
and other fmaller veins which are in general diftributed
in like order with the arteries.
w, Its nerves are large and numerous ; they arife from
the great fciatic nerve, and accompany the arteries in
their courfe through the penis.
x, We have now defcribed the anatomy of this or¬
gan, and there only remains to be explained, how it
is enabled to attain that degree of firmnefs and dirten-
tion which is eflential to the great work of generation.
y, The greateft part of the penis has been fpoken
of, as being of a fpongy and cellular texture plentiful¬
ly fupplied with blood veflels and nerves ; and as having
xnufcles to move it in different directions : now, the
blood is conftantly palling into its cells through the
fmall branches of the arteries which open into them,
and is from thence as conftantly abforbed by the pabu¬
lous orifices of fome of its veins, fo long as the corpo¬
ra cavernofa and corpus fpongiofum continue to be in
a ’relaxed and pliant flate. But when from any ner-
. vous influence or other means, which it is not neceffary
here to define or explain, the eredtores or other muf-
cles of the penis, are induced to contraft ; the veins un¬
dergo a certain degree of compreffion, and the paflage
of the blood through them is fo much impeded that it
colleds in them a greater proportion than they are en¬
abled to carry off: fo that the penis gradually en¬
larges, and being more and more forcibly drawn up a-
gainft the os pubis, the vena magna itfelf is at length
compreffed, and the penis becomes fully diftended.
But as the caufes which firft occafioned this diftention
fubfide, the penis gradually returns to its ftate of re¬
laxation.
a, Anatomical writers ufually divide the female or¬
gans of generation into external and internal. In the
firft divifion they include the mans veneris, labia puden-
di, perinceum, clitoris, nymphee, and carunculte myrti-
formes; and in the latter, the vagina, with the uterus
and its appendages.
b, The mans veneris which is placed on the upper
vious, compofed of two corpora cavernofa arifing from
the tuberofities of the offa ifchii; furnifhed with two
pair of mufcles, the ere Bores clitoridis, and the fphinc-
ter vagina (a) ; and terminating in a glans which is
covered with its prepuce. From the lower part, on each
fide of the foffa, pafs the nymph a, two membranous
and fpongy folds which feem deftined for ufeful purpo-
fes in parturition, by tending to enlarge the volume of
the vagina as the child’s head paffes through it. Be¬
tween thefe, about the middle of the foffa magna, we
perceive the orifice of the vagina or os externum, clofed
by folds and wrinkles ; and about half an inch above
this, and about an inch below the clitoris, appears the
meatus urinarius or orifice of the urethra, much fhorter,
tho’ fomewhat larger than in men, with a little promi¬
nence at its lower edge, which facilitates the introduc¬
tion of the catheter.
d, In children the orifice of the vagina is found part¬
ly clofed by a thin membrane called hymen ; the form
of which is different in different fubjefts, being in fomc
ftiapeddike a crefcent, and in others of a circular form.
In general, it is fufficiently open to admit the paflage
of the menfes if it exifts at the time of their appearance;
but inftances are related of its having been found per-
feftly clofed, in which cafe it is to be divided longitu¬
dinally. When this membrane is ruptured by the ve¬
nereal congrefs or any other caufes, it recedes and
forms (it is thought) the caruncula myrtiformes, which
are fometimes totally effaced in women who have had
many children.
e, The vagina, fituated between the urethra and the
reftum, is compofed of two membranes, one of which
is mufcular and the other a continuation of that which
covers the folia magna, furrounded with a fpongy cel¬
lular fubftance. It terminates in the uterus about
half an inch above the os tincae, and is wider and
fliorter in women who have had children than in virgins.
f, All thefe parts are plentifully fupplied with blood-
veflels, and nerves. Around the nymphae, there are fe-
baceous follicles which pour out a fluid to lubricate the
inner furface of the vagina ; and the meatus urinarius,
like the urethra in the male fubjedt, is conftantly moi-
ftened by a fecreted mucus, which defends it againft
the acrimony of the urine.
g, The uterus is a hollow vifcus, fituated in the hy-
pogaftric region between the re&um and the bladder.
It is dettined to receive the firft rudiments of the foetus,
and to aflift in the the developement of all its parts till
it arrives at a ftate of perfection and is fitted to enter
part of the fymphyfis pubis, is internally compofed of into the world, at the time appointed by the wife au-
adipofe membrane which makes it foft and prominent: thor of nature.
it divides into two parts called labia pudendi, which de-
fcending towards the redtum, from which they are di¬
vided by the perinasum, form what is called the four-
chette. The perinseum is that fleftiy fpace which ex¬
tends about an inch and a half from the fourchette to
the anus, and from thence about two inches to the
coccyx.
c, The labia pudendi being feparated, we obferve a
fulcus called fojfa magna ; in the upper part of which
is placed the clitoris, a fmall round fpongy body, in
fome meafure refembling the male penis, but imper¬
h. The uterus in its unimpregnated ftate, refembles
in lhape a pear, fomewhat flattened; with its fundus
or bottom-part turned towards the abdomen, and its
cervix or neck furrounded by the vagina. The entrance
into its cavity forms a little protuberance, which has
been compared to the mouth of a tench, and is called
os tincee.
i. The fubftance of the uterus, which is of a confi-
derable thicknefs, appears to be compofed of many
glands interwoven with fmall ligamentous fibres, fmall
branches of nerves, fome lymphatics, and with arteries
and
(a) Although in conformity to the generality of writers, the clitoris is here defcribed as having two pair of muf¬
cles, the crettores alone feem ftriftly to belong to it: the fphinfter vaginas having no conned!ion with the cli¬
toris.
381
Part V.
ANATOMY.
and veins innumerable. Its nerves are chiefly derived
from the intercoftal, and its arteries and veins from
the hypogaftric and hemorrhoidal. The membrane
which lines its cervix, is a continuation of the inner
membrane of the vagina; but the outer furface of the
body of the uterus is covered with the peritonseum,
which is .reflefted over it, and defcends from thence
to the inteftinum re&um. This duplicature of the pe¬
ritonaeum, by palling off from the fides of the uterus
to the fides of the pelvis, is there firmly connefted, and
forms what are called ligamenta uteri lata; which ferve
not only to fupport the uterus, but to convey nerves and
blood-veffels to it.
k, The ligamenta uteri rotunda arife from the fides
of the fundus uteri, and palling along within the fore¬
part of the ligamenta lata, defcend through the abdo¬
minal rings, and terminate in the fubftance of the mons
veneris. The fubftance of thefe ligaments is vafcular:
and although both they and the ligamenta lata admit
the uterus, in the virgin ftate, to move only about an
inch up and down ; yet in the courfe of pregnancy they
admit of confiderable diftenfion, and after parturition
return nearly to their original ftate with furprifing
quicknefs.
l, On each fide of the inner furface of the uterus,
in the angle near the fundus, a fmall orifice is to be
difcovered, which is the beginning of one of the tubee
fallopian*. Each of thefe tubes, which are two in num¬
ber, palling through the fubftance of the uterus, is ex¬
tended along the broad ligaments, till it reaches the
edge of the pelvis, from whence it refle&s back; and
turning over behind the ligaments, about an inch of
its extremity is feen hanging loofe in the pelvis, near
the ovarium. Thefe extremities having a jagged ap¬
pearance, are called fimbria or morfus diaboli. Each
tuba fallopiana is ufually about three inches long. Their
cavities are at firft very fmall, but become gradually
larger, like a trumpet, as they approach the fimbriae.
m, Near the fimbriae of each tuba fallopiana, about
an inch from the uterus, is fituated an oval body call¬
ed ovariumy of about half the fize of the male tefticle.
Each of thefe ovaria is covered by a produftion of the
peritonaeum, and hangs loofe in the pelvis. They are
of a flat and angular form; and appear to be compofed
of a white and cellullar fubftance, in which we are able
to difcover feveral minute veficles filled with a coagu-
lable lymph, of an uncertain number, but not often
exceeding twelve in each ovary. In the female of ri¬
per years, thefe veficles become exceedingly turgid;
and a kind of yellow coagulum is gradually formed
within one of them, which increafes till its coat difap-
pears; and it then changes into an hemifpherical body,
called corpus luteum, which refembles a bunch of cur¬
rants, and is defcribed as being hollow, and containing
within its cavity the very minute membranes or eggs,
each of which may become the feat of a foetus. In
conception *, one of thefe mature ova is fuppofed to ^
be impregnated with the male femen, and to be fquee-
zed out of its nidus into the fallopian tube ; and Ba¬
ron Haller obferves, that the number of fears or fiflures
in the ovarium conftantly correfponds with the number
of foetufes excluded by the mother.
Part V. Of the THORAX.
a, r| 1HE thorax, or cheft, is that cavity of the
37 3- [37S'] -l- trunk which extends from the clavicles, or
O thechen. lower part of the neck, to the diaphragm; and includes
the vital organs, which are the heart and lungs ; and
likewife the trachea and cefophagus. This cavity is
formed by the ribs and vertebrae of the back, covered
by a great number of mufcles, and by the common
integuments, and anteriorly by two glandular bodies
called the breajls. The fpaces between the ribs are
filled up by mufcular fibres, which from their fituation
are called intercofial mufcles.
C h a p. I.
Of the Breasts (b).
a. The breajls may be defined to be two largecon-
| 376 glomerate glands mixed with a good deal of adipofe
membrane. The glandular part is compofed of an in¬
finite number of minute arteries, veins, and nerves.
b. The arteries are derived from two different trunks;
one of which is called the internal, and the other the
external, mammary artery. The firft of thefe arifes from
the fubclavian, and the latter from the axillary.
c. The veins every where accompany the arteries,
, . and are diftinguiftied by the fame name. 'The nerves
are chiefly from the vertebral pairs. Like all other
conglomerate glands, the breafts are made up of a great
Vol. I.
many fmall diftinft glands, in which the milk is fecreted
from the ultimate branches of arteries. The excretory
du&s of thefe feveral glands, gradually uniting as they
approach the nipple, form the tubuli lattiferi, which
are ufually about feven or eight in number, and open
at its apex. Thefe du&s, in their courfe from the
glands, are furrounded by a ligamentary elaftic fub¬
ftance, which terminates with them in the nipple. Both
this fubftance, and the dudls which it contains, are
capable of confiderable extenfion and contraction; but
in their natural ftate are moderately corrugated, fo as
to prevent an involuntary flow of milk, unlefs the dif-
tending force be very great, from the accumulation of
too great a quantity.
d. The whole fubftance of the nipple is very fpongy
and elaftic; its external furface is uneven, and.full of
fmall tubercles. The nipple is furrounded with a difle
or circle of a different colour, called the areola; and on
the infide of the flein, under the areola, are many fe-
baceous glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the
areola and nipple; for the fltin upon thefe parts is vefy
thin, and the nervous papillae lying very bare are much
expofed to irritation.
e, The breafts are formed for the fecretion of milk,
which is deftined for the nouriihment of the child for
fome time after its birth. This fecretion begins to
take place foon after delivery, and continues to now for
B b b many
(b) What is here faid is to be confidered as being applicable only to the female breafts, thofe of the male fubjedt
not feeming to need a particular defeription.
382
ANATOMY.
many months in very large quantities, if the woman
fuckles her child.
f, The operation of fuftion depends on the princi¬
ples of the air-pump, and the flow of milk through
the la&iferous tubes is facilitated by their being ftretch-
ed out.
g. The milk, in its properties, feems to refemble the
chyle. It appears to be compofed of oil, mucilage, and
water, with a confiderable quantity of fugar; and, like
the chyle, frequently retains the nature of the aliments
and medicines taken irito the ftomach.
Of the Pleura.
a, The cavity of the thorax is every where lined by
a membrane of a firm texture, called pleura. It is com¬
pofed of two diftinft portions or bags, which, by being
applied to each other laterally, form a feptum called
mediajlinum; which divides the cavity into two parts;
and is attached to the vertebras of the back behind,
and before to the ftefnum. But the tvVo laminae of
which this feptum is formed, do not every where ad¬
here to each other : for at the lower part of the tho¬
rax they are feparated, to afford a lodgement to the
heart; and at the upper part of the cavity they receive
between them the thymus.
b, The pleura is plentifully fupplied with arteries
and veins from the intercoftals ; and its nerves are de¬
rived from the vertebral pairs. This membrane is ex¬
ceedingly fenfible; and it is to this fenfibility we owe
the painful ftitch we fometimes feel in the fide, and
which, when in a certain degree, conflitutes a very a-
cute difeafe, called the pleurijy, which is occafioned by
an inflammation of this membrane.
c, The inner furface of the pleura is fmooth; and, like
all the other cavities, is conftantly moiftened by the
lymph (c).
The mediaftinum (d), by dividing the breaft in-
d, TI
to two cavities, obviates many inconveniences to which
we fhould otherwife be liable. It prevents the two
lobes of the lungs from comprefling each other when
we lie on one fide; and confequently contributes to the
freedom of refpiration, which is difturbed by the leaft
preffure on the lungs. If the point of a fword pene¬
trates between the ribs into the cavity of the thorax,
the lungs on that fide ceafe to perform their office; be-
caufe the air Being admitted through the wound, pre¬
vents the dilatation, of that lobe; while the other lobe,
which is feparated from it by thfe mediaftinum, remains
utihurV and continues to perform its fun&ion as ufual.
Of the Thymur.
Part V.
in very old fubje&s. It is placed in the upper part of
the thorax, between the twO laminae of the mediaftinum;
but at firft is not altogether contained within the cavi¬
ty of the cheft, being found to border upon the upper
extremity of the fternum.
Chap. IV.
Of the Diaphragm.
a. The cavity of the thorax is feparated from that
of the abdomen, by a flefhy and membranous feptum
called the diaphragm or midriff. The greateft part of
it is compofed of mufcular fibres; and, on this account,
fyftematic Writers ufually place it Very properly among
the mufcles. Its middle part is tendinous; and it is
covered by the pleura above, and by the peritonasunt
below. It feems to have been improperly named fep-
tum trdnjverfum; as it is does not make a plain tra'nf-
verfe divifion of the two cavities, but forms a kind of
vault, the fore-part of which is attached to the fter¬
num. Laterally it is fixed to the laft of the true ribs,
and to all the falfe ribs ; and its lower and pofterior
part is attached to the vertebras lumbornm, where it
may be faid to be divided into two portions or crura.
b, The principle arteries of the diaphragm are de¬
rived from the aorta ; and its veins pafs into the vena
cava. Its nerves are chiefly derived from the cervical
pairs. It affords a paffage to the vena cava through
its tendinous part, and to the cefophagus through its
fleftiy portion. TKe aorta paffes down behind it, be-
tweeii its crura.
c, The diaphragm not only ferves to divide the tho¬
rax from the abdomen, but by its mufcular ftru&ure is
rendered one of the chief agents in refpiration. When
its fibres contrail, its convex fide, which is turned to¬
wards the thorax, becomes gradually flat, and, by in-
creafing the cavity of the breaft, affords room for a com¬
plete dilatation of the lungs, by means of the air which
is then drawn into therii by the ait of infpiration. The
fibres of the diaphragm then relax; and as it refumes
its former ffate, the cavity of the thorax becomes gra¬
dually diminiftied, and the air is driven out again from
the lungs by a motion contrary to the former one, call¬
ed exfpiration.
d. It is in feme meafure by means of the diaphragm
that we void the faeces at the anus, and empty the u-
rinary bladder. Befides thefe offices, the ails of
coughing, fneezirig, fpeaking, laughing; gaping, and
fighmg, could not take place without its affiftance;
and the gentle preffure, which all the abdominal vifeera
receive from its conftant and regular motion, cannot
fail to affift in the performance of the feveral func¬
tions-which were aferibed to thofe vifeera.
a, The thymits is a glandular fubftance, the ufe of
which is not yet perfeilly afeertained. It is of ah . ob¬
long figure; and is larger in the foetus and in young
childreri than, in adults; being fometimes nearly effaced
Of the Trachea.
a, The trachea^ or ’windpipe, is a cartilaginous and
membranous canal, through which the air paffes into
the
(c) When this fluklis exFialed in too great a quantity, Oris hot properly carried ofR it accumulates and eohftitufeS-
fhe hydrops peficris.
’ (d) Sometimes matter colle<5ts between the two laminae of the mediaftinum; andchirurgical authors, in fuch cafes, di¬
rect to trepan the fternutn. But the difeafe does not feem often to occur; and when it does happen, cannot be dif-
tinguiftied with certainty. In a patient who died of that diforder of the breaft named by Dr Heberden angina pec¬
toris, Dr Haygarth of Chefter, found a collection of what-appeared to be pus, between thefe laminae, which had oc-
qafioued hidden death by breaking into the trachea, and thus producing fuffocation.
Part V.
ANA
the lungs. Its upper part, which is called the larynx,
is compofed of five cartilages. The uppermoft and
fmalleft.of thefe cartilages is placed over the glottis or
month of the larynx, and is called epiglottis ; which has
been before fpoken of, as clofing the paffage to the
lungs in the adt of fwallowing. The fides of the la¬
rynx are compofed of the arytenoide cartilages, which
are of a very complex figure, not eafy to be defcribed.
T O M Y.
diameter of its paffage.
f, The trachea, and the bronchi, in all their rami¬
fications, are furnifhed with very minute glands, which
difcharge a pellucid lymph on the inner furface of thefc
tubes.
g, The trachea appears to be formed with infinite
wiidom for the ufes it is intended to ferve. Its carti-
rs, by keeping it conftantly open, afford a free
383
The anterior and larger part of the larynx is made up paffage to the air, which we are obliged to be incef-
of two cartilages; one of which is called thyroides, or fantly refpiring; and its membranous part, by being
fcutiformis, from its being fhaped like a buckler ; and
the other cricoides, or annularis, from its refembling a
ring. Both thefe cartilages may be felt immediately
under the fkin, in the fore-part of the throat; and the
thyroides, by its convexity, forms an eminence called
ponium adami, which is ufually more confiderable in
the male than in the female fubjeft.
b. All thefe cartilages are united to each other by
means of very elaftic, ligamentous fibres; and are ena¬
bled, by the affiftance of feveral mufcles, to dilate or
contraft the paffage of the larynx, and to perform that
variety of motion which feems to point out the larynx
as being the principal organ of the voice ; for when the
air paltes out through a wound in the trachea, it pro¬
duces no found.
c, Thefe cartilages are moiftened by a mucus, which
feems to be fecreted by minute glands fituated near
them. The upper part of the trachea, and the cri¬
coid and thyroid cartilages, are in fome meafure cover¬
ed anteriorly by a confiderable body, which is fup-
pofed to be of a glandular ftru&ure, and from its fi-
tuation is called the thyroid, gland; though its excre¬
tory dudt has not yet been difcovered, or its real ufe
afcertained.
d, The infide of the glottis is covered by a very
fine membrane, which is moiftened by a conftant fup-
ply of watery lymph. From the larynx, the canal
begins to take the name of trachea, ox afpera arteria;
and extends from thence as far down as the fourth or
fifth vertebra of the back, where it divides into two
branches, which are the right and left bronchial tube.
Each of thefe bronchi ramifies through the fubftance
of that lobe of the lungs, to which it is diftributed,
by an infinite number of branches, which are formed
of cartilages feparated from each other, like thofe of
.the trachea, by an intervening membranous and liga¬
mentary fubftance. Each of thefe cartilages is of an
angular figure ; and as they become gradually lefs and
lefs in their diameter, the lower ones are in fome mea¬
fure received into thofe above them, when the luflgs, af¬
ter being inflated, gradually coll^pfe by the aitlaeiog
puihed out from them in exfpiration. As the branch¬
es of the bronchi become more minute, their cartila¬
ges become more and more angular and membranous,
till at length they are found to be perfectly membra¬
nous, and at laft become invifible.
e. The trachea is furniihed with flelhy or mufcular
fibres, fome of which pafs through its whole extent
longitudinally, while the others are carried round it in
a circular direction ; fo that, by the contrattion or re¬
laxation of thefe fibres, it is enabled to ftiorten or
lengthen itfelf, and likewife to dilate or contraft the
capable of contra&ion and dilatation, enables 1
receive and expel the air in a greater or lefs quantity,
and with more or lefs velocity, as may be required in
finging or in declamation.
h, The generality of anatomifts defcribe the trachea
as being limply membranous at its pofterior part, that
it may give way to the aliment as it defcends through
the pefpphagus, and not impede its paffage; as it would
be liable to do, if the trachea was cartilaginous here,
as it is in the fides and fore-part (e). But there are
arguments brought to prove that this is not its ufe; and
thefe are, That the cefophagus, as Mr Window obferves,
does not defcend immediately behind it, but fomewhat
laterally to the left: that the bronchi, at their upper
part, are likewife limply membranous pofteriorly where
the oefophagus no longer accompanies them: and that
it would perhaps be dangerous if the trachea was per¬
mitted to give way to the aliment, in its defeent; as
the refpiration would be by this means impeded, and
this fun&ion feems to be too effential to life to be ex-
pofed to any fuch interruption.
i, The trachea receives its arteries from the carotids,
and its veins pafs into the jugulars; its nerves arife from
the recurrent and from the cervical plexus.
Of the Lungs.
a, The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of
the breaft. They are of a foft and fpongy texture;
and are divided into two lobes, which are feparated
from each other by the mediaftinum, and are external¬
ly covered by a production of the pleura. Each of
thefe is divided into two or three leffer lobes ; and we
commonly find three in the right fide of the cavity, and
two in the left.
b, To difcover the ftru&ure of the lungs, it is re¬
quired to follow the ramifications of the bronchi, which
were defcribed in the laft fedtion. Thefe becoming
gradually more and more minute, at length terminate
in the cellular fpaces or veficles, which make up the
greateft part of the fubftance of the lungs, and readily
communicate with each other.
c, The mucus, which was mentioned as palling into
the bronchi, conftitutes what we expe&orate ; and the
moft frequent caufe of cough, feems to depend on the
abundance or the tenacity of this fecretion. Every
thing we throw off by hawking or fpitting, is derived-
cither from the lungs, the noftrils, or the falival glands;
and, on the contrary, all that we bring up by vomiting
comes from the ftomach.
d, The lungs receive nerves from the intercoftals, but
B b b 2 chiefly
(e) The firft of thefe opinions appears now to be the moft generally adopted ; for although the membranous ftruc-
ture of the trachea and bronchi may affift in (hortening the canal, yet it feems likewife to aflift in the ddeent of the
food.
384 ANATOMY. Part V!
chiefly from the eighth pair or par vagum. This laft jured by lymph, pus, or any other fluid, extravafated
pair, having reached the thorax, fends off a branch on
each fide of the trachea, called the recurrent; which
re-afcend, and go to diftribute themfelves to the larynx
and its mufcles, and likewife to the cefophagus.
e, There are two feries of arteries which carry
blood to the lungs: thefe are the arterine bronchiales
Ruyfchii, and the pulmonary artery.
f, The arteria: bronchiales begin ufually by two
branches; one of which commonly arifes from the in-
tercoftal, and the other from the trunk of the aorta :
but fometimes there are three of thefe arteries, and in
fome fubjefts only one. The ufe of thefe arteries is
to ferve for the nouriftiment of the lungs, and their ra¬
mifications are feen creeping every where on the branch¬
es of the bronchi. The blood is brought back from
them by the bronchial vein into the vena azygos.
g, The pulmonary artery and vein are not intend¬
ed for the nouriftiment of the lungs; but the blood in
its pafiage through them is deftined to undergo fome
changes, or to acquire certain efiential properties (pro¬
bably from the aftion of the air), which it has loft in
its circulation through the other parts of the body.
The pulmonary artery receives the blood from the right
ventricle of the heart; and dividing into two branches,
accompanies the bronchi every where, by its' ramifica¬
tions through the lungs ; and the blood is afterwards
conveyed back by the pulmonary vein, which gradual-
into the cavities of the thorax. 386
a, The heart is a hollow mufcle of a conical fhape, Heart, am
fituated tranfverfely between the two laminae of the me- its auric‘es-
diaftinum, at the lower part of the thorax ; having its
bafts turned towards the right fide, and its point or apex
towards the left. Its lower furface is fomewhat flat¬
tened where it is attached to the diaphragm. Its bafis,
from which the great veflels originate, is covered with
fat; and has two hollow and flefhy appendages, called
the auricles* Round thefe feveral openings, the heart
feems to be of a firm, ligamentous texture, from which
all its fibres feem to originate; and as they advance
from thence towards the apex, the fubftance of the
heart feems to become thinner.
b, The heart includes two cavities, or ventricles,
which are feparated from each other by a flefliy feptum:
one of thefe is called the right, and the other the left
ventricle ; though perhaps with refpeft to their fitua-
tion, it would be more proper to diftinguifh them into
the anterior and poferior ventricles.
c, The outfide of the heart is covered by a very fine
membrane ; and its ftrufture is perfeftly mufcular or
flefhy, being compofed of fibres which are defcribed as
pafilng in different dire&ions ; fome as being extended
longitudinally from the bafis to the apex; others, as
taking an oblique or fpiral courfe; and a third fort, as
being placed in a tranfverfe direction. Within the two
ly forming a confiderable trunk, goes to empty itfelf ventricles we obferve feveral furrows, and there
into the left ventricle of the heart; fo that the quanti- •>«£» A..™*
ty of blood which enters into the lungs, is perhaps
greater than that which is fent in the feme proportion
of time, through all the other parts of the body.
3*i, [38s.]
Of the Pericardium, and of the Heart
and its Auricles.
a, The two membranous bags of the pleura, which
were defcribed as forming the mediaftinum, recede one
from the other, fo as to form a complete fee, in which
the heart is fecurely lodged; and this fee is the pericar¬
dium (g), which appears to be compofed of two tu¬
nics, united to each other by cellular membrane: the
outer coat is a produftion of the mediaftinum; and the
inner tunic appears to adhere to the great veffels of the
heart, on which it gradually difeppears.
b, This bag is attached to the tendinous part of the
diaphragm, and contains a coagulable lymph, the liquor
pericardii, which ferves to lubricate the heart and fa¬
cilitate its motions, and is probably fecreted and ab-
forbed in the feme manner as it is in the other cavities
of the body.
c, The arteries of the pericardium are derived from
the phrenic, and its veins pafs into veins of the fame
name; its nerves are likewife branches of the phrenic.
d, The fize of the pericardium is adapted to that of
the heart, befog ufually large enough to contain it
loofely. As its cavity does not extend to the fternum,
the lungs cover it in infpiration ; and as it every where
invefts the heart, it effeftually fecures it from being in-
likewife tendinous firings, which arife from flefliy co¬
lumns in the two cavities, and are attached to the
valves of auricles. That the ufe of thefe and of the
other valves of the heart may be underftood, it muft
be obferved, that four large veffels pafs out from the'
bafis of the heart, viz. two arteries and two veins ;
and that each of thefe veffels is furniftied with a thin
membranous produftion, which is attached all round
to the borders of their feveral orifices, from whence
hanging loofely down, they appear to be divided into
two or three diftinft portions. But as their ufes in the
arteries and veins are different, fo are they differently
difpofed. Thofe of the arteries are intended to give
way to the paffage of the blood into them from the
ventricles,, but to oppofe its return : and on the con¬
trary, the valves of the veins are conftrufted fo as to
allow the blood only to pafs into the heart. In con-
fequence of thefe different ufes, we find the valves of
the pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to the
orifices of thofe veffels, fo as to have their concave for-
faces turned towards the artery ; and their convex fur-
faces, which mutually meet together, being placed to¬
wards the ventricle, only permit the blood to pafs one
way, which is into the arteries. There are ufually
three of thefe valves belonging to the pulmonary ar¬
tery, and as many to the aorta, and from their figure
they are called valvulxfemilunares. The communica¬
tion between the two great veins and the ventricles, is
by means of the two appendages or auricles into which
the blood is difeharged; fo that the other valves, which
may be feid to belong to the veins, are placed in each
ventricle, where the auricle opens into it. The valves
(f) The pericardium, though placed between the two laminas of the mediaftinum, appears to be a diftintt bag,
very different in its ftruAure from the pleura, being of a firm and fomewhat tendinous complexion.
3%
'i Part V.
ANATOMY.
in the right ventricle are ufually three in number, and rary to the courfe of the arteries, begin by very mi-
are named valvulae tricufpides; but in the left ventricle nute Canals, and gradually become larger, forming at
we commonly obferve only two, and thefe are the val- length four large trunks called the pulmonary veins,
vultf mitrales. The membranes which form thefe valves which terminate in the left auricle by one common o-
in each cavity are attached fo as to project fomewhat pening, from whence the blood paffes into the left ven-
forward; and both the tricufpides and the mitrales are tricle. From this fame ventricle arifes the aorta, or
connected with the tendinous firings which were de- great arteryat its begining is nearly an inch
fcribed as arifing from the flefhy column#. By the in diameter. It foon fends off two branches, the coro-
contraftion of either ventricle, the blood is driven in- naries, which go to be dillributed to the heart and its
to the artery which communicates with that ventricle ; auricles. After this, at or about the third or fourth
and thefe tendinous firings being gradually relaxed, as vertebra of the back, it makes a confiderable curva-
the fides of the cavity are brought nearer to each o- ture. From this curvature (g) arife three arteries; one
ther, the valves naturally clofe' the opening into the of which foon divides into two branches. The firft
auricle, and the blood neceffarily direfts its courfe into two are the left fubclavian, and the left carotid; and the
the then only open pafiage, which is into the artery : third is a common trunk to the right fubclavian and
but after this contradtion, the heart becomes- relaxed;
the tendinous firings are again flretched out; and draw¬
ing the valves of the auricle downwards, the blood is
poured by the veins into the ventricle ; from whence,
right carotid ; though fometimes both the carotids a-
rife diflindlly from the aorta.
c, The two carotids afeend within the fubclavians,
along the fides of the trachea; and when they have
by another contraction, it is again thrown into the ar- reached the larynx, divide into two principal branches
tery, as will be deferibed hereafter. The right ventri- the internal and external carotid. The firft of thefe
cle is not quite fo long, though fomewhat larger than runs a little way backwards in a bending diredtion;
the left, but the latter has more fubftaoce than the o- and, having reached the under part of the ear, paffes
ther ; and this feems to be becaufe it is intended to through the canal in the os petrofum, and entering
tranfmit the blood to the moft diftant parts of the bo- into the cavity of the cranium is diftributed to the
dy, whereas the right ventricle diftributes it only to brain and the membranes which envelope it. The ex~
the lungs. ternal carotid divides into feveral branches, which are
d, The heart receives its nerves from the par vagum diftributed to the larynx, pharynx, and other parts of
and the intercoftals. The arteries which ferve for its the neck, and to the jaws, lips, tongue, eyes, temples,
nourifhment are two in number, and arife from the and all the external parts of the head.
aorta. They furround in fome meafure the bafis of the d. Each fubclavian is likewife divided into a great
heart, and from this courfe are called the coronary ar- number of branches. It fends off the vertebral artery,
teries. From thefe arteries the blood is returned by which paffes through the openings we fee at the bot-
veins of the fame name into the auricles, and even in- tom of the tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebra of the
to the ventricles. \» neck, and in its courfe fends off many ramifications to
e, The mufcular bags called the auricles are fituated the neighbouring parts. Some of its branches are dif¬
at the bafis of the heart, by the fides of each other; tributed to the fpinal marrow; and, after a confiderable
and, correfponding with the two ventricles, are, like infleftion, it enters into the cranium, and is diftribu-
thofe two cavities, diftinguifhed into right and left, ted to the brain. The fubclavian likewife fends off
Thefe facs, which are interiorly unequal, have exter- branches to the mufcles of the neck and fcapula : and
nally a jagged appendix, which, from its having been the mediaftinum, thymus, pericardium, diaphragm,
compared to the extremity of an ear, has given them the breafts, and the mufcles of the thorax, and even
their name of auricles. of the abdomen, derive branches from the fubclavian;
which are diftinguilhed by different names, alluding
Chap. XI. to the parts to which they are diftributed, as the mam-
Defcription of the Blood-vessels. mary, the phrenic, the intercojlal, &c. But, notwith-
ftanding the great number of Branches which have been
a, The heart has been deferibed as contracting it- deferibed as arifing from the fubclavian, itisftill a con-
felf, and throwing the blood from its two ventricles fiderable artery when it reaches the axilla, where it
into the pulmonary artery and the aorta; and then as drops its former name, which alluded to its paffage
relaxing itfelf, and receiving a frefh fupply from two under the clavicle, and is called the axillary artery;
large veins, which are the pulmonary veins, and the from which a variety of branches are diftributed to the
vena cava. We will now point out the principal diftri- mufcles of the breaft, fcapula, and arm. But its maii%
butions of thefe veffels. trunk taking the name of brachialis, runs along with-
b, The pulmonary artery arifes from the right ven- in fide the arm near the os humeri, till it reaches the
tricle by a large trunk, which foon divides into two joint of the fore-arm, and then it divides into two
confiderable branches, which pafs to the right and left branches. This divifion, however, is different in differ-
lobes of the lungs : each of thefe branches is after- ent fubjecls ; for in fome it takes place higher up, and
wards divided and fubdivided into an infinite number in others lower down. When it happens to divide a-
of branches and ramifications, which extend through bove the joint, it may be confidered as a happy difpo-
the whole fubfta nee of the lungs; and from thefe bran- fition in cafe of an accident by bleeding; for fuppo-
ches the blood is returned by the veins, which, conti- fing the artery to be unfortunately pumltured by the
. lancet,
(g) Anatomifts ufually call the upper part of this curvature, aorta afeendens; and the other part of the artery to
its divifion at the iliacs, aorta defenders: but they differ about the place where this diftindion is to be introduced ;
and it feems fufficiently to anfwer every purpofe, to fpeak only of the aorta and its curvature.
386
Part
ANATOMY.
lancet, and that the hemorrhage eeuld only be ftopt by
making a ligature on the veflel, one branch would re¬
main unhurt, through which the blood would pafs un¬
interrupted to the fore arm and hand. One of the two
branches of brachialis plunges down under the flex¬
or mufcles, and runs along the edge of the ulna; while
the other is carried along the outer furface of the radius,
and is eafily felt at the wrift, where it is only cover¬
ed by the common integuments. Both thefe branch¬
es commonly unite in the palm of the hand, and form
an arterial arch from whence branches are detached to
the fingers.
e, The aorta, after having given off at its curvature
the carotids and fubclayians, which convey blood to all
the upper parts of the body, defcends upon the bodies
of the vertebrae a little to the left, as far as the . os fa-
crum, where it drops the name of aorta, and divides
into two confiderable branches. In this courfe, from
its curvature to its bifurcation, it fends off feveral arte¬
ries, in the following order.
f, i. Two little arteries, and fometimes only one,
firft demonftrated by Ruyfch as going to the bronchi,
and called arteri# bronchioles Ruyfchii. 2. The infe¬
rior, hitercojlal arteries which are diftributed between
the ribs in the fame manner as the arteries of the three
or four fuperior ribs are, which are derived from the
fubclavian. Thefe arteries fend off branches to the
medulla fpinalis. 3. The phrenic, which goes to the
diaphragm, and the arteries which are diftributed to
the cefophagus. 4. The celiac, which arifes from the
aorta, under the diaphragm, and is diftributed to the
ftomach, omentum, duodenum, pancreas, fpleen, li¬
ver, and gall-bladder. 5. The fuperior mefenteric ar¬
tery, which is diftributed to the mefentery and fmall
inteftines. 6. The emulgents, which go to the kidneys.
7. The arteries which are diftributed to the glandule
renales. 8. The fperniatic. 9. The inferior mefente¬
ric artery, which ramifies through the lower portion
of the mefentery and the large inteftines. A branch
of this artery which goes to the re&um is called the
internal hemorrhoidal. 1 o. The lumbar arteries, and a
very fmall branch called the facra; which are diftribu¬
ted to the mufcles of the loins and abdomen, and to
the os facrum and medulla fpinalis.
g, The trunk of the aorta, when it has reached the
laft vertebra lumborum, or the os facrum, drops the
-name of aorta, and feparates into two forked branches,
called the iliacs. Each of thefe foon divides into two
branches; one of which is called the internal iliac, or
hypogajlric artery; and is diftributed to the urinary blad¬
der, inteftinum reftum, and the neighbouring parts.
That branch which goes to the reflum is called the ex¬
ternal herfiorrhoid. The external iliac, after having
given off the umbilical artery, and the epigajlric, which
Is diftributed to the re£ti mufcles, paffes out of the ab¬
domen, under Poupart’s ligament, and takes the name
of crural artery. It defcends on the inner part of the
thigh clofe to the os femoris, fending off branches to
the mufcles ; and then finking deeper in the hind part
of the thigh, reaches the ham, where it takes the name
of popliteal. After this it feparates into two confider-
able branches; one of which is called the anterior tibial
artery; the other divides into two branches; and thefe
(h) In the extremities, fome ef the deep feated veins,;
of the arteries.
arteries all go to be diftributed to the leg and foot.
h. The blood, which is thus diftributed by the aorta
to all parts of the body, is brought back by the veins,
which are fuppofed to be continued from the ultimate
branches of arteries, and, uniting together as they ap¬
proach the heart, at length form two large trunks, the
vena cava 'afeendens and vena cava defeendens.
i, All the veins winch bring back the blood from
the upper extremites, and from the head and breaft,
pafs into the vena cava defeendens; thofe which re¬
turn it from the lower parts of the body, terminate in
the vena cava afeendens; and thefe two cavas, uniting
together as they approach the heart, open by one
common orifice into the left auricle.
k, It does not here feem to be neceffary to follow
the different divifions of the veins as we did thofe of
the arteries ; and it will be fufficient to remark, that,
in general, every artery is accompanied by its vein, and
that both are diftinguilhed by the fame name. But
like many other general rules, this too has its excep¬
tions (h). The veins, forinftance, which accompany
the external and internal carotid, are not called the ca¬
rotid veins, but the external and internal jugular. In
the thorax there is a vein diftinguifhed by a proper
name, and this is the azygos or vena fine pari. This
vein, which is a pretty confiderable one, runs along by
the right fide of the vertebrae of the back, and is chiefly
deftined to receive the blood from the intercoftals on
that fide, and to convey it into the vena cava defeen¬
dens. In the abdomen, we meet with a vein which is
ftill a more remarkable one; and this is the vena porta,
which performs the office both of an artery and a vein.
It is formed by a reunion of all the veins which come
from the ftomach, inteftines, omentum, pancreas, and
fpleen, fo as to compofe one great trunk, which goes
to ramify through the liver; and after having depofited
the bile, its ramifications unite and bring back into the
vena cava, not only the blood which the vena porta
had carried into the liver, but likewife the blood from
the hepatic artery. Every artery has a vein which cor-
refponds with it; but the trunks and branches of the
veins are more numerous than thofe of the arteries.
Thereafons for this difpofition are perhaps not difficult
to be explained. The blood, in its courfe through the
veins, is much farther removed from the fource and caufe
of its motion which are in the heart, than it was when
in the arteries: fo that its courfe is confequently lefs
rapid, and enough of it could not poflibly be brought
back to the heart, in the moment of its dilatation, tp
equal the quantity which is driven into the arteries from
the two ventricles at the time they contrail; and the
equilibrium, which is fo effential to the continuance of
life and health, would confeqiTently be deftroyed if the
capacity of the veins did not exceed that of the arte¬
ries, in the fame proportion that the rapidity pf the
blood’s motion through the arteries exceeds that of
its return through the veins.
l, A large artery ramifying through the body, and
continued to the minute branches of veins, which gra¬
dually unite together to form a large trunk, may be
compared to two trees united to each other at their tops;
or rather as having their ramifications fo difpofed, that
the two trunks terminate in one common point; and
if
md all the fuperficial ones, take a courfe different from that
3^7
ANATOMY.
Part V.
if we farther fuppofe that both thefe trunks and their
branches are hollow, and that a fluid is inceflantly cir¬
culated through them, by entering into one of the
trunks and returning through the other, we fhall be en¬
abled to conceive how the blood is circulated thro’ the
veflels of the human body.
m. Every trunk of an artery, before it divides, is
tiearly cylindrical, or of equal diameter thro’ its whole
length, and fo are all its branches when examined fe-
parately. But every trunk feems to contain lefs blood
than the many branches do into which that trunk fe-
parates; and each of thefe branches probably contains
lefs blood than the ramifications do into which it i&
fubdivided: And it is the fame with the veins ; the vo¬
lume of their feveral ramifications, when confidered to¬
gether, being found to exceed that of the great trunk
which they form by their union.
n, The return of the blood through the veins to the
heart is promoted by the aftion of the mufcles and
the pulfation of the arteries. This return is like-
wife greatly aflifted by the valves which are to be met
with in the veins, and which conftitute one of the
great diftindf ions between them and the arteries. Thefe
valves (i), .which are fuppofed to be formed by the in¬
ner coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from
the extremities towards the heart, but oppofe its return.
o. Both the arteries and veins are membranous canals
which are compofed of three tunics ( k ); and even the
moft minute branches of both thefe feries of veflels are
nourifhed byftill more minute arteries and veins, which
are feen creeping over their coats* and ramifying
through their whole fubftanee, and are called vdfa va-
forum: they hdve likewife many minute branches of
nerves..
p, The arteries are much ftrohger than the veins;
and they feem to require this force to be enabled to re¬
fill the impetus with which the blood circulates thro’
them, and to impel it on towards the veins.
q* When the heart contrafts,. it impels the blood in¬
to the arteries, and fenfibly diftends them ; and thefe
veflels again contrail, as the heart becomes relaxed to
receive more blood from the auricles. So that the
caufe of the contraction and dilatation of the arteries,
feems to be eafy to be underflood, being greatly de¬
pendent on the motion df the heart: but, in thfe iiein's,
where the effeits of this impulfe are not fo fenfibly felt,
the blood fefetris to flow in a conilant and tqUal ftfiam ;
arid this, together with its palling gf-adrially from a
fmall channel into a larger one, feems to be the reafoa
why the veins have no pulfatory motion (l).
Chap. XII.
Of the Attion of the Heart, Auricles,
and Arteries.
a, The heart, at the time it contrails, drives the 388
blood from its ventricles into the arteries ; and the ar¬
teries, being thus filled and difterided, are naturally in¬
clined to contrail, the moment the heart begins to di¬
late, and ceafes to fupply them with blood. Thefe al¬
ternate motions of contrailion and dilatation of theheart
and arteries are diltinguilhed by the names of fyjloie
and diajlole. When the heart is in a Hate of contrac¬
tion, or fyjlole, the arteries are at that inllant diftended
with blood and in their diajlole; and it is in this Hate
we feel their pulfatory motion, which wc call thepulfe.
When the heart dilates, and the. arteries contrail, the
blood is impelled onwards into the veins, thro’ which
it is returned back into the heart. While the heart,
however, is in its JyJlole, the blood cannot pafs from the
veinS into the ventricles 5 but is detained in the auricles,
which are two refervoirs formed for this ufe, till the
diajlole or dilatation of the heart takes place ; and then
the diftended auricles contrail, and drive the blood in¬
to the ventricles: fo that the auricles have an alternate
fyjlole and diajlole, as well as the heart.
b, Altho’ both the ventricles of the heart contrail at
the fame time, yet the blood pafles from one to the o-
ther. In the fame moment, for inflance, that the left
ventricle drives the blood into the aorta; the right ven¬
tricle impels it into the pulmonary artery, which is di-
ftfibuted through all the fubftanee of the lungs. The
blood is afterwards brought back into the left ventricle
by the pulmonary vein, at the fame time that the blood
is returned by the cavas, into the right ventricle, from
all the other parts of the body..
c, This feems to be the mode of ailion.of the heart
and its veflels: but the caufe of this ailion, has like
all other intricate and interefting fubjeils, been diffe¬
rently explained; often With much ingenuity, though
perhaps not yet with fufficient certainty to be eftablifti-
ed as a phyfical truth- It is probably occafioned by
the influence of the rierves, excited in confequence of
an impreffion made on the heart. by the blood itfelf,
which by its quantity and heat (m), or other proper¬
ties. (n), is perhaps capable of firft exciting that mo¬
tion,
(it) The vaftes are tfaoft frequent in the ffnaller veins. As the column of blood is increafed, they feem to become
left beceflfary; and, therefore in the vena cava afcendens we meet with only one valve, which is near its origin.
(k) There are writers who defcribe the arteries as having five tunics ; while others fpeak only of four; and many
will fillow them only three; which are the nervous, mufcular, and cuticular tunics. The veins are by many writers
fuppofed to confift.of the fame number of coats as the arteries ; but that, by being thinner, they do not eafily admit
of reparation. That they have no mufcular coat, , however, feenis now to be pretty generally allowed ; and there are
eminent anatomifts who contend,, (and feemingly with good reafon), thatno mufbular fibres are to be demonftrated
even in the coat s of arteries.
(l) Many modern writers allow, that there is a pulfatofy motion in the great veins near the heart; but it there
feems to be occaturned by the motion of the diaphragm, and by the regurgitation of the. blood in the cavas.
(m) D‘r Hales obferved, that the pulfe is quicker in fmall animals, than in large ones;- and this feems to be, becaufe
their heat is proportionably greater. The velocity of the blood’s motion feems likewife to depend on the greater or
lefs degree of irritability of the body through which it circulates. In people of weak habits, it is conftantly more
rapid than m robuft iubjedts. In new born infants, the pulte ufitally beats'120. As we approach to old age, and
the irritability of the body decreafes, it gtadually becomes flower; and in advanced life, is found to beat only 60, 50,
or 40, arid fometimes not fo often, in a minute.
(n) Dr Halvey long agb fuggefted, that the blood is poflefled of a living.principle; and Mr J. Hunter has lately en¬
deavoured to revive this dodlrinfe, in fupport of which he has adduced many ingenious arguments. The fubjed; is &
curious one, and deferves to be profecnted as an inquiry which cannot but be interefting to pbyfiologifts.
388
389
ANATOMY.
tion, which is afterwards continued through life, inde¬
pendent of the will, by a regular return of blood to the
auricles in a quantity proportioned to that which is
thrown into the arteries.
Chap. XIII.
Of the Circulation.
a, After what has been obferved of the ftrufture
and aftion of the heart and its auricles, and likewife of
the arteries and veins ; there feem to be but very few
arguments required to demonftrate the circulation of the
Hood, which has been long fince eftablilhed as a medi-
oal truth. This circulation maybe defined to be a per¬
petual motion of the blood, in confequence of the ac¬
tion of the heart and arteries, which impel it thro’ all
the parts of the body, from whence it is brought back
by the veins to the heart (o).
b, A very fatisfaftory proof of this circulation, and
a proof eafy to be underftood, may be deduced from the
different effefts of preffure on an artery and a vein. If
a ligature, for inftance, is paffed round an artery, the vef-
fel fwells confiderably between the ligature and the
heart; whereas, if we tie up a vein, it only becomes fill¬
ed between the extremity and the ligature: and this is
what we every day obferve in bleeding. The ligature
we pafs round the arm on thefe occafions compreffes the
fuperficial veins; and, the return of the blood thro’ them
being impeded, they become diftended. When the li¬
gature is too loofe, the veins are not fufficiently com-
preffed, and the blood continues its progrefs towards
the heart; and on the contrary, when it is made too
tight, the arteries themfelves become comprefled, and
the flow of blood through them being impeded, the
veins cannot be diftended.
c, Another phenomenon which effe&ually proves the
circulation, is the lofs of blood that every living animal
fuftains by opening only a Angle artery of a moderate
fize ; for it continues to flow from the wounded veflel
till the equilibrium is deftroyed which is eflential to life.
This truth was not unknown to the ancients ; and it
feems ftrange that it did not lead them to a knowledge
Part
of the circulation, as it fuflxciently proves that all the
other veflels muft communicate with that which is o-
pened. Galen, who lived more than 1500 years ago,
drew this conclufion from it; and if we farther obferve,
that he defcribes (after Erafiftratus who flourifhed a-
bout 450 years before him) the feveral valves of the
heart, and determines their difpofition and ufes, it will
appear wonderful, that a period of near 2000 years
fhould afterwards elapfe before the true courfe of
the blood was afcertained. This difcovery, for which
we are indebted to the immortal Harvey, has thrown
new lights on phyfiology and medicine, and conftitutes
one of the moft important periods of anatomical hi-
ftory.
Chap. XIV.
Of the Nature of the Blood.
a, Blood recently drawn from a vein into a bafon,
would feem to be an homogeneous fluid of a red co¬
lour ( p ); but, when fuffered to reft, it foon coagulates,
and divides into two parts, which are diftinguifhed by
the names of crajfamentum and ferum. The crajj'amen-
tum is the red coagulum, and the ferum is the water in
which it float's.
b, Each of thefe may be again feparated into two o-
thers. For the crajfamentum, by being repeatedly walh-
ed in warm water, gives out all its red globules; and
what remains appears to be compofed of the coagtdable
ly??iph (oj, which is a gelatinous fubftance, capable of
being hardened by fire till it becomes perfe&ly horny :
and if we expofe the ferum to a certain degree of heat,
part of it will be found to coagulate like the white of
an egg, and there will remain a clear and limpid water,
refembling urine both in its appearance and fmell. The
moft remarkable property of the ferum is its being
pervious to the common air. See Air, n° 48.
c, The ferum and crajfamentum differ in their pro¬
portion in different conftitutions ; in a ftrong perfon the
craffamentum is in a greater proportion to the ferum,
than in a weak one; and the fame difference is found
to take place in difeafes (r).
EXPLANATION of PLATES XVII. XIX. XX.
Muscles, &c.—Superior Extremity.—a,Maffe-
Plate XVII. tcr> ^ Complexus. c, Digaftricus. d, Os hyoides.
This plate reprefents the heart in fitu, all the large e, Thyroid gland, f, Levator fcapulas. g, Cuculla-
arteries and veins, with fome of the mufcles, foe. ris. h h, The clavicles cut. i, The deltoid mufcle.
k, Biceps
(o) The motion of the blood, and its paffage from the arteries into the veins, may be perceived, with the afiiftance
of a microfcope, in the tails of fifties and in frogs.
(p) The blood, as it flows through the arteries, is obferved to be more florid than it is in the veins; and this red-
nefs feems to be acquired in its paffage through the lungs.
(qj It may not be improper to obferve, that till of late the coagulable lymph has been confounded with the ferum
of the blood, which contains a fubftance that is likewife coagulable though only when expofed to heat, or certain
chemical fubftances, whereas the other coagulates fpontaneoufly when expofed to the air or to reft.
(r! When the blood feparates into ferum and crajfamentum, if the latter be covered with a cruft of a whitifli or buff
colour, it has been ufually confidered as a certain proof ofthe blood’s being ina ftateof too great vifeidity. Thb appear¬
ance commonly taking place in inflammatory difeafes, has long ferved to confirm the theory which aferibes the caufe
of inflammations to lentor and obftrudtions. But Dr Fordyce accounts in a different manner for the formation of the
buff. He afferts, that when the action of the arteries is increafed, the blood, inftead of being more vifeid, is o*
the contrary more fluid, than in the ordinary ftate, previous to inflammation: and that, in confequence of this, the
coagulable lymph fuffers the red globules, which are the heavieft part of the blood, to fall down to the bottom before
it coagulates: fo that the craffamentum is divided into two parts; one of which is found to confift of the coagulable
lymph alone, (in this cafe termed the buff J s and the other, partly of this and partly of the red globules.
I’late.XIX
3^9
V. ANATOMY.
k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. I, Coraco-brachialis.
m, Triceps extenfor cubiti. n. The heads of the pro¬
nator teres, flexor carpi radialis, and flexor digitorum
fublimis, cut. o, The flexor carpi ulnaris, cut at its
extremity, p, Flexor digitorutn profundus, q, Supi¬
nator radii longus, cut at its extremity, r, Ligamen-
tum carpi tranfverfale. s, Extenfores carpi radiales.
t, Latiffimus dorii. u, Anterior edge of the ferratus
anticus major, v, v, The inferior part of the dia¬
phragm. w w, Its anterior edge cut. x, x, The kid¬
neys. y, Tranfverfus abdominis, z, Os ilium.
Inferior Extremity.—a, Pfoas magnus. b, I-
liacus internus. c. The flefhy origin of the tenfor va¬
gina; femoris. d d. The offa pubis cut from each other.
<?, Mufculus pe&ineus cut from its origin, f, Short
head of the triceps addudlor femoris cut. g. The great
head of the triceps. hy The long head cut. /, Vaftus
internus. k, Vaftus externus. I, Crureus. m. Gemel¬
lus. n, Soleus. o, Tibia, p, Peronseus longus. q, Pe-
ronasus brevis, r, Fibula.
Heart and Blood-vessels.—A, The heart, with
the coronary arteries and veins. B, The right auricle
of the heart. C, The aorta afcendens. D, The left
fubclavian artery. E, The left carotid artery. F, The
common trunk which fends off the right fubclavian and
right carotid arteries. G, The carotis externa. H, Ar-
teria facialis, which fends off the coronary arteries of
the lips. I, Arteria temporalis,profunda. K, Aor¬
ta defcendens. L L, The iliac arteries,—which fend
off M M, The femoral or crural arteries. N. B. The
other arteries in this figure have the fame diftribution as
the veins of the fame name:—And generally, in the
anatomical plates, the defcription to be found on the
one fide, points out the fame parts in the other,
i. The frontal vein. 2, The facial vein. 3, Vena
temporalis profunda. 4, Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena
jugularis externa. 6,' Vena jugularis interna, covering
the arteria carotis communis. 7, The vafcular arch on
the palm of the hand, which is formed by 8, the radial
artery and vein, and 9, the ulnar artery and vein.
10 10, Cephalic vein. 11, Bafilic vein, that on the
right fide, cut. 12, Median vein. 13, The humeral
vein, which, with the median, covers the humeral ar¬
tery. 1414, The external thoracic or mammary ar¬
teries and veins. 15, The axillary vein, covering the
artery. 16 16, The fubclavian veins, which, with
.(6 6) the jugulars, form, 17, The vena cava fupe-
rior. 18, The cutaneous arch of veins on the fore-part
of the‘foot. 19, The vena tibialis antica, covering
the artery. 20, The vena profunda femoris, covering
the artery. 21, The upper part of the vena faphena
major. 22, The femoral vein. 23 23, The iliac
veins. 24, 24, Vena cava inferior. 25 25, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The diaphragma¬
tic veins.
Plate XIX.
Figure i. Shews the contents of the thorax and ab¬
domen in litu.
1, Top of the trachea, or wind-pipe. 2 2, The in¬
ternal jugular veins. 3 3, The fubclavian veins. 4. The
vena cava defcendens. 5, The right auricle of the
heart, 6, The right ventricle 7, Part of the left
ventricle. 8, The aorta afcendens. 9, The pulmo¬
nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is cut
Vol. I.
off to mew the great blood-veffels. 11, The left lung
entire. 12x2, The anterior edge of the diaphragm.
13x3, The two great lobes of the liver. 14, The li-
gamentum rotundum. 15, The gall-bladder. 16, The
ftomach. 17 17, The jejunum and ilium. 18, The
fpleen.
Fig. 2. Shews the organs fubfervient to the chylor
poietic vifcera,—with thofe of urine and generation. \
ii. The under fide of the two great lobes of the li¬
ver. a, Lobulus Spigelii. 2, The ligamentum ro¬
tundum. 3, The gall-bladder. 4, The pancreas.
5, The fpleen. 6 6, The kidneys. 7, The aorta de¬
fcendens. 8, Vena cava afcendens. 9 9, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 10, A probe under the
fpermatic vends and a bit of the inferior mefenterie
artery, and over the ureters. 11 11, The ureters.
12 x 2, The iliac arteries and veins. 13, The reftum
inteftinum. 14, The bladder of urine.
Fig. 3. Shews the chylopoietic vifcera, and organs
fubfervient to them, taken out of the body entire.
A A, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver. B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The gall-blad-.
der. D, Duftus cyfticus. E, Duftus hepaticus.
F, Duftus communis choledochus. G, Vena porta-
rum. H, Arteria hepatica. I I, The ftomach.
K K, Vena; & arteriae gaftro-epiploica;, dextra; &
finiftra;. L L, Venae & arteriae coronariae ventriculi.
M, The fpleen. N N, Mefocolon, with its veffds.
OOO, Inteftinum colon. P, One of the ligaments
of the colon, which is a bundle of longitudinal mufcu-
lar fibres. Jejunum and ilium. R R, Sig¬
moid flexure of the colon with the ligament continued,
and over S, The reftum inteftinum. T T, Levatores
ani. U, Sphinfter ani. V, The place to which the
proftate gland is connefted. W, The anus.
Fig. 4. Shews the heart of a foetus at the full time,
with the right auricle cut open to (hew the foramen o-
vale, or paffage between both auricles.
a, The right ventricle, b, The left ventricle,
c c, The outer fide of the right auricle ftretched out.
d d, The pofterior fide, which forms the anterior fide
of the feptum. 4 e, The foramen ovale, with the mem¬
brane or valve which covers the left fide, f. Vena ca¬
va inferior paffmg through g, A portion of the dia¬
phragm.
Fig. 5. Shews the Heart and large veffels of a foetus
at the fuil time.
a, The left ventricle, b, The right ventricle, c, A
part of the right auricle, d. Left auricle, e e, The
right branch of the pulmonary artery, f, Arteria pul-
monalis. g g, The left branch of the pulmonary ar¬
tery, with a number of its largeft branches diffefted
from the lungs, h, The canalis arteriofus. i. The
arch of the aorta, k k, The aorta defcendens. 1, The
left fubclavian artery, m, The left carotid artery,
n, The right carotid artery, o, The right fubclavian
artery, p. The origin of the right carotid and right
fubclavian arteries in one common trunk, q, The ve¬
na cava fuperior or defcendens. r, The right com¬
mon fubclavian vein, s. The left common fubclavian
vein.
N. B. All the parts defcribed in this figure are to be
found in the adult, except the canalis arteriofus.
C c c Plate
ANATOMY.
Part V,
Plate XX.
Fig. i. Reprefents the under and pofterior fide of
the bladder of urine, &c.
a, The bladder, b b, The infertion of the ureters,
c c, The vafa deferentia, which convey the femen from
the tellicles to d d. The veficulae feminales,—and pafs
through e, The proftate gland, to difcharge themfelves
intof, The beginning of the urethra.
Fig. 2. A tranfverfe fection of the penis.
g g. Corpora cavernofa penis, h, Corpus caverno-
fum urethrae, i. Urethra, k, Septum penis. 11, The
feptum between the corpus cavernofum urethrae, and
that of the penis.
Fig. 3. A longitudinal feftion of the penis.
m m, The corpora cavernofa penis, divided by o, The
feptum penis, n, The corpus cavernofum glandis, which
is the continuation of that of the urethra.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the female organs of generation.
a. That fide of the uterus which is next the os fa-
crum. 1, Its fundus. 2, Its cervix, b b, The Fal¬
lopian or uterine tubes, which open into the cavity of
the uterusbut the other end is open within the pel¬
vis, and furrounded by c c, The fimbriae, d d, The
ovaria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the
womb, f f, The ligamenta rotunda, which pafies
without the belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi.
g g. The cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which con¬
nects the uterus to the pelvis, h. The infide of the va¬
gina. i, The orifice of the urethra, k, The clitoris fur-
rounded by (1,) the pracputium. m m, The labia pu¬
dendi. n n, The nymphae.
Fig. 5. Shews the fpermatic dufts of the tefticle
filled with mercury.
A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which
forms the pofierior part of the epididymis. C, The
middle of the epididymis, compofed of ferpentine dufts.
D, The head or anterior part of the epididymis unra¬
velled. e e e e, The whole duCts which compofe the
head of the epididymis unravelled, f f, The vafa defe¬
rentia. g g, Rete teftis. h h, Some reftilineal duCts
which fend off the vafa deferentia. i i. The fubftance
of the tefticle.
Fig. 6. The right tefticle entire, and the epididy¬
mis filled with mercury.
A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas
deferens afcending towards the abdomen. C, The po-
fterior part of the epididymis, named 'globus minor.
R, The fpermatic veffels inclofed in cellular fubftance.
E, The body of the epididymis. F, Its head, named
globus major. G, Its beginning from the tefticle.
H, The body of the tefticle, inclofed in the tunica al¬
buginea.
Chap. XV.
Of the Glands and Sfcretions.
a, The glands are commonly underftood to be fmall.
roundifh, or oval bodies, formed by the convolution of
a great number of veffels, and deftined to feparate par¬
ticular humours from the mafs of blood.
b, They are ufually divided into two clafles. Of
thefe, the Angle and fimple glands which are to be met
with in different parts of the body, and are either foli-
tary or in diftinCt clufters, are called conglobate (t) ; and
the pancreas, the parotids, and other compound glands,
which are of a granulated fubftance, and appear to be
compofed of leffer glands, are called conglomerate.
c, The principal glands, and the humours they fe-
crete, have been already defcribed in different parts of
this treatife * ; and there only remains for us to exa- * N° 16—
mine the general ftriufture of the glands, and to explain 78,
the mechanifm of fecretion. j^7®’ 371,|
On the firft of thefe fubjefts two different fyftems ’ jgj
have been formed, each of which has had, and ftill con- Structure e
tinues to have, its adherents. One of thefe fyftems was d*6 gbnds, j
advanced by Malpighi, who fuppofed that an artery,
entering into a gland, ramifies very minutely through
its whole fubftance; and that its branches ultimately
terminate in aveficular cavity or follicle, from whence
the fecreted fluid paffes out through the excretory du£l.
This do&rine at firft met with few opponents: but the
celebrated Ruyfch, who firft attempted minute injec¬
tions with wax, afterwards difputed the exiftence of
thefe follicles; and afferted, that every gland appears
to be a continued feries of veffels, "which, after being re¬
peatedly convoluted in their courfe through its fub¬
ftance, at length terminate in the excretory du&: and
this fecond fyftem feems now to be the moft generally
adopted.
a, The mode of fecretion has been explained in a Of fccretic!
variety of ways, and they are all perfedfly hypothetical.
In fuch an inquiry, it is natural to alk, how one gland
conftantly feparates a particular humour, while another
gland fecretes one of a very different nature, from the
blood ? The bile, for inftanee, is feparated by the li¬
ver, and the urine by the kidneys. Are thefe fecre-
tions to be imputed to any particular difpofition in the
fluids, or is their caufe to be looked for in the folids i
b, It has been fuppofed, that every gland contains
within itfelf a fermenting principle, by which it is en¬
abled to change the nature of the blood it receives, and
to endue it with a particular property. So that, ac¬
cording to this fyftem, the blood, as it circulates thro’
the kidneys, becomes mixed with the fermenting prin¬
ciple of thofe glands, and a part of it is converted into
urine; and again, in the liver, in the falival and other
glands, the bile, the faliva, nd other juices, are gene¬
rated from a fimilar caufe: but it feems to be impoflible
for any liquor to be confined in a place expofed to the
circulation, without being carried away by the torrent
of blood, every part of which would be equally affefl-
ed ; and this fyftem of fermentation has long been re-
jefted as vague and chimerical. But as the caufe of fe¬
cretion continued to be looked fbr in the fluids, the for¬
mer fyftem was fucceeded by another, in which recourfe
was had to the analogy of the humours. It was ob-
ferved.
(r) The lymphatic and mefenteric glands feem now to be confidered as the only conglobate glands, but their ufe
has not yet been afcertained. The veflels which pour out mucus in different parts of the body are fuppofed to be
Jimple follicles, or final! cylindrical tubes, continued from the ends of arteries. The tonfils feem to be compofed of
many fuch fimple follicles folded together, in one common covering, and opening into one common finus. It has al¬
ready been obferved in a former note, that itis a fubjed of controverfy how the liquor pericardii is fecreted, and how
the vapour which moiftens the pleura and pericardium is exhaled into thofe cavities.
Plate XX.
391
Part V,
ANATOMY.
ferved, that if paper is mo-iftened with water, and oil
and water are afterwards poured upon it, that the wa¬
ter only will be permitted to pafs through it. But that,
on the other hand, if the paper has been previoufly
foaked in oil inftead of water, the oil only, and not the
water, will be filtered through it. Thefe obfervations
led to a fuppofition, that every fecretory organ is ori¬
ginally furnifhed with a humour analogous to that
which it is afterwards deftined to feparate from the
blood; and that, in confequence of this difpofition, the
fecretory veffels of the liver, for inftance, will only ad¬
mit the bilious particles of the blood, while all the other
humours will be excluded. This fyftem is an ingenious
one, but the difficulties with which it abounds are un-
anfwerable. For oil and water are immifcible; where¬
as the blood, as it is circulated through the body, ap¬
pears to be an homogeneous fluid. Every oil will pafs
through a paper moiftened only with one kind of oil;
and wine or fpirits mixed with water will eafily be fil¬
tered through a paper previoufly foaked in water.
Upon the fame principle, all our humours, though dif¬
fering in their other properties, yet agreeing in that of
being perfe&ly mifcible with each other, will all eafily
pafs through the fame fibre. But thefe are not all the
objections to this fyftem. The humours which are fup-
pofed to be placed in the fecretory veflels, for the de¬
termination of fimilar particles from the blood, muft be
originally feparated without any analogous fluid ; and
that which happens once, may as eafily happen always.
Again, it fometimes happens, from a vicious difpofi¬
tion, that humours are filtered through glands which
are naturally not intended to afford them a paffage ;
and when this has once happened, it ought, according
to this fyftem, to be expefted always to do fo ; where¬
as this is not the cafe, and we are after all naturally led
to feek for the caufe of fecretion in the folids. It does
not feem right to aferibe it to any particular figure of
the fecretory veffels; becaufe the foft texture of thofe
parts does not permit them to preferve any conftant
fhape, and our fluids feem to be capable of accom¬
modating themfelves to every kind of figure. It will
therefore be more reafonable to impute it to the diffe¬
rence of diameter in the orifices of the different fecre¬
tory veffels. To this doftrine, objeftions will likewife
be raifed ; and it will probably be argued, that the vef¬
fels of the liver, for inftance, will, upon this principle,
afford a paffage not only to the bile, but to all the other
humours of lefs confiftence with it. This objeflion can
only be anfwered, by fuppofing that fecondary vefftls
exift, which originate from the firft, and permit all the
humours thinner than the bile to pafs thro’ them. The
bile will then be completely fecreted, and conveyed in¬
to the veffels deftined for its reception.
c, It feems probable, that the degree of diftance be¬
tween the fecretory organ and the heart, the convoluted
courfe of the veflels, and the angles they form in their
courfe thro’ the glands, together with the different ve¬
locity of the blood, all contribute to difpofe the hu¬
mours to fecretion.
Part VI. Of the BRAIN and its INTEGUMENTS,
AND
Of the NERVES.
Chap. I;
Of the Brain and its Integumets.
394 ry-i H E bones of the cranium were defcribed, in the o-
•L fteological part, as inclofing the brain, and defend¬
ing it from external injury : but they are not its only
proteftion; for when we make an horizontal fe&ion
thro’thefe bones, we find this mafs everywhere furround-
ed by two membranes (u), the dura and pia mater.
, 5931 ( a, The firft of thefe lines the interior furface of the
of the brain. cranium, to which it adheres ftrongly at the futures,
and at the many foramina through which veffels pafs
between it and the pericranium. The dura mater is
perfectly fmooth and inelaftic; and its inner furface is
conftantly bedewed with a fine pellucid fluid, which
every where feparates it from the pia mater. The dura
mater fends off feveral confiderable proceffes, which
divide the brain into feparate portions, and prevent
them from compreifing each other. Of thefe proceffes
there is one fuperior and longitudinal, called the falx
or falciform procefs, from its refemblance to a fythe.
It arifes from the fpine of the os frontis, near the crifta
galli, and extending along in the direftion of the fa-
gittal future, to beyond the lambdoidal future, divides
the brain into two hemifpheres. A little below the
expanfions, called the tranfverfe or lateral procejfes,
which prevent the lobes of the cerebrum from prdfing
on the cerebellum. Befides thefe there is a fourth,
which is fituated under the tranfverfe proceffes, and,
being continued to the fpine of the occiput, divides the
cerebellum into two lobes.
b, The blood, after being diftributed through the
cavity of the cranium by means of the arteries, is re¬
turned as in the other parts of the body by veins which
all pafs on to certain channels fituated behind thefe fe¬
veral proceffes.
c, Thefe canals or finufes communicate with each
other, and empty themfelves into the internal jugular
veins, which convey the blood into the vena cava. They
are in faft triangular veins, and like the proceffes are
dilbnguiftied into longitudinal and lateral; and where
thefe three meet, and where the fourth paffes off, we
obferve a fourth finus, which is called torcular; Hero-
philus, who firft defcribed it, having fuppofed that the
blood at the union of thefe two veins is as it were in
a prefs. Within the finufes we obferve minute filaments,
the chorda Willijji, which feem to add to their ftrengtb,
and prevent their being to much dilated.
d, The pia mater is a much tenderer and finer mem¬
brane than the dura mater; being exceedingly deli-
lambdoidal future, it divides into two broad wings or cate and vafcular. It invefts every part of the brain
C c c 2 and
(u) The Greeks call thefe membranes, meninget; but the Arabians, fuppofing them to be the fource of all tne o-
ther membranes of the body, afterwards gave them the names of dura and pia mater, by which they are now ufually
392
ANATOMY.
Part VI.
and fends off an infinite number of elongations, which hind the thalami, immediately above the tulercula. Un-
infinuate themfelves between the convolutions, and e- der the thalami, we obferve another cavity, which con-
ven into the fubftance of the brain. This membrane ftitutes the third ventricle of the brain, and commu-
is ufually defcribed as being compofed of two laminae, nicates with the anterior ventricles, with the glan-
of which the exterior one is named tunica arachnoids:, dula pituitaria, and likewife with the fourth ventricle,
from its fuppofed refemblance to a fpider’s web. Its communication with the anterior ventricles is by
, There are feveral parts included under the gene- means of a very narrow opening or ritna, which ex-
ral denomination of brain. One of thefe, which is of tends from the anterior portion of the third ventricle,
the fofteft confiftence, and fills the greateft part of the to the pofterior portion of the two others, where they
cavity of the cranium, is the cerebrum, or brain pro- communicate with each other, and with theglandula
perly Jo called; another portion, which is feated in the' pituitaria, by a canal, which from its form is called
inferior and pofterior part of the head, is the cerebellum; infundibulum. The glandula pituitaria is a foft and
and a third, which derives its origin from both thefe,
is the medulla oblongata.
, The cerebrum is a medullary mafs of a moderate
fpongy body, placed upon the fella turcica. The third
ventricle communicates with the fourth ventricle, which
is placed between the cerebellum and medulla oblon-
confiftence, filling up exaftly all the fuperior part of gata, by means of a groove or channel, which is the
the cavity of the cranium, and divided into two hemi-
fpheres by the falx of the dura mater. Each of thefe
hemifpheres is diftinguifhed into an anterior, a middle
and a pofterior lobe. The firft of thefe is lodged on the
orbital proceffes of the os frontis ; the middle lobes lie
in the middle of the foflfe of the balls of the cranium;
and the pofterior lobes are placed on the tranfverfe fep-
tum of the os occipitis, immediately over the cerebel¬
lum, from which they are feparated by the lateral pro-
cefles of the dura mater.
b, The cerebrum appears to be compofed of two
diftindt fubftances. Of thefe the exterior one, which
is of a greyilh or alh-colour, is called the cortex, and
is fomewhat fofter than the other, which is very white,
and is called medulla or fubftantia alba.
c, After having removed the falx, and feparated the
two hemifpheres from each other, we perceive a white
convex body, the corpus callofum, which is a portion
of the medullary fubftance, uniting the two hemifpheres
to each other, and not ihvefted by the cortex. By
making an horizontal incifion in the brain, on a level
with this corpus callofum, we difcover two oblong ca¬
vities, named the anterior or lateral ventricles, one in
each hemifphere. Thefe two ventricles, which com¬
municate with each other pofteriorly, are feparated
from each other throughout the greateft part of their
extent, by a very fine medullary partition, called fep-
tum lucidum, from its delicacy and tranfparency. This
feptum is attached fuperiorly to a produdlion of the
corpus callofum, called the fornix. When we have
removed this fornix, we difcover feveral eminences,
four pair of which follow each other very regularly;
and thefe are the corpora ftriata, the thalami 7icrvorum
opticorum, and four others which M. Winflow has na¬
med tubercula quadrugemina. The corporaftriata de¬
rive their name from their ftriated appearance, which
feems to be occafioned by an intermixture of the cor¬
tical and medullary fubftances of the brain. The tha¬
lami nervorum opticorum are fo called becaufe the op¬
tic nerves arife chiefly from them; and they are like¬
wife compofed both of the cortex and medulla. The
tuhercula quadrugemina are four fmaller eminences, fi-
tuated behind the two other pair we juft now defcribed.'
The pineal gland, rendered fo famous by Defcartes,
who fuppofed it to be the feat of the foul, is a finall,
foft, and oval body, about the fize of a pea, fituated be-
aquaedudlus Sylvii. The anterior ventricles, the thala¬
mi nervorum opticorum, the pineal'gland, the tubercula
quadrugemina, and other parts near thefe, are covered
by an exceeding fine delicate and vafcular membrane
called plexus choroides.
The cerebellum, which is divided into two lobes, CcrebeHudliJ
is of a more firm and compaft fubftance than the cere¬
brum ; but, like that, is compofed of the cortical and
medullary fubftances. From each fide of the fourth
ventricle of the brain, there arifes a medullary trunk,
which is diftributed through the medullary fubftance of
the cerebellum, by an infinite number of ramifications,
which may be obferved by making a vertical fection of
the cerebellum, where they conftitute what is called
arbor vita. The reunion of the medullary fubftance of
the cerebrum and cerebellum, at the bafis of the cra¬
nium, forms the medulla oblongata, which extends to
the great foramen of the occipital bone. 99 •.
The medulla fpinalis, which fills the vertebral ca-Medullaf|(f
nal from this foramen to the inferior portion of the os nails. T
facrum, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata,
but with fome little difference in its compofition; the
latter being altogether made up of the medullary fub¬
ftance; whereas the medulla fpinalis appears to have its
middle part compofed of a brownifh mafs, refembling
the cortical fubftance of the brain. The medulla fpi¬
nalis is invefted by a continuation of the membranes of
the brain (v); and the pia mater, by fending off pro-
du&ions into its fubftance, affords-a fupport to the
blood-veffels as they ramify through it.
Chap. II.
Of the Nerves.
a, The nerves are white and gliftening chords, dif¬
fering from each other in fize, colour, and confittence,
and deriving their origin from the medulla oblongata
and medulla fpinalis. Anatomifts deferibe forty pair
of thefe nerves; ten of which originate from the me¬
dulla oblongata, and thirty from the medulla fpinalis.
b, By carefully and gently elevating the brain from
the bafis of the cranium, we find the firft ten pair ari-
fing in the following order: 1. The nervi olfattorii,
diftribnted thro’ the pituitary membrane, which con-
ftitutes the organ of fmell. 2. The optics, which go
to the eyes, where they receive the impreffions of vi-
fible
(v) The difle&ion of the brain requires confiderable dexterity; and the reader, till he has feen fuch a difiedtion.
performed, will perhaps not be able to derive very dear ideas of its anatonvy, from any defeription he can meet with,
©f it in backs. -The ufes of its feveral parts have, never yet been afeertained.
393
ANATOMY.
Part VI.
fible objects. 3. The oculorum motores fo called, be-
caufe they are diftributed to the mufcles of the eye.
4. The pathetic!, diftributed to the fuperior oblique
mufcles of the eyes, the motion of which is expreffive
of certain paffions of the foul. 5. The nerves of this
pair foon divide into three principal branches, and each
of thefe has a different name. Its upper divifion is the
opthalmicus, which is diftributed to various parts of the
eyes, eye-lids, forehead, nofe, and integuments of the
face. The fecond is called the maxi liar is fuperior, and
the third maxi liar is inferior, both which names allude
to their diftribution. 6. The abduftores; each of thefe
nerves is diftributed to the abdu6lor mufcle of the eye,
fo called becaufe it helps to draw the globe of the eye
from the nofe. 7. Tht auditorii (w), which are diftri¬
buted through the organs of hearing. 8. The par va-
gum, which derives its name from the great number of
parts to which it gives branches, both in the thorax and
abdomen. 9. The linguales, or hypoglojji, which are di¬
ftributed to the tongue, and appear to contribute both
to the organ of tafte, and to the motions of the tongue.
10. A pair which is diftributed to the mufcles of the
head and neck.
c, It has been already obferved, that the fpinal mar¬
row fends off thirty pair of nerves, and thefe are chiefly
diftributed to the exterior parts of the trunk, and to
the extremities. They are commonly diftinguiftied in¬
to the cervical, dorfal, lumbar, and facral nerves. The
cervical, which pafs out from between the feveral ver¬
tebrae of the neck, are feven in number; the dorfal,
twelve; the lumbar, five; and the facral, five (x).
d, In the following courfe of the nerves both of the
medulla oblongata and medulla fpinalis, we obferve, in
many of them, irregular enlargements of their fubftance,
which are called ganglions. Thefe knots or tumours
are not the effefts of difeafe, but are to be met with in
the fame parts of the fame nerves both in the fcetus
and the adult.
e, Some writers have confidered them as fo many
little brains; and many other theories have been form¬
ed concerning them; none of which, however, have as
yet led to afcertain their ufe.
f, The nerves, like the blood-veflels, in their courfe
through the body, communicate with each other; and
each of thefe communications conftitutes what is called
a plexus, from whence branches are again detached to
different parts of the body. Some of thefe arc conftant,
and confiderable enough to be diftinguifhed by parti¬
cular names, as the fessiilunar plexus, the pulmonary,
plexus, the hepatic, the cardiac, &c.
g, It would be foreign to the purpofeof this article
to follow the nerves through all their diftributions ;
but it maybe remembered, that, in deferibing the dif¬
ferent vifeera, mention was made of the nerves diftri¬
buted to them. There is one pair, however, called the
intercojlal, or great fympathetic nerve ; which feems to
deferve a particular defeription, becaufe it has an al-
moft univerfal connexion and correfpondence with all
the other nerves of the body. Authors are not per-
fedfly agreed about the origin of the intercofal; but it
may perhaps not improperly be deferibed as begin¬
ning from filaments of the fifth and fixth pair; it then
paffes out of the cranium, through the bony canal of
the carotid; from whence it defeends laterally clofe ta
the bodies of the vertebras, and receives branches from
almoft all the vertebral nerves; forming almoft as many
ganglions in its courfe through the thorax and abdomen.
It fends off an infinite number of branches to the vif¬
eera in thofe cavities, and forms feveral plexus with the
branches of the eighth pair or par vagum.
h. That the nerves are deftined to convey the prin¬
ciples of motion and fenfibility to the brain from all
parts of the fyftem, there can be no doubt; but how
thefe effe&s are produced, no one has ever yet been
able to determine. The inquiry has been a conftant
fource of hypothefis in all ages; and has produced fome
ingenious ideas, and many erroneous pofitions, but
without having hitherto afforded much fatisfaftory in¬
formation.
i, The nerves appear to be perfectly inelaftic, and
are covered by the dura and pia mater; feeming to owe
their firmnefs to the former of thefe tunics.
k, Some phyfiologifts have confidered a trunk of
nerves as a folid cord, capable of being divided into an
infinite number of filaments, by means of which the im-
preflions of feeling are conveyed to the fenforium com¬
mune. Others have fuppofed it to be a canal, which
afterwards feparates into more minute channels; of,
perhaps, as being an affemblage of many very fmall and
diftindl tubes, conne&ed to each other, and thus form¬
ing a cylindrical cord. They who contend for their be¬
ing folid bodies, are of opinion, that feeling is occa-
fioned by vibration: fo that, for inftance, according to
this fyftem, by pricking the finger, a vibration would,
be occafioned in the nerve diftributed' through its fub -
ftance; and the eft efts of this vibration, when extended
to the fenforium, would be an excital of pain. But the
inelafticity, the foftnefs, the conneftion, and the fitu-
ation of the nerves, are fo many proofs that vibration
has no ffiare in the caufe of feeling.
l, Others have fuppofed, that in the brain and fpi¬
nal marrow a very fubtile fluid is fecreted, and from
thence conveyed through the imperceptible tubes which
theyconfider as exifting in the nerves. They have far¬
ther fuppofed, that this very fubtile fluid, to which they
have given the name of animalfpirits, is fecreted in the
cortical fubftance of the brain and fpinaf marrow, from
whence it pafles through the medullary fubftance.
This, like the other lyftem, is founded altogether on
hypothefis ; but it feems to be an hypothefis derived
from much more probable principles, and there are
many ingenious arguments to be brought in its fupport..
(w) This pair, foon after its entrance into the meatus auditorius internus, feparates into two branches. One of thefe
is of a very foft and pulpy confiftence, is called the portio mollis of thefeventh pair, and is fpread over the inner part of
the ear. The other pafles out through the aqueduft of Fallopius in a-firm chordj which is diftinguilhed as thepoytyg
dura, and is diftributed to the external ear, and other parts of the neck and face.
(x) The reader will obferve, that the amount of thefe feveral divifions is only 29 pair. But there is another pair
called X.hr fpinal, which arifes from the medulla fpinalis'at its beginning, and, afeending through the great foramen of
the os occipitis into the cranium, paffes put again clofe to the eighth pair, with which however it does not unite; and:
it is afterwards diftributed chiefly to the mufcles of the neck, back, and fcapuia., la this courfe it fends off filaments
to different parts, and likewife communicates with feveral other nerves!
4
Part
ANATOMY.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XVIII.
Pig. I. ReprefcMts the inferior part of the brain;—
the anterior part of the whole fpine, including the me¬
dulla fpinalis;—with the origin and large portions of
all the Nerves.
A A, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum. BB, The
lateral lobes of the cerebrum. CC, The two lobes of
the cerebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paffage
from the third ventricle to the infundibulum. F, The
medulla oblongata, which fends off the medulla fpinalis
through the fpine. G G, That part of the os occipitis
which is placed above (H H), the tranfverfe procefles
of the firft cervical vertebra. II, &c. The feven cer¬
vical vertebrae, with their intermediate cartilages.
KK, &c. The twelve dorfal vertebrae, with their inter¬
mediate cartilages. LL, &c. The five lumbar verte¬
brae, with their intermediate cartilages. M, The os
facrum. N, The os coccygis.
Nerves.—i x, The firft pair of nerves, named
toryy which go to the nofe. 22, The fecond pair, na¬
med optic, which goes to form the tunica retina of the
eye. 3 3, The third pair, named motor oculi; it fup-
plies moft of the mufcles of the eye-ball. 4 4, The
fourth pair, named pathetic,—which is wholly fpent
upon the mufculus trochlearis of the eye. 5 5, The
fifth pair divides into three branches.—The firft, na¬
med ophthalmic, goes to the orbit, fupplies the lachry¬
mal gland, and lends branches out to the forehead and
nofe.—The fecond, named fuperior maxillary, fupplies
the teeth of the upper jaw, and fome of the mufcles of
the lips.—The third, named inferior maxillary, is fpent
upon the mufcles and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue,
and mufcles of the lips. 6 6, The fixth pair, which,
after fending off the beginning of the intercoftal or
great fympathetic, is fpent upon the abdudtor oculi.
7 7, The feventh pair, named auditory, divides into two
branches.—The largeft, named portio mollis, is fpent
Upon the internal ear.—The fmalleft, portio dura, joins
to the fifth pair within the internal ear by a refledted
branch from the fecond of the fifth; and within the tym¬
panum, by a branch from the third of the fifth, named
chorda tympani.—Vid. fig. 3. near B. 8 8, &c. The
eighth pair, named par vagum,—which accompanies
the intercoftal, and is fpent upon the tongue, larynx,
pharynx, lungs, and abdominal vifcera. 99, The ninth
pair, which are fpent upon the tongue. 10 10 &c.
The intercoftal, or great fympathetic, whichis feen from
the fixth pair to the bottom of the pelvis on each fide
of the fpine, and joining with all the nerves of the
fpine;—in its progrefs fupplying the heart, and, with
the par vagum, the contents of the abdomen and pelvis.
xiii, The accefforius, which is fpent upon the fterno-
cleido-maftoidaeus and trapezius mufcles. 1212, The
firft cervical nerves;—13 13, The fecond cervical nerves;
—both fpent upon the mufcles that lie on the neck, and
teguments of the neck and head. 14 14, The third
cervical nerves, which, after fending off (15 15, &c.)
the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm, fupply the muf¬
cles and teguments that lie on the fide of the neck and
top of the Ihoulder. 1616, The brachial plexus, for¬
med by the fourth, fifth, fixth, feventh cervicals, and
firft dorfal nerves,—which fupply the mufcles and tegu¬
ments of the fuperior extremity. 1717, The twelve
dorfal, or proper intercoftal nerves, which are fpent
upon the intercoftal mufcles and fome of the large muf¬
cles which lie upon the thorax. 18 18, The five lum¬
bar pairs of nerves, which fupply the lumbar and ab¬
dominal mufcles, and fome of the teguments and muf¬
cles of the inferior extremity. 1919, Thefacro-fcia-
tic, or pofterior crural nerve, formed by the two infe¬
rior lumbar, and three fuperior of the os facrum. This
large nerve fupplies the greateft part of the mufcles and
teguments of the inferior extremity. 20, The ftoma-
chic plexus, formed by the eighth pair. 2121, Branch¬
es of the folar or caeliac plexus, formed by the eighth
pair and intercoftals, which fupply the ftomach and
chylopoietic vifcera. 22 22, Branches of the fuperior
and inferior mefenteric plexufes, formed by the eighth
pair and intercoftals, which fupply the chylopoietic vif¬
cera, with part of the organs of urine and generation.
23 23, Nerves which accompany the fpermatic cord.
24 24, The hypogaftric plexus, which fupplies the or¬
gans of urine and generation within the pelvis.
Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5. Shew different views of the in¬
ferior part of the brain, cut perpendicularly through
the middle,—with the origin and large portions of all
the nerves which pafs out through the bones of the cra¬
nium,—and the three firft cervicals.
A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of the
cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the cerebellum.
D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyramidale, in the
middle of the medulla oblongata. F, The corpus oli-
vare, in the fide of the medulla oblongata. G, The
medulla oblongata. H, The medulla fpinalis.
Nerves—1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 and 9, Pairs of nerves.
10 10, Nervus accefforius, which comes from—11, 12
and 13, the three firft cervical nerves.
Part VII. Of the SENSES and their ORGANS.
Chap. I.
Of the Senses in General.
a, nr'HE word finfe, among phyfiologifts, feemsto
imply, not only the fenfation excited in the
mind by certain impreffions made on the body, but
likewife the organ deftined to receive and tranfmit thefe
•impreffions to the fenforium.
b. The femes are ufually defcribed as being only five
in number; but a very little attention only feems to be
required to perceive, that a greater number may very
properly be admitted. Hunger and thirjl are fenfations
which have each their peculiar organ; and that of pain
feems to be extended through all the parts endued with
fenfibility. But the five fenfes here to be defcribed, are
the exterior fenfes of touch, tajle, fmelling, vifwn, and
hearing. Each of thefe organs being of a peculiar
ftrudture, is fufceptible only of particular impreffions,
which will be pointed out as we proceed to defcribe
each of them feparately.
Chav.
Tlafe XVIH
*«///'
vir.
39$
ANATOMY.
Chap. II.
Of the Senfe of Feeling.
a, The fenfe of feeling is perhaps feated in all
parts of the body, but is commonly faid to be confined
to the nervous papilla? of the cutis or true Ikin, which,
with their appendages and their feverai ufes, have been
already deferibed.
b, The exterior properties of bodies, fuch as their
folidity, their humidity, their inequality, their fmooth-
nefs, drynefs, or fluidity, and likewife their degree of
heat, feem all to be capable of making different impref-
fions on the papillae, and confequently of exciting differ¬
ent ideas in the fenforium commune. But the organ of
touch, like all the other fenfes, is not equally delicate in
every part of the body, or in every fubjeft; being in
fome much more exquifite than in others.
Chap. III.
Of the Taste.
a, The fenfe of tafle is feated chiefly in the tongue,
the fituation and figure of which are fufficiently known.
The tongue is divided into \\sbajis and apex; is thinner
at its edges than it is in its middle part; and has a line
extending from its bajis to its apex, which divides it as
it were into two equal portions, and is called tinea lin~
u<e mediana. The tongue is compofed of mufcular
bres, which are difpofed in every diredtion. Some of
thefe fibres pafs out from it in different ways, and form
three mufcles on each fide; while others are confined
altogether to the tongue, and terminate chiefly on its
furface.
b, From its fuperior furface arife an infinite number
of papill*; which may be divided into three claffes, the
capitatie, femi-lenticulares, and pyramidales. The firfl
of thefe are the largeft and moft eafy of demonftration.
They are fituated towards the bafis of the tongue; and
are deferibed as refembling mufhrooms, which are con-
ne&ed to the tongue only by a very fmall neck. The
fen>i-lenticulares differ only from the capitatce in ha¬
ving the whole furface of their bafis attached to the
tongue, of which they occupy the middle portion. The
pyramidales are more minute papilla?, of a conical fhape,
very numerous on the apex and borders of the tongue.
c, Towards the bafis of the tongue, we meet with
a little cavity named by Morgagni foramen ctecum, the
ufe of which has not yet been afeertained.
d, The tongue is covered by a continuation of the
cuticle which lines the infide of the mouth. This tur
nic every where exactly embraces the papilla?, and is
exceedingly foft and pulpy from the perpetual warmth
and moifture of the parts. At the under part of the
tongue it makes a reduplication called the franum,
which ferves to prevent the too great motion of the
tongue, and to fix it in its fituation. But befides this
attachment, the tongue is conne&ed, by means of its
mufcles and membranous ligaments, to the lower jaw,
the os hyoides, and the iiyloid proceffes.
e, The tongue receives its arteries and veins from
the internal carotids and jugulars. At the fides of the
frsenum we obferve two confiderable veins called the
ranular veins ; and the arteries which correfpond with,
them have the fame name. The tongue receives very
confiderable branches of nerves on each fide, from the
fifth and ninth pair. The former of thefe are loft at
the apex of the tongue, and the latter are fpread over
its bafis.
f. The variety of taftes feems to be occafioned by
the different impreffions made on the papillae by the
principles of our aliment; but the mechanical reafon
of this diverfity, has not yet been determined. It has
been looked for in the feline particles of our food; and,
in general, whatever contains lefs felt than the faliva is
found to be infipid.
g, The different ftate of the papillae with refpeft t@
their moifture, their figure, or their covering, feems to
produce a confiderable difference in the tafte, not only
in different people, but in the fame fubjedt in ficknefs
and in health. The great ufe of the tafte feems to be
to enable us to diftinguifh wholefome and falutary food
from that which is unhealthy; and we obferve that
many quadrupeds, by having their papillae very large
and long, have the faculty of diftinguifliing flavours
with infinite accuracy.
Chap. IV.
Of Smelling.
a, This, like the fenfe of tafte, feems intended to 4s*
diredl us to 3 proper choice of aliment; and is chiefly
feated in the nofe, which is diftinguilhed into its ex¬
ternal and internal parts. The fituation and figure of
the former of thefe do not feem to require a definition.
It is compcfed of bones and cartilages, covered by muf¬
cular fibres and by the common integuments. The
bones make up the upper portion, and the cartilages
the lower one. The feptum tiarium, like the nofe, ie
likewife in part bony, and in part cartilaginous. Thefe
bones and their connexions were deferibed in the ofte-
ology.
b, The internal part of the nofe, befides the offa
fpongiofa, has fix cavities or finufes, the maxillary, the
frontal,, and the fphenoid, which were all deferibed with
the bones of the head. They all open into the noftrils;
and the nofe likewife communicates w'ith the mouth, la¬
rynx, and pharynx, behind the velum palati.
C, All thefe feverai parts, which are included in the
internal divifion of the nofe, viz. the inner furface of
the noftrils, the lamella? of the offa fpongiofa, and the
finufes, are lined by a thick and very vafcular mem¬
brane, which is the membrana pituitaria Schneideri.
This membrane is truly the organ of fmelling, but its
real ftruXure does not yet feem to be perfectly under-
ftood. It appears to be a continuation of the cuticle,
which lines the inner furface of the mouth. In fome
parts of the nofe it is fmooth and firm, and in others it
is loofe and fpongy. It is conftantly moiftened by a
mucilaginous lymph, of which, the finer parts are car¬
ried off probably by the air we breathe; and the re¬
mainder, by being retained in the finufes, acquires con¬
fiderable confiftence (y).
d, The arteries and veins, which are diftributed to
this membrane, are branches from the external carotids
and jugulars. The firft pair of nerves, the olfaftory,
are
Some writers have deferibed this membrane
(y) The manner in which this mucus is fecreted, is not determined,
as being glandular; but no glands appear to exift in it.
396
ANATOMY.
Part VII,
are fpread over every part of it, and it likewife receives
a branch from the fifth pair.
e, After what has been faid of the pituitary mem¬
brane, it will not be difficult to conceive how the air we
draw in at the noftrils, being impregnated with the ef¬
fluvia of bodies, excites in us that kind of fenfation we
call Jmelling. As thefe effluvia, from their being ex¬
ceedingly light and volatile, cannot be capable in a
fmall quantity of making any great impreffion on the
extremities of the olfa&ory nerves, it was neceflary to
give confiderable extent to the pituitary membrane,
that by this means a greater number of odoriferous par¬
ticles might be admitted at the fame time. When we
wifh to take in much of the effluvia of any thing, we
naturally clofe the mouth, that all the air we infpire,
may pafs through the noftrils ; and at the fame time,
by means of the mufcles of the nofe, the noftrils are di¬
lated, and a greater quantity of air is drawn into them.
f, In many quadrupeds, the fenfe of fmelling is much
more extenfive and delicate than it is in the human fub-
je£l; and in the human fubje£, it feems to be more
perfect, the lefs it is vitiated by a variety of fmells. It
is not always in the fame ftate of perfection, being na¬
turally affeCted by every change in the pituitary mem¬
brane, and of the lymph with which that membrane is
moiftened.
clofcd by a very thin, tranfparent membrane, the mem-
brana tympanic which is fet in a bony circle like the
head of a drum. The upper edge of this membrane
not being always clofe to the bone, affords a paffage to
the air between the external and internal ear. Under
the membrana tympani runs a branch of the fifth
pair of nerves, called chorda tympani; and beyond this
membrane is the cavity of the tympanum, which is a-
bout feven or eight lines wide, and half fo many in
depth ; it is irregular, and every where lined by a very
fine membrane. There are four openings to be obfer-
ved in this cavity. It communicates with the mouth
by means of the Euftachian tube. This canal, which is
in part bony and in part cartilaginous, begins by a
very narrow opening at the anterior and almoft fupe-
perior part of the tympanum, increafing in fize as it
advances towards the palate of the mouth, where it ter¬
minates by an oval opening. This tube is every where
lined by the fame membrane that covers the infide of the
mouth. The real ufe of this canal does not feem to have
been hitherto fatisfaftorily afcertained; but found would
feem to be conveyed through it to the membrana tym¬
pani, deaf perfons being often obferved to liften atten¬
tively with their mouths open. Oppofite to this is a
minute paffage, which leads to the finuofities of the ma-
ftoid procefs; and the two other openings, which are in
the internal procefs of the os petrofum, are the fenejlra
ovalis and fenejlra rotunda, both which are covered by
a very fine membrane.
d. There are three diftinCt bones in the cavity of the
tympanum; and thefe are the malleus, incus, andJlapes.
Belides thefe, there is a fourth, which is the os orbicu-
lare, confidered by fome anatomifts as a procefs of the
Jlapes, which is neceffarily broken off by the violence
we are obliged to ufe in getting at thefe bones; but,
when accurately confidered, it feems to be a diftindl
bone.
e, The malleus is fuppofed to refemble a hammer,
being larger at one extremity, which is its head, than
it is at the other, which is its handle. The latter is at¬
tached to the membrana tympani, and the head of the
bone is articulated with the incus.
The incus, as it is called from its ftiape, though it
feems to have lefs refemblance to an anvil than to one
of the dentes molares with its roots widely feparated
from each other, is diftingui/hed into its body and its
legs. One of its legs is placed at the entry of the canal
gus; and an eminence oppofite to this at the extremity of which leads to the maftoid procefs; and the other,
^ Ic oallMl   rri““   which is fomewhat longer, is articulated with theJlapes,
or rather with the os orbiculare, which is placed between
them.
g, The third bone is very properly named Jlapes, be¬
ing perfe&ly ihaped like a ftirrup. Its bafis is fixed in¬
to the fenejlra dvalis, and its upper part is articulated
with the os orbiculare. What is called the fenejlra ro¬
tunda, though perhaps improperly, as it is more oval
than round, is obferved a little above the other, in an
Of the Ear, and Hearing.
a, The ear is commonly diftinguifhed into external
and internal. The former includes all that we are able
to difcover without diffeftion, and the meatus audito-
rius, as far as the tympanum; and the latter, all the
other parts of the ear.
b, The external ear is a cartilaginous funnel, cover¬
ed by the common integuments, and attached, by
means of its ligaments and mufcles, to the temporal
bone. Although capable only of a very obfeure mo¬
tion, it is found to have two mufcles. Different parts
of it are diftinguifhed by different names. All its carti¬
laginous part is called ala or wing, to diftinguifh it
from the foft and pendent part below, called the lobe.
Its outer circle, or border, is called helix; and the fefni-
circle within this, antihelix. The moveable cartilage
pilaced immediately before the meatus auditorious,
which it may be made to clofe exadfly, is named *•<?-
and an eminence oppofite to this at f
the antihelix, is called antitragus. The concha is a con¬
fiderable cavity formed by the extremities of the helix
and antihelix. The meatus auditorius, which at its o-
pening is cartilaginous, is covered by a very thin mem¬
brane, which is a continuation of the cuticle from the
furface of the ear.
c, In this canal we find a yellow wax, which is fup¬
pofed to be fecreted by very minute glands or follicles
at the beginning of the meatus. This fecretion, which .    ,
is at firft of an oily confiftence, defends the membrane eminence formed by the os petrofum, and is clofed by
of the tympanum from the injuries of the air, and by a continuation of the membrane that lines the inner fur-
its bitternefs prevents minute infedfs from entering in- face of the tympanum. The ftapes and malleus arc
to the ear. But, when from negledl or difeafe it ac- each of them furnifhed with a little mufcle (z)
cumulates in too great a quantity, it fometimes occa- h. The labyrinth, is the only part of the ear which
fions deafnefs. The inner extremity of the meatus is remains to be deferibed. It is fituated in the os petro¬
fum,
(z) Anatomifts have ufually deferibed three mufcles of the malleus; the ext emus, olliquus, and internus. Others
fpeak only of two; but the intemus only feems to deferve the na me of mufcle, the others being truly ligaments.
397
ANATOMY.
Part VII.
fum, and is feparated from the tympanum by a parti¬
tion which is every where bony, except at the two fe-
neftras. It is compofed of three parts ; and thefe are
the vejiibulum, the femicircular canals, and the cochlea.
i, The vejiibuli'im is an irregular cavity, much fmaller
than the tympanum, fituated nearly in the centre of
the os petrofum, between the tympanum, the cochlea,
and the femicircular canals. It is open on the fide of
the tympanum by means of the feneftra ovalis, and com¬
municates with the upper portion of the cochlea by an
oblong foramen, which is under the feneftra ovalis,
from which it is feparated only by a very thin partition.
k, Each of the three femicircular canals forms about
half a circle of nearly a line in diameter; and running
each in a different diredtion, they are diftinguifhed into
vertical, oblique, and horizontal. Thefe three canals open
by both their extremities into the veftibulum; but the
vertical and the oblique being united together at one
of their extremities, there are only five orifices to be feen
in the veftibulum.
l, The cochlea is a canal which takes a fpiral courfe,
not unlike the (hell of a fnail. From its bafis to its apex
it makes two turns and a half; and is divided into two
canals by a very thin lamina or feptum, which is in part
bony, and in part membranous, in fuch a manner, that
thefe two canals only communicate with each other at
the point. One of them opens into the veftibulum, and
the other is covered by the membrane that clofes the
fenejlra rotunda. The bony lamella which feparates the
two canals, is exceedingly thin, and fills about two
thirds of the diameter of the canal. The reft of the
feptum is compofed of a moft delicate membrane, which
lines the whole inner furface of the cochlea, and feems
to form this divifion in the fame manner as the two
membranous bags of the pleura, by being applied to
each other, form the mediaftinum.
m, The arteries of the external ear come from the
temporal and occipital, and its veins pafs into the ju¬
gular. The internal ear receives branches of arteries
from the bafilary and internal carotid; and its veins
empty themfelves into the finufes of the dura mater,
and into the internal jugular.
n, The portio mollis of the feventh pair is diftribu-
ted through the cochlea, the vejiibulum, and the femi¬
circular canals ; and the portio dura fends off a branch
to the tympanum, and other branches to the external
ear and parts near it.
o, The fenfe of hearing, in producing which all the
parts we have defcribed allift, is occafioned by a certain
modulation of the air colle&ed by the funnel-like ftiape
of the external ear, and conveyed through the-meatus
auditorius to the membrana tympani. That found is
propagated by means of the air, is very eafily proved
by ringing a bell Hinder the receiver of an air-pump :
the found it affords being found to diminifti gradually
as the air becomes exhaufted, till at length it ceafes to
be heard at all. Sound moves through the air with
great velocity; but the ftrength of the found feems to
depend on the ftate of the air, as it is greater in a cold
Acou- and denfe, than in a warm and rarefied air*.
n° Jp- p, That the air vibrating in the membrana tympani
Vol. I.
communicates its vibration to the different parts of the
labyrinth, and thus affefts the auditory nerve fo as to
produce found, feems to be very probable; and it is
imagined, that the malleus, by means of its mufcle,
ferves to increafe or diminifti the tenfion of the membrana
tympani; but the fituation, the minutenefs, and the
variety of the parts which compofe the ear, do not per¬
mit much to be advanced with certainty concerning
their mode of action.
q, Some of thefe parts feem to conftitute the im¬
mediate organ of hearing, and thefe are all the parts
of the vejiibulum: but there are others which feem in¬
tended for the perfedtion of this fenfe, without being
abfolutely effential to it. It has happened, for inftance,
that the membrana tympani, and the little bones of the
ear, have been deftroyed by difeafe, without depriving
the patient of the fen'fe of hearing (a).
r, Before we conclude this article, it will be right
to explain certain phenomena which will be found to
have a relation to the organ of hearing.
s, Every body has, in confequence of particular
founds, occafionally felt that difagreeable fenfation
which is ufually called Jetting the teeth on edge; and
the caufe of this fenfation is to be traced to the com¬
munication which the portio dura of the auditory nerve
has with the branches of the fifth pair, which are dif-
tributed to the teeth, being probably occafioned by
the violent tremor produced in the membrana tympani
by thefe very acute founds. Upon the fame principle
we may explain the ftrong idea of found which a per-
fon has who holds a vibrating ftring between his teeth.
t, The humming which is fometimes perceived in
the ear, without any exterior caufe, is perhaps occa¬
fioned by an increafed pulfation of the arteries in con¬
fequence of obftruftions in fome of the parts of the ear.
This pulfation, which in a natural and healthy ftatc
is flight and regular, may by difeafe be increafed fo as
to affeft the auditory nerve in a manner fufficient to
produce the idea of found.
Chap. VI.
Of Vision
a. The eyes, which conftitute the organ of vijton,
are fituated in two bony cavities, named orbits, where
they are furrounded by feveral parts, which are either
intended to protedt them from external injury, or to
affift in their motion.
b. The globe of the eye is immediately covered by-
two eye-lids or palpebra;, which are compofed of muf-
cular fibres covered by the common integuments, and
lined by a very fine and fmooth membrane, which is from
thence extended over part of the globe of the eye, and
is called tunica conjuncliva. Each eye-lid is cartilagi¬
nous at its edge; and this border, which is called tarfus,
is furniftied, as we all know, by a row of hairs named
cilia or eye-lajhes.
c. The cilia ferveto protedt the eye from infedts and
minute bodies floating in the air, and likewife to mo¬
derate the adlion of the rays of light in their paffage
to the retina. At the roots of thefe hairs there are fe-
D d d baceous
(a) This obfervation has led to a fuppofition, that a perforation of this membrane may, in fome cafes of deafnefs,
be ufeful; and Mr Chefelden relates, that fome years ago a malefadtor was pardoned on condition that he fhould fub-
_mit to this operation; but the public clamour raifed againft it was fo great, that it was thought right not to perform
1 See Optics.
40«
398
Part V
ANATOMY.
baccous follicles, firft noticed by Mcihomius, which
difcharge a glutinous liniment. Sometimes the fluid
they fecrete has too much vifcidity, and the eye-lids be¬
come glued to each other.
d, The upper border of the orbit is covered by the
eye-brows or fupercilia, which by means of two mufcles
are capable of being brought towards each other, or
of being carried upwards. They have been conlidered
as ferving to protect the eyes, but they are probably
intended more for ornament than utility (b).
e, The orbits in which the eyes are placed, are fur-
nifhed with a good deal of fat, which affords a foft bed
on which the eye performs its feveral motions. The
inner angle of each orbit, or that part of it which is
near the nofe, is called canthus major, or ‘Cat great angle ;
and the outer angle, which is on the oppofite fide of
the eye, is the canthus minor, or little angle.
f, The little reddifh body which we obferve in the
great angle of the eye-lids, and is called caruncula la-
chrymalis, is fuppofed to be of a glandular ftruClure,
and, like the follicles of the eye-lids, to fecrete an oily
humour. But its ftrudiure and ufe do not feem to have
been hitherto accurately determined. The furface of
the eye is conflantly moiftened by a very fine limpid
fluid called the tears, which is chiefly, and perhaps
wholly, derived from a large gland of the conglomerate
kind, fituated in a fmall depreffion of the os frontis near
the outer angle of the eye. Its excretory dudts pierce
the tunica conjunBiva, juft above the cartilaginous bor¬
ders of the upper eye-lids. When the tears were fup¬
pofed to be fecreted by the caruncle, this gland was
chWcdglandula innominata ; but now that its ftrudfture
and ufes are afcertained, it very properly has the name
ofglandula lachrymalis. The tears poured out by the
dufts of this gland are, in a natural and healthy ftate,
inceffantly fpread over the furface of the eye, to keep
it clear and tranfparent, by means of the eye-lids, and
as conftantly pafs out at the oppofite corner of the
eye or inner angle, through two minute orifices, the
punfta lachrymalia (c); being determined into thefe lit¬
tle openings by a reduplication of the tunica conjunc¬
tiva, lhaped like a crefcent, the two points of which
anfwer to the puntta. This reduplication is named
membrana or valvula femilunaris. Each of thefe punfta
is the beginning of a fmall excretory tube through
which the tears pafs into a little pouch or refervoir, the
faccalus lachrymalis, which lies in an excavation formed
partly by the nafal procefs of the os maxillare fuperius,
and partly by the os unguis. The lower part of this
fac forms a du6t,. called the duftus ad nares, which is
continued through a bony channel, and opens into the
nofe, through which the tears are occafionally difchar-
ged (d).
g, The motions of the eye are performed by fix muf¬
cles ; four of which are Jlraight, and two oblique. The
Jiraight mufcles are diftinguifhed by the names of ele¬
vator, deprejfor, adduftor, and abduftor, from their fe¬
veral ufes in elevating or depreffing the eye, drawing
it towards the nofe, or carrying it from the nofe towards
the temple. All thefe four mufcles arife from the bot¬
tom of the orbit, and are inferted by flat tendons Into
the globe of the eye. The oblique mufcles are intend¬
ed for the more compound motions of the eye. The
firft of thefe mufcles, the obliquus fuperior, does not,
like the other four mufcles we have defcribed, arife
from the bottom of the orbit, but from the edge of
the foramen that tranfmits the optic nerve, which fe-
parates the origin of this mufcle from that of the others.
From this beginning it paffes in a ftriaght line towards
a very fmall cartilaginous ring, the fituation of which
is marked in the fkeleton by a little hollow in the in¬
ternal orbitar procefs of the os frontis. The tendon
of the mufcle paffing through this ring, is inferted in¬
to the upper part of the globe of the eye, which it
ferves to draw forwards, at the fame time turning the
pupil downwards.
h, The obliquus inferior arifes from the edge of the
orbit, under the opening of the du&us lachrymalis, and
is inferted fomewhat pofteriorly into the outer fide of
the globe, ferving to draw the eye forwards and turn
the pupil upwards. When either of thefe two mufcles
adt feparately, the eye is moved on its axis; but when
they act together, it is compreffed both above and be¬
low.
i, The eye itfelf, which is now to be defcribed with
its tunics, humours, and component parts, is of afphe-
rical figure. Of its tunics, two are only partial cover¬
ings; and thefe are the tunica conjunftiva and tuni¬
ca albuginea. The former has been already defcri¬
bed as being reflected from the inner furface of the eye¬
lids over the anterior portion of the eye. The tunica
albuginea is placed immediately under the tunica con¬
junftiva, and appears to be a continuation of the mem¬
brane that invefts the tendons of the mufcles which arc
inferted into the globe of the eye (e).
k, The immediate tunics of the eye, which are to
be demon ftrated when its partial coverings and all the
other parts with which it is furrounded are removed,
are the fclerotica, choroides, and retina.
l, The fclerotica, which is the exterior coat, is e-
very where white and opaque, except at its anterior
part, where it has more of convexity than any other
part of the globe, and, being exceedingly tranfparent,
is called cornea (f).
m. The
(b) It is obfervable, that the eye-brows are peculiar to the human fpecies.
(c) It fometimes happens, that this very pellucid fluid which moiftens the eye, being poured out through the ex¬
cretory dufts of the lachrymal gland fafter than it can be carried off through the punfta, trickles down the cheek,
and is then ftriftly and properly called tears. When this fecretion is conftantly too copious, it conftitutes a difeafe
called epiphora \ but we all know, that the application of any irritating particles to the eye, and fometimes the paflions
of the mind,, will occafion a temporary increafe of this lymph.
^d) When the duftus ad nares becomes obftrufted, in confequence of difeafe, the tears are no longer able to pafs
into the noftrilsy the facculus lachrymalis becomes diftended; and inflammation, and fometimes ulceration, taking
place, conftitute the difeaft called fijiula lachrymalis.
(e) The tunica albuginea feems to be formed in this manner, and not by an expanfion of the tendons tbemfelves as
it has been generally fuppofed.
(f) Some writers, who have given the name of cornea to all this outer coat, have named what is here and moft: com¬
monly fclerotica, corned opacaand its anterior and tranfparent portion, cornea lucida. The optic nerve en¬
ters
399
"Part VH.
ANATOMY.
m, The choroids}, or uvea, has been confidered as ah
expanfion of the pia matral coat of the optic nerve. In
its fore part we obferve a circular hole, called the pupil
or fight of the eye, which affords a paffage to the rays
of light. The choroides is compofed of two laminae
( g ); the outermoft of which is continued no farther
than the edge of the cornea, to which it is attached
all round, being obferved to form a little whitifh areo¬
la at the place of this union, which is named ligamentum
ciliare (h). The inner lamina extends farther to form
what is called the iris (i), which is the part we are
able to fee through the cornea. It derives its name
from the difference of its colours, and is perforated in
its middle. This perforation is called pupil or ftght of
the eye. On the under fide of the iris we obferve many
minute fibres called procejfus ciliares, which pafs in ra¬
dii or parallel lines from the circumference to the cen¬
ter; and the contraction and dilatation of the pupil are
fuppofed to depend on the aCtion of thefe ciliary pro-
ceffes (k ).
n, The pofterior furface of the iris, the proceffus
ciliares, and a part of the tunica choroides, are covered
by a black mucus, for the purpofes of accurate and
diftinCt vifion ; but the manner in which it is fecreted,
has not been determined.
o, Immediately under the tunica choroides we find
the third and inner coat, called the retina, which is
fuppofed to be merely an expanfion of the pulpy fub-
ftance of the optic nerve, extending to the borders of
the cryftalline humour.
p, The greateft part of the globe of the eye, with¬
in thefe feveral tunics, is filled by a very tranfparent and
gelatinous humour, of confiderable confillence, which,
from its fuppofed refemblance to fufed glafs, is called
the vitreous humour. It is inveffed by a very fine and
delicate membrane, called tunica vilrea, and fometimes
aracbnoides. It is fuppofed to be compofed of two la¬
minae, one of which dips into its fubftance, and by di¬
viding the humour into cells adds to its firmnefs. The
fore-part of the vitreous humour is a little hollowed, to
receive a very white and tranfparent fubftance of a firm
texture, and of a lenticular and fomewhat convex fhape,
named the cryjialline humour. It is included in a cap-
fula, which feems to be formed by a feparation of the
two laminae of the tunica vitrea.
q, The fore-part of the eye is filled by a very thin
and tranfparent fluid, named the aqueous humour, which
occupies all the fpace between the cryftalline and the
prominent cornea. That part of the choroides which
is called the iris, and which comes forward to form
the pupil, appears to be fufpended, as it were, in this
humour; and has occafioned this portion of the eye to
be diftinguilhed into two parts. One of thefe, which
is the little fpace between the anterior furface of the
cryftalline and the iris, is called thepojlerior chamber;
and the other, which is the fpace between the iris and
the cornea, is called the anterior chamber of the eye.
Both thefe fpaces are completely filled with the aqueous
humour (l).
r. The eye receives its arteries from the internal ca¬
rotid, and its veins empty themfelves chiefly into the
external jugulars. Some of the ramifications of thefe
veffels appear on the inner furface of the iris, where,
they are feen to make very minute convolutions, which
are fuflxciently remarkable to be diftinguilhed by the
name of circulus arteriofus, though perhaps improper¬
ly, as they feem to be chiefly branches of veins.
f, The optic nerve paffes in at the pofterior part of
the eye, in a confiderable trunk, to be expanded for
the purpofes of vifion, of which it is now univerfally
fuppofed to be the immediate feat. But Meffrs Ma-
riotte and Mery contended, that the choroides is the
feat of this fenfe ; and the ancients fuppofed the cry¬
ftalline to be fo. Befides the optic, the eye receives
branches from other nerves, but chiefly from the third
pair.
t. The humours of the eye, together with the cornea,
are calculated to refrait and converge the rays of light
in fuch a manner as- to form at the bottom of the eye
a diftinft image of the object we look at; and the point
where thefe rays meet, is called the focus of the eye.
On the retina, as in a camera obfcura, the objeft is
painted in an inverted pofition ; and it is only by ha¬
bit that we are enabled to judge of its true fituation,
and likewife of its diftance and magnitude. To a young
gentleman, who was born blind, and who was couched
by Mr Chefelden, every object (as he expreffed him-
felf) feemed to touch his eyes, as what he felt did his
flcin ; and he thought no objedls fo agreeable as thofe
which were fmooth and regular, altho’ for fome time
he could form no judgment of their lhape, or guefs
what it was in any of them that was plealing to him.
u. In order to paint objefts diftin&ly on the retina,
the cornea is required to have fuch a degree of convex¬
ity, that the rays of light may be collefted at a cer¬
tain point fo as to terminate exaftly on the retina. If
the cornea is too prominent, the rays, by diverging
too foon, will be united before they reach the retina,
as is the cafe with near-fightedpeople, or myopes: and,
on the contrary, if it is not fufficiently convex, the
D d d 2 rays
ters into the eye at its pofterior part; and as only its pulpy fubftance is fuppofed to form the retina, the filer stica has
with great probability been afcribed to the dura matral covering of that nerve.
(g) The ipner lamina is exceedingly vafcular; and having been firft defcribed by Ruyfch, is called Ruyfihiana.
(h) M. Lieutard feems with more propriety to have named it plexus ciliaris, as it appears to be formed by very
numerous and minute filaments of nerves of the third pair.
(i) The iris has been fometimes defcribed as a diftindt coat, and called uvea.
(k) Befides thefe procefies, anatomifts ufually defcribe the circular fibres of the iris, but they do not feem to be
capable of demonftration. The procejfus ciliares have likewife been differently fpoken of, being fometimes defcribed
as being compofed of mufcular fibres, and fometimes as being of a ligamentous texture; but a later and more proba¬
ble opinion is, that they are neither mufcular nor ligamentary, but filaments of nerves derived from the plexus cili-
ans.
(l) When the cryftalline becomes opaque fo as to prevent the paffage of the rays of light to the retina, itconfti-
tutes what is called a cataraftj and the operation of couching confifts in removing the difeafed chryftaline from its bed
in the vitreous humour. In this operation, the cornea is perforated, and the aqueous humour efcapes out of the eye; but
it is conftantly renewed again in a very Ihort time. The manner, however, in which it is fecreted, has noi yet been de¬
termined. 1
400
ANATOMY.
Part VII.
rays will not be perfe&ly united when they reach the of glafies. He who has too prominent an eye, will
back part of the eye; and this happens to long-fighted find his vifion improved by means of a concave glafs;
people, or projbi, being found conftantly to take place and, upon the fame principles, a convex glafs will be
as we approach to old age, and the eye gradually flat- found ufeful to a perfon whofe eye is naturally to®
tens (m), Thefe defe&s are to be fupplied by means flat.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXL
Figure i. Shews the lachrymal canals, after the
common teguments and bones have been cut away.
a, The lachrymal gland, b, The two puncta lachry-
malia, from which the two lachrymal canals proceed
to c, the lachrymal fac. d, The large lachrymal duft.
e, Its opening into the nofe. f. The caruncula la-
chrymalis. g, The eye-ball.
Fig. 2. An anterior view of the coats and humours
of the eye.
a a a a, The tunica fclerotica cut in four angles, and
turned back, b b b b, The tunica choroides adhering,
to the infide of the fclerotica, and the ciliary veffels
are feen paffing over—c c, The retina, which covers
the vitreous humour. d d, The ciliary procefles,
which were continued from the choroid coat, e e, The
iris, f, The pupil.
Fig. 2. Shews the optic nerves, and mufcles of
the eye.
a a, The two optic nerves before they meet, b, The
two optic nerves conjoined, c, The right optic nerve,
d, Mufculus attollens palpebrae fuperioris. e, Attol-
lens oculi. f, Abdu&or. g g, Obliquus fuperior, or
trochlearis. h, Addudtor. i, The eye-ball.
Fig. 4. Shews the eye-ball with its mufcles.
a, The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis. c, Part
of the os frontis, to which the trochlea or pully is fix¬
ed, through which,—d. The tendon of the trochlearis
pafles. e, Attollens oculi. f, Addu&or oculi.
g, Abduftor oculi. h, Obliquus inferior, i. Part of
the fuperior maxillary bone to which it is fixed.
k, The eye-ball.
Fig. 5. Reprefents the nerves and mufcles of the
right eye, after part of the bones of the orbit have
been cut away.
A, The eye-ball. B, The lachrymal gland.
C, Mufculus abduftor oculL D, Attollens. E, Leva¬
tor palpebrae fuperioris. F, Deprefibr oculi. G, Ad¬
ductor. H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pulley.
l, Its infertion into the fclerotic coat. K, Part of the
obliquus inferior. L, The anterior part of the os fron¬
tis cut. M, The crifta galli of the ethmoid bone.
N, The pofterior part of the fphenoid bone. Q, Tranf-
verfe fpinous procefs of the fphenoid bone. P. The
carotid artery, denuded where it pafles thro’ the bones.
the carotid artery within the cranium. R, The
ocular artery.
Nerves.—a a, The optic nerve, b, The third
pair..—c, Its joining with a branch of the firft branch
of the fifth pair, to form 1, The lenticular ganglion,
.—which fends off the ciliary nerves, d. e e. The
fourth pair, f, The trunk of the fifth pair, g, Tlie
firft branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic.—?
h, The frontal branch of it. i, Its ciliary branches, along
with which the nafal twig is fent to the nofe. k. Its
branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticular
ganglion, m, The fecond branch of the fifth pair,
named fuperior maxillary, n. The third branch of the
fifth pair, named inferior maxillary, o, The fixth pair
of nerves,—which fends off p, The beginning of the
great fympathetic. q, The remainder of the fixth
pair, fpent on c, The abduftor oculi.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the head of a youth, where
the upper part of the cranium is fawed off,—to fhew
the upper part of the brain, covered by the pia mater,
the veffels of which are minutely filled with wax.
A A, The cut edges of the upper part of the cra¬
nium. B, The two tables and intermediate diploe.
T B, The two hemifpheres of the cerebrum. C C. The
incifure made by the falx. D, Part of the ten¬
torium cerebello fuper expanfum. E, Part of the
falx, which is fixed to the crifta galli.
Fig. 7. Reprefents the parts of the external ear,
with the parotid gland and its dudf.
a a, The helix, b, The antihelix, c. The anti¬
tragus. d, The tragus, e, The lobe of the ear. f,
The cavitas innominata. g, The fcapha. h, The
concha, i i, The parotid gland, k, A lymphatic
gland, which is often found before the tragus. 1, The
duft of the parotid gland, m, Its opening into the
mouth.
Fig. 8. A view of the pofterior part of the exter¬
nal ear, meatus auditorius, tympanum, with its fmall
bones, and Euftachian tube of the right fide.
a, The back part of the meatus, with the fmall ce¬
ruminous glands, b. The incus, c, Malleus, d. The
chorda tympani. e, Membrana tympani. f. The
Euftachian tube, g, Its mouth, from the fauces.
Fig. 9. Reprefents the anterior part of the right
external ear, the cavity of the tympanum—its fmall
bones, cochlea, and femi-circular canals.
a. The malleus, b, Incus with its long leg, refting
upon the ftapes. c, Membrana tympani. d, e, The
Euftachian tube, covered by part of—f f, The muf¬
culus circumflexus palatL 1, 2, 3, The three femicir-
cular canals. 4, The veftible. 5, The cochlea. 6,
The portio mollis of the feventh pair of nerves.
Fig. 10. Shews the mufcles which compofe the
flefliy fubftance of the tongue.
a a, The tip of the tongue, with fome of the pa¬
pilla; minima;, b, The root of the tongue, c. Part
of the membrane of the tongue, which covered the
epiglottis, d d, Part of the mufculus hyo-gloffus.
e, The lingualis. f, Genio-gloffus. g g, Part of the
ftylo-gloffus.
Anatomy.
(m) Upon this principle they who in their youth are near-fighted may expedl to fee better as they advance in life, and
their eyes gradually become more flat.
r
tnAnatomy
I II
>:i5 naximan-
m der.
ANA [ 401 ] A N C
Anatomy of Plants. See Plants.
Anatomy of Brutes. See Comparative Anatomy.
ANAXAGORAS, one of the moft celebrated phi-
lofophers of antiquity, was born at Clazomene in Ionia
about the 70th Olympiad. He was difciple of Anax¬
imenes ; and gave up his patrimony, to be more at lei-
fure for the ftudy of philofophy. He went firft to
Athens, and there taught eloquence ; after which,
having put himfelf under the tuition of Anaximenes,
he gave leffons in philofophy in the fame city. Thefe
he only gave to fome particular friends and difciples,
and with extreme caution. This, however, did not pre¬
vent, but rather was the caufe of, his being accufed
of impiety, and thrown into prifon, notwithftanding
the credit and influence of Pericles, who was his dif¬
ciple and intimate. Having been condemned to exile,
he calmly yielded to the efforts of envy, and opened
fchool at Lampfacum, where he was extremely honour¬
ed during the remainder of his life, andftill more af¬
ter his death, having had ftatues erefted to his memo¬
ry. He is faid to have made fome predictions relative
to the phenomena of nature, upon which he wrote fome
treatifes. His principal tenets may be reduced to the
following. All things were in the beginning confu-
fedly placed together, without order and without mo¬
tion. The principle of things is at the fame time one
and multiplex, which obtained the name of komcemeries,
or fimilar particles, deprived of life. But there is be-
fide this, from all eternity, another principle, namely
an infinite and incorporeal fpirit, who gave thefe par¬
ticles a motion ; in virtue of which, fuch as are homo-
geneal united, and fuch as were heterogeneal feparated
according to their different kinds. In this manner all
things being put into motion by the fpirit, and fimilar
things being united to fuch as were fimilar, fuch as
had a circular motion produced heavenly bodies, the
lighter particles afcended, thofe which were heavy de-
fcended. The rocks of the earth, being drawn up by
the force of the air, took fire, and became ftars, be¬
neath which the fun and moon took their ftations.
Thus he did not look upon the ftars as divinities.
ANAXARCHUS, aphilofopher ofAbdera, high¬
ly efteemed by Alexander the Great. His end was
peculiarly tragical: having the misfortune to fall into
the hands of the enemy, they pounded him alive in a
mortar.
ANAXIMANDER, a famous Greek philofopher,
born at Miletus in the 42 J olympiad, in the time of Po¬
lycrates tyrant of Samos. He was the firft who pub¬
licly taught philofophy, and wrote upon philofphical
fubje&s. He carried his refearches into nature very
far for the time in which he lived. It is faid, that he
difcovered the obliquity of the Zodiac, was the firft
who publiffied a geographical table, invented the gno¬
mon, and fet up the firft fun-dial in an open place at La¬
cedaemon, He taught, that infinity of things was the
principal and univerfal element; that this infinite al¬
ways preferved its unity, but that its parts underwent
changes; that all things came from it; and that all
were about to return into it. According to all appear¬
ance, he meant by this obfcure and indeterminate prin¬
ciple the chaos of the other philofophers. He afferted,
that there are an infinity of worlds ; that the ftars are
compofed of air and fire, which are carried in their
fpheres, and that thefe fpheres are gods ; and that the
earth is placed in the midft of the univerfe, as in a com¬
mon centre. He added, that infinite worlds were the
product of infinity, and that corruption proceeded from
feparation.
ANAXIMENES, born at Miletus, an eminent
Greek philofopher, friend, fcholar, and fucceffor of
Anaximander. He diffufed fome degree of light upon
the obfcurity of his mafter’s fyftem. He made the firft
principle of things to confift in the air, which he con-
fidered as immenfe or infinite, and to which he afcribed
a perpetual motion. He afferted, that all things which
proceeded from it, were definite and circumfcribed; and
that this air, therefore, was God; fince the divine power
refided in it and agitated it. Coldnefs and moifture,
heat and motion, rendered it vifible, and dreffed it in
different forms, according to the different degrees of
its condenfation. All the elements thus proceed from
heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion, one
continued flat furface.
Anaximenes, the fon of Ariftocles of Lampfacus,
an orator, the difciple of Diogenes the Cynic, and of
Zoilus the railer againft Homer. He was preceptor
to Alexander of Macedon, and followed him to the
wars. Alexander being incenfed againft the people of
Lampfacus, they fent this philofopher to intercede for
them. Alexander knowing the caufe of his coming,
fwore that he would do the very reverfe of whatever he
defired of him. Anaximenes begged of him to deftroy
Lampfacus. Alexander, unwilling to break his oath,
and not able to elude this ftratagem, pardoned Lamp¬
facus much againft his will.
ANAXIMANDRIANS, in the hiftory of philo¬
fophy, the followers of Anaximander; the moft an¬
cient of the philofophical athiefts, who admitted of no
other fubftance in nature but matter.
ANAZARBUS, (Pliny); Anazarba, (Stepha-
nus); a town of Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, the
birth place of Diofcorides, and of the poet Oppian.
It was fometimes called Ctefarea, in honour either of
Auguftus or of Tiberius. The inhabitants are called
Anazarieniy (Pliny) ; and on coins Anazarbeis, after
the Greek idiom. It was deftroyed by a dreadful
earthquake in the year 525, along with, feveral other
important cities : but they were all repaired at a vaft
expence by the emperor Juftin ; who was fo much af¬
fected with their misfortune, that, putting off the dia¬
dem and purple, he appeared for feveral days in fack-
cloth.
ANCARANO, a town of Italy, in the march of
Ancona,fituated in E. Long. 1.4.54. N.Lat.42. 48-
ANCASTER, a town of Lincolnfhire, fituated in
W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 52. 30. It gives the title to a
duke.
ANCENIS, a town of France, in the province of
Britany. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat. 47. 20.
ANCESTORS, thofe from whom a perfon is de-
fcended in a ftraight line.
ANCHILOPS, a fmall tumour in the great angle
of the eye, frequently degenerating into an abfcefs or
fiftula lachrymalis.
ANCHISES in fabulous hiftory, a Trojan prince,
defcended from Dardanus, and the fon of Capys. Ve¬
nus made love to him in the form of a beautiful nymph;
and bore him JEneas, the hero of Virgil’s iEneid.
ANCHOR, Lat. from Greek,) a
heavy
Anaxi¬
menes
Anchor.
A N C L 402 1 A N C
Anchor, heavy, ftrong, crooked inftrument of Iron, dropped
from a (hip into the bottom of the water, to retain her
in a convenient ftation in a harbour, road, or river.
The mod ancient anchors are faid to have been of
done; and fometimes of wood, to which a great quantity
of lead was ufually fixed. In fome places, balkets full of
ftones, and facks filled with fand, were employed for the
fame ufe. All thefe were let down by cords into the fea,
and by their weight flayed the courfe of the (hip. Af¬
terwards they were compofed of iron, and furnifhed with
teeth, which, being fattened to the bottom of the fea,
preferred the veffel immoveable; whence <>Mi( and
dentes are frequently taken for anchors in the Greek
and Latin poets. At firft there was only one tooth,
whence anchors were called iTigos-o^i. but ina (hort time
the fecond was added by Eupalamus, or Anacharfis,
the Scythian philofopher. The anchors with two teeth
were called or awrov-ot; and from ancient mo¬
numents appear to have been much the fame with thole
ufed in our days, only the tranfverfe piece of wood upon
their handles (the (lock) is wanting in all of them. Every
(hip had feveral anchors, one of which, furpafiing all the
reft in bignefs and (Length, was peculiarly termed '=/>*
or facra, and was never ufed but in extreme danger ;
whence facram anchoram folvere, is proverbially applied
to fuch as are forced to their laft refuge.
The anchors now made are contrived fo as to fink
into the ground as foon as they reach it, and to hold
a great drain before they can be loofened or diflodged
from their ftation. They arc compofed of a (hank, a
(lock, a ring, and two arms with their flukes. The
(lock, which is a long piece of timber fixed acrofs the
(hank, ferves to guide the flukes in a direftion perpen¬
dicular to the furface of the ground; fo that one of
them finks into it by its own weight as foon as it falls,
and is Hill preferred fteadily in that pofition by the
(lock, which, together with the (hank, lies flat on the
bottom. In this (ituation it muft neceflarily fuftain a
great effort before it can be dragged through the earth
horizontally. Indeed this can only be effedled by the
violence of the wind or tide, or of both of them, fome¬
times increafed by the turbulence of the fea, and a£t-
ing upon the (hip fo as to ftretch the cable to its ut-
moft tenfion, which accordingly may diflodge the an¬
chor from its bed, efpecially if the ground be foft and
oozy, or rocky. When the anchor is thus difplaced, it
is faid, in the fea-phrafe, to come home.
That the figure of this ufeful inftrument may be
more clearly underftood, let us fuppofe a long maffy
Fig!*. n° 1. beam of iron erefted perpendicularly, b, at the lower
s' ' ' end of which are two arms, d e, of equal thicknefs
with the beam (ufually called theJhank), only that they
taper towards the points, which are elevated above the
horizontal plane at an angle of thirty degrees, or in¬
clined to the (hank at an angle of fixty degrees; on
the upper part of each arm (m this pofition) is a fluke
or thick plate of iron, g h, commonly (haped like an
ifofceles triangle whofe bafe reaches inwards to the mid¬
dle of the arm. On the upper end of the (hank is fix¬
ed the (lock tranfverfely with the flukes ; the (lock is
a long beam of oak, f, in two parts, ftrongly bolted,
and hooped together with iron rings. See alfo N° 2.
Clofe above the (lock is the ring a, to which the cable
is faftened, or bent: the ring is curioufly covered with
a uumber of pieces of (hort rope, which are twitted a-
bout it, fo as to form a very thick texture or covering Anohadj
called the puddening, and ufed to preferve the cable I „|
from being fretted or chafed by the iron. nenuftj
Every (hip has, or ought to have, three principal
anchors, with a cable to each, viz. the (heet, maitrejfe-
ancre, (which is the anchora facra of the ancients); the
bed bo'Nt'c, fecond ancre; and fmall bower, ancre d af-
fourche, fo called from their ufual fituation on the (hip’s
bows. There are befides fmaller anchors, for removing
a (hip from place to place in a harbour or river, where
there may not be room or wind for failing ; thefe are
the ftream-anchor, ancre de toue ; the kedge and grap-
pling, grapin : this laft, however, is chiefly defigned
for boats.
At Anchor, the fituation of a (hip which rides by
her anchor in a road or haven, &c. Plate XXII, fig.i.
N° 3. reprefents the fore-part of a (hip as riding in
this fituation. See alfo Buoy-rope.
To fifh ^Anchor, to draw up the flukes upon the
(hip’s fide after it is catted. See the articles Davit
and Fish.
Ts Jheer the fhip to her Anchor, is to (leer the (hip’s
head towards the place where the anchor lies when they
are heaving the cable into the (hip ; that the cable may
thereby enter the haufe with lefs refiftance, and the
(hip advance towards the anchor with greater facility.
ANCHOR-GroaW is a bottom which is neither too
deep, too (hallow, nor rocky; as in the firft the cable bears
too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to jerk
the anchor out of the ground; in the fecond, the (hip’s
bottom is apt to ftrike at low water, or when the fea
runs high, by which (he is expofed to the danger of
finking; and in the third, the anchor is liable to hook
the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and tear away
its flukes, whilft the cable, from the fame caufe, is
conftantly in danger of being cut through as it rubs on
their edges.
Anchor, in architedlure, a fort of carving, fome-
what refembling an anchor. It is commonly placed
as part of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals
of the Tufcan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and alfo of
the boultins of bed-mouldings of the; Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being car¬
ved alternately through the whole building.
Anchors, in heraldry, are emblems of hope, and
are taken for fuch in a fpiritual as well as a temporal
fenfe.
Anchorage, in law, is a duty upon (hips for the
ufe of the port or harbour where they caft anchor.
ANCHOVY, in ichthyology, the Englifli name of
the clupea encraficolus. See Clupea.
ANCHUSA, Alkanet, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
of which there are eight
Species. The officinalis, or greater garden-buglofs, is
a native of France and of the warmer parts of Europe,
but will thrive well enough in Britain; but the roots
feldom continue longer than two years in this country,
unlefs they happen to grow in rubbifli, or out of an
old wall, where they will live three or four years.
2. The anguftifolia, or perennial wild borage, grows to
the height of two feet when cultivated in gardens ; but
in thofe places where it grows wild is feldom more than
a foot and an half high. The leaves of this fort are
narrow; the fpikes_of flowers come out double, and
have
A N C L 403 j A N C
cfinfj, have no leaves about them ; the flowers are {mail, and
Indent. 0f a re(j colour. The roots will continue two years in
“ a poor foil. 3. The undulata, or Portugal buglofs,
is a biennial plant, which grows to the height of two
feet, and fends out many lateral branches. The flow¬
ers are of a bright blue colour, and grow in an imbri-
l cated fpike. 4. The orientalis, or eaftern buglofs, is
a native of the Levant ? but hardy enough to bear the
, open air in Britain, if it hath a dry fandy foil. It
is a perennial plant, with long trailing branches which
lie on the ground. The flowers are yellow, and about
the fize of the common buglofs, and there is a fuccef-
fion of thefe on the fame plants great part of the year.
5. The virginiana, or puccoon, grows naturally in the
woods of North America; and being an early plant,
generally flowers before the new leaves come out on the
trees; fo that in fome woods where it abounds, the
ground feems entirely covered with its yellow flowers.
It is a perennial plant, which feldom rifes a foot high
in good ground, but not above half that height where
the foil is poor. The flowers grow in loofe fpikes
upon fmooth ftalks. 6. The fempervirens, or ever¬
green borage, is a very hardy perennial plant, with
weak trailing branches. It grows naturally in fome
parts of Britain and Spain. The flowers are blue, and
come out between the leaves, on the fpike, like the
fourth fort. They appear during a great part of the
year. 7. The cretica, or warted buglofs of Crete, is
a low trailing annual plant, whofe branches feldom ex¬
tend more than fix inches. The flowers are fmall, of a
bright blue colour, and are collected into fmall bunch¬
es at the extremity of the branches. The plants pe¬
ri fh foon after their feeds are ripe. 8. The tinftoria,
or true aikanet, grows naturally in the Levant, but is
equally hardy with the firft fpecies. The flowers grow
m long fpikes, coming out imbricatm, like the tiles
of a houfe.
Culture. All the fpecies of anchufa may be propa¬
gated by feeds ; which Ihould be fown, either in the
fpring or autumn, upon a bed of light fandy earth; and
when the plants are llrong enough to be removed, they
muft be planted on beds at two feet diftance from one
another, and watered, if the feafon requires it, till they
have taken root; after which they will require no other
care than to keep them free from weeds.
Medkinal Ufes, See. The flowers of the firft fpecies
have obtained the name of cordial flowers ; to which
they have no other title than that they moderately cool
and foften, without offending the palate or ftomach ;
and thus, in warm climates, or in hot difeafes, may in
lb me meafure refrefh the patient. The root of the tinc-
toria is likewife ufed, not as poffeffed of any medici¬
nal virtue, but on account of its imparting an elegant
red colour to oily fubftaoces ; fo is frequently direc¬
ted as a colouring ingredient for ointments, plafters, &c.
As the colour is confined to the cortical part, the fmall
roots are to be preferred, as having proportionably
more bark than the large ones. The aikanet root which
grows in England is greatly inferior to what comes
fiom abroad.
ANCIENT, or Antient, a term applied to things
which exifted long ago, thus we fay, ancient nations,
ancient cuftoms, See.
Ancient, fometimes denotes elderly, or of long
Handing, in opposition to young, or new; thus we fay,
an ancient barrifter, ancient buildings. Ancient,
Ancient, in a military fenfe, denotes cither the Anglllon
enfign or colours.
Ancient, in Ihips of war, the ftreamer or flag
borne in the ftern.
ANCILLON (David) a minifter of the reformed
church at Metz, where he was born the 17th of March
1617. He ftudied from the ninth or tenth year of his
age in the Jefuits college, where he gave fuch proofs
of his genius, that the heads of the fociety tried every
means to draw him over to their religion and party;
but he continued firm againft their attacks. He went
to Geneva in 1623; and ftudied divinity under Span-
heim, Diodati, and Tronchin, who conceived a very
great eftcemfor him. He left Geneva in ikpril 1641,
and offered himfelf to the fynod of Charenton in order
to take upon him the office of a minifter: his abilities
were greatly admired by the examiners, and the whole
affembly were fo highly pleafed with him, that they gave
him the church of Meaux, the moft confiderable then
unprovided for. Here he acquired a vaft reputation for
his learning, eloquence, and virtue, and was even high¬
ly refpe&ed by thofe of the Roman-catholic commu¬
nion. He returned to his own country in the year
1653, where he remained till the revocation of the e-
dift of Nantes in 1685. He retired to Francfort after
this fatal blow ; and having, preached in the French
church at Hanau, the whole congregation were fo edi¬
fied by it, that they immediately called together the
heads of the families, in order to propofe that he might
be invited to accept of being minifter there. The pro-
pofition was agreed to ; and ne began the exercife of his
miniftry in that church about the end of the year i68y.
His preaching made fo great a noife at Hanau, that
the profeffors of divinity, and the German and Dutch
minifters, attended his fermons frequently: the count of
Hanau himfeif, who had never before been feen in the
French church, came thither to hear Mr Ancillon :
they came from the neighbouring parts, and even from
Francfort; people who utrderftood nothing of French
flocked together with great eagernefs, and faid they
loved to fee him fpeak. This occafioned a great jea-
loufy in the two other minifters; which tended to make
his fituation uneafy. He- therefore went to Berlin;
where he met with a kind reception from his highnefs
the elector, and was made minifter of the city. Here
he had the pleafure of feeing his eldeft fon made judge
and director of the French in the fame city, and his o-
ther fon rewarded with a penfion and entertained at the
univerfity of Francfort upon the Oder. He had like¬
wife the fatisfa&ion of feeing his brother made judge
of all^the French in the ftates of Brandenburg; and Mr
Cayart his fon-in-Iaw, engineer to his ele&oral high¬
nefs. He enjoyed thefe agreeable circumftances, and
feveral others, till his death, which happened at Berlin-
the 3d of September, 1692, when he was 75 years of
age.—Mr Ancillon having got a confiderable fortune by
marriage, was enabled thereby to gratify his paffion
for books ; his library was accordingly very curious
and large, and he increafed it every day with all that '
appeared new and important in the republic of letters,,
fo that at laft it was one of the nobleft colleiSVions in the
hands of any private perfon in the kingdom. He pub-
lifhed a book, in quarto, in which the whole difpute
concerning Traditions is fully examined: be alfo wrote
Anclam
H
Ancony,
A N C
an apology for Luther, Zuinglius, Calvin, and Beza*
and feveral other pieces.
ANCLAM, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, remark¬
able for its excellent paftures. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Pene. E. Long. 14-5. N. Lat. 54. 10.
ANCONA (marquifate of), a province in the pope’s
territories in Italy. It lies between the gulph of Ve¬
nice and mount Appenine, which bound it on the north;
404 ] A N C
the Nomos Aphroditopolitee, towards the Red Sea; Ancorart
fo called becaufe there was in the neighbourhood a ftone II ,
quarry, in which they hewed ftone anchors (Ptole- ncony'
my), before iron anchors came to be ufed. The gen-
tilitious name is Ancyropolites, (Stephanus).
ANCOURT(Florent-Cartond ),an eminent French
aftor and dramatic writer, born at Fontainbleau, Oc¬
tober 1661. He ftudied in the Jefuits college at Paris,
under father De la Rue ; who, difcovering in him a re-
Abruzzoon the eaft; the duchy of Spoletto, and that markable vivacity and capacity for learning, was
of Urbino, on the weft. The air is indifferent; but the
foil is fruitful, particularly in hemp and flax; and there
is great plenty of wax and honey. It contains feveral
large towns, as Fermo, Loretto, Recanati, Macerata,
Jefi, Tolentino, Afcoli, Ofimo, St Severino, Monte
Alto, Camerino, and Ripatranfone, which are all ar-
chiepifcopal or epifcopal fees.
Ancona, a fea-port town of Italy, the capital ofAe
marquifate of that name, and the fee of a biihop. It
was formerly the fineft port in all Italy, being built by
the emperor Trajan, about the year 1x5; but was al-
moft ruined, and its trade loft: however, it has again
begun to revive. Its harbour is the beft in all the
pope’s dominions. The town lies round it on two hills;
one of which is at the point of Cape St Cyriaco, from
whence there is a delightful profpedt. On the other
ftands the citadel, which commands the town and har¬
bour. The ftreets of this city are narrow and uneven;
and the public and private buildings inferior to thofe of fed to have him at their houfes. Having taken a jour-
4-* »r»-» r T 4-n 1 w \ „ „ 1       4.^.   I. A „ L 1 „ 1 J „ JT ,3 „ . - L  L „ 1 *  1
tremely defirous of engaging him in their order; but
Ancourt’s averlion to a religious life rendered all his
efforts ineffe&ual. After he had gone through a courfe
of philofophy, he applied himfelf to the civil law, and
was admitted advocate at 17 years of age. But falling
in love with an adtrefs, he was induced to go upon the
ftage, and he married her. As he had all the qualifi¬
cations neceffary for the theatre, he foon greatly diftin-
guifhed himfelf: and not being fatisfied with the ap-
plaufe only of an actor, he began to write pieces for
the ftage; many of which had fuch prodigious fuccefs,
that moft of the players grew rich from the profits of
them. His merit in this way procured him a very fa¬
vourable reception at court; and Lewis XIV. Ihewed
him many marks of his favour. His fprightly conver-
fation and polite behaviour made his company agreeable
to all the men of figure both at court and in the city,
and the moft confiderable perfons were extremely plea-
the other great towns in Italy. The cathedral is a low
dark ftru&ure; and though the front is covered with
fine marble, the archite&ure has neither beauty nor re¬
gularity. The church of St Dominic, and that of the
Francifcans, have each an excellent picture of Titian.
The exchange, where the merchants meet, is a hand-
fome fquare portico, in which is an equeftrian ftatue
of Trajan, who firft built the port. At the four cor¬
ners are four other ftatues. The triumphal arch of Tra¬
jan remains almoft entire,, with its infcription. The
common people in this town are a little particular and
fantaftical in their drefs, but the better fort follow the
French mode. It is a great thorough-fare from the
north of Italy to Loretto; which renders provifions very
dear. The tide does not rife here above a foot, and
near the Mediterranean it is fcarce vifible. E. Long.
15. 5. N. Lat. 43.36.
ney to Dunkirk, to fee his eldeft daughter who lived
there, he took the opportunity of paying his compli¬
ments to the elector of Bavaria, who was then at Bruf-
fels: this prince received him with the utmoft civility ;
and having detained him a confiderable time, difmiffed
him with a prefent of a diamond valued at 1000 pi-
ftoles : he likewife rewarded him in a very generous
manner, when, upon his coming to Paris, Ancourt com-
pofed an entertainment for his diverfion.' Ancourt be¬
gan at length to grow weary of tfie theatre, which he
quitted in Lent 1718, and retired to his eftate of Cour-
celles le Roy, in Berry, where he applied himfelf wholly
to devotion, and compofed a tranflation of David’s
Pfalms in verfe, and a facred tragedy, which were ne¬
ver printed. He died the 6th of December, 1726, be-
ing 65 years of age.—The plays which he wrote are
52 in all; moft of which were printed feparately at the
ANCONES, in archite&ure, the corners or coins of time when they were firft reprefented: they were after¬
walls, crofs-beams, or rafters.—Vitruvius calls the
foies by the fame name.
ANCONY, in the iron-works, a piece of half-
wrought iron, of about three quarters of 100 weight,
and of the ftxape of a bar in the middle, but rude and
unwrought at the ends. The procefs for bringing the
iron to this ftate is this: They firft melt off a piece
wards colle&ed into five volumes, then into feven, and
at laft into nine. This laft edition is the moft com¬
plete.
ANCRE, a fmall town of France, in Picardy, with
the title of a marquifate, feated on a little river of the
fame name. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 49. 59.
ANGUS MARTIUS, the fourth king of the Ro-
from a fow of caft-iron, of the proper fize ; this they mans, fucceeded Tullius Hoftilius, 639 years before
hammer at the forge into a mafs of two feet long, and
of a fquare ftiape, which they call a bloom ; when this
is done, they fend it .to the finery, where, after two or
three heats and workings, they bring it to this figure,
and call it an ancony. The middle part beat out at the before the Chriftian a;ra.
Chrift. He defeated the Latins, fubdued the Fide-
nates, conquered the Sabines, Volfcii, and Veientines,
enlarged Rome by joining to it mount Janicula, and
made the harbour of Oftia. He died about 615 years
finery, is about three feet long, and of the ftiape and
thicknefs the whole is to be; this is then fent to the
chafery, and there the ends are wrought to the ftiape
of the middle, and the whole made into a bar. See Bar.
ANCORARUM URBS, Atxvguv noxif, a city in
ANCYLE, in antiquity, a kind of fliield that fell,
as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa
Pompilius; at which time, likewife, a voice was heard
declaring that Rome ftiould be miftrefs of the world as
long as flic ftiould preferve this holy buckler. It was
kept
Ancyle
Ancylofis.
A N C [ 405 1 AND
kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the
direction of twelve priefts; and left any ftiould attempt
to fteal it, eleven others were made fo like, as not to
be diftinguilhed from the facred one. Thefe ancylia
were carried in proceflion every year round the city of
Rome.
Ancyle, in furgery. See Akcylosis.
ANCYLOBLEPHARON, (from ajocux®- bent,
and /2A.£?>«po» an eye-lid); a difeafe of the eye, which
clofes the eye-lids. Sometimes the eye-lids grow to¬
gether, and alfo to the tunica albuginea of the eye,
from careleflhefs when there is an ulcer in thefe parts.
Both thefe cafes are called ancylohlepharon by the Greeks.
This diforder muft be diftinguiihed from that coalition
of the eye-lids which happens from vifcid matter glu¬
ing them together. If the cohefion is on the cornea,
the fight is inevitably loft. This hath fometimes hap¬
pened in the fmall-pox. If there is only a growing to¬
gether of the eye-lids, they may be feparated with the
fpecillum, and pledgets kept between them to prevent
their re-union. If the eye-lids adhere to the eye, they
are to be feparated by a fine-edged knife; and their
re-union is to be prevented by a proper ufe of injec¬
tions, and lint placed between them, after dipping it in
fome proper liniment.
ANCYLOGLOSSUM, (from crooked, and
y\ar<ra the tongue) ; a contraftion of the ligaments of
the tongue. Some have this xmperfe&ion from their
birth, others from fome difeafe. In the firft cafe, the
membrane which fupports the tongue is too ftiort or
too hard: in the latter, an ulcer under the tongue, heal¬
ing and forming a cicatrix, is fometimes the caufe;
thefe fpeak with fome difficulty. The ancylogloffi by
nature are late before they fpeak; but when they be¬
gin, they foon fpeak properly. Thefe we call tongue-
tied. Mauriceau fays, that in this cafe it is a fmall mem¬
branous production, which extends from the fraenulum
to the tip of the tongue, that hinders the child from
fucking, &c. He juftly condemns the cruel pradtice
among nurfes, of tearing this membrane with their
nails; for thus ulcers are fometimes formed, which are
of difficult cure: he advifes to fnip it with fciffars in
two or three places, taking care not to extend the
points of the fciffars fo far as the fraenulum. The in-
ftances rarely occur which require any kind of affift-
ance; for if the child can thruft the tip of its tongue
to the outer edge of its lip, this difeafe does not exift;
and if the tongue is not greatly reftrained, the fraenu¬
lum will ftretch by the child’s fucking and crying.
Befides, without an abfolute neceffity for it, an opera¬
tion ffiould not be admitted of; for, without great cir-
cumfpe&ion, by cutting the fraenulum, the nerves paf-
fing there may be alfo cut, and_ then a lofs of fpeech is
the confequence. Sometimes the tongue is bound down
with a fleffiy fubftance: when that is the cafe, it ffiould
never be cut through, becaufe a dangerous haemorrhage
would follow, without any attending advantage; all
that is advifeable in this circumftance, is to defire the
nurfe, now and then, to ftretch it gently by a light pref-
fure on it with her finger-end. When, in confequence
of delivering a child by the feet, a fwelling is obferved
under the tongue,the nurfe ffiould be forbid to ufe any
means, for the complaint will be increafed thereby: this
tumour will foon fubfide.
ANCYLOSIS, in furgery, implies a diftortion or
Vol. J.
ftiffnefs of the joints, caufed by a fettlement of the hu¬
mours, or a diftenfion of the nerves, and therefore re¬
medies of a mollifying and relaxing nature are required. .
ANCYRA, the capital of Galatia, (Livy, Pliny,
Ptolemy); at no great diftance from the river Halys,
(Livy): faid to be built by Midas, king of Phrygia,
and to take its name from an anchor found there, (Pau-
fanias). It was greatly improved by Auguftus, deem¬
ed the fecond founder of it, as appears from the Mar-
mor Ancyranum. It is now called Angara, or Angoura.
E. Long. 330. Lat. 41. 20.
ANDABATiE, in antiquity, a fort of gladiators,
who, mounted on horfeback or in chariots, fought
hoodwinked, having a Helmet that covered their eyes.
ANDALUSIA, is the moft weftern province of
Spain, having Eftremadura and La Mancha on the
north; the kingdom of Granada, the ftraits of Gi¬
braltar, and the Ocean, on the eaft and fouth; and,
on the weft, the kingdom of Algarva in Portugal,
from which it is feparated by the river Guadiana. It
is about 182 miles long, and 150 broad. The chief
cities and towns are Seville the capital, Baeza, Gibraltar,
Corduba, Cadiz, Medina Sidonia, Jaen, Port St Mary,
fee. It is the beft, moft fruitful, and the richeft part of
all Spain. There is a good air, a ferene Iky, a fertile
foil, and a great extent on the fea-coaft fit for commerce.
New Andalusia, a divifion of the province of Ter¬
ra Firma in South America, whofe boundaries cannot
be well afeertained, as the Spaniards pretend a right to
countries in which they have never eftabliffied any fet-
tlements. According to the moft reafonable limits, it
extends in length 500 miles from north to fouth, and
about 270 in breadth from eaft to weft. The interior
country is woodyand mountainous, variegated with fine
valleys that yield corn and pafturage. The produce of
the country confifts chiefly in dying-drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, brazil-wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome
valuable timber. To this province alfo belonged five
valuable pearl-fiffieries. The capital of New Andalu-
fia is Comana, Cumana, or New Corduba, fituated in
N. Lat. 9. 55. about nine miles from the north fea.
Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a town in
the yearly20. The place is ftrong by nature, and
fortified by a caftle capable of making a vigorous de¬
fence ; as appeared in the year 1670, when it was af-
faulted by the bucaneers, who were repulfed with very
great flaughter.
ANDAMAN, or Andeman Iflands, in the Eaft
Indies, fituated about 80 leagues diftance from Tanaf-
ferim on the coaft of Siam. They are but little known;
only the Eatt India ffiips fometiines touch at them, and
are fupplied by the natives with rice, herbs, and fruits :
the inhabitants are by fome reprefented as an harmlef*
inoffenfive race of men, and by others as cannibals.
£. Long. 92. o. N. Lat. from io° to 150.
AND ANTI, in mufic, fignifies, efpecially in tho-
rough-baffes, that the notes are to be played diftimftly.
ANDECAVI, (Tacitus) ; Andegavi, (Pliny) ;
Andes, (Csefar); Andi, (Lucan); a people of Gal¬
lia Celtica, having the Turones to the eaft, the Namne-
tes to the weft, the Pi&ones to the fouth, and the Au-
lerci Coenomani to the north : now Anjou.
ANDEGAVI, or Andegavus, a town of Gallia
Celtica, (Pliny, Ptolemy); now Anglers. Calledv&z-
decavi, (Tacitus.) W. Long. 30'. Lat. 47. 30.
E e e AN-
Anryr<i
II
Andtig?vi.
Andely
II
Andes.
AND [ 406 ] AND
ANDELY, a town of Normandy in France, parted
in two by a paved caufeway. Here is a fountain to
which pilgrims flock from all parts, to be cured of
their diforders, on the feaft-day of the faint to which
it is dedicated. It is 20 miles S. E. of Rouen, and
five N. W. of Paris. E. Long. x. 30. N. Lat.49. 20.
ANDENA, in old writers, denotes the fwath made
in mowing of hay, or as much ground as a man could
ftride over at once.
ANDEOL (St), a town of France, in the Vivarez,
five miles S. of St Viviers, whofe bifhop formerly re-
fided there. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 44. 24.
ANDERAB, the moft fouthern city of the pro¬
vince of Balkh, pofieffed by the Ufbeck Tartars. It
is very rich and populous, but a place of no great
ftrength. The neighbouring mountains yield excel¬
lent quarries of lapis lazuli, in which the Bukhars
drive a great trade with Perfia and India.—This city
is fituated at the foot of the mountains dividing the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul and Perfia from Great
Bukharia. As there is no other way of croffing thefe
mountains but by the road through this city, all tra¬
vellers with goods mutt pay 4 per cent. On this ac¬
count the Khan of Balkh maintains a good number of
foldiers in the place.
ANDERNACHT, acity of Cologne,in the circleof
the Lower Rhine. It is fituated in a plain on the river
Rhine; and is fortified with a wall, cattle, and bulwarks.
It has a trade in ftone jugs and pitchers, which are fent
to the mineral waters at Dunchttein. There are three
monafteries here, and feveral churches. E. Long. 7.4.
N. Lat. 50. 27.
ANDERO (St), a fea-port town in the bay ofBif-
cay, in Old Caftile, feated on a fmall peninfula. It is
a trading town, and contains about feven hundred hou-
fes, two parifh-churches, and four monafteries. Here
the Spaniards build and lay up fome of their men of
war. W. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDERSON (Sir Edmund), a younger fon of an
ancient Scotch family fettled in Lincolnftiire. He
was fome time a ftudent of Lincoln college, Oxford;
and removed from thence to the Inner Temple, where
he applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of the law,
and became a barrifter. In the ninth of Queen Eliza¬
beth, he was both lent and fummer reader, and in the
fixteenth double reader. He was appointed her maje-
fty’s ferjeant at law in the nineteenth year of her reign;
and fome time after, one of the juftices of affize. In
1582 he was made lord chief juftice of the common
pleas, and in the year following was knighted. He
held his office to the end of his life, died in the year
1605, and was buried at Eyworth in Bedfordlhire. He
was an able, but punctilious lawyer ; a fcourge to the
Puritana; and a ftrenuous fupporter of the eftablilhed
church. His works are, 1. Reports of many princi¬
pal cafes argued and adjudged in the time of Queen E-
lizabeth, in the common bench. Lond. 1644,
2. Refolutions and judgments on the cafes and matters
agitated in all the courts of Wettminfter, in the latter
end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Publilhed by
John Goldfborough, Elq; Lond. 1653, \to. Befides
thefe, there is a manufcript copy of his Readings ftill
In being.
ANDES, a great chain of mountains in South A-
snerica, which running from the moft northern part of
Peru to the ftraits of Magellan, between 3 and 4000 -A
miles, are the longeft and moft remarkable in the
world. The Spaniards call them the Cordillera de los
Andes ; they form two ridges, the lowermoft of which
is overfpread with woods and groves, and the upper-
moft covered with everlafting fnow. Thofe who have
been at the top, affirm, that the Iky is always ferene
and bright; the air cold and piercing; and yet fo thin,
that they were fcarce able to breathe, and the refpiration
was much quicker than ordinary; and this is attend¬
ed with reaching and vomiting ; which, however, has
been confidered by fome as merely accidental. When
they looked downwards, the country was hid by the
clouds that hovered on the mountain’s fides. The
mountains juft mentioned, which have been frequently
afcended, are much inferior in height to many others
in this enormous chain. The following is the account
given of the mountain called Pichincha, by the mathe¬
maticians fent by the kings of France and Spain to
make obfervations in relation to the figure of the earth.
Soon after our artifts arrived at Quito, they deter¬
mined to continue the feries of the triangles for mea-
furing an arch of the meridian to the S. of that city:
the company accordingly divided themfelves into two
bodies, confifting of French and Spaniards, and each
retired to the part affigned them. Don George Juan
and M. Godin, who were at the head of one party,
went to the mountain of Pambamarca; while M.
Bouguer, de la Condamine, and Don Ulloa, together
with their affiftants, climbed up to the higheft fummit
of Pichincha. Both parties fuffered extremely, as well
from the feverity of the cold, as from the impetuofity of
the winds, which on thefe heights blow with incdfant
violence; difficulties the more painful, as they had been
little ufed to fuch fenfations. Thus in the torrid zone,
nearly under the equinoctial, where it is natural to fup-
pofe they had moft to fear from the heat, their greateft
pain was caufed by the exceffivenefs of the cold.
Their firft fcheme for fhelter and lodging in thefe
uncomfortable regions, was to pitch a field-tent for
each company; but on Pichincha this could not be
done from the narrownefs of the fummit: they were
therefore obliged to be contented with a hut fo fmall
that they could hardly all creep into it. Nor will this
appear ftrange, if the reader confiders the bad difpofi-
tion and fmallnefs of the place, it being one of the
loftieft crags of a rocky mountain, 100 fathoms above
the higheft part of the defart of Pichincha. Such was
the fituation of their manfion, which, like all the other
adjacent parts, foon became covered with ice and fnow.
The afcent up this ftupendous rock, from the bafe, or
the place where the mules could come, to their habita¬
tion, was fo craggy as only to be climbed on foot; and
to perform it coft them four hours continual labour and
pain, from the violent efforts of the body, and the fub-
tility of the air; the latter being fuch as to render re¬
fpiration difficult.
The ftrange manner of living to which our artifts
were reduced during the time they were employed in
a geometrical menfuration of fome degrees of the me¬
ridian, may not perhaps prove unentertaining to the
reader ; and therefore the following account is given
as a fpecimen of it. The defart of Pichincha, both
with regard to the operations performed there, and its
ineonveniencies, differing very little from others, an
AND [ 407 ] AND
Andes. Idea may be very eafily formed of the fatigues, hard-
fliips, and dangers, to which they were continually
expofed during the time they were profecuting the en-
terprize, with the conduct of which they had been ho¬
noured. The principal difference between the feveral
defarts confifted in their greater or leffer diftance from
places where they could procure provifxons ; and in the
inclemency of the weather, which was proportionate to
the height of the mountains, and the feafon of the year.
They generally kept within their hut. Indeed they
were obliged to do this, both on account of the in-
tenfenefs of the cold, the violence of the wind, and
their being continually involved in fo thick a fog,
that an objeft at fix or eight paces was hardly dif-
cernible. When the fog cleared up, the clouds by
their gravity moved nearer to the furface of the earth,
and on all fides furrounded the mountains to a vaft
diftance, reprefenting the. fea, with their rock like an
ifland in the centre of it. When this happened, they
heard the horrid noifes of the tempefts, which then
difcharged themfelves on Quito and the neighbouring
country. They faw the lightnings iffue from the
clouds, and heard the thunders roll far beneath them :
and whilft the lower parts were involved in tempefts
of thunder and rain, they enjoyed a delightful fere-
nity ; the wind was abated, the fky clear, and the
enlivening rays of the fun moderated the feverity of
the cold. But their circumftances were very different
when the clouds rofe: their thicknefs rendered refpi-
ration difficult; the fnow and hail fell continually; and
the wind returned with all its violence ; fo that it was
impoffible entirely to overcome the fears of being, to¬
gether with their hut, blown down the precipice, on
whofe edge it was built, or of being buried under it
by the daily accumulations of ice and fnow.
The wind was often fo violent in thefe regions, that
its velocity dazzled the fight, whilft their fears were
increafed from the dreadful concuffions of the preci¬
pice, caufed by the fall of enormous fragments of
rocks. Thefe crufhes were the more alarming, as no
other noifes are heard in thefe deferts : and during the
night, their reft, which they fo greatly wanted, was
frequently difturbed by fuch fudden founds. When
the weather was any thing fair with them, and the
clouds gathered about fome of the other mountains
which had a connexion with their obfervations, fo that
they could not make all the ufe they defired of this in¬
terval of good weather, they left their hut to exercife
themfelves. Sometimes they defeended to fome fmall
diftance; and at others, amufed themfelves with roll¬
ing large fragments of rocks down the precipice ; and
thefe frequently required the joint ftrength of them all,
though they often faw the fame effe&ed by the mere
force of the wind. But they always took care in their
excurfions not to go fo far out, but that on the leaft
appearance of the clouds gathering about their cottage,
which often happened very fuddenly, they could regain
their fhelter. The door of their hut was fattened with
thongs of leather, and on the infide not the fmalleft crevice
was left unftopped; befide which, it was very compactly
covered with ftraw: but, notwithftanding all their care,
the wind penetrated through. The days were often
little better than the nights; and all the light they en¬
joyed was that of a lamp or two, which they kept con¬
tinually burning.
Though their hut was fmall, and crowded with in- Andes,
habitants, befide the heat of the lamps; yet the intenfe-
nefs of the cold was fuch, that every one of them was
obliged to have a chafing-difh of coals. Thefe precau¬
tions would have rendered the rigour of the climate fup-
portable, had not the imminent danger of perifhing by
being blown down the precipice roufed them, every
time it fnowed, to encounter the feverity of the out¬
ward air, and fally out with fhovels to free the roof of
their hut from the mafies of fnow which were gather¬
ing on it. Nor would it, without this precaution, have
been able to fupport the weight. They were not in¬
deed without fervants and Indians; but thefe were fo
benumbed with the cold, that it was with great diffi¬
culty they could get them out of a fmall tent, where
they kept a continual fire. So that all our artifts could
obtain from them was to take their turns in this la¬
bour ; and even then they went very unwillingly about
it, and confequently performed it flowly.
It may eafily be conceived what this company fuf-
fered from the afperities of fuch a climate. Their feet
were fwelled; and fo tender, that they could not even
bear the heat; and walking was attended with extreme
pain. Their hands were covered with chilblains; their
lips fwelled and chopped ; fo that every motion in
fpeaking, or the like, drew blood ; confequently they
were obliged to ftrift taciturnity, and little difpofed to
laugh, as, by caufing an extenfion of the lips, it produ¬
ced fuch fiflures as were very painful for two or three
days after.
Their common food in this inhofpitable region was
a little rice boiled with fome flefh or fowl, procured
from Quito ; and, inftead of fluid water, their pot was
filled with ice ; they had the fame refource with re¬
gard to what they drank ; and while they were eating,
every one was obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-
difh of coals, to prevent his provifions from freezing.
The fame was done with regard to the water. At
firft they imagined the drinking ftrong liquors would
diffufe a heat through the body, and confequently
render it lefs fenfible of the painful fharpnefs of the
cold; but, to their furprife, they felt no manner of
ftrength in fuch liquors, nor were they any greater
prefervative againft the cold than the common water.
At the fame time they found it impoffible to keep
the Indians together. On their firft feeling of the
climate, their thoughts were immediately turned on
deferting their mafters. The firft inftance they had of
this kind was fo unexpe&ed, that, had not one, of a
better difpofition than the reft, ftaid and acquainted
them of their defign, it might have proved of very bad
confequence. The affair was this : There being on the
top of the rock no room for pitching a tent for the In¬
dians, they ufed every evening to retire to a cave at the
foot of the mountain ; where, befide a natural diminu¬
tion of the cold, they could keep a continual fire; and,
confequently, enjoyed more comfortable quarters than
their mafters. Before they withdrew at night> they
faftened, on the outfide, the door of the hut, which was
fo low that it was impoffible to go in or out without
ftooping ; and as every night the hail and fnow which
had fallen formed a wall againft the door, it was the
bufinefs of one or two of the Indians to come early and
remove this obftru&ion. For though the negro fervants
were lodged in a little tent, their hands and feet were fo
E e e 3 covered
AND [ 408 ] AND
covered with chilblains, that they would rather have
fuffered themfelves to have been killed than move. The
Indians therefore came conftantly up to difpatch this
work betwixt nine or ten in the morning : but they
had not been there above four or five days, when they
were not a little alarmed to fee ten, eleven, and twelve
o’clock come, without any news of their labourers; when
they were relieved by thehoneft fervant mentioned above,
who had withftood the feduftion of his countrymen,
and informed his matters of the defertion of the four
ethers. As foon as the fnow was cleared away from
the door, they difpatched the Indian to the corregidor
®f Quito, who with equal difpatch fent other Indians,
threatening to chaftife them feverely if they were want¬
ing in their duty.
But the fear of punifhment was not fufficient to in¬
duce them to fupport the rigour of this fituation ; for
within two days they deferted. The corregidor there¬
fore, to prevent any other inconvenience, fent four In¬
dians under the care of an alcalde, and gaye orders for
their being relieved every fourth day.
Twenty-three tedious days our artifts fpent on this
rock, viz. to the 6th of September, and even without
any pofiibility of finifhing their obfervations of the
angles : for, when it was fair and clear weather with
them, the others, on whofe fummits the fignals which
formed the triangles for meafuring the degrees of the
meridian, were hid in the clouds; and when thofe
were clear, Pichincha was involved in clouds. It was
therefore neceflary to ere£t their fignals in a lower fi¬
tuation, and in a more favourable region. This how¬
ever did not produce any change in their habitation till
the beginning of December; when, having finifhed the
obfervations which particularly concerned Pichincha,
they proceeded to others; but with no abatement ei¬
ther of inconveniencies, cold, or fatigue ; for the pla¬
ces where they made their obfervations being neceflari-
ly on the higheft parts of the defarts, the only refpite
in which they enjoyed fome little eafe, was during the
Ihort interval of paffing from one to the other.
In all their ftations fubfequent to that on Pichincha,
during their fatiguing menfuration of the degrees of
the meridian, each company lodged in a field-tent,
which, though fmall, they found lefs inconvenient than
the hut on Pichincha ; though at the fame time they
had more trouble, being oftener obliged to clear it
from the fnow, as the weight of it would otherwife
have demolilhed the tent. At firft, indeed, they pitch¬
ed it in the moft Iheltered places; but on taking a refo-
lution that the tents themfelves ttiould ferve for fignals,
to prevent the inconvenience of having others of wood,
they removed them to a more expofed fituation, where
the impetuofity of the winds fometimes tore up the pi¬
quets, and blew them down.
Tho’ this mountain is famous for its great height, it
is confiderably lower than the mountain of Cotopaxi:
but it is impoffible to conceive the coldnefs of the fum-
mit of the laft mentioned mountain, from that felt on
this; fince it mutt exceed every idea that can be form¬
ed by the human mind, tho’ they are both feated in the
Kiidft of the torrid zone. In all this range of mountains,
there is faid to be aconftant inferior boundary, beyond
which the fnow never . melts: this boundary, in the
midtt of the torrid zone, is faid by fome to be 2434 fa¬
thoms above the level of the fea ; by others, only 2400
feet. The fiiovr indeed falls much lower, but then it Andes
is fubjeft to be melted the very fame day. It is affirm- At1(1
ed, that there are in the Andes 16 volcanoes or burn- r
ing mountains, which throw out fire and fmoke with a
terrible noife. The height of Chimborazo, faid to be
the higheft peak of the Andes, has been determined by
geometrical calculations to be 20,282 feet. But the
great differences between the calculators of the height
of mountains in other parts of the world, mutt very
much diminifh the credit of fuch calculations. Inftan-
ces of this we have already given under the article ./Et¬
na. No lefs remarkable are the differences concerning
the height of the peak of Teneriffe; which, according
to the calculations of Varenius, is three miles and three
quarters, or 19,800 feet; according to thofe of Dr He-
berden, it is only 15,396 feet ; and according to thofe
of M. Feuille, is no more than 13,128 feet. From
thefe fpecimens, we can fcarce avoid concluding, that all
the methods hitherto invented for calculating the exadt
height of mountains are infufficient.
As all or moft rivers have their fource in mountains,
it is no wonder a great number run down the lides of the
Andes. Some hurry along with a prodigious rapidity;
while others form beautiful cafcades, or run thro’ holes
in rocks, which look like bridges of a ftupendous
height. There is a public road thro’ the mountains,
1000 miles in length, part of which runs from Quito
to Cufco.
Andes, a hamlet of Mantua in Italy, the birth¬
place of Virgil. Hence the epithet Andinus, (Silius
Italicus). Now called Pietola, two miles to the weft
of Mantua.
ANDETRIUM; Andretium, (Strabo); Ande-
CRium, or Andrecium, (Ptolemy) ; an inland town
of Dalmatia. The genuine name is (In-
fcription). It is defcribed as fituated near Salonae, on
a naturally ftrong and inacceffible rock, furrounded with
deep valleys, with rapid torrents ; from which it ap¬
pears to be the citadel now called Clijfa. E. Long, x 7.
46. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDEUSE, a city of Languedoc in France, fitua¬
ted in E. Long. 3. 40. and N. Lat. 43. 45.
ANDOMADUNUM; Andomatunum, (Ptole¬
my); and Antematunum, (Antonine) ; Civitas
Lingonum, (Tacitus) ; a city of Gallia Belgica ;
now Langres in Champagne, fituated on an eminence
(which feems to juftify the termination dunum), on the
borders of Burgundy, at the fprings of the Marne. Ta¬
citus calls an inhabitant Linpon. E. Long. e. 22.
N. Lat. 48. o.
ANDOVER, a large market-town in Hampfhire,
on the London road. It is feated on a branch of the
river Teft, and fends two members to parliament. It
has feveral inns, which afford good accommodation for
travellers; and has a market on Saturday, well flocked
with provifions. It is governed by a bailiff, a fteward,
a recorder, ten approved men, and twenty-two capital
burgeffes, who yearly chufe the bailiff, and he eledfs
two ferjeants at mace to attend him. The living is a
vicarage, valued at 1711. 4s. 4ft. in the king’s books.
W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 51. 20.
ANDRACHNE, Bastard Orpine; a genus of
the gynandria order, belonging to the mpnoecia clafs of.
plants ; of which there are three
Species. 1. The telephones, or herbaceous trailing
andrachne.
7
AND [ 409 J AND
n idrachne andrachne, is a low plant, whofe branches trail upon
| II the ground. The leaves are fmall, of an oval fhape,
. ^ J rea(St) fmooth, and of a fea-green colour. It is found wild in
fome parts of Italy and the Archipelago; but is a plant
of no great beauty, and therefore feldom cultivated.
2. The fruticofa, or fhrubbybaftard orpine, is a native of
' China and fome places of America, where it. rifes 12 or
14 feet high. The leaves areTpear-lhaped, pointed, and
fmooth ; and under them are produced the footftalks of
the flowers, which are fmall, and of an herbaceous
white colour. 3. The arborea, with a tree-like ftalk.
This fpecies was difcovered by the late Dr William
Houfton, growing naturally at Campeachy; it has a
ftrong woody Item, which rifes more than 20 feet high,
and lends out many branches on every fide. This has
not yet flowered in Britain.—A fourth fort is alfo men-
I' tinned by Mr Millar as raifed by him from feeds fent
from Jamaica. It agrees in general with the third fort;
but the leaves are fomewhat like the laurel, only much
larger.
Culture. The firft fpecies may be raifed, by lowing
the feeds in March, on a moderate hot-bed. The plants
may he removed into fmall pots, and plunged into ano¬
ther very moderate hot-bed, to bring them forward ;
but in mild weather they fhould have plenty of air ad¬
mitted to them, and be frequently refrelhed with wa¬
ter. In June they will produce flowers, and the feeds
will ripen in Auguft and September.—The other fpe¬
cies are very tender, and therefore muft be kept con-
ftantly in the bark-ftove. It is very difficult to procure
good feeds of thefe forts ; the covers often containing
I nothing, though they appear very fair outwardly. Of
all the feeds fent' over by Dr Houfton, only one was
found to contain a kernel, fo that only one plant was
I produced.
ANDRAPODISMUS, in ancient writers, the
felling ofperfons for flaves. Hence alfo andrapodiftes,
a dealer in flaves, more particularly a kidnapper, who
fteals men or children to fell them ; a crime for which
the Theflalians were noted.
ANDRAPODOCAPELI, in antiquity, a kind
of dealers in flaves. The andropodocapeli had a
particular procefs for taking off moles and the like
disfigurements on the faces of the flaves they kept
for fale, by rubbing them with bran. At Athens,
feveral places in the forum were appointed for the
fale of flaves» Upon the firft day of every month, the
merchants called AvJf>aT-o,W*-»x?< brought them into the
market, and expofed them to fale; the crier ftanding
upon a ftone erefled for thatpurpofe, called the people
together.
ANDREA (St), a fmall village on the Malabar
coaft in the Eaft-Indies, founded originally by the
Portuguefe. It takes its name from a church dedica¬
ted to St Andrew, and ferved by the priefts of St
Thomas.—On the ftiore of St Andrea, about half a
league out in the fea, lies Mud-bay, a place which few
in the world can parallel. It is open to the wide o-
cean, and has neither iftand nor bank to break the force
of the billows, which come rolling with great violence
from all parts, in the fouth-weft monfoons : but on this
bank of mud they lofe themfelves in a moment; and
(hips lie on it as fecure as in the beft harbour, without
motion or difturbance. It reaches about a mile along
ftiore, and has been obferved to ftiift its place from the
northward about three miles in 30 years.-—From St Andreas
Andrea to Krangandr, about twelve leagues to the (Jphn-I
fouth, the water has the bad property of caufing fwell- :
ings in the legs of thofe who drink it conftantly. Some
it affe&s in one leg, and fome in both. It caufes no
pain, but itching ; nor does the fwelled leg feem hea¬
vier to the owner than the fmall one, though fome have
been feen a yard in circumference at the ancle*—The
Romiflr legends impute thecaufe of this diftemper (for
which no preventative or cure hath been hitherto found)
to a curfe laid by St Thomas upon his murderers and
their pofterity; though, according to the Romans
themfelves, St Thomas was killed by the Tillinga priefts
at Meliaphur, on the coaft of Coromandel, about 400
miles diftant, and where the natives have not this dif¬
temper.
ANDREAS (John), acelebratedcanoniftinthe I4tl»
century, was born at Mugello, near Florence; and was
profeffor of canon-law at Padua,. Pifa, and afterwards
at Bologna. It is faid that he macerated his body with
failing; and lay upon the bare ground every night for
20 years together, covered only with the flcin of a bear.-
Andreashada beautiful daughter, named JVovel/a, whom
he loved extremely : and he is faid to have inftrufted
her fo well in all parts of learning, that when he was en¬
gaged in any affair which hindered him from reading
ledlures to his fcholars, he fent his daughter in his
room ; and left her beauty ihould prevent the attention
of the hearers, ihe had a little curtain drawn before
her. To perpetuate the memory of this daughter, he
intitled his commentary upon the Decretals of Grego¬
ry IX. the Novella. He married her to John Calde-
rinus, a learned canonift. The firft work of Andreas
was his Glofs upon the fixth Book of the Decretals,
which he wrote when he was very young. He wrote
alfo Gloffes upon the Clementines; and a Commentary
in regulas Sexti, which he intitled Mercuriales, becaufc
he either engaged in it on Wednefdays (diebus Mercit-
rii,) or becaufe he inferted his Wednefdays difputes in
it. He enlarged the Speculum of Durant, in the year
1347. This is all which Mr Bayle mentions of his
writings, tho’ he wrote many more. Andreas died of
the plague at Bologna,, in 1348, after, he had been a
profeffor 45 years ; and was buried in the church of the
DominicanSi Many eulogiums have been beftowed
upon him. He has been called archidoftor decreto>-
rum: In his epitaph, Rabbi doftorum; lux, cenfort
nomaque morum ; “ Rabbi of the doctors, the light,
cenfor, and rule of mannersAnd it is faid, that pope
Boniface called him lumen mundi, “ the light of the
world.”
Andreas (John) was born a Mahometan, at Xativa
in the kingdom of Valencia, and fucceeded his father
in the dignity of alfaqui of that city. He was enlight¬
ened with the knowledge of the Chriftian religion by
being prefent at a fermon in the great church of Va¬
lencia on the day of Aiiumption of the bleffed Virgin,
in the year 1487. Upon this he defired to be bapti¬
zed; and, in memory of the calling of St John and St
Andrew, he received the name John Andreas. “ Ha¬
ving received holy orders (fayshe), and, from an alfaqui
and a flave of Lucifer, become a prieft and minifter of
Chrift; I began, like St Paul, to preach and publifh
the contrary of what I had erroneoufly believed and
afferted ; and, with the affiftance of Almighty God,
AND
Andreas J converted at firll a great many fouls of the Moors,
(J'’bn) who were in danger of hell, and under the dominion
Andrelinas Lucifer, and conduced them into the way of falva-
   tion. After this, I was fent for by the moll catholic
prince, king Ferdinand, and queen Ifabella, in order
to preach in Granada to the Moors of that kingdom,
which their majefties had conquered: by God’s blef-
fing on my preaching, an infinite number of Moors
were brought to abjure Mahomet, and to turn to
Chrift. A little after this, I was made a canon by
their grace; and fent for again by the moll Chriftian
queen Ifabella to Arragon, that I might be employed
in the converfion of the Moors of thofe kingdoms, who
ftill perfifted in their errors, to the great contempt and
dilhonour of our crucified Saviour, and the prodigious
lofs and danger of all Chriftian princes. But this ex¬
cellent and pious defign of her majefty was rendered in-
effe£lual by her death.” At the defire of Martin Gar¬
cia, bilhop of Barcelona, he undertook to tranllate
from the Arabic, into the language of Arragon, the
whole law of the Moors ; and after having finilhed this
undertaking, he compofed his famous work of Ths
Confufton of the Sett of Mahumed; it contains twelve
chapters, wherein he has collefted the fabulous ftories,
impoftures, forgeries, brutalities, follies, obfcenities,
absurdities, impoflibilities, lies, and contradi&ions,
which Mahomet, in order to deceive the fimple peo¬
ple, has difperfed in the writings of that feft, and e-
fpecially in the alcoran, which, as he fays, was revealed
to him in one night by an angel, in the city of Meke;
though in another place he contradicts himfelf, and af¬
firms that he was 20 years in compofing it. Andreas
tells us, he wrote this work, that not only the learned
amongft Chriftians, but even the common people might
know the different belief and doCtrine of the Moors ;
and on the one hand might laugh and ridicule fuch in-
folent and brutal notions, and on the other might la¬
ment their blindnefs and dangerous condition. This
book, which was publilhed at firft in Spanifti, hasbeen
tranflatedinto feveral languages; all thofe who write a-
gainft the Mahometans, quote it very much.
ANDREINI (Ifabella), a native of Padua, was an
excellent poetefs, and one of the beft comedians in I-
taly, towards the beginning of the 17th century. The
Intenti of Pavia thought they did their fociety an ho¬
nour by admitting her a member of it; and ftie, in ac¬
knowledgment of this honour, never forgot to mention
amongft her titles that of Academica Infanta : her
titles were thefe, “ Ifabella Andreini, comica gelofa, a-
cademica infanta, delta 1’acceffa.” She was alfo a wo¬
man of extraordinary beauty; which, added to a fine
voice, made her charm both the eyes and ears of the
audience. She died of a mifcarriage, at Lyons, the
10th of June, 1604, in the 42d year of her age. Her
death being a matter of general concern and lamenta¬
tion, there were many Latin and Italian elegies print¬
ed to her memory : feveral of thefe pieces were placed
before her poems in the edition of Milan, in 1605.
Befides her fonnets, madrigals, fongs, and eclogues,
there is a paftoral of hers intitlfcd Myrtilla, and letters,
printed at Venice in 1610. She fung extremely well,
played admirably on feveral inftruments, underftood
the French and Spanifti languages, and was not unac¬
quainted with philofophy.
ANDRELINUS (Publius Fauftus), born at Forli
AND
in Italy. He was a long time profeflbr of poetry and Andrew^
philofophy in the univerfity of Paris. Lewis XII. of I
France made him his poet laureat; and Erafmus tells Andrew#
us he was likewife poet to the queen. His pen was not (St.)
wholly employed in making verfes; for he wrote alfo  
moral and proverbial letters in profe, which were print¬
ed feveral times. His poems, which are chiefly in La¬
tin, are inferted in Vol. I. of the Delicia Poetarum Ita-
lorutn. Mr De la Monnoie tells us, “ that Andrelinus,
when he was but 2 2 years old, received the crown of
laurel: That his love-verfes, divided into four books,
intitled Livia, from the name of his miftrefs, were e-
fteemed fo fine by the Roman Academy, that they ad¬
judged the prize of the Latin elegy to the author.*’
He died in 1518. This author’s manner of life wa*
not very exemplary; yet he was fo fortunate, fays E-
rafmus, that though he took the liberty of rallying the
divines, he was never brought into trouble about it.
ANDREW (St), the apoftle, born at Bethfaida in
Galilee, brother to Simon Peter: he was a zealous,
preacher of the gofpel in feveral countries ; and fealed
it with his blood at Patras, a city of Achaia, fuffering
martyrdom with great heroifm, A. D. 69.
Andrew, or Knights of St Andrew, an order of
knights, more ufually called the order of the thiftle *. *See TMf
Knights of St Andrew, is alfo an order inftituted by
Peter the Great of Mufcovy in 1698; the badge of
which is a golden medal, on one fide whereof is re-
prefented St Andrew’s crofs, with thefe words, Cazar
Pierre monarque de tout la Rufie. This medal, being
faftened to a blue ribbon, is fufpended from the right
ftioulder.
St Andrew’s Crofs, one in form of the letter X*. •See Crtj
St Andrew’s Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated on the 30th of November, in honour of the
apoftle St Andrew.
ANDREWS (St), a town of Fifeftiire in Scotland*
once the metropolis of the Pi£lifti kingdom, lying in
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 18. If we may credit
legend, St Andrews owes its origin to a Angular ac¬
cident. St Regulus, (or St Rule, as he is likewife call¬
ed,) a Greek of Achaia, was warned by a vifion to leave
his native country, and vifit Albion, an ifle placed in
the remoteft part of the world; and to take with him
the arm-bone, three fingers, and three toes, of St An¬
drew. He obeyed, and fet fail with his companions,
but had a very tempeftuous paffage. After being toffed
for fome time on a ftormy fea, he was at laft ihipwrecked
on the coafts of Otholania, in the territories of Hergu-
ftus king of the Pi&s, in the year 370. On hearing
of the arrival of the ftrangers, with their precious re¬
fills, the king immediately gave orders for their recep¬
tion, afterwards prefenting the faint with his own pa¬
lace, and building near it the church, which ftill bears
the name of St Regulus.
At this time the place was ftyled Mucrofs, or the
land of hoars ; all round was foreft, and the lands be-
ftowed on the Saint were called Byrehid. The boars
equalled in fize the ancient Erymanthian; as a proof
of which, two tufks, each fixteen inches long and four
thick, were chained to the altar of St Andrews. St
Regulus changed the name to Kilrymont; and eftablifti-
ed here the firft Chriftian priefts of the country, called
Culdees. This church was fupreme in the kingdom of
the Pi&s; Ungus having granted to God and St An¬
drew,
[ 410 ]
*0™
AND [41
drew, that it fhould be the head and mother of all the
churches in his dominions. He alfo direfted that the
crofs of St Andrew fhould become the badge of the
country. In 518, after the conqueft of the Pifts, he
removed the epifcopal fee to St Andrews, and the bi-
fhop was filled maximus Scotorum epifcopus. In 1441,
it was erected into an archbifhopric by Sextus IV. at
the interceffion of James III. In 1606, the priory was
fuppreffed; and, in 16x7, the power of eleftion was
transferred to eight bifhops, the principal of St Leo¬
nard’s college, the arch-deacon, the vicars of St An¬
drews, Leuchars, and Coupar.
The town of St Andrews was ere£led into a royal
borough by David I. in the year x 140, and their pri¬
vileges afterwards confirmed. The charter of Mal¬
colm II. is preferred in the tolbooth; and appears writ¬
ten on a bit of parchment, but the contents equally
valid with what would at this time require whole fkins.
Here alfo are kept the filver keys of the city; which,
for form’s fake, are delivered to the king, if he fhould
vifit the place, or to a viftorious enemy, in token of
fubmifiion. In this place, likewife, is to be feen the
monftrous ax which, in 1646, took off the heads of
Sir Robert Spotfwood and other diftinguifhed loyalifts.
The town underwent a fiege in 1337 ; st which time
it was poffeffed by the Englifh, and other partizans of
P>aliol; but the loyalifts, under the earls of March and
Fife, made themfelves matters of it in three weeks, by
the help of their battering machines.
St Andrews is now greatly reduced in the number of
its inhabitants; at prefent fcarcely exceeding 2000. It
is impoffible to afcertain the fum when it was the feat
of the primate : all that can be known is, that during
the period of its fplendor, there were between 60 and
70 bakers; but now 9 or 10 are fufficient for the place.
It is a mile in circuit, and contains three principal
flreets. On entering the weft port, a well-built ftreet,
ftraight, and of avail length and breadth, appears; but
fo grafs-grown, and prefenting fuch a dreary folitude,
that it forms the perfeft idea of having been laid wafle
by the peftilence. ,
The cathedral of St Andrews was founded by bi-
fhop Arnold in 1161, but did not attain its full mag¬
nificence till 1318. Its length from call to weft was
370 feet; that of the tranfept, 322. But tho’ this vaft
pile was 157 years in building, John Knox, in June
1559, effected its demolition in a Angle day ; and fo
cffe&ually has it been deftroyed, that nothing now re¬
mains but part of the eaft and weft ends, and of the
fouth fide.
Near the eaft end is the chapel of St Regulus; the
tower of which is a lofty equilateral triangle, of 20 feet
each fide, and 103 feet high; the body of the chapel
remains, but the two fide-chapels are ruined. The
arches of the windows and doors are round, and fome
even more than femicircles; an undoubted proof of
their antiquity.
The priory was founded by Alexander I. in 1122 ;
and the monks (canons regular of St Auguftine) were
brought from Scone, in 1140, by Robert, bifhop of this
fee. By an aft of parliament, in the time of James I.
the prior had precedence of all abbots and priors, and
on the days of feftival wore a mitre and all epifcopal
ornaments. Dependent on this priory were thofe of
Lochleven, Portmoak, Monimulk, the ifle of May, and
1 ] AND
Pittenweem, each originally a feat of the Culdces.
The revenues of the houfe were vaft, viz. In money
2237/. 2 s. 38 chaldrons, 1 boll, 3 firlots of
wheat; 132 ch. 7 bolls of bear; 114 ch. 3 bolls, 1 peck
of meal; 151 ch. 10 bolls, 1 firlot, 1 peck and a half
of oats; 3 ch. 7 bolls of peas and beans: 480 acres of
land alfo belonged to it.
Nothing remains of the priory except the walls of
the precinft, which fhew its vaft extent. In one part
is a moft artlefs gateway, formed only of feven ftones.
This inclofure begins near the cathedral, and extends
to the ftiore.
The other religious houfes were, one of Dominicans,
founded, in 1274, by bilhop Wiftiart; another of Ob-
fervantines, founded by biftiop Kennedy! and finilhed
by his fucceffor Patrick Graham in 1478; and, accord¬
ing to fome, the Carmelites had a fourth.
Immediately above the harbour flood the collegiate
church of Kirk-heugh, originally founded by Conftan-
tine III. who, retiring from the world, became here %
Culdce. From its having been firft built On a rock, it
was ftyled, Prxpofitura Sanil a Marine de rupe.
On the eaft fide of the city are the poor remains of
the caftle, on a rock overlooking the fea. This fortrefs
was founded, in 1401, by bilhop Trail, who was bu¬
ried near the high altar of the cathedral, with this fin-
gular epitaph:
Hie fuit ecclefiae cl recta columna, feneftra
Lucida, thuribulum redolens, Campana fonora.
This caftle was the refidence of cardinal Beaton ;
who, after the death of George Wifhart, apprehending
fome danger, caufed it to be fortified fo ftrongly as to
be at that time deemed impregnable. In this fortrefs,
however, he was fuprized and affaffinated by Norman
Ltfiy with 15 others. They feized on the gate of the
caftle early in the morning of May 29, 1546; it having
been left open for the workmen who were finifhing the
fortifications : and having placed centinels at the door
of the cardinal’s apartment, they awakened his nume¬
rous domeftics one by one ; and, turning them out of
the caftle, they without violence, tumult, or offering
an injury to any other perfon, inflifted on Beaton the
death he juftly merited. The confpirators were im¬
mediately befieged in this caftle by the regent, earl of
Arran; and notwithftanding they had acquired no great¬
er ftrength than 150 men, they refilled all his efforts
for five months. This, however, was owing to the un-
fkilfulnefs of the befiegers more than to the ftrength of
the place or the valour of the befieged; for in 1547
the caftle was reduced and demolilhed. The entrance
of it is Hill to be feen; and the window is Ihewn, out
of which it is faid the cardinal leaned to glut his eyes
with the cruel martyrdom of George Wilhart, who was
burnt on a fpot beneath.
In the church of St Salvator is a moft beautiful tomb
of bilhop Kennedy, who died, an honour to his family,
in 1466. The Gothic work is uncommonly elegant.
Within the tomb were difeovered fix magnificent maces,
which had been concealed here in troublefome times.
One was given to each of the other three Scotch uni-
verfities, and three are preferved here. In the top is
reprefented our Saviour; around are angels, with the
inftruments of the paffion.
With thefe are Ihewn fome filver arrows, with large
filver plates affixed to them, on which are inferibed the
arm*
Andre*;*
(St.)
Andrews
(St.)
AND
arms and names of the noble youth,
nual competitions in the generous art of archery, which
were dropt but a few years ago ; and golf is now the
reigning game. That fport, and foot-ball, were for¬
merly prohibited, as ufelefs and unprofitable to the pu¬
blic ; and at all 'weapon fcha'wingsy or reviews of the
people, it was ordered, that fute-bal and golfe be utter¬
ly cryed down, and that bow-markes be maid at ilk pa-
rijh kirk, a pair of butts and fchutting be ufcd; and
that ilk man fchutte Jex foottes at leaf, under the patne
to be raiped upon them that cummis not, at leaf twa
pennyes to be given to them that cummis to the bo'w-markes
ta drinke.
The trade of St Andrews was once very coniiderable.
In the time of Cromwell’s ufurpation, 60 or 70 veffels
belonged to the port, but now fcarce a fingle one. The
harbour is artificial, guarded by piers, with a narrow
entrance, to give flicker to veffels from the violence of
a very heavy iea, by the encroachments of which it has
fuffered much. The manufactures this city might in
former times poflefs, are now reduced to one, that of
golf-balls ; which, trifling as it may feem, maintains
i'everal people. The trade is commonly fatal to the ar-
tifts; for the balls are made by fluffing a great quantity
of feathers into a leathern cafe, by help of an iron rod,
with a wooden handle, prefled againft the breaft, which
feldom fails to bring on a confumption.
The celebrated univerfity of this city was founded in
1411, by bifhop Wardlaw; and the next year he ob¬
tained from Benedidl III. the bull of confirmation. It
confifted once of three colleges. 1. St Salvator’s, found¬
ed in 1458, by Bifliop Kennedy. This is a handfome
building, with a court or quadrangle within : on one
fide is the church, on another the library; the third con¬
tains apartments for ftudents: the fourth is unfiniflied.
2. St Leonard’s college was founded by prior Hep¬
burn, in 1522. This is now united with the laft, and
the buildings fold, and converted into private houfes.
3. The new, or St Mary’s, college, was eflabliflied by
archbifhop Hamilton, in 1553 ; but the houfe was built
by James and David Bethune, or Beaton, who did not
live to complete it. This is faid to have been the fite
of a fchola illufris long before the eftablifhment even of
the univerfity; where feveral eminent clergymen taught,
gratis, the fciences and languages. But it was called
the new college, becaufe of its late ere&ion into a divi¬
nity college by the archbifhop.
The univerfity is governed by a chancellor, an office
originally defigned to be perpetually vefted in the arch-
bifhops of St Andrews ; but fince the reformation, he
is ele&ed by the two principals, and the profefibrs of
both the colleges.
The re&or is the next great officer; to whofe care is
committed the privileges, difcipline, and ftatutes of the
univerfity. The colleges have their reftors, and pro-
feflors of different fciences, who are indefatigable in
their attention to the inftru&ion of the ftudents, and to
that effential article their morals. This place poflefles
feveral very great advantages refpediing the education
of youth. The air is pure and falubrious ; the place for
exercife, dry and extenfive; the exercifes themfelves are
healthy and innocent. The univerfity is fixed in a pe-
ninfulated county; remote from all commerce with the
world, the haunt of diflipation. From the fmallnefs of
the fociety every ftudent’s character is perfe&ly known.
[ 412 ] AND
vigors in the an- No little irregularity can be committed, but it is in-
ftantly difcovered and checked: vice cannot attain a
head in this place, for the incorrigible are never per¬
mitted to remain the corrupters of the reft.
Andrews (Lancelot), bifliop of Winchefter, was
born at London, in 1555’ educated at Cambridge.
After feveral preferments, he was made bifliop, firft of
Chichefter, then of Ely, and, in 1618, was raifed to
the fee of Winchefter. This very learned prelate, who
was diftinguifhed by his piety, charity, and integrity,
may be juftly ranked with the beft preachers and com-
pleteft fcholars of his age; he appeared to much great¬
er advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his
works, which abound with Latin quotations and trivial
witticifms. His fermons, though full of puns, were
fuited to the tafte of the times in which he lived, and
were confequently greatly admired. He was a man of
polite manners and lively converfation; and could quote
Greek and Latin authors, or even pun, with king Jarnes.^
There is a pleafant ftory related of him in the life of
Waller the poet. When that gentleman was young, he
had the curiofity to go to court, and flood in the circle
to fee king James dine; where, among other company,
there fat "at table two biftiops, Neale and Andrews.
The king propofed aloud this queftion, Whether he
might not take his fubje&s money when he needed it,
wlftiont all this formality of parliament? Neile replied.
Andrews
Andria.
JPli J VA i. C AAV-’*- tv* *». v.     * J  J T •! 1* 't
without all this formality of parliament? Neile replied,
“ God forbid you ftiould not; for you are the breath
of our noftrils.” Whereupon the king turned, and faid
to the bifliop of Winchefter, “ Well my lord, what
fay you?” “ Sir (replied the bifliop), I have no fldll
to judge of parliamentary cafes.” The king anfwer-
ed, “ No put-offs, my lord ; anfwer me prefently.”
“ Then, fir (faid he), I think it lawful for you to take
my brother Neale’s money, for he offers it.” Mr Wal¬
ler fays, the company was pleafed with this anfwer, but
the wit of it feemed to affedt the king; for a certain
lord coming foon after, his majefty cried out, “ O, my
lord, they fay you lig with my lady.” “ No, fir (fays
his lordftiip, in confufion), but I like her company
becaufe flie has fo much wit.” “ Why then (fays the
king) do not you lig with my lord of Winchefter
there ?” This great prelate was in no lefs reputation
and efteem with king Charles I. than he had been with
his predeceffors. He died at Winchefter-houfe in
Southwark, September 27, 1626, in the 71st year of
his age; and was buried in the parifti-church of St Sa¬
viour’s, where his executors ere&ed to him a very fair
monument of marble and alabafter, on which is an ele¬
gant infeription, in Latin, written by one of his cha¬
plains. Mr Milton alfo, at 17 years of age, wrote
a beautiful elegy on his death, in the fame language.
Bifliop Andrews had, 1. A fnare in the tranflation
of the Pentateuch, and the hiftorical books from Jo-
fliua to the firft book of Chronicles exclufively. He
alfo wrote, 2. Tortura Torti, in anfwer to a work ox
cardinal Bellarmine, in which that cardinal affumes the
name of Matthew Tortus. 3. A Manual of Private
Devotions: and, 4. A Manual of Direaions for the
Vifitation of the Sick; befides the Sermons and i ratts,
in Englifti and Latin, publiftied after his death.
ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity, public entertain¬
ments firft inftituted by Minos of Crete, and, after his
example, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at whicn
a whole city or a tribe aflifted. They were managed
Andria
il
Androgy¬
nes.
AND
with the utmoft frugality, and perfons of all ages were
admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law¬
giver to repair thither as to fchools of temperance and
- fobriety.
Andria, is a city and a bifhop’s fee in the terri¬
tory of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty
large, well peopled, and feated in a fpacious plain,
four miles from the Adriatic coaft. E. Long. 17. 4.
N. Lat. 41. 15.
ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraAion, who,
pretending to be the fon of Perfeus laft king of Mace¬
donia, took upon him the name of Philip, for which
reafon he was called Pfeudo-Philippus, the Falfe Philip.
After a complete viftory over Juventius the Roman
Praetor fent againft him, he affumed kingly power, but
exercifed it with vaft cruelty. At laft, the Romans
obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he was betrayed
and delivered into the hands of Metellus. This vic¬
tory gained Macedonia once more into the power of
the Romans, and to Metellus the name of Macedonicus,
but coil the Romans 25,0100 men. Andrifcus adorned
the triumph of Metellus, walking in chains before the
general’s chariot.
ANDROAS, or Androdamas, among ancient
naturalifts, a kind of pyritee, to which they attributed
certain magical virtues.
ANDROGEUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of
Minos king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian
youth and thofe of Megara, who envied his being
always vidlor at the Attic games. But Minos, having
taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabitants to
fend him an annual tribute of feven young men and as
many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur; but
Thefeus delivered them from that tribute.
ANDROGYNES, in natural hiftory, a name gi¬
ven to thofe living creatures which, by a monilrous for¬
mation of their generative parts, feem (for it is only
feeming) to unite in themfelves the two fexes, that of
the male and of the female. This lufus nature, this
defedl, or perhaps redundancy, in the animal-ftrudlure,
is defcribed by medical authors in the following man¬
ner. ‘ There is a depravation in the ftrudlure of the
‘ parts intended by nature for propagation, when, be-
< ftdes thofe concealed parts that are found neceflary
‘ for the difcharge of prolific fundlions, the pudenda
‘ of the other fex likewife appear. This monftrous
‘ produdlion of nature is diverfified in four different
‘ ways; of which three appear in males, and one in fe-
‘ males. In men, the female pudendum, cloathed with
* hair, fometimes appears contiguous to the perinaeum;
‘ at other times, in the middle of the fcrotum; at other
‘ times, which conftitutes the third diverfity, through
* that part itfelf which in the midft of the fcrotum ex-
* hibits the form of a pudendum, urine is emitted.
* Near that part which is the teft of puberty, and a-
‘ bove the pudendum, even in females, the mafculine
* genitals appear in fome, confpicuous in all their three
* forms, one refembling the viretram or yard, the other
* like the two tefticles: but for the moft part it hap-
‘ pens, that, of the two inftruments of generation, one
* is feeble and inert; and it is extremely rare that both
* are found fufficiently valid and proper for feats of
* love ; nay, even in a great many, both thefe mem-
* bers are deficient and impotent, fo that they can per-
* form the office neither of a male nor of a female.’
Vou I.
] AND
With refpeft to them, it appears, from a collation
of all the circumftances which have been obferved by
naturalifts worthy of credit, that there is no fuch thing
as a perftft androgyne, or real hermaphrodite ; that
is to fay, a living creature which, by its unnatural, or
rather preternatural ftrufture, poffeffes the genuine
powers of both fexes, in fuch a manner as to be qua¬
lified for performing the functions of either with fuc-
cefs : the irregularity of their fabrication almoft always
confifts in fomething fuperfluous added to one of the
two fexes, which gives it the appearance of the other,
without beftowing the real and chara£leriftical diftinc-
tion ; and every hermaphrodite is almoft always a very
woman. Since this monftrous exhibition of nature is
not fuch as to abrogate the rights or deftroy the cha-
ra6ter of humanity amongft human beings, this invo¬
luntary misfortune implies no right to deprive thofe
upon whom it is inflidfted by nature, of the privileges
natural to every citizen ; and as this deficiency is no
more infedlious than any other corporeal mutilation, it
is not eafy to fee why marriage fhould be prohibited to
one of thefe unhappy beings, merely on account of its
equivocal appearance, which a6ls in the chara£ter of its
prevailing fex. If fuch a creature, by the defeft of its
conftrudlion, ftiould be barren; this does not infer any
right of diffolving the marriage which it may have con-
tradled, more than the fame fterility proceeding from
any caufe whether known or unknown, if his or her
confort ftiould not on that account require a divorce.
It is only the licentious abufe either of one or the other
fex which can be fubje&ed to the animadverfion of the
police. See Hermaphrodite.
Such are the fentiments of the authors of the French
Encyclopedic. After all, we cannot forbear to add,
that from fuch heterogeneous matches nature feems to
recoil with innate and inextinguilhable horror. Nor arc
any of thefe invincible averfions implanted in our frame,
without a final caufe worthy of its Author. We would
gladly alk thefe free-thinking gentlemen, In cafes where
the fexes are fo unnaturally confounded, how the po¬
lice can, by its moft fevere and rigorous animadverfions,
either deleft or prevent thofe licentious abufes againft:
which they remonftrate? Since, therefore, an evil fo
baneful to human fociety could no otherwife be pre¬
vented than by the fanftion of nature againft fuch hor¬
rible conjunftions, the inftinftive antipathy which they
infpire was highly worthy of her wifdom and purity.
Androgynes, in ancient mythology, creatures, of
whom, according to the fable, each individual poffeffed
the powers and charafters of both fexes, having two
heads, four arms, and two feet. The word itfelf is
compounded of two Greek radical words; avJop, in ge¬
nitive avJfoc, a male; and ?vv», a female. Many of the
rabbinical writers pretend, that Adam was created
double, one body being male, the other female, which
in their origin not being effentially joined, God after¬
wards did nothing but feparate them.
The gods, fays Plato in his Banquet, had formed
the ftrufture of man round, with two bodies arid two
fexes. This fantaftic being, poffeffing in itfelf the
whole human fyftem, was endowed with a gigantic
force, which rendered it infolent, infomuch that it
refolved .to make war againft the gods, Jupiter, ex-
afperated, was going to deftroy it; but, forry at the
fame time to annihilate the human race, he fatisfied him-
' F f f felf
[ 4'3
An tiro-
gynes.
AND
Andro¬
gynes
Androides.
AND [ 414 ]
felf with debilitating this double being, by disjoining
the male from the female, and leaving each half to fub-
fift with its own powers alone. He affigned to Apollo
the talk of repolifhing thefe two half bodies, and of
extending their fkins lo that their whole furface might
be covered. Apollo obeyed, and faftened it at the um-
lilicus: If this half fhould ftill rebel, it was once more
to be fubdivided by another fection, which would only
leave it one of the parts of which it was then conftitu-
ted; and even this fourth of a man was to be annihila¬
ted, if it (hould perfift in its obftinacy and mifchief.
The idea of thefe androgynes might well be borrowed
from a paffage in Mofes, where that hiftorian of the
birth and infancy of nature defcribes Adam as calling
Eve bone of his hone and flejh of his flejh. However this
may be, the fable of Plato has been ufed with great
ingenuity by a French poet, who has been rendered al-
moft as confpicuous by his misfortunes as by his verfes.
With the ancient philofopher, he attributes the pro-
penfity which attracts one of the fexes towards the o-
ther, to the natural ardour which each half of the an¬
drogynes feels for reunion; and their inconftancy, to the
difficulty which each of the feparated parts encounters in
its efforts to recover its proper and original half. If a
woman appears to us amiable, we inftantly imagine her
to be that moiety with whom we fhould only have con-
ftituted one whole, had it not been for the infolence of
our original double-fexed progenitor:
The heart, with fond credulity imprefs’d,
Tells us the half is found, and hopes for reft ;
But 'tis our curfe, that fad experience (hows,
We neither find our half, nor gain repofe.
ANDROGYNOUS, in zoology, an appellation
\given to animals which have both the male and female
fex in the fame individual.—In botany, the term is ap¬
plied to fuch plants as bear both male and female flowers
on the fame root.
ANDROIDES, in mechanics, a human figure,
which, by certain fprings or other movements, is ca¬
pable of performing fome of the natural motions of a
living man. The motions of the human body are more
complicated, and confequently more difficult to be imi¬
tated, than thofe of any other creature; whence the con-
ilruftion of an androides, in fuch a manner as to imitate
any of thefe aftions with tolerable exaftnefs, is juftly
fuppofed to indicate a greater {kill in mechanics than
any other piece of workmanfhip whatever.
A very remarkable figure of this kind appeared in
Paris, in the year 1738. It reprefented a flute-player,
and was capable of performing many different pieces
of mufic on the German flute ; which, confidering the
difficulty of blowing that inftrument, the different con-
tra&ions of the lips neceffary to produce the diftin&ions
between the high and low notes, and the complicated
motions of the fingers, mull appear truly wonderful.
This machine was the invention of M. Vaucanfon,
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences; and a par¬
ticular defcription of it was publilhed in the Memoirs
of the Academy for that year : but as the defcription
there given behoved to be not only unentertaining, but
abfolutely unintelligible, to a great number of readers,
we muff content ourfelves with giving an account
only of its general principles, and the method by which
the air was conducted to, and afterwards modified in,
the body of the figure, fo as to produce the furprifing
effefts above mentioned. Android
The figure itfelf was about five feet and an half in
height, fituated at the end of an artificial rock, and pla¬
ced upon a fquare pedeftal four feet and an half high,
and three and an half broad. The air entered the body
by three pipes feparated one from the other. It was
conveyed to them by nine pair of bellows, three of
which were placed above, and fix below. Thefe were
made to expand and contrail regularly in fucceffion, by-
means of an axis of Heel turned round by fome clock¬
work. On this axis were different protuberances at
proper diftances, to which were fixed cords thrown o^
ver pullies, and terminating in the upper boards of the
bellows, fo that, as the axis turned, thefe boards were al¬
ternately railed and let down. A contrivance was alfo
ufed to prevent the difagreeable hiffing fluttering noife
ufually attending the motion of bellows. This was by
making the cord, by which the bellows was moved,
prefs, in its defcent, upon one end of a fmaller lever, the
other end of which afcending forced open the fmall lea¬
thern valve that admitted the air, and kept it fo, till, the
cord being relaxed by the defcent of the upper board*
the lever fell, and the air was forced out. Thus the
bellows performed their functions conftantly without
the lead hiffing or other noife by which it could be
judged in what manner the air was conveyed to the ma¬
chine. The upper boards of three of the pairs of bel¬
lows were preffed down by a weight of four pounds,
that of three others by a weight of two pounds, and
thofe of the three remaining ones by nothing but their
own weight.
The three tubes, by which the air entered, termina¬
ted in three fmall refervoirs in the trunk of the figure.
There they united, and, afcending towards the throat,
formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in
two fmall lips adapted in fome meafure to perform their
proper funftions. Within this cavity alfo was a fmall
moveable tongue; which by its play, at proper periods,
admitted the air, or intercepted its paffage to the flutee
The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their pro¬
per directions by means of a fteel cylinder turned by
clock-work. It was divided into 15 equal parts, which
by means of pegs, preffing upon the ends of 15 differ¬
ent levers, cauled the other extremities to afcend. Se¬
ven of thefe levers diredted the fingers, having wires
and chains affixed to their afcending extremities, which,
being attached to the fingers, caufed them afcend in
proportion as the other extremity was preffed down by
the motion of the cylinder, and vice verjcu Thus the
afcent or defcent of one end of a lever produced a fi-
milar afcent or defcent in the correfponding finger, by
which one of the holes of the flute was occafionally o-
pened or flopped, as by a living performer. Three
of the levers ferved to regulate the ingrefs of the air,
being contrived fo as to open and (hut, by means of
valves, the three refervoirs of air above mentioned, fo
that more or lefs ftrength might be given, and a higher
or lower note produced, as occafion required. The lips
were, by a fimilar mechanifm, directed by four levers,
one of which opened them, to give the air a freer paf¬
fage; the other contracted them; the third drew them
backward; and the fourth puflied them forward. The
lips were projected upon that part of the flute which
receives the air; and, by the different motions already
mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner.—
The.
AND [ 4i5 ] AND
droides. The remaining lever was employed in the direction of
the tongue, which it eafily moved fo as to fhut or o-
pen the mouth of the flute.
Thus we fee how all the motions neceffary for a
German-flute-player could be performed by this ma¬
chine ; but a confiderable difficulty flail remains, name¬
ly, how to regulate thefe motions properly, and make
each of them follow in juft fucceflion. This, however,
was effedled by the following fimple method. The
extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated on
the right fide by an endlefs fcrew, confifting of twelve
threads, each placed at the diftance of a line and an
half from the other. Above this fcrew was fixed a
piece of copper, and in it a flee! pivot, which, falling
in between the threads of the fcrew, obliged the cy¬
linder to follow the threads, and, inftead of turning di-
re&ly round, it was continually puflied to one fide.
Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the
cylinder, in any one revolution, it could not be moved
by the fame peg in the fucceeding revolution, becaufe
the peg would be moved a line and an half beyond it
by the lateral motion of the cylinder. Thus, by an ar¬
tificial difpofition of thefe pegs in different parts of
the cylinder, the ftatue was made, by the fucceffive e-
levation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the different
motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of every
one who faw it.
The conftrtxftion of machines capable of imitating
even the mechanical actions of the human body, (hew
exquifite {kill; but what (hall we fay of one capable,
not only of imitating aftions of this kind, but of act¬
ing as external circumftances require, as though it were
endowed with life and reafon ? This, neverthelefs, has
been done. One M. de Kempell, a gentleman of Pref-
burg in Hungary, excited by the performances of M.
de Vaucanfon, at firft endeavoured to imitate them,
and at laft far excelled them. This gentleman con-
ftrufted an Androides capable of playing at chefs!—
Everyone, who is in the leaft acquainted with this game,
muft know, that it is fo far from being mechanically
performed, as to require a greater exertion of the judg¬
ment and rational faculties than is fufficient to accom¬
pli fh many matters of greater importance. An attempt,
therefore, to make a wooden chefs-player, muft appear
as ridiculous as to make a wooden preacher, or coun¬
feller of ftate. That this machine really was made,
however, we have the atteftation of the Revd Mr Du-
tens, whofe account appeared in 1770, and is as fol¬
lows. “ This machine reprefents a man of the natural
fize, dreffed like a Turk, fitting before a table which
holds a chefs-board. This table (which is about three
feet and a half long, and about two feet and an half
broad) is fupported by four feet, that roll on caftors,
in order the more eafily to change its fituation, which
the compofer fails not to do from time to time, in or¬
der to take away all fufpicion of any communication.
Both the table and the figure are full of wheels, fprings,
and levers. M. de Kempell makes no difficulty of
■I {hewing the infide of the machine, efpecially when he
finds any one fufpe&s a boy to be concealed in it. I
have examined with attention all the parts both of the
table and figure, and I am well aflured there is not the
leaft ground for fuch an imputation. I. have played a
game at chefs with the automaton myfelf. I have par¬
ticularly remarked, with great aftoniftiment, the pre-
cifion with which it made the various and complicated Androides.
movements of the arm with which it plays. It raifes
this arm; it advances it towards that part of the chefs-
board on which the piece ftands which ought to be
moved; and then, by a movement of the wrift, it brings
the hand down upon the piece, opens the hand, clo-
fes it upon the piece in order to grafp it, lifts it
up and places it upon the fquare it is to be removed
to. This done, it lays its arm down upon a cufliion,
which ftands befide the chefs-board. If it ought to take
one of its adverfary’s pieces, then, by one entire move¬
ment, it removes that piece quite off the chefs-board,
and, by a feries of fuch movements as I have been de-
feribing, it returns to take up its own piece, and place
it in the fquare which the other had left vacant. I at¬
tempted to pra&ife a fmall deception, by giving the
queen the move of a knight: but my mechanic opponent
was not to be fo impofed on; he took up my queen, and
replaced her in the fquare Ihe had been removed from.
All this is done with the fame readinefs that a common
player {hews at this game: and I have often engaged
with perfons who played neither fo expeditioufly nor
fo flcilfully as this automaton, who yet would have been
extremely affronted if one had compared them to him.”
Tho’ this account is written in fuch a manner that its
authenticity can hardly be queftioned, the fa& appears fo
much beyond the verge of credibility, that, without fome
corroborating evidence, we could fcarce have allowed
ourfelves to believe it; but having been favoured with the
following extraft of a letter to Sir Wm Forbes of Edinr,
dated Paris, May 2 3d 1777>, concerning this machine,
we muft now look upon its exiftence as indifputable.
“ Hhallgiveyouwhatparticulars Irecolleft with regard
to my furprifing friend.—I was then in company with
feveral Englilh gentlemen : we were introduced to the
automaton’s chamber: The machine was a well-dreffed
Turkifh figure as large as life, feated at a fquare table,
or rather box (as it was clofe on all fides), furrounded
at a little diftance by a rail, within which no perfon en¬
tered but the proprietor (an independent gentleman of
Prelburg.) The chefs-board feemed fixed to the table,
which was fo placed, that any perfon from w-ithout the
rail could play on it. Before the game began, the pro¬
prietor opened the fides of the table, and the body of
the Turk; but nothing was to be feen but wheels upon
wrheels. He then woundup the machine (this herepeated
once during the game.) A gentleman of our company
was his antagonift; and as he was but a wooden Turk,
he gave him the firft move. I do not underftand the
game; but thofe prefent who did, faid he played very
w'ell. The game wasleftunfiniflied,as all therewere fully
fatisfied that this wooden Turk did play the game ;
but no one dared hazard a guefs on what principle,
or who directed. His right hand, with which he made all
his moves, had the fingers as it were drawn together,
which he opened and clofed at pleafure when he remo¬
ved any of his men. His face had a ferious caft; which,
added to a gray'e {hake of the head when any difficulty
arofe in the game, had a moft ridiculous effedl: on the
contrary, when his adverfary laid himfelf open, his mo¬
tions were quicker; and when he made a falfe ftroke
(which he did on purpofe), he immediately remo¬
ved the man off the board with which the ftroke was
made. I forgot to mention, that within the rail, at
the diftance of fome feet from the machine, there flood
F f f 2 n
Amlroicpfy
II
Andromeda
AND
[ 4*6 ]
AND
a fmall fquare box on a fto'ol, which apparently had no
connection with the machine, but which the proprietor
faid he mull have opened had it gone wrong. I imagi¬
ned I heard a noife in the box like that occaJioned by
the turning of wheels.—His arm moved horizontally, at
a height fo as not to difcompofe the men. When his
hand came over the man he wanted to move, he open¬
ed his fingers, let it down, clofed them on the man,
lifted him up and carried him off the board, fet him
down, and laid his arm down upon the table.” 
As the inventor of this admirable piece of mechanifm
hath not yet thought proper to communicate to the
public the means by which it is aftuated, it is in vain
for any, except thofe who are exquifitely (killed in me¬
chanics, to form conjeftures concerning them.—Many
other curious imitations of the human body, as well as
that of other animals, have been exhibited, though none
of them equal to the laft mentioned one. See the ar¬
ticle Automaton.
ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian antiquity, an aifion
allowed by the Athenians againft fuch as protefted
perfons guilty of murder. The relations of the decea-
fed were empowered to feize three men in the city or
houfe whither the malefaCtor had fled, till he were ei¬
ther furrendered, or fatisfa&ion made fome way or o-
ther for the murder.
ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant He&or,
the mother of Aftyanax, and daughter of Eton king
of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of Heftor and
the deftruftion of Troy, (he married Pyrrhus; and af¬
terwards Helenus the fon of Priam, with whom fhe
reigned over part of Epirus.
ANDROMACHUS’s Treacle. See Pharmacy,
n° 893.
ANDROMEDA, in aftronomy, a northern con-
ilellation, behind Pegafus, Caffiopeia, and Perfeus. It
reprefents the figure of a woman chained; and is
fabled to have been formed in memory of Andromeda,
daughter of Cepheus and Cafliopeia, and wife of Per¬
feus, by whom (he had been delivered from a fea-monfter,
to which (he had been expofed to be devoured for her
mother’s pride. Minerva tranflated her into the heavens.
The ftars in the eonftellation Andromeda in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue are 23, in Tycho’s 22, in Bayer’s 27,
in Mr Flamfled’s no lefs than 84.
ANDROMEDA, the name of a celebrated trage¬
dy of Euripides, admired by the ancients above all the
other compofitions of that poet, but now loft.
It was the reprefentation of this play, in a hot fum-
iner day, that occafioned that epidemic fever, or phren-
zy, for which the Abderites are often mentioned, where¬
in they walked about the ftreets, rehearfing verfes, and
acting parts of this piece. See Abdera.
Andromeda, a genus of the monogynia order, be¬
longing to the decandria clafs of plants. For this ge¬
nus there is no Englifti name.
Species. I. The polifolia is a low plant, growing
naturally in bogs in the northern countries.. It is dif¬
ficultly preferved in gardens; and, being a plant of no
great beauty, is feldomcultivated.. 2. The mariana, a
native of North America. It is a low (hrub, fending
out many woody (talks from the root, which are gar-
nilhed with oval leaves placed alternately;, the flowers
are collected in fmall bunches, are of an herbaceous co
lour, and (haped like thofe of the ftrawberry-tree. They
appear in June and. July. 3. The paniculata f is a na- Aadrr.mi
tive of Virginia and Carolina, growing in moift places. ^ II .
The plants ufually arrive at the height of ten feet, with . n rom
thin leaves fet alternately, and having their edges fine- f pi. xxfl
ly ferrated. The flowers are tubulous, fmall, and of fig- a.
a greenifti white, clofely fet horizontally on one fide of
the (lender (talks. Thefe flowers are fucceeded by ber¬
ries, which open when ripe; and divide into five lec¬
tions, inclofing many fmall feeds. 5. The arborea is
a native of the fame countries, where it is called the
forrel-tree. It grows to the height of 20 feet, with a
tsunk ufually five or fix inches thick. The branches
are (lender, thick fet with leaves like thofe of the pear-
tree. From the ends of the branches proceed many
(lender (talks, on one fide of which hang many fmall
white flowers like thofe of the ftrawberry-tree. 5. The
caniculata, is a native of Siberia, and likewife of North
America. It grows on mofly land, and is therefore
very difficult to keep in gardens. The leaves are (ha¬
ped like thofe of the box-tree, and are of the fame con¬
fidence, having feveral final] punftures on them. The
flowers grow in (hort fpikes from the extremity of the
branches. They are produced (ingle between two leaves,
are of a white colour, and a cylindrical or pitcher-like
(hape.
Culture. All the forts, except the fourth, are very
hardy plants, which-delight in moift ground. They
increafe by their creeping roots, which put up fuckers
at a diftance. Thefe may be taken off with roots; and
tranfplanted where they are to remain, for they cannot
bear to be often removed. The fourth fort requires to
be flickered from froft in winter, but in the fummer
(hould be frequently watered. It is difficult to keep in
gardens, as it grows naturally in boggy places, and re¬
quires a greater heat than that of this climate. It may
be propagated by feeds, which (hould be procured from
America.
ANDRON, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the apart¬
ment in houfes defigned for the ufe of men; in which
fenfe it (lands oppofed to Gyna-ceum.—The Greeks
alfo gave their dining-rooms the title of andron, becaufe
the women had no admittance to feafts with the men.
ANDRONA, in ancient writers, denotes a ftreet,
or public place, where people met and converfed toge¬
ther. In fome writers, androna is more exprefsly ufed
for the fpace between two houfes,; in which fenfe, the
Greeks alfo ufe the term for the way or paf-
fage between two apartments.
Androna is alfo ufed, in ecclefiaftical writers, for
that part in churches deftined for the men. Anciently
it was the cuftom for the men and women to have fepa-
rate apartments in places of worlhip, where they per¬
formed their devotions afunder ; which method is dill
religioufly obferved in the Greek church. The outgo*,,
or androna, was in the fouthern fide of the church, and
the womens apartment on the northern..
ANDRONICUS I. emperor of the Eaft,. caufed
Alexius II. who had been put under his care, to be
ftrangled; and then took poffeffion of the throne of
Conftantinople, in 1183: but the people, becoming ex-
afperated at his cruelties, proclaimed Ifaac Angelus em¬
peror, and put Andronicus in irons: they then thruft
out his eyes ; and, having led him through the city in
an ignominious manner, hanged him.
Andronicus of Cyrrhus, built, at Athens, an oc¬
tagon
AND [ 417 ] AND
gropliagi, tagcn tower, with figures carved on each fide, repre- this anfwer, laid fiege to the town; which he probably
|Uldros' fenting the eight principal winds. A brafs triton at made himfelf maftcr of and deftroyed, as we are in-
the fummit, with a rod in its hand, turned round by formed by Plutarch, that Pericks, a few years after,
the wind, pointed to the quarter from whence it blew, fent thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was, how-
From this model is derived the cuftom of placing wea- ever, foon retaken by the Perfians; and, on the over-
ther-cocks on fteeples. throw of that empire by Alexander the Great, fubmit-
ANDROPHAGI, in ancient geography, the name ted to him, along with the other iflands. On his death,
of a nation whofe country, according to Herodotus, it fided with Antigonus, who was driven out by Ptole-
was adjacent to Scythia. Their name, compounded of my. The fucceffors of the laft mentioned prince held
two Greek words, fignifies man-eaters. Herodotus it to the times of the Romans, when Attains, king of
does not inform us whether their manner of fubfifting Pergamus, befieged the metropolis at the head of a
correfponded with their name ; whether they were io Roman army; and, having taken it, was by them put
itethe ar- favage as to eat human flefh *. They are reprefented, in pofleffion of the whole ifland. Upon the death of
\eAntbro- however, as the moft barbarous and fierce of all na- Attains, the republic claimed this ifland, as well as
tions. They were not governed by laws: the care of his other dominions, in virtue of his laft will. It is
their cattle was their chief employment. Their drefs now fubjeft to the Turks; and contains a town of the
1 was like that of the Scythians; and they had a language fame name, with a great many villages. It is the moft
peculiar to themfelves. fruitful ifland in all the Archipelago, and yields .a great
ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying be- quantity of filk. There are faid to be about 6000 in¬
tween Tenedos and Euboea ; being one mile diftant habitants, befides thofe of the villages Arni and Amol-
from the former, and ten from the latter. The an- decs, who are about two hundred, have a different lan-
cients gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Lafia, No- guage and cuftoms, and are called Albancis. There
nagria, Epagris, Antandros, and Hydruiia. The are feven monafteries, a great number of churches, and
name of Andros it received from one Andreus, ap- a cathedral for the bilhops of the Roman-catholic per-
pointed, according to Diodorus Siculus, by Rhada- fuafion; .but moft of the inhabitants are of the Greek
manthus, one of the generals, to govern the Cyclades, communion. The Jefuits had a houfe and a church in
after they had of their own accord fubmitted to him. this ifland ; but they were forced to quit them long
As to the name of Antandros, the fame author tells ago. Here are fome delightful valleys; but the air is.
us, that Afcanius the fon of JEneas, being taken pri- bad, and the water of the city worfe. The women
foner by the Pelafgians, gave them this ifland for his would be agreeable enough, if it was not for their drefs,
ranfom, which on that account was called Antandros, which is very unbecoming ; for they fluff out their
or “ delivered for one man.” The name of Hydrufta it clothes without the leaft regard to their fhape: but the
obtained in common with other places well fuppiied Albanefe women make'a much better appearance. The
with water. It had formerly a city of great note, peafants make wicker-bqfkets, wherewith they fupply
bearing the fame name, and iituated very advanta- the greateft part of the Archipelago. They have all
geoufly on the brow of an hill, which commanded the forts of game in the woods and mountains, but know
whole coaft. In this city, according to Strabo and not how to take them for want of guns. Their prin-
Plinv, flood a famous temple dedicated to Bacchus, cipal food is goats flefli ; for there is no fifh to be met
Near this temple, Mutianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells with on their coafts. When they are lick, they are ob-
us, there was a fpring called the gift of Jupiter; the liged to let the'difeafe take its natural courfe, having
water of which had the tafte of wine in the month of neither phyfician nor furgeon on the iflandi A cadi,
January, during the feafts of Bacchus, which lafted fe- afiifted by a few of the principal perfons of the ifland,
ven days. The fame author adds, that the waters, if has the management of civil affairs, and his refidence is
carried to a place whence the temple could not befeen, in the caftle : an aga, who prefxdes over the military
loft their miraculous tafte. Paufanias makes no men- force, lives in a tower without the city. About two
tion of this fpring; but fays, that, during the feaft of miles from the prefent town are ftill to be feen the ruins
Bacchus, wine flowed, or was at leaft by the Andrians of a ftrong wall with the fragments of many columns,
believed to, flow, from the temple of that god. The chapiters, bafes, broken ftatues, and feveral infcriptions,
priefts, no doubt, found their account in keeping up fome of which mention the fenate and people of An-
this belief, by conveying,, thro’ fecret conduits, a great dros, and the priefts of Bacchus; from which it is pro-
quantity of wine into the temple. bable, that this was the file of the ancient city. E.
The Andrians were the firft of all the iflanders who Long. 25. 30. N. Lat. 37. 50.
joined the Perfians at the time Xerxes invaded Greece; AND ROS ACE, a genus of the monogynia order,
and therefore Themiftocles, after the viftory at Sala- belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants, for which
mis, refblved to attack the city of Andros, and oblige there is no Englilh name. Of this genus Dr Linnaeus
the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the main- reckons fix
tenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the Species. 1. The maxima grows naturally in Auftria
ifland, he fent heralds to the magiftrates, acquainting and Bohemia, among the corn. It hath broad leaves,,
them, that the Athenians were coming againft them which fpread near the ground; from the centre of thefe
with two powerful divimties, perfuaf on and. force; and the footftalks arife, which are terminated by an.umbel
therefore they muft part with their money by fair of white flowers like thofe of the auricula. Thefe ap-
means or foul. The Andrians replied, that they like- pear in April and May, and the feeds, ripen in June ;
wife had two mighty deities who were very fond of foon after which the plants perifh. 2. The feptentrio-
their ifland, viz. poverty and inipojfibility; and therefore nalis, villofa, carnea, and ladtea, grow naturally on the
could give no money. Themiftocles, not fatisfied with Alps and Helvetian mountains, as alfo in Siberia. They
are
AND t 418 ] - A N E
Andrum are much fmallerthan the former, feldom growing more carry on a eonfiderable trade in filk. W. Long. 4. 2.
II than three inches high. Of the other (pecies, called N. Lat. 37. 45.
Anduxar. ^ e]ongata> we have no particular defcription. ANDUZE, a town of France in Lower Languedoc,
Culture. Thefe plants are propagated by feeds, feated on the river Garden. It carries on a confider- -
which fhould be fown foon after they are ripe, other- able trade in ferges and woollen cloth. E. Long. 3. 42.
wife they feldom come up the fame year. If per- N. Lat. 43. 39.
mitted to fcatter, they will grow better than when they ANEAU (Bartholomew), a native of Bourges in
are fown. France, a man of eminent learning in the 16th century,
ANDRUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the peo- educated under Melchior Volmar. He was profeffor at
pie of Malabar are very fubjeft.—Its origin is derived Lyons, where he propagated the dodlrines of the Re-
from the vitious quality of the country waters, impreg- formation fecretly for a long time : but on the feftival
nate with corrofive muriatic falts, the fource of moft of the Holy Sacrament 1565, as the proceffion was
other difeafes that infedt the Malabarians. Its figns, palling on towards the college, there was a large ftone
or fymptoms, are an erylipelas of the ferotum, return- thrown from one of the windows upon the Holt and
ing every new moon, by which the lymphatics, being prieft who carried it. The people, enraged at this,
eroded, pour a ferous faline humour into the cavity of broke into the college, and affaffinated Mr Aneau,
the ferotum. The andrum is incurable; thofe once whom they imagined to have been the occafion, and
feized with it, have it for life: but it is not dangerous, the college itfelf was Ihut up next day by order of the
nor very troublefome, to thofe ufed to it; tho? feme- city.
times it degenerates into an hydrofarcocele. The means ANECDOTE, among hiftorians, implies fome fadl
of prevention is by a heap of fand fetched from a river of not formerly publifhed to the world, or very little
the province Mangatti, and ftrowed in the wells. This known. The word is Greek, avExJuT®-; and compound-
is pradtifed by the rich. As to the cure, they have on- ed of «, priv. and sxJot®-, publilhed.
ly a palliative one; which isby incifion, or tapping, and ANEE, in commerce, a meafure for grain, ufed in
drawing off the water from the ferotum, once in a fome provinces of France. At Lyons, it fignifies alfo
month or two. a certain quantity of wine, which is the load an afs can
ANDRYALA, downy sow-thistle; a genus of carryatonce: which is fixed at 80 Englilh quarts, wine-
the polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngene- meafure.
fia clafs of plants. ANEGADA, one of the Caribbee Illands in A-
Species. 1. The integrifolia is an annual plant, merica. W. Long. 63.5. N. Lat. 18. 6. It is only
growing naturally in the fouth of France, Spain, and remarkable for its humming birds, and beautifully co-
Italy. It rifes to the height of a foot and an half, loured crabs of a delicate tafte.
with woolly branching ftalks. The flowers are produ- ANELLO (Thomas). See Massaniello.
ced in fmall clufters at the top of the ftalks. They are ANEMOMETER, in mechanics, implies a machine
yellow, and like thofe of the fow-thiftle ; fo do not for meafuring the force and velocity of the wind,
make any great appearance. 2. The ragufina is a na- Various machines of this kind have been invented at
tive of the Cape of Good Hope. The leaves are ex- different times, and by different perfons. Thefollow-
tremely white, and much indented on their edges. The ing has been often experienced, and found to anfwer the
flower-ftalks grow about a foot high, having fmall intention.
clufters of yellow flowers, which appear in July. The An open frame of wood, ABCDEFGHI, * is fup-
feeds fometimes ripen in Britain, but not always. 3. The ported by the fhaft or arbor I. In the two crofs-pieces
lanata is a native of Sicily and of the country round H K, LM, is moved a horizontal axis QM, by means
Montpelier. The lower leaves are indented and wool- of the four fails, ah, cm. Of, gh, expofed to the wind
ly, but thofe on the ftalks are entire. It feldom rifes in a proper manner. Upon this axis is fixed a cone of
more than a foot high, fupporting a few yellow flowers wood, MNO ; upon which, as the fails move round, a
at top. 4. The finuata grows in Spain and Fortu- weight R, or S, is raifed by a firing round its fuper-
gal: the leaves are broader, longer, and more downy, ficies, proceeding from the fmaller to the larger end
than either of the other forts ; the flower-ftalks rifing N O. Upon this larger end or bafe of the cone, is fixed
more than a foot high. They branch into feveral foot- a rocket wheel, /f, in whofe teeth the click X falls, to pre-
ftalks, each fuftaining one large yellow flower, fha- vent any retrograde motion from the depending weight,
ped like thofe of hawk-weed, which are fucceeded by The ftru&ure of this machine fufficiently fhews that
oblong black feeds covered with down. it may be accommodated to eftimate the variable force
Culture.. All thefe plants are eafily propagated by of the wind ; becaufe the force of the weight will con-
feeds, which fhould be fown in autumn, where they are tinually increafe, as the firing advances on the conical
to remain, and will require no other culture than to furface, by a&ing at a greater diftance from the axis
thin them where they are too clofe, and to keep them of motion; confequently, if fuch a weight be added
free from weeds. The third fort mufl have a light dry on the fmaller part, M, as will juft keep the machine
foil, or it will not live in this country. in equilibrio in the weakeft wind, the weight to be
ANDUXAR, a city in the province of Andalufia, raifed, as the wind becomes flronger, will be increafed
in Spain, feated on the Guadalquivir. It is pretty in proportion, and the diameter of the cone N O may
large, indifferently rich, and defended by a good be fo large in comparifon to that of the fmaller end at
caflle. It is adorned with handfome churches and feve- M, that the flrongeft wind fhall but juft raife the
ral religious houfes, and inhabited by many families of weight at the greater end.
high rank. The land about it abounds in corn, wine. If, for example, the diameter of the axis be to that
oil, honey, and fruit of all forts; and the inhabitants of the bafe of the cone N O, as 1 to 28 ; then, if S
be
* PI. XXI!
fig-3-
A N E [ 4i9 ] A N E
be a weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be
■" equivalent to 28 pounds when raifedto the greater end:
if therefore, when the wind is weakeft, it fupports one
pound on the axis, it muft be 28 times as ftrong to
raife the weight to thebafe of the cone. If therefore a
line or fcale of 28 equal parts be drawn on the fide of
the cone, the ftrength of the wind will be indicated by
that number on which the firing refts.
ANEMONE, wind-flower ; a genus of the po-
lygynia order, belonging tothepolyandriaclafsof plants.
It has its name from the Greek word fignify-
ing the •wind; becaufe the flower is fuppofed not to
open unlefs the wind blows.
Of this genus Dr Linnaeus enumerates 21 fpecies ;
but thofe valuable on account of the beauty of their
flowers are only the following. 1. The nemorofa,
which grows wild in the woods in many parts of Britain,
where it flowers in April and May. The flowers are
white, purple, or reddifh purple, fometimes Angle, and
fometimes double, fo that they make a pretty appear¬
ance. 2. The apennina is likewife a native of Britain,
growing in woods. The flowers of this fpecies, like
the laft, are fometimes Angle, and fometimes double 5
their colours are white, blue, or violet. They appear
in April. 3. The coronaria'. 4. Thehortenfis. Thefe
two are natives of the Levant, particularly of the Ar¬
chipelago iflands, where the borders of the Aelds are co¬
vered with them of the moft beautiful colours. When
they grow wild, the flowers are commonly Angle; but
by culture they are greatly improved: they become
large and double, making fome of the greateft orna¬
ments of gardens. Their principal colours are red,
white, purple, and blue; fome of them are flnely va¬
riegated with red, white, purple, and many interme¬
diate {hades of thefe colours.
Culture. The Arft and fecond forts may be propa •
gated by taking up their roots when the leaves decay,
and tranfplanting them in wildernefles, where they
will thrive and increafe greatly, if they are not diflurb-
ed. The two laft forts require a good deal of care,
and ample direttions for their culture.—The foil in
which thefe flowers will thrive extremely, may be com-
pofed in the following manner: Take a quantity of
frefh untried earth (from a common or fome other pa-
llure land) that is of a light fandy loam or hazel mould,
obferving not to take it above ten inches deep below the
furface ; and if the turf be taken with it, the better,
provided it hath time to rot thoroughly before it is
ufed: mix this with a third part of rotten cow-dung,
and lay it in a heap, keeping it turned over at leaft once
a month for eight or ten months, the better to mix it,
and rot the dung and turf, and to let it have the advan¬
tages of the free air. In doing this work, be careful
to rake out all great ftones, and break the clods;- but
by no means Aft or fcreen the earth, which has been
found very hurtful to many forts of roots. This earth
fhould be mixed twelve months before it is ufed, if pof-
Able: but if conftrained to ufe it fooner, it muft be the
oftener turned over, to mellow and break the clods;
obferving to rake out all the parts of the green fwaird
that are not quite rotten, before it is ufed, as they would
be prejudicial to the roots if fuffered to remain. The
beginning of September is a proper feafon to prepare
the beds for planting, which (if in a wet foil) fhould
be railed with this fort of earth Ax or eight inches above
the furface of the ground, laying at the bottom fome Anemone,
of the rakings of the heap to drain off the moifture; "
but, in a dry foil, three inches above the furface will be
fufficient: this compoft fhould be laid at leaft two feet
and a half thick, and in the bottom there fhould be a-
bout four or flve inches of rotten neats dung, or the
rotten dung of an old melon or cucumber bed. The
beds muft be laid (if in a wet foil) a little round, to
fhoot off the water; but in a dry one, nearer to a le¬
vel. In wet land, where the beds are raifed above the
furface, it will be proper to All up the paths between
them, in winter, either with rotten tan or dung, to pre¬
vent the froft from penetrating into the Ades of the beds,
which otherwife may deftroy their roots. The earth
fhould be laid in the beds at leaft a fortnight or three
weeks before the roots are planted, and a longer time
would be yet better, that it may fettle; and when they
are planted, ftir the upper part of the foil about Ax
inches deep, with a fpade; then rake it even and fmooth,
and with a flick draw lines each way of the bed at Ax
inches diftance, fo that the whole may be in fquares,
that the roots may be planted regularly: then with
three Angers make a hole in the centre of each fquare,
about three inches deep, laying therein a root with the
eye uppermoft; and wben the bed is ftmfhed, with the
head of a rake draw the earth fmooth, fo as to cover
the crown of the roots about two inches thick.
The beft feafon for planting thefe roots, if for for¬
ward flowers, is about the latter end of September,
and for thofe of a middle feafon any time in October:
but obferve to perform this work, if poflible, at or near
the time of fome gentle fhowers ; for if planted when
the ground is perfe&ly dry, and there fhould no rain
fall for three weeks or a month after, the roots will be
very apt to grow mouldy upon the crown; and.if once
they get this diftemper, they feldom come to good after..
As all the ftne varieties of thefe flowers were flrft ob¬
tained from feeds, fo no good florift that hath garden-
room fhould negleft to fow them; in order to.which,,
he fhould provide himfelf with a quantity of good roots
of the Angle (or what the gardeners ca\\ poppy) ane-
monies, of the beft colours, and fuch as have ftrong
Hems and large flowers, but efpecially fuch as have more
leaves than common, and alfo other good properties :
thefe fhould be planted early,, that they may have
ftrength to produce good feeds, which will be ripe in
three weeks or a month’s time after the flowers are pall;
when the feeds muft be carefully gathered, otherwife
they will be blown away in a fhort time, as being in-
clofed in a downy fubftanee. You muft preferve this
feed till the beginning of Auguft, when you may ei¬
ther fow it in pots, tubs, or a well-prepared bed of light
earth: in the doing of it, you muft be careful not to let
your feeds be in heaps; to avoid which, the beft me¬
thod is to mix them with a little flne fand, and, when
fown, gently ftreak the bed with a- ftrong hair-brufh.
In about two months after fowing, the plants will
begin to appear, if the feafon has proved favourable.
The flrft winter after their appearing above ground,
they are fubjeft to injuries from hard frofts, or too
much wet, againft both of which you muft equally de¬
fend them: for the froft is very apt to loofen the earth,
fo that the young plants are often turned out of the
ground, after which a fmall froft will deftroy them;
and too much wet often rots their tender roots, fo that
all
A N £ [ 420 j A N E
Anemone, all your former trouble maybe loft in a ftiort time for
Anemo- want of care in this particular: nor is any thing more
deftruftive to thofe tender plants than the cold black
frofts and winds of February and March, from which
you muft be careful to defend them, by placing a low
reed-fence on the north and eaft fides of the bed, which
may be moveable, and only fattened to a few {takes to
fupport it for the prefent, and may be taken quite a-
way as the feafon advances, or removed to the fouth
and weft fides of the bed, to fcreen it from the vio¬
lence of the fun, which often impairs thefe plants when
young. As the fpring advances, if the weather Ihould
prove dry, you muft gently refrefti them with water,
which will greatly ftrengthen your roots; and when
the green leaves are decayed, if your roots are not too
thick to remain in the fame bed another year, you muft
clear off all the weeds and decayed leaves from the bed,
and fift a little more of the fame prepared good earth,
about a quarter of an inch thick over the furface, and
obferve to keep them clear from weeds during the fum-
mer feafon, and at Michaelmas repeat the fame earth¬
ing ; but as thefe roots fo left in the ground will come
up early in the autumn, the beds Ihould be carefully
covered in frofty weather, otherwife their leaves will be
injured, whereby the roots will be weakened, if not
deftroyed. If your roots fucceed well, many of them
will flower the fecond year, when you may felecl all
fuch as you like, by marking them with a ftick : but
you fliould not deftroy any of them till after the third
year, when you have feen them blow ftrong, at which
time you will be capable to judge of their goodnefs ;
for until the roots have acquired ftrcngth, the flowers
will not fhew themfelves to advantage.
The Angle (or poppy) anemonies will flower moft
part of the winter and fpring, when the feafons are fa¬
vourable, if they are planted in a warm fttuation, at
which time they make a fine appearance; therefore de-
ferve a place in every flower-garden, efpecially as they
require little culture. There are fome fine blue colours
amongft thefe Angle anemonies, which, with the fear-
lets and reds, make a beautiful mixture; and as thefe
begin flowering in January or February, when the wea¬
ther is cold, they will continue a long time in beau¬
ty, provided the froft is not too fevere, or if they are
covered with mats. The feeds of thefe are ripe by the
middle or end of May ; and muft be gathered daily as
they ripen, otherwife they will be foon blown away by
• the winds.
ANEMOSCOPE, a machine that Ihews either the
* See alfo courfe or velocity of the wind *.
«WtICle The machine which (hews the courfe of the wind,
Gauge. 0r ^rom w^at point of the compafs it blows, confifts
of an index moving about an upright circular plate,
like the dial of a clock, on which the 32 points of
the compafs are drawn inftead of the hours. The in¬
dex, which points to the divifions on the dial, is turned
by a horizontal axis, having a trundle-head at its ex¬
ternal extremity^ This trundle-head is moved by a
cog-wheel on a perpendicular axis; on the top of which
a vane is fixed, that moves with the courfe of the wind,
and puts the whole machine in motion. The whole
contrivance is extremely fimple; and nothing required
in the conftruftion, but that the number of cogs in thfe
wheel, and rounds in the trundle head, be equal; be-
caufe it is neceffary, that, when the vane moves entire¬
ly round, the index of the dial alfo make a complete
revolution.—An anemofeope of this kind is placed in
one of the turrets of the queen’s palace. The anemo¬
feope, calculated for indicating the force or velocity
of the wind, is the fame with what moft writers call an
anemometer; and we have accordingly deferibed one
of thofe machines under that article. We (hall here
add another, contrived by the late Mr Pickering, and
publifhed in the Philojbphical Tranfattions, N° 473.
This anemofeope is a machine four feet and a quarter
high, confiding of a broad and weighty pedeftal, a
pillar fattened into it, and an iron axis of about half
an inch diameter faftened into the pillar. Upon this
axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is pla¬
ced a vane, of the fame materials, 21 inches long, con¬
fiding of a quadrant, graduated, and (hod with an iron
rim, notched to each degree; and a counterpoife of
wood, as in the figure, on the other. Through the
centre of the quadrant runs an iron pin, upon which
are faftened two fmall round pieces of wood, which
ferve as moveable radii to deferibe the degrees upon
the quadrant, and as handles to a velum or fail, whofe
pane is one foot fquare, made of canvas, ftretched up¬
on four battens, and painted. On the upper bat¬
ten, next to the (hod rim of the quadrant, is a fmall
fpring which catches at every notch correfponding to
each degree, as the wind (hall, by preffing againft the
fail, raifeit up; and prevents the falling back of the fail,
upon leffening of the force of the wind. At the bot¬
tom of the wooden tube, is an iron index, which moves
round a circular piece of wood faftened to the top of
the pillar on the pedeftal, on which are deferibed the
32 points of the compafs. The figure of this machine
is given on Plate XXII. fig. 4. where ar is the pe¬
deftal; b, the pillar on which the iron axis is fitted; c,
the circle of wood, on which are deferibed the 32 points
of the compafs ; e, the wooden tube upon its axis ; f,
the velum; g, the graduated quadrant; h, the coun¬
terpoife of the vane. The adjoining figure reprefents
the velum, which takes off: « is the plane of the velum;
b, the fpring; c c, the wooden radii; d, d, the holes
through which the pin in tRe centre of the quadrant
goes. Its ufes are the following.
1. Having a circular motion round the iron axis,
and being furnilhed with a vane at top, and index at
the bottom, when once you have fixed the artificial car¬
dinal points, deferibed on the round piece of wood on
the pillar, to the fame quarters of the heavens, it gives
a faithful account of that quarter from which the
wind blows. 2. By having a velum or fail elevated by
the wind along the arch of the quadrant to an height
proportionable to the power of the column of wind
preffing againft it, the relative force of the wind, and
its comparative power, at any two times of examina¬
tion, may be accurately taken. 3. By having a
fpring fitted to the notches of the iron with which the
quadrant is (hod, the velum is prevented from returning
back upon the fall of the wind ; and the machine gives
the force to the higheft blaft, fince the laft time of
examination, without the trouble of watching it.
The ingenious contriver of this machine tells us,
that he carefully examined what dependence may be
had upon it, during the ftorms of February 1743-4,
and found that it anfwered exceeding well; for that,
in fuch winds as the failors call violent ftorms, the ma¬
chine
Tlafe XOI.
zy^. 3.
Ankmombtkr
An( ho r
Qyiy.4.
Anemoscope
A
AnDRO MEDA
, J^anm/ /(da .
1
A N G [ 421 ] A N G
K Anethum chine had fix degrees to fpare for a more violent guft,
H f before it comes to a horizontal poiition. It is cer-
|| Angazya^ ta;njy. to depended upon in ordinary weather, the
velum being hung fo tenderly as to feel the mod gentle
breeze. There is however reafon to fear, that the ex-
Ipofing the anemofcope to all winds for a continuance,
muft diforder it, efpecially irregular blafts and fqualls.
It may not therefore be amifs, in violent weather* for the
obferver to take the tube with its vane and velum in his
hand, in order to know the force of the wind; and,
when he has finiflied his obfervations, to carry the ma¬
chine into the houfe, till the violence of the ilorm is
abated, when it may be replaced in its former fitua-
tion.
ANETHUM, (from and Sfe'*, to run up, becaufe
it is of quick growth,) dill; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus Dr Linnaeus mentions two
fpecies, the graveolens, and the foeniculum; but as
the latter is commonly reckoned a diftindt genus, and
feveral fpecies of it are mentioned by other botanical
writers, we chufe to keep them feparate, and fhall
here take notice only of the graveolens. This is an a-
nual plant: the root is long, flender, and white : the
leaves are divided into a multitude of fine, long, nar¬
row fegments like thofe of fennel, but of a bluifli green
colour, and lefs ftrong fmell. The ftalk is round and
firm, growing to the height of four feet, with yellow
flowers in moderately large umbels.
Culture. This plant thrives beft in a light foil, and
cannot bear to be tranfplanted. If the feeds are fuf-
fered to fcatter, the trouble of fowing will be prevented;
but the plants muft be thinned, fo as to leave eight or
ten inches between them, or they will be very weak.
Medicinal Ufes. For the purpofes of medicine only
the feeds of thefe plants are ufed. They are of a pale
yellowifti colour, in fhape nearly oval, convex on one fide,
and flat on the other. Their tafte is moderately warm
and pungent; their fmell aromatic, but not of the moft
agreeable kind. They are recommended as a carmi¬
native, in flatulent colics proceeding from a cold caufe
or a vifcidity of the juices. See Materia Medica,
n° 103.
ANEURISM, in furgery, a throbbing tumor, di-
ftended with blood, and formed by a dilatation or
rupture of an artery. See Surgery, n° 38.
ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of pub¬
lic fervice impofed on the provincials, which confifted
in providing horfes- and carriages for the conveyance
of military ftores, and other public burdens. It is
fometimes alfo ufed for a guard of foldiers, polled for
the defence of a place. In a more general fenfe, it is
ufed for any kind of oppreffion or fervices performed
through compulfion.
ANGAZYA, one of the Comorra iflands, lying
between the north end of Madagafcar, and the coaft
of Zanguebar in Africa, from Lat. io° to 15° S. It
is inhabited by Moors, who trade with divers parts of
the continent, in cattle, fruits, and other commodities
of the illand; which they exchange for callicoes and
other cotton cloths. The houfes here are built of ftone,
Vol. I.
and lime made of calcined oyfter-lhells ; with which -Angeio-
the walls and roof are plaiftered in a very elegant man- tomy»
ner. The government of Angazia is a pure ariftocra- nge '
cy j the illand being fubjeft to ten lords, who have all
the title of Sultan. The people are very careful of
their women ; never permitting ftrangers to fee them,
without permilfion from a Sultan, or an order which
the ftranger brings with him. Many of them read and
write Arabic with great facility; and fome even under-
ftand Portuguefe, which they learn from their xnter-
courfe with Mofambique, whither they trade in vefiels
of 40 tons burthen.
ANGEIOTOMY, in furgery, implies the opening
a vein or artery, as in bleeding ; and confequently in¬
cludes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy.
ANGEL, a fpiritual intelligent fubftance, the firft
in rank and dignity among created beings.
A?igeh, in the proper fignification of the word (a),
do not import the nature of any being, but only the
office, to which they are appointed, efpecially by way of
meffage, or intercourfe between God and his creatures;
in which fenfe they are called the minifters of God,
who do his pleafure, and miniflring /pints fent forth
to minifter for them who lhall be heirs of falvation.
That there are fuch beings as we call angels, that is,
certain permanent fubftances, invifible, and impercep¬
tible to our fenfes, endued with underftanding and
power fuperior to that of human nature, created by
God, and fubjeft to him as the fupreme Being; mi-
niftring to his divine providence in the government of
the world by his appointment, and more efpecially at¬
tending the affairs of mankind; is a truth fo fully at-
tefted by fcripture, that it cannot be doubted. Nay,
the exiftence of fuch invifible beings was generally
acknowledged by the antient heathens, though under
different appellations: the Greeks called them demons;
and the R.omans genii, or lares. Epicurus feems to
have been the only one among the old philofopher*
who abfolutely rejected them. Indeed, the belief
of middle intelligences influencing the affairs of the
world, and ferving as minifters or interpreters be¬
tween God and man, is as extenfive as the belief of a
God; having never, fo far as we know, been called in
queftion by thofe who had any religion at all.
That the angels were in being long before the Mo- When crfti-
faic creation, is generally allowed ; and indeed cannotted*
be doubted, fince they were a&ually prefent, if not
employed, in that creation, 'when the morning-far s fang
together, and all the fans of GodJhouted for joy ; and
fince it is more than probable, that the fall of the
apoftate angels was fome time at leaft before it.
As to the nature of thefe beings, we are told, that ’D16'1- na-
they are fpirits; but whether purefpirits diveftedof all ^e,1P°_wer»
matter, or united to fome thin bodies, or corporeal ve-
hides, has been a controverfy of long Handing. Not
only the ancient philofophers, but fome of the Chrif-
tian fathers, were of opinion, that angels were cloathed
with ethereal, or fiery, bodies, of the fame nature with
thofe which we (hall one day have when we come to
be equal to them. But the more general opinion, e-
fpecially of later times, has been, that they are fub-
G g g ftances
(a) The word Angel is Greek, and fignifies a Meffenger : the Hebrew fignifies the fame thing. The angels
are in Daniel (chap. iv. ver. 13, etc.) called STir, or Watchers, from their vigilance : for the fame reafon they
are, in the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to Enoch, named Egregori ; w hich word imports the fame
in Greek.
Angel.
A N G [ 422 1 A N G
ftances entirely fpiritual, though they can at any time them to be free from fin, enjoying the preffence of God, Angel,
afiume bodies, and appear in human or other (hapes. to whom they are never difobedient: that they have
That the angelical powers and abilities vaftly excel fubtil pure bodies, being created of light; and have
thofe of man, cannot be denied, if we confider, that no diftin&ion of fexes, nor do they need the refrefli-
their faculties are not clogged or impeded, as ours ment of food or fleep. They fuppofe them to have dif¬
are, by any of thofe imperfedions which are infepara- ferent forms and offices: that fome adore God in feve-
ble from corporeal beings: fo that their underftandings ral poftures ; others fing his praifes, and intercede for
are always in perfect vigour; their inclinations regu- men ; fame carry and encompafs his throne ; others
lar ; their motions ftrong and quick ; their aftions ir- write the actions of men, and are affigned guardians
refiftible by material bodies, whofe natural qualities to them.
they can controul, or manage to their purpofes, and As the numbers of thefe celeftial fpirits are very
occafion either bleffings or calamities, public or pri- great, it is likewife reafonable to believe that there
rate, here below, inftances of which are too numerous are Ceveral orders and degrees among them ; which is
to mention. alfo confirmed by fcripture : whence fome fpeculative
Befides their attendance on God, and their waiting men have diftributed them into nine orders, according
and executing of his commands, they are alfo prefumed to the different names by which they are there called ;
to be employed in taking care of mankind and their and reduced thofe orders into three hierarchies, as they
concerns: and that every man had fuch a tutelar, or call them ; to the firft of which belong feraphim, che-
guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief rubim, and thrones; to the fecond, dominions, virtues,
and tradition among the Jews; and our Saviour him- and powers; and to the third, principalities, arch-an-
felf feems to have been of the fame fentiment. The gels, and angels. They imagine farther, that there
heathens were alfo of the fame perfuafion, and thought are fome who conftantly refide in heaven ; others who
it a crime to negleft the admonitions of fo divine a are minifters, and fent forth, as there is occafion, to
guide. Socrates publicly confeffed himfelf to be un- execute the orders they receive from God by the for-
der the dire&ion of fuch an angel, or daemon, as mer. The Jews reckon but four orders or companies
feveral others have fince done. And on this tutelar of angels, each headed by an arch-angel; the firft or-
genius of each perfon they believed his happinefs and der being that of Michael, the fecond of Gabriel, the
fortune depended. Every genius did his beft for the third of Uriel, and the fourth of Raphael: but tho’
intereft of his client ; add if a man came by the word, the Jews believe them to be four, yet it feems there
it was a fign the ftrength of his genius was inferior to were rather feven. The Perfians alfo held, there were
that of his opponent, that is, of an inferior order; fubordinate degrees among the angels.
and this was governed by chance. There were fome Although the angels were originally created perfeft, of the fali
genii, whofe afcendent was fo great over others, that good, and obedient to their Matter’s will, yet fome of angels,
their very prefence entirely difconcerted them ; which them finned, and kept not their firft eftate, but left
was the cafe of that of Auguftus in refpetft of that of their habitation, andfo, of the moft bleffed and glorious,
Marc Anthony; and for the fame reafon, perhaps, fome became the moft vile and miferable of all God’s crea-
perfons have wit, and fpeak well, when others are ab- tures. They were expelled the regions of light, and
fent, in whofe prefence they are confounded, and out caft down to hell, to be referved in everlafting chains
of countenance. The Romans thought the tutelar under darknefs, until the day of judgment. With
genii of thofe who attained the empire, to be of an heaven they loft their heavenly difpofition, which de-
eminent order; on which account they had great ho- lighted once in doing good and praifing God; and
nours fhewn them. Nations and cities alfo had their fe- fell into a fettled rancour againft him, and malice a-
veral genii. The ancient Perfians fo firmly believed gainft men : their inward peace was gone ; all delire of
the miniftry of angels, and their fuperintendence over doing good departed from them ; and, inftead thereof,
human affairs, that they gave their names to their revengeful thoughts and defpair took poffeffion of them,
months, and the days of their month; and affigned and created an eternal hell within them. .
them diftinft offices and provinces: and it is from them When, and for what offence, thefe apoftate fpirits fell
the Jews confefs to have received the names of the from heaven, and plunged themfelves into fuch an a-
months and angels which they brought with them byfs of wickednefs and wo, are queftions very hard,
when they returned from the Babylonilh captivity, if not impoffible, to be determined by any clear evi-
After which, we find, they alfo affigned charges to the dence of fcripture. As to the time, it is moft reafon-
angels, and in particular the patronage of empires and able to believe, that their fall preceded the creation of
nations ; Michael being the prince of the Jews, as the world : though fome have imagined it to have been
Raphael is fuppofed to have been of the Perfians. after ; and that carnality, or lulling to converfe with
The Mahometans have fo great a refpeft for the women upon earth, was the fin which ruined them: an
angels, that they account a man an infidel who either opinion (b) built on a miftaken interpretation of ferip-
denies their exiftence, or loves them not.. They believe ture, as if angels were meant by the fans of God who
are
(b) This opinion feems to have been originally occafioned by fome copies of the Septuagint, which, in the days of
St Anftin, had in this place the angels of God. Ladtantius fnppofes the angels, who were guilty of this enormi¬
ty, had been fent down by God to guard and take care of mankind ; and being endued with free-will, were charged
by him not to forfeit the dignity of their celeftial nature, by defiling themfelves with the corruptions of the earth;
but that the devil at length enticed them to debauch themfelves with women. He adds, that, being not admitted into
heaven by reafon of the wickednefs into which they had plunged themfelves, they fell down to the earth, and became
the devil’s minifters; but that thofe who were begotten by them, being neither angds nor men, but of a middle na¬
ture, were not received into hell, no more than their parents were into heaven. Hence arofe two kinds of daemons,
celeftial
A N G ' [ 423 ] A N G
Angel, are faid to have begotten the mighty men of old on the
 daughters of men. Others have fuppofed, that the
angels, ^eing informed of God’s intention to create
man after his own image, and to dignify his nature by
Chrilt’s affuming of -it, and thinking their glory to be
eclipfed thereby, envied man’s happinefs, and fo revolt¬
ed : and with this opinion that of the Mahometans
has fome affinity, who are taught, that the devil, who
was once one of thofe angels who are neareft to
God’s prefence', and, named /Izazil, forfeited paradife
for refufing to pay homage to Adam, at the com¬
mand of God. But on what occafion foever it firft
(hewed itfelf, pride feems to have been the leading (in
of the angels; who, admiring and valuing themfelves
too much on the excellence of their nature and the
height of their ftation, came at length to entertain fo
little reiped for their Creator, as to be guilty of down¬
right rebellion and apoftafy.
It is certain from fcripture, that thefe fallen angels
were in great numbers, and that there was alfo fome Angel,
order and fubordination preferved among them; one “
efpecially being confidered as their prince, and called
by feveral names, Beelzebub, Satan, or Sammael by
the Jews; Abdrbnan, by the Perfians ; and Eblis, by
the Mahometans. Their conftant employment is not
only doing evil themfelves, but endeavouring by all
arts and means to feduce and pervert mankind, by
tempting them to all kind of fin, and thereby bringing
them into the fame defperate (late with themfelves.
Angel is likewife a title given to bifhops of feveral
churches. In this fenfe is St Paul underftood by fome
authors, where he fays. Women ought to be covered in
the church, becaufe of the angels. The learned Dr
Prideaux obferves, that the minifter of the fynagogue,
who officiated in offering up the public prayers, being
the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them as
their reprefentative, meffenger, or angel, to fpeak to
God in prayer for them, was therefore, in the He-
G g g 2 brew
celeftial and terreftrial. Thefe are unclean fpirits, the authors of whatever evils are committed, and whofe prince
is the devil. From hence very probably proceeded the notions of Incubi, or daemons who are fuppofed to have
carnal knowledge of women.
But the fancy of angels defiling themfelves with women has been greatly propagated by that forgery entitled the
prophecy of Enoch. As the fragments of it are extant which give a particular hiftory of thefe imaginary tranfaftions,
we ihall here infert an extract of them for the amufement of our readers.
“ When men were greatly increafed, they had daughters of fuch excellent beauty, that the Egregori, or watching-
angels, f fell in love with them, and propofed to one another that they (hould go down and chufe themfelves f See the
wives of the daughters of men: to which Semiazas, their prince, replying, that he was apprehen five they wmuld not preceding
go through with the affair, but leave him to bear the guilt alone, they all fvvore and bound themfelves under impreca- n°te-
tions, that they would not recede from their refolution. The number of thefe Egregori was two hundred; who, in
the days of Jared, defcended on the top of mount Hermon, which was fo called from the oath they had taken. Their
princes were twenty, whofe names follow : Semiazas their chief, Atarcuph, Araciel, Chobabiel, Orammame, Ramiel,
Sampfich, Zaciel, Balciel, Azalzel, Pharmarus, Amariel, Anagemas, Thaufael, Samiel, Sarinas, Eumiel, Tyriel,
Jumiel, Sartel.
“ Thefe, and the reft of them, in the year of the world one thoufand one hundred and feventy, took themfelves
wives, and began to commit lewdnefs with them, which they continued to do until the flood ; and the women bore
to them three generations. The firft generation were the giants, the giants begat the Nephilim, and the Nephilim
thofe named Etiud; and they were multiplied according to their ftature, and taught themfelves and their wives magic
and enchantments. The tenth of their princes, Azalzel, taught them to make fvrords, breaftplates, and in-
ftruments of war; as alfo the working of metals, particularly gold and filver, and falhioning various ornaments for
the women: he alfo inftrudted them in the preparing of cofmetics, the polifliing of precious ftones, and the art of
dyeing. Thefe things the fons of men provided for themfelves and their daughters, and they tranfgrefied ; and alfo
feduced thofe that were virtuous among them, and wickednefs prevailed greatly in the earth. Semiazas, the chief of
thefe angels, taught the force of poifonous roots and herbs; Pharmarus, the eleventh, charms and incantations; the
ninth, aftrofcopy ; the fourth, aftrology ; the eighth, aerofcopy ; the third, the figns of the earth ; the feyenth, thofe
of the fun ; the twentieth, thofe of the moon; and in like manner each of them revealed certain fecrets to their
wives and children.
Afterw'ards the giants began to devour human flefli; by which means the number of men daily decreafing, thofe
that remained cried to heaven againft their cruelty, and befought God to remember them. This the four arch-angels
hearing, looked down upon the earth, and beholding a great deal of bloodfhed thereon, and that all manner of im¬
piety and diforder was committed, made their report thereof to God, and at his command bound the princes of thofe
trangrefibrs, and threw them into the abyfs, there to be kept to the day of judgment. Uriel in particular was
fent to Noah, the fon of Lamech, to acquaint him that the whole earth was to be deftroyed by a deluge, and in-
ftrudc him by what means to efcape it. Raphael was ordered to bind Azael \_Azalzel\ hand and foot, and to throw
him into darknefs, in the defert of Dudael, and to lay him upon (harp ftones, and cover him with darknefs, that he
might dwell therein for ever, being deftined to the puniihment of fire on the day of judgment. The words which
follow, directing him to heal the earth of the wounds caufed therein, by the fecrets revealed by the Egregori, are
fomething dark, and deferve not the trouble of an explication. Gabriel’s charge was to deftroy the giants, the fons
of the Egregqri, by exciting them to mutual and inteftine wars, that they might fall by each others hands; and Mi¬
chael was commanded to bind Semiazas, and the reft of his companions, and to lead them, after they had feen the
daughter of their beloved fons, to the utmoft parts of the earth, where they were to be confined for feventy genera¬
tions, till the confummation of all things, and the day of judgment, when they -were to be thrown into the gulph of
fire. The giants, being begotten by a mixture of fpirit and flefh, were condemned to become evil fpirits, doing mif-
chief upon the earth, appearing as fpedtres, and taking no food ; but were to rife with mankind at the general refur-
redtion. Therefore, from the day of the flaughter of the giants, the Nephilim, the mighty men of the earth, and
the great men of renown, the fpirits which went forth from their fouls, as from flefh, were to continue their mif-
chievous employments till the laft day. It was alfo decreed, that mount Hermon, where thofe angels mutually bound
themfelves by an oath, (hould never be without fnow and cold till the day of judgment, when it ihould melt like wax.
Mankind are alfo threatened with a general deftrudtiou, and that their life (hould be but one hundred and twenty years.”
Ex primo libro Enoch, apud Syncellum.
A N G [ 424 1 A N G
Angel, brew language, called the angel of the church; and
Angelica. £rom t]jence tjie bifliops of the feven churches of Afia
are, by a name borrowed from the fynagogue, called
the angels of thofe churches.
Angel, in commerce, the name of a gold coin for¬
merly current in England. It had its name from the
figure of an angel reprefented upon it, weighed four
pennyweights, and was twenty-three and a half carats
fine. It had different values in different reigns ; but
is at prefent only an imaginary fum, or money of ac¬
count, implying ten (hillings.
ANGEL-FISH, in ichthyology, a fpecies of fqua-
lus. See Squalus.
ANGELICA, a genus of the digynia order, be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs of plants, of which
there are five
Species. 1. The fativa, or common angelica, which
Is cultivated in gardens for medicinal ufe, and likewife
for a fweetmeat, grows naturally in the northern coun¬
tries. The root of this fpecies is brown, oblong, and
an inch or two thick, fragrant, and acrid. The leaves
are very large, compofed of pinnated foliola, of an
oblong oval figure, dentated at the edge, and the odd
leaf at the end of the pinna lobated; the ftalk is round,
flriated, and as thick as a child’s arm. The umbels
are very large, and of a globofe figure ; the flowers
very fmall, and greenifh. 2. The arch-angelica is a na¬
tive of Hungary and Germany. The leaves are much
larger than thofe of the former, and the flowers are
yellow. 3. The fylveftris grows naturally in moift
meadows, and by the fides of rivers, in many parts of
Britain ; fo is feldom admitted into gardens. 4. The
atro-purpurea canadenfis. 5. The lucida canadenfis.
Thefe are natives of North America, but have neither
beauty nor ufe.
Culture. The common angelica delights to grow in
a moift foil : the feeds fhould be fown foon after they
are ripe. When the plants come up about fix inches
high, they fhould be tranfplanted very wide, as their
leaves fpread greatly. If they are planted on the fides
of ditches or pools of water, about three feet diftance,
they will thrive exceedingly.
Medicinal Ufes. For the purpofes of medicine,
Bohemia and Spain produce the beft kinds of angeli¬
ca. The London college direft the roots brought from
Spain to be alone made ufe of. Angelica roots are
apt to grow mouldy, and be preyed upon by infects,
unlefs thoroughly dried, kept in a dry place, and fre¬
quently aired. We apprehend that the roots which
are fubjedl to this inconvenience might be preferved, by
dipping them in boiling fpirit, or expofing them to its
fteam, after they are dried.
All the parts of angelica^ efpecially the root, have
a fragrant aromatic fmell, and a pleafant bitterifh
warm tafte, glowing upon the lips and palate for a long
time after they have been chewed. The flavour of the
feeds and leaves is very perifhable, particularly that of
the latter, which, on being barely dried, lofe the greateft
part of their tafte and fmell: die roots are more tena¬
cious of their flavour, though even thefe lofe part of
it upon keeping. The frefh root, wounded early in
the fpring, yields an odorous, yellow juice, which,
(lowly exficcated, proves an elegant gummy refin, very
rich in the virtues of the angelica. On drying the
root, this juice concretes into diftinft molecuke, which,
on cutting it longitudinally, appear diftributed in little AngcHcs®
veins ; in this ftate, they are extracted by pure fpirit, !i I
but not by watery liquors. ' nge 0*||
Angelica is one of the moft elegant aromatics of
European growth, though little regarded in the pre¬
fent practice. The root, which is the moft efficacious
part, is rarely met with in prefcription, and does not
enter any officinal compofition. See Materia Me- I
dica, n° 104.
ANGELICS, in church-hiftory, an ancient fe£t of
heretics, fuppofed by fome to have got this appellation
from their exceffive veneration of angels; and by o-
thers, from their maintaining that the world was created
by angels.
Angelics is alfo the name of an order of knights,
inftituted in 1191, by Angelus Flavius Commenus em¬
peror of Conftantinople.
Angelics is alfo a congregation of nuns, founded
at Milan in 1534, by Louifa Torelli, countefsof Gua-
ftalla. They obferve the rule of St Auguftine.
ANGELITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feft of
Chriftian heretics, in the reign of the emperor Anafta-
fius, and the pontificate of Symmachus, about the year
494; fo called from Angelium, a place in the city of
Alexandria, where they held their firft meetings. They
were called likewife Severites, from one Severus, who
was the head of their feft; as alfo Theodofians, from
one among them named Theodoftus, whom they made
pope at Alexandria. They held, that the perfons of
the Trinity are not the fame ; that none of them ex-
ifts of himfelf, and of his own nature ; but that there
is a common god, or deity, exifting in them all; and
that each is God, by a participation of this deity.
ANGELO (Michael.) There were five celebrated
Italian painters of this name, who flourifhed in the 16th
and 17th centuries ; but the two moft diftinguifhed of
of them are thefe. Firft, Michael Angelo Buonarro¬
ti, who was a moft incomparable painter, fculptor, and
architeft, born in 1474, in the territory of Arezzi in
Tufcany. He was the difciple of Dominico Ghirlan¬
daio ; and ere&ed an academy of painting and fculpture
in Florence, under the prote&ion of Lorenzo di Me-
dicis ; which, upon the troubles of thathoufe, was obli¬
ged to remove to Bologna. About this time he made
an image of Cupid, which he carried to Rome, broke
off one of its arms, and buried the image in a place he
knew would foon be dug up,, keeping the arm by him.
It was accordingly found, and fold to Cardinal St Gre¬
gory for an antique; until Michael, to their confufion
and his own credit, difcovered his artifice, and con¬
firmed it by the deficient arm which he produced : it
is rather unufual. for the manufa&urers of antiques to
be fo ingenuous. His reputation was fo great at Rome,
that he was employed by pope Sixtus to paint his cha¬
pel ; and by the command of pope Paul III. executed
his moft celebrated piece, The lajl judgment. He has
the charafter of being the greateft defigner that ever
lived; and it is univerfally allowed that no painter ever
underftood anatomy fo well. He died immenfely rich,
at Rome, in 15 64. Secondly, Michael Angelo de
Caravaggio, born at that village in Milan, in 1569.
He was at firft no more than a bricklayer's labourer
but he was fo charmed with feeing fome painters at
work, that he immediately applied himfelf to the art;
and made fuch a progrefs in a few years, that he was
admired.
I
7
>g 1 Angelo
g (finger.
A N G [ 425 ] A N G
admired as the author of a new llyle in painting. It he mentions a perfon laid up in the gout, who, being Anger.*
was obferved of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he provoked by his phyiician, flew upon him, and was mama
was incomparable in defigning, but knew little of co- cured. It is true, the remedy is fomewhat dangerous Angers,
louring; and of Caravaggio, that he had as good a in the application, when a patient does not know how to
gout in flouring, as he had a bad one in defigning. ufe it with moderation. Wemeet with feveralinftancesof
There is one pi&ure of his in the Dominican church princes to whom it has proved mortal; e. gr. Valenti-
at Antwerp, which Rubens ufed to call his mafter. It nian the firft, Wenceflas, Matthius Corvinus king of
is faid of this painter, that he was fo ftrangely conten- Hungary, and others. There are alfo inftances where-
tious, that the pencil was no fooner out of his hand, in it has produced the epilepfy, jaundice, cholera-mor-
but his fword was in it. He died in 1609. bus, diarrhoea, <bc. Mem. de Trev. 1707. p. 923.
ANGELO (St.) a fmallbut ftrong town of Italy, ANGERMANIA, a province of the kingdom of
in the Capitanata. There are feveral other towns and Sweden, bounded on the N. by Lapland and Bothnia,
caftles of the fame name in Italy, and particularly the on the E. by the gulph of Bothnia and Medelpadia,
caftle of St Angelo at Rome. E. long. 15. 56. N. lat. and on the W. by Jemli and Herndel. It is full of
41. 43. rocks, mountains, and forefts ; and there is one very
ANGELOS (los), a province of Mexico, the an- high mountain called Scull. It has excellent iron-
cient republic of Tlafcala, of which a city called Tlaf- works, and lakes abounding with fifli.
cala was once the capital. That city is now reduced ANGERMOND, a town of the duchy of Berg,
to an inconfiderable village, and has given place to in Germany, on the E. fide of the Rhine, fubjedl to
another called Puebla des los Angelos, or the city of the Eledlor Palatine. E. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 51. 10.
Angels. It is fituated in W. Long. 103. 12. and ANGERONA, in mythology, the name of a pa-
N. Lat. 19. 13. It was formerly an Indian town; gan deity whom the Romans prayed to for the cure of
but in 1530 was entirely abandoned by the natives, on a diftemper called the ; in Latin, angina. Pliny
account of the cruelties of the Spaniards. A fuc- calls her the goddefs of filence and calmnefs of mind,
ceeding viceroy of Mexico, by a milder treatment, who baniflies all uneafinefs and melancholy. She is re¬
recalled them ; and the town is now exceedingly rich prefented with her mouth covered, to denote patience
and populous, fo as even to vie with Mexico itfelf in and refraining from complaints. Her ftatue wasfet up,
magnificence. It is fituated on the river Zacatula, in and facrificed to, in the temple of the goddefs Volu-
a fine valley, about 25 leagues to the eaftward of Me- pia, to (hew that a patient enduring of affiidtion leads
xico. In the middle is a beautiful and fpacious fquare, to pleafure.
from whence run the principal ftreets in diredt lines, ANGERONALIA, feafts inftituted at Rome ia
which are' croffed by others at right Angles. One fide honour of the goddefs Angerona. They were cele-
is almoft entirely occupied by the magnificent front of brated on the 21ft of December.
the cathedral; while the other three confiits of piaz- ANGERS, a great city of France, and capital of
zas, under which are the (hops of tradefmen. The the duchy of Anjou, with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated
city is the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan to the archbifhop a little above the place where the Sarte and the Loire
of Mexico, and we may form a judgment of the wealth lofe themfelves in the Maine. This laft river divides
of the place by the revenue of the cathedral and chap- the city into two equal parts. There are twelve pa¬
ter, which amounts to 300,000 pieces of eight annual- riflies in the city, and four in the fuburbs, which con-
ly. It muft be remembered, however, that in all po- tain upwards of thirty-fix thoufand inhabitants. Be-
pi(h countries the wealth of the laity by no means fides thefe, there are eight chapters, and a great num-
bears the fame proportion to that of the clergy, as in ber of convents for both fexes. Its greateft extent is
Britain. What contributes greatly to increafe the along the declivity of a hill, which reaches quite down
riches of this province is, that here is fituated the city to the river fide. The caftle is flanked with eighteen
of Vera Cruz, tire natural centre of all the American large round towers and a ftrong half-moon. From the
treafures belonging to Spain. See Vera Cruz. platform there is a very delightful profpeft. The ca-
ANGELOT, a gold coin (truck at Paris, while thedral church is remarkable for the length and height
fubjedt to the Englifti; fo called from the reprefenta- of its great nave, which is without pillars, and is
tion of an angel fupporting the arms of England and thought to be the fined in France. It contains a trea-
France. fure' which is never (hown but on great feftival-days.
ANGER, a violent paffion of the mind, confiding Over the great gate are three very high fteeples, the
in a propenfity to take vengeance on the author of middlemoft of which is fupported by the other two,
fome real or fuppofed injury done the offended party, and feems to be fufpended in the air : it is very much
See Moral Philosophy, n° 31, 212.; and the article admired by ftrangers. At the foot of the caftle there
Emotions and Pajfions, n° vi. and xi. 9, 10. is a chain, which reaches to the other fide of the ri-
Phyficians and naturalifts afford inftances of very ver, and is fattened to a tower, which prevents the en-
extraordinary effedts of this paflion. Borrichius cured trance by the river into the city. Near the church of
a woman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had baf- St Michael is the handfomeft fquare in the city, from
fled the art of phyfic, by putting the patient in a furious whence runs a ftreet which has the name of the church,
fit of anger. Valeriola made ufe of the fame means, with On one fide of this ftreet is the town-houfe; which has
the like fuccefs, in a quartan ague; The fame paflion a fine tower, with a clock, raifed upon an arch, which,
has been equally falutary to paralytic, gouty, and even ferves for a paffage into the great fquare. There are
dumb perfons; to which laft it has fometimes given two large bridges, which keep up a communication
the ufe of fpeech. Etmuller gives divers infljances of between the two parts of the city ; and in the leffer of
very fingular cures wrought by anger; among others, thefe there is another fquare, which ferves for a mar-
A N G [ 426 ] A N G
Anghieri ket. The univerfity of Angers was founded in 1398,
II and the academy of belles lettres in 1685. This
ng eti!y laft confifts of thirty academicians. At the end of
the fuburbs pf Brefigny are the quarries of Angiers,
fo famous for the fine ilate which is got from thence.
The pieces are of the thicknefs of a crown-piece, and
a foot fquare. All the houfes in Angers are covered
with this flate, which has gained it the appellation of
the Black city. W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 47. 28.
ANGHIERA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan, and capital of a county of the fame name. It
is feated on the eaftern fide of the lake Maggiore, in
E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 45. 42.
ANGINA, in medicine, a violent inflamation of
the throat, otherwife called quinzy. See Quinzy.
ANGIOSPERMIA, in the Linnam fyftem of bo¬
tany, the fecond order in the clafs Didynamia. It con¬
fifts of thofe plants, of that clafs, whofe feeds are in-
clofed in a pericarpium. In this order the ftigma is
generally obtufe. Thefe are the pcrfonati of Tourne-
fort.
ANGLE, in geometry, the inclination of two lines
meeting one another in a point, and called the legs of
the angle. See Geometry.
Angle of Incidence, in optics, the angle which
a ray of light makes with a perpendicular to that point
of the furface of any medium on which it falls; tho’
it is fometimes underftood of the angle which it makes
with the furface itfelf.
Angle of Refrattion now generally means the angle
which a ray of light, refra&ed by any medium, makes
with a perpendicular to that point of the furface on
which it was incident ; but has fometimes been under¬
ftood of the angle which it makes with the furface of
the refra&ing medium itfelf.
ANGLER, a perfpn who practices the art of ang¬
ling, whether as a diverfion, or otherwife. See the ar¬
ticle Angling.
Angler, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of a fpe-
cies of lophus. SeeLoPHUs.
ANGLES, an ancient German nation, originally
a branch of the Suevi; who, after various migrations,
fettled in that part of Denmark, and duchy of Slef-
wick, which to this day is called Angel, and of which
the city of Flenftnirgh is the capital. Here they were
known, even in the time of Tacitus, by the name of
Angli. The origin of this name is varioufly accounted
for. According to Saxo-Grammaticus, they were
called Angli from one Angulus, fon to Humblus king
of Denmark. Widifchind, a Saxon writer, will have
them to be called Angli, from an ifland in the corner or
angle of the fea, which they conquered. Gordpius
derives their name from the Saxon word Angel,
or Engel, fignifying a'filh-hook; the Angles, like
the other Saxon nations, being greatly addi&ed to
piracy, and on that account being fo named by the
neighbouring nations; as if, like hooks, they caught all
that was in the fea. To this nation the Britifh ambafla-
dors are faid to have applied when foliciting fuccours
sgainft the Scots and Pidts. The Angles therefore
came over in greater numbers than any other Saxon na¬
tion ; and accordingly had the honour of giving the
name of Anglia to England. See England.
ANGLESEY (Ifle of,) is the moft wefterncounty
of North Wales. It is 24 miles in length, 14 in
breadth, and fends one member to parliament. It is Anglefey,
feparated from Caernarvonfhire by a ftrait called Meni, Angling,
and on every other fide is furrounded by the fea. It
is a fertile fpot, and abounds in corn, cattle, flelh, filh,
and fowls; with very good mill-ftones and grind-ftones.
The chief town is Beaumaris. Near Kemlyn-harbour
is a quarry of ftone called afbejlos, which is a beauti¬
ful marble, out of which may be got the linum afbe-
ftinum, called here falamander's ’wool; and will bear
common fire: not far from this is a yellow ful-
phureous copper-ore, which has never been worked.
At Llahbadrig, about three miles eaftward from hence,
is a great body or vein of ftony-oker, of various co¬
lours, as red, yellow, blue; and an extremely fine
white-clay, of the cimolia kind, of great fervice to
'painters, potters, and ftone-cutters. In ancient times
this ifiand was called Mon, Mona, or Moneg ; and got
the name of Anglefey only when conquered by the Eng-
lifh. It was the great nurfery of the religion of the
Druids; being the refidence of the grand Druid, or
chief pontiff, and confequently of all the learned doc¬
tors in that religion. In the reign of the emperor
Claudius (A. D. 45.) the Druids beginning to be
perfecuted by the Romans on account of their facrifi-
cing human viftims, moft of them retired to this if¬
land: but they did not long enjoy their retreat in fafe-
ty; for, in the year 61, Suetonius Paulinus governor
of Britain, having obferved that the ifiand or Angle¬
fey was a great feat of difaffeftion to the Roman go¬
vernment, and afforded an afylum to all who were
forming plots againft it, he determined to root them out.
He accordingly entered the ifland, and defeated the Bri¬
tons who attempted to defend it, though they were
animated by the prefence, prayers, and exhortations
of a great number of Druids and Druideffes. After
this victory, he cut down the groves, and overturned the
altars, which had been polluted by the blood of many
human viftims ; and even requited the cruelties of the
Druids upon themfelves, by burning many of them in
the fires they had prepared for the Roman prifoners if
the Britons had got the viftory. Many ancient monu¬
ments of this religion ftill remain in the ifland.
ANGLING, among fportfmen, the art of fiftiing
with a rod, to which are fitted a line, hook, and
bait. See Fishing-T?^, FisHiNG-i/ooi, Fishing-/^.
The angler’s firft bufmefs is to attra& the filh to the
place intended for angling. The method of doing this,
in Handing waters, by throwing in grains, chopped
worms, and the like, is well known : but the chief dif¬
ficulty is in running rivers and brooks. The method, in
this cafe, is to prepare a tin box capable of holding
fome hundred of worms, bored on all fides, and full
of holes of fuch a fize as they may be juft able to
crawl out at ; there muft be a plummet faftened to this
box to fink it, and a line to draw it back at pleafure;
in this cafe it is to be thrown into the water in a pro¬
per place, above which the angler may ftand under co¬
ver. The worms will flowly and gradually crawl out
of this box, and the filh will be gathered about to feed
on them ; the baited hook is to be thrown in higher
up and carried down by the ftream. If this method
do not bring the filh about the place in a little time,
there is reafon to fufpedt that fome pike lies lurking
thereabout, and deters them : in this cafe, it is proper
to throw out a baited hook, and he will generally he
taken :
A N G [ 427 ] A N G
Angling, taken; after this the attempt will fucceed.
  When the angler takes his Hand, he is to ihelter
himfelf under fome tree or bufli, or Hand fo far from
the brink of the water that he can only difcern his
float; as the fifh are timorous and eafily frighted away.
The angling rod muft be kept in a moderate ftate, nei¬
ther too dry nor too moift: in the firft cafe, it will be
brittle; in the other, rotten. When paftes are ufed,
it is proper to mix a little tow with them, and rub
them over with honey; finally, a fmall anointing
with butter is of great ufe to keep them from wafliing
off the hook. The eyes of any fiih that is taken are an
excellent bait for almofl: any other kind of fifti. The
bed way of angling with the fly is down the river,
and not up ; neither need the angler ever make above
half a dozen of trials in one place, either with fly or
ground bait, when he angles for trout: by that time
the filh will either offer to take, or refufe the bait and
not ftir at all.
In a pond, the beft place for the angler to take his
ftand is ufually that where the cattle go up into water :
in rivers, if breams are fiftied for, it fhould be in the
deepeft and moft quiet places ; if eels, under the banks
of rivers that hang over; perch are to be expe&ed in
clean places, where the ftream is fwift; and chub in
deep fliaded holes : roach are moftly found where the
perch are, and trout only in fwift and clear ftreams.
Places where there are many weeds, or old flumps of
trees, harbour fiih in great numbers, and they ufually
bite freely there; but there is danger of entangling the
line, or faftening the hook to the weeds. In cafe of
this accident, recourfe is to be had to a ring of lead,
of about fix inches round, faftened to a fmall pack¬
thread: this ring'is to be thruff over the rod, and let
fall into the water. ‘It will defcend to the place where
the hook is entangled; and then, by pulling the pack¬
thread gently, the hook will be foon difengaged, or
at the word it can only be broke off near the end of
the line y whereas, when this is not employed, the rod
itfelf is fometimes broken, or the line nearer its upper
end.
Deep waters are beft for angling in, for the fifti do
not love to be difturbed by wind and weather.
The openings of fluices and mill-dams always bring
fifti up the current to feek for the food, which is brought
with the ftream; and angling in thefe places is ufually
fuccefsful.
The beft feafon is from April to Oftober; for, in
very cold ftormy weather, the fifti will not bite : the
beft times of the day are from three till nine in the
morning, and from three in the afternoon till fun-fet.
In an eafterly wind, there is never much fport for the
angler; the foutherly winds are the beft for his pur-
pofe, and a warm [but lowering day is moft of all to
be chofen ; a gentle wind, after a fudden ftiower, to dif-
turb the water, makes a very good opportunity for the
angler : the cooler the weather in the hotteft months,
the better; but in winter, on the contrary, the warmer
the day the better. A cloudy day, after a bright moon¬
light night, is always a good day for fport; for the fifti
do not care for going after prey in the bright moon-
fliine, and are therefore hungry the next morning.
Thofe who are fond of angling might fave themfelves
fome fruitlefs trouble, by obferving when fmall fifti in
a jar take or refufe food. See Fish.
The feveral methods of angling for falmon, trout, Anglo-
carp, tench, pearch, pike, dace, gudgeons, roach, calvamfts
flounder, &c. may be feen under the articles Salmon- Angola.
Fishing, TtowZ-Fishing, &c.  
ANGLO-CALVINISTS, a name given by fome
writers to the members of the church of England, as
agreeing with the other Calvinifts in moft points ex¬
cept church-government.
ANGLO-SAXON, an appellation given to the lan¬
guage fpoken by the Englilh Saxons; in contradiftinc-
tion from the true Saxon, as well as from the modern
Englifti.
ANGLUS (Thomas),an Englifli prieft, well know*
for the Angularity of his opinions, and feveral little
trafts which he wrote in the 17th century. He went by
feveral names. Mr Baillet fays his true name was
White; but that he ufed to difguife it under that of
Candidas, Albius, Bianchi, and Richworth; but he
was moft known in France by the name of Thomas An-
glus. Des Cartes generally called him Mr Vitus. He
paffed fome time in moft countries of Europe; but his
longeft ftay was at Rome and Paris. When he was in
England, he lived a confiderable time in the family of
Sir Kenelm Digby; and feems to have had a great e-
fteem for the opinions of this gentleman, as may be feen
in his writings, particularly in the Preface to his Latin
work concerning the Inftitutions of the Peripatetic
Philofophy, according to the hypothefis of Sir Kenelm.
He was a great advocate for the peripatetic philofo¬
phy. He attempted even to make the principles of
Ariftotle fubfervient to the explaining the moft impe¬
netrable myfteries of religion; and with this view, he
engaged in the difcuffion of predeftination, free-will*,
and grace. Mr Baillet fays, “ What he wrote upon
this fubjeft refembles the ancient oracles for obfcurity.”
In fuch abftrufe points as we have mentioned, he was
much embarraffed; and, by giving too great fcope to
his own thoughts, he pleafed neither the Molinifts nor
Janfenifts. He is allowed, however, to have been a
man of an extenfive and penetrating genius. On the
10th of June, 1658, the congregation of the Index Ex-
purgatorius at Rome condemned fome treatifes of
Thomas Anglus. The doftors of Douay cenfured alfo
22 propofitions extracted from his Sacred Inftitutions.
He publiftied his Supplicatio pojlulativa jujlitiee, in op-
pofition to their cenfure; wherein he complains that they
had given him a vague undetermined cenfure, without
taxing any particular propofition. He died fome time
after the reftoration of Charles II. but in what year is
uncertain..
ANGOL, a city of Chili in- South America, fitu-
ated in W. Long. 78°. and S. Lat. 38°.
ANGOLA, a kingdom on the weftern coaft of A-
frica, lying, according to the moft probable accounts,,
between Lat. 8.30. and 16. 21. South, forming a coaft
of upwards of 480 miles; but how far it extends from
weft to eaft, has never been exactly determined. An¬
gola Proper is bounded on the north by the river Dan-
da, which feparates it from Congo; and on the fouth
by the Coanza, by which it is feparated from Benguela.
This laft, however, is now included in the kingdom of
Angola, having been conquered by its monarchs, tho’
it ftill retains the name of kingdom, and is included in
the dimenfions we have juft now given. The air here
is very hot and unwholefome, and the country moun¬
tainous
A N G
Originally a
province of
Congo.
tairious; there being but few pi;
it, except on the fea-coaft, and between the huge ridg<
of mountains.
Thatpart of the kingdom which we have diftinguilhed
by the name of Angola Proper, was fubjeft to the kings
[ 428 ] A N G
to be met with in throne for himfelf. He accordingly took the opportu- Angola.:
nity, one day, when that princefs and the whole court ■
were employed in fowing their lands, to fpread a re¬
port that the Angolic enemies had entered the king¬
dom, and were deftroying every thing with fire and
of Congo in the year 1484, when the Portuguefe firft fword. In this confufion, the treacherous viceroy con-
difcovered the country: but how long it had been fo
before that time, is impoffible to be difcovered; as the
inhabitants are utterly deflitute of Chronology, and
have no other way of diftinguilhing paft events but by
faying they happened in fuch a king’s reign. Neither,
though Angola became a diftindl kingdom fince its dif-
covery by the Portuguefe, is it known with more cer¬
tainty at what time that revolution happened; or whe¬
ther the Portuguefe were not concerned in affifting the
viceroy of the king of Congo, who governed the pro¬
vince of Angola, to fet up for himfelf.
All accounts agree, that this kingdom was founded
■ by one Ngola, or Angola, from whom it took its name.
. According to the tradition of the country, this Ngola
;- was a fmith, and the inventor of that trade, in which
he had been inftructed by the demons of the country.
In confequence of this, he became exceeding rich, not
in gold, filver, or fhell-money, which were not at that
time in ufe; but in corn, cattle, and fruits, which-*—"-'
then exchanged in traffic. The country being not long
after vifited by a grievous famine, Ngola generoufly 1
dufted thi three princeffes to the royal palace; and ac¬
quainting Ngola with the pretended danger, urged him
to betake himfelf to a fpeedy flight. The frighted mo--
narch, unable to ftir with age, defired his minifter to Murdered
take the moft proper means for his fafety: whereupon, by hisprinj
being a flout young fellow, he takes his majefty on his minifter,
back, and carries him into a neighbouring wood; where
he no fooner had him in a convenient place, than he
ftabbed him with a dagger. This ftratagem was too
fhallow to remain long concealed; the murderer was
quickly difcovered, and many of the nobles rofe in arm*
againft him; but finding his party too ftrong to be op-
pofed, they were at laft obliged to fubmit, and fuffer
him quietly to afcend the throne, upon his publicly de¬
claring that he had not feized it but with a view of fe-
curing it to the young princefs Zunda Riangola.
To this princefs, the ufurper palliated his conduct in
the beft manner he could; and (he had art enough to'
difguife her refentment fo effectually, that he never dif¬
covered, nor did {he give him the fmalleft occafion for
jealoufy. At laft, his fudden death gave Zunda an op- Death*ofti!
lieved his diftreffed countrymen, and faved the lives of portunity of afcending the throne peaceably; when Ihe ufiirper,
thentic ac-
fome thoufands. In gratitude for this generofity, he
was unanimoufly chofon king; and hence the fmith’s
trade is reckoned among the royal arts of Angola.
According to other accounts which can be more de¬
pended upon, Ngola was the king of Congo’s viceroy;
who, having become powerful by the reduction of feve-
veral of the neighbouring ftates, was induced to fet up
for himfelf. Dreading, neverthelefs, the power of his
old mafter, he chofe to fend him the ufual tribute and
prefents annually, till he reckoned himfelf firmly feat-
ed on the throne, and had fecured it to his defcendents.
His meafures were greatly facilitated by the wars which
the king of Congo was then engaged in with the Giagas,
a barbarous and cannibal nation in the neighbourhood.
Thefe made fuch a powerful inroad into his dominions,
that he was glad to afle affiftance from Ngola ; not as
a fubjed, but as a friend and ally. This was readily
granted; and the two monarchs continued ever after
behaved with fuch moderation and juftice, as to gain who is
the love and affeCtion of all her fubjeCts. Her jeaTous zundtsl
temper prevented her from marrying; and, by giving angola,
too much way to it, file came at laft to dread as ri¬
vals the two fons of her younger fifter Tumba, and to
form defigns againft their life. To accompliffi her pur-
pofes, (he ordered them to be brought to court, pre¬
tending to have them educated under her own eye.
This was declined for fome time; but at length the
queen prevailed fo far as to have the eldeft fent to 7
her; whom fire no fooner got into her power, than {he Murdersh;
caufed him to be maffacred, with all his attendants; neph<
only one efcaping, all covered with wounds, to carry
the dreadful news to the princefs and her hulband.
On hearing of this bloody aft, the afflifted parents
immediately fallied forth at the head of all their vaffals.
They were waited for by Queen Zunda at the head of
a numerous army; but, no fooner did her foldiers per-
lending prefents and affirtance to each other, and en- ceive the parents of the deceafed prince, than they im-
Ngola the
firft king.
couraging a mutual commerce between their fubjefts.
Ngola lived to a great age, highly refpefted by his
fubjefts, and in alliance with the king of Congo and
mediately abandoned the queen to their refentment,
Tumba immediately ruflied upon her fifter, and ftab- Isherfelf
bed her to the heart; after which, ftie commanded her murdered
the Portugnefe, whofe numerous fettlements on the entrails to be taken out, and thrown into the hole in tyherfiftiM
coaft had made them become very powerful. Accord¬
ing to the cuftom of the country, he had many wives
and concubines. By his chief favourite he had three
daughters, Zunda Riangola, Pumba Riangola, and
which her fon’s body had been caft. Upon this Tumba
was crowned queen of Angola, and invited her huf-
band to participate with her in the management of
public affairs. This offer he was too wife to accept;
other whofe name is unknown. Towards the latter and Tumba, upon his refufal, refigned the crown into
YlUrl" flT IllR llfp. Irincr’ft fTupf* r*5irp wan 'Tp/^n 4-Vwa nrr (Vvn n n lat si
part of his life, the king’s chief care was to fecure the
Crown to the eldeft of thefe; for which purpofe he con-
fulted his beloved queen, who encouraged him in the
the hands of her furviving fon, named Angola Cbihagni.
He proved a great and wife prince, extending his do¬
minions by conqueft, and gaining the love of his fub-
defign with all the eloquence in her power. By her jefts by the moderation and equity of his government.
advice, he fent for his lieutenant-general, a favourite
Have, whom he had created viceroy over the whole king
dom, to acquaint him with his refolution. The artful
minifter did not fail to applaud his defign, though his
intention was to defraud the princefs, and feize the
He was fucceeded by one of his younger fons, named Dambi a|
Dambi Angola; who no fooner afeended the throne, Sola a crtl
than he put all his brethren to death, left they fliould )rian • [
unite in favour of the eldeft. The reft of his reign
proved conformable to fuch a beginning. He was a
monfter
A N G [ 429 ] A N G
<. Angola, monfter of cruelty, avarice, lewdnefs, and faithlefsnefs:
Jl death, however, in a fhort time, happily delivered his
fubjefts from this tyrant; who, notwithftanding his
infamous life, was buried with the greateft magnifi¬
cence ; and a mount was ere&ed over his grave, con¬
fiding, according to the cuftom of the country, of a
prodigious number of human vi&ims which had been
*0 . facrificed to his ghoft. Dambi Angola was fucceeded
1 Sni^is ^7 Ngola Chilivagni, a warlike and cruel prince. He
1 conquefts. conquered many nations, and made the moft dreadful
j inroads into the kingdom of Congo, along the rivers of
Danda, Lucalla, Zanda, and Coanza; whofe waters
were often tinged with the blood of thoufands whom
he maflacred in his excurfions. Notwithftanding thefe
horrid butcheries, Ngola Chilivagni {hewed fuch gene-
rofity to thofe who readily fubmitted to him, that he
was fure to conquer, not only wherever he came, but
wherever he feemed to direft his forces. At laft, as if
weary of conqueft, he planted a tree on the banks of
the Coanza, about eight leagues from Loanda San
Paulo, as a boundary to his ravages. This tree the
Portuguefe called Ifanda, or Ifandaura; and afterwards
,, eredfed a fortrefs near it.
j Fancies The fame folly and infolence which took place in the
himfelf a breaft of Alexander the Great, on account of his rapid
j£011, conquefts, foon puffed up the mind of this petty Afri¬
can tyrant. Becaufe he had conquered and ravaged
fome of the neighbouring countries, and brought under
his fubjedtion a few cowardly barbarians; he firft fan¬
cied himfelf invincible, and then that he was a god.
He demanded the fame refpedl and adoration that was
paid to their other deities; and with this infamous de¬
mand his fubjedts were mean enough to comply. This
pretended deity, however, was forced to fubmit to the
fate of other mortals, and died without leaving a fuc-
ceffor behind him.
On the deceafe of Ngola Chilivagni, the ftates elec¬
ted Ngingha-Angola-Chilombo-Kickafanda, great-ne¬
phew to queen Tumba’s hufband, as his fucceffor. He
proved fuch a rapacious and cruel tyrant, that his fub-
jedts univerfally wiftied for his death ; which, luckily
for them, foon happened. He was interred with the
ufual pomp and folemnities, particularly that of having
a whole hecatomb of human vidfims facrificed upon his
-Revolt a- grave. His fon Bandi Angola, who fucceeded him,
gainfl Bandi prove(l yet a greater tyrant than his father; fo that he
nS° a> foon became intolerable to his fubjedfs. A general re¬
volt enfued, in which his fubjedts called in the cannibal
Giagas to their affiftance. Thefe immediately poured
in like a band of hungry dogs haftening to feed upon a
carcafe ; and, having defeated and devoured the forces
of the tyrant, befieged him in an inacceflible mountain;
, j where, not being able to come at him, they refolved ta
i Quelled by reduce him by famine. Bandi Angola, being now re-
ihe affift- duced to the utmoft diftrefs, applied to the king of Con-
^ce ‘lie go for affiftance. As it was the intereft of that prince
10 and the t0 hinder the ravenous Giagas from entering into the
rPortuguefe. Angolic dominions, whence they could fo eafily pafs
into his own, he did not hefitate at granting his re-
queft; and ordered a ftrong reinforcement of the Por¬
tuguefe, of whofe valour he had a high opinion, and of
whom he entertained a great number at his court, to
march to the affiftance of the king of Angola. The
command of the army was given to one of the moft
experienced Portuguefe officers; who, depending more
Vol. I.
on the handful of Europeans under his command, than Ang°la’
on the Congoefe, attacked the rebels, tho’ greatly fu-
perior in number; and, having utterly defeated them,
reftored the king of Angola to his throne.
This effential piece of fervice fo endeared the Portu¬
guefe to Bandi Angola, that he took them into his fer- 14
vice, and even into his council. Their general became The king’s
a great favourite of the king, but much more fo of his
daughter, who conceived a violent paffion for him. tj,e
Unfortunately for them both, the amour was carried Portuguefe
on with fo little precaution on her part, that the king general,
quickly difcovered it; and immediately formed a refo-
lution of exterminating the Portuguefe all at once.
Such violent meafures, however, could not be concert¬
ed fo privately but the princefs got fome intelligence of
it; and having apprized her lover of his danger, he im- ,j
mediately withdrew into Congo, taking with him as Who retires
many of his countrymen as he conveniently could. The t0 Congo,
king of Congo expreffed fuch ftrong refentment againft
Bandi Angola for his ingratitude, that the Portuguefe
general would have probably prevailed upon him to de¬
clare war againft Angola, had he not been obliged to
defend his own dominions againft a neighbouring prince
who then made an invafion. This afforded that gene¬
ral a fair pretence of aflring leave to return home; pro-
mifing to return with fuch reinforcements as would en¬
able the king of Congo to revenge himfelf for the af¬
front put upon him by the Angolic monarch. His real
intention, however, was, to give the king of Portugal
a fair pretence for feizing upon the kingdom of An¬
gola. 16
On his return to Lifbon, the Portuguefe general ha- Tays a plan
ving laid his plan before the king, it was fo well relifh- f°r j,he
ed by him, that an armament was ordered to be fitted g0ia before
out, well furniftied with every neceffary for building the king of
fortreffes, &c. and a fufficient number of men. The Portugal,
wind proving favourable all the way back, the Portu¬
guefe foon arrived fafe at Loanda San Paulo; whence
the general difpatched a meffenger to acquaint the king
of Congo with his arrival, and to make him fome rich
prefents. Thefe were no fooner gone, than the admi¬
ral failed up the Coanza; and, landing without oppofi-
tion in the kingdom of Angola, fet about ere&ing a
fortrefs in a convenient fituation, which was completed
in a few days.
The king being informed of the return of the Por¬
tuguefe, and of their fortifying themfelves on advan¬
tageous ground, gathered together a numerous army: ,7
but his forces, though upwards of 100,000 in num- Defeats the
ber, were utterly defeated by the Portuguefe; vaft num- Angolans,
bers killed, and many more carried into flavery. The
admiral now ravaged the whole country, putting all to
fire and fword, and making himfelf mafter of every ad¬
vantageous fpot of ground. The king, however, had
ftill the good luck to efcape all the ftratagems that
were laid for him; and once more got fafe to his inac-
ceffible fortrefs.
All this time Bandi Angola had himfelf tyrannized,
and allowed his favourites to tyrannize, in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fubje&s were become no lefs weary of his
government than when they formerly revolted. Being
now exafperated beyond meafure at the calamitous war
of which he had been the occafion, they formed a de-
fign of putting an end to his life; and in order to draw
him out of his retreat, where he wallowed in all manner
H h h of
A N G
A N G
Angola.
of debaucheries, they had recourfe to the following
"ftratagem: A deputation was fent, acquainting him
with the revolt of one Cuculo Cabazzo ; who, at the
head of a numerous band, committed the mod cruel
ravages. They befought his majefty either to levy a
fufficient number of troops, and march in perfon againft
him, or to allow them to arm themfelves againft him.
The credulous king complied with this laft propofal;
and granted them leave to raife what forces might be
thought neceffary. Four days after, notice was lent to
the king, that his fubjefts had attacked the rebels, and
had been repulfed with lofs; but that, if his majefty
would but condefcend to animate them with his pre¬
fence, the fight of him would infpire them with fuch
courage, that they would affuredly prove victorious.
This had the defired effeft; and the king fet out a few
days after, without any other precaution than his own
guards, to head his army, which was encamped on the
banks of the Lucalla. He no fooner appeared in view,
than all the chief officers came out to meet him; and,
Bandi An- having, under pretence of paying their refpeCts, gradu-
king.
ally Separated him from his guards, they fell upon him,
* and difpatched him at once.
Bandi Angola was fucceeded by his fon Ngola Ban¬
di, whofe mother had been a Have; and whofe title to
1S) the crown was confequently difputable, according to the
Cruelty of laws of the country. Of this the new king being well
apprized, thought proper to begin his reign by putting
to death every perfon who had oppofed his ele&ion.
He began with the Tendula, or commander of the king’s
rear-guard; who, by his office, is the chief of the elec¬
tors, and the perfon who governs the kingdom during
the interregnum. Him he ordered to be put to death,
with all his family. Thefe were followed by the prin¬
cipal officers of his father’s court; all his concubines,
together with their parents and near relations, whom
he caufed to be cruelly butchered; together with his
half-brother, his father’s fon by a favourite concubine,
and then but an infant. He did not fpare even the fon
of his filler Zingha Bandi, whom fhe had by one of her
paramours. The intereft of his filler had contributed
greatly to raife this tyrant to the throne ; and his in¬
gratitude, with the murder of her fon, fo exafperated
her, that fhe fwore to be revenged on him in the fame
a<> way.
Makes war The Portuguefe were the next objefls of his refent-
on the I’or- ment. Thefe he fo much dreaded on account of their
isredir'tdto va^our and policy, that he immediately declared war,
great di- refolving not to lay down his arms till he had extermi-
" " nated them to the laft man, or driven them totally out
of his dominions. His rafhnefs, however, coll him dear.
Myriads of tfie Angolic poltroons were overthrown by
an handful of Portuguefe; and the king himfelf forced
to fly, fir ft into the ifiand of Chiconda in the river Co-
anza, and then into the defarts of Oacco. Here his
conquerors, out of great clemency, allowed him to live
among the wild beafts, 'without any other fuftenance
than what the defarts afforded. He had the misfortune
alfo to lofe his queen and two fillers Cambi and Fun¬
gi, who were taken prifonera by the Poriwguefe, but
treated very honourably.
The king being informed of the generous treatment
ftrefs.
43° ]
of Angola had not yet taught him wifdom. The prin- Angola,
celfes were fent back, laden with prefents; but the king ~ i
refufed to perform his part of the agreement, and there- His treach- j
by plunged himfelf into Hill greater difficulties. A
new Portugpefe viceroy being arrived about this time,
Ngola was quite at a lofs how to excufe the non-per¬
formance of his part of the treaty. At lafl, he had 22
recourfe to his exafperated filler Zingha ; and having Sends his fi- •
excufed, as well as he could, the murder of her fon,
propofed to fend her on a fplendid embafly to the vice- bafly.
roy; and, as her embracing the religion of the Portu¬
guefe would intitle her more to their favour and confi¬
dence, he defired her to confent to it for the prefent.
To this propofal Zingha confented; but without for¬
getting her refentment. She fet out, as plenipotentiary
for the king of Angola, with a magnificent retinue,
was received with all the honour due to her rank, and
lodged in a fplendid palace prepared for her. ' .,
At the firft audience Zingha had of Don John (the 1Ier haugh-*
Portuguefe viceroy), Ihe was greatly furprifed to find ^yur e 2V1"
a llately elbow-chair prepared for him to fit upon, and
for herfelf only a rich tapeftry fpread on the floor, with
a velvet culhion embroidered with gold, and placed over
againlt the chair of Hate. Difiembling her difplea-
fure, however, Ihe beckoned to one of the ladies of her
retinue, commanded her to lay herfelf down on her el¬
bows and knees upon the carpet, and fat herfelf upon-
her back during the whole time of the audience. She
behaved with fuch addrefs and dignity, as to gain the
admiration of the whole council. A propofal was made
of entering into an alliance offenfive and defenfive with
the king of Angola, provided he acknowledged him¬
felf the vaflal of the king of Portugal, and fubmitted
to pay a yearly tribute. To this Zingha replied, that
fuch conditions were indeed fit to be impofed upon thofe
who had been conquered by the fword; but not upon
a great and powerful monarch, who only fought their
friendfhip and alliance : upon which, the treaty was
concluded on both fides, without any other conditions
than the exchange of prifoners. The audience being
over, Don John took notice to Zingha, as he conduc-,
ted her out of the hall, that the lady who had ferved
her as a feat, continued ftill in the fame pofture; up¬
on which fhe replied, That it did not become the am-
bafladrefs of a great monarch to make ufe of the fame
chair twice, fo fhe looked upon her as a piece of caft-
off goods not worthy of further notice.
Zingha was fo taken with the honours done her by
the Portuguefe, and fo intent upon obferving the or¬
der, drefs, arms, &c. of their troops, that fhe {laid
at Loanda a confiderable time, during which fhe was
inftrudled in the Chriflian religion, and confented to Embraces-
be baptized in the year 1622, the 40th of her age. the Chri— f
Don John and his fpoufe were her fponfors; who dif- <*ian rell2* ll:
miffed her foon after, with all poffible honours, and
highly fatisfied with her reception and fuceefs. At
her return, fhe took care to have the articles ratified by
her brother; who exprefted his approbation of them,
and the higheft obligations to her. He even went fo
far as to defire the Viceroy to fend him fome proper
perfonSito inftrudl him in theChriftian religion, which
he faid he-was very defirous of embracing. This re¬
ef thefe three princefles, fent an embafly to treat of queft was immediately granted, and Don Denis de
their ranfom, and an exchange of prifoners. This was Faria, a negro prieft, a native of Angola, was dif-
readily agreed to; but all the misfortunes of the king patched, along with an officer of diftindiop, to fland
god-
(declared a-
gainft the
The king
if oifoned.
A N G [ 43i ] A N G
■Angoia- godfather to the king. Thefe met at firfl: with a gra- tuguefe, who had eftabliflied themfelves in fuchaman-
cious reception: but when they came to talk of bap- ner as to be almoft entire mafters of the country. They
tifm, Ngola altered his tone, and told them it was too had built fortrefles on every convenient fpotthat fuited
much below his dignity to receive it from the fon of them, efpecially near her principal towns, which they
one of his flaves, and fent them both back. This was could level with the ground with the greatefl: eafe.
cried up by the courtiers as a princely aft : but Zingha They had engroffed all her commerce, were become
reprefented that it could not fail to exafperate the vice- very wealthy, and their numbers increafed daily ; fo
Angola.
roy; and tried all poflible means to diffuade him from
it, but in vain. He fuffered, however, his other two
filters, Gambi and Fungi, to be baptized ; which was
performed in 1625, with a fplendor fuited to their
dignity.
As no experience feems to have been a fufficient an¬
tidote againft the innate folly of Ngola Bandi, he foon
after took it into his head to make war on the Portu-
fPortugucfe. guefe, and invaded fome of their territories. This lafl
aftion proved his ruin: his troops were all cut off, and
himfelf forced to fwim for his life to a fmall ifland in
the Coanza, about a mile long, and two bow-fhoots
in breadth ; whither the Portuguefe pUrfued and fur-
rounded him, fo that he had no other chance, but either
to fall into their hands,or be devoured by the wild beafts
with which the place fwarmed. From both thefe dan¬
gers he was relieved by a dofe of poifon, given him, as
was fuppofed, by his filler Zingha. Before this time,
however, he had taken care to fend his eldefl fon to
the country of the Giagas, and put him under the care
of one of their chiefs called Giaga Gaza, whom he be-
fought to take care of him and proteft him from his
aunt Zingha, as he rightly imagined fhe would not
fail of attempting his life, in order to fecure herfelf on doned, not only by her allies, but by her
that they were dreaded not only by her fubjefts, but
by all the neighbouring nations. As Zingha was of
a martial temper, (he did not long hefitate. She quick- Declares
ly made ail necefiary provifions, ilrengthened herfelf war agaioft -
by alliances with the Giagas and other idolatrous na- tlie^>ortu'
tions, and even with the Dutch, and the king of Congo. °
With this combined force fhe attacked the Portuguefe
fo fuddenly and unexpeftedly, that fhe gained fome
advantages over them, and the Dutch made them¬
felves mafters of San’Paulo de Loanda, and foon after
of fome of the bell provinces in the kingdom. This
happened in the year 1641 ; and the Portuguefe did
not recover thefe places till the year 1648, when the
Dutch were entirely driven out of Angola. 30
Zingha’s fuccefl'es proved Hill more fhort-lived. Her Hcrbadfue-
allies the Congoefe were fo completely overthrown, that ce^‘
they were forced to fue for peace ; which the Portu¬
guefe did not grant till they had obtained a fufficient
number of hoftages, and obliged the Congoefe to de¬
liver up to them fome confiderable polls, upon which
they immediately erefted fortrefles. Zingha's troops
were now defeated in every battle; and thefe defeats
followed one another fo clofe, that fhe was foon aban-
jZingha Ban-
*H crowned
!Queen.
the throne.
Zingha Bandi was crowned queen of Angola, with¬
out oppofition, in 1627.—She was a very artful woman,
endowed with great prefence of mind, firm in her refolu-
tions,-of an intrepid courage, and a great miftrefs in the
art of diffimulation. She inherited a large fhare of her
brother’s jealous and cruel temper, to which fhe would
not hefitate to facrifice her nearell relations, if they
;ave her the leaft umbrage.—To this jealoufy there-
1 troops.
She was now conftrained to abandon her dominions,
and retire to fome of the eaftern defarts, whither the
Portuguefe did not think it worth while to follow her.
Zingha being reduced to fuch diftrefs, the Portu¬
guefe, after giving her fome time to ruminate on her
fituation, fent her propofals of peace, upon condi¬
tion that fhe fhould become tributary to the crown
of Portugal. This propofal fhe rejefted with fcorn 5
and let them know, that, however her daftardly fubjefts Refutes to
ing he had a better title to the crowd than herfelf. She their queen difdained fubjeftion to any foreign power, themlt0
made ufe of the moll folemn oaths to draw him out of On this haughty anfwer, the Portuguefe, to mortify
the hands of his guardian, protefting that fhe had ac¬
cepted of the throne with no other view than to pre-
ferve it for him. But Giaga, being well acquainted
with her temper, was proof againft all her oaths and
fair fpeeches.—Zingha, finding this method ineffeftual,
- pretended a defire of refigning the crown to her nephew;
which fhe faid fhe had no other objeftion, than that
'fhe mur-
i&ers her n
ihew.
her flill more, fet up a king in her place. The per- ^
fon they pitched upon was named Angola Oarij, or They fet up
Aaru, who was of the royal family. Before he was a king,
crowned, the Portuguefe obliged him to turn Chri-
ftian; and he was accordingly baptized by the name
of John. The new king, however, foon died of grief,
at feeing himfelf fo hardly treated by his mafters the
fhe was afraid he was yet incapable of afluming the reins Portuguefe. They quickly fet up another, named Phi-
of government. She therefore defired an interview with lip, who bore the yoke with more patience, and lived
him, though ever fo fhort, that fhe might fatisfy her- to the year 1660. 33
felf in this particular, and promifed to detain him no In the mean time Zingha, exafperated almofl to mad- Z'ngha,sa-
longer than Giaga fhould think neceflary. Giaga nefs at feeing herfelf deprived of eleven of the bell P0Ra<jy and
thought there could be no danger in confenting to a provinces in her dominions, and her authority in the u.0”.1' t)ar”
fhort interview; and therefore fent the unfortunate remaining fix greatly weakened, renounced the Chri-
prince to her, attended by a magnificent retinue. The Ilian religion, and embraced all the horrid and bloody
cruel queen no fooner got him in her power, than fhe cuftoms of the Giagas, whom fhe outdid even in their
murdered him with her own hand, and caufed his body own barbarity.—We have already hinted the barbarity
to be thrown into the Coanza, ridding herfelf, by that of this nation in eating human flefh. In this Zingha
not only joined them, but took pleafure in devouring
the raw flefh of human viftims, and drinking their
blood while warm, both at her facrifices and at her pub¬
lic meals.—She affefted a martial and heroic fpirit, to-
H h h 2 gether
inhuman aft, of a dangerous rival, as well as reveng¬
ing herfelf on her brother, as fhe had fworn to do, for
the murder of her fon.
Zingha's next feheme was to rid herfelf of the Por-
A N G [ 43* ] A N G
Angola, gether with an utter averfion to the male fex; but, ac-
cording to the Portuguefe, maintained a number of the
ftrongeft and luftieft youths, in whofe embraces fhe
gave a full fcope to her inclinations, and managed mat¬
ters with fuch fecrecy that her intrigues could never
be difcovered. At the fame time fhe ordered many of
her own fex to be ripped up, when their incontinency
was manifefted by their pregnancy ; and their bodies,
with thofe of the infants, to be caft to wild beads.
But what made her mod admired, as well as dreaded,
by her fubje&s, was a notion that fhe had by various
dratagems inculcated upon them, of her being able to
penetrate into the mod fecret thoughts. To keep up
this apprehenfion, fhe ordered the bones of her deceafed
brother to be brought from the ifland where he was
poifoned, locked up in a ched covered with coarfe plates
of filver, and laid on a fine carpet upon a pededal. A
number of finghillos or prieds were ordered to offer
facrifices to thefe bones, and to keep lamps continually
burning before them. To this place fhe herfelf fre¬
quently repaired, to aflid at thofe rites, which, as fhe
gave out, and every body believed, engaged the fpirit
of the deceafed to inform her of every thing that was
done, faid, or even defigned, either in the kingdom or
out of it.—To procure, however, as much real intelli¬
gence as poffible, fhe kept vad numbers of fpies all
over the kingdom, who condantly gave her notice of
what happened in their refpe&ive circles; and this
fhe fo cunningly improved to her own ends, that her
fubjedls looked upon her as a kind of deity from whom
34 nothing could be concealed.
Her infill- By fuch means as thefe, Zingha gained fuch autho-
enee over r{ty over t]^ Giagas, that they were ready, at the very
e !a2as- indication of her will, to follow her through the
mod dreadful dangers, and to engage in the mod def-
perate enterprizes. She now made many drenuous and
daring efforts to drive out the Portuguefe ; but though
fhe had, in all probability, more valour and fkill than
her enemies, the fire-arms gave them fuch an advantage,
that fhe was always defeated with great lofs. Per¬
ceiving therefore the folly of attempts of this kind,
fhe contented herfelf with making continual inroads
3^ into their country, carrying off or dedroying every
Her terrible thing that fell in her way. Though fhe fpared nei-
ravages. ther Europeans, nor blacks who were fubje&s of the
mock-monarchs fet up by the Portuguefe, yet the cafe
of the former was peculiarly dreadful when they hap¬
pened to be taken prifoners. They were either roaded
by a flow fire, or had their flefh cut off in pieces, and
devoured before their faces, in the manner related by
* See Africa. Mr Bruce of the Abyffinian oxen *. In this manner
fhe infeded the Portuguefe territories for 28 years,
fcarce ever allowing them a moment’s ceffation of arms.
Their mock kings were often obliged to fhelter them-
felves from her fury in an innaccefiible rock called
Maopongo; and they themfelves could never hope to
enjoy their ill-gotten dominions with any kind of peace
fo long as this furious queen continued alive. They
in vain exhauded all their politics either to reduce her
by force, or to mollify her by prefents and fair offers.
The one fhe rejected with difdain, and always found
means to baffle the other ; nor would fhe hearken to
any terms, unlefs they confented to refign all their
conqueds. The refufal of this demand was fo com¬
monly followed by fome marks of her refentment, that
it was with the utmod difficulty the Portuguefe could Angola. £
prevail on any body to carry their propofals to her ; 1 |
and as for Zingha, fhe difdained to make any to them,
except thofe of the hodile kind. The terror of her
arms procured her a free paffage wherever fhe directed
her courfe; all the inhabitants of a province making
no lefs hade to abandon, than fhe to invade it. Thus
fhe continued to advance, till at length fhe was got fo
far as the fmall ifland of Dangii in the river Coanza.
The Portuguefe now found themfelves under a ne-
ceffity of raifing an army of negroes, in order to drive
her out of it. Accordingly they furrounded the ifland,
and intrenched themfelves along the banks on both fides
of the river; but while they were bufy at their work,
Zingha attacked them with fuch advantage, that fhe
killed and wounded feveral hundreds of the blacks,
and fome of the white men. Elated with this advan¬
tage, fhe was preparing for another attack ; when fhe
perceived,'to her furprife, that the Portuguefe had drawn
their lines fo clofe, and raifed them to fuch a height,
that they overlooked her whole camp, and could fire
upon her naked foldiers as if they fhot at a mark.—
Thus great numbers of her men were cut off, particu¬
larly her chief officers.—The queen, now perceiving the ^
danger of her fituation, amufed the Portuguefe with Outwits the1!
propofals of an accommodation ; and having obtained Portuguefe.?
a truce for three days, croffed the river in the dead of
the night, and led her forces to the province of Oacco.
The next morning the Portuguefe, feeing no human
creature upon the ifland, began to apprehend fome
new ftratagem; but, upon landing fome of their troops,
they perceived themfelves over-reached, and deprived
of the faireft opportunity they ever had of forcing her
to furrender at diferetion.
Zingha ftaid no longer in the province whither fhe
had retired, than till file was affured that the Portu¬
guefe were retired from the Coanza; and then, croffing
that river once more, marched directly towards the
kingdom of Metamba, which had been invaded by
fome of the neighbouring princes. The fpeed with
which fhe led her forces thither, and recruited her army
with multitudes of Giagas, who were all emulous of
fighting under her banner, quickly enabled her to re¬
cover fome of her territories in that kingdom. Begin- Her *07mpu
ning now to think herfelf fuccefsful, fhe again attacked cated- mif- : 1
the Portuguefe; but was defeated with great lofs, fo as fortunes. ,
to be obliged to fend for frefh troops. To complete
her misfortune, fhe received news that the Giaga Caf-
fangi had taken the advantage of her abfence, to en¬
ter the kingdom of Metamba with a numerous army,
had carried off the greateft part of the inhabitants, de-
ftreyed all the fruits of the earth, plundered the towns
of all that was valuable, and fet fire to the reft, lea¬
ving that kingdom in a manner defolate. To add to
all this, her troops, exafperated at the lofs of their
wives, children, and goods, which were carried to the
fartheft corner of Benguela, were all on the point of
revolting. ... . 3*. j
Notwithftanding this terrible and complicated di- The Port >o'
fafter, Zingha behaved with fueh refolution and ad- gucf£ tendf p
drefs, that the Portuguefe, who, according to charac- p
ter, had probably inftigated the Giaga againft her, r'
were fo much afraid of her joining withhim in.alliance
againft them, that they difpatched one Anthony Co-
glio, a learned prieft and an excellent negotiator, with
Don
A N G [ 433 ] A N G
Vfcgoia. Don Gafpar Borgia an eminent officer, under pretence
of negotiating a peace between them, firft to the Gia-
ga, and afterwards to the queen. They met with a
very civil reception from the firft, who told them that
he was very willing to live at peace with that princefs,
and even to let her enjoy the kingdom of Metamba,
though he was the rightful heir to it, provided fhe
would lay down her arms. This anfwer encouraged the
prieft to try whether he could prevail on him to em¬
brace the Chriftian religion; but this was declined by
the Giaga in fuch ftrong terms, that the prieft thought
proper to defift, and fet out for Zingha’s camp,
ipfrpro- ^ur ambaffadors, at their firft arrival, met with fuch
ffals rejec- a polite reception, as made them hope for fuccefs : but
J. after fhe had heard their propofals, fhe affumed a
haughty threatening tone; and told them, in the conclu-
fion of her fpeech, “ That it did not become her dig¬
nity to lay down her arms, till fhe had brought the war
fhe had begun to an honourable conclufion: that as to
the Giagas, whofe fedt fhe had embraced fome years
8 before, and who had furnifhed her with fuch a prodi¬
gious number of forces to fight in her. defence, her ho¬
nour and intereft required that fhe fhould ftill keep
them in her fervice, and under her prote&ion : and
laftly, that as to herfelf, fhe remembered, indeed, that
fhe had formerly embraced Chriftianity ; but that it was
not now a proper feafon to propofe her returning to it,
and they ought to remember, that they themfelves were
the caufe of her abandoning it.”
Borgia, perceiving that fhe was not to be wrought
upon by religious motives, fhifted the topic ; and told
her, that fhe had gained honour enough in war, and
that it was now high time to think of granting peace
and tranquillity to the fubjefts of two fuch powerful
kingdoms, and accept of the favour and friendfhip of
the king of Portugal, which was offered her by his
viceroy. To this the queen made anfwer, that fhe was
perfectly well acquainted with the valour and ftrength
of the Portuguefe, and fhould efteem it an honour to
be allied to that monarch; but that fhe thought it juft
that their refpe&ive claims to the dominions which fhe
juftly inherited from her anceftors, and of which he had
unjuftly deprived her, fhould firft of all be decided, ei¬
ther by the fword, or by fome equitable judges.
Borgia, vainly imagining that he had now obtained
enough, fet oft immediately for Loanda San Paulo ;
but left the prieft, on fome pretence or other, to fee
whether, in the time of ficknefs, he could make any im-
preffion on the inflexible mind of Zingha, who now
laboured under a lingering difeafe. Coglio, however,
found all his arts to no purpofe; and, upon the queen’s
recovery, fhe recommenced the war with more fury than
40 ever.
ringha’s Fpr fome time, hoftilities were carried on with va-
peW e~ r'ous fuccefs ; Zingha being fometimes viftorious, and
fometimes defeated. In one attempt of the latter kind,
before the fortrefs of Maffangana, fhe not only loft a
great number of men, but had her two fillers Cambi
and Fungi taken prifoners, fhe herfelf efcaping with the
utmoft difficulty. Exafperated by this lofs, fhe led her
troops into fome of the bell provinces of the Portu¬
guefe ; and, abandoning them to the fury of the Gia¬
gas, reduced them to a mere wildernefs. Still, however,
fhe had the mortification to find her Ioffes vaftly greater
than what fhe gained; and had now the additional mif-
fortunes of lofing her After Fungi, who was put to death Angola
by the Portuguefe for treachery ; and feeing her allies
the Dutch totally expelled out of Angola. 4,
Zingha being thus oppreffed with a complication of Begins to re-
misfortunes, and confcious of the crimes fhe had com- ^ent*
mitted, began ferioufly to confider whether fuch a conti¬
nued feries of difafters was not owing to the difpleafure
of the God of the Chriftians. To this opinion fhe
feemed to have inclined; and therefore began to treat
with more lenity fuch Chriftians as fell into her hands,
efpecially if they happened to be priefts or monks. To
thefe fhe now began to liften with fome attention; and
ordered them, under fevere penalties, to be treated with
all poffible refpeft ; yet without lofing in the leaft that
invincible hatred fhe had conceived againft thofe who
had ftrippedher of her dominions, or dropping her refo-
lution never to make peace till fhe had recovered them.
The viceroy, Don Salvador Correa, who had driven
out the Dutch, being apprifed of the regard fhewn to
the clergy by Queen Zingha, thought proper to fend
fome capuchins to her, in hopes that they might now 4>J,
find her more trafftable. But Zingha was ftill proof But ftil. re-
againft their utmoft art; and, when they taxed her with Gfts the ant¬
her apoftacy, gave them the anfwer which fuch hypo- pCes of the
crites deferved, namely, that fhe had been driven to it orcuSue e"
by the injuftice of the Portuguefe, themfelves; and that
if they would confent to reftore what they had unjuftly
taken from her, fhe would not only return to the
Chriftian religion, but encourage it to the utmoft of
her power.
The viceroy, being now afraid that Zingha might
make an alliance againft him with the king of Congo,
firft railed a powerful army ; and then acquainted that
monarch, that, if he defigned to prevent the total ruin
of his dominions, he muft immediately make repara¬
tion for all the damage he had caufed to the Portuguefe
by his alliance with the Dutch. The fame of the Por¬
tuguefe valour fo intimidated the king, that he fubmit-
ted to a treaty almoft on the viceroy’s own terms; and
as foon as this treaty was concluded, Don Ruy Pegado,
an old experienced officer, was difpatched to Zingha,
offering a firm and lafting alliance with her, provided
fhe renounced the Giagan feft, and returned to the bo-
fom of the church. To this embaffy fhe returned the
old anfwer, namely, that the Portuguefe themfelves had
been the occafion of all that had happened; as they had.
not only ftripped her of her hereditary dominions, but
dared to proclaim one of her vaffals king of Angola
but, provided thefe dominions were reftored, fhe would
immediately embrace Chriftianity.
All this time the furious Queen Zingha went on with
her ravages, notwithftanding the viceroy kept plying
her with letters for near three years. At laft he had Their infa«
recourfe to the execrable artifice of taking advantage of mous con-
the remorfe for her crimes with which Zingha was
fometimes affefted, in order to procure the peaceable
enjoyment of his own ill-gotten conquefts.
It is eafy to fee, that had this viceroy, or the priefts
he employed, really intended to con vert Zingha to Chri¬
ftianity, they ought to have fo far fet her an. example as
at leaft to abandon part of the countries of which they
had robbed her. But, inftead of this, they impioufly
made ufe of the facred name of our Saviour in, order to
deter a poor favage African from recovering what juft¬
ly belonged to her; A piece of conduit which it is
doubtful
A N G
A N G
F 434 ]
Angola, doubtful whether it was more antichriftian, or mean in
" itfelf; efpecially if we confider that their antagonifl:
was a 'woman, who fought againft them under every pof-
fible difadvantage; and, by having recourfe to this
44 ftratagem, they in effeft confeffed her to be invincible.
Her ftrata- Queen Zingha, at laftf came to incline fo much to
gems to pie- return t0 Chriftian relicrion, that a general murmur
of her fub- ran through her army; to quiet which, me had recourle
jefts. to many ftratagems, too tedious here to enumerate par¬
ticularly. The principal one was, to caufe the fmg-
hillos or priefts command her, in the prefence of four
of her officers, to return to Chriftianity; and this, as
if they had received it as a revelation from the fpirit of
her deceafed brother, who, according to their account,
was damned to eternity. Five of the finghillos having
adted a farce of this kind, the queen afked the officers
who wereprefent, their opinion of what they had heard
and feen, and their advice how ihe ought to aft. To
this they replied, “ that the matter depended wholly
upon her will that, let her aft in it as Hie pleafed, file
would always find her fubjefts ready to approve of and
conform to it, and think it moft for their honour and
advantage to follow her example.”
When file thought, by artifices of this kind, that the
minds of her fubjefts were fufficiently prepared for
hearing her fentiments openly, Zingha drew up her ar¬
my (in 1655), and putting herfelf at their head, with
a majeftic, yet feemingly joyful afpeft, file let fly an
arrow, with her ufual ftrength and vigour, and then
turning to them, “ Who is there (fays file) that is
ftrong enough to Hand againft my arms, or to refift the
force of this arm ?” On this, they all fell a-clapping
their hands, and cried out three times fucceflively, “ O
glorious and mighty queen, none, none, none, will ever
be able to conquer you.”—Encouraged by their accla-
4! mations, Zingha now made a fpeech, in which ftie ac-
cdTthe'o'ia* Tja*nte^ them with her renouncing the feft of the Gia-
gan feft and gas> anfi ^er return to Chriftianity j giving at the
returns to fame time liberty to thofe who chofe to abandon her on
Chriftianity this account to go where they w'ould ; and fuch was
their attachment to her, that even in fuch a fudden and
important change in her refolutions they exprefled no
uneafinefs, but on the contrary applauded her to the
higheft degree.
The Portuguefe, after having been harraffed in a ter¬
rible manner for 28 years, and at laft obliged bafely to
profane the name of their Saviour to procure a peace,
46 began now freely to enjoy the rewards of their villany.
Treaty with A treaty was unanimoufly fet on foot between the vice-
the Portu- r0y an(j zingha; which, however, was not eafily con-
pofed.Pr° eluded. She demanded the releafe of her fifter Cambi,
whofe Chriftian name was Donna Barbara; and the
Portuguefe demanded a ranfom of 200 flaves, or an
equivalent in money. This Zingha did not well relifli;
and, being preffed to a compliance, threatened them with
a more furious war than any they had yet experienced.
Upon this the viceroy was obliged to have recourfe to
the ufual method of fending priefts to perfuade her to
comply through motives of religion. Thefe deteftable
hypocrites effefted their purpofe, and the flaves were
fent, as if Chriftianity required the delivering up inno¬
cent people to thofe who had no lawful authority over
them: but not being able to conclude a lafting peace
about the ceffion of the Angolic provinces, they were
forced to conclude a ftiort truce, and fend back her
fifter. Angola [1
This princefs was received by Zingha in a very af- 5'
feftionate manner; and, fome time after, the queen, her
mind being probably weakened through the infirmities
of old age, not only was thoroughly reconciled to the
Portuguefe, but looked upon them as her beft friends.
She encouraged the Chriftian religion; had a church
built in her capital; made feveral laws againft Paganifm;
and, to encourage marriage, fhe herfelf wedded a hand-
fome young fellowdn the 75th year of her age.
The Portuguefe now imagining they would at laft
gain their point, propofed to her the following terms,
as the bafis of a lafting treaty between the two nations. 47 ;
1. “ That they ftiould yield to her, as a prefent, The Port-
fome of the countries of which they had already rob- term"
bed her.
2. “ That, in confideration of the faid prefent,
which ftiould in noways be interpreted as an invefti-
ture, the queen ftiould pay yearly a certain acknow¬
ledgment to the king of Portugal, who ftiould be at li¬
berty to withdraw the faid prefent whenever fhe failed
of making the faid acknowledgment.
3. “ That a free commerce fhould be opened be¬
tween thofe two ftates, as well for flaves, as for other
merchandizes.
4. “ That the queen ftiould moleftnoneof the lords
that were feudatory to the Portuguefe, whatever dama-
fres and ravages they might have committed during the
ate w^rs between them.
5. “ That fhe fhould reftore all the Portuguefe flaves
that had taken refuge in her dominions.
6. “ That fhe fhould deliver up the Giaga Colan-
da, who had revolted from the Portuguefe, upon con¬
dition that his crime fhould go unpunifhed.”
The queen-, having now a thorough view of the deep-
rooted villany of thofe with whom fhe had to do, con¬
ceived fuch difpleafure againft the Portuguefe, that fhe
fell fick. During this ficknefs, father Anthony, her
chief confident, and a creature of the viceroy, never
left off foliciting her to make her peace with God, and
to accept of the terms offered her by the Portuguefe :
but Zingha, though worn out with age and ficknefs,
had ftill the good fenfe to perceive, that there was no
connexion between making her peace with God, and
complying with fuch infamous terms; and therefore
gave the following anfwer, which, under fuch circum-
ftances, fhews a magnanimity fcarce equalled in any |
age or in any country. 48 ;
1. “That as to her con verfion, as it was neither owing TheQucJiv,
to any defire of obtaining a peace, or other worldly an 11;
motives, but the Divine Grace by which fhe was re- '|
called, fhe was refolved to perfevere in it to her laft
breath.
2. “ That, as to her going over to the Giagan feci,
fhe had in a great meafure been forced to it by the Por¬
tuguefe viceroy.
3. “ That the king of Portugal would do a gene¬
rous aft in reftoring fome of her Angolic dominions ;
but it would be more fo, w-ere he to reftore them all.
4. “ That as to her paying homage to him, neither
her mind nor heart were bafe enough to confent to it;
and that as fhe had refufed the propofal while fhe lived
among the Giagas, much more did fhe think herfelf a-
bove it, now fhe was a Chriftian queen, and owed neither
tribute nor homage to any but to the Supreme Power,
from
I
A N G [ 435 ] A N G
liangola, from whom Ihe had received both her being and her
'll' kingdom: That, neverthelefs, if die could be convinced
that there was any thing in her dominions that would
|! be acceptable to his Portuguefe majefty, Ihe would vo¬
luntarily make him a prefent of it; and as to the reft of
the articles, fuch was her defire of making a firm and
lafting peace with them, that fiie ihould make no diffi-
B culty of confenting to them.”
This anfwer was not altogether fatisfa&ory to the
viceroy ; but the prieft, finding it impoflible to make any
impreffion upon her mind, eafily prevailed upon him to
eonfent to the following terms.
rides of 1 • “ That the river Lucalla fhould be the boun-
I treaty, dary between the dominions of the Portuguefe and of
Queen Zingha.
2. “ That neither fide fliould thenceforth give any
reception to the fugitive flaves of the other, but fend
T them back without any delay, together with the pri-
foners which had been taken during the laft war.
3. “ That the queen fhould remain wholly free and
exempt from all tribute and homage whatever, provided
Ji fhe agreed to the other articles.”
sjseace Thefe terms were at laft figned by the queen and vice¬
roy in the month of April 1657, and ratified by the
king of Portugal in the month of November the fame
year.—The only difficulty the queen had concerning
this treaty was with regard to the Giaga Colanda; and
the manner in which fhe extricated herfelf from it, with
| her fubfequent behaviour, cannot fail to give us an high
I J* idea of the mental abilities of our heroine,
rable be- This Giagan chief, weary of the Portuguefe yoke,
( lour. had retired from thepi, at the head of xooo flout fol-
diers, and a much greater number of flaves, fome
leagues beyond the river Lucalla, and put himfelf un-
der the queen’s proteftion. This fhe readily granted,
; as he was very able to be ferviceable to her in cafe the
I perfidious conduct of the Portuguefe fhould oblige her
r; i to renew the war. She could not therefore but look
H upon it as unjuft and difhonourable, to deliver up a
brave chief who had devoted himfelf to her fervice, and
; whom fhe had taken under her fpecial prote&ion, to a
nation whofe perfidy fire was fo well acquainted with.
To fave her honour, therefore, fome time before the
ratification of the treaty, fhe fent privately for the Gia¬
ga, and acquainted him with the demand of the Portu¬
guefe ; telling him, at the fame time, that though fhe
doubted not of the viceroy’s keeping his word, and for-
j giving his offence, yet fhe advifed himto go out of her
dominions, and fettle himfelf and his men in fome di-
'■] ftant country from the Portuguefe frontiers; but for¬
bad him, on pain of her higheft difpleafure, to com¬
mit the leaft outrage or hoftility within their domi-
| nions.
The Giaga-thanked her majefty, and feemed to ac-
quiefce with her advice, but did not follow it. On
the contrary, he had no fooner reached his fortrefs, than,
he fet himfelf about fortifying it in fuch a manner as
looked rather like defiance than defence; and, having
gathered a confiderable army, foon fpread a general
I terror around him, Of this the Portuguefe failed not
J S1 to complain to the queen; who immediately marched
1 teats and againft him, fiirprifed and defeated his army; and he
b tlie Gi- himfelf being killed in the atftion, his head was cut off
ji'Colamla anj fent t0 the Portuguefe.
This was among the laft memorable adions perform¬
ed by this famous queen ; who, now finding herfelf un- Angola,
fit for the fatigues of war, contented herfelf (in 1658), “
with difpatching an old experienced general againft a
neighbouring prince who had invaded her territories.
He proved no lefs fuccefsful than herfelf, and quickly
forced the aggreffor to fubmit to her terms. She now Encourages
gave herfelf up to ftudy the beft method of propagating Chriftianity
Chriftianity among her fubjedls; and for this purpofe
fent a folemn embaffy to Rome, to pay homage to the
Pope in her name, and to requeft a frefh fupply of mif-
fionaries. To this letter fhe received an anfwer from
his Holinefs in 1662; and it was read in the church,
that fame year, in the moft public and folemn manner.
The day appointed was the 15th of July; on which ffie
repaired to the church at the head of a numerous reti¬
nue, and having the letter hanging about her neck in
a purfe made of cloth of gold. The concourfe was fo
great, that the church could not contain one half of the
people, fo that none were admitted but perfons of rank.
The father having finifhed the mafs, read the letter at
the altar in the Portuguefe language; and the fecretary J4
interpreted it in that of the country. The queen, who Ceremonies
had ftood all the while it was reading, went towards at receiving
the altar, and on her knees received it from the fa- a letter fronv
ther; and having killed it, and fworn afrefh upon the 1 6 pope*
gofpel to continue in obedience to the church of Rome,
kiffed the letter again, put it into the purfe, and re¬
turned to the palace amidft the Ihouts and acclamations
of many thoufands of her fubjects. On that day Ihe
gave a magnificent treat to the Portuguefe refident, and
to all her court, in two great porticos, and Ihe herfelf
vouchfafed to eat after the European manner; that is,
fitting on a ftately elbow chair, with a high table be¬
fore her, covered with the fineft linen, and with dilhes,
plates, knives, and forks, all of fiber gilt. She be¬
llowed fome largeffes upon her chief officers, releafed
a good number of Haves, and at night appeared at the
head of her ladies of honour, both Ihe and they dreffed*
in the Amazonian manner. They performed a kind of
combat, in which the queen, tho’ upwards of 80 years,
of age, behaved with as great vigour and activity as any
woman of 30 could have done. Js
Her life, however, was not lengthened in proportion Zingha dies,
to her vigour and activity: for in the month of Sep¬
tember {he was feized with an inflammation in her
throat; which, in December; having feized her breaft
and lungs, Ihe expired on the 17th of that month, and
was fucceeded by her filter Barbara.
The deceafed queen was burred with extraordinary
pomp; and, out of regard to her, Barbara was inau- Succeeded
gurated a fecond and third time, with the greateft
pomp, and the moft joyful acclamations.—She was a
very zealous Chriftian, but far ftiort of her filler’s abi¬
lities, and had the misfortune of being in the decline of
life, lame, and almoll blind.. Beiides this, Ihe had
been married to a proud, ill-natured hulband ; who had
dared, even in the late queen’s time, to treat her not
only with contempt, but with brutilh cruelty ; though
to her he owed all his fortune and advancement, being
himfelf no more than the fon of a Have. $7
This ungrateful wretch, whofe name was Mona Zin- Cruelty of
gha, foon after his marriage with the princefs Barbara, ^ftr nufband
ufed her with fuch cruelty, that Ihe was obliged to take
refuge in the palace, from whence he had the infolence 6
immediately to fetch her. This fo exafperated queen
Zingha.
A N G
[
Angola. Zingha, that fhe had well nigh ordered him to be cut in
pieces before her face ; but pardoned him at the re-
queft of father Anthony, who probably knew he was
privy to fome religious fecrets which he might, in a cafe
of fuch emergency, have difclofed. On Barbara’s accef-
fion to the throne, however, he not only redoubled his
436 1 A
fymptoms of being poifoned.
N G
1
S8
He accufes
Father An¬
thony.
By proper afiiftanee, Angola, j
however, he recovered; yet fo far was he difabled by " 1
this dofe, that he was obliged to abandon his miflion. 6l i
The queen’s infirmities in the mean time daily in- The Queen
creafing, Mona Zingha was foon delivered from all fur- <*>«•
ther oppofition on her part, by her death, which hap-
cruelty to her, in hopes of getting the management of pened on the 24th of March, 1666. Upon this, Mona
affairs entirely into his own hands, but invented the Zingha made all poffible hafte to get himfelf ele&ed
king; and immediately renounced the Chriltian reli-
lifing a perfecution at the fame time againft its
Who reprh
rtiands the
Queen.
Mona Zin-
gha revives
the Giagan
rites.
moft hellifh accufations againft Anthony himfelf, with
a defign to extirpate both him and his religion. He
gave out that the late queen had been poifoned by fome
tavourite European difhes, with which brother Ignatio
ufed to regale her during her laft illnefs; and attributed
his wife’s lamenefs and blindnefs to fome forceries or
charms ufed by the convent againft her. He had even
perfuaded, or rather forced, his queen to confent that
fome of the finghillos or priefts (hould be brought to
countercharm her diftemper.
Father Anthony, far from being intimidated at the
accufations brought againft him, repaired immediately
to the palace; where he boldly reprimanded the queen
for giving ear to thefe jugglers, threatening at the fame
time to leave her dominions, and carry off with him all
the croffes, and other religious utenfils, from which a-
lone they could have any benefit. The queen return¬
ed a very fubmifiive anfwer; and promifed to deliver up
the counter-charms which fhe at that time had upon
her, before funfet; which fhe accordingly did, andfent
them to the convent by the hands of her fecretary. This
fo exafperated her hufhand, and all the Giagan fedt,
that they refolved upon the deftrudfion of all the priefts
and Europeans, and even the queen herfelf. This,
however, was found improper to be attempted; and
Mona Zingha was fo much chagrined at his difappoint-
ment, that he retired to his own eftate; giving out,
that he defigned to meddle no more with ftate-affairs;
but, in reality, to concert meafures for engrofling the
fovereignty to himfelf, and to deprive his wife of her
life and crown.
To accomplifh his wicked purpofe., he fent a meffen-
fer to her, defiring her to repair to his houfe, where
e had fomething of importance to communicate ; but
fhe declining the invitation by the advice of father An¬
thony, he found himfelf difappointed, and begged leave
to retire to a neighbouring province, which was under
his government; but here he was again difappointed,
and forbid to ftir out of the province of Metamba. The
queen was, however, guilty of an error not long after,
in fending Mona Zingha at the head of an army to
quell a revolt on the frontiers. On his returning vic¬
torious, he thought himfelf ftrong enough to revive the
ancient Giagan rites, and therefore ordered too Haves
to be facrificed to the manes of the deceafed queen.
Though the queen was immediately apprifed of his in¬
tention, and difpatched a mefienger exprefsly command¬
ing him to defift; yet Monr, by diftributing fome pre-
fents, particularly fome European wines, among the
  :y. He did
And po5-
fons Father
Anthony.
counfellors, effefted his purpofe with impunity,
not forget to fend fome of this wine to father Antony:
but, to prevent fufpicion, prefented him only with a fmall
quantity, to be ufed, as he faid, at the mafs; adding,
that, if it proved agreeable, he would fupply him with
a larger quantity. The unfufpefting prieft drank about
two glaffes of it; and in about a quarter of an hour was
feized with violent convuliions in his bowels, and other
Slon’ „ .
profeffors. He even wrote to the Portuguefe viceroy,
acquainting him with his having renounced Chriftianity,
which he had only embraced out of complaifance to his
queen, and with his defign to revive the Giagan rites.
To (hew that he meant to be as good as his word, he Horrid
ordered all the children under fix years of age, that cruelties pi
could be found, to be facrificed in honour of their in- MonaZiuf;
fernal deities. He alfo recalled the finghillos, and Sla‘
heaped many favours upon them; fo that they became
entirely devoted to his purpofes. He alfo caufed many
of his fubje&s to be privately poifoned; and then gave
out, that their unaccountable deaths were owing to
their having abandoned the religion of their anceftors,
and embraced Chrftianity; which he ftyledthe religion
of a parcel of famifhed ftrangers, who, thro* their ex¬
treme mifery,had been forced to leave their native coun¬
try, and feek for a livelihood in the richeft provinces
of Africa.
By thefe and fuch like ftratagems he almoft entirely
extirpated Chriftianity, and any appearances of civili¬
zation which had been introduced among his fubje<fts.
His carreer, however, wasftopped by Don John the prin-
cefs Barbara’s firft hufband, from whom (he had been
divorced on account of his having another wife. He
foon compelled the ufurper to fly into an ifland in the
Coanza; but not having the precaution to reduce him
entirely, Mona Zingha found means to retrieve his af¬
fairs, and at laft defeated and killed Don John himfelf,
by which he became mafter of the throne without any
further oppofition. He was no fooner re-eftabli(hed,
than he began to purfue his butcheries with more fury
than ever; when, on a fudden, Don Francifco, the fon
of Don John, appeared at the head of an army in op¬
pofition to the ufurper; and in the firft engagement 1 .
Mona Zingha being defeated and killed, Don Francif-
co became foie mafter of the empire.
Here we are obliged to conclude our hiftory; no
further accounts, which can be depended upon, having
ever appeared; neither is it known whether this prince
kept to the terms of the alliance made by Queen Zingha
with the Portuguefe or not.—Certain it is, however,
that the Portuguefe have preferved their conquefts, and
for fome time allowed the natives of thefe provinces
which are under their power to chufe a king for them-
felves, or rather they chofe him for them, as we have
already noticed. Thefe kings enjoyed only a mere gs ,
(hadow of royalty ; their whole grandeur confiding in Low ftjfc
being allowed to breed peacocks, and adorn themfelves t*1-
with their feathers, which was forbidden to their fub- l'p by *'. 1
jefts under pain of perpetual flavery.—The laft of thefe ^ U8,1"1
kinas was namprl NTn-nla Sp/tptin rrLrv A',O',l-ir. ‘
kings was named Ngola Sedefio, who, difliking an
empty name of royalty, revolted from the Portuguefe,
and carried on a long war with them; but being at
laft defeated and killed, his head was cut off, faked,
and fent to Lilbon in pickle. After this the Portu¬
guefe
A N G [ 437 ] A N G
i, Angola, tuguefe feem not to have thought it fafe to trufl; their
j Angolic fubjefts even with the name of a king of their
own, but have veiled the power entirely in their vice¬
roy ; but as to the extent of his dominions, and how
matters ftand between him and that race of Angolic
princes who have preferved their liberty, we are entire¬
ly in the dark.
Being fo much in the dark as to thefe particu¬
lars, it is impoffible we can fay any thing with re¬
gard to the divifion of the prefent kingdom, or the ex¬
tent and number of its provinces. When in its great-
niivifion in- eft fplendor, the kingdom of Angola contained the 17
provin- following provinces: Cheflama, Sumbi, Benguela,
s’ Rimba, Sietta, High and Low Bembea, Temba, O-
acco, Cabezzo, Lubolo, Loanda, Bengo, Danda,
Moficlie, Higher and Lower Uamba, Oraij, and Em-
bacca. The provinces conquered by the Portuguefe
during the wars abovementioned were, Danda, Mo-
fiche, Bengo, the higher and lower Ilamba, Oarij,
Embacca, Benguela, Sietta, Cabezzo, Lubolo, and
Oacco. Of all thefe we have given a particular de-
fcription under their refpe&ive names.
I Rivers. The principal rivers in this kingdom are thofe al¬
ready mentioned, viz. the Danda and Coanza. The
Coanza is large, deep, and rapid. It empties itfelf into
the Atlantic ocean about Latitude 90 20'. S. twelve
leagues fouth of Loando the capital of the king¬
dom. It is navigable for 150 miles, and abounds with
variety of filh. It forms feveral iflands, has fome
cataradls, and one in particular which bears its name.
As for its fource, and the length of ground it crofles
from eaft to weft before it comes to the Portuguefe fet-
tlement, it is abfolutely unknown, as well as the coun¬
tries thro’ which it runs. Its mouth, which runs between
the capes Palmerino and Lego, is above a league wide;
the northern ftiore is the deepeft, and along which the
veffels fail. The fall of this river into the ocean is fo ra-
pJd, that the fea appears quite muddy for two or three
leagues below it. Its mouth is not eafily perceived
from the open fea, by reafon of an ifland quite cover¬
ed with high trees which lies juft before it. The two
principal iftands formed by this river are called Majfan-
der and Motchiamia. The one is fix leagues long, and
about two miles broad: it is very fertile in maize,
millet, and fome other grains, which are reaped at three
different feafons of the year. It produces likewife vaft
quantities of manhioc, a root, of which they make a
coarfe kind of meal, which ferves inftead of bread.
Here alfo grow great numbers of palm and other fruit
trees of various kinds. The ifland of Motchiamia is
four or five miles long, and one in breadth, moftly
plain, and producing variety of roots and herbs. It
likewife abounds in cattle; and there were formerly five
or fix Portuguefe families fettled upon it, who drove a
a confiderable trade in thefe commodities, and likewife
in flaves.
Concerning the river Danda we know little or no¬
thing : only, that though its mouth is not above 70 or
80 miles diftant from that of the Coanza, yet their di-
1 fiance grows fo confiderably wider as you penetrate
further into the inlands, as to be much above twice if
not thrice that fpace; though how much, is not exactly
known.
As for cities, there are none in this kingdom, ex¬
cept what belong to the Portuguefe; and even of thefe
Vql. I.
we know little or nothing. Queen Zingha indeed found¬
ed a city in the kingdom of Metamba, of which a de-
fcription is given under that article. The manner, re¬
ligion, and drefs, fee. of the inhabitants, being a mix-
of thofe of the Congoefe and Giagas, fall to be men¬
tioned under thefe two articles.
Angola Pea, the name of a ftmtb much cultivated
in the Weft Indies, whither it was brought from Afri¬
ca, of which it is a native. It grows to the height of
four feet, lives four years, and is ufeful throughout its
whole duration. It bears hufks, which contain five or
fix grains of a fpecies of a very wholefome and very
nouriftiing pea. Every part belonging to this ftirub is
remarkable for fome particular virtue. Its bloffom is
good for a cough ; its leaves, when boiled, are applied
to wounds 5 and of the allies of this plant is made a
lixivium, which cleanfes ulcers, and diflipates exter¬
nal inflammations of the Ikin. It flourilhes equally
in lands naturally barren, and in thofe which have
been exhaufted. For this reafon, the beft managers a-
mongft the colonifts never fail to fow it on all thofe
parts of their eftates, which in other hands would re¬
main uncultivated.
ANGON, in the ancient military art, a kind of ja¬
velin ufed by the French. They darted it at a confi¬
derable diftance. The iron head of this weapon refem-
bled a flower-de-luce. It is the opinion of fome wri¬
ters, that the arms of France are not flowers-de-luce,
but the iron point of the angon or javelin of the an¬
cient French.
ANGOR, among ancient phyficians, a concentration
of the natural heat; the confequence of which is a pain
of the head, palpitation, and fadnefs.
ANGOT, a province or kingdom of Abyffinia, for¬
merly rich and fertile, but almoft ruined by the Gallas,
a wandering nation in the internal parts of Africa,
who difpoffeffed the Abyfiinian monarchs of all that
was worth poffefiing.
ANGOULESME, a city of France, the capital of
the duchy of Angoumois, and the fee of a biftiop. It
is feated on the top of a hill, furrounded with rocks, at
the foot of which runs the river Charante. The inha¬
bitants are faid to be about 8000, and to drive a confi¬
derable trade in paper, which is their manufadlure.
E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 39.
ANGOUMOIS, a province of France, bounded on
the north by Poitou, on the eaft by Limoufin and
March, on the fouth by Perigord, and on the weft by
Saintonge. Through this province run the river*
Touvre and Charante. This laft is full of excellent
fifh; and though it often overflows its banks, it is fo far
from doing any damage, that it greatly enriches the
foil. The Touvre is full of trouts. The air is generally
warmer than at Paris, though the country is hilly. The
foil produces plenty of wheat, rye, oats, Spanilh corn,
faffron, grapes, and all forts of fruits. Here are feveral
iron mines, which yield a very good fort of iron.
ANGOURA, Angora, or Angori, a city of A-
fia, in Anatolia, formerly called Aticyra, and Hill full
of remarkable antiquities, which are fo many marks of
its ancient magnificence. It is at prefent one of the
beft cities in Anatolia ; its ftreets are full of pillars and
old marbles, among which are fome of porphyry and
jafper. The greateft part of the pillars are fmooth and
cylindrical; fome are channelled fpirally ; but the moft
I i i Angular
Angola
Angonra.
|jjj Angoy.
* ;:te Ar.tji
A N G [ 438 ] A N G
Angular are oval, with plate-bands before and behind
' from the top to the bottom of the pedeftal. The houfes
are now made of clay, which is fometimes intermixed
with fine pieces of marble. The walls of the city are
low, with very mean battlements. The mafonry of the
walls is intermixed with pillars, architraves, capitals,
and other ancient fragments, efpecially that of the
towers and gates. The caftle of Angora has a triple
inclofure; and the walls are of large pieces of white
marble, and a ftone much like porphyry.
The balha of Angora has about 30 purfes income;
and there are here about 300 janizaries, under the
command of a fardar. The Turks are faid to be 40,000,
the Armenians 4000 or 5000, and the Greeks 600.
The Armenians have feven churches, befides a mona-
ftery; and the Greeks two. They breed the fineft goats
in the world; and their hair, which is of a dazzling
white, is almoft as fine as filk, and nine inches in length:
it is worked into very fine fluffs, particularly camblet.
All the inhabitants are employed in this manufafture.
Several large caravans pafs through this city to diffe-
» rent places. E. Long. 32. 5. N. Lat. 39. 30*
ANGOY, a kingdom of Loango in Africa, bound¬
ed on the north by Cacongo, and on the fouth by Con¬
go ; from the former of which it is feparated by the
river Cabinda, and from the latter by the river Zaire.
It is but of fmall extent; being only a vaffal province
of Cacongo, till the mani or prince, who had married
a Portuguefe’s daughter, was perfuaded by his father-
in-law to make himfelf independent. This he effedted
at a favourable junfture, the king of Loango having
but juft before revolted from the king of Congo, and
the king of Cacongo from the new king of Loango.
The country is full of woods and thickets; and has no
towns of any note, except one called Bomangoy, fitu-
ated on the north banks of the Zaire, and not far from
its mouth. Its chief port is Cabinda, called alfo Ka-
benda, or Cubenda, fituated on the mouth of a river of
the fame name about five leagues north of Cape Pal-
merino, on the north fide of the Zaire’s mouth. The
bay is very commodious for trade, or wooding and wa¬
tering along the fiiore. It is flat and marfhy in fome
places; butafcends gradually about three miles inland,
and then forms itfelf into a ridge of hills. On the afcent
of thefe is fituated a town belonging to the father-in-
law of the king above mentioned, where he conftantly
kept a flock of wood ready cut, to fell to foreign fhips
at an eafy rate. From thefe wood-piles, fouth-weft
along the bay, lie fcattered a number of fifhermens
huts, on each fide a fmall frefli water river which falls
into the bay ; and thence all the water for (hips is
brought in calks to the mouth of the river, which is fo
fhallow, that even at full flood it can only be entered by
a yawl carrying a calk or two. The town Hands on the
round point of the bay looking to the weftward; and
the Englilh have a factory on the fouth-weft of the
road. For a defcription of the town itfelf, fee the ar-
-ticle Cabinda.
The country round the bay is moftly barren; owing
chiefly to the liazinefs of the inhabitants, which often
occafibns a fcarcity of provilions. The wild beafts
fwarm fo in the woods, that they deftroy all the tame
kinds; fo there are no cattle bred here but hogs. From
the woods in this country fome monkeys have been
brought away, which in lhape and ftature refembled the
human fpecies. Civet-cats abound here in great plenty,
and parrots may be bought for three or four ordinary
knives. The coafts abound fo with oyfters, that the _
failors quickly load their boats with them; they being
found lying in great heaps like fmall rocks. The na¬
tives follow the occupation of filhing more than any
other. They Ijlh both on the fea and in the rivers, ma¬
king ufe of drag-nets, which have long canes fixed at
equal diftances, inftead of corks, to Ihew when any filh
is caught. Thefe nets are made of a peculiar kind of
root, which, after being beaten, may be fpun like hemp.
The drefs of the inhabitants is the fame with that of
the Congoefe. They allow polygamy, and the bell be¬
loved wife hath the command of the reft; but is no lefs
liable to be turned out, if Ihe proves unfaithful. The
ladies of the blood-royal have the privilege of chufing
their hufbands out of any, even the meaneft rank; and
have even the power of life and death over them; as
likewife over their paramours, if any of them are caught
tripping: but the hufbands are by no means entitled
to expedt the fame fidelity from their royal ladies. Wo¬
men of the lower rank are obliged, when they receive
a ftranger, to admit them for a night or two into their
embraces. This obliged the miflionaries, who travel¬
led through this country, to give notice of their ap¬
proach to any of their houfes, that none of the female
fex might enter within their doors.—Their religion
confifts chiefly in a variety of fuperftitious cuftoms;
fuch as powdering their public and domeftic idols with
the duft of a kind of red wood, on the firft day of the
moon, and paying a kind of worfhip to that planet.
. If, on that night, it happens to fhine clear and bright,
they cry out, “ Thus may I renew my life as thou
doft;” but if the air is cloudy, they imagine the moon
hath loft her virtue, and pay her no refpeft. We do
not hear of their offering any facrifices to their idols;
though they commonly confult them about the fuccefs
of their enterprifes, thefts, or fuch like. The king of
Congo ftill ftiles himfelf fovereign of Angoy; but the
king of this little ftate pays neither tribute nor homage
to any foreign power.
ANGRA, a city of Tercera one of the Azores, the
capital not only of that ifland, but of all the reft,
and is the refidence of the governor. It is feated
on the fouth fide, near the middle of the longed
diameter of the ifland, on the edge of the fea! The
harbour is the only tolerable one in the whole
ifland, being equally fecure againft ftorms and the ef¬
forts of an enemy. It is of the form of a crefcent; the
extremities of which are defended by two high rocksr
that run fo far into the fea as to render the entrance
narrow, and eafily covered by the batteries on each
fide. From this harbour the town is faid to derive its
name, the word Angra fignifying a creek, bay, or fta-
tion for (hipping; and this is the only convenient one
among all the Azores. The opening of the port is from
the eaft to the fouth-weft ; and, according to Frezier,
it is not above four cable’s-length in breadth, and not
two of good Bottom. Here (hips may ride in great
fafety during the fummer;- but as foon as the winter
begins, the ftorms are fo furious, that the only fafety
for (hipping is the putting to fea with all poflible ex¬
pedition. Happily, however, thefe ftorms are preceded
by infallible figns, with which experience has made the
inhabitants perfectly well acquainted. On thefe occa-
(ions
Angey
Angr*.
1
A N G [ 439 ] A N G
'jwkngrivarii fions the Pico, a high mountain in another of the A-
« II zores, is overcaft with thick clouds, and grows exceed-
—llAngi" la. . but what they look upon as the moft cer¬
tain fign is the fluttering and chirping of flocks of birds
round the city for fome days before the ftorm begins.
The town is well-built and populous, is the fee of a
bifliop, under the jurifdi&ion of the archbifliop of Lif-
bon. It hath five parilhes, a cathedral, four monafteries,
as many nunneries, befides an inquiiition and bifhop’s
court, which extends its jurifdi&ion over all the Azores,
Flores, and Corvo. It is furrounded by a good wall,
a dry ditch of great depth and breadth, and defended
by a ftrong cattle rendered famous by the imprifon-
ment of king Alphonfo by his brother Peter in 1668.
Though moft of the public and private buildings have
a good appearance externally, they are but indifferent¬
ly furniftied within ; but for this poverty the Portu-
guefe excufe themfelves, by faying, that too much fur¬
niture would prove inconvenient in fo warm a climate.
At Angra are kept the royal magazines for anchors,
cables, fails, and other ftores for the royal navy, or oc-
cafionally for merchantmen in great diftrefs. All ma¬
ritime affairs are under the infpeftion of an officer call¬
ed Defembergrador, who hath fubordinate officers and
pilots for conducing ftiips into the harbour, or to pro-
er watering-places. The Englifli, French, and Dutch,
ave each a conful refiding here, though the commerce
of any of thefe nations with the Azores is very incon-
fiderable.
ANGR1VARII, (Tacitus), a people of Germany,
fituated between the Wefer and the Ems, and eaftward
reaching beyond the Wefer, as far as the Cherufci, on
which fide they raifed a rampart (Tacitus) j to thefouth,
having the Tubantes on the Ems, and on the Wefer
where it bends to the foreft Bacemis ; to the weft, the
Ems and the confines of the Bru&eri; and to the north,
the territory of the Angrivarii lay between the Chama-
vi and Anfibarii. Ptolemy places them between the
Cauchi and Suevi or Catti. Suppofed now to contain
a part of the county of Schaumburg, the half of the
biftioprick or principality of Minden; to the fouth, the
greateft part of the biftioprick of Ofnabrug, the north
part of the county of Teclenburg, and a part of the
county of Ravenlberg. A trace of the name of the
people ftill remains in the appellation Engern, a fmall
town in the county of Ravenlberg.
ANGROGNA, a town of Piedmont, belonging to
the king of Sardinia. E. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 48. 42.
ANGUILLA, one of the Weft-India orCarribbee
i{lands, lying in about 15° N. Lat. It has its name
from its fnake-like form ; and is about ten leagues in
length, and three in breadth. It was firft difcovered by
the Engiifli in 1650, when it was filled with alligators
and other noxious animals ; but they, finding the foil
fruitful, and proper for railing tobacco and corn, fettled
a colony on it, and imported live cattle, which have
fince multiplied exceedingly. But the colony not being
fettled under any public encouragement, each planter
laboured for himfelf, and the ifland became a prey to
every rapacious invader, which diftieartened the inhabi¬
tants fo much, that all induftry was loft among them.
Their chief fuffering was from a party of wild Irifti,
who landed here after the Revolution, and treated them
worfe than any of the French pirates who had attacked
them before. The people of Barbadoes, and other En-
glifti Carribbees, knowing the value of the foil, fev^ral Anguina
of them removed to Anguilla, where they remained fpr II .
many years, and even carried on a profitable trade, n^U15,
though without any government either civil or eccle-
fiaftical. In 1745, their militia, though not exceeding
100 men, defended a breaft-work againft 1000 French
who came to attack them; and at la ft obliged them to
retire with the lofs of 150 men; befides carrying off
fome of their arms and colours as trophies of their vic¬
tory. Since that time the inhabitants have fubfifted
moftly by farming; though they ftill plant fugar, and
the ifland is faid to be capable of great improvements.
ANGUINA. See Tricosanthes.
ANGUILLIFORM, an appellation given by zoo-
logifts, not only to the different fpecies of eels, but to
other animals refembling them in ftiape.
ANGUINUM ovum, a fabulous kind of egg, faid
to be produced by the faliva of a clutter of lerpents,
and poffeffed of certain magical virtues. The fuper-
ftition in refpedt to thefe was very prevalent among the
ancient Britons, and there ftill remains a ftrong tradi¬
tion of it in Wales. The account Pliny * gives of it * Lib.xxix.
is as follows : c. 3.
“ Praeterea eft ovorum genus in magna Galliarum
“ fama, omiffum Graecis. Angues innumeri aeftate
“ convoluti, falivis faucium corporumque fpumis arti-
“ fici complexu glomerantur ; anguinum appellatur.
“ Druidas fibilis id dicunt in fublime jaftari, fagoque
“ oportere intercipi, ne tellurem attingat: profugere
“ raptorem equo : ferpentes enim infequi, donee ar-
“ ceantur amnis alicujus interventu.”—Of which the
following may ferve as a tranflation : (from Mafia's
Car abacus ; the perfon fpeaking, a Druid.)
But tell me yet
From the grot of charms and ipells.
Where our matron filler dwells,
Brennus, has thy holy hand
Safely brought the Druid wand,
And the potent Adder-ftone,
Gender’d ’fore the autumnal moon ?
When, in undulating twine,
The foaming (hakes prolific join ;
When they hifs, and when they bear
Their wond’rous egg aloof in air:
Thence before to earth it fall,
The Druid in his hallow’d pall.
Receives the prize.
And inftant flies,
Follow’d by the envenom’d brood,
’Till he crofs the cryllal flood.
This wondrous egg feems to be nothing more than
a bead of glafs, ufed by the Druids as a charm to im-
pofe on the vulgar, whom they taught to believe, that
the poffeffor would be fortunate in all his attempts, and
that it would gain him the favour of the great.
Our modern Druideffes (fays Mr Pennant, from whom
we extraft) give much the fame account of the ovum
atiguinum, glain neidr, as the Welfti call it, or the
adder-gem, as the Roman philofopher does ; but feem
not to have fo exalted an opinion of its powers, ufing
it only to affift children in cutting their teeth, or to
cure the chin-cough, or to drive away an ague.
Thefe beads are of a very rich blue colour; fome
plain, others ftreaked. For their figure, feePlateXXIV.
(b). fig. 22. n° 1, 2, 3.
ANGUIS, or Snake, in zoology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of amphibia ferpentes. The charac¬
ters of the anguis are thefe : They are fquamous or
I x i 2 fcaly
A N G [ 440 j A N G
Anguis. fcaly in the belly and under the tail; without any fcu-
 ta. There are 15 fpecies of the anguis, viz. 1.
The eryx, a native of Britain and likewife of Ame¬
rica, is about a fpan in length, and about the thick-
nefs of a man’s finger. One from Aberdeenlhire, de-
fcribed by Mr Pennant, was 15 inches long; tongue
broad and forked; noftrils fmall, round, and placed
near the tip of the nofe ; eyes lodged in oblong fifiures
above the angle of the mouth; belly of a bluifh lead
colour, marked with fmall white fpots irregularly dif-
pofed : The reft of the body of a greyilh brown, with
- three longitudinal dulky lines; one extending from
the head along the back to the point of the tail; the
others broader, and extending the whole length of the
fides. It was entirely covered with fmall fcales; largeft
on the upper part of the head. 2. The fragilis, blind-
worm, or flow-worm, grows to about a foot in length,
and to the thicknefs of a man’s little finger : -the irides
are red; the head is fmall; the neck ftill more flender;
from that part the body grows fuddenly, and continues
of an equal bulk to the tail, which ends quite blunt.
The colour of the back is cinereous, marked with very
fmall lines compofed of minute black fpecks : the fides
are of a reddilh call; the belly dulky; both marked
like the back. The tongue is broad and forky ; the
teeth are minute, but numerous; the fcales fmall. The
motion of this ferpent is flow, from which, and from
the fmallnefs of the eyes, are derived its names. It re-
fembles the viper in the manner of producing its young,
which are put forth alive. It is frequent with us in
gardens and paftures, where it lives principally under
ground feeding on worms. Like others of the genus,
they lie torpid during winter, and are fometimesfoundin
vaft quantities twilled together. 3. The ventralis, or
glafs-fnakeof Catelby, has 127 fquamas on the belly, and
223 on the tail. The head is very fmall, and the tongue
* Plate xxii. of a lingular form *. The upper part of the body is of
%* S- a colour blended brown and green, moll regularly and
elegantly fpotted with yellow, the undermoft part of
which is brighteft. The Ikin is very fmooth; and Ihining
with fmall fcales, more clofely connedted, and of a diffe¬
rent ftrudlure from thofe of other ferpents. A fmall
blow with a Hick will caufe the body to feparate, not
only at the place ftruck, but at two or three other pla¬
ces, the mufcles being articulated in a lingular manner
quite through to the vertebra. They appear earlier in
the fpring than any other ferpent, and are numerous
in the fandy woods of Virginia and Carolina. They
are generally faid to be harmlefs. 4. The jaculus,
or dart-fnake, is about three hand-breadths long, and
about the thicknefs of one’s little finger. Its colour is
a milky grey on the back, variegated with fmall black
fpots like fo many eyes ; and on the belly it is per-
fedlly white. The neck is wholly black ; and from
that two milk-white ftreaks run all the way along the
back to the tail: the black fpots alfo are each furround-
ed with a fmall circle of white. It has its name from its
vibrating its body in the manner of a dart. It is a native
of Egypt, Libya, and the iflands of the Mediterranean.
5. The quadrupes : The body of this fpecies is cylin¬
drical,. with 14 or 15 longitudinal afti-coloured ftreaks;.
the teeth are extremely fmall; it has no ears: the feet
are at a great diftance from each other, very ftiort, with
five toes and fmall nails ; but the toes are fo minute,
that they can hardly be numberedIt is a native of
Java. 6. The bipes, is a native of the Indies ; it has Angnis ■ |
two ftiort feet, with two toes, near the anus. In every li . *
fcaleof the bipes there is a brown point. 7. The me- Ang°r13* .j
leagris, is likewife a native of the Indies; it has fmall
teeth, but no ears. This fpecies has a great refem-
blance to the former *. 8. The colubrirta, an inha- *p,atcxx'i‘t
bitant of Egypt, is beautifully variegated with pale 1‘
and yellow colours. 9. The maculata, a native of A-
merica, is yellow, and interfperfed with afli-coloured
lines on the back : the head is fmall in proportion to
the body f. 10. The reticulata, a native of America, f Fig. i.
has brownifti fcales, with a white margin. 11. The
ceraftes, with 20ofquam3eon the belly, and 15 on the
tail, is a native of Egypt. 12. The lumhricalis, a na¬
tive of America, has 230 fquamas on the belly, and 7
on the tail ; its colour is a yellowifh white. 13. The
platura : The head is oblong and without teeth ; the
body is about a foot and a half long, black above and
white below; the tail is about one ninth of the length
of the animal, much compreffed or flatted, and varie¬
gated with black and white; the fcales are roundiftt,
fmall, not imbricated, but they cannot be numbered.
14. The laticauda, a native of Surinam : the tail is
compreffed, acute, pale, with brownifti belts. 15. The
fcytale, a native of the Indies, with 220 fquamae on
the belly, and 13 on the tail. The head is fmall and
oval, and the eyes are little; the body is cylindrical,
about a foot and a half long, covered with oval obtufe
fcales : the tail is thick and obtufe like the head ; its
colour is white, interfperfed with brownifti rings; the
margins of the fcales are of an iron colour; and the
top of the head is blue J.—According to Linnaeus, j Fig. 3.
none of this genus are poifonous.
ANGURIA, the water-melon; a genus of the
diandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants.
Species. Of this genus, Linnaeus reckons three fpe¬
cies, the trilobata, pedata, and trifoliata; but only
one is known in this country, by the name of Citrul.
The fruit is cultivated in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and
other warm countries of Europe; as alfo in Africa,
Afia, and America; where it is efteemed on account
of its wholefome cooling quality ; but in Britain it is
held in little eftimation.
Culture. To have this fruit good, fome feeds muft
be procured of three or four years old; new feeds be¬
ing apt to produce vigorous plants, which are feldom
fo fruitful as thofe of a moderate ftrength. Thefe are
to be fown in the hot-bed for early cucumbers. Some
new dung is to be prepared in the beginning of Fe¬
bruary, which Ihould be thrown into a heap to heat, as
is praftifed for early cucumbers. The bed is then to
be made in the fame manner as for the mufk-melon,
covering the dung about five inches thick with loamy
earth; but as thefe plants require much more room
than either cucumbers or common melons, there ftiould
be but one plant put into a three-light frame. A hill
of the fame loamy earth fhould therefore be raifed a foot
and a half high, in the middle light of each frame;
into which, when the bed is of a proper temper for
heat, the plants fhould be carefully planted, obferving
to water and fhade them until they have taken good
root. As to other particulars, their management dif¬
fers very little from that of the mufk-melon : only they
muft frequently have frefh air admitted to them ; and,
when
Plate XXIII
A N G [ 441 ] AN!
\ngus when the nights are cold, the glafles muft be covered
! J . with mats to keep the beds warm.
1 inima ' ANGUS. See Forfarshire.
ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Roman antiquity, a tu¬
nica embroidered with little purple ftuds. It was worn
by the Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the
f, fenators.
ANHALT, an ifland of Denmark, in North Jut¬
land, lying in the Categut, eight miles from the coaft
of Jutland, ten from Zealand, and feven from Holland.
It is dangerous for feamen, for which reafon there is a
light-houfe.
Anhalt, a principality of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, about 42 miles in length, and eight
f in breadth. It is bounded on the S. by the county of
Mansfield, on the W. by the duchy of Halberftadt, on
the E. by the duchy of Saxony, and on the N. by the
duchy of Magdeburg. It abounds in corn, and is wa¬
tered by the Salde and Mulda ; its principal trade is in
beer.
ANHELATIO, or Anhelitus, among phyfi-
cians, a fhortnefs of breath.
ANIAN, the name of a ftrait formerly fuppofed
to lie between the north-eaft of Afia, and the north- .
weft of America ; but now found to exift only in ima¬
gination.
Anian is alfo the name of a barren fandy defert ly¬
ing on the eaft coaft of Africa. It is fo exceffively hot
and otherwife inhofpitable, that it contains but very
few inhabitants, except fome wandering Arabs who live
in camps.
ANJENGO, a fmall town and fa&ory on the coaft of
Malabar, in the peninfula on this fide the Ganges, be¬
longing to the Eaft India company. Their merchan-
dife confifts chiefly in pepper and callicoes. E. Long.
76. 1. N. Lat. 7. o.
ANIL, in botany, a fynonyme of a fpecies of in-
digolera. See Indegofera.
ANIMA, among divines and naturalifts, denotes
the foul, or principle of life, in animals. See Soul.
Anima, among chemifts, denotes the volatile or
fpiritous parts of bodies.
Anima Hepatis, is a name by which fome call fal
martis, or fait of iron, on account of its fuppofed
efficacy in difeafes of the liver.
Anima Saturni, a white powder obtained by pour¬
ing diftilled vinegar on litharge, of confiderable ufe in
enamelling. See Enamel.
ANIMADVERSION, in matters of literature, is
ufed to fignify, fometimes corredtion, fometimes re¬
marks upon a book, &c. and fometimes a ferious con-
fideration upon any point.
ANIMAL, in naturalhiftory, an organized and li¬
ving body, which is alfo endowed with fenfation: thus,
minerals are faid to grow or increafe, plants to grow
and live,, but animals alone to have fenfation.
It is this property of fenfation alone that can be
deemed the eflential chara&eriftic of an animal; and
by which the animal and vegetable kingdoms feem to
il be fo eflentially feparated, that we cannot even imagine
the leaft approximation of the one to the other. Thofe
naturalifts, indeed, who have fuppofed the diftindlion
between animals and vegetables to confift in any thing
elfe than what we have already mentioned, have found
themfelves greatly embarrafied; and have generally a-
greed, that it was extremely difficult, if not impoflible, Animat;
to fettle the boundaries between the animal and vege-
table kingdoms. But this difficulty will be eafily feen
to arife from their taking the charadleriftic marks of
the animal kingdom, from fomething that was evi¬
dently common to both. Thus, Boerhaave attempted
to diftinguilh an animal from a vegetable, by the for¬
mer having a mouth, which the latter has not: but
here, as the mouth of an animal is only the inftrument
by which nouriftiment is conveyed to its body, it is
evident, that this can be no effential diftin&ion, be-
caufe vegetables alfo require nourifhment, and have in-
ftruments proper for conveying it into their bodies
and where the end is the fame, a difference in the means
can never be effential. The fixing the difference in an
animal’s having a gula, ftomach, and inteftines, as is
done by Dr Tyfon, is as little to the purpofe.
The power of moving from one place to another,
hath by many been thought to conftitute their differ¬
ence; and indeed, in moft cafes, it is the obvious mark
by which we diftinguilh an animal from a vegetable :
but Lord Kaimes hath given feveral very curious in-
ftances of the locomotive power of plants; fome of which,
as he fays, would do honour to an animal.—“ Up¬
on the flighteft touch, the fenfitive plant fhrinks back
and folds up its leaves, fimilar to a fnail; which on the
flighteft touch retires within its fhell. A new fpecies
of the fenfitive plant hath been lately difcovered*. If a *SeeDmte,
fly perch upon one of its flower-leaves, it clofes inftant-
ly, and crufhes the infeft to death. There is not an ar¬
ticle in botany more admirable than a contrivance, vi-
fible in many plants, to take advantage of good wea¬
ther, and to protect themfelves againft bad. They open
and clofe their flowers and leaves in different circum-
ftances: fome clofe before funfet, fome after: fome opetv
to receive rain, fome clofe to avoid it. The petals of ma¬
ny flowers expand in the fun; but contrail at night, or
on the approach of rain. After the feeds are fecunda¬
ted, the petals no longer contrail. All the trefoils may
ferve as a barometer to the hufbandman; they always
contrail their leaves on an impending ftorm. Some
plants follow the fun, others turn from it. Many plants,
on the fun’s recefs, vary the pofition of their leaves,
which is ftyled the fleep of plants. A Angular plant f
was lately difcovered in Bengal, Its leaves are in con¬
tinual motion all day long; but when night approach¬
es, they fall down from an ereit pofture to reft.
“ A plant has a power of direfting its roots for pro¬
curing food. The red whortle-berry, a low evergreen
plant, grows naturally on the tops of our higheft hills,
among ftones and gravel. This flirub was planted in
an edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two
or three years, it over-ranthe adjoining deep-laid gra¬
vel walk; and feemed to fly from the border, in which
not a Angle runner appeared. An effort to come at
food in a bad fituation, is extremely remarkable in the
following inftance. Among the ruins of Newabbey,
formerly a monaftery in Galloway, there grows on the
top of a wall a plane-tree about 20 feet high. Strait¬
ened for nourilhment in that barren fituation, it feveral
years ago directed roots down the fide of the wall, till
they reached the ground ten feet below; and now the
nourifliment it afforded to thofe roots during the time
of their defcending is amply repaid, having every year
fince that time made vigorous ffioots. From the top of
f A fpecies-
the Hedy fa-
rum. See
that article
A N I
Animal, the wall to the furface of the eai-th, thefe roots have not
" thrown out a fingle fibre; but are now united in a fingle
root.
“ Plants, when forced from their natural pofition, are
endowed with a power to reftore themfelves. A hop-
plant, twilling round a ftick, direfts its courfe from
fouth to weft, as the fun does'. Untwift it, and tie
it in the oppofite direftion: it dies. Leave it loofe
in the wrong direftion : it recovers its natural direc¬
tion in a fingle night. Twift a branch of a tree fo as
to invert its leaves, and fix it in that pofition : if left
in any degree loofe, it untwifts itfelf gradually, till the
leaves be reftored to their natural pofition. What bet¬
ter can an animal do for its welfare? A root of a tree
meeting with a ditch in its progrefs, is laid open to the
air. What follows? It alters its courfe like a rational
being, dips into the ground, furrounds the ditch, rifes
on the oppofite fide to its wonted diftance from the fur-
face, and then proceeds in its original diredlion. Lay
a wet fpunge near a root laid open to the air; the root
will direft its courfe to the fpunge. Change the place
of the fpunge; the root varies its direction. Thruft a
pole into the ground at a moderate diftance from a
fcandent plant: the plant direfts its courfe to the pole,
lays hold of it, and rifes on it to its natural height. A
honeyfuckle proceeds in its courfe, till it be too long
for fupporting its weight; and then ftrengthens itfelf
by fhooting into a fpiral. If it meet with another plant
of the fame kind, they coalefce for mutual fupport; the
one fcrewing to the right, the other to the left. If a
honeyfuckle twig meets with a dead branch, it fcrewrs
from the right to the left. The clafpers of briony (hoot
into a fpiral, and lay hold of whatever comes in their way
for fupport. If, after compleating a fpiral of three
rounds, they meet with nothing, they try again by al¬
tering their courfe.” 
By comparing thefe and other inftances of feeming
voluntary motion in plants, with that {hare of life where¬
with fome of the inferior kinds of animals are endowed,
xve can fcarce hefitate at afcribing the fuperiority to
the former; that is, putting fenfation out of the que-
ftion. Mufcles, for inftance, are fixed to one place as
much as plants are; nor have they any power of mo¬
tion, befides that of opening and (hutting their ftiells:
and in this refpedl they have no fuperiority over the
motion of the fenfitive plant; nor doth their a&ion dif-
cover more fagacity, or even fo much as the roots of
the plane-tree mentioned by Lord Kaimes.
Mr Buffon, who feems to be defirous of confound¬
ing the animal and vegetable kingdoms, denies fenfa¬
tion to be any effential diftindtion. “ Senfation (fays
he) more efientially diftinguifties animals from vege¬
tables : but fenfation is a complex idea, and requires
fome explication. For if fenfation implied no more than
motion confequent upon a ftroke or an impulfe, the
fenfitive plant enjoys this power. But if, by fenfation,
we mean the faculty of perceiving and comparing ideas,
it is uncertain whether brute animals are endowed with
it. If it fhould be allowed to dogs, elephants, &c.
whofe adlions feem to proceed from motives fimilar to
thofe by which men are adluated, it muft be denied to
many fpecies of animals, particularly to thofe which ap¬
pear not to poffefs the faculty of progreflive motion. If
the fenfation of an oyfter, for example, differed only in
degree from that of a dog; why do we not afcribe the
fame fenfation to vegetables, though in a degree ftill
A N I
inferior? This diftindlion, therefore, between the ani- Animal,
mal and vegetable, is neither fufficiently general nor "
determined.
“ From this inveftigation we are led to conclude,
that there is no abfolute and effential diftindlion between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; but that nature
proceeds, by. imperceptible degrees, from the moft per-
fedt to the moft imperfedt animal, and from that to the
vegetables ; and the frefii water polypus may be re¬
garded as the laft of animals, and the firft of plants.”
It were to be wiftied, that philofophers would on
fome occafions confider, that a fubjedl may be dark as
well on account of their inability to fee, as when it really
affords no light. Our author boldly concludes, that
there is no effential difference between a plant and an
animal, becaufe we afcribe fenfation to an oyfter, and
none to the fenfitive plant; but we ought to remember,
that, though we cannot perceive a diftindlion, it may
neverthelefs exift. Before Mr Buffon, therefore, had
concluded in this manner, he ought to have proved that
fome vegetables were endowed with fenfation.
It is no doubt, however, as much incumbent on thofe
who take the contrary fide of the queftion, to prove
that vegetables are not endowed with fenfation, as it
was incumbent on Mr Buffon to have proved that they
are. But a little attention will (hew us, that the difficul¬
ty here proceeds entirely from our inability to fee the
principle of fenfation. We perceive this principle in
ourfelves, but no man can perceive it in another. Why
then does every individual of mankind conclude that
his neighbour has the fame fenfations with himfelf? It
can only be from analogy : Every man perceives his
neighbour formed in a manner fimilar to himfelf; he adls
in a fimilar manner on fimilar occafions; Juft fo it
is with brute animals. It is no more doubtful that
they have fenfations, than that we have them ourfelves.
If a man is wounded with a knife, for inftance, he ex-
preffes a fenfe of pain, and endeavours to avoid a repe¬
tition of the injury. Wound a dog in the fame man¬
ner, he will alfo exprefs a fenfe of pain; and, if you of¬
fer to ftrike him again, will endeavour to efcape, be¬
fore he feels the ftroke. To conclude, here, that the
aftion of the dog proceeded from a principle different
from that of the man, would be abfurd and unphilo-
fophical to the laft degree.
We muft further take notice, that there are fenfations
effentially diftindl from one another ; and in proportion
as an animal is endowed with more or fewer of thefe
different fpecies, it is more or lefs perfedt as an animal:
but, as long as one of them remains, it makes'not the
lead approach to the vegetable kingdom ; and, when
they are all taken away, is fo far from becoming a
vegetable, that it is only a mafs of dead matter. The
fenfes of a perfedl animal, for inftance, are five in num¬
ber. Take away one of them, fuppofe fight; he be¬
comes then a lefs perfedl animal, but is as unlike a ve¬
getable as before. Suppofe him next deprived of hear¬
ing : his refemblance to a vegetable would be as littlc-
as before ; becaufe a vegetable can neither feel, tafte,
nor fmell, and we fuppofe him ftill to enjoy thefe three
fenfes. Let us, laftly, fuppofe him endowed only with
the fenfe of feeling, which, however, feems to include
that of tafte; and he is no more a vegetable than for¬
merly, but only an imperfedl animal. If this fenfe
is then taken away, we connedl him not with the
vegetable kingdom, but with what Mr Buffon calls
brute-
[ 442 1
T
A N I [ 443 ] A N I
m|i .nimal. Irute-matter. It is to this kingdom, and not to the
" vegetable, that animals plainly approximate as they
I defcend. Indeed, to fuppofe an approximation between
the vegetable and animal kingdoms, is very abfurd: for,
at that rate, the moft imperfect animal ought to be the
moft perfect plant; but we obferve no fuch thing. AH
| animals, from the higheft to the loweft, are poflelfed of
vegetable life ; and that, as far as we can perceive, in
an equal degree, whether the animal-life is perfeft or
imperfect: nor doth there feem to be the fmalleft con¬
nexion between the higheft degree of vegetation and
the loweft degree of lenfation. Though all animals,
therefore, are poffefled of vegetable life, thefe two feem
to be as perfectly diftinA and incommenfurate to one
another, as any two things we can poffibly imagine.
The power of vegetation, for inftance, is as perfect
i in an onion or leek, as in a dog, an elephant, or a man:
and yet, though you threaten a leek or an onion ever
fo much, it pays no regard to your words, as a dog
I would do; nor, though you wound it, does it avoid a
fecond ftroke. It is this principle of felf-prefervation
in all animals, which, being the moft powerful one in
their nature, is generally taken, and with very g^>°d
reafon, as the true charafteriftic of animal-life. This
principle is undoubtedly a confequence of fenfation ;
and as it is never obferved to take place in vegetables,
we have a right to fay that the foundation of it, namely
fenfation, belongs not to them.—There is no animal,
which makes any motion in confequence of external
impulfe, where danger is threatened, but what puts
itfelf in a pofture of defence; but no vegetable what-
i| ’ ever does fo. A mufcle, when it is touched, immedi¬
ately (huts its (hell; and as this a&ion puts it in a ftate
of defence, we conclude that it proceeded from the prin¬
ciple of felf-prefervation. When the fenfitive plant
contrafts from a touch, it is flo more in a ftate of de¬
fence than before ; for whatever would have deftroyed
it in its expanded ftate, will alfo do it in its contracted
ftate. We conclude, therefore, that the motion of the
fenfitive plant proceeds only from a certain property
called by phyficians irritability; and which, though
our bodies poffefs it in an eminent degree, is a charac-
teriftic neither of animal nor vegetable life, but be¬
longs to us in common with brute-matter. It is cer¬
tain, that an electrified filk-thread (hews a much great¬
er variety of motions than any fenfitive plant. If a
bit of filk-thread is dropt on an eleCtrified metal-plate,
it immediately ereCts itfelf; fpreads out the final! fibres
like arms; and, if not detained, will fly off. If a finger
is brought near it, the thread feems greedily to catch
at it. If a candle approaches, it claps clofe to the plate,
as if afraid of it.—Why do we not conclude that the
thread in this cafe is really afraid of the candle ? For
|1 - this plain reafon, That its feeming flight is not to get
away from the candle, but to get towards the electri¬
fied metal; and, if allowed to remain there, will fuf-
fer itfelf to be burnt without offering to ftir.—The
fenfitive plant, in like manner, after it has contracted,
will fuffer itfelf to be cut in pieces, without making the
lead effort to efcape. The cafe is not fo with the mean-
eft animal. An hedge-hog, when alarmed, draws its
body together, and expands its prickles, thereby put¬
ting itfelf in a pofture of defence. Throw it into wa¬
ter; and the fame principle of felf-prefervation prompts
it to expand its body, and fwim. A fnail, when touched,
withdraws itfelf into its (hell; but if a little quicklime Animal,
is fprinkled upon it, fo that its (hell is no longer a place "
of fafety, it is thrown into agonies, and endeavours to
avail itfelf of its locomotive power in order to efcape
the danger. In mufeles and oyfters, indeed, we can¬
not obferve this principle of felf-prefervation fo ftrong-
ly, as nature has deprived them of the power of progref-
live motion: but, as we obferve them conftantly to ufe
the means which nature has given them for felf-prefer¬
vation, we can have no reafon to think that they are
deftitute of that principle upon which it is founded-.
But there is no need of arguments drawn from the in¬
ferior creation.—We ourfelves are poffeffed both of the
animal and vegetable life, and certainly muft know whe¬
ther there is any connection between vegetation and fen¬
fation or not.—We are confcious that we exift; that we
hear, fee, <&c.: but of our vegetation we are abfolutely
inconfcious. We feel a pleafure, for inftance, in grati¬
fying the calls of hunger, and third; but of the procefs
by which our aliment is formed into chyle, the chyle
mi^ed with the blood, the circulation of that fluid, and
the feparation of all the humours from it, we are al¬
together ignorant. If we then, who are more per-
feCt than other vegetables, are utterly infenfible of our
own vegetable life, why (hould we imagine that the lefs
perfect vegetables are fenfible of it ?
To illuftrate our reafoning here by an example.—
The direction of the roots of the plane-tree mentioned
by Lord Kaimes, (hews as much fagacity, if we are to
look only to the outward aCtion, as can be obferved in
any motion of the moft perfect animal whatever; ne-
verthelefs, we have not the leaft fufpicion, either that
the tree faw the ground at a diftance, or that it was in¬
formed of its being there by the reft of its roots. It
a wound is made in the body of a man, and a lofs of
fubftance is to be repaired, the fame fagacity will be
obferved in the arrangement of the fibres, not only as
if they were animated, but they will difpofe of them-
felves feemingly with a degree of wifdom far fuperior '
to what we have any idea of; yet this is done without
our having the leaft knowledge either how it is done,
or of its being done at all. We have therefore in our¬
felves a demonftration, that vegetable life ads without
knowing what it does : and if vegetables are ignorant
of their moft fugacious adions, why (hould we fufped
that they have a fenfation, let it be ever fo obfeure,
of any of their inferior ones, fuch as contrading from
a touch, turning towards the fun, or advancing to meet
a pole?
Thus we may eafily give Mr Buffon a reafon why
we aferibe fenfation to an oyfter, and none to a vege¬
table; namely, becaufe we perceive the vegetable do
nothing but what is alfo performed in our own bodies,
without our having the leaft: fenfation of it ; where¬
as an oyfter puts itfelf in a defenfive pofture on the
approach of danger; and this being an adion' fimi-
lar to our own upon a like occafion, we conclude that
it proceeds from the fame principle of fenfation. Here
it may alfo be obferved, that though the inferior ani¬
mals are deficient in the number, they are by no means
fo in the acutenefs, of their fenfations; on the contrary,
though a mufcle or an oyfter is probably endowed with
no other fenfe than that.of feeling, yet this fenfe is fo
exquifite, that it will contrad upon the (lighteft touch, *
fuch as we would be altogether infenfible of.
Animal.
A N I [ 444 ]
A N I
As to that power of contra&ility, or irritability,
which is obferved in fome plants; our folids have it,
when deprived both of vegetable and animal life : for
a mufcle, cut out of a living body, will continue to con¬
tract, if it is irritated by pricking it, after it has neither
fenfation nor vegetation.
A very good moral reafon may alfo be adduced why
we do not believe vegetables to be endowed with fen¬
fation.—Had they been fo, we mud fuppofe them to
fuffer pain when they are cut or deftroyed; and, if fo,
what an unhappy date mud they be in, who have not
the lead power to avoid the injuries daily offered them ?
In fa£t, the goodnefs of the Deity is very confpicuous
in not giving to vegetables the fame fenfations as to
animals; and, as he hath given them no means of de¬
fence, though we had not been told it by himfelf, we
might have known that he gave them for food to a-
nimals ; and, in this cafe, to have endowed them with
fenfation would have been a piece of cruelty. Though
animals without number prey upon one another, yet
all of them have fome means of defence; from whence
we may judly conclude, that their mutual dedru&ion
was not an original appointment of the creator, but
what he forefaw would happen in a courfe of time, and
which he therefore gave every one of them fome means
of guarding againd. It may no doubt be here ob¬
jected, that the giving fome means of felf defence to
every animal cannot be reckoned a fufficient proof that
it was not the original defign of the Creator that they
Jhould be dedroyed, feeing thefe means are not always
effectual for their prefervation.—This objection, how¬
ever, cannot be completely obviated without a folution
of the quedion concerning the origin of evil among
the works of a perfectly good Being. But whatever
difficulty there may be in folving this quedion, it is
certain, that, as fome means of felf-defence is given to
every animal, it has been the original defign of the
Creator, that, in all cafes, one fpecies of animals ftiould
not be dedroyed at the pleafure of any other fpecies;
and as no means of felf-defence is given to any vege¬
table, it is as plain, that they have been dedined for a
prey to every fpecies of animals that had accefs to them.
Philofophers have infided much on the neceffity of one
animal’s devouring another, that there might be room
fufficient for all; but this, fo far from being a fydem
worthy of the divine wifdom, feems to us to be a re¬
flection upon it, as if the author of nature could not
have found means to preferve the life of one part of his
creatures, without the dedruCtion and mifery of the red.
The facred writings leave us at no lofs to fee how this
carnivorous difpofition came in; and, in the next world,
this piece of perfection, (as the fanguinary philofo¬
phers abovementioned would have it to be), feems to
be left out; for there, it is faid, “ They ffiall not hurt
“ nor deflroy, the lion fhall eat draw like the ox, and
“ there ffiall be no more pain.”
When fpeaking of the food of plants, we took occa-
fion to mention a certain power, totally different from
that of attraction or repulfion, by which the food of
a plant, after it was attracted, or otherwife brought to
it, was affimilatedto its fubdance. This power, which
we there didinguiffi by the name of tranfmutation, be¬
longs in a more eminent degree to animals. The ali- Animat;
mentary fubdance is changed into two kinds of matter. If
(i.) An excrementitious one, which paffes off through
the intedines; and (2.) A fluid, which is the direCt  J
pabulum of the animal. Different fubdances, how¬
ever, are not equally changeable by this procefs. The
human domach is not capable of aCting upon any a-
nimal fubdance till it has lod its vital principle: the
domachs of fome animals cannot aft upon creatures of
their own fpecies : fome have an apparatus for grind¬
ing their food after it is fwallowed, &c. and there are
no animals but what are fubjeft to death by taking cer¬
tain fubdances into their domach. Some fubdances al¬
fo, though they refid the aftion of the domach, and
pafs unchanged into the fydem, produce no bad ef-
fefts. Thus, madder will turn the bones of animals
red; rhubarb will communicate its purgative nature to jj
the milk, and its deep yellow colour to the urine.—All
thefe changes, however, feem to belong to the vegeta¬
tive part of our fydem : for as every one of them are
performed without our knowledge of the manner how;
and not only fo, but while we are abfolutely unconfcious
of their being done; we can have no reafon to fuppofe,
that the animal life, properly fo called, is at all con-
ncfted with them, any farther than as they are at pre-
fent the means of preferving the creature alive, and ma¬
king the connexion betwixt the principle of life and *
this vifible creation.
The defcription, hidory, and claffing of animals,
makes not only a confiderable, but the mod excellent,
part of Natural Hidory, known by the name of Zoolo¬
gy. See the article Zoology.
For particulars relating to different animals, their a-
nalogous drufture, fagacity, indinft, peculiarities, &c.
fee Comparative Anatomy, Instinct, Migration,
Pairing, Amphibious, Bird, Fish, Quadruped,
drc. Singing, Nidification, Viviparous, Ovipa¬
rous, foe.
Animal, ufed adjeftively, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to, or partaking of, the nature of animals. Thus,
animal aftions, thofe that are peculiar to animals; fuch
are fenfation and mufcular motion.
Animal Earth. See Chemistry, n° 38.
Animal Flower, in zoology, a name given tofe-
veral fpecies of animals belonging to the genus of
A dim a of Linnaeus (a). They have likewife been
didinguiffied by the names of Urtica Marina, or
Sea-nettle, from their fuppofed property of dinging ;
and Sea-anemone, from their claws or tentacles being
difpofed in regular -circles, and tinged with a variety
of bright lively colours, refembling the petals of fome
of our mod beautiful flowers. As to one fpecies parti¬
cularly, mentioned by Abbe Diequemarre, (Phil.Tranf.
for 1773, art 37.) the pured white, carmine, and ul¬
tramarine, are laid to be fcarce fufficient to exp red
their brilliancy. The bodies of fome of them are he-
mifpherical, of others cylindrical, and of others ffiaped
like a fig. Their fubdance likewife differs ; fome are
fliff and gelatinous, others fleffiy and mufcular; but all
of them are capable of altering their figure when they
extend their bodies and claws in fearch of food. They
are found in many of the rocky coafls of the Wed In¬
dia
(a) The name of this genus happened to be omitted in the order of the alphabet. It belongs to the order of Ver¬
mis Mollufca; and its characters are thefe : The body is oblong, round, affixing itfelf to fome other fubftance ; the
top dilatable, furrounded with numberlefs tentacula; mouth the only aperture, and furniffied with crooked teeth.
A N I [4
dia iflands, and likewife on fome parfs of the coaft of
England.
They have only one opening, which is in the centre
of the uppermdft part of the animal; round this are
placed rows of flefhy claws; this opening is the mouth
of the animal, and is capable of great dxtenfion. The
animals themfelves, though exceedingly voracious, will
bear long fading. They may be preferved alive a
whole year, or perhaps longer, in a velfel of fea-water,
without any vifible food; but, when food is prefented,
one of them will fucceflively devour two mufcles in their
{hells, or even fwallow a whole crab as large as a hen’s
egg. In a day or two the crab-ihell is voided at the
mouth, perfe&ly cleared of all the meat. The mufcle-
(hells are likewife difcharged whole, with the two fhells
joined together, but entirely empty, fo that not the
lead particle of fhh is to be perceived on opening them.
An anemone of one fpecies will even fwallow an indi¬
vidual of another fpecies; but, after retaining it ten or
twelve hours, will throw it up alive and uninjured.
Through this opening alfo it produces its young ones
alive, already furnidied with little claws, which, as foon
as they fix themfelves, they begin to extend in fearch
of food.
One of the extremities of the fea-anemone refembles,
as we have faid, the outward leaves of that flower;
while its limbs are not unlike the ftiag or inner part of
it. By the other extremity it fixes itfelf, as by a fucker,
to the rocks or dones lying in the fand ; but it is not
totally deprived of the power of progreffive motion, as
it can fliift its fituation, though very flowly.
A particular fpecies of animal-flowers has been found
in fome of the iflands ceded to Britain at the lad treaty
of peace with France ; and the following account of
them was publiftied in the Philofophical Tranfactions,
vol. 57. by Mr Ellis, in a letter to Lord Hillfborough.
“ This compound animal, which is of a tender flefliy
fubdance, confids of many tubular bodies, fwelling
gently towards the upper part, and ending like a bulb
or very fmall onion; on the top of each is its mouth,
furrounded by one or two rows, of tentacles, or claws,
which when contra&ed look like circles of beads.
“ The lower part of all thefe bodies have a com¬
munication with a firm flefliy wrinkled tube, which
dicks fad to the rocks, and fends forth other flefliy
tubes, which creep along them in various directions.
Thefe are full of different fixes of thefe remarkable
animals, which rife up irregularly in groupes near to
one another.
“ This adhering tube, that fecures them fad to the
rock, or fhelly bottom, is worthy of our notice. The
knobs that we obferve, are formed in feveral parts of
it by its infinuating itfelf into the inequalities of the
coral rock, or by grafping pieces of fliells, part of
which dill remain in it, with the flefliy fubdance grown
over them.
“ This fliews us the indinft of nature, that direds
thefe animals to preferve themfelves from the violence
of the waves, not unlike the anchoring of mufcles, by
their fine filken filaments that end in fuckers ; or ra¬
ther like the flielly bafis of the ferpula, or worm-ftiell,
the tree-oyder, and the flipper barnacle, &c. whofe ba-
fes conform to the fliape of whatever fubdance they
fix themfelves to, grafping it fad with their teflaceous
claws, to withdand the fury of a dorm.
Vol. I.
■S ] A N I
“ When we view the infide of this animal differed Anlmal-
lengthwife, we find like a little tube leading from the Flower'
mouth to the domach, from wdience there rife eight
wrinkled fmall guts, in a circular order, with a yel-
lowifti foft fubdance in them; thefe bend over in the
form of arches towards the lower part of the bulb,
from whence they may be traced downwards, to the
nan-ow part of the upright tube, till they come to the
flefliy adhering tube, where fome of them may be per¬
ceived entering into a papilla, or the beginning of an
animal of the like kind, mod probably to convey it
nourifhment till it is provided with claws : the re¬
maining part of thefe flender guts are continued on in
the flefliy tube, without doubt for the fame purpofe of
producing and fupporting more young ones from the
fame common parent.
“ The many longitudinal fibres that we difcover
lying parallel to each other, on the infide of the femir
tranfparent Hein, are all inferted in the feveral claws
round the animal’s mouth, and are plainly the tendons
of the mufcles for moving and direfting the claws
at the will of the animal: thefe may be likewife tra¬
ced down to the adhering tube.
“ As this fpecimen has been preferved in fpirits,
the colour of the animal, when living, cannot be certain¬
ly known; it is at prefent of a pale yellowifli brown.
“ With regard to its name, it may be called Actinia
Sociata, or the Clujier Animal-flower.'”
The abbe Dicquemarre, by many curious, though
cruel experiments related in the Phil. Tranf. for 1773,
has fhewn that thefe animals poffefs, in a mod extra¬
ordinary degree, the power of reproduftion ; fo that
fcarce any thing more is neceffary to produce as many
fea-anemonies as we pleafe, than to cut a Angle one in¬
to as many pieces. A fea-anemone being cut in two
by a feftion through the body, that part, where the
limbs and mouth are placed, eat a piece of a mufcle
offered to it foon after the operation, and continued to
feed and grow daily for three months after. The food
fometimes paffed through the animal; but was gene¬
rally thrown up again, confiderably changed, as in the
perfeft fea-anemone. In about two months, two rows
of limbs were perceived growing out of the part where
the incifion was made. On offering food to this new
mouth, it was laid hold of and eat; and the limbs con¬
tinually increafing, the animal gradually became as
perfeft as thofe which had never been cut. In fome
indances, however, he found, that, when one of thefe
creatures was cut through, new limbs would be produ¬
ced from the cut place, thofe at the mouth remaining
as before ; fo that a mondrous animal was the confe-
quence, having two mouths, and feeding at both
ends. Having put fome of them into a pan of water,
fet over a flow fire, he found that they lod their life
at 50 degrees of Reamur’s thermometer. To avoid
the imputation of cruelty in thefe experiments, the
author argues the favourable confequences that have
attended his operations on the fea-anemonies which
have been fo fortunate as to fall into his hands ; as he
hath not only multiplied their exidence, but alfo re¬
newed their youth; which lad, he adds, “ is furely
no fmall advantage.”
In Hughe’s Natural Hidory of Barbadoes an ac¬
count is alfo given of feveral fpecies of animal-flowers^
They are there defcribed as only found in a bafon in
K k k one
Animal-
Flower.
A N I
[ 446 J
A N I
one particular cave ; and of tlie moll remarkable fpecies
mentioned by him vve have the following defcription.
“ In the middle of the bafon, there is a fixed ftone,
or rock, which is always under water. Round its
fides, at different depths, feldom exceeding 18 inches,
are feen, at all times of the year, iffuing out of little
it when put into a glafs of fea-water. It is introdu¬
ced here as a new variety of this animal not yet de-
fcribed.
Animal Spirits. See Nervous Fluid.
Animal Subjlances. See Chemisty, n° 62, 519.
Animal Syjiem denotes the whole clafs of beings
holes, certain fubftances that have the appearance of endowed with animal life, otherwife called Animal
fine radiated flowers, of a pale yellow, or a bright
firaw colour, llightly tinged with green, having a cir¬
cular border of thick-fet petals, about the fize of, and
touch refembling, thofe of a Angle garden-marigold,
except that the whole of this feeming flower is nar¬
rower at the difcus, or fetting on of the leaves, than
any flower of that kind.
“ 1 have attempted to pluck one of thefe from the
rock, to which they are always fixed; but never could
effefit it. For as foon as my fingers came within two or
three inches of it, it would immediately contradl clofe
together its yellow border, and ft rink back into the
hole of the rock; but, if left undifturbed for about four
toinutes, it would come gradually in fight, expanding,
though at firll very cautioully, its feeming leaves, till
at laft it appeared in its former bloom. However, it
■would again recoil, with a furprifing .quicknefs, when my
hand came within a fmall diftance of it. Having tried
the fame experiment by attempting to touch it with my
cane, and a fmall flender rod, the effeft was the fame.
“ Though I could not by any means contrive to
take or pluck from the rock one of thefe animals en¬
tire ; yet I once cut off (with a knife which I had held
fora long time out of fight, near the mouth of an hole       „
out of which one of thefe animals appeared) two of fibly animalcules equally minute, or perhaps more fo,
Pairing of Animals. See Pairing.
A.NIMALCULE, in general, fignifies a little ani¬
mal ; and thus the term might be applied to every ani¬
mal which is confiderably inferior in fize to ourfelves.
It hath been cuftomary, however, to diftinguift by the (
name of animalcules only fuch animals as are of a fize of^heworo
fa diminutive, that their true figure cannot be difcerned
without the afliftance of glaffes; and more efpecially it
is applied to fuch as are altogether invifible to the na¬
ked eye, and cannot even be perceived to exift but by
the affiftance of microfcopes.
By the help of magnifying glaffes, we are brought
into a kind of new worldj and numberlefs animals are
difcovered, which from their minutenefs mull otherwife
for ever have efcaped our obfervation : and how many
kinds of thefe invifibles there may be, isftill unknown ; 4
as they are difcerned of all fizes, from thofe which are Differer
barely invifible to the naked eye, to fuch as refift the <’ze1s of ,
aftion of the microfcope, as the fixed ftars do that of malcule$.;
the telefcope, and with the beft magnifiers hitherto in¬
vented appear only aa fo many moving points.
The fmalleft living creatures our inftruments caa
ftew are thofe that inhabit the waters : for though pof-
thefe feeming leaves. Thefe, when out of the water,
retained their ftape and colour ; but, being compofed
of a membrane-like fubftance, furprifingly thin, it
foon ftrivelltd up, and decayed.”
The reprodudive power of the Barbadoes animal-
flower is prodigious. Many people coming to fee
thefe ftrange creatures, and occafioning fome inconve¬
nience to a perfon through whofe grounds they were
obliged to pafs, he refolved to deftroy the objects of
their curiofity; and, that he might do fo effe&ually,
caufed all the holes out of which they appeared, to be
carefully bored and drilled with an iron inftrument, fo
that we cannot fuppofe but their bodies muft have been
entirely crufted to a pulp: neverthelefs, they again ap¬
peared in a few weeks, from the very fame places.
Plate XXIV. fig. x. reprefents the ad ini a fociata,
or cluftered animal-flower, defcribed by Mr Ellis, with
its radical tube adhering to a rock: (a) One of the ani¬
mals ftretching out its claws. Fig. 2. A perpendicular
diffedion of one of the bodies, to ftew the gullet, in-
teftines, ftomach, and fibres or tendons that move the
claws : (a) A young one arifing out of the adhering
tube. Fig. 3. The adinia after, or animal-flower of the
newly cedfectifiands. Fig. 4. The adinia anemone, or
fea-anemonyfromthefameplace. Fig. 5. The underpart
of the fame by which it adheres to the rocks. Fig. 6.
The adinia helianthus, or the fea-fun-flowerfrom ditto.
Fig. 7. The under part of the fame. Fig. 8. The
adinia dianthus, or fea-carnation, from the rocks at
Haftings in Suffex. This animal adheres by its tail, or-
fucker, to the under part of the projeding rocks op-
may fly in the air, or creep upon the earth, it is fcarce
poffible to bring fuch under our examination ; but wa¬
ter being tranfparent, and confining the creatures in it,
we are able, by applying a drop of it to our glaffes, to
difcover, to a certain degree of fmallnefs, all that it
contains.—Some of the moft curious of thefe animal¬
cules, which have been defcribed by microfcopical ob-
fervers, we fliall here give an account of. 3
1. The Hair-like Infett. This is fo called by Mr Ba- Hair-liki
ker on account of its ftape; being extremely flender, inl¬
and frequently an hundred and fifty times as long as
broad. The body or middle part, which is nearly
ftraight, appears, in fome, compofed of fuch rings as the
windpipe of land-animals is made up of; but in others,
feems rather fcaled, or made up of rings that obliquely
crofs one another. Its two ends are hooked or bent,
pretty nearly in the fame degree, but in a diredion op-
pofite to one another; and as no eyes can be difcern¬
ed, it is difficult to judge which is the head or tail. Its
progreffive * motion is very Angular, being performed * PI. XX;
by turning upon one end as a centre, and defcribingal-
moft a quarter of a circle with the other, as reprefented
in the figure. Its motions are very flow, and require 4
much patience and attention in the obferver. Thefe Tts extre hf
creatures are fo fmall, that millions of millions of them fnallnefs si
might be contained in an inch fquare. When viewed
fingly, they are exceedingly tranfparent, and of a beau¬
tiful green colour; but when numbers of them are
brought together, they become opaque, lofe their green
colour, and grow entirely black.
^ t Notwithftanding the extreme minutenefs of thefe ani- Delights ji
pofite to the town ; and, when the tide is out, has the malcules, they feem to be fond of fociety; for, after foci tty.
appearance of a long white fig: this is the form of viewing for fome time a parcel of them taken up at
random,
Animal Ilow&rs
Pla^e m\r
A N I [ 447 ] AN!
Kg- 3-
Animal- random, they will be feen difpofing themfelves in a kind
- of regular order-)'. If a multitude of them are put into
late XXIV a jar of water, they will form themfelves into a regular
h-) body, and afcend flowly to the top, where, after they
have remained for fome time expofed to the air, their
green colour changes to a beautiful Iky-blue. When
they are weary of this fituation, they form themfelves
into a kind of rope, which flowly defcends as low as
they intend ; but if they happen to be clofe to the fide
of the jar, they will defcend upon it. They are fo near¬
ly of the Specific gravity of water itfelf, that they will
either remain at the bottom, float on the furface, or be
fufpended in the middle, according as they are origi¬
nally placed, or as they themfelves have a mind.
A fmall quantity of the matter containing thefe ani¬
malcules j: having been put into ajar of water, it fo hap¬
pened, that one part went down immediately to the
botxom, whilft the other continued floating on the top.
When things had remained for fome time in this con¬
dition, each of thefe fwarms of animalcules began to
grow weary of its fituation, and had a mind to change
its quarters. Both armies, therefore, fet out at the fame
time, the one proceeding upwards, and the other down-
6 wards; fo that, after fome hours journey, they met in
yeems pof- the middle. A defire of knowing how they would be-
fjonlilerahle ^ave oa this occafion engaged the obferver to watch
ifegree of fa- them carefully; and to his furprife he faw the army
:>;acity. that was marching upwards, open to the right and left,
to make room for thofe that were defcending. Thus,
without confufion or intermixture, each held on its way;
the army that was going up, marching in two columns
to the top, and the other proceeding in one column to
the bottom, as if each had been under the dire&ion of
Is •; wife leaders.
The hair-like infeft was firft difcovered in a ditch at
Norwich, one end of which communicates with the ri¬
ver there, and the other end with a fecond ditch into
which feveral kennels empty themfelves. The length of
this ditch, when Mr Baker wrote his account of this
animalcule, was at leaft too yards, and its breadth
nine. The bottom, for more than a foot thick, was co¬
vered with a blackilh green fubftance, in appearance
•like mud, made up for the moll part of theie infefts;
but, fuppofing only an half or a quarter part of it to
be compofed of them, according to the dimenfions we
have given, their numbers muft exceed all imagination.
2. Eels in pafie, &c. When pa lie is allowed to Hand
till it becomes four, it is then found to be the habita¬
tion of numberlefs animalcules, which may be difceru-
ed by the naked eye ; and though their form cannot be
perfe&ly diilinguiflted, their motion is very percep¬
tible, and the whole pafte will feem to be animated.
8 Fig. 4. reprefent? one of thefe anguillae magnified.
Eels in paft^The moft remarkable property of thefe infe&s is, that
viviparous, are viviparous. If one of them is cut thro’ near
the middle, feveral oval bodies of different fizes will be
feen to iffue forth. Thefe are young anguillae, each of
them coiled up and inclofed in its proper membrane,
which is fo exquifitely fine, as fcatce to be difcernible by
the greateft magnifier, while it inclofes the embryo ani¬
mal. The largeft and moft forward immediately break
through this covering, unfold themfelves, and wriggle
•about in the water nimbly; others get out, uncoil, and
move themfelves about more flowly ; and the leaft ma¬
ture continue entirely without motion. The uterus,
Found in
prodigious
quantity.
or veffel that contains all thefe oval bodies, is compo- Animal-
fed of many ringlets, not unlike the afpera arteria of Cllle'
land-animals, and feems to be confiderably elaftic; for Plate XXIV
as Toon as the animalcule is cut in two, the oval bodies (A)
are thruft out with fome degree of violence, from the
fpringing-back or atftion of this bowel. An hundred and
upwards of the young ones have been feen to iffue from
the body of one Angle eel, whereby the prodigous in-
creafe of them may be accounted for; as probably fe¬
veral fuch numerous generations are produced in a fhort
time. They feem to be all prolific ; and unlefs trial
happens to be made upon one that has brought forth all
itsyoung, or whenthepafte has been kept for a very long¬
time, the experiment will always fucceed.—This pro¬
perty of thefe eels being viviparous, renders it highly
improbable that they ever become flies.
Animalcules of a fimilar kind are likewife found in
vinegar; and like thofe already defcribed, are found to
be viviparous. But it is not only in acid matters that ?
fuch appearances are obferved. In fome fields of wheat. Similar
many grains may be obferved, that appear blackifh out- creatures
wardly, as if fcorched; but, when opened, are found to
contain a foft white fubftance, which, attentively confi- wheat.
dered, appears to be nothing elfe than a congeries of
threads or fibres lying clofe to each other in a parallel
dire&ion, much refembling the unripe down of fome
thiftles on cutting open the flower-heads before they
begin to blow. This fibrous matter difcovers not the
leaft fign of life or motion, unlefs water is applied; but
immediately on wetting, provided the grains of wheat
have been newly gathered, the fuppofed fibres feparate,
and appear to be living creatures. Their motions at
firft are very languid; but gradually become more vi¬
gorous, twilling and wriggling themfelves fomewhat in
the manner of the eels in pafte, but always flower than
they, and with a great deal of lefs regularity.
If the grains of wheat are grown dry by keeping,
and in that condition are cut open, the fibrous matter
is very diftinguiihable ; and, on putting water to it, will
feparate with great readinefs, and feem like fine tubes
or threads tapering at both ends: but not the leaft mo¬
tion will be perceived till they have been in water for fe¬
veral hours, and fometimes they will never move at alL
But if the fame grains are fteeped in water for three or How difco-
four hours, or buried for fome days' in the earth till verable.
they are fully faturated with moifture, and then open¬
ed with a penknifeon taking out a fmall portion of
the white matter carefully, and fpreading it thin upon
a flip of glafs, the animalcules will be feen bundled to*
gether, and extended longitudinally, but without mo¬
tion : and though, upon the application of water, they
will not revive fo fo«n as thofe taken from frelh grains,
whofe moifture has never been exhaled ; yet, after re¬
maining an hour or two in water, they are conftantly
found alive and vigorous, even though the grains have
been kept in a dry condition for feveral years.—It is Precautions
neceffary, however, to adapt, in fome meafure, the necclfiry in
time of continuing the grains in water or earth to the making the
age and drynefs of them : for if they are not opened exPcnment’
before they are too much foftened, the animalcules wfill
be dead; and unlefs the hulks are opened to let thofe
creatures out after they have been fteeped, they ine¬
vitably perifti in them : otherwife, they will continue
alive in water for many months ; and, ftiould the water
dry away, may be revived again by giving them a frelh
K k k 2 fupply
A N I
[
A N I
A'nimal- fupply.
cuIb. ^ The Prottus. This animalcule has been dignified
Plate XXIV by Mr Baker with the name of Proteus, on account of
(A) its afluming a great number of different fhapes, fo as
l3, fcarce to be known as the fame animal in its various
wl)0'fc^call- transformations; and indeed unlefs it be carefully watch¬
ed. , ed while palling from one lhape to another, it will often
become fuddenly invifible, as happened more than once
to Mr Baker.
When water, wherein any fort of vegetable has been
infufed, or animals preferved, has flood quietly for
fome days, or weeks, in any glafs-or other veflel, a
llimy fubftance will be colle&ed about the fides : fome
of which being taken up with the point of a penknife,
placed on a flip of glafs in a drop of water, and looked
at through the microfcope, will be found to harbour
feveral kinds of little animals that are feldom found
bular lhape, exceeds not the bignefs of a grain of fand, Animali
and no figns of life appear : but, being put into water, cirle-
the fpace of half an hour, a languid motion begins, Plate XXIV ,.
the globule turns itfelf about, lengthens itfelf by flow (A)
degrees, affumes the form of a lively maggot, and moll
commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its
wheels; fwimming vigoroufly through the water, as if
  elfe, f  
Where
found.
>4 fwimming about at large; among which theproteusis
-^1 ^p^!c one. Its lhape is better underftood from the figure,
co our, . tjian from any defcription that could be given. Its
fubftance and colour feems to referable that of a fnail;
and its whole lhape feems to bear a confiderable refem-
blance to that of a fwan. It fwims to and fro with
great vivacity: but will now and then Hop for a mi¬
nute or two ; during which time its long neck is ufual-
ly employed as far as it can reach, forwards, and on
every fide, with a fomewhat flow, but equable mo¬
tion, like that of a fnake, frequently extending thrice
' the length of its body, and feemingly in fearch of food.
There are no eyes, nor any opening in the head like
a mouth, to be difcerned: but its actions plainly prove
it to be an animal that can fee ; for though multitudes
of different animalcules fwim about in. the fame water,
and its own progreffive motion is very fwift, it never
ftrikes againft any of them, but directs its courfe be¬
tween them with a dexterity wholly unaccountable
15 Ihould we fuppofe it deftitute of fight.
Its transfer- When the proteus is alarmed, it fuddenly draws in
Biations. jts ]ong neck, reprefented in fig. 5. and 6. transform¬
ing itfelf into the lhape reprefented in fig. 7. when it
becomes more opaque, and moves about very flowly
with the large end foremoft. When it has continued
fome time in this pofture, it will often, inftead of the
head and neck it had formerly, put forth a new one,
with a kind of wheel machinery, reprefented fig. 8.
the motions of which draw a current of water to it from
a confiderable diftance. Having often pulled in and
thruft out this Ihort head, fometimes with and fome-
times without the wheel-work, the creature, as if
weary, will remain motionlefs for a while; then its head
and long neck will be very flowly protruded, as in fig. 9.
and it foon refumes its former agility. Sometimes it
16 difpofes of its neck and head as reprefented in fig. 10.
■vorticella, The Wheel-Animal, or Vorticella. This wonder-
.vherefound £uj anJmalcule Js found in rain-water that has Hood
fome days in leaden gutters, or in hollows of lead on
the tops of houfes ; or in the flime or fediment left by
fuch water; and perhaps may alfo be found in other
places : but if the water Handing in gutters of lead, or
the fediment left behind it, has any thing of a red co¬
lour in it, one may be almoft certain of finding them
therein. Though it difeovers no figns of life except
when in the water, yet it is capable of continuing alive
for many months after it is taken out of the water, and
kept in.a ftate as dry as dull. In this ftate it is of a glo-
fearch of food; or elfe, fixing itfelf by the tail, works
the wheels in fuch a manner as to bring its food to it.
Fig. 23. and 24. fhew the wheel-animal in its glo¬
bular form; fig. 11. and 12. in its maggot ftate; and
fig. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22. ftiew
the different appearances of its wheels, and alfo its va¬
rious intermediate changes between the globular arid
maggot ftate. xy .
The moft remarkable part of this animalcule is its Its whcelJ
wheel-work. This confifts of a couple of femicircular work (ieic|j
inftruments, round the edges of which many little fi- P ‘
brillae move themfelves very brilkly, fometimes with a
kind of rotation, and fometimes in a trembling or vi¬
brating manner. When in this ftate, it fometimes un-
faftens its tail, and fwims along with a great dfcal of
fwiftnefs, feemingly in purfuit of its prey. Sometimes
the wheels feem to be entire circles, armed with fmall
teeth like thofe of the balance-wheel of a watch, ap¬
pearing projected forwards beyond the head, and ex¬
tending fideways fomewhat wider than its diameter.
The teeth or cogs of thefe wheels feem to ftand very
regularly at equal diftances : but the figure pf them
varies according to their pofition, the degree of their
protrufion, and perhaps the will of the animal itfelf.
They appear fometimes like minute oblong fquares, ri-
fing at right angles from the periphery of a circle, like
ancient battlements on a round tower; at other times
they terminate in fharp points, and all together referable
a kind of Gothic crown. They are often feen in -a kind
of curvular direction, all bending the fame way, and
feeming like fo many hooks; and now and then the
ends of them will be perceived to be clubbed like mal¬
lets. This figure, however, as well as the firft, they af-
fume but rarely.
As thefe wheels are every where exceffively tranfpa-
rent, except about their circular rim or edge, where
the cogs are fet; it is very difficult to determine by
what contrivance they are turned about, or what their
real figure is, though they feem exaftly to referable Shew sll t
wheels moving round upon an axis. It is alfo hardly marks of,
poffible to be certain whether thofe circular bodies in r°ta'
which the teeth are fet, are of a flat form, or hollow
and conical ; but they feem rather to be of a conical
figure. The difficulty of conceiving how an articula¬
tion could be contrived fo as to caufe a real rotationj
hath caufed many people imagine that there was a de¬
ception in this cafe: but Mr Baker affures us, that, when
the wheels are fully protruded, they never fail to fhew
all the vifible marks of a regular rotation; and, in fome
pofitions, the fame cogs or teeth may be traced by the
eye during a complete revolution*
All the a&ions of this creature feem to imply faga- Shews gr«g ;
city and quicknefs of fenfation. At the leaft touch or ^l!i‘;!<nePs ' “
motion in the water, they inftantly draw in their wheels; en a Ion“ p
and Mr Baker conjeriiures, that their eyes are lodged
fomewhere about the wheels: becaufe, while in the
maggot-ftate, its motions are flow and blundering; but,
after the wheels are protruded, they are performed with
great
A N I [ 449 ] A *N I
I tt.imal- great regularity, fwiftnefs, and fteadinefs,
I Not with ftanding the minutenefs of this animalcule,
■/_ neXXlV the microfcope generally difcovers others in the fame
.) drop of water, compared with which the wheel-animal
may be faid to be a whale. The tranfparency *of its bo¬
dy, therefore, allows its internal parts to be feen, which
cannot be perceived in the miritateft animalcules on ac-
5. >?• 'count of the fmallnefs of their fize. Is the appearance
■fcription ^ the head; and, though it is every where tranfparent,
its inter- a ring or circle more particularly remarkable for its
i parts. clearnefs is commonly perceived about the middle of
j the forehead, a little above the mouth. This, Mr Ba-
* ker thinks, might juftly be called the feat of the brain.
Many velfels which feem to take their origin from
thence are difcernible in the head, wherein fome tranf¬
parent fluid appears continually agitated by a kind of
flu&uating motion.
The thorax, b, is joined to the head by a very fliort
neck, c, and appears to be about the fixth part of the
whole length of the animal. In the middle of the
thorax is placed the heart, d, where its fyftole and dia-
ilole is plainly vilible. It is feen through the back of
the infedf, (hutting and opening alternately with great
regularity and exadlnefs. Its fize is proportionable to
the creature’s bignefs; and its lhape, during the fyftole,
is nearly circular, being compofed feemingly of two fe-
■milunar parts, which then approach each other late¬
rally, and form between-them a roundifti or horfe-fhoe
like figure, whofe upper fide is flat, and the under one
convex. The diaftole is performed by a feeming fe-
paration, or opening, of thefe two femilunar parts,
I, whereby the tranfverfe diameter of the heart is very
much enlarged. This feparation begins exactly in the
middle of the lower part next the tail; and opens to
fuch a confiderable width upwards, that the two parts,
when at their utmoft diftenfion, feem only joined by an
arched veffel at their anterior end. T^c alternate mo¬
tions of contradlion and dilatation are performed with
great ftrength and vigour, in pretty much the fame
time as the pulfations of the arteries of a man in health.
The motions of the heart are communicated to all the
internal parts of the thorax; and feem to extend a great
deal further; for a ftrift examination difcovers, at the
fame time, throughout the whole animal, contractions
and dilatations going on, that are apparently corre-
fpondent thereto. Thefe motions of the heart, how¬
ever, are fometimes fufpended, or imperceptible, for two
or three minutes ; after which they are renewed, and
go on again with the fame regularity as before. From
the under part of the thorax proceeds a fmall tranfpa¬
rent horn reprefented at a fig. 11. and 12. It is never
vifible but when the animal turns on its back or fide.
The blood or circulating fluid of the wheel-animal is
fo abfolutely colourlefe, that the current of it through
the veflels is indiftinguiftiable by glafies. A fort of ir¬
regular agitation of fome fluid is indeed perceived,
II - which is perhaps a compound motion of currents run-
. 1 ning different ways, and forming fuch an appearance,
tho’ no Angle current is any where diftinCtly vifible.
Immediately below the thorax is another annular di-
1 '1 vifion, e, joining upwards to the thorax, and down-.
| wards to the abdomen, the entrance whereof it ferves
j , occafionally to enlarge or diminifh. The abdomen,/j
is by much the largeft part of the animal, and contains
the ftomach and inteftines. When the infeft is full of
food, thefe bowels appear opaque and of a blood-red Animal-
colour, extending quite through the belly and great cule' 
part of the tail, and exhibiting a variety of contractions Plate XXIV
and dilatations. The belly is capable of ftretching out (A)
greatly in length, or being fhortened very much, and
widening its diameter. It affumes many fhapes, and
becomes occafionally a cafe for all the other parts of the
body. a i
Beiides the abovementioned one, there are found in Other kinds
the waters feveral other fpecies of animals furnilhed
with wheels, fome of which appear to have a rotatory, 31 *
and others a vibratory, motion. Fig. 25. reprefents a
kind found in the ditch at Norwich, where the hair¬
like infect is produced. They differ from the forego¬
ing only in having very long tails. Fig. 26, 27, and
28, reprefent a fpecies of wheel-animals, which are alfo
covered with fhells. The body of this fpecies confifts
of three parts, in like manner as the other; only the
thorax and abdomen, in this, are not' feparated by any
gut, or intermediate veffel, but are joined immediately
together. The heart is plainly perceived, having a re¬
gular fyftole and diaftole, at a, as in the former fpe¬
cies. Thefe creatures occafionally draw themfelves in-
tirely within their fhells; and the fliell then appears
terminated by fix fhort fpikes on one fide, and two on
the other. as
The "young ones of this fpecies are carried in oval fac- Manner of
culi, or integuments, faftened externally to the lower-
part of their fhells fomewhere about the tail: thefe fac- ones> youil2
culi are fometimes opaque only at one end, and feem¬
ingly empty at the other ; fometimes they appear o-
paque in the middle, with a tranfparency all round, as
in fig. 26. When a young one is about to burft its in¬
teguments, the parent affifts it greatly, by wagging its
tail, and ftriking the oval bag, fo that the young one’s
head becomes as it were forced into the water, though
the tail cannot be fo foon difengaged. In this condi- Fig- 28. f.
tion the young one fets its wheels a-going, and exerts
all its endeavours to free itfelf from its confinement.
When it has got clear, it fwims away, wagging its tail
as the old one does, and leaving the integument adhe¬
ring to the fhell of the parent. _ The old one then ufes
a number of efforts to'get rid of this incumbrance, ftri¬
king againft it with her tail, fixing the end of her tail
upon it, and then darting her body forward; with fe- 13
veral very odd motions not eafy to be defcribed. This Infe^ the
kind of wheel-animals are great tormentors of the wa- Pu!®x A"
ter-flea, Pulex aquaticus arborefcem of Swammerdam; "
of which a figure is given from that author (Plate
XXIV. B): fig. 2. (hews the natural fize of the flea;
and fig. 1. fhews it magnified, with fome of the wheel-
animals adhering to it. Thefe infe&s are often found
in great numbers in the fame waters: and when that is
the cafe, it is not uncommon to difcover five or fix of
thefe cruftaceous wheel-animals faftened by their tail to
the fhell or horns of the flea; caufing it, feemingly, a
vaft deal of uneaffnefs; nor can they be driven away, or
fliaken off, by all the efforts the flea can ufe for that
purpofe. . * A
5. ‘The Bell-flower Animal^ ox Plumed Polype. Thefe animai'VM
animalcules dwell in colonies together,, from ten to fif¬
teen, (feldom falling fhort of the former number, or
exceeding the latter), in a flimykind of mucilaginous
or gelatinous cafe; which, out of the water, has no de¬
termined form, appearing like a little lump of (lime;
hut.
A N I
'Animal* but, when expanded therein, has fome refemblance to
eule. fl^ure Df a bed with its mouth upwards; and is
Plate XXIV ufur’ly about half an inch long, and a quarter of an
(A) inch in diameter. Thefe bells, or colonies, are to be
25 _ found adhering to the large leaves of duckweed, and
covered'1'*'" ot^er astatic plants. They may be moll; eafily difeo-
vered by letting a quantity of water, with duckweed in
it, ftand quietly for three or four hours in glafs-veffels
in a window, or other place whence a ftrong light
comes: for then, if any are about the duckweed, they
will be found, on careful infpe&ion, extending them-
felves out of their cafes, and making an elegant ap¬
pearance.
The bell, or cafe, which thefe animals inhabit, being
very tranfparent, all the motions of its inhabitants may
be difeerned through it diftindtly. It feems divided in¬
ternally into feveral apartments, or rather to contain fe-
veral fmaller facculi, each of which inclofes one of thefe
animals. The openings at the tops of thefe facculi, are
but juft fufficient to admit the creature’s head and a
fmall part of its body to be thruft out beyond them,
the reft remaining always in the cafe. It can, how¬
ever, occafionally retire into its cafe altogether ; and
never fails to do fo when alarmed by any fudden mo-
aS tion of the water, or of the veffel which contains it.
Motions of Befides the particular and feparate motion which each
the whole cf thefe creatures is able to exert within its own cafe,
and independent of the reft; the whole colony together
has a power of altering the pofition of the bell, or even
of removing it from one place to another ; and hence
this bell is fometimes found (landing perfectly upright,
as in fig. 29 and 33, and fometimes bending the upper
part downwards, as in fig. 30. As thefe animalcules
feem not to chufe to (lay together in focieties whofe
number exceeds 15; when the colony happens to in-
creafe in number, the bell may be obferved to fplit gra¬
dually, beginning from about the middle of the upper
or anterior extremity, and proceeding downwards to¬
wards the bottom, as in fig. 32. till they at laft fepa-
rate intirely, and become two complete colonies inde¬
pendent of each other, one of which fometimes removes
to another part of the veffel.
The arms of each individual of this colony are fet
Defcript:
of an indivi-
450 ] A N I
be difeerned when the creature is full, at which time
they become opaque. The other two divifions, which
are probably fixed to the bell, feem to be of no other ufe
than to give the creature a power of contradlion and
extenfion. The arms are not able to contrail like thofe
of the common polypi; but, when the animal retires
into its cafe, they are brought together in a clofe and
curious order, fo as to be eafily drawn in. Though
their general appearance when expanded is that of a
cup whofe bafe and top are of an horfe-ftioe form, they
fometimes feparate into four parts, and range themfelves
as in fig. 36. fo as to refemble four feparate plumes of
feathers. Tho’ their eyes cannot be difeovered, yet Mr
Baker thinks they have fome perception of the light:
for, when kept in the dark, they always remain con-
trailed ; but, on being expofed to the light of the fun
or of a candle, they conftantly extend their arms, and
{hew evident figns of being pleafed.
Fig. 29. reprefents one complete colony or bell Hand¬
ing ereil, with all the animals out of their kingdom,
and their arms extended, exhibiting all together a very
pretty appearance, a reprefents two oval bodies, fup-
pofed by Mr Baker to be eggs.
Fig. 30. (hews all the creatures withdrawn into their
cells, and the end of the bell hanging downwards.
Fig. 33. {hews the bell ereil, with only one of the
animals coming out, in order to {how its connexion
with the bell.
Fig. 34. (hews the head and arms of a fingle polype
clofing together, and difpofing themfelves in order to
be drawn into the bell.
Fig. 35. (hews one complete animal greatly magni¬
fied, to (how its feveral parts more diftinilly; viz. a,
the head, refembling an horfe.-ftioe; it, the arms feen
from one fide; c, the narrow neck; d, the oefophagus;
e, the ftomach ; f, the gut or laft inteftine thro’ which
the food paffes after being digefted in the ftomach; g,
the anus, where the faeces are difehatged in little pel¬
lets ; h i, that part of the bell which furrounds the body
of the animal, and clofes upon it when it retires down.
Fig. 37. the head and arms feen in front.
6. The Globe-animal. This animalcule, reprefented
fig. 38. feems exactly globular, having no appearance
of either head, tail, or fins. It moves in all diredlions,
forwards or backwards, up or down, either rolling o-
A n! trial-
cuie. 1
Plate XXI
(A)
23
have a pe;
ception oil
light,
round the head, to the number of 40, having each the
figure of an Italic f, one of whofe hooked ends is fa- . ^
ftened to the head; and all together, when expanded, ver and over like a bowl, fpinning horizontally like a
mpofe a figure fhaped fomewhat like a horfe’s (hoe,
convex on the fide next the body, but gradually open¬
ing and turning outwards, fo as to leave a confiderable
area within the outer extremities of the arms. When
the arms are thus extended, the creature, by giving them
a vibrating motion, can produce a current in the water,
which brings the animalcules, or whatever other mi-
top, or gliding along fmoothly without turning itfelf
at all. Sometimes its motions are flow, at other times
very fwift; and, when it pleafes, it can turn round, as
it were upon an axis, very nimbly, without removing
out of its place. The whole body is tranfparent, ex¬
cept where the circular black fpots are (hewn in the
figure. Some of the animals have no fpots, and others
nute bodies are within the fphere of its aftion, with from one to feven. The furface of the whole body ap-
great velocity to its mouth, fituated between the arms; pears, in fome, as if all over dotted with points; in o-
where they are taken in if liked, or driven away by a thers, as if granulated like (hagreen ; but their more
contrary motion. The food is conveyed immediately
from the mouth or opening between the arms, through
a narrow neck, into a paffage feemingly correfpondent
to the cefophagus in land-animals; down which it paf¬
fes into the ftomach, where it remains for fome time,
and then is voided upwards, in fmall round pellets, thro’
general appearance is, as if befet thinly round with
Ihort moveable hairs or briftles, which probably are
the inftruments by which their motions are performed.
Thefe animalcules may be feen by the naked eye, but
appear only like moving points.
7. The Pipe-animal. Thefe creatures are found on P
a gut whofe exit is near the neck. The body confifts of the coaft of Norfolk, living in fmall tubes or cafes of
three divifions; in the uppermoft of which are contain¬
ed all the abovementioned intellines, which are only to
fandy matter, in fuch multitudes as to compofe a naafs
fometimes of three feet in length. Fig. 39. Ihews a
piece.
Plate XXIV. iai
I
Jfr
w
cSE7SSk\
:
A N I [ 45i ] A N I
r rj ninul- piece of fuch a congeries broke off, where a a a a repre- are confiderafely opaque, and difpofed as in the figure. Anima!-
il| cule. fent the mouths or openings of the pipes wherein the Along its fides are feveral papillae, with long hairs grow- 01 ^
kite XXIV little animals make their abode. Fig. 40. Ihews one ing from them: it has two black eyes, and is very Plate XXIV
p fingle pipe, with its inhabitant, feparated from the reft, nimble. But the moft remarkable thing in this crea- (B)
and magnified nine or ten times in diameter. The ture, is a long horn or probofcis; which, in the large ones, Tts
pipe or cafe b is made of fand, intermixed here and there may be feen with the naked eye, if the water is clear, probofcis.
I with minute ftiells, and all cemented together by a glu- and is fometimes of an inch in length : this it waves
tinous flime, probably iffuing from the animal’s own to and fro as it moves in the water, or creeps up the fide
body cy which is compofed of mufcular ringlets like of the glafs; but it is not known whether it is hollow,
thofe of a worm, capable of great extenfion or con- or of what ufe it is to the creature itfelf.
tradlion. The anterior end or head, dy is exceeding- 10. Spermatic Animals, and Animalcula Infuforia. ^ 36
ly beautiful, having round it a double row of little arms The difeovery of living animalcules in the femen of Spenratis
difpofed in a very regular order, and probably capable moft animals, is claimed by Mr Lewenhoek and Mr Ni- ^herfdifeo-
ij 3, of extenfion, in order to catch its food, and bring it cholas Hartfoeker; who both fay, they publifhed it vei-ed.
(Jjtftoetimes to its mouth.—Some of thefe tubes are found petrified, about the end of the year 1677, or beginning of 1678:
Mind petri- and conftitute one fpecies offyringoides. but Mr Lewenhoek having given the moft particular
i1' 8. An Infeci with net-like-arms. The properties and defeription of, and made by far the greateft number of
Tea with fhape of this little animal are very extraordinary. It is experiments concerning them, the difeovery is com-
:-like found only in cafcades, where the water runs very fwift. monly attributed to him.
ns* There thefe ihfedls are found in clutters, Handing e- According to this naturalift, thefe animalcules are
reft on their tails; and refembling, when all together, found in the femen mafeulinum of every kind of ani- General ap-
the combs of bees at the time they are filled with their mal; but their general appearance is very much the pearanceihe
aurelias. On being taken out of the water, they fpin fame, nor doth their fize differ in proportion to the ‘ft ,
threads, by which they hang exaftly in the fame man- bulk of the animal to which they belong. The bodies
ner as the garden-fpider. Fig. 42. fiiews one of thefe of all of them feem to be of an oblong oval form, with
infefts magnified. Its body appears curiouffy turned long tapering flender tails iffuing from them; and as
as on a lathe; and at the tail are three ftiarp fptnes, on by this fhape they refemble tadpoles, they have been
which it raifes itfelf, and ftands upright in the water : frequently called by that name; tho’ the tails of them,
but the moft curious apparatus is about its head, where in proportion to their bodies, are much longer than the
it is furniftied with two inftruments like fans or nets, tails of tadpoles are: and it is obfervable, that the ani-
which ferve to provide its food. Thefe it frequently malcules in the femen of fifties, have tails much longer
fpreads out and draws in again; and when drawn up they and more flender, than the tails of thofe in other ani-
arefolded together with the utmoft nicety and exaftnefs, mals; infomuch, that the extremity of them is not to
fo as to be indifcernible when brought clofe to the bo- be difeerned without the beft glaffes, and the utmoft
dy. At the bottom of thefe fans a couple of claws attention. Fig. 21. N° 1, 2, 3, 4, reprefent the fper- Plate XXIV
are faftened to the lower part of the head, which, every matic animalcula of the rabbit; and N° 5, 6, 7, 8, thofe
time the nets are drawn in, conduft to the mouth of the of a dog; according to Mr Lewenhoek. 3g
animal whatever is taken in them. When the creature The numbers of thefe anitnalcula are inconceivable. Inconceiv-
doth not employ its nets, it thrufts out a pair of fharp On viewing with a microfcope, the milt, or femen maf- num~i
horns, as in fig. 41. where the infeft is fhewn magni- culinumof a living cod-fifh, innumerable multitudes of nutenefs"11^
fied about 400 times. animalcul es were found therein, of fuch a diminutive fize,
Some of thefe creatures being kept with water in a that he fuppofed at leaft 10,000 of them capable of
vial, moft of them died in two days; and the reft, ha- being contained in the bulk of a grain of fand; whence
ving fpun themfelves tranfparent cafes, (which, were he concludes, that the milt of this fingle fifh contained
faftened either to the fides of the glafs, or to pieces more living animalcules than there are to be found peo-
of grafs put into it,) feemed to be changed into a kind pie living in the whole world. To find the compara-
of chryfalis: but before taking this form, they ap.- tive fize of thefe animalcules, Mr Lewenhoek placed
peared as in fig. 43. which ftiape they likewife affuttied an hair of his head near them; which hair, through his
when weary with catching their food, or when lying microfcope, appeared an inch in breadth ; and he was-
in wait for it. None of them lived above three days ; fatisfied, that at leaft 60 fuch animalcules could eafily
33 and though frdh water was given them two or three fie within that diameter; whence, their bodies being
pirprifing times a-day, yet in a few hours it would ftink to a fpherical, it follows, that 216,000 of them are but e-
I roperiy of degree fcarce conceivable, and that too at feveral yards qual to a globe whofe diameter is the breadth of a hair,
roi mg Wd- diftance, though, in proportion to. the water, all the He obferved, that, when the water wherewith he had
included infefts were not more than as 1 to 1,150,000. diluted the femen of a cod-fifti was exhaled, the little
This makes it probable, that it is neceffary for them to bodies of the animalcules burft in pieces ; which did
live in a rapid ftream, left they ftiould be poifoned by not happen to thofe in the femen of a ram: and this he
the effluvia iffuing from their own bodies, as no doubt imputes to the greater firmnefs and eonfiftency of the
:u ”:'’r latter, as the flelh of a land-animal is more compaft
than fifh. 3S>,
Thefe animalcules appear to be very vigorous, and Are conti-
tenacious of life; for they may be obferved to move 1,oa%ia
long after the animal from which they are taken is dead, mot,on•
They have this peculiarity alfd, that they are continu-
I;
™ aquatic
i^ormV
they were in the vial.
9. A curious aquatic worm- This animalcule is
ftiewn, magnified, at fig. 31. It is found in ditch-
water; and is of various fizes, from -fa to -fan inch in
length. About the head it has fomewhat of a yellow-
ifh colour; but all the reft of the body is perfeftly co-
lourlefs and tranfparent, except the inteftines, which ally in motion, without the leaft reft c
intermiffion,
provided’
.Animal-
Plate XXIV
(B) ,
4°
Anifnalcula
Infuforia.
4*
Mr Lewen-
hoek’s ac¬
count of a-
rtimalcules
in rain-wa¬
ter.
4*
Surprifing
produftion
of thefe ani¬
malcules.
Mr Ellis’s
account of
animalcules
from infu li¬
on of pota¬
toes.
A N I
provided there is fluid fufficient for them to fwim about
in. Thefe animalcula are peculiar to thefemen; nothing
that has the leaft token of life being difcovered, by the
beft glafies, either in the blood, fpittle, urine, gall, or
chyle. Great numbers, however, are to be found in
the whitilh matter that flicks between the teeth; fome
of which are of an oval figure, and others refemble eels.
The Anhnalcula Infuforia, take their name from their
being found in all kinds either of vegetable or animal in-
fufions. Indeed, there is fcarce any kind of water, unlefs
impregnated with fome mineral fubflance, but what will
difcover living creatures.—Mr Lewenhoek fays, that
at firll he could difcern no living creatures in rain-wa¬
ter; but after ftanding fome days, he difcovered innu¬
merable animalcules, many thoufands of times left than
a grain of fand, and in proportion to a mite as a bee
[ 452 1
A N I
meter 705, I boiled a potatoe in the New-River water Animal,
till it was reduced to a mealy confiftence. I put part cule>
of it, with an equal proportion of the boiling liquor, in- Plate XXIV
to a cylindrical glafs-veffel that held fomething lefs than (B)
half a wine-pint, and covered it clofe immediately with
a glafs-cover. At the fame time, I diced an unboiled
potatoe; and, as near as I could judger put the fame
quantity into a glafs-vefiel of the fame kind; with the
fame proportion of New River water not boiled; and
covered it with a glafs cover; and placed both veflels
clofe to each other.
“ On the 26th of May, 24 hours afterwards, I ex¬
amined a fmall drop of each, by the firft magnifier of
Wilfon’s microfcope, whofe focal diftance is reckoned
at -jV*1 paj-t of an inch; and, to my amazement, they
were both full of animalcula of a linear fhape, very di-
is to a horfe.—In other rain-water, which had likewife ftinguilhable, moving to and fro with great celerity
ilood fome time, he found the fmalldt fort he had
feen ; and, in a few days more, met with others eight
times as big as thefe, and almoft round.—In another
quantity of rain-water, that had been expofed like the
former, he difcovered a kind of animalcules with two
little horns in continual motion. The fpace between
the horns was flat, though the body was roundifh, but
tapering a little towards the end; where a tail appear¬
ed, four times as long as the body, and the thicknefs
fo that therf appeared to be more particles of animal
than vegetable life in each drop.
“ This Experiment Ihave repeatedly tried, and always
found it to fucceed in proportion to the heat of the cir¬
cumambient air; fo that even in winter, if the liquors
are kept properly warm, at leaft in two or three days
the experiment will fucceed.
“ What I have obferved are infinitely fmaller than
fpermatic animals, and of a very different fhape : the
of a fpider’s web. He obferved feveral hundreds of truth of which, every accurate obferver will foon be
thefe within the fpace a grain of fand would occupy.
If they happened on the leaft filament or firing, they
were entangled in it; and then would extend their bo¬
dies into an oblong round, and ftruggle hard to difen-
gage their tails. He obferved a fecond fort of an oval fi¬
gure, and imagined the head to Hand at the fharpeft end.
The body was flat, with feveral fmall feet moving ex¬
ceeding quick, but not difcernible without a great deal
of attention. Sometimes they changed their fhape in¬
to a perfeEl round, efpecially when the water began to
dry away. He met alfo with a third fort, twice as long
as broad, and eight times fmaller than the firft: yet in
thefe he difcerned little feet, whereby they moved very
nimbly. He perceived likewife a fourth fort, a thou-
fand times fmaller than a loufe’s eye, and which ex¬
ceeded all the reft in brifknefs: he found thefe turning
themfelves round, as it were upon a point, with the ce-
convinced of, whofe curiofity may lead him to compare
them; and I am perfuaded he will find they are no
way akin.
“ At prefent I fhall pafs over many other curious
obfervations, which I have made on two years experi¬
ments, in order to proceed to the explaining a hint
which I received laft January from Mr De Sauflure of
Geneva, when he was here ; which is, that he found
one kind of thefe animalcula infuforia that increafe by
dividing acrofs into nearly two equal parts.
“ I had often feen this appearance in various fpe-
cies a year or two ago, as I found upon looking over
the minutes I had taken when I made any new obfer-
vation ; but always fuppofed the animal, when in this
ftate, to be in coition.
“ Not hearing, till afer M. De Sauffure left this king¬
dom, from what infufion he had made his obfervation;
lerity of a top. And he fays, there were feveral other his friend Dr de la Roche of Geneva informed me, the
forts.
The production of animalcula infuforia is very fur-
prifing. In four hours time, an infufion of cantharides
latter end of February laft, that it was from hempfeed. 44
“ I immediately procured hempfeed from different From an
feeds-men in diftant parts of the town. Some of it I fufionofo
has produced animalcula lefs than even the tails of the put into New-River water, fome into diftilled water, liemP‘eet
fpermatic animals we have already defcribed. Neither and fome I put into very hard pump water. The re-
fpermatic animals we have already
do they feem to be fubjeft to the fate of other animals;
but, feveral kinds of them at leaft, by dividing them¬
felves in two, to enjoy a fort of immortality. Nor do
the common methods by which other animals are de-
ftroyed, feem to be effectual for deftroying their vital
principle. - Hot mutton-gravy, fecured in a vial with a
cork, and afterwards fet among hot afttes to deftroy as
rr n. _u _    l’:  ^  .1.  u
put into very hard pump
fult was, that in proportion to the heat of the weather,
or the warmth in which they were kept, there was an 1
appearance of millions of minute animalcula in all the in-
fufions ; and, fome time after, fome oval ones made their |j
appearance, as at fig. ^ b c. Thefe were much larger
than the firft, which ftill continued; thefe wriggled to and
fro in an Undulatory motion', turning themfelves round
effeftually as pofiible every living creature that could very quick all the time that they moved forwards. I was 4J s
be fuppofed to exift in it, has neverthelefs been found very attentive to fee thefe animals divide themfelves; Divide •
r_  .vi, —:—1—1«, -tv—  .1— an(j at laft I perceived a few of the appearance of fig. 3. themfebja
a, as it is reprefented by the firft magnifier of Wilfon’s1,1 two* |
microfcope; but I am fo well convinced by experience,
that they would feparate, that I did not wait to fee the
operation: however, as the following Iketches, which I
have drawn from five other fpecies, will very fully ex¬
plain
fwarming with animalcules after ftanding a few days.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, Vol. LIX. we have
the following curious account, given us by Mr Ellis, of
animalcules produced from an infufion of potatoes and
of hempfeed.
« On the 25th of May 1768, Fahrenheit’s thermo-
AMI [ 45.3 ] A N 1 .
A Aniwal* plain this extraordinary phenomenon, there will be no mals, by feparating acrofs the middle. This was found Animal-
13 I cule' difficulty in conceiving the manner of the firtt. See in the infufion of hempfeed; but is found in other ve- c”le*
a 1 Plate XXIV fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. getable infufions, particularly that of tea-feed. Plate XXIV
{j'B) “ The proportion of the number of thefe animals Fig. 4. is the volvox torquilla, or wryneck. At (a) (B)
which I have obferved to divide in this manner, to the is reprefented its divided ftate ; at (b) and (c) its na-
I reft, is fcarce x to 50; fo that it appears rather to a- tural ftate: this is common to moft vegetable infufions,
rife from hurts received by fome few animalcula among as is the following.
the many, than to be the natural manner in which thefe Fig. 5. is the volvox volutans, or the roller. At (a)
kinds of animals multiply; efpecially if we confider the the animal is feparated, and becomes two diftinft be-
infinite quantity of young ones which are vifible to us ings, each fwimming about and providing for itfelf:
through the tranfparent fkins of their bodies, and even this is often the prey of another fpecies of this genus,
the young ones that are vifible in thofe young ones efpecially while it is weak by this feparation, not being
while in the body of the old ones. fo a&ive for fome time till it can recover itfelf. At (c)
“ But nothing more plainly (hews them to be zoo- the animal appears to be hurt on one fide; thisimpref-
phytes, than this circumftance, That when, by acci- lion in a little time is fucceeded by another in the op-
dent, the extremity of their bodies has been (hrivelled polite fide, as at (b), which foon occafions a divifion.
for want of a fupply of frelh water, the applying more At (d) is the fide-view, and at (e) the front-view, of
frelh water has given motion to the part of the animal the natural lhape of the animal.
that was ftill alive ; by which means, this fhapelefs fi- Fig. 6. is the volvox onifcus, or wood-loufe. At (a)
gure has continued to live and fwim to and fro all the is the natural lhape of it, as it appears full of little
time it was fupplied with frelh water. hairs both at the head and tail; with thofe at the head,
“ I cannot linilh this part of my remarks on thefe it whirls the water about to draw its prey to it; the
animals, without obferving, that the excellent Linnseus feet, which are many, are very vifible, but remarkably
4(S has joined the £<?ra? with the vclvox, one of the animal- fo in afide-view at (d). At (b) it is reprefented be*
Seroe de- cula infuforia. The beroe is a marine animal, found ginning to divide; and at (c) the animals are ready
f'cri bed. on our coafts; of a gelatinous tranfparent nature, and to part: in this ftate, as if in exquifite pain, they
of an oval or fpherical form, about half an inch to an fwim round and round, and to and fro, with uncom*
inch diameter; divided like a melon into longitudinal mon velocity, violently agitated till they get afunder.
ribs, each of which is furnilhed with rows of minute This was found in an infufion of different kinds of pine-
fins; by means of which, this animal, like the animal- branches.
cula infuforia, can fwim in all dire&ions with great Fig. 7. is the volvox terebella, or the gimlet. This is
fwiftnefs. In the fame manner I have feen moft of one of the largeft of the kind, and is very vifible to the
thofe minute animals move fo fwift that we could not naked eye. It moves along fwiftly, turning itfelf round
account for it, without fuppofing fuch a provifion in na- as it fwims, juft as if boring its way. (a) and (b) are
ture, which is really true, but cannot be feen till the two views of its natural ftiape, (c) ftiews the manner
animals grow faint for want of water; then, if we at- of its dividing. When they are feparated, the lower
*7 tend, we may with good glaffes plainly difeover them, animal rolls very awkwardly along, till it gets a groove
Method of << I have lately found out, by mere accident, a me- in the upper part, (d) reprefents one of them lying
ii^finToT t^oc^ to rna^e their fins appear very diftindlly, efpeci- torpid, by means of the juice of the horfe-fhoe gera-
itnimalcules. ahy ,n the larger kind of animalcula, which are com- nium, with its fins extended. This animal is found in
mon to moft vegetable infufions ; fuch as the terebella. many infufions, particularly of grafs or corn.
This has a longilh body, with a cavity or groove at one Fig. 8. is the volvox vorax, or glutton. This ani-
end, like a gimlet: by applying, then, a fmall ftalk of mal was found in an infufion of the Tartarian pine; it
the horfe-fhoe geranium, (or geranium zonale of Lin- varies its lhape very much, contra&ing and extending
nams), frefh broken, to a drop of water in which thefe its probofeis, turning it to and fro, in various direc-
animalcula are fwimming, we fliall find that they will tions, as at a, b, c, d, e. It opens its probofeis un¬
become torpid inftantly; contra&ing themfelves into an derneath the extremity, when it feizes its prey. The
oblong oval fhape, with their fins extended like fo lefs active animals, that have lately been divided, fuch
many briftles all round their bodies. The fins are in as thofe at fig. 3. (a), and at fig. 4. (a), ferve it as
length about half the diameter of the middle of their food, when they come in its way : thefe it fwallows
bodies. Before I difeovered this expedient, I tried to down inftantly, as it is reprefented at fig. 8. h and i.
kill them by different kinds of falts and fpirits; but At (f) it is ready to divide, and at (g) it is divided;
though they were deftroyed by this means, their fins where the hinder part of the divided animal has got a
were fo contratted, that I could not diftinguifh them probofeis or beak, to procure nourilhment for itfelf,
in the leaft. After lying in this ftate of torpidity and foon becomes a diftindl being from the fore part,
for two or three minutes, if a drop of clean water is Thus we have given as full an account as our limits
applied to them, they will recover their lhape, and would admit, of the moft curious kinds of animalcules
fwim about immediately, rendering their fins again in- that have hitherto been obferved. We cannot, how-
vifible.” ever, difmifs this fubject, without taking notice of
Fig. 3,4, 5,6, 7,8. reprefent different fpecies of ani- fome of the moft remarkable hypothefes which have
malcula infuforia, mentioned by Mr Ellis as belonging been formed concerning their nature and origin. 48
to the genus of volvox of Linnseus. Before the invention of microfcopes, the doftrine of Doctrine of
Fig. 3. reprefents the volvox ovalis, or egg-lhaped equivocal generation, both with regard to animals and etlUIV0C.a*
volvox; at (b) and (c) it is expreffed in its natural plants of fome kinds, was univerfally received: but exploded,
lhape; at (a) the manner in which.it becomes two ani- this inftrument foon convinced every intelligent perfon,
Vo-j.. I. L 1 1 that
A N I
Animal- tliat thoie plants which formerly were fuppofed to be
CHle- produced by equivocal generation arofe from feeds,
Plate XXIV and the animals, in like manner, from a male and fe-
(B) male. But as the microfcope threw light upon one
part of nature, it left another involved in darknefs ;
for the origin of the animalcula infuforia, or of the
fpermatic animals already mentioned, remains as yet
as much unknown as that of many other kinds was
when the doftrine of equivocal generation reigned in
full force.
Suppofed
difcovery
[ 454 1 . A N I
get free. Their progreffive motion was extremely Animaf-
flow, during which they vibrated to the right and Cllle-
left, and at each vibration they had a rolling unfteady piateXXIV
motion in a vertical direftion. (B) “
At the end of two or three hours, the feminal matter
becoming itill more fluid, a greater number of thefe
moving bodies appeared. They were then more free of
incumbrances; their tails were fliorter; their progreffive-
motion was more diredt, and their horizontal motion
greatly diminiffied. In five or fix hours, the liquor had
The difcovery of fpermatic animalcules was thought acquired almoft all the fluidity it could acquire, without
being decompofed. Moft of the fmall bodies were n
difengaged from their threads; their figure was oval.
They moved forward with confiderable quicknefs, and,
parent. Here the infinite number of thefe animalcules by their irregular motions backward and forward, they
to throw fome light on the myfterious affair of genera-
cenemioiu t‘on itfelf, and thefe minute creatures were imagined to
be each of them individuals of the fame fpecies with the
was an obje&ion, and the difficulty remained as great
as before; for, as every one of thefe animalcules beho¬
ved to be produced from a male and female, to explain
their origin by animalcular generation in the fame man¬
ner, was only explaining generation by itfelf.
This hypothefis, therefore, having proved unfatisfac-
tory, others have been invented. MrBuffon, particularly,
hath invented one, by which he at once annihilates the
whole animalcular world; and in this he hath been follow¬
ed by feveral very ingenious philofophers. For a particu¬
lar account of this, fo far as it concerns generation, we
muff refer to that article ; but as he gives fuch a par¬
ticular account of his having examined the human fe-
men, that we cannot doubt of his accuracy, we ftiall
here contrail his account with that of Mr Lewenhoeck
jo already mentioned.
M. Bu (Ton’s Having procured the feminal veffels of a man who
experiments died a violent death, he extradled all the liquor from
on the hu- whi]e they were Hill warm; and havinsr examined
a drop ot it with a double microicope, it had the ap¬
pearance fig. 9. Large filaments appeared, which in
fome places fpread out into branches, and in others in¬
termingled with one another. Thefe filaments clearly
appeared to be agitated by an internal undulatory mo¬
tion, like hollow tubes, which contained fome moving
fubftance. He faw diftindtly this appearance changed
for that fig. 10. Two of thefe filaments, which were
joined longitudinally, gradually feparated from each o-
ther in the middle, alternately approaching and rece¬
ding, like two tenfe cords fixed by the ends, and
drawn afunder in the middle. Thefe filaments were
compofed of globules that touched one another, and re-
fembled a chaplet of beads. After this, he obferved
the filaments fwelled in feveral places, and perceived
fmall globular bodies iffue from the fwelled parts, which
had a vibratory motion like a pendulum. Thefe fmall
bodies were attached to the filaments by fmall threads,
which gradually lengthened as the bodies moved. At
lafl, the fmall bodies detached themfelves entirely from
had now more than ever the appearance of animals.
Thofe that had tails adhering to them, feemed to have
lefs vivacity than the others ; and of thofe that had no
tails, fome altered both their figure and their fize. In
twelve hours, the liquor had depofited at the bottom of
the vial a kind of aft-coloured gelatinous fubftance,
and the fluid at top was almoft as tranfparent as water.
The little bodies being now entirely freed from their
threads, moved with great agility, and fome of them
turned round their centres. They alfo often changed
their figures, from oval becoming round, andoften break¬
ing into fmaller ones. Their adtivity always increafed
as their fize diminiflied. In 24 hours, the liquor had de¬
pofited a greater quantity of gelatinous matter, which,
being with fome difficulty diluted in water, exhibited
an appearance fomewhat refembling lace. In the clear
femen itfelf only a few fmall bodies were now feen mo¬
ving; next day, thefe were ftill farther diminifted; and
after this nothing was to be feen but globules, without
the leaft appearance of motion. Moft of the above-
mentioned appearances are ftewn fig. 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 16. Fig. 17. and 18. reprefent an appearance
of the globules in another experiment, in which they
arranged themfelves in troops, and paffed very quickly
over the field of the microfcope. In this experiment
they were found to proceed from a fmall quantity of ge-
atinous mucilage.
From thefe experiments, Mr Buffon concludes, that
what have been called fpermatic animals, are not crea¬
tures really endowed with life, but fomething proper
to compofe a living creature; and he diftinguifhes them
by the name of organic particles. The fame individual
kinds of animals he declares he has found in the fluids fe¬
parated from the ovaria of females; and for the truth of
this appeals to the teftimony of Mr Needham, who was
an eye-witnefs of his experiments. He alfo brings an Sl
additional proof of his doftrine from Mr Needham’s Needhanw
obfervations on the milt of the calrnar, a fpecies of cut- experime;
tle-fift. Here the fpermatic animals, at leaft what ^ ^ ^
the filaments, drawing after them the fmall thread, have the only appearance of life, are vaftly larger than
which looked like a tail. When a drop of the feminal  ■ ‘1— —— r   1 -n -
liquor was diluted, thefe fmall bodies moved in all di-
redtions very brilkly; and had he not feen them fepa-
rate themfelves from the filaments, he would, he fays,
have thought them to be animals. The feminal matter
was at firft too thick, but gradually became more fluid;
and, in proportion as its fluidity increafed, the filaments
difappeared, but the fmall bodies became exceedingly
numerous.^ Each of them had a long threader tail at-
in any other creature, fo as to be plainly vifible to the
naked eye. When magnified, they appear as at fig. 19.
and 20. a. Their firft appearance is at fig. 19. a and b,
when they refemble fprings inclofed in a tranfparent
cafe. Thefe fprings were equally perfect at firft as af¬
terwards ; only in time they contracted themfelves, and
became like a kind of ferew. The head of the cafe is ’
a fpecies of valve which opens outward, and through
which every thing within may be forced out. It con-
tached to it, from which it evidently endeavoured to' tains, befides, another valve b> a little barrel c, and a
fpongy
Plate JOOV. IJ3"
rfe/Tmsfai !■ /??/' 7n<n?rt/Mi/a
. offAs /fa//'//
9'
© Yl
I &w 1
; f w
1 * I
Vv(
A N I [ 455 ] A N I
MjAiiimal- fpongy fubftance d e. Thus the whole machine con-
*1 cule‘ lifts of an outer tranfparent cartilaginous cafe a, the fu-
$j flate XXIV Pe>"ior extremity of which is terminated by a round
; 8) head formed by the cafe itfelf, and performs the office
:. ig. so. 0f a valve. This external cafe contains a tranfparent
tube ; which includes the fpring, a pifton or valve, a
little barrel, and a fpongy fubftance. The fcrew occu-
, pies the fuperior part of the tube and cafe, the pifton
and barrel are fituated in the middle, and the fpongy
fubftance occupies the inferior part. Thefe machines
pump the liquor of the milt; the fpongy fubftance is
full of this liquor; and, before the animal fpawns, the
'whole milt is only a congeries of thefe bodies which
have fucked up all the liquor of it. Whenever thefe
fmall machines are taken out of the body of the ani-
Imal, and put in water, or expofed to the air, they be¬
gin to aftj as reprefented fig. 19. and 20; the fpring
mounts up, and is followed by the pifton, the barrel,
and the fpongy fubftance which contains the liquor :
and, as foon as the fpring and the tube in which it is
contained begin to iffue out of the cafe, the fpring
plaits, and the whole internal apparatus moves, till the
fpring, the pifton, and the barrel, have entirely efcaped
from the cafe. When this is effe&ed, all the reft in-
ftantly follow, and the milty liquor which had been
pumped in, and confined in the fpongy fubftance, runs
Si out through the barrel.
According to this account, the milt of the calmar
exiftence of contains no animalcules; and therefore we may from a-
smimalcules. nalogy conclude, that the fmall moving bodies which
are to be feen in the femen of other animals, are not
really creatures endowed with life. Mr Buffon extends
the analogy ftill further; and concludes, that all the mo¬
ving bodies which are to be found in the infufions ei¬
ther of animal or vegetable fubftanees are of a fimilar na¬
ture. “ To difcover, fays he, whether all the parts of
animals, and all the feeds of plants, contained moving
organic particles, I made infufions of the fleffi of differ¬
ent animals, and of the feeds of more than 20 different
fpecies of vegetables; and after remaining fome days in
clofe glaffes, I had the pleafure of feeing organic moving
particles in all of them. In fome they appeared fooner,
in others later; fome preferved their motions for months,
and others foon loft it. Some at firft produced large mo¬
ving globules refembling animals, which changed their
figure, fplit, and became gradually fmaller. Others pro¬
duced only fmall globules, whofe motions were extreme¬
ly rapid; and others produced filaments, which grew
longer, feemed to vegetate, and then fwelled and pour-
53 ed forth torrents of moving globules.”
Baron Mnn- This laft obfervation gave rife to a new fyftem. Ba-
theory” $ ron Munchanfen, perceiving that the laft mentioned
moving globules, after moving for fome time, began a-
34 gain to vegetate, concluded that they were firft animals
Difproved and then plants.—This ftrange hypothefis Mr Ellis has
by Mr Ellis, overturned in the paper already quoted; in which he
afferts, that they are no other than the feeds of that
genus of fungi called mucor or mouldinefs, and that
their motion is owing to numbers of minute animalcules
attacking them for food. “ Having (fays he), at the
requeft of Dr Linnaeus, made feveral experiments on
the infufion of muffirooms in water, in order to prove
the theory of Baron Munchanfen, that their feeds are firft
animals, and then plants, (which he takes notice of in
his Syftem of Nature, p. 1326, under the genus of
chaos, by the name of chaos fungorum feminum} it ap- Animal¬
peared evidently, that the feeds were put into motion by ctlle-
very minute animalcules, which proceeded from the pu- plate XXiV
trefaftion of the mufhroom : for, by pecking at thefe (B);
feeds, which are reddiffi, light, round bodies, they mo¬
ved them about with great agility in a variety of direc¬
tions ; while the little animals themfelves were fcarce
vifible, till the food they had eaten had difcovered them.
The fatisfa&ion I received from clearing up this point,
led me into many other curious and intereifing experi¬
ments.
“ The ingenious Mr Needham fuppofes thefe little
tranfparent ramified filaments, and jointed or coralloid
bodies, which the microfcope difcovers to us on the
furface of moft animal and vegetable infufions when they
become putrid, to be zoophytes, or branched animals:
but to me they appear, after a careful fcrutiny with the
belt glaffes, to be of that genus of fungi called mucort
or mouldinefs; many of which Michelius has figured,
and Linnaeus has accurately defcribed.
“ Their vegetation is fo amazingly quick, that they
may be perceived in the microfcope even to grow and
feed under the eye of the obferver.
“ Mr Needham has pointed out to us a fpecies that
is very remarkable for its parts of fructification. (Bee
PhilofophicalTranfaCtions, vol.xlv. tab. 5. fig. 3.3, A.)
This, he fays, proceeded from an infufion of bruifed
wheat.
“ I have feen the fame fpecies arife from the body of
a dead fly, which was become putrid by lying floating
for fome time in a glafs of water, where fome flowers
had been in the month of Auguft, 1768. This fpecies
of muCor fends forth a mafs of tranfparent filamentous
roots; from whence arife hollow Items, that fupport
little oblong oval feed-veffels, with a hole on the top
of each. From thefe I could plainly fee minute globu¬
lar feeds iffue forth in great abundance with an elaftic
force, and turn about in the water as if they were ani¬
mated.
“ Continuing to view them with fome attention, I
could juft difcover, that the putrid water which furrounded
them was full of the minuteft animalcula; and that thefe
little creatures began to attack the feeds of the mucor
for food, as I have obferved before in the experiment
on the feeds of the larger kind of fungi or muihrooms.
This new motion continued the appearance of their be¬
ing alive for fome time longer: but, foon after, many
of them arofe to the furface of the water, remaining
there without motion ; and a fucceffion of them after¬
wards coming up, they united together in little thin
maffes, and floated to the edge of the water, remaining
there quite inaCtive during the time of obfervation.
“ As this difcovery cleared up many doubts which
I had received from reading Mr Needham’s learned dif-
fertation, I put into the glafs feveral other dead flies,
by which means this fpecies of mucor was propagated
fo plentifully, as to give me an opportunity of frequent¬
ly trying the fame experiment to my full fatisfaftion.
“ Laftly, Thefe jointed coralloid bodies, which Mr
Needham calls chaplets and pearl necklaces, 1 have feen
frequently very diftindtly. Thefe appear not only on
an infufion of bruifed wheat when it becomes putrid,
but on moft other bodies when they throw up a vifcid
fcum and are in a ftate putrefaction. Thefe, then, are
evidently no more than the moft common mucor, the
L 1 1 2 feeds
A N I
Animal- feeds of which are everywhere floating in the air; and
'"U _ bodies in this ftate afford them a natural proper foil to
[ 456 ]
A N I
Plate XXIV grow upon. Here they fend downwards their fine tranf-
(6) parent ramified roots into the moifture which they float
upon; and from the upper part of the fcum, their joint¬
ed coralloid branches rife full of feed into little grove¬
like figures. When a fmall portion of thefe branches
and feeds are put into a drop of the fame putrid water
upon which the fcum floats, many of thefe millions of
little animalcula with which it abounds, immediately
feize them as food, and turn them about with a variety of ftate, than that it is a little fifh ? In reafoning on this
inch and an half, or two inches, and a length propor¬
tionable. They fwam up and down very brifkly ; the
motion of their inteftines was plainly vifible; when the pwTxxIv
water dried up, they died with apparent agonies, and (B)
their mouths gaped very wide. Were we to find a crea- ,
ture of the fize of this magnified eel, gafping in a place
where water had lately been, we certainly would never
conclude it to be an organic particle, or a fortuitous af-
femblage of them; but a fifh. Why then fhould we con¬
clude otherwife with regard to the eel while in its natural
motions, as in the experiments on the feeds of the com¬
mon muftirooms, either fingly, or two or three feeds
connefted together; anfwering exactly to Mr Need-
fubjeft, we ought always to remember, that, however
effential the diftindlion of bodies into great and fmall
may appear to us, they are not fo to the Deity;
ham’s defcription, but evidently without any motion of with whom, as Mr Baker well expreffes himfelf, “ aa
M. BufTon’s
their own, and confequently not animated.”
inio of however, is not content with denying life
different ° onty t0 thofe beings where the figns of it are the mod
kinds of ani-equivocal; but includes in the fame rank of organic
makules. particles, almoft every animal too fmall to be difeover-
ed by the naked eye, and even fome of thofe wfiofe
motions are evidently perceptible to the eye. “ Al¬
moft all microfcopic animals,” fays he, “ are of the
lame nature with the moving bodies in the feminal
fluids and infufions of animal and vegetable fubftances.
The eels in pafte, in vinegar, &c. are all of the fame
nature, and derived from the fame origin. There are,
perhaps, as many beings that either live or vegetate,
produced by a fortuitous aflemblage of organic parti¬
cles, as by a conftant and fucceffive generation. Some
of them, as thofe of the calmar, are only a kind of ma¬
chines, which, though exceedingly Ample, are very ac¬
tive. Others, as the fpermatic animalcules, feem to imi¬
tate the movements of animals. Others refemble vege¬
tables in their manner of growth and extenfion. There
are others, as thofe of blighted wheat, which at pleafure
can be madealternately either to live or die, anditis dif¬
ficult to know to what they ftiould be compared. There
are ftill others, and in great numbers, which are at firft
a kind of animals, then become a fpecies of vegetables,
and again return alternately to their vegetable ftate.
The eels in pafte have no other origin than the union
of the organic particles of the moft efiential part of the
grain. The firft eels that appear are certainly not pro¬
duced by other eels ; but tho’ they are not propagated
themfelves, they fail not to engender other living eels.
By cutting them with the point of a lancet, we difeover
fmaller eels iffuing in great numbers out of their bodies.
The body of this animal feems to be only a (heath or
fac, containing a multitude of fmaller animals, which
perhaps are other (heaths of the fame kind, in which
jfi the organic matter is aflimilated into the form of eels.”
H!s reafon- Though we can by no means pretend to account for
the appearance of thefe animalcules, yet we cannot help
obferving, that our ignorance of the caufe of any phe¬
nomenon is no argument againft its exiftence. Though
we are not able to account in a fatisfa&ory manner for
the origin of the native Americans, we fuppofe Mr
Buffon himfelf would reckon it abfurd to maintain that
the Spaniards on their arrival there found only organic
particlis moving about in diforder. The cafe is the
very fame with the eels in pafte. They are exceeding¬
ly minute in comparifon with us; but, with the folar
microfcope, Mr Baker has made them aflume a more
refpe&able appearance, fo as to have a diameter of an
dufive.
atom is as a world, and a world but as an atom.1
Were the Deity to exert his power for a little, and
give a natural philofopher a view of a quantity of
pafte filled with eels, from each of whofe bodies the
light was reflected as when it pafles through a folar
microfcope; inftead of imagining them organic par¬
ticles, the pafte would appear like a little mountain,
he would probably look upon the whole as a monftrous
aflemblage of ferpents, and be afraid to come near them.
Wherever, therefore, we difeover beings to appearance
endowed with the principle of felf-prefervation, or
whatever elfe we make the charadteriftic of animals, nei¬
ther the fmallnefs of their fize, nor the impoffibility of
our knowing how they come there, ought to, caufe us
doubt of their being really animated.—At the fame
time, it muft alfo be remembered, that motion is not
always a charadteriftie of animal life, even though
the moving bodies (hould avoid one another, or any
feeming obftacle placed in their way. We know, that
inanimate bodies, when ele&rified, will avoid others
endowed with an ele&ricity of the fame kind, and ad¬
here to thofe which have the oppofite one. As we are
by no means acquainted wuth the utmoft powers of
ele&ricity, but on the contrary, from what we do know
of it have all the reafon in the world to conclude that
it can produce effefts utterly beyond our comprehen-
fion, it is impoffible for us to know what (hare it may
have in producing the motions obferved in vegetable-
infufions, or in the femen of animals. - We may alfo
further obferve, that though in Mr Ellis’s experiment
of the boiled potatoe he took it for granted that every
feed of animal life wmuld be deftroyed by the boiling
water, yet even this cannot be proved ; nay, on the
contrary, ithathbeen proved by undeniable experiments^
that the human body itfelf hath endured a heat of 240
degrees of Fahrenheit (28 degrees above that of boil¬
ing wrater) without injury. The eggs of thefe ani¬
malcula might therefore be ftrong enough to refift the
heat hitherto ufed in Mr Ellis's or any other experi¬
ment.
A confiderable objeftion to the exiftence of animal- Animals
cules in the femen, or any other part of animal bodies, 1'ometimes a>
muft arife from the total exclufion of air, which is found
fo neceflary to the life of larger animals. Some inftan- 1 a
ces, however, have been obferved of large animals being
found in fuch fituations as they could not poffibly have
enjoyed the lead benefit from the air for a great num¬
ber of years; and in this ftate they have not only lived,
but lived much longer than they would otherwife have
done..
In
• Anirnal-
‘-nl cule.
A N I
[ 457 1
A N I
In Toulon harbour, and the road, are found folid hard,
ftones, and perfedtly entire; containing, in different
j cells, fecluded from all communication with the air, fe-
veral living {hell-fifh, of an exquifite tafte, called Dac-
tyli, i. e. Dates : to come at thefe fiih, the ftones are
broken with mauls. Alfo, along the coaft of Aneo-
nia, in the Adriatic, are ftones ufually weighing about
50 pounds, and fometimes even more; the outfide rug¬
ged, and ealily broken^ but the infide fo hard, as to
require a ftrong arm and an iron maul to break them:
within them, and in feparate niches, are found fmall
ftiell-fifh, quite alive, and very palatable, called Solenes
or Capps lunghe. Thefe fafts are attefted by Gaffendi,
Blonde], Mayol, the learned biftiop of Sulturara, and
more particularly by Aldrovandi a phyfician of Bo¬
logna. The two latter fpeak of it as a common fa£t,
which they themfelves faw.
In the volume for 1719, of the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, is the following paffage.
give very fpecious account of fnakes, frogs, crabs, and Animal-,
lobfters, being found alive, inclofed within blocks of Cllle
marble, rocks, and large ftones.
An inftance fimilar to thefe, of the truth of which -
„ IJ
Anjou.
we have no reafon to doubt, was obferved in this coun- P^teXXlV
try in the year 1773, where a large toad was found in ^ '
the middle of a piece of coal having not the leaft vifible
crack or fiffure. j8
Upon the whole, therefore, though philofophers are The fbbjedt
not yet able to difcover how thefe minute creatures ftillobfcme.
are produced ; yet, that there really are animals much
fmaller than what we can difcern with our naked eye,
feems to be indifputable. The fubjecft, however, is ftill
evidently obfcure, and will no doubt require the ut-
moft attention of philofophers, as well as further im¬
provements in the conftruCtion of microfcopes, fully to
inveftigate it.
ANIMATED, or Animate, in a general fenfe,
denotes fornething endowed with animal-life. It alfo
In the foot of an elm, of the bignefs of a pretty imports a thing to be impregnated with vermin or ani-
corpulent man, three or four feet above the root, and malcules.
exaftly in the centre, has been found a live toad,
middle-fized, but lean, and filling up the whole vacant
fpace: no fooner was a paffage opened, by fplitting the
wood, than it fcuttled away very haftily: a more firm
and found elm never grew ; fo that the toad cannot be
fuppofed to have got into it. The egg whence it was
formed, muft, by fome very lingular accident, have been
lodged in the tree at its firft growth. There the crea¬
ture had lived without air, feeding on the fubftance
of the tree, and growing only as the tree grew. This
is attefted by Mr Hubert, profeffor of philofophy at
Caen.”
The volume for the year 1731 has a fimilar obfer-
vation, expreffed in thefe words.
“ In 1719 we gave an account of a fa£t, which, tho’
improbable, was well attefted; that a toad had been found
living and growing in the Item of a middling elm, with¬
out any way for the creature to come out or to have
got in. M. Seigne, of Nantes, lays before the aca¬
demy a fact juft of the very fame nature, except that,
inftead of an elm, it was an oak, and larger than the elm,
which ftill heightens the wonder. He judges, by the
time requifite for the growth of the oak, that the toad
muft have fubfifted in it, without air, or any adven¬
titious aliment, during 80 or 100 years. M. Seigne
feems to have known nothing of the faftin 1719.”
With the two foregoing may be claffed a narrative
Animated Horfe-hairs. See Horse-hairs.
ANIMATION fignifies the informing an animal
body with a foul: fee the articles Creation and Soul..
—The different hypothefis of phyfieians and philofo¬
phers, concerning the time of animation, have had their
influence on the penal laws made againft artificial abor¬
tions; it having been made capital to procure mifear-
riage in the one ftate, while in the other it was only
deemed a venial crime. The emperor Charles V. by a
conftitution publifhed in 1532, put the matter on ano¬
ther footing ; inftead of the diftinction. of an animated
and unanimated foetus, he introduced that of a vital and
non-vital foetus, as a thing of more obvious and eafy
decifion, and not depending on any fyftem either of
creation, traduction, or infufion. Accordingly a foetus
is faid, in a legal fenfe, to be animated, when it is per¬
ceived to ftir in the womb ; which ufually happens a~
bout the middle of the term of geftation.
ANIME, in heraldry, a term ufed when the eyes:
of a rapacious creature are borne of a different tincture
from the creature itfelf.
Anime,. a refin exfuding from the trunk of a large
American tree, called by Pifo jetaiba, by the Indians
courbaril. This refin is of a tranfparent amber colour,
a light agreeable fmell, and little or no tafte. It dif-
folves entirely, but not very readily, in re&ified fpirit
of wine; the impurities, which are often in large quan-
of Ambrofe Pare chief furgeon to Henry III. king of tity, remaining behind. The Brazilians are faid to em~
France, who, being a very fenfible writer, relates the ~1 :— f-—:—— c  4 —1— ~—““J
following fa<ft, of which he was an eye-witnefs.
ploy anime in fumigations for pains and aches proceed¬
ing from a cold caufe: with us, it is rarely, if ever*
‘ Being (fays he) at my feat, near the village of made ufe of for any medicinal purpofes.
Meudon, and over-looking a quarry-man whom I had
fet to break fome very large and hard ftones; in the
middle of one we found a huge toad, full of life, and
without any vifible aperture by which it could get there.
I began to wonder how it received birth, had grown
and lived; but the labourer told me, it was not the
firft time he had met with a toad, and the like creatures,
within huge blocks of ftune, and no vifible opening or
fiffure.”
Obfervations of living toads, found in very hard
and entire ftones, occur in feveral authors, particularly
Baptift Fulgofa doge of Genoa, the famous phyfi-
cians Agricola and Horftius, and lord Verulam: others
ANIMETTA, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes
the cloth wherewith the cup of the eucharift is covered..
ANINGA, in commerce, a root which grows in the
Antilles iflands, and is pretty much like the China
plant. _ It is ufed by fugar-bakers, for refining the fugar.
ANJOU, a province and duchy of France, bounded
on the eaft by Touraine, on the fouth by Poiftou, on.
the weft by Bretagne, and on the north by Maine. It
is 70 miles in length, and in breadth 60. Through this
province run five navigable rivers: the Loire, which
divides it in two parts; the Vienne, the Toue, the
Maienne, and the Sarte.
The air is temperate, and the country agreeably di~
verfified
ANN [ 458 j ANN
Anio verfified with hills and meadows. There are 33 forefts
Anlials oa^"trees mixed with beech. The country produces
i white-wine, wheat, barley, rye, oats, peafe, beans, flax,
hemp, walnuts, and fome chefnuts. In Lower Anjou
they make cyder. There are fruit-trees of all kinds,
and pafture proper for horfes. The greateft riches of
the province confift in cows, oxen, and flieep. There
are feveral coal and iron mines ; and yet there are but
two forges in the whole province. There are quarries
of marble and of flate; as well as quarries of white
done, proper for building, on the fide of the river Loire.
Here are alfo feveral faltpetre-works and fome glafs-
houfes. The remarkable towns, befides Angers the ca¬
pital, are Saumur, Brifac, Pons de Cea, La Fleche,
and Beaufort.
ANIO, (Cicero, Horace, Prifcian); Anien, (Sta¬
tius); now il Tever one : a river of Italy, which falls into
the Tiber, three miles'to the north of Rome, not far from
Antemnae. It rifes in a mountain near Treba, (Pli¬
ny); and, running through the country of the JEqui-
cuH,or JEqui,it afterwards feparated the Latins from the
Sabines; but nearer its mouth, or confluence, it had the
Sabines on each fide. It forms three beautiful lakes in
its courfe, (Pliny). In the territories of Tibur it falls
from a great height, and there forms a very rapid cata-
ra£I; hence the epithet praceps, and hence the fleam
caufedbyits fall, (Horace). Anknusis the epithet form¬
ed from it, (Virgil, Propertius): Anienus is alfo the god
of the river, (Propertius, Statius).
ANISUM, or Anise. See Pimpinella.
ANKER, a liquid meafure at Amfterdam. It con¬
tains about 32 gallons Englifh meafure.
ANKLE, in anatomy, the joint which joins the foot
to the leg.—We have an account of the menfes being
regularly evacuated at an ulcer of the ankle, Edin.
Med. Obf. vol. iii. art. 29.
ANN, or Annat, in Scots law, is half a year’s fti-
pend, which the law gives to the executors of minifters
of the church of Scotland, over and above what was
due to the minifter himfelf, for his incumbency.
ANNA, a town of Turkey, in Afia, feated on the
■♦veftern bank of the river Euphrates. It is the plea-
fanteft place in all thefe parts; for there is plenty of o-
lives, oranges, citrons, lemons, pomegranates, and dates.
Of thefe laft there are prodigious quantities, and there
are two forts not common elfewhere. The fields are
fown with cotton, and the corn grows extremely high.
The town is divided into two parts, the largeft of which
is furrounded with old walls ; and the houfes are built
with brick and ftone, with gardens belonging to them.
E. Long. 41. 35. N. Lat. 33. 30.
ANNALE, in the church of Rome, a term applied
to the maffes celebrated for the dead during a whole
year.
ANNALS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of hi-
ftory, which relates events in the chronological order
wherein they happened. They differ from perfeA hi-
ftory in this, that annals are but a bare relation of what
paffes every year, as a journal is of what paffes every
day ; whereas hiftory relates not only the tranfadlions
themfelves, but alfo the caufes, motives, and fprings of
aftions. Annals require nothing but brevity ; hiftory
demands ornament.—Cicero informs us of the origin
©f annals. To preferve the memory of events, the Pon-
tifex Maximust fays he, wrote what paffed each year,
and expofed it on tablets in his own houfe, where every
one was at liberty to read: this they called annales
maximi; and hence the writers who imitated this fim-
ple method of narrating fafts were called annalifls.
ANNAN, the capital of Annandale, a divifion of
Dumfrieslhire in Scotland; a fmall town, containing
400 or 500 inhabitants, and fituated on a river of the
fame name, in W. Long. 3". N. Lat. 54. 40. This
place has fome trade in wine, and exports annually be¬
tween 20 and 30,000 Winchefter bufhels, (10 and
15,000 bolls) of corn. Veffels of about 250 tons can
come within half a mile of the town; and of 60, as high
as the bridge; which confifts of five arches, defended
by a gateway. Here was formerly a caftle; but it was
demolilhed, by order of parliament, after the accefiion
of James VI. to the crown of England, and at prefent
only the ditches remain. The Bruces were once lords
of this place, as appears by a ftone taken from the ruins
of the caftle, with this infcription, “ Robert de Brus
Counte de Carrick et fenteur du val de Annand. 1300.”
Annan was ruined in the time of Edward VI. at which
time it was fortified againft the Englilh by a Lyon of
the houfe of Glammis; but Lord Wharton, prefident of
the marches, took the town, burnt it, and overthrew
the church.
ANNANO, a ftrong fort of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan. It has been twice taken by the French; but
was reftored to the duke of Savoy in 1706. It is feat¬
ed on the river Tanaro, in E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat.
44. 40.
ANNAPOLIS, the chief town in Maryland, in
North America, which as yet is but mean, becaufe the
people in this province chufe to live on their' planta¬
tions, as in Virginia. St Mary’s was once the capital
of the province of Maryland, and the town of Anna¬
polis was known by the name of Severn. It received
its prefent name in 1694, when it was made a port-
town, and the refidence of a colledlor and naval offi¬
cer. The county court was removed thither in 1699,
and ever fince it has been the chief feat of juftice, and
held to be the capital of the province. W. Long. 78.
10. N. Lat. 39. 25.
Annapolis Royal, the capital of Nova Scotia, is
feated in the bay of Fundy, and has a fine harbour; but
there is a difficulty in entering in and coming out, and
it is fubjeft to fogs. The town is but fmall; and yet
there are fome handfome buildings, though the gene¬
rality are but two ftories high. It is defended by new
and regular fortifications, and batteries of guns towards
the fea. At the bottom of the harbour is a point of
land, which divides two rivers; and on each fide there
are pleafant meadows, which in fpring and autumn are
covered with all forts of frelh-water fowl. There is a
trade carried on by the Indians with furs, which they
exchange for European goods. A governor relides here,
with a Britilh garrifbn. W. Long. 64. j. N. Lat.
45. 10.
ANNATES, among ecclefiaftical writers, a year’s
income of a fpiritual living.
Thefe were, in ancient times, given to the Pope
through all Chriftendom, upon the deceafe of any bi-
fliop, abbot, or parilh-clerk, and were paid by his fuc-
ceffor. At the Reformation they were taken from the
Pope, and veiled in the king; and, finally. Queen Anne
reftored them to the church, by appropriating them to
Anna* i|
Annates.
1
ANN [ 459 ] ANN
ljnn«a!ing the augmentation of poor livings.
II _ ANNEALING, or Nealing, the burning or ba-
knne ey.. j.jng g}af5> earthen ware, &c. in an oven or furnace.
Annealing is more particularly ufed for the art of
burning or fixing metalline colours on glafs. See Glass.
ANNE, Queen of Great Britain, daughter of James
II. when duke of York, was born in 1664, and mar¬
ried to prince George of Denmark in 1683, by whom
fhe had feveral children, but furvived them all. Upon
the death of William III. March 8, 1702, fhe fuc-
ceeded to the throne, and to a war with France, which
was profecuted under her reign by the great duke of
Marlborough, with more glory than profit to this na¬
tion. She effefted the long wifhed-for union between
England and Scotland, which took place May ill, 1707;
and dying Auguft ift, 1714, was fucceededby George
Lewis Augultus ele&or of Hanover, as the direft de-
fcendant from James I. by his daughter Elizabeth queen
of Bohemia.
St A.HKv’s-Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated by the Latins on the 26th of July, but by
the Greeks on the 9th of December. It is kept in ho¬
nour of Anne, or Anna, mother of the Virgin Mary.
ANNECY, a city of Savoy, feated between Cham-
berry -and Geneva, on the banks of a lake of the fame
name, from whence run feveral brooks, which flow
through the town, and uniting at length form a river.
There are piazzas in mod of the ftreets of the town,
which ferve to Ihelter the inhabitants from rain. It has
feveral collegiate and parilh churches, as well as con¬
vents for men and women. The lake is about nine miles
long, and four broad. E. Long. 6. 12. N. Lat. 45. 53.
ANNESLEY (Arthur), earl of Anglefey, and lord
privy feal in the reign of king Charles II. was the fon
of Sir Francis Annefley, Bar1, lord Mount Norris, and
vifcount Valentia, in Ireland; and was born at Dublin
on the tenth of July, 1614. He was for fome time
at the univerfity of Oxford, and afterwards ftudied the
law at Lincoln’s Inn. He had a confiderable (hare in
the public tranfa&ions of the laft century ; for in the
beginning of the civil war he fat in the parliament held
at Oxford, but afterwards became reconciled to the op-
pofite party, and was fent commiffioner to Ulfter, to
oppofe the defigns of the rebel Owen Roe O’Neal. He
engaged in feveral other affairs with great fuccefs. He
was prefident of the council of date after the death of
Oliver, and was principally concerned in bringing a-
bout the Redoration: foon after which, king CharlesII.
raifed him to the dignity of a baron, by the title
of lord Annefley, of Newport Pagnell, Bucks; and a
(hort time after, he was made earl of Anglefey. Du¬
ring that reign he was employed in fome very impor¬
tant affairs, was made treafurer of the navy, and after¬
wards lord privy-feal. In Oftober 1680, his lordfhip
was charged by one Dangerfield, in an information
delivered upon oath, at the bar of the houfe of com¬
mons, with endeavouring to difle evidence in relation
to the Popifh plot, and to promote the belief of a Pref-
byterian one. The uneafinefs he received from this at¬
tack did not prevent his fpeaking his opinion freely of
thofe matters in the houfe of lords, particularly in re¬
gard to the Popilh plot. About the fame time he an-
fwered the lord Cadlehaven’s Memoirs, in which that
nobleman endeavoured to paint the Irilh rebellion in the
lighted colours; and a fliarp difpute was raifed, which
ended in the feals being taken from him. He was a Annestatioa
perfon of great abilities, had uncommon learning, and AnnihiU-
was well acquainted with the conditution and laws of ’—
England. He wrote, befides his Animadverfions on
.Cadlehaven’s Memoirs, 1. The privileges of the Houfe
of Lords and Commons dated. 2. A difcourfe on
the Houfe of Lords. 3. Memoirs. 4. The hidory
of the troubles in Ireland, from the rebellion in 1641,
till the redoration. 5. Truth Unveiled, in behalf of
the Church of England;—and fome other works. He
died in April 1686, in the 73d year of his age ; and
was fucceeded by his fon James.
ANNEXATION, in law, a term ufed to imply the
the uniting of lands or rents to the crown.
ANNIHILATION, the adt of reducing any crea¬
ted being into nothing.
Chridians, Heathens, Jews, Siamefe, Perfians, di¬
vines, philofophers, &c. have their peculiar fyflems,
fentiments, conjedlures, not to fay dreams, concerning'
annihilation ; and we find great difputes among them
about the reality, the poffibility, the means, meafures,
prevention, ends, &c. of annihilation.
The fird notions of the production of a thing from,
or reduction of it to, nothing, Dr Burnet fiiews, arofe
from the Chridvan theology; the words creation and
annihilation, in the fenfe now given to them, having been
equally unknown to the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the
Latins.
The ancient philofophers in effedt denied all annihi¬
lation as well as creation, refolving all the changes in'
the world into new modifications, without fuppofing
the produdlion of any thing new, or dedrudtion of the
old. By daily experience, they faw compounds diffolved ;
and that in their diffolution nothing perilhed, but their
union or connedtion of parts : when in death the body
and foul were feparated, the man they held was gone,
but that the fpirit remained in its original the great foul
of the world, and the body in its earth from whence it
came ; thefe were again wrought by nature into new
compofitions, and entered new dates of being which
had no relation to the former.
The Perfian bramins hold, that, after a certain period
of time, confiding of 71 joogs, God not only annihi¬
lates the whole univerfe, but every thing elfe, angels,
fouls, fpirits, and all, by which he returns to the lame
date he was in before the creation; but that, having
breathed a while, he goes to work again, and a new
creation arifes, to fubfid 71 joogs more, and then to be
annihilated in its turn. Thus they hold there have been
almod an infinite number of worlds : but how many
joogs are elapfed fince the lad creation, they cannot cer¬
tainly tell; only in an almanac written in the Sanfcript
language in 1670, the world isfaid to be then 3,892,771
years old from the lad creation.
The Siamefe heaven is exa&ly the hell of fome Soci-
nians, and other Chridian writers; who, fhocked with
the horrible profpedl of eternal torments, have taken
refuge in the fyfleno of annihilation. This fydem feems
countenanced by fcripture; for that the words death,
dejlruflion, and perijhing, whereby the punidment of
the wicked is mod frequently expreffed in fcripture, do
mod properly import annihilation and an utter end of
being. To this Tillotfon anfwers, that thefe words, as
well as thofe correfponding to them in other languages,
are often ufed, both in fcripture and other writings,
t®
Annihi¬
lation.
ANN [ 460 ] ANN
to fignifya ftate of great mifery and fuffering, without
the utter extinction of the miferable. Thus God is of¬
ten faid in fcripture to bring dejiruftion on a nation,
when he fends judgments upon them, but without exter¬
minating or making an end of them. So, in other lan-
uages, it is frequent, byperijhing, to exprefs a perfon’s
eing made miferable; as in that known paffage in Ti¬
berius’s letter to the Roman fenate : Ita me dii, deaque
omnesy pejus perdant, quam hodie perire me fentio. As
to the word death, a ftate of mifery which is as bad or
worfe than death may properly enough be called by
that name ; and thus the punifhment of wicked men
after the day of judgment is in the book of Revelations
frequently called tht fecond death.
Some Chriftian writers allow a long time of the mod
terrible torments of finners; and after that fuppofe,
that there ftiall be an utter end of their being. Of this
opinion Irenseus appears to have been; who, according
to M. du Pin, taught that the fouls, at leaft of the
wicked, would notfubfift eternally; but that, after ha¬
ving undergone their torments for a certain period, they
would at laft ceafe to be at all. But Tillemont, Petit,
Didier, and others, endeavour to defend Irenaeus from
this imputation, as being too favourable to the wicked.
It has been much dilputed among divines, whether,
at the cdnfummation of all things, this earth is to be an¬
nihilated, or only purified, and fitted for the habitation
of fome new order of beings. Gerard in his common
places, and Hakewil in his apology, contend earneftly
for a total abolition or annihilation. Ray, Calmet,
and others, think the fyftem of renovation or refti-
tution more probable, and more confonant to fcrip¬
ture, reafon, and antiquity. The fathers who have
treated on the queftion are divided; fome holding that
the univerfe (hall not be annihilated, but only its exter¬
nal face changed ; others afterting, that the fubftance
of it (hall be deftroyed.
How widely have the fentiments of mankind differ¬
ed as to the poflxbility and impoflibility of annihila¬
tion ? According to fome, nothing fo difficult ; it re¬
quires the infinite power of the Creator to effe& it:
fome go further, and feem to put it out of the power of
God himfelf. According to others, nothing fo eafy :
Exiftence is a ftate of violence; all things are continual¬
ly endeavouring to return to their primitive nothing;
it requires no power at all ; it will doitfelf; nay, what
is more, it requires an infinite power to prevent it.
Many authors confider prefervation as a continual re-
produftion of a thing, which, fubfifting no longer of
itfelf, would every moment return into nothing. Gaf-
fendi on the contrary afferts, that the world may in¬
deed be annihilated by the fame power which firft crea¬
ted it, but that to continue it there is no occafion for
any power of prefervation.
Some divines, of whrth number the learned bifhop
King feems to be, hold annihilation for the greateft of
all evils, worfe than even the utmoft torments of hell-
flames : while others, with fome of the eaftern philo-
fophers, acknowledge annihilation for the ultimate pitch
of happinefs human nature is-capable of; that fove-
reign good, that abfolute beatitude, fo long vainly
fought for by the philofophers, is found here. No
wonder it had been fo long concealed ; for who would
have thought of looking for the fummum bomm, where
others have placed the lum of mifery ?
The faid prelate propofesit as a que:' ‘on, whether fuf- Annihii
fcring eternal torments beagreateri i tuannotexifting? lad°ni
He thinks it highly probable, tha: he damned will be Annoboi
fuch fools, that, ^feeling their own mifery in the moft —
exquifite degree, they will rather applaud their own
conduft, and chufe to be, and to be what they are, ra¬
ther than not to be at all; fond of their condition,
however wretched, like people enraged, they will per-
fift in their former fentiments without opening their
eyes to their folly, and perfevere by way of indignation
and revenge. Mr Bayle refutes him on this head; but !
might, one would think, have faved himfelf the trouble.
TheTalapoinsholditthe fupreme degree of happinefs
to have the foul totally annihilated, and freed from the
burden and flavery of tranfmigrations. They fpeak of
three Talapoins, who, after a great number of tranf- {
migrations, became gods; and when arrived at this
ftate, procured this further reward of their merit to
be annihilated. The ultimate reward of the higheft
perfe&ion man can arrive at is tiieurepan, or annihila¬
tion ; which at length is granted to thofe who are per- >
feftly pure and good, after their fouls have wandered
many thoufand years through various bodies.
ANNI nubiles, in law, denotes the marriageable
age of a woman, viz. after ftie has arrived at twelve.
ANNIVERSARY, the annual return of any re- «
markable day. Anniverfary days, in old times, more
particularly denoted thofe days in which an office was
yearly performed for the fouls of the deceafed, or the
martyrdom of the faints was yearly celebrated in the
church.
ANNOBON, a ffnall ifiand of Africa, on the coaft
of Loango, belonging to the Portuguefe. It lies in
E. Long. 5. 10. S. Lat. 1. 50. and receives its name
from being difcovered on New-year’s day. According
to Pyrard, it is about five or fix French leagues in com-
pafs; but Bandrand fays, it is ten leagues round. Here j
are two high mountains, the tops of which being con¬
tinually covered with clouds, occafion frequent rains.
On the fouth-eaft of the ifland are two rocks; one of
which is low, and upon a level with the furface of the
fea; the other higher and larger, but both danger¬
ous in the night to fhipping; but between them the
channel is deep and clear. Thefe rocks are inhabited
by vaft numbers of birds, fb tame, that the failors fre¬
quently catch them with their hands. On the fame fide
of the ifiand, is a convenient watering-place at the foot
of a rivulet, which tumbles from the mountains down to ■!
a valley covered with orange and citron trees, &c. and
affording a pkafant and refrefning fhade; but the road
on the north-weft fide is difficult and dangerous, though
moft frequented by drips who have no intention of 1
touching upon the continent. In either place it is dif¬
ficult to take in a fufficient quantity of water, on ac¬
count of the violent breakings of the fea, and a ftone
intrenchment erected by the negroes, from which they
annoy all ftrangers that attempt to land. The true
road for dripping lies on the north-eaft fide, where
they may anchor in feven, ten, thirteen, or fixteen fa¬
thoms, on a fine fand clofe to the land, oppofite to the y
village where the negroes have thrown up their in-
trenchments.
The climate is wholefome, and the air clear and ferene
for the greateft part of the year. Every part of the
ifiand is watered by pleafant brooks, and frefir-water
fprings,
ANN [ 461 ] ANN
fprings, winch, however, at the new and Full moons,
or in all high tides, acquire a brackilhnefs. The banks
of every rivulet are covered with palms, whence the in¬
habitants extract their wine by incifion. Here are a
number of fertile valleys, which produce Turky-corn,
rice, millet, yams, potatoes, <&c. and afford pafture
for abundance of oxen, fheep, goats, &c. Poultry
and fifh alfo abound here; but the only mercantile pro¬
duction is cotton, which is efteemed equal in quali¬
ty to any produced in India, though the quantity is
fmall. .
All the inhabitants are meanly clothed; the women
have only a piece of linen cloth wrapped under their
ftomach, and falling down in the form of a petticoat to
the knees. They carry their children on their backs,
and fuckle them over the fhoulder. The governor is a
Pqrtuguefe, who has a few European fervants about
him: all the reft are natives, who pay him an implicit
obedience, and are bigotted in their attachment to the
Catholic religion ; and provided they can fay their pa-
ter-nofter, ave-maria, and confefs themfelves to the
prieft, they reckon themfelves good Chriftians.
*ANNO Domini, i. e. the year of our Lord; the
computation of time from our Saviour’s incarnation.
ANNOMINATION, in rethoric, the fame with
what is otherwife called paronomqfia. See Parono¬
masia.
ANNONA, in Roman antiquity, denotes provifion
for a year of all forts, as of flefh, wine, &c. but Spe¬
cially of corn. Annona is likewife the allowance of
oil, fait, bread, flefh, corn, wine, hay, and ftraw,
which was annually provided by the contractors for the
maintenance of an army.
Annona, the Cujiard Apple, a genus of the polygy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants.
Of this genus there are eight
Species. 1. The reticulata, or cuftard-apple, is a
native of the Weft-Indies, where it grows to the height
of 25 feet, and is well furnifhed with branches on every
fide: the bark is fmooth, and of an afh colour; the
leaves are of a light green, oblong, and have feveral
deep tranfverfe ribs or veins, ending in acute points;
the fruit is of a conical form, as large as a tennis-ball,
of an orange colour when ripe, having a foft, fweet,
yellowifh pulp, of the confiftence of a cuftard, from
whence it has its name. 2. The muricatis, or four-
fop, rarely rifes above 20 feet high, and is not fo well
furnifhed with branches as the other; the leaves are
broader, have a fmooth furface without any furrows,
and are of a fhining green colour : the fruit is large,
of an oval fhape, irregular, and pointed at the top, of
a greenifh yellow colour, and full of fmall knobs on
the outfide : the pulp is foft, white, and of a four and
fweet tafte intermixed, having many oblong, dark-co¬
loured feeds. 3. The fquamofa, or fweet fop, feldom
rifes t.igher than 15 feet, and well furnifhed with
branches on every fide. The leaves have an agreeable
fcent when rubbed ; the fruit is roundifh and fcaly, and
when ripe turns of a purple colour, and hath a fweet
pulp. 4. The paluftris, or water-apple, grows to the
height of 30 or 40 feet. The leaves are oblong,
pointed, with fome flender furrows, and have a ftrong
fcent when rubbed; the fruit is fsldom eaten but by
negroes. The tree grows in moift places in all the
Weft India iilands. 5. The cherimola, with oblong
Vox.. I.
fcaly fruit, is a native of Peru, where it is much culti¬
vated for the fruit, and grows to be a very large tree
well furnifhed with branches. The leaves are of a
bright green colour, and much larger than thofe of any
of the other forts. The fruit is oblong, and fcaly on
the outfide, of a dark purple colour when ripe, and the
flefh is foft and fweet, intermixed with many brown
feeds which are fmooth and fhining. 6. The Africans,
with fmooth bluifh fruit. 7. The Afiatica, or purple
apple. This grows in fome of the French iflands, as
alfo in Cuba, in great plenty. The trees rife to the
height of 30 feet or more. The fruit Is efteemed by the
inhabitants of thofe iflands, who frequently give them
to lick perfons. 8. The triloba, or North-American
annona, called by the inhabitantspapanu, is a native of
the Bahama Iflands, and likewife of Virginia and Caro¬
lina. The trunks of the trees are feldom bigger than
the fmall of a man’s leg, and are about 10 or 12 feet
high, having a fmooth greenifh-brown bark. In
March, when the leaves begin to fprout, the bloffoms
appear, confifting of fix greenifh-white petals. The
fruit grows in clufters of three, and fometimes of four
together: when ripe, they are yellow, covered with a
thin fmooth fkin, which contains a yellow pulp of a
fweet lufcious tafte. In the middle of this pulp, lie in
two rows twelve feeds, divided by as many thin mem¬
branes. All parts of the tree have a rank, if not a
fetid, fmell; nor is the fruit relifhed by many except
negroes. Thefe trees grow in low fhady fwamps, and
in a very fat foil.
Culture. The laft fort will thrive in the open air in
Britain, if it is placed in a Warm and flieltered fitua-
tion; but the plants ftiould be trained up in pots, and
flickered in winter for two or three years till they have
acquired ftrength. The feeds frequently remain a
whole year in the ground; and therefore the earth in
the pots ought not to be difturbed, though the plants
do not come up the firft year. If the pots where thofe
plants are fown, are plunged into a new hot-bed,
they will come up much fooner than thofe that are ex-
pofed to the open air. All the other forts require to
be kept in, a warm ftove, or they will not live in this
country.
ANNONiE praefeCtus, in antiquity, an extraor¬
dinary magiftrate, whofe bufinefs it was to prevent a
fcarcity of provifion, and to regulate the weight and
finenefs of bread.
ANNONAY, a fmall town of France, in the Up¬
per Vivarais, feated on the river Deunre. E. Long.
4. 52. N. Lat. 45. 15.
ANNOT, a fmall city in the mountains of Provence
in France. E. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 44. 4.
ANNOTATION, in matters of literature, a brief
commentary, or remark, upon a book or writing, in or-
der^to clear up fome paffage, or draw fome conclufion
from it.
ANNOTTO, in dyeing, an elegant red colour, for¬
med from the pellicles of the feeds of a tree common in
South-America. It is alfo called or lean and roucou. The
manner of making annotto is as follows: The red feeds
cleared from the pods, are fteeped in water for feven or
eight days or longer, till the liquor begins to ferment;
ther) ftrongly ftirred, ftamped with wooden paddles and
beaters, to promote the feparation of the red (kins: this
procefs is repeated feveral times till the feeds are left
M m m white.
II
ANN [ 462 ] ANN
Annotto, white. The liquor, pafled through clofe cane-fieves, is which b fcraped off from the hands with a knife, and
’ 1 ^ ~ r ” laid on a clean leaf in the fhade to dry. De Laet, in
his notes on Margrave’s natural hiftory of Brazil, men*
tions alfo two kinds of annotto ; one of a permanent
crimfon colour, ufed as a fucus or paint for the face ;
and another which gives a colour inclining more to that
of faffron. This laft, which is our annotto, he fup-
pofes to be a mixture of the firft fort with certain re-
fmous matters, and with the juice of the root of the
tree.
ANNUAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation given
to whatever returns every year, or is always performed
within tha,t fpace of time.
Annual Motion of the Earth. See Astronomy.
Annual Leaves, are fuch leaves as come up afreih
in the fpring, and perilh in winter. Thefe ftand op-
pofed to Ever-greens.
Annual Plants, called alfo fimply annuals, are
fuch as only live their year, i.e. come up in the fpring
and die again in the autumn j and accordingly are to
be recruited every year.
Annualrent, in Scots law, an yearly profit due
by a debtor in a fum of money to a creditor for the
ufe of it.
- .. pretty thick, of a deep red colour, and a very ill fmell;
forTcertafn *n k°dimg> it throws up its colouring matter to the fur-
time. face in form of fcum, which is afterwards boiled down
  by itfelf to a due confiftence, and made up while foft
into balls. The annotto commonly met with among
us, is moderately hard and dry, of a brown colour on
the outfide, and a dull red within. It is difficultly ac¬
ted upon by water, and tinges the liquor only of a pale
browniffi-yellow colour. In redtified fpirit of wine, it
very readily diffolves, and communicates a high orange
or yellowiffi red. Hence it is ufed as an ingredient in
varnifhes, for giving more or lefs of an orange-caft to
the Ample yellows. Alkaline falts render it perfectly
foluble in boiling water, without altering its colour.
Wool or filk boiled in the folution, acquire a deep, but
not a very durable, orange-dye. Its colour is not
changed by alum or by acids, any more than by alca-
lies : but when imbibed in cloth, it is difcharged by
foap, and deftroyed by expofure to the air. It is
faid to be an antidote to the poifonous juice of manioc
or caflava.—Labat informs us, that the Indians pre¬
pare an annotto greatly fuperior to that which is
brought to us, of a bright Ihining red colour, almoft
equal to carmine: that, for this purpofe, inftead of
ftteping and fermenting the feeds in water, they rub
them with the hands, previoully dipt in oil, till the
pellicles come off, and are reduced into a clear pafte ;
Anr.H&I,
Annuities
for a certaitj
time.
Right of Annualrent, in Scots law, the original
method of burdening lands with an yearly payment for
the loan of money, before the taking of intereft for
money was allowed by ftatute.
A N N U I
I E S.
AN Annuity is a fum of money, payable yearly,
half yearly, or quarterly, to continue a certain
number of years, fqr ever, or for life.
An annuity is faid to be an arrear, when it continyes
unpaid after it falls due. And an annuity is faid to be
in reverfion,when the purchafer, upon paying the price,
does not immediately enter upon poffeffion ; the annuity
not commencing till fome time after.
Intereft on annuities may be computed either in the
way of Ample or compound intereft. But compound
intereft, being found moft equitable, both for buyer
and feller, the computation by fimple intereft is uni-
verfally difufed.
221.02525=221. I. os. 6 d. the amount fought.
The amount may alfo be found thus : Multiply the
given annuity by the amount of 1 1. for a year ; to the
produdf add the given annuity, and the fum is the a-
mount in 2 years ; which multiply by the amount of
1 1. for a year ; to the produdt add the given annuity
and the fum is the amount in 3 years, fc. The for¬
mer queftion wrought in this manner follows.
40 am. in x year. 126.x am. in 3 years.
1.05 1.05
42.00 I32,4°5
40 40
I. Annuities for a certain time.
Problem i. Annuity, rate, and time, given, to
find the amount, or fum of yearly payments, and in¬
tereft.
Rule. Make 1 the firft term of a geometrical feries
and the amount of 1 1. for a year the common ratio ;
continue this feries to as many terms as their are years
in the queftion ; and the fum of this feries is the amount
of 1 1. annuity for the given years ; which, multiplied
by the given annuity, will produce the amount fought.
Example. An annuity of 40 1. payable yearly, is
forborn and unpaid till the end of 5 years; What will
then be due, reckoning compound intereft at 5 per cent.
on all the payments then in arrear ?
125 45
1 : 1.05: 1.1025: 1.157625: 1.21550625? whofe
fum is 5-52563125 1. j and 5.25563125 X 40 =
82 am. in 2 years, 172.405 am. in4years.
1.05 1.05
86.10 181.02525
40 40
126.1 am. in 3 years. 221.02525 am. in 5 years.
If the given time be years and quarters, find the a-
mount for the whole years, as above; then find the a-
mount of x 1. for the given quarters; by which multi¬
ply the amount for the whole years; and to the pro-
du6l add fuch a part of the annuity as the given quar¬
ters are of a year.
If the given annuity be payable half yearly, or quar¬
terly, find the amount of 11. for half a year or a quar¬
ter; by which find the amount for the feveral half-years
or quarters, in the fame manner as the amount for the
feveral years is found above.
PrOB. 2»
ANNUITIES.
Annuities Prob. 2. Annuity, rate, and time given, to find
certain prefen(; worth, or fum of money that will purchafe
| the annuity.
Rule. Find the amount of the given annuity by
the former problem; and then, by compound interefi,
find the prefent worth of this amount, as a fum due at
the end of the given time.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of an annuity
of 40I. to continue 5 years, difcounting at 5 per cent.
compound intereft ?
By the former problem, the amount of the given an¬
nuity for 5 years, at 5 percent, is 221.02525; and by
compound intereft, the amount of j 1. for 5 years, at
5 1. per cent, is i(.27628i5625
And, 1.2762815625)221.02525000(173.179=
173I. 38. 7 ft. the prefent worth fought.
The prefent worth may bealfo found thus: By com¬
pound intereft, find the prefent worth of each year by
itfelf, and the fum of thefe is the prefent worth fought.
The former example done in this way follows.
1.2762815625)40.000000000(31.3410
1.21550625)40.0000000 (32.9080
1.157625)40.00000 (34-5535
1.1025)40.000 (36.2811
I-?5;40,0 (38-°952
Prefent worth, 173.1788
If the annuity to be purchafed be in reverlion, find
firft the prefent worth of the annuity, as commencing
immediately, by any of the methods taught above; and
then, by compound intereft, find the prefent worth of
that prefent worth, rebating for the time in reverfion;
and this laft prefent worth is the anfwer.
Examp. What is~the prefent worth of a yearly pen-
fion or rent of 75I. to continue 4 years, but not tq com¬
mence till 3 years hence, difcounting at 5 per cent. ?
.05 : 1 75 : 1500
1.05 X 1.05 X1.05 X1.05 = 1.215 50625
1.21550625)1500.00000(1234.05371
1500
1234.05371
265.94629, prefent worth of the annuity, if it
was to commence immediately.
1.05X1.05X1 05=1.157625 L. s. d.
1.157625)265.94629(229.7344=229 14 8^
Pros. 3. Prefent worth, rate and time given, to
find the annuity.
Rule. By the preceding problem, find the prefent
worth of il. annuity for the rate and time given; and
then fay. As the prefent worth thus found to il. an-
nuity, fo the prefent worth given to its annuity; that is,
divide the given prefent worth by that of 11. annuity.
Examp. What annuity, to continue 5 years, will
173ft. 3 s- 7 ft- purchafe, allowing compound intereft at
5 per cent. ?
.05 : 1 :: 1 : 20I.
1.05 X 1.05 Xi.05X1.05X1.05=1.2762815625
1.2762815625)20.00000000(15.6705.
20
15.6705.
4.3295 prefent worth of 1 1. annuity.
4-329)173-179(40 1- annuity. Anf.
II. Annuitiet for ever, or freehold Eflates.
In freehold eftates, commonly called annuities in fee-
fvmple, the things chiefly to be confidered are, 1. The
annuity or yearly rent. 2. The price or prefent worth.
3. The rate of intereft. The queftions that ufually oc¬
cur on this head will fall under one or other of the fol¬
lowing problems.
Pros. 1. Annuity and rate of intereft given, to find
the price.
As the rate of 11. to 11. fo the rent to the price.
Examp. The yearly rent of a fmall eftate is 401.:
What is it worth in ready money, computing intereft at
3-1-per cent.?
L. s. d.
As.035 : I :: 40: 1142.857142= 1142 17 14.
Prob. 2. Price and rate of intereft given, to find
the rent or annuity.
As 1 1. to its rate, fo the price to the rent.
Examp. A gentleman purchafes an eftate for 40001.
and has 4-4 per cent, for his money: Required the rent.
As 1 : .045 4000 : 180I. rent fought.
Prob. 3. Price and rent given, to find the rate of
intereft.
As the price to the rent, fo 1 to the rate.
Examp. An eftate of 180 1. yearly rent is bought
for 4000.: What rate of intereft has the purchafer for
his money ?
As 4000 : 180:: 1 : .045 rate fought.
Prob. 4. The rate of intereft given, to find how
many years purchafe an eftate is worth.
Divide 1 by the rate, and the quot is the number of
years purchafe the eftate is worth.
Examp. A gentleman is willing to purchafe an e-
ftate, provided he can have per cent, for his money:
How many years purchafe may he offer ?
.025)1.000(40 years purchafe. Anf.
Prob. 5. The number of years purchafe, at which
an eftate is bought or fold, given, to find the rate of
intereft.
Divide 1 by the number of years purchafe, and the
quot is the rate of intereft.
Examp. A gentleman gives 40 years purchafe for
.an eftate: What intereft has he for his money ?
4o)i.ooo(.025 rate fought.
The computations hitherto are all performed by a
fingle divifion or multiplication, and it will fcarcely be
perceived that the operations are condufted by the rules
of compound intereft; but when a reverfion occurs, re-
courfe muft be had to tables of annuities on compound
intereft.
Prob. 6. The rate of intereft, and the rent of a
freehold eftate in reverfion, given, to find the prefent
worth or value of the reverfion.
By Prob. 1. find the price or prefent worth of the
eftate, as if poffeffion was to commence prefently; and
then, by the Tables, find the prefent value of the given
annuity, or rent, for the years prior to the commence¬
ment ; fubtradl: this value from the former value, and
the remainder is the value of the reverfion.
Examp. A has the poffefiion of an eftate of 130I.
per annum, to continue 20 years; B has the reverfion
of the fame eftate from that time for ever: What is the
M m m 2 value
463
Annuities
fbr ever.
464
ANNUITIES.
Life Annul- value of the eftate, what the value of the 20 years pof-
ties> feffion, and what the value of the reverfion, reckoning
“ “ compound intereft at 6 per cent. ?
ByProb. 1. .06)130.00(2166.0666 value of the eftate.
By Tables x 491.0896 val. of the pofiefiion.
675.577° val. of the reverfion.
Prob. 7. The price or value of a reverfion, the
time prior to the commencement, and rate of intereft,
given, to find the annuity or rent.
By the Tables, find the amount of the price of the
reverfion for the years prior to the commencement; and
then by Prob. 3. find the annuity which that amount
will purchafe.
Ex amp. The reverfion of a freehold eftate, to com¬
mence 20 years-hence, is bought for 675.5771. com¬
pound intereft being allowed at 6 per cent.: Required
the annuity or rent.
By the Tables the amount of 675.577I. 7^ ^
for 20 years, at 6 per cent, is $ '
By Prob. 2. 2166.0X.06=130.0 rent fought.
III. Life Annuities.
The value of annuities for life is determined from
obfervations made on the bills of mortality. Dr Hal¬
ley, Mr Simpfon, and Monf. de Moivre, are gentle¬
men of diftinguifhed merit in calculations of this kind.
Dr Halley had recourfe to the bills of mortality at
Breflaw, the capital of Silefia, as a proper ftandard for
the other parts of Europe, being a place pretty central,
at a diftance from the fea, and not much crowded with
traffickers or foreigners. He pitches upon 1000 per-
fons all born in one year, and obferves how many of
thefe were alive every year, from their birth to the ex¬
tinction of the laft, and confequently how many died
each year, as in the firftof the following tables; which
is well adapted to Europe in general. But in the city
of London, there is obferved to be a greater difparity
in the births and burials than in any other place, owing
probably to the vaft refort of people thither, in the
way of commerce, from all parts of the known world.
Mr Simpfon, therefore, in order to have a table parti¬
cularly fuited to this populous city, pitches upon 1280
perfons all born in the fame year, and records the num¬
ber remaining alive each year, till none were in life.
It may not be improper, however, to obferve, that
however perfeft tables of this fort may be in themfelves,
and however well adapted to any particular climate, yet
the conclufions deduced from them muft always be un¬
certain, being nothing more than probabilities, or con-
jeCtures drawn from the ufual period of human life.
And the pradtice of buying and felling annuities on
lives, by rules 'bunded on fuch principles, may be juftly
confidered as a fort of lottery or chance-work, in which
the parties concerned muft often be deceived. But as
eftimates and computations of this kind are now be¬
come fafhionable, we ftxall fubjoin fome brief account
of fuch as appear moft material.
Dr Halley’s table on the bills of mortality at Breflaw. Life Anon!-
A. fP
llV.
A. Pf A. Pf
llV. llV.
59
54
49
45
4
38
35
32
29
26
23
20
17
14
12
10
8
6
5
4
3
From the preceding tables the probability of the
continuance or extinction of human life is eftimated as
follows.
1. The probability that a perfon of a given age fliall
live a certain number of years, is meafured by the pro¬
portion which the number of perfons living at the pro-
pofed age has to the difference between the faid num¬
ber
4,
-4-
A N N U I
Annul- ber and the number of perfons living at the given age.
ies- Thus, if it be demanded, what chance a perfon of
40 years has to live feven years longer ? from 445, the
number of perfons living at 40 years of age in Dr Hal ¬
ley’s table, fubtraft 377, the number of perfons living
at 47 years of age, and the remainder 68, is the num¬
ber of perfons that died during thefe 7 years ; and the
probability or chance that the perfon in the queftion
(hall live thefe 7 years is as 377 to 68, or nearly as
to 1. But, by Mr Simpfon’s table, the chance is fome-
thing lefs than that of 4 to 1.
2. If the year to which a perfon of a given age has
an equal chance of arriving before he dies, be required,
it may be found thus: Find half the namber of per¬
fons living at the given age in the tables, and in the
column of age you have the year required.
Thus, if the queftion be put with refpeft to a per¬
fon of 30 years of age, the number of that age in Dr
Halley’s table is 531, the half whereof is 265, which
is found in the table between 57 and 58 years ; fo that
a perfon of 30 year* has an equal chance of living be¬
tween 2 7 and 2 8 years longer.
3. By the tables, the premium of infurance upon
lives may in fome meafure be regulated.
Thus, the chance that a perfon of 25 years has to
live another year, is, by Dr Halley’s table, as 80 to
1 ; but the chance that a perfon of 50 years has to
live a year longer is only 30 to 1. And, confequently,
the premium for infuring the former ought to be to the
premium for infuring the latter for one year, as 30 to
80, or as 3 to 8.
Pros. I. To find the value of an annuity of I 1.
for the life of a fingle perfon of any given age.
Monf. de Moivre, by obferving the decreafe of the
; probabilities of life, as exhibited in the table, compo-
fed an algebraic theorem or canon, for computing the
value of an annuity for life ; which canon we here lay
down by way of
Rule. Fine! the complement of life ; and, by the
tables, find the value of 1 1. annuity for the years de¬
noted by the faid complement; multiply this value by
the amount of 1 1. for a year, and divide the product
by the complement of life; then fubtraft the quot
from 1 ; divide the remainder by the intereft of 1 1. for
a year; and this laft quot will be the value of the an¬
nuity fought, or, in other words, the number of years
purchafe the annuity is worth.
Examp. What is the value of an annuity of 1 h. for
an age of 50 years, intereft at 5 per cent. ?
50 age given.
36 complement of life.
By the tables, the value is, 16.5468
Amount of 11. for a year, 1 .05 ,
827340
165468
Complement of life, 36) 17.374140).482615
From unity, viz. 1.000000
Subtract .482615
Intereft of 1 1. .05).517385(10.3477 value fought.
By the preceding problem is conftru&ed the follow-
T I E S.
ing table.
The value of 11. annuity for a fingle life.
465
466
ANNUITIES,
The value of x 1. annuity for a Angle life.
3 t>et c.
liperc.
9-42
9.11
8.79
8.46
8.13
7*79
7-45
7.10
6.75
6.38
6.01
5-63
5.25
4.85
4-45
4-°5
3-63
3.21
2.78
_i-34
4 per c. \±\per c. $ per c. \6 per c.
9.08
8.79
8.49
8.19
7.88
7.56
7.24
6.91
6.57
6.22
5.87
5-51
5-H
4-77
4-38
3-98
3-57
3.16
2.74
z-31
8.75
8.48
8.20
7.92
7-63
7-33
7.02
6.75
6-39
6.06
5.72
5-38
5.02
4.66
4.29
3-9£
3-52
3-11
2.70
2.28
8.44
8.19
7-94
7.67
7-39
7.12
6.83
6.54
6.23
-5.92
5-59
5.26
4.92
4-57
4.22
3*84
3-47
3-07
2.67
2.26
8.16
7-93
7.68
7*43
7.18
6.91
6.64
6.36
6.07
5-77
5-47
5-I5
4.82
4.49
4.14
3-78
3-4i
3-03
2.64
2.23
7.60
7.40
7.20
6-95
6.75
6.5-0
6.25
6.oq
5-75
5.50
5.20
4.90
4.60
4-30
4.00
3-65
3-3°
2.95
2-55
The above table ihews the value of an annuity of one
pound for a Angle life, at all the current rates of inte-
reft ; and is efteemed the beft table of this kind extant,
and preferable to any other of a different conftruftion.
But yet thofe who fell annuities have generally one and
a half or two years more value, than fpeciAed in the
table, from purchafers whofe age is 20 years or upwards.
Annuities of thiVfort are commonly bought or fold
at fo many years purchafe; and the value afligned in the
table may be fo reckoned. Thus the value of an annuity
of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent, in-
tereft, is 12.^1; that is, 12 !. 10 s. or twelve and a half
years purchale. The marginal Agures on the left of the'
column of age ferve to morten the table, and Agnify,
that the value of an annuity for the age denoted by
them, is the fame with the value of an annuity for the
age denoted by the numbers before which they Hand.
Thus the value of an annuity for the age of 9 and 10
years is the fame ; and the value of an annuity for the
age of 6 and 14, for the age of 3 and 24, 6v. is the
fame. The further ufe of the table will appear in the
queftions and problems following.
Quest, i. A perfon of 50 years would purchafe an
annuity for life of 2001.: What ready money ought
he to pay, reckoning intereft at 4I- per cent. ?
L.
By the table the value of 11. is 10.8
Multiply by 200
Value to be paid in ready money 2164.00 j4nf.
Quest. 2. A young merchant marries a widow lady
of 40 years of age, with a jointure of 3001. a-year, and
wants to difpofe of the jointure for ready money: What
fum ought he to receive, reckoning intereft at 34- per
tent. ?
By the table the value of 11. is 13.98
300
lifeAnnub
Value to be received in ready money 4194.00
Prob. 2. To And the value of an annuity for the
joint continuance of two lives, one life failing, the an¬
nuity to ceafe.
Here there are two cafes, according as the ages of
the two perfons are equal or unequal.
1. If the two perfons be of the fame age, work by
the following
Rule. Take the value of any one of the lives from
the table; multiply this value by the intereft of 1 1. for
a year; fubtract the product from 2; divide the forefaid
value by the remainder; and the quot will be the value
of 11. annuity, or the number of years purchafe fought.
Examp. What is the value of 1001. annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, of the age of 30 years each,
reckoning intereft at 4per cent.?
By the table, one life of 30 years is - 14.68
Multiply by - - .04
Subtra<ft the produdl 5872
From - - ! 2 ‘oooo
Remains - - 1.4128
And 1.4128)14.68(10.39 value of 1 1. annuity.
And 10.39X100=1039 the value fought.
2. If the two perfons are of different ages, work a*
dire&ed in the following
Rule. Take the values of the two lives from the
table ; multiply them into one another, calling the re-
fult the Arft product; then multiply the faid Arft pro-
du6I by the intereft of 11. for a year, calling the refult
the fecond product; add the values of the two lives,
and from their fum fubtradft the fecond product; divide
the Arft product by the remainder, and the quot will be
the value of 11. annuity, or the number of years pur¬
chafe fought.
Examp. What is the value of 701. annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, whereof one is 40 and the
other 50 years of age, reckoning intereft at 5 per cent. ?
By the table the value of 40 years is
And the value of 50 years ii
1.83
IO*35
Firft product,
Multiply by
122.4405
.05
Second produdt, 6.122025
Sum of the two lives.
Second produdt deduct.
16.057975
Remainder, -
And 16.0579^75)122.4405(7.62 value of xl. annuity.
70
533.40 value fought.
Prob. 3. To And the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of two lives ; that is, to continue fo long as ei¬
ther of the perfons is in life.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the Angle lives
fubtradt the value of the joint lives, and the remainder
will be the value fought.
Examp.- What is the value of an annuity of 1 1. up-
I
A N N U
mui- on the longeft of two lives, the one perfon being 30,
and the other 40 years of age, intereft at 4per cent. ?
By the table, 30 years is - - 14.68
40 years is - - 13-20
Value of their joint lives, by Prob. 2. 7 27.88
Cafe 2. is, 5 9-62
Value fought, 18.26
If the annuity be any other than 1 1. multiply the
anfwer found as above by the given annuity.
If the two perfons be of equal age, find the value of
their joint lives by Cafe 1. of Prob. 2.
Prob. 4. To find the value of the next prefentation
to a living.
Rule. From the value of the fucceffor’s life fub-
traft the joint value of his and the incumbent’s life, and
the remainder will be the value of 1 1. annuity; which
multiplied by the yearly income, will give the fum to
be paid for the next prefentation.
Examp. A enjoys a living of 1001. per annum, and
B would purchafe the faid living for his life after A’s
death: The queftion is. What he ought to pay for it,
reckoning intereft at 5 per cent. A being 60, and B 25
years of age ?
By the table, B’s life is - - 13-46
Joint value of both lives, by Prob. 2. is 6.97
The value of 1 1. annuity, - - 6.49
Multiply by - - 100
Value of next prefentation, - - 649.00
The value of a direct prefentation is the fame as that
of any other.annuity for life, and is found for 11. by
the table : which being multiplied by the yearly in¬
come, gives the value fought.
Prob. 5. To find the value of a reverfion for ever,
after two fucceffive lives; or to find the value of a living
after the death of the prefent incumbent and his fuc-
ceffor.
Rule. By Prob. 3. find the value of the longeft of
the two lives, and fubtratt that value from the value of
the perpetuity, and the remainder will be the value
fought.
Examp. A, aged 50, enjoys an eftate or living of
ioo\. per annum', B, aged 30, is intitled to his lifetime
of the fame eftate after A’s death ; and it is propofed
to fell the eftate juft now with the burden of A and
B’s lives on it: What is the reverfion worth, reckoning
intereft at 4 per cent. ? ^
By the table, A’s life of 50 is, - Ji-34
B’s life of 30 is, - - 14.68
Value of their joint lives, found by 7 - 8.60
Prob. 2. Cafe 2. is, 5  
Value of the longeft life, - - 17.42^.
From the value of the perpetuity, 25.00
Remains the value of 11. reverfion, - 7.58
Multiply by 100
Value of the reverlion, ... 758.00
I T I E S. 467
Prob. 6. To find the value of the joint continuance LifeAnmu-
of three lives, one life failing, the annuity to ceafe. ties- 
Rule. Find the Angle values of the three lives from
the table; multiply thefe Angle values continually, call¬
ing the refult the product of the three lives ; multiply
that product by the intereft of 1 1. and that produdt
again by 2, calling the refult the double product; then*
from the fum of the feveral products of the lives, taken
two and two, fubtraft the double produft; divide the
■ produdt of the three lives by the remainder, and the
quot will be the value of the three joint lives.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56:
What is the value of their joint lives, reckoning intereft
at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, the value of A’s life is 16.1, of B’«
14.12, and of C’s 10.01.
16.1X14.12X10,01=2275.6, product of the three lives,
.04
182.048, double produdt.
Produdt of A and B, 16.1 X 14.12X227.33
A and C, 16.1 X 10.01 = 161.16
B and C, 14.12X10.00=141.34
Sum of all, two and two, - 529.83
Double produdt fubtradt - - 182.048
Remainder - 347.782
And 347.782)2275.600(6.54 value fought.
Prob. 7. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of three lives.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the three Angle
lives, taken from the table, fubtradt the fum of all the
joint lives, taken two and two, as found by Prob. 2,
and to the remainder add the value of the three joint
lives, as found by Prob. 6. and that fum will be the
value of the longeft life fought.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56:
What is the value of the longeft of thefe three lives, in¬
tereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, the Angle value of A’s life is 16.1
Angle value of B’s life is 14.12
fingle value of C’s life is 10.01
Sum of the fingle values, 40.2 3
By Prob. 2. the joint value of A and B is 10.76
joint value of A and C is 8.19
joint value of B and C is 7.65
Sum of the joint lives, 26.60
Remainder,
13-63
By Prob. 6. the value of the 3 joint lives is 6.54
Value of the longeft of the 3 lives, 20.17
Other problems might be added, but thefe adduced
are fufficient for moft purpofes. The reader probably
may wifh that the reafon of the rules, which, it muft be
owned, are intricate, had been affigned; but this could
not be done without entering deeper into the fubjeft than
was pra&icable in this place. See Chances.
^ ANNUITY
Annuity of
Tiends.
II
Annuncia-
A N N [ 468 ] ANN
ANNUITY of Tiends, in Scots law, a certain pro¬
portion of the tiends of erefted benefices formerly pay¬
able to the crown, but now gone into difufe.
ANNULAR, in a general fenfe, fomething in the
form of, or refembling, a ring. It is alfo a peculiar deno¬
mination of the fourth finger, commonly called the ring-
finger.
ANNULET, in archite&ure, a fmall fquare member
in the Doric capital, under the quarter-round.
Annulet is alfo a narrow .flat moulding, which is
common to divers places of the columns, as in the ba-
fes, capitals, &c. It is the fame member which Vi¬
truvius calls a fillet; Palladio, a liftel or cintture; Sca-
mozzi, and Mr Brown, a fupercilinm, lifi, tinea, eye-
brow, fquare, rabbit. See Architecture.^
An NULET,alittle circle, borne as a charge in coats-of-
arms, as alfo added to them as a difference. Among the
Romans it reprefented liberty and nobility. It alfo de¬
notes ftrength and eternity, by reafon of its circularform.
When this figure is added as a difference, fame au¬
thors afiert, that it ferves to remind the bearer to at-
chieve great aftions.
ANNULLING, a term fometimes ufed for cancel¬
ling or making void a deed, fentence, or the like.
ANNUNCIADA, Annuntiada, or Annuntia-
ta, an order of knighthood in Savoy, firft inftituted by
Amadeus I. in the year 1409 : their collar was of 15
links, interwoven one with another, in form of a true-
loyer’s-knOt; and the motto, F. E. R. T. fignifying,
Fortitude cjus Rhodum tenuit. Amadeus VIII. gave the
name Annunciada to this order, which was formerly
known by that of the knot of love; changing at the fame
time the image of St Maurice patron of Savoy, which
hung at the collar, for that of the Virgin Mary ; and,
inftead of the motto above mentioned, fubftituting the
•words of the angel’s falutation.
Annunciada is alfo the title of feveral religious or¬
ders, inftituted at different times, and at different places,
in honour of the annunciation. See the next article.
ANNUNCIATION, the tidings brought by the
ansel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation
of Chrift.
Annunciation is alfo a feftival, kept by the church
on the 25th of March* in commemoration of thefe ti¬
dings. This feftival appears to be of very great anti¬
quity. There is mention made of it in a fermon which
goes under the name of Athanafms. Others carry it
up to the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus, becaufe
there is a fermon likewife attributed to him upon the
fame fubjeft. But the beft critics rejeft both thefe
writings as fpurious. However, it is certain, this fe¬
ftival was obferved before the time of the council of
Trullo, in which there is a canon 'forbidding the cele¬
bration of all feftivals in Lent, excepting the Lord’s
day, and the feaft of the annunciation: fo that we
may date its original from the feventh century.
In the Romifti church, on this feaft, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of marrying, or cloyftering a cer¬
tain number of maidens, who are prefented to him in
the church, clothed in white ferge, and muffled up
from head to foot: An officer Hands by, with purfes
containing notes of fifty crowns for thofe who make
choice of marriage, and notes of a hundred for thofe
who chufe to veil.
Annunciation is likewife a title given by the Jews
to part of the ceremony of the paflbver. Annuncis
ANNUNCIATOR, the name of an officer in the t°r }
church of Conftantinople. It was his bufinefs to inform Anemia*
the people of the feftivals that were to be celebrated. -■
ANODYNE (from a privative, and oJo»a, doleo ;
or a neg. and dJuvh, pain ;) a term applied to medi¬
cines which eafe pain, and procure fleep. They are
divided in to threeforts, viz. 1. Paregorics, or fuch as
aflwage pain. 2. Hypnotics, or fuch as relieve by '
procuring lleep. 3. Narcotics, or fuch as eafe the pa¬
tient by ftupifying him.
Opiates and narcotics deftroy fenfation. Some hyp¬
notics and paregorics, as nitre, camphor, &c. procure
eafe and fleep by removing the offending caufe. Cam¬
phor is the beft anodyne in nervous cafes, and at the
decline of fevers. The dofes of thefe medicines are
generally regulated by the pulfe.
ANOLYMPIADES, in antiquity, a name given
by the Eleans to thofe Olympic games which had
been celebrated under the dire&ion of the Pifaeans and
. Arcadians. The Eleans claimed the foie right of ma-
naging the Olympic games, in which they fometimes
met with competitors. The hundred and fourth Olym¬
piad was celebrated by order of the Arcadians, by
whom the Eleans were at that time reduced very low :
this, as well as thofe managed by the inhabitants of Pi-
fa, they called ayow^tccia^, that is, “ unlawful Olym¬
piads;” and left them out of their annals, wherein the
names of their viftors and other occurences were re-
giftred.
ANOMALISTICAL Year, inaftronomy, thetime
that the earth takes to pafs through her orbit: it is alfo
called the Periodical Fear. The fpace of time belong¬
ing to this year is greater than the tropical year, on ac¬
count of the proceffion of the equinoxes *• * Set Aft s.
ANOMALOUS, a term applied to whatever is ir- nomj.. I
regular, or deviates from the rule obferved by other r
things of the like nature.
Anomalous Verbs, in grammar, fuih as are not
conjugated conformably to the paradigm of their con¬
jugation. They are found in all languages. In Latin,
the verb lego is the paradigm of the third conjugation ;
and runs thus, lego, legis, legit: By the fame rule it
fhouldbe fero, feris, ferit; but we fay fero, fers, fert;
fero, then, is an anomalous verb. In Englifti, the irre¬
gularity relates often to the preter tenfe and paflive
participle: for example, give, were it formed according
to rule, would make gived in the preter tenfe and paL
five participle; whereas, in the former, it makes gave,
and in the latter given.
ANOMALY, in aftronomy, an irregularity in the
motion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the ,
aphelion or apogee.
ANOMlA, in zoology, a genus of infers belong- J ’
ing to the order of vermes teftacea. The fhell is bi¬
valve, and the valves are unequal. One valve is per¬
forated near the hinge ; affixed by that perforation to
fome other body. There are 25 fpecies of the ano-
mia ; of which, only two are natives of the Britifh
feas, viz. 1. The ephippium, with the habit of aa
oyfter ; the one fide convex, the other flat; perforated;
adherent to other bodies, often to oyfter-fhells, by a
ftrong tendinous ligature ; colour of the infide, perla-
ceous. Size, near two inches diameter. 2. The fquam-
mula, with (hells refembling the feales of fifh ; very
delicate.
A N O [ 469 j A N O
Anomoeans delicate, and filvery; much flatted; perforated; very
*! II . fmall. Adheres to oyflers, crabs, lobfters, and {hells.
yvnoiixia. rpjie ppecjes 0jp tjjjg genus are commonly called Beaked
cockles. No name has been given to the fifti that inha¬
bit it; for the recent (hells of this kind are fo very
rare, that there is fcarcely one to be found perfect.
They are perhaps, as well as that which has given its
form to the cornu ammonis, inhabitants of the deepeft
parts of the ocean ; confequently it muft be fome ex¬
traordinary agitation of that great body of water that
can bring them at all to our knowledge in their recent
ftate.
The foflile fpecies of the Anomia genus are uncom¬
monly numerous in this ifland, in our chalk-pits and
limeftone-quarries ; and, in Gloucefterfliire, they are as
common on the ploughed lands as pebbles in other pla-
ANOMOEANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name
by which the pure Arians were called in the fourth
century, in contradiftin&ion to the Semi-Arians.
The word is formed from the Greek, differ¬
ent, diffimilar; For the pure Arians afferted, that the
Son was of a nature different from, and in nothing like,
that of the Father: whereas the Semi-Arians acknow¬
ledged a likenefs of nature in the Son ; at the fame
time that they denied, with the pure Arians, the cou-
fubftantiality of the Word.—The Semi-Arians con¬
demned the Anomoeans in the council of Seleucia; and
the Anomoeans in their turn condemned the Semi-A-
rians in the councils of Conftantinople and Antioch,
eraflng the word like, out of the Formula of
Rimini and that of Conftantinople.
ANOMORHOMBOIDIA, in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of fpars ; the word is derived from
the Greek, irregular, and goy-Mtu a rhom-
boidal figure. The bodies of this genus are pellucid
cryftaline fpars of no determinate or regular external
form, but always breaking into regularly rhomboidal
mafles ; eafily fiflile, and compofed of plates running
both horizontally and perpendicularly thro’ the mafles,
but cleaving more readily and evenly in an horizontal,
than in a perpendicular dire&ion ; the plates being
ever compofed of irregular arrangements of rhomboidal
concretions. Of this genus there are five known fpe¬
cies. I. A white, bright, and fhattery one ; found in
great quantities in the lead-mines of Derbyfliire, York-
{hire, and Wales. 2. A milk-white, opaque, and {bat¬
tery one, found in fome parts of France, and very
plentifully in Germany, and fometimes in Wales and
Scotland, and in the hills of Yorkftiire. 3. A hard,
dull, and fnow-white one, found in fome of the mines
in Derbythire, and in many of our northern countries.
4. A hard grey and pellucid one, found in the lead-
mines of Yorkflrire, and very common in Germany.
And, 5. A pellucid and colourlefs one; this is found in
the lead-mines of Derbyftiire and Yorklhire. All
thefe in fome degree have the double refraction of the
ifland cryftal. See Island-crystal.
ANONIS in botany. See Ononis.
I ANONYMOUS, fomething that is namelefs, or of
which the name is concealed. It is a term ufually ap¬
plied to books which do not exprefs the author’s name,
or to authors whofe names are unknown.
ANOREXIA, anorexy, (from * neg. and
•M'f. appetite); a want of appetite, or a loathing of
Vol. I.
food. The diforder is either original or fymptomatic. AnefS.
When it is original, its caufes are, bad diet, too free
drinking, voracioufnefs, &c.: In which cafes, a vomit
or two of ipecacuanha may be taken ; and temperance,
a light but cordial nouriftiing diet, and daily exercife,
perfifted in, will generally effeft a recovery. But it is
more frequently a fymptom of fome other diforder;
and then the cure depends on the removal of the origi¬
nal one.
ANOSSI, a province of the ifland of Madagafcar,
lying between Lat. 230 iB’ and 26° S. It is watered
by many rivers, moft of which run into the Franchere,
Ramevatte, oxjmmour, the fpring of which is in a moun¬
tain called Mangbage, and difeharges itfelf into the
fea in Lat. 25. 18. S. The mouth of this river is of¬
ten flopped, and the couffe to the fea interrupted, un-
lefs kept open by the overflowings of great rains and
high tides. The water runs fait one league above the
mouth, particularly in a free communication with the
fea. A lake, called Ambou, is formed at the mouth,
half a league wide, with depth fufficient for any ftiip
if the mouth of the river was kept open. Next in
bignefs to the Franchere is the Manghaiia, which fprings
from a mountain called Siliva, and empties itfelf into
the fea, where large (hips may ride at anchor. Croco¬
diles breed in thefe and all the other rivers of the ifland.
Between the two rivers above-mentioned lies Cape
St Remain, half a mile diftant from the mouth of the
Franchere, and which runs from the north-weft fix or
feven leagues into the fea. When the Cape is pafled,
the coaft forms a great bay, in the ftiape of a crofs,
which extends to the mouth of a river called Dian
Panouge, or Pitorab. In the middle of this bay the
land runs out, and almoft forms a peninfula called Tbo-
langare. Fort Dauphin lies to the north of this pe¬
ninfula, and Port Dauphin over againft it. This pro¬
vince has feveral other peninfulas and fmall iflands be¬
longing to it. The country is beautiful; abounds in
fruit-trees; is fertile inpaftures for cattle; and, if care¬
fully cultivated, would produce all the neceflaries of life.
It is furrounded by high mountains, which are covered
with woods and (hrubs; but, about four miles diftant
from Fort Dauphin, the adjacent hills are quite defti-
tute of verdure. The French often dug in this neigh¬
bourhood, expe&ing to meet with mines of gold and
filver, particularly in one mountain where feveral fprings
fle v near each other and empty themfelves into a neigh¬
bouring river. In this river they found feveral ftones
and heaps intermixed with yellow clay, with a great
quantity of black and white fpangles fliining like filver,
which they carefully pounded and waftied, but without
effedt. About 60 yards above thefe fprings the grafs,
and every fort of vegetable, appears half dried and yel¬
low, from a metalline fulphur, which gives that afpedt;
but the top of the mountain is covered with a frelh and
beautiful verdure. It is faid that the Portuguefe found
gold at the foot of this mountain on the north-fide,
but that the place they had dug was fi'Ld up by the
chiefs of the country after the Portuguefe had been
driven out.
The province of Anofii is inhabited by three diffe¬
rent forts of whites, and four forts of negroes. The
whites are diftinguiftied by the names of Rohandrians,
Anacandrians, and Ondzatfi. The whites are diftin¬
guiftied from the negroes by the general name of Za-
N n n feramini.
AND
^feramint, or Rahimini; and the Rohandrians are di-
* ftinguifhed above the other whites. When they pro¬
ceed to an ele&ion of a fovereign, whom they call 0m~
■piandrian, or Dian Bahouache ; he is chofen from the
Rohandrian race. Next to him the others hold the
rank of princes, and are honoured as fuch by all the
reft of the fubjefts. The Anacandrians are defcendants
of the chiefs, but who have degenerated, and are ac¬
counted the baftards of princes, or thofe who are de-
fcended from a Rohandrian and any inferior white
or black woman. Thefe are likewife called by the
name of Ontempajfemaca, or people from the fandy parts
of Mecca, from whence, they fay, came the Rohan¬
drians. Both the Rohandrians and Anacandrians wear
long hair, which hangs down in curls ; and enjoy the
privilege of killing beafts. The Ondzatfi, or loweft
clafs of whites, are defcended from the baftards of the
Anacandrians. Thefe are all fifhermen, and are al¬
lowed to kill no land-animal except a chicken.
The four clafles of negroes are named Voadziri, Lo-
bavobits, Ontfoa, and Ondeves. The Voadziri, the moft
powerful and the richeft, are mafters of feveral villages,
and defcended from the original lords of the country.
They enjoy the privilege of killing beafts, when at a
diftance from the whites, and no Rohandrian or Ana-
candrian in the village. The Lohavohits are depen¬
dents from the Voadziri, and alfo lords; but with this
difference, that the one commands a whole diftridl, and
the jurifdiftion of the others extends only to their own
village and family. They are alfo permitted to kill
thofe beafts they intend to eat, when at a diftance from
the whites. The Ontfoa are next to the Lohavohits,
and are their near relations. The Ondeves are the loweft
of all, being originally flaves by father and mother.
The Voadziri, Lohavohits, and Ontfoa, enjoy the pri¬
vilege of fubmitting themfelves, on the death of their
lord or king, to any chief theypleafe. In return for fuch
homage the new lord makes them a prefent, in confe-
quence of which he becomes heir to all their poffefiions.
Hence the lower clafles both of whites and blacks,
when death approaches, are under the greateft con¬
cern and anguifti of mind, well knowing that their
lords will not fail to deprive their children of every
thing they poflefs. The Ondeves have not the fame
liberty with the others : but, in times of famine,
the chiefs are obliged to fupply them with neceflaries;
which if they fail to do, they have the liberty of fub¬
mitting themfelves to new mafters. The inhabitants
of this province have no temples, and very little ap¬
pearance of religion; only they keep up a cuftom of
immolating beafts upon particular occafions, as in fick-
nefs, planting yams or rice, on aflemblies, &c. They
offer the firft-born beaft to the devil and to God, na¬
ming the devil firft, in this manner, Dianbilis Aminhan-
babare, or, “ Lord Devil and God.”—There are fe¬
veral towns on the river Franchere; and near this river
the Portuguefe had a fort built upon a fteep rock, and
feveral buildings below, with inclofures, which furnifti-
ed all forts of neceffaries for their fubfiftence; but they
were all maffacred by the natives.
This province feems originally to have been inhabited
by negroes. The whites or Zaferamini fettled in it
about 200 years ago, and conquered the negroes. But
they themfelves were conquered by the French, though
tinder the government of a king whom they honoured
A N S
as a god. In 1642, captain Rivault obtained a permif- Anofll
fion to eftablifh a colony in this part of the illand; and An}ym
accordingly he took poffefiion of it in the name of the  
king of France, in the month of September, that fame
year. The French landed 200 men well armed and
provided with ftore of ammunition and other neceffaries
for building a fort, which they immediately fet about;
but no fooner did the natives obferve their intention,
than they ufed their utmoft art to prevent their defign
from taking effeft. This created a war, in which the
French were victors; and, the natives becoming in time
much better reconciled to them, they intermarried,
and lived up and down in feveral towns at fome diftance
from one another, not above five or fix in a place. This
tranquillity lafted for fome years ; but at laft the na¬
tives, growing jealous, refolved to free themfelves from
a foreign yoke, and accordingly formed a confpiracy
to cut off all the French in one day; which they foon
after effe&ed, not leaving a fingle perfon alive. In 1644
the above-mentioned Fort Dauphin was ere&ed in
Lat. 25. 6. S. Many buildings were erefted, behind
the Fort, adjoining to the governor’s houfe, with great
inclofures that produced every fort of fruit and kitch¬
en herb. In 1656 this fort was accidentally deftroyed
by fire; but was foon after repaired, and ftill continues
notwithftanding the cataftrophe above-mentioned, and
its garrifon carries on frequent wars with the natives.
ANOUT, a fmall ifland in the Schagerrack, or that
part of the fea of Denmark which has Norway on the
north, Jutland on the weft, and the ifle of Zealand on
thefouth; it lies in 130 E. Long, and 56° 36' N. Lat.
ANSiE, in aftronomy, implies the parts of Saturns
ring projecting beyond the difk of the planet.—The
word is Latin, and properly fignifies handles; thefe
parts of the ring appearing like handles to the body of
the planet.
ANSE, an ancient town of France, in the Lyonois,
ten miles north of Lyons, Long. 6. 55. N. Lat. 45. 55.
ANSELM, archbiftiop of Canterbury, in the reigns
of William Rufus and Henry I. He was born in the
year 1033, at a town in Savoy at the foot of the
Alps. He became a monk in the abbey of Bee in
Normandy ; of which he was afterwards chofen prior,,
and then abbot. In the year 1092, he was invited over
to England by Hugh earl of Chefter; and in the year
following was prevailed on, as we are told, with great
difficulty, to accept the archbiftioprick of Canterbury.
He enjoined celibacy on the clergy ; for which he was
banifhed by king Rufus, but recalled by Henry at his
coming to the crown. He refufed to confecrate fuch
biftiopsas were invefted bythe king, according to pope
Urban’s decree; flatly denying it to be the king’s pre¬
rogative : for this he was outed again; till, the pope and
king agreeing, he was recalled in 1107. In ftiort, from
the day of his confecration to that of his death, he was
continually employed in fighting the prerogative of the
church againft that of the crown; and for that purpofe
fpent much of his time in travelling backwards and for¬
wards between England and Rome, for the advice and
direction of his holinefs. At the council of Bari, in
the kingdom of Naples, the pope being puzzled by
the arguments of the Greeks againft the Holy Ghoft’s
proceeding from the Father, he called upon Anfelm,
who was prefent, and he difeuffed their objections with,
great applaufe. Priefts call him a refolute faint; to o-
[ 47° 1
A N S [ 471 ] A N S
Anfelra ther people he appears to have been an obftinate and
Anfiko inf°lent; prieft. He wrought many miracles, if we be-
, n 1 lieve the author of his life, both before and after his
death, which happened at Canterbury, in the 76th year
of his age, anno 1109. He was canonifed in the reign
of Henry VII. Anfelm, tho’ we may difregard him
as a faint, deferves to be remembered as one of the
principal revivers of literature, after three centuries of
profound ignorance.
His works have been printed in different years, and
at different places, viz. Nuremb. 1491. Paris, 1544
and 1549- Venice, 1549. Cologn, 1573 and 1612.
Lyons, 1630. But thebeft is that of father Gerberon,
printed at Paris, 1675. It is divided into three parts ;
the firft contains dogmatical tracts, and is intitled Mo-
nologia; the fecond contains practical and devotional
trails ; the third part confifts of letters, in four books.
ANSER, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of anas. See Anas.
Anser, in aftronomy, a fmall liar, of the fifth or
fixth magnitude, in the milky way, between the fwan
and eagle, firft brought into order by Hevelius.
ANSERES, the name which Linnams gives to his
third order of birds. See Zoology, n° 8.
ANSIBAR1I, or Ansivarii, an ancient people of
Germany, fituated fomewhere in the neighbourhood of
the Chauci. All we know of their hiftory is, that, in
the reign of the Emperor Nero, they were driven from
their own pofieffions by the Chauci. Being then in a
forlorn condition, they took poffeffion of fome uninha¬
bited lands, which had been ufed as pafture for the
horfes of the Roman foldiers. They were led by one
Boiocalus, a man of great valour, and of known fidelity
to the Romans. He remonftrated to the Romans, who
objected to their taking poffelfion of thefe lands, That
the territory in difpute was large; and requefted, that
it might be allowed to an unhappy people, driven from
their own habitations: that, at the fame time, wide
tra&s might be retained for the horfes and cattle of
the foldiers to graze in: that it was inconfiftent with
humanity to famiih men in order to feed beafts, &c.
and at laft, lifting up his eyes to heaven, he allied the
celeftial luminaries how they could behold a defolate
foil, and if they would not more juftly let loofe the fea
to fwallow up ufurpers, who had engrofled the whole
earth ? To this the Roman commander, Avitus, replied,
that the weakeft muft fubmit to the ftrongeft ; and
that, fince the gods, to whom they had appealed, had
left the fovereign judgment to the Romans, they were
refolved to fuffer no other judges than themfelves. To
Boiocalus himfelf, however, he privately offered lands
as a reward for his long attachment to the Romans:
but this offer the brave German reje&ed, as a price for
betraying his people; adding, “A place to live in we
may want, but a place to die in we cannot.” The An-
fibarii now invited the neighbouring nations to join
them again ft the Romans; but they, dreading the
power of that nation, refufed to give them any affift-
ance: upon which they applied to the neighbouring
nations, begging leave to fettle in their territories;
but being every where driven out as enemies and in¬
truders, thefe unhappy people were reduced to wander
up and down till every one of them perifhed.
ANS1KO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
weft by the river Umbre which runs into the Zaire,
the kingdom of Wangua, and the Amboes who bor- Anfiko
der on Loango ; on the north, by fome deferts of Nu- AJ-0(J
bia ; and on the fouth, by Songo and Sonda, pro- ‘ --
vinces of Congo. Here are great numbers of wild
beafts, as lions, rhinocerofes, &c. and many copper
mines. The king of Anfiko, or the great Macoco,
commands 13 kingdoms, and is efteemed the moft
powerful monarch in Africa. The inhabitants of An¬
gola have a tradition, that this is the proper country of
the Giagas, who came originally from Sierra Leona,
and over-ran like a torrent the whole coaft as far as
Benguela ; that, being weakened by numerous battles,
and unable to force the defiles in order to return to Si¬
erra Leona, they arrived on the borders of Monomo-
tapa, where being defeated, they were forced to remain
in the provinces of Anfiko. Be this as it will, the An-
fikans yield not in the leaft to the Giagas in fiercenefs
and barbarity. They are fo accuftomed to the eating
of human flelh, that it is afferted they have markets
where it is publicly fold, and that there are no other
graves for the dead than the bellies of the living. They
try the courage of their prifoners of war by (hooting
at them as at marks, dire&ing their arrows above or
around their heads; and whoever difcovers the leaft
figns of fear, is immediately devoured without remedy.
Thofe who appear intrepid and refolute, have their
nofes and ears bored, and two fore-teeth of the upper
jaw drawn. They are then improved in barbarity, by
accuftoming them to the moft horrid cruelties.
The Anfikans are neat, well-proportioned, and
ftrong; wandering about from place to place, without
either fowing or reaping. They are dreaded for their
extreme brutality, and never traded with by the Euro¬
peans. Their language is barbarous, and difficult to be
learned, even by the inhabitants of Congo. The moft
diftinguifhed among them wear red and black caps of
Portuguefe velvet; the lower ranks go naked from the
waift upwards ; and, to preferve their health, anoint
their bodies with a compofition of pounded white fan-
dal-wood, and palm-oil. Their arms are battle-axes,
and fmall but very ftrong bows adorned with ferpents
fkins. Their firings are made of fupple and tender
flioots of trees, that will not break, and their arrows of
hard and light wood. Thefe people, who kill birds fly¬
ing, fhoot with fuch furprifing fwiftnefs, that they can
difcharge 28 arrows from the bow before the firft falls
to the ground. With equal dexterity they manage their
battle-axes; one end of which is fharpened and cuts
like a wedge, and the other flattened like a mallet, with
an handle fet between, about half the length of the
iron, rounded at the end like an apple, and covered
with the fkin of a ferpent.—The current money in this
country is the zimbis or (hell, which is fifhed for, and
paffes among feveral African nations.—They worfhip
the fun as their chief deity; whom they reprefent by
the figure of a man, and the moon by that of a woman.
They have alfo an infinite number of inferior deities,
each individual having a particular idol whom he ad-
dreffes on certain occafions.
ANSLO, a fea-port town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Aggerhuys, with a bifhop’s fee. The fupreme
court of juftice is held here for Norway. It is feated on a
bay of the fame name. E. Long. 10.14. N.Lat. 50.24.
ANSON (George), a gentleman whofe merit and
good fortune, as a naval commander, exalted him to the
N n n 2 rank
Anfon
Anfpach.
A N S
rank of nobility. He was the fon of William Anfon,
Efq; of Huckborough, in Staffordfhire; and, fhewing
an early inclination for the fea, received a fuitable edu¬
cation. The firft command he enjoyed was that of the
Weazle floop, in 1722 ; but the moft memorable aftion
of his life, and the foundation of his future good for¬
tune, took place on his receiving the command of five
fhips, a floop, and two viftuallers, equipped to annoy
the Spaniards in the South feas, and to co-operate with
admiral Vernon acrofs the Ifthmus of Darien : an ex¬
pedition the principal object of which failed by the
unaccountable delay in fitting him out. He failed,
however, in Sept. 1740; doubled Cape Horn in a dan¬
gerous feafon ; loft moft of his men by the fcurvy ; and
with unly one remaining (hip, the Centurion, crofted
the great Pacific Ocean. If no confiderable national ad ¬
vantage refulted from this voyage, Commodore Anfon
made his own fortune, and enriched his furviving com¬
panions, by the capture of a rich galleon on her paffage
from Acapulco to Manilla ; with which he returned
home round the Cape of Good Hope. If he was lucky
in meeting this galleon, he was no lefs fortunate in
efcaping a French fleet then cruifing in the channel, by
failing through it during a fog. He arrived at Spithead
in June 1744. In a (hort time after his return, he was
appointed rear-admiral of the blue, and one of the lords
of the admiralty. In April 1745, he was made rear-
admiral of the white, and the following year vice-ad¬
miral of the blue ; at which time he was chofen to re-
prefent the borough of Heydon in parliament. In
1747, being on board the Prince George of 90 guns,
in Company with Admiral Warren, and twelve other
drips, he intercepted, off Cape Finifterre, a powerful
fleet, bound from France to the Eaft and Weft Indies;
when, by his valoiir and conduit, he again enriched
himfelf and his officers, and at the fame time ftrength-
ened the Britifh navy, by taking fix men of war and
four Eaft-Indiamen, not one of them efcaping. The
French admiral, M. Jonquiere, on prefenting his fword
to the conqueror, faid, Monjieur, vous avez vaincu 1‘ In¬
vincible, et la Gloire vous fuit: “ Sir, you have con¬
quered the Invincible, and Glory follows you point¬
ing to the (hips, named the Invincible and the Glory, he
had taken. For his fignal fervices, his late majefty
created him Baron of Soberton, in Hants. The fame
year he was appointed vice-admiral of the red; and,
on the death of Sir John Norris, was made vice-admiral
of England. In 1748 he was made admiral of the blue:
he was afterwards appointed firft lord of the admiralty,
and was at length made admiral and commander in
chief of his majefty’s forces ; in which rank he conti¬
nued, with a very (hort interval, until his death; and
the laft fervice he performed was to convoy queen Char¬
lotte to England. He died in June 1762. No perfor¬
mance ever met with a more favourable reception, than
the account of Anfon’s voyage round the world. Tho’
it is printed under the name of his chaplain, it was
compofed under hislordftiip’s own infpe&ion, and from
the materials he himfelf furnilhed, by the ingenious Mr
Benjamin Robins.
ANSPACH (the marquifate of) is a fmall territory
of Franconia, in. Germany, bounded on the north by
the bifhopricks of Wartfburg and Bamberg, which laft
likewife lies to the weft ; the earldoms of Holach and
Oeting, with the bilhoprick of Aichftet, lie on the
ANT
fouth ; and the palatinate of Bavaria and the territory
of Nuremberg on the eaft. The country is fruitful, and
interfperfed with woods, which render it agreeable for
hunting. Befides the city Anfpach, which is the capi¬
tal, the chief towns are Kreglin, Swafbach, KreiKheim,
Rot, and Waffer-Truding.
Anspach is a fmall but pretty town, very well built,
and has feveral churches. It is walled round, but has
no other fortifications. In the palace there is a remark¬
able cabinet of curiofities. It is feated on a river of the
fame name, and belongs to the houfe of Brandenburg.
E. Long. 10. 42. N. Lat. 49. 14.
ANSPESSADES, in the French armies, a kind of
inferior officer in the foot, below the corporals, but
above the common centinels. There are ufually four
or five of them in a company.
ANSTRUTHER Eajler, and Wejler, two royal
burghs of Scotland, fituated on the fouth-eaft coaft of
thecounty of Fife, in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 20.
ANT, in zoology. See Formica.
P^'at-Bear, or Ant-eater, in zoology. See Myr-
MECOPHAGA.
Ant-A/(J«, in zoology. See Formica-Z,^.
Kut-Eggs, a name popularly given to a kind of
little white balls found in the banks or nefts of ants,
ordinarily fuppofed to be the ova of this infeft.
Late naturalifts have obferved, that thefe are not
properly the ants eggs, but the young brood them-
felves in their firft date ; they are fo many little vermi-
culi wrapped up in a film, or (kin, compofed of a fort
of filk, which they fpinoutof themfelves as (ilk-worms
and caterpillars do. At firft they are hardly obferved
to ftir : but, after a few days continuance, they exhibit
a feeble motion of flexion and extenfion ; and begin ta
look yellowilh and hairy, (haped like fmall maggots,
in which fhape they grow up till they are almoft as
large as ants. When they pafs their metamorphofis,
and appear in their proper (hape, they have a fmall
black fpeck on them clofe to the anus of the included
ant, which M. Lewenhoecfe probably enough imagines
to be the faeces voided by it. Dr Ed. King opened
feveral of thefe vulgarly reputed eggs; in fome of which
he found only a maggot in the circumftances as above
deferibed ; while in another the maggot had begun to
put on the (hape of an ant about the head, having two
little yellow fpecks, where the eyes were to be. In
others, a further progrefs was obferved, the included
maggots being furnilhed with every thing to complete
the (hape of an ant, but wholly tranfparent, the eyes
only excepted, which were as black as bugles. Laftly,
in others, he took out every way perfeA and complete
ants, which immediately crept about among the reft.
Thefe fuppofed ants eggs are brought up every morning
in fummer, near the top of the bank, where they are
lodged all the warm part of the day, within reach of
the fun’s influence. At night, or if it be cool, or like
to rain, they carry them down to a greater depth; fo
that you may dig a foot depth e’er you come at them.
The true ants eggs are the white fubftance which, up¬
on opening their banks, appears to the eye like the
fcatterings of fine white fugar, or fait, but very foft
and tender. Examined by a microfeope, it is found to
confift of feveral pure, white appearances, in diftinft
membranes, all figured like the leffer fort of birds eggs,
and as clear as a fifties bladder. The fame fubftance
is
[ 472 1
Anfpach
li ?
Ant-eggs.
ANT [ 473 ] ANT
Ant-hills Js found in the bodies of the ants themfelves. On this
Antacids fpawn> when emitted, they lie in multitudes, to brood,
 till in fome time it is turned into little vermicles as fmall
as mites, commonly called ants-eggs.
are little hillocks of earth, which the
ants throw up for their habitation and the breeding of
their young. They are a very great mifchief to dry
paftures, not only by wafting fo much land as they co¬
ver, but by hindering the fcythe in mowing the grafs,
and yielding a poor hungry food pernicious to cattle.
The manner of deftroying them is to cut them into four
parts from the top, and then dig into them fo deep as
to take out the core below, fo that, when the turf
is laid down again, it may lie fomewhat lower than
the level of the reft of the land: by this means it will
be wetter than the reft of the land ; and this will pre¬
vent the ants from returning to the fame place, which
otherwife they would certainly do. The earth that is
taken out muft be fcattered to as great a diftance every
way as may be, otherwife they will collect it together
and make another hill juft by. The proper time for
■doing this is winter; and if the places be left open,
the froft and rains of that time of the year will deftroy
the reft: but in this cafe care muft be taken that they
are covered up early enough in the fpring, otherwife
they will be lefs fertile in grafs than the other places.
In Hertfordfhire they ufe a particular kind of fpade
for this puipofe. It is very lharp, and formed at the
top into the ftiape of a crefcent, fo that the whole edge
makes up more than three fourths of a circle ; this cuts
in every part, and does the bufinefs very quickly and
effeftually. Others ufe the fame inftruments that they
do for mole-hills. Human dung is a better remedy
than all thefe, as is proved by experiment; for it will
kill great numbers of them, and drive all the reft away,
if only a fmall quantity of it be put into their hills.
ANT A, in the ancient architecture, a fquare pila-
fter, placed at the corners of buildings.
Anta, or dnte, a fmall kingdom on the gold coaft
of Africa, extending about ten leagues in length.—
The country is covered with large trees, among which
ftand a number of fine villages. The foil is exceeding¬
ly rich, and the face of the country beautiful. The
air is alfo much more falubrious than in other places of
the gold coaft ; it being obferved by all writers, that
the number of deaths here bears no proportion to that
on any other part on the coafts of Guinea. This coun¬
try contains the following villages, which deferve a
particular defcriptien on account of the commerce they
drive; viz. Bourtrey, Tckorari, Sukoada, and Sama;
for which, fee thofe articles.—Formerly Anta was po¬
tent and populous, inhabited by a bold and rapacious
people, who greatly annoyed the Europeans by their
frequent incurfions; but by continual wars with their
neighbours they are now greatly enfeebled, and the
country in a manner depopulated. The fpirit of the
few remaining inhabitants is fled: they are defponding,
difpirited, and abjeft, feeking protection from the Dutch
and other Europeans who have forts on this coaft, and
If looking upon them as their beft friends.
AN TACIDS, in pharmacy, an appellation given
to all medicines proper to corredt acid or four humours.
Under the clafs of antacids come, i. Abiorbents ;
as chalk, coral, fea-fhells, haematites, and fteel filings.
. 2. Obtundents ; as oils, and fats. 3. Immutants 5 as
lixivious falts, and foaps. Antseu*
ANT./EUS, in fabulous hiftory, a giant of Libya, N
fon of Neptune and Terra. Defigning to build a tern-
pie to his father, of mens fculls, he flew all he met;    
but Hercules fighting him, and perceiving the afliftance
he received from his mother (for by a touch of the
earth he refreihed himfelf when weary), lifted him up
from the earth, and fqueezed him to death.
ANTAGONIST, denotes an adverfary, efpecially
in fpeaking of combats and games.
Antagonist mufcles, in anatomy, thofe which have
oppofite funftions; as flexors and extenfors, abdu&ors
and addu&ors, &c.
ANTANACLASIS, in rhetoric, a figure which re¬
peats the fame word, but in a different fenfe; as, dum
vivimus, vivamus.
ANTAGOGE,in rhetoric, a figure by which, when
the accufation of the adverfary is unanfwerable, we
load him with the fame or other crimes.
ANTAPHRODISIACS, in pharmacy, medicines
proper to diminifh the femen, and confequently extin-
guifti or leffen all defires of venery.
ANTARCTIC, in a general fenfe,. denotes fome-
thing oppofite to the arftic or northern pole. Hence
antar&ic circle is one of the leffer circles of the fpheres,
and diftant only 230 30' from the fouth pole, which is
likewife called antar&ic for the fame reafon.
ANTARES, in aftronomy, the name of a ftar of
the firft magnitude, called alfo the fcorpion’s heart.
Its longitude is 6o° 13' 14" of Sagittarius; and its
•latitude 40 31' 26" S.
ANTAVAREj a province of the Ifland of Mada-
gafcar, lying about 216 30/ S. Lat; and bounded by
the province and cape of Manonfi. The greateft part
of it is watered by the river Mananzari, whofe fource
is in the red mountains of Ambohitfmene.
ANTE’, in heraldry, denotes that the pieces are
let into one another in fuch form as there is expreffed;
for inftance, by dove-tails, rounds, fwallow-tails, or
the like1.
ANTEAMBULONES, in Roman antiquity, fer-
vants who went before perfons of diitinrition to clear the
way before them. They ufed this formula. Date locum
domino ?neo, i. e. Make room or way for my mafter.
ANTECEDENT, in general, fomething that goes
before another, either in order of time or place.
Antecedent, in grammar, the words to which a
relative refers.
Antecedent, in logic, is the firft of the two pro-
pofitions in an enthymeme.
Antecedent, in mathematics,is thefirftoftwoterm*
of a ratio, or that which is compared with the other.
ANTECEDENCE, in aftronomy, an apparent mo¬
tion of a planet towards the weft, or contrary to the
order of the figns.
ANTECESSOR, one that goes before. It was an
appellation given to thofe who excelled in any fcience.
Juftinian applied it particularly to profeffors of civil
law ; and, in the univerfities of France, the teachers of
law take the title aniecejfores in all their thefes.
ANTECURSORES, in the Roman armies, a party
of horfe detached before, partly to get intelligence, pro-
vifions, &c. and partly to chufe a proper place to en¬
camp in. Thefe were otherwife called antecejores, and
bv the Greeks prodromi.
ANTEDATE*
Antedate
Antedilu¬
vians.
ANT [ 474 1 ANT
ANTEDATE, among lawyers, a fpurious or falfe
date prior to the true date of a bond, bill, or the like.
ANTEDILUVIAN, in a general fenfe, implies
fomething that exifted before the flood.
Antediluvian World', the earth as it exifted be¬
fore the flood. See Earth.
ANTEDILUVIANS, a general name for all man¬
kind who lived before the flood, and fo includes the
whole of the human race from Adam to Noah and his
family. Concerning them all the authentic parti¬
culars we have are contained in the book of Genefis;
and from the ftiort hints given there, we can only form
a few conjeftures.
The only thing we know as to their religious rites
is, that they offered facrifices, and that very early,
both of the fruits of the earth, and of animals; but
whether the blood and flefli of the animals, or only
their milk and wool, were offered, is a difputed point.—
Some have endeavoured to prove, that all the patri¬
archs from Adam had ftated places, and annual and
weekly times, fet apart for divine worfhip, and alfo a
feparate maintenance for the priefts: all which parti¬
culars may be true, though they cannot be made out
from fcripture. But what is more extraordinary, they
pretend to tell us the very day of the week on which
the antediluvian fabbath was kept; and that it was the
fame with the Chriftian fabbath, or Sunday.
Of the arts and fciences of thefe people we have not
much more to fay. They feem rather to have fpent
their time in luxury and wantonnefs, to which the a-
bundant fertility of the firft earth invited them, than in
difcoveries or improvements, which probably they flood
much lefs in need of than their fucceffors. The art of
working metals was found out by the laft generation of
Cain’s line ; and mufic, which they might be fuppofed
to praftife for their pleafure, was not brought to any
perfection, if invented, before the fame generation.
Some authors have fuppofed aftronomy to have been
cultivated by the antediluvians, though this is probably
owing to a miftake of Jofephus: but it is to be pre¬
fumed, the progrefs they made therein, or in any other
fcience, was not extraordinary; it being even very
doubtful whether letters were fo much as known before
the flood ; whatever is pretended by fome men, who
have conceived fo high an opinion of Adam’s know¬
ledge, that they fuppofe it to have been almoft uni-
verfal: nor can any thing be inferred from the books
attributed to that patriarch, or to Seth, and Enoch,
which are forgeries too grofs to deferve any conflde-
ration.
As to their politics and civil conftitutions, we have
.not fo much as any circumftances whereon to build con¬
jectures. It is probable, the patriarchal form of go¬
vernment, which certainly was the firft, was fet afide
when tyranny and oppreffion began to take place, and
much fooner among the race of Cain than that of Seth.
It feems alfo, that their communities were but few, and
confifted of vaftly larger numbers of people than any
formedfince the flood: or rather, it is a queftion, whe¬
ther, after the union of the two great families of Seth
and Cain, there were any diftinCtion of civil focieties, or
diverfity of regular governments, at all. It is more like¬
ly, that all mankind then made but one great nation,
though living in a kind of anarchy, divided into feveral
diforderly affociations j which, as it was almoft the na¬
tural confequence of their having, in all probability,
but one common language, fo it was a circumftance
which greatly contributed to that general corruption,
which otherwife perhaps could not have fo univerfally
overfpread the antediluvian world. And for this rea-
fon chiefly, as it feems, fo foon as the pofterity of Noah
were fufliciently increafed, a plurality of tongues was
miraculoufly introduced, in order to divide them into
diftinCt focieties, and thereby prevent any fuch total
depravation for the future. See Confusion of Tongues.
The antediluvian world was, in all probability, flock¬
ed with a much greater number of inhabitants than the
prefent earth either a&ually does, or perhaps is capable
of containing or fupplying. This feems naturally to
follow from the great length of their lives, which ex¬
ceeding the prefent ftandard of life in the proportion,
at leaft, of ten to one, the antediluvians muft accord¬
ingly in any long fpace of time double themfelves, at
leaft, in about the tenth part of the time in which man¬
kind do now double themfelves : for they began to be¬
get children as early, and left off as late, in proportion,
as men do now, and the feveral children of the fame fa¬
ther feem to have fucceeded as quickly one after ano¬
ther as they ufually do at this day; and as many gene¬
rations, which are but fucceflive with us, were contem¬
porary before the flood ; the number of people living
on the earth at once would be by that means fufficient-
ly increafed to anfwer any defedl which might arife
from other circumftances not confidered. So that, if
we make a computation on thefe principles, we (hall
find, that there were a confiderable number of people
in the world at the death of Abel, though their father
Adam was not then 130 years old ; and that the num¬
ber of mankind before the deluge would eafily amount
to above one hundred thoufand millions (even accord¬
ing to the Samaritan chronology), that is, to twenty
times as many as our prefent earth has, in all pro¬
bability, now upon it, or can well be fuppofed capable
of maintaining in its prefent conftitution.
The following table, made upon the abovementioned
principles by Mr Whifton, ftiews at leaft what number
of people might have been in the antediluvian world.
1 ^
%
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
8192
16,384
32,768
65.536
131,072
262,144
30
42
56
72
90
110
132
156
182
210
240
272
306
16
18
24
26
28
3°
32
34
13
*5
16
17
A
I ^
524,288
1,048,576
2,097,152
4,194,304
8,388,608
16,777,216
33»554»432
67,108,864
134,21:7,728
268,435,456
536,870,912
1,073,741,824
2,147,483,648
4,294,967,296
8,589,934,592
17,179,869,184
34»359»738>368
68,719,476,736
i37>438>953»472
274,877,906,944
549,755,8i3,888
N T
342
380
420
462
506
552
600
650
702
756
812
870
93°
992
1056
1122
1332
1406
1482
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
5°
S2
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
[ 47J ] ANT
The defcendents of Seth continued In the practice of Antedilu-
S*. virtue till the 40th year of Jared, when an hundred of VlallS•
•’ them hearing the noife of the mufic, and the riotous
mirth of the Cainites, agreed to go down to them from
the holy mountain. On their arrival in the plain, they-
18 were immediately captivated by the beauty of the wo-
19 men, who were naked, and defiled themfelves with
20 them; and this, is what they mean by the intermar-
21 riage of the fons of God with the daughters of men,
22 mentioned by Mofes. The example of thefe apoftate
23 fons of Seth was foon followed by others ; and from
24 time to time, great numbers continued to defcend
25 from the mountain, who, in like manner, took wives
26 from the abandoned race of Cain. From thefe mar-
27 riages fprung the giants, (who, however, according
28 to Mofes, exifted before) ; and, thefe being as remark-
29 able for their impiety as for their ftrength of body,
30 tyrannized in a cruel manner, and polluted the earth
31 with wickednefs of every kind. This defection be-
32 came at laft fo univerfal, that none were left in the
33 holy mountain, except Noah, his wife, his three fons
34 and their wives.
35 Berofus, a Chaldasan hiftorian, who flourifhed in the
36 time of Alexander the Great, enumerates ten kings
37 who reigned in Chaldea before the flood; of whom the
38 firfi, called Atoms, is fuppofed to be Adam, and Xi-
futhrus, the laft, to be Noah.—This Alorus declared
that he held his kingdom by divine right, and that God
himfelf had appointed him to be the paftor of the peo¬
ple. According to our hiftorian, in the firft year of
the world, there appeared out of the Red Sea, at a
As to any hiftory of tranfaftions before the flood,
befides the general account already given, we are left
entirely in the dark by the facred hiftorian. The Jews
and eaftern nations, however, have made ample amends
for the filence of Mofes, by the abundance of fables place near the confines of Babylonia, a certain
they have invented. The only part of their traditions
which can be connedled in any thing like hiftory is
what follows. After the death of Adam, Seth
with his family feparated themfelves from the profligate
race of Cain, and chofe for their habitation the moun¬
tain where Adam was buried, the Cainites remaining
below in the plain where Abel was killed; and, ac¬
cording to our hiftorians, this mountain was fo high,
that the inhabitants could hear the angels finging the
praifes of God, and even join them in that fervice.
Here they lived in great purity and fanftity of man¬
ners. Their conftant employment was praifing God,
from which they had few or no avocations ; for their
only food was the fruits of the trees which grew on the
mountain, fo that they had no occafion to undergo any
fervile labours, nor the trouble of fowing and gather¬
ing in their harveft. They were utter ftrangers to en¬
vy, injuftice, or deceit. Their only oath was, “ By
tional animal called Cannes. He had his whole body
like that of a filh ; but beneath his fifties head grew
another of a different fort, (probably a human one).
He had alfo feet like a man, which proceeded from, his
fifties tail, and a human voice, the picture of him be¬
ing preferved ever after. This animal converfed with
mankind in the day-time, without eating any thing :
he delivered to them the knowledge of letters, fciences,
and various arts : he taught them to dwell together in
cities, to ereft temples, to introduce laws, and inftruc-
ted them in geometry: he likewife ftiewed them how
to gather feeds and fruits, and imparted to them what¬
ever was neceffary and convenient for a civilized life ;
but after this time there was nothing excellent invent¬
ed. When the fun fet, Cannes retired into the fea,
and continued there all night. He not only delivered
his inftru&ions by word of mouth, but, as our author
affures us, wrote of the origin of things, and of poli-
the blood of Abeland they every day went up to the tical ceconomy. This, or a fimilar animal, is alfo
top of the mountain to worftiip God, and to vifit the mentioned by other authors.
body of Adam, as a mean of procuring the Divine
bleffing. Here, by contemplation of the heavenly bo¬
dies, they laid the foundations of the fcience of aftro-
Of Alafporus, the fecond king, nothing remarkable
is related. His fucceffor, Amelon, or Amillarus, was
of a city called Pantabibla. In his time another ani-
nomy; and, left their inventions (hould be forgotten, or mal refembling the former appeared, 260 years after
loft before they were publicly known, underftanding,
from a predi&ion of Adam’s, that there would be a
general deft ruction of all things, once by fire, and once
by water, they built two pillars, one of brick, and the
other of ftone, that if the brick one happened to be o-
the beginning of this monarchy. Amelon was fucceed-
ed by Metalarus, and he by Daonus, all of whom were
of the fame city. In his time, four animals, of a
double form, half man and half fifb, made their ap¬
pearance. Their names were Euedocus, Eneugamus,
verthrown by the flood, or otherwife deftroyed, that of Encubulus, and Anenientus. Under the next prince.
ftone might remain. This laft, Jofephus fays, was to
be feen in his time in the land of Siriad, (thought to be
in Upper Egypt).
who was likewife of Pantabibla, appeared another ani¬
mal of the fame kind, whofe name was Odacon. All
thefe explained more particularly what had been con-
cifely
ANT [ 476 ] ANT
Antedllu- cifely delivered by Oannes.
vians. jn the reign 0f tenth king, Xifuthrus, happened
~ the great deluge, of which our author gives the follow¬
ing account: Cronus, or Saturn, appeared to Xifu¬
thrus in a dream, and warned him, that on the fifteenth
of the month Dsefius mankind would be deftroyed by
a flood; and therefore commanded him to write down
the original, intermediate ftate, and end of all things,
and bury the writings under ground in Sippara, the
city of the fun; that he fhould alfo build a fliip, and
go into it with his relations and dearell friends, having
firft furniflied it with provifions, and taken into it fowls
and four-footed beafts; and that, when he had provided
every thing, and was afked whither he was failing, he
(hould anfwer, 'To the gods, to pray for happinefs to man¬
kind. Xifuthrus did not difobey, hut built a vefiel,
whofe length was five furlongs, and breadth two fur¬
longs. He put on board all he was dire&ed, and went
into it with his wife, children, and friends. The flood
being come, and foon ceafing, Xifuthrus let out cer¬
tain birds, which finding no food, nor place to reft up¬
on, returned again to the (hip. Xifuthrus, after fome
days, let out the birds again ; but they came back a-
gain to the ftiip, having their feet daubed with mud:
but when they were let go the third time, they came
no more to the ftiip, whereby Xifuthrus underftood,
that the earth appeared again; and thereupon he made
an opening between the planks of the ftiip, and feeing
that it relied on a certain mountain, he came out with
his wife, and his daughter, and his pilot; and having
worfliipped the earth, and raifed an altar, and facrifi-
ced to the gods, he and thofe who went out with him
difappeared. They who were left behind in the ftiip,
finding Xifuthrus, and the perfons that accompanied
him, did not return, went out themfelves to feek for
him, calling him aloud by his name: but Xifuthrus was
no more feen by them; only a voice came out of the
air, which enjoined them, as their duty was, to be re¬
ligious ; and informed them, that, on account of his
own piety, he was gone to dwell with the gods; and
that his wife, and daughter, and pilot, were partakers
of the fame honour. It alfo dire&ed them to return to
Babylon, and that, as the fates had ordained, they
ftiould take the writings from Sippara, and communi¬
cate them to mankind; and told them, that the place
where they were was the country of Armenia. When
they had heard this, they offered facrifice to the gods,
and unanimoufly went to Babylon; and when they came
thither, they dug up the writings at Sippara, built
many cities, raifed temples, and rebuilt Babylon again.
The Egyptians, who would give place to no nation
in point of antiquity, have alfo a feries of kings, who,
as is pretended, reigned in Egypt before the flood; and,
to be even with the Chaldeans, began their account the
very fame year that theirs does according to Berofus.
There was an antient chronicle extant among the
Egyptians, not many centuries ago, which contained
30 dynafties of princes who ruled in that country, by
a feries of 113 generations, through an immenfe fpace
of 36,525 years, during which Egypt was fucceflive-
ly governed by three different races ; of whom the firft
were the Auritae, the fecoud the Meftraei, and the third
the Egyptians.
But this extravagant number of years Manetho (to
whofe remains we muft chiefly have recourfe for the an¬
cient Egyptian hiftory) has not adopted, however in Antedi'u*
other relpefts he is fuppofed to have been led into er- vians-
rorsin chronology by this old chronicle, which yet feems
to have been a compofition fince Manetho’s time.
The account given by Berofus is manifeftly taken
from the writings of Mofes ; but we have another ac¬
count of the firft ages of mankind, in which no men¬
tion is made of the flood at all. This is contained in
fome fragments of a Phoenician author called Sancho-
niatho, who is by fome faid to have been cotemporary
with Gideon, by others to have lived in the days of king
David ; while lome boldly affert there never was fuch
a perfon, and that the whole is a fiftion of Philo-Bib-
lius, in oppofition to the books of Jofephus wrote a-
gainft Apion. To gratify the readers curiofity, however,
we have fubjoined an account of the firft ten generations
mentioned by him, which are fuppofed by the compilers
of the univerfal hiftoryr to correfpond to the generation*
mentioned by Mofes before the flood.
Sanchoniatho having delivered his cofmogony, or
generation of the other parts of the world, begins his
hiftory of mankind with the produ&ion of the firtl
pair of mortals, whom Philo, his tranflator, calls Pro-
togonus and JEon, the latter of whom found out the
food which was gathered from trees.
Their iffue were called Genus and Genoa, and dwelt ,
in Phoenicia; but when the great droughts came, they
ftretched forth their hands to heaven towards the fun ;
for him they thought the only God and Lord of heaven,
calling him Beelfamen, which in Phoenician is, Lord of
heaven, and in Greek, Z.eus.
Afterwards from Genus, the fon of Protogonus and
ACon, other mortal iffue was begotten, whofe names
were Phos, Pur, and Phlox; that is. Light, Fire, and
Flame. Thefe found out the way of generating fire,
by the rubbing of pieces of wood againft each other,
and taught men the ufe thereof. Thefe begat fons of
vaft bulk, and height, whofe names were given to the
mountains on which they fiezed: fo from them were
named mount CaJJius, and Libanus, Antilibanus, and
Brathys.
Of thefe laft were begotten Memrumus, and Hypfu-
ranius, but they were fo named by their mothers, the
women of thofe times, who without lhame lay with any
man they could light upon. Hypfuranius inhabited
Tyre, and he invented the making of huts of reeds and
rufties, and the papyrus. He alfo fell into enmity with
his brother Ufous, who firft invented a covering for his
body out of the fkins of the wild beafts which he could |
catch. And when violent tempefts of winds and rains
came, the boughs in Tyre, being rubbed againft each
other, took fire, and burnt the wood there. And U- 1
fous, having taken a tree, and broke off its boughs,
firft was fo bold as to venture upon it into the fea. He
alfo confecrated two rude ftones, or pillars, to fire and
wind, and he worlhipped them, and poured out to
them the blood of fuch wild beafts as had been caught
in hunting. But when thefe were dead, thofe that re¬
mained, confecrated to them ftumps of wood and pil¬
lars, worfhipping them, and kept anniverfary feafts un-
to them.
Many years after this generation, came Agreus and
Halicus, the inventors of the arts of hunting and fifti-
ing, from whom huntfmen and filhermen are named.
Of thefe were begotten two brothers, the inventors
pf
ANT L 477 ] ANT
Artediia- of iron and of the forging thereof: one of thefe, cal-
Tl*n led Chryfor, the fame with Hepheftus, or Vulcan, ex-
Antenna: erc^e^ himfelf in words and charms and divinations ;
  found out the hook, bait, and filhing line, and boats
(lightly built, and was the firft of all men that failed.
Wherefore he alfo was worfhipped after his death for a
god ; and they called him Zeus Micbius, or Jupiter the
engineer; and fome fay, his brothers invented the way
of making walls of brick.
Afterwards from this generation came two brothers;
one of whom was called Tecbnites, or the Artift; the
other, Geinus Autochthon^ [the home-born man of the
earth.] Thefe found out to mingle ftubble, or fmail
twigs, with the brick earth, and to dry them in the
fun, and fo made tyling.
By thefe were begotten others ; of which one was
called Agrus [Field] ; and the other Agrouerus, or A-
grates, [Huibandman], who had a ftatue much wor(hip¬
ped, and a temple carried about by one or more yoke
of oxen, in Phoenicia, and among thofe of Byblus he
is eminently called the greateft of the gods. Thefe found
out how to make courts about mens houfes, and fen¬
ces, and caves, or cellars. Hufbandmen, and fuch as
ufe dogs in hunting, derive from thefe ; and they are
alfo called Alette and Titans.
Of thefe were begotten Amynus, and Magus, who
(hewed men to conftitute villages and flocks.
In thefe mens age there was one Eliun, which imports
in Greek Hypfftus [the moft high], and his wife was
named Beruth, who dwelt about Byblus: and by him
i _ was begotten one Epigeus, or Autochthon, whom they
afterwards called Uranus [heaven]; fo that from him
that element which is over us, by reafon of its excel¬
lent beauty, is called heaven: and he had a After of
the fame parents, called Ge, [the earth]; and by rea¬
fon of her beauty, the earth had her name given to-it.
Hypiiftus, the father of thefe, dying in fight with
wild beafts, was confecrated, and his children offered
facrifices and libations to him.—But Uranus taking the
kingdom of his father, married his After Ge, and had
by her fourfons; Hus, who is called Cronus [or Saturn];
Betylus; Dagon, who is Siton or the god of corn; and
Atlas : but by other wives Uranus had much iffue.
ANTEGO. See Antigua.
ANTEJURAMENTUM, by our anceftors called
juramentum calumnix, an oath which anciently both
accufer and aceufed were to take before any trial or
purgation.—The accufcr was to fwear that he would
profecute the criminal; and the accufed to make oath,
on the day he was to undergo the ordeal, that he was
innocent of the crime charged againft him.
ANTELOPE, in zoology. See Capra.
ANTELUCAN, in ecclefiaftical writers, is applied
to things done in the night or before day. We find
frequent mention of the antelucan affemblies (Ccetus
antelucani) oi the ancient Chriftians in times of per-
fecution for religious worfhip.
ANTEMURALE, in the ancient military art, de¬
notes much the fame with what the moderns call an out¬
work.
ANTENCLEMA, in oratory, is where the whole
defence of the perfon accufed turns on criminating the
accufer. Such is the defence of Oreftes, or the oration
for Milo : Occifus eft, fed latro. Exfettus, fed raptor.
ANTENNiE, in the hiftory of infeas, flender bo-
VOL. I.
dies with which nature has furniflied the heads of thefe Anttnor
creatures, being the fame with what in Englifli are call- . .
cd horns or feelers. Anthem,s‘
ANTENOR, a Trojan prince, came into Italy, ex¬
pelled the Enganians on the river Po, and built the city
of Padua, where his tomb is faid to be ftill extant.
ANTEPAGMENTA, in the ancient architeaure,
the jambs of a door. They are alfo ornaments, or gar-
nifliings, in carved work, of men, animals, &c. made
either of wood or ftone, and fet on the architrave.
ANTEPENULTIMA, in grammar, the third fyl-
lable of a word from the end, or the laft fyllable but
two.
ANTEPILANI, in the Roman armies, a name gi¬
ven to the haftati and principes, becaufe they marched
next before the triarii, who were called pilani.
ANTEPILEPTICS, among phyficians, medicines
fifteemed good in the epilepfy.
ANTE POSIT ION, a grammatical figure, where¬
by a word, which by the ordinary rules of iyntax ought
to follow another, comes before it. As when, in the La¬
tin, the adje&ive is put before the fubftantive, the verb
before the nominative cafe, &c.
ANTEPREDICAMENTS, among logicians, cer¬
tain preliminary queftions which illuftrate the doctrine
of predicaments and categories.
ANTEQUIERA, a handfome town of Spain, in
the kingdom of Granada, divided into two parts, the
upper and lower. The upper is feated on a hill, and
has a caftle: the lower Hands in a fertile plain, and is
watered with a great number of brooks. There is a
large quantity of fait in the mountain; and five miles
from the town, a fpring famous for the cure of the gra¬
vel. W. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 36. 51.
ANTERIOR, denotes fomething placed before an¬
other, either with refpeft to time or place.
ANTESIGNANI, in the Roman armies, foldiers
placed before the ftandards, in order to defend them,
according to Limpfius; but Caefar and Livy mention
the antefignani as the firft line, or firft body, of heavy¬
armed troops. The velites, who ufed to (kirmilh be¬
fore the army, were likewife called antefignani.
ANTESTATURE, in fortification, a fmail re¬
trenchment made of palifadoes, or facks of earth, with
a view to difpute with an enemy the remainder of a
piece of ground.
ANTEVIRGILIAN husbandry, an appellation
given to Mr Tull’s new method of horfe-hoeing huf-
bandry. See Agriculture, n° 171, &c.
ANTHELIX, in anatomy, the inward protuberance
of the external ear, being a femicircle within, and al-
moft parallel to the helix. See Anatomy, n° 405'.
ANTHELMINTICS, among phyficians, medi¬
cines proper to deftroy worms.
ANTHEM, a church-fong performed in cathedral-
fervice by chorifters, who ling alternately. It was ufed
to denote both pfalms and hymns, when performed in
this manner. But, at prefent, anthem is ufed in a more
confined fenfe, being applied to certain paffages taken
out of the feriptures, and adapted to a particular fo-
lemnity.
ANTHEMIS, camomile, a genus of the polyga-
mia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. Of this genus Linnseus enumerates 17
Species. But the moft remarkable are the following.
O o o 1. The
ANT [ 47» ] ANT
Anthemis. j. The nobilis, or common camomile, grows in plenty
upon commons, and other wafte land. It is a trailing
perennial plant, which puts out roots from the branch¬
es, by which it fpreads and multiplies greatly. Of
this kind there is a variety with double leaves.—For¬
merly this plant was ufed for planting of walks, which,
when mowed and rolled, looked well for fome time;
but as it was fubjeft to decay in large patches, the
walks became unfightly, and this was therefore difufed.
2. The pyrethrum, or pellitory of Spain, is a perennial
plant, which grows naturally in Spain and Portugal,
from whence the roots are brought to Britain. The
branches trail upon the ground, and fpread a foot or
more each way; thefe are garnifhed with fine winged
leaves like thofe of the common camomile. At the ex¬
tremity of each branch is produced one large fingle
flower, like camomile, but much larger; the rays of
which are of a pure white within, but purple on the
outfide. After the flowers are pa ft, the receptacle fwells
to a large fcaly cone, having the feeds lodged between
its fcales ; but unlefs the feafon is dry, the feeds will
not come to perfe&ion in this country. 3. The tinc-
toria, with fawed winged leaves, is a perennial plant,
which flowers from June to November, and makes a
very pretty appearance, fome of the flowers being of a
white, others of a fulphur, and fome of a bright yel¬
low colour. 4. The Arabica, with a branching em-
palement. The feeds of this fpecies were brought from
Africa by the late Dr Shaw, and diftributed to many
curious botanifts in this and other countries of Europe.
It grows near two feet high, with an upright ftem,
having a fingle flower at the top, from whofe empale-
ment there are two or three foot-ftalks put out hori¬
zontally, about two inches long, each having a fingle
flower fmailer than the firft, like the childing marigold,
or hen-and-chicken daify.
Culture. The firft fort may be very eafily propaga¬
ted by procuring a few flips in the fpring, and plant¬
ing them about a foot diftant from one another, where
they will foon cover the ground. The other forts may
be propagated from feeds fown in the fpring, and will
require no other care than to be kept free from weeds:
only the third fort muft be tranfplanted when come up
from the feeds into borders near ftirubs, where they
may have room to grow; for they fpread very wide,
and therefore require to be placed three feet diftant
from other plants.
Medicinal Ufes. The firft and fecond forts are ufed
in medicine. The firft have a ftrong, not ungrateful,
aromatic fmell, and a very bitter naufeous tafte. They
are accounted carminative, aperient, emollient, and in
fome meafure anodyne; and Hand recommended in fla¬
tulent colics, for promoting the uterine purgations, in
fpafmodic pains, and the pains of childbed-women :
fometimes they have been employed in intermittent fe¬
vers, and the nephritis. Thefe flowers are frequent¬
ly alfo ufed externally in difcutient and antifeptic
fomentations, and in emollient glyfters:—The root
of the pyrethrum is the only part endowed with
medical virtue. It has no fenfible fmell; its tafte
is very hot and acrid, but lefs fo than that of arum
or dracunculus: the juice exprefled from it has fcarce
any acrimony, nor is the root itfelf fo pungent when
frefh as after it has been dried. Water, aflifted by
beat, extra&s feme lhare of its tafte, rectified fpirit
the whole ; neither of them elevate any thing in di- Anthers:
ftillation. The principal ufe of pyrethrum in the pre- AntjJ JL
fent practice is as a mafticatory, for promoting the fali-  | l|
val flux, and evacuating vifeid humours from the head  j
and neighbouring parts; by this means it often relieves
the tooth-ach, fome kinds of pains of the head, and le¬
thargic complaints.
ANTHERA, among botanifts, that part of the fta-
men which is fixed on the top of the filamentum, with¬
in the corolla: it contains the pollen or fine duft, which,
when mature, it emits for the impregnation of the plant
according to Linnaeus. The Apex of Ray, Tour-
nef. & Rivin. ; Capfula Jlaminis, of Malpighi.
ANTHERICUM, spider-wort ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. Of this genus Linnaeus reckons up nine
Species. But only the three following feem to deferve
notice. 1. The ramofum, with a branching ftalk. 2.
The liliago. Thefe are perennial plants, which are na¬
tives of Spain, Portugal, and other warm countries.
They were formerly pretty common in the Englifh gar¬
dens ; but the fevere winter of 1740 killed moft of
their roots. They flower in June and July, and the
feeds are ripe in September. 3. The frutefeens, with
a fhrubby ftalk, was formerly known among the gar¬
deners near London by the name of onion-leaved aloe.
It produces many ligneous branches from the root, each
fupporting a plant with long taper leaves, in ftiape like
thofe of an onion, and full of a yellow pulp very juicy.
Thefe plants fend out roots, which run down and fatten
themfelves into the earth, by which they multiply
greatly. The flowers are produced.on long loofe fpikes,
are yellow, and appear at different times, fo that the
plants are never long deftitute of flowers. This fpe¬
cies is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Culture. The two firft are propagated by feeds, which
(hould be fown in the autumn, in a warm fituation, on
a bed of light fandy earth. When the plants come.up
they muft be kept clear of weeds during the fummer;
and in autumn, when the leaves decay, they fliould be
carefully taken up and tranfplanted into a bed of light
earth, at a foot diftance from one another. If the win¬
ter prove fevere, they (hould be covered with ftraw,
peafe-haulm, or old tan. The third likewife requires
flicker in winter; though fome of them will live in the . ’ I
open air, if planted clofe to the warm wall. J
ANTHESPHORIA.in antiquity, a Sicilian feftival
inftituted in honour of Proferpine. The word is de-
rivedfrom the Greek , flower, and 'P'f". I carry; be-
caufe that goddefs was forced away by Pluto when
flie was gathering flowers in the fields. Yet Feftus
does not aferibe the feaft to Proferpine ; but fays it was
thus called by reafon ears of corn were carried on this
day to the temples.—Anthefphoria feemsto be the fame
thing with the florifertum of the Latins, and anfwers • j
to the harveft-home among us.
ANTHESTERIA, in antiquity, was a feaft ce¬
lebrated by tK£ Athenians in honour of Bacchus. The
moft natural derivation of the word is from the Greek
avS-of (flos), a flower, it being the cuftom at this feaft to
offer garlands of flowers to Bacchus. • " j
The anthefteria lafted three days, the 11th, 12th and
13th of the month; each of which had a name fuited.
to the proper office of the day. The firft day of the
feaft was called xiSroiyia, i. e. opening of the veffels;
becaufe
ANT [ 479 1 ANT
Anthefte- becaufe on this day they tapped the veffels, and tafted
1 ri011 the wine. The fecond day they called congii,t\\<z
Antholvza name °f a meafure containing the weight of ten pounds;
y on this they drank the wine prepared the day before.
The third day they called kettles : on this day
they boiled all forts of pulfe in kettles; which however
they were not allowed to tafte, as being olfered to Mer¬
cury.
ANTHESTERION, in ancient chronology, the
fixthmonthof the Athenian year. It contained 29 days;
and anfwered to the latter part of our November, and
beginning of December. The Macedonians called it
dcefion or defion. It had its name from the feftival an-
therefteria kept in it.
ANTHOCEROS, or horn-flower, a genus of
the order of algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs
of plants. The calix of the male is feffile, cylindrical,
and entire; the antherae are very long, fubulated, and
two-valved; the calix of the female is divided into fix
pieces ; the feeds are three. There are only three fpe-
cies of the anthoceros, viz. the pumftatus or fpotted
anthoceros, a native of Britain; the laevis, a native of
Europe and America ; and the multifidus, a native of
Germany. It is found in moift fhady places, and on
heaths.
ANTHOLOGION, the title of the fervice-book
ufed in the Greek church. It is divided into 12 months,
containing the offices fung throughout the year, on the
feftivals of our Saviour, the Virgin, and other remark¬
able faints.
ANTHOLOGY, a difcourfe of flowers, or of beau¬
tiful paffages from any authors.—It is alfo the name
given to a colleftion of epigrams taken from feveral
i Greek poets.
ANTHOLYZA, a genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the triandria clafs of plants, for which there
is no Englifh name.
Species. 1. The ringens, whofe flower-flips fpread
afunder. This hath red, round, bulbous roots, from
which arife feveral rough furrowed leaves, near a
foot long, and half an inch broad : between thefe
comes out the flower-ftalk immediately from the root,
which rifes two feet high, is hairy, and hath feveral
red flowers coming out on each fide. Thefe appear in
June, and the feeds ripen in September. 2. The fpi-
eata, with narrow furrowed leaves, is in fhape and fize
like the vernal crocus, but the outer fkin is thin and
white; from this arife five or fix long narrow leaves,
which are deeply furrowed. Between thefe arife the
flower-ftem, which is a foot and an half high, bend¬
ing on one fide towards the top, where the flowers come
out on one fide, Handing ere6t. They are of a white
colour, appear in May, and the feeds ripen in Auguft.
Both thefe fpecies are natives of Africa, from whence
their feeds were fir ft obtained, and raifed in the Dutch
gardens.
Culture. The antholyza may be propagated by off-
fets, which it fends off in pretty great plenty; or by
feeds, which are fometimes perfected in Europe. Thefe
ftiould be fown foon after they are ripe, in pots of light
earth ; which, if plunged in an old bed of tan which
has loft its heat, and (haded in the middle of the day
m hot weather, they will come up the following win¬
ter : therefore they muft be kept covered with glaffes
to fcreen them from cold, otherwife the young plants
will be deftroyed. They may remain in the pots two Antliauy
years, if the plants are not too clofe, when they will Ant['Jorif.
have acquired ftrength enough to bear tranfplauting; mus
the proper time for which is in July and Auguft, when 
their leaves are decayed. In fummer the pots may be
placed in the open air, but in winter they muft be placed
under a hot-bed frame.
ANTHONY (St), was born in Egypt in 251, and
inherited a large fortune, which he dittributed among
his neighbours and the poor, retired into folitude,
founded a religious order, built many monafteries, and
died anno 356. Many ridiculous ftories are told, of his
conflifts with the devil, and of his miracles: there are
feven epiftles extant, attributed to him.
ANTHONY, or Knights of St Anthony, a mili¬
tary order, inftituted by Albert duke of Bavaria, Hol¬
land, and Zealand, when he defigned to make war a-
gainft the Turks in 1382. The knights wore a collar
of gold made in form of a hermit’s girdle, from which
hung a ftick cut like a crutch, with a little bell, as
they are reprefented in St Anthony’s pi&ures.
St Anthony alfo gives the denomination to an or¬
der of religious founded in France about the year 1095,
to take care of thofe affli&ed with St Atithony's fire:
(fee the next article.)—It is faid, that, in fome places,
thefe monks affume to themfelves a power of giving, as
well as removing, the ignis facer, or eryfipelas; a power
which ftands them in great Head for keeping the poor
people in fubjedtion, and extorting alms. To avoid the
menaces of thefe monks, the country people prefent
them every year with a fat hog a-piece. Some prelates
endeavoured to perfuade pope Paul III. to abolilh the
order; qucefuarios ijlos fantii Anthonii, qui decipiunt ru-
fiicos <b fmplices, eofque innumeris fuperjlitionihus im-
plicent, de medio tollendos effe. But they fublift, notwith-
ftanding, to this day in feveral places.
St Anthony’s Fire, a name popularly given to the
eryfipelas.—Apparently it took this denomination,
as thofe afflifted with it made their peculiar applica¬
tion to St Anthony of Padua for cure. It is known,
that anciently particular difeafes had their peculiar
faints : thus, in the opthalmia, perfons had recourfe to
St Lucia; in the tooth-ach, to St Apollonia; in the hy¬
drophobia, to St Hubert, &c. In effeft, the Romanifts
in fome parts are ftill faid to reprefent St Anthony with
a fire kindled at his fide, to fignify that he delivers peo¬
ple from the facer ignis or eryfipelas. They alfo paint
a hog near him, as a token that he cures beafts of all
difeafes. To do him the greater honour in feveral pla¬
ces, they keep at common charges a hog denominated
St Anthony's hog, for which they have great veneration.
Some will have St Anthony’s pidlure on the walls of
their houfes, hoping by that to be preferred from the
plague; and the Italians, who do not know the true
fignification of the fire painted at the fide of their faint,
concluding that he preferves houfes from being burnt,
invoke him on fuch occafions.
ANTHORA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of aconitum. See Aconitum.
ANPHORISMUS, in rhetoric, denotes a contrary
defcription or definition of a thing from that given by
the adverfe party.—Thus, if the plaintiff urge, that to
take any thing away from another without his know¬
ledge or confent, is a theft; this is called or defi¬
nition. If the defendant reply, that to take a thing a-
O o o 2 way
ANT [ 480 ] ANT
Amhofper- way from another without his knowledge or confent,
mijim provided it be done with defign to return it to him a-
Anthropo- gain> is not tllis !s an A,,8<’?“r*a,f*
morhifm. ANTHOSPERMUM, the amber-tree; a genus
 of the dioecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
of plants.
Species- Of this genus Dr Linnaeus mentions two,
the jEthiopicum and ciliare; but the firlt is moil ge¬
nerally known in the gardens of the curious. Its beau¬
ty confrfts in its fmall evergreen leaves, which grow as
clofe as heath. Thefe being bruifed between the fin¬
gers emit a very fragrant odour.
Culture. This plant is eafily propagated, by cuttings,
during any of the fummer months, in a border of light
earth ; where they will take root in fix weeks time, pro¬
vided they are watered or (haded as the feafon may re¬
quire ; or if they are planted in pots plunged in a mo¬
derate hot-bed, they will take root the (boner, and
there will be a greater certainty of their growing. They
muft be frequently renewed by cuttings, as the old
plants are very fubjeft to decay, and feldom la ft above
three or four years.
ANTHOXANTHUM, or vernal-grass; a ge¬
nus of the digynia order, belonging to the diandria
clafs of plants, is one of the earlieft fpring graffes, and
is extremely common in our fertile paftures. The de¬
lightful fmell of new-mown hay is chiefly from this
plant. Cows, horfes, (heep, and goats eat it.
ANTHRACIS, Anthracias, or Anthracitis,
names promifcuoufly ufed by ancient naturalifts for very
different fofiils, viz. the carbuncle, haematites, and a
kind of afteria. See Carbuncle, fac.
ANTHRACOSIS, in medicine, a corrofive fcaly
ulcer, either in the bulb of the eye or the eye-lids.
ANTHRAX, a Greek term, literally fignifying a
burning coal, ufed by the ancients to denote a gem, as
well as a difeafe, more generally known by the name of
carbuncle.
Anthrax is fometimes alfo ufed for lithanthrax, or
pit-coal. See Lithanthrax.
ANTHROPOGLOTTUS, among zoologifts, an
appellation given to fuch animals as have tongues re-
fembling that of mankind, particularly to the parrot
kind.
ANTHROPOGRAPHY, denotes the defcription
* See Ana- 0f {}le human body, its parts, ftrudlure, &c *.
ttm>' ANTHROPOLATRiE, in church-hiftory, an ap¬
pellation given to the Neftorians, on account of their
worlhipping Chrift, notwithftanding that they believed
him to be a mere man.
ANTHROPOLATRIA, the paying divine ho¬
nours to a man; fuppofed to be the moft ancient kind
of idolatry.
ANTHROPOLOGY, a difcourfe upon human na¬
ture.
Anthropology, among divines, denotes that man¬
ner of expreffion by which the infpired writers attribute
human parts and paffions to God.
ANTHROPOMANCY, a fpecies of divination,
performed by infpefting the intrails of a human crea¬
ture.
ANTHROPOMORPHA, a term formerly given
to the primates of that clafs of animals which have the
* Sec Zoo- gteateft refemblance to the human kind*.
hgy. ANTHROPOMORHISM, among ecclefiaftical
writers, denotes the herefy or error of the Anthropo- Anthrepo-
morphites. See the next article. morph it e>
ANTHROPOMORPHIZES, in church-hiftory, Anth9r0p^
a fe£I of ancient heretics, who taking every thing fpo- phagi. ' v
ken of God in fcripture in a literal fenfe, particularly 
that paffage of Genefis in which it is faid God made man
after his own image, maintained, That God had a hu¬
man (hape. They are likewife called Audens, from
Audeus their leader.
ANTHROPOMORPHOUS, an appellation given
to whatever refembles the human form.
ANTHROPOPATHY, a figure or expreffion by
which fome paffion is afcribed to God, which properly
belongs only to man.
ANTHROPOSCOPY, that part of phyfiognomy
which judges of a man’s-charafter, &c. from the linea¬
ments of his body.—Otto publilhed an Anthropefcopia,
five judicium bominis de homine ex line ament is externis.
Regiom. 1647,
Anthropophagi, (of *»*?'**©■ a man, and
faya to eat), Men-eaters. That there have been, in
almoft all ages of the world, natrons who have followed
this barbarous pra&ice, we have abundance of teftimo-
nies. According to Herodotus, among the Effedonian
Scythians, when-a man’s father died, the neighbours
brought feveral beads, which they killed, mixed up
their flefti with that of the deceafed, and made a feaft.
Among the Maffagetae, when any perfon grew old, they
killed him and eat his flelh; but if he died of ficknefs,
they buried him, efteeming him unhappy. The fame
author alfo affures us, that feveral nations in the Indies
killed all their old people and their fick, to feed on their
fle(h : he adds, that perfons in health were fometimes
accufed of being fick, to afford a pretence for devour¬
ing them. According to Sextus Empiricus, the firft
laws that were made, were for the prevention of this
barbarous praftice, which the Greek writers reprefent
as univerfal before the time of Orpheus.
Of the praftice of anthropophagy in latter times, we
have the teftimonies of all the Romifh miflionaries who
have vifited the internal parts of Africa, and even fome
parts of Afia. Herrera fpeaks of great markets in Chi¬
na, furniflied wholly with human flefti, for the better
fort of people. Marcus Paulus fpeaks of the like in
his time, in the kingdom of Concha towards Quinfay,
and the ifland of Zapengit; others, of the great Java;
Barbofa, of the kingdom of Siam and ifland of Suma¬
tra ; others, of the iflands in the Gulf of Bengal, of the
country of the Samogitians, &c.
When America was difcovered, this practice was
found to be almoft univerfal, infomuch that feveral au¬
thors have fuppofed it to be occafioned through a want
of other food, or through the indolence of the people
to feek for it: but this Dr Robertfon denies ; and a-
fcribes the origin of fuch a barbarous cuftom to its moft
probable caufe, viz. an implacable fpirit of revenge.
Notwithftanding all thefe teftimonies, however, the ex-
iftence of anthropophagy has been denied by many,
and much argumentation pro and con has been carried
on; but Mr Eorfter, in his account of Captain Cook’s
voyage, hath given us fuch a teftimony, as we ima¬
gine will convince the moft fceptical. This gentleman
hath affured us, that not only he, but the whole (hip’s
crew, who were called upon deck for that purpofe, faw
fome New Zealanders eat a piece of human flefli road-
A N T
illfAntbropo*
B thy da
III1 II , .
rdt Anthyllis.
[ 48. ]
ANT
ed, with a ravenous appetite; and that they affirmed its ticular management further than being kept free from Amlrypo?
tafte to be exceedingly delicious. See New Zealand, weeds. The third and fourth may be propagated by pbora
The philofophers Diogenes, Chryfippus, and Zeno, cuttings planted during any of the fummer months; ob- Aritichri/y.
— followed by the whole fedt of Stoics, affirmed that ferving to fhade and water them till they have taken —-£
there was nothing unnatural in the eating of human good root; when they are to be tranfplanted into pots,
fieffi ; and that it was very reafonable to ufe dead bo- and muft always be houfed in winter,
dies for food, rather than give them a prey to worms ANTHYPOPHORA, in rhetoric, a figure of
and putrefaftion. In order to make the trial, however, fpeech ; being the counter-part of an hypophora. See
whether there was any real repugnancy in nature to Hypophora.
the feeding of an animal with the flefh of its own fpecies, ANTI, a Greek prepofition, which enters into fhe
Leonardus Floroventius fed a hog with hog’s fleffi, and compofition of feveral words, both Latin, French, and
a dog with dog’s fleffi; upon which he found the bri- Englifh, in different fenfes. Sometimes it figtiifies is-
ftles of the hog to fall off, and the dog to become full fore, as in anti-chamber; and fomedmes oppofte or con*
of ulcers.—To the cuftom of eating human flefh the as in the names of thefe medicines, anti-fcorbutic,
origin of the venereal difeafe hath been afcribed; and anti-venereal.
not without great probability,"as it is found to exift in ANTIBACCHIUS, in ancient poetry, a foot con-
all thofe places where fuch barbarity is pra&ifed. fifting of three fyllables, the two firft long, and the
ANTHROPOTHYSIA, the inhuman pradlife of laft one fhort : fuch is the word ambTre.
offering human facrifices. See Sacrifice. ANTIBES, a fea-port town of Provence in Francej
ANTHUS, in ornithology, a fynonime of the lofeia. with a ftrong caftle. Its territoiy produces excellent
See Loseia. fruit; and the town Hands oppofite to Nice, in the Me-
ANTHYLLIS, Kidney-vetch, a genus of the diterranean. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 43. 35.
decandria ordej, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of ANTICHAMBER, an outer chamber for ftrangers
plants. to wait in, till the perfon to be fpoken with is at lei-
Species. Dr Linnaeus enumerates nine fpecies of fure.
anthyllis; of which, the following feem to be moft ANTICHRIST, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
worthy of attention. 1. The vulneraria, with un- notes a great adverfary of Chriftianity, who is to ap-
equal winged leaves, is a native of Spain and Portu- pear upon the earth towards the end of the world. He
gal, as likewife of Wales. It is a biennial plant, ha- is called in feripture, The Man of fn, the man of per-
ving Angle leaves at bottom, which are oval and hairy; dition, &c.
but thofe which grow out of the ftalks are winged, each We have demonftrations, deputations, and proofs,
being compofed of two or three pair of lobes termina- in great order and number, both that the pope is, and
ted by an odd one. The flowers grow colle&ed in- that he is not, Antichrift.
to heads at the top of the ftalks, are of a bright fear- F. Calmet is very large in deferibing the father and
let colour, and make a pretty appearance. It flowers mother of Antichrift, his tribe and pedigree, his wars
in June and July, and the feeds ripen in Oftober. 2. and conquefts, his atchievements againft Gog, Ma-
The montana or herbaceous woundwort, with winged gog, <bc.
leaves, grows naturally in the mountains in the fouth Some place his capital at Conftantihople, others at
of France, and in Italy. It is garnilhed with winged Jerufalem, others at Mofcow, and feme few at London ^
leaves, which have an equal number of hairy lobes at but the generality at Rome, though thefe laft are di~
the extremity of the branches. The flowers are pro- vided. Grotius and fome others fuppofe Rome Pagan
duced in heads, and are of a purple colour and globu- to have been the feat of Antichrift: moft of the Lu-
lar form. They apear in June and July, and the feeds theran and reformed doctors contend earneftly for Rome
ripen in O&ober. 3. The barbajovis, or lilver-bufh, Chriftian under the papal hierarchy',
has its name from the whitenefs of its leaves. This is M. Le Cl ere holds, that the rebel Jews and their
a ftirub which often grows to the height of ten or twelve leader Simon, whofe hiftory is given by Jofephus, are
feet, dividing into many lateral branches, garnilhed with to be reputed as the true Antichrift. Lightfoot and
winged leaves compofed of an equal number of narrow Vanderhart rather apply this chara&er to the Jewilh
lobes, which are very white and hairy: the flowers are Sanhedrim. Hippolitus and others held that the devil
produced at the extremities of the branches, collefted himfelf was the true Antichrift ; that he was to be in-
into fmall heads; thefe are of a bright yellow colour, carnate, and make his appearance in human Ihape be-
and appear in June; fometimes they are fucceeded by fore the confummation of all things. Others among the
Ihort woolly pods, containing two or three kidney-lhaped ancients held that Antichrift was to be born ofa virgin,
feeds : but unlefs the feafon proves warm, they do not by fome prolific power imparted to her by the devil.
ripen in this country. 4. The cytifoides, or Ihrubby modern writer * of the female fex, whom many hold
woundwort, has long been known in the Englilh gar- for a faint, has improved on this fentiment ; maintain- vofe ^
dens. It is a low ftirub, feldom rifing above two feet ing that Antichrift is to be begotten by the devil on rigrum.
high, but fends out many flender branches, garniftied the body of a witch by means or the fernen of a man
with hoary leaves, which are fometimes fingle, but ge- caught in the commiffion of a certain crime, and con-
nerally have three oval lobes, the middle being longer veyed, &c.
than the other two : the flowers are yellow, and come How endlefs are conje&ures? Some of the Jews, we
out from the fides of the branches, three or four joined are told, a filially' took Cromwell for the Chrift; while
together, having woolly impalements ; but thefe are ra- fome others have laboured to prove him Antichnft
rely fucceeded by feeds in England.' himfelf. Pfaffius affures us he faw a folio book m the
Culture. The firft and fecond forts require no par- Bodleian library,, written on purpofe to demonltrate-
ANT
ANT [48
Antichrift this latter pofition.
I Hunnius and fome others, to fecnre Antichrift to
■Anticus‘ the pope, (notwithftanding that this latter feemed ex¬
cluded by not being of the tribe of Dan), have broke
in upon the unity of Antichriil, and aflert that there
is to be both an eaftern and a weftern Antichrift.
Father Malvenda, a Jefuit, hath publifhed a large
work intitled Antichrijlo, in which this fubjeft is amply
difcufied. It confifts of thirteen books. In the firft,
he relates all the opinions of the fathers with regard
to Antichrift. In the fecond, he fpeaks of the times
when he (hall appear ; and ftiews, that all the fathers
who fuppofed Antichrift to be near at hand, judged
the world was near its period. In the third, he dif-
courfes of his origin and nation ; and (hews that he is
to be a Jew, of the tribe of Dan : this he founds on
the authority of the fathers; on the pafiage in Genefis
xlix. 17. Dan Jhall be a ferpent by the nj'ay, &c. ; on
that of Jeremy viii. 16. where it is faid, The armies of
Dan Jhall devour the earth; and on Rev. vii. where
St John, enumerating all the tribes of Ifrael, makes no
mention of that of Dan. In the fourth and fifth books,
he treats of the figns of Antichrift. In the fixth, of
his reign and wars. In the feventh, of his vices. In
the eighth, of his dodtrine and miracles. In the ninth,
of his perfecutions : and in the reft, of the coming of
Enoch and Elias, the converfion of the Jews, the reign
of Jefus Chrift, and the death of Antichrift, after he
has reigned three years and an half. See alfo Logman
m the Revelation.
ANTICHRISTIANISM, a ftate or quality in
perfons or principles, which denominates them anti-
chriftian, or oppofite to the kingdom of Chrift.
M. Jurieu takes the idea of the unity of the church
to have been the fource of AntichriJUanifn. Had not
mankind been infatuated with this, they would never
have ftood in fuch awe of the anathema’s of Rome.
It is on this the popes eredted their monarchial power.
ANTICHRISTIANS properly denote the follow¬
ers or worftiippers of Antichrift.
Antichristians are more particularly underftood
of thofe who fet up or believe a falfe Chrift, or Mef-
iiah.
ANTICHTHONES, in ancient geography, an
appellation given to the inhabitants of oppofite hemi-
fpheres.
ANTICIRRHA, f Strabo); Anticyra, (Paufa-
nias, Stephanus, Livy) ; a town in Phocis, on the
Corinthian bay, oppofite to Cirrha, lying to the weft
on the fame bay. Another Anticirrha, or Anticyra,
on the Sinus Maliacus, and near mount Oeta, where
grew the beft hellebore, (Strabo, Stephanus;) but
which Paufanias afcribes to the Anticyra of Phocis:
Hence the adage, Naviget Anticyram, (Horace,) ufed
of a perfon of an unfound mind. The gentilitious name
is Anticyreus, (Paufanias.)
ANTICOR, or Anticoeur, among farriers, an in¬
flammation in a horfe’s throat, being the fame with
the quinzy in mankind. See Farriery, xxxvii. 2.
ANTICOSTE, a barren ifland lying in the mouth
of the river St Laurence, in North America. W. Long.
64. 16. N. Lat. from 49. to 53.
ANTICUS, a term ufed by anatomifts, importing,
that the part with which it is joined (lands before fome
ethers: Thus, we meet with ferratus anticus, peronceus
2 ] ANT
anticus. Antidefma
ANTIDESMA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia P
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. ~ n '£ _L
The calix of the male confifts of five leaves; it has
no corolla : The calix of the female is entire, gaping a
little on one fide ; it has no corolla, but two ftyli, and
a double-valved capfule inclofed in the calix. There
is but one fpecies of the antidefma, viz. the alexteria,
a native of India.
ANTIDICOMARIANITES, ancient heretics,
who pretended that the holy virgin did not preferve a
perpetual virginity, but that (he had feveral children
by Jofeph after our Saviour’s birth.—Their opinion was
grounded on fome expreffions of our Saviour, wherein
he mentions his brothers and his fillers ; and of St
Matthew, where he fays, that Jofeph knew not Mary
till (he had brought forth her firft-born fon. The An-
tidicomarianites were the difciples of Helvidius and Jo-
vinian, who appeared in Rome toward the clofeof the
fourth century.
ANTIDOSIS, in antiquity, denotes an exchange
of eftates, pradlifed by the Greeks on certain occafions
with peculiar ceremonies, and firft inftituted by Solon.
When a perfon was nominated to an office, the ex¬
pence of which he was not able to fupport, he had re-
courfe to the antidofis; that is, he was to feek fome other
citizen of better fubftance than himfel f, who was free from
this, and other offices; in which cafe the former was excu-
fed. In cafe the perfon thus fubftituted denied himfelf
to be the richeft, they were to exchange eftates, after
this manner: the doors of their houfes were clofe (hut
up and fealed, that nothing might be conveyed away;
then both took an oath to make a faithful difeovery of
all their effedls, except what lay in the filver-mines,
which by the laws was excufed from all imports; ac¬
cordingly, within three days, a full difeovery and ex¬
change of eftates was made.
ANTIDOTE, among phyficians, a remedy taken to
prevent, or to cure the effedls of poifon, <hc.
ANTIENT. See Ancient.
ANTIGONUS, one of Alexander’s commanders,
to whom Afia fell. He conquered Eumenes, and ex¬
pelled Seleucus out of Syria ; who flying to Ptolemy
Lagus in Egypt, a bloody war commenced betwixt
him, Caflander, and Antigonus, wherein, by the help
of his fon Demetrius, Antigonus prevailed, and built
the city Antigonia, anno Romae 448. Afterward
Caffander, Seleucus, and Lyfimachus, uniting againft
him, routed him, in league with king Pyrrhus, and
(lew him near Epirus, 301 years before Chrift.
Antigonus, king of the Jews, was the fon of Ari-
(lobulus. He entered into an alliance with the king of
the Parthians, and befieged Jerufalem. He cut off his
uncle Hircanus’s ears, to incapacitate him for the high-
priefthood; and put Jofephus, Herod’s brother, to
death. At length, Herod took him and fent him to
M. Anthony; who, to gratify Herod, cut off his
head, and thereby extinguifhed the Afmoneans, who
had reigned 126 years. This happened 36 years be¬
fore Chrift.
ANTIGUA, one of the Antilles or Caribbee iflandr,
belonging to the Englifti, and fituated in about W.
Long. 62. N. Lat. 17. 30. It is above 50 miles in
circumference, and is reckoned the ..larged of all the
Britifti Leeward iflands. This ifland was long thought
I .
ANT [ 483 ] ANT
n^j Anrigua. to be uninhabitable, becaufe of its being deflitute of
* ’ frelh water; but this lofs wasfupplied by the induftry
of the inhabitants, who have difcovered fome fprings,
and made refervoirs for preferving the rain water. It
is the beft provided with harbours of all the Leeward
iflands; but the approach to it is dangerous to any but
Ikilful pilots, on account of the vaft number of rocks
with which it is furrounded. One of thofe is called
Five-ijle-harbour; and, though difficult of accefs, is of¬
ten of great fervice to ftips in diftrefs. St John’s har¬
bour, which lies due north, would be the beft in. the
whole ifland, were it not for a fandy bar that runs a-
crofs it. At the mouth of St John’s river, is a fort,
which is mounted with 14 cannon ; and feveral batte¬
ries, mounting in the whole 26 guns, are raifed for the
defence of as many landing-places. None-fuch har¬
bour lies on the weft fide of the ifland, in a fpacious
bay. Willoughby bay is almoft a league over at the
mouth; but is above two thirds blocked up with a flioal
ftretching from the north to the fouth point; from
whence lies Sandy-point, with an ifland in it; but be¬
tween the north and fouth point there is an open chan¬
nel where fliips may enter, and, when entered, may
have good riding. But the moft convenient harbour
in Antigua, or perhaps in the Weft Indies, is Englifti-
harbour; which is proper for careening (hips of war,
and might be improved in fuch a manner as to admit
thofe of the greateft burthen. At the bottom of Fal¬
mouth harbour, lies Falmouth town, which is defended
by Fort-Charles, and Monkfhill Fort. The latter con¬
tains a magazine of 410 mulkets and 800 bayonets, and
is mounted with 30 pieces of cannon.
The climate of Antigua is very hot, and fo liable to
hurricanes, that were it not for the great conveniency
of its fituation and harbours, it muft have lain a mere
defert. Wild cinnamon grows in the low lands ; and
this ifland is generally faid to have greater plenty of
venifon upon it than any other of the Carribbees ; be-
fides its producing abundance of fowl, and black cat¬
tle. Its chief commodities are fugar and tobacco; but
the inhabitants formerly cultivated indigo and pepper.
The annual export of fugar from this ifland is compu¬
ted to be 16,000 hogfheads; but the inhabitants do not
make rum in proportion.
Antigua was very early planted by fame Englifli ad¬
venturers, whofe hiftory is now uncertain. Accord¬
ing to fome French writers, the Englifli, fo far back
as the year 1640, were very numerous, infomuch that
they gave offence to the native Carribbees, who had
probably received them kindly at firft. The event of
the quarrel was, that the natives killed fifty of the
Englifli, and carried off the governor’s lady. Long
after this the ifland was inhabited both by French and
Englifli, who lived together with great cordiality; but
the former were at laft treated with fuch feverity, be¬
caufe they hefitated at {wearing allegiance to the En-
glifti government, that they were forced to retire to
Guadaloupe. Thofe exiles immediately difclofed to
their countrymen the weak ftate of the Englifli colony,
and how eafily it might be reduced; upon wrhich an ex¬
pedition was immediately undertaken. The Englifli
were befieged in form, their forts taken, their gover¬
nor made prifoner, and they themfelves'obliged to ac¬
cept of a capitulation for furrendering the whole ifland.
Before this capitulation, however, could be put in ex¬
ecution, a reinforcement arrived, which prevented its Antigua.
taking place. The governors of the French Carribbees
underftanding this, muftered a greater force, and land¬
ing upon Antigua in 1667, the Englifli governor, Fifli,
was obliged to ratify the treaty ; the ifland was, how¬
ever, reftored to the Englifli the following year, by an
article of the treaty of Breda.
From this time, the colony of Antigua began to
flourifli, chiefly through the prudent management of
colonel Chriftopher Codrington; who, having been ap¬
pointed captain-general, and general-governor of all
the Leeward iflands, removed from Barbadoes to An¬
tigua, which he made the feat of his government; and
here, by his great knowledge and experience in Weft-
India plantations, he introduced a new and better fy-
ftem of colonizing and improving. It was not in his
power, however, to prevent the effefts of thofe dread¬
ful hurricanes to which the ifland is fubjeft, and which
more than once in his time rendered it a feene of de-
folation, particularly in 1681 ; and nine years after, it
was almoft entirely ruined by an earthquakes
The Indians, inftigated by the French, never failed
to avail themfelves of thofe natural calamities by ma¬
king defeents upon the ifland; but after having plun¬
dered the plantations neareft the fea, they were gene¬
rally driven off with lofs. Sometimes, however, they
made their defeents with a force fufficient to carry off
negroes and other prey. On thefe occafions the French
privateers were partly manned with Irifli Roman-ca¬
tholics, whom the inhabitants found to be their moft
cruel enemies. To make themfelves fome amends for
thefe depredations, the Antiguans made a defeent up¬
on the French ifland of Marigalante, where they took
and burnt the chief town, demolifhed the fort and fpi-
ked up its guns, drove the inhabitants into the woods,,
and returned to Antigua laden with plunder.
Notwithftanding thefe (kirmilhes, the trade of An¬
tigua continued to flourifli, fo that in 1696, eleven load¬
ed (hips were fent from the ifland at one time. This
year died Colonel Codrington, and was fucceeded by
his fon, of the fame name and rank; and who had di-
ftinguiflied himfelf equally in arms, and in the polite
arts. This gentleman very early formed a defign of at¬
tacking the French Weft-India iflands; and, having ufed
his utmoft endeavours to procure a fufficient armament
for this purpofe, as well as encouraged the merchants
and planters to fit out privateers, to which he himfelf
contributed largely, he made a defeent upon Guada¬
loupe. Here he firft diflodged the enemy from a poft
called Le petits Habitam, and having landed about 8oo
more men, they boldly marched up to a town called the
Bayliffe, where the French had manned a breaft-work,
which they vigoroufly defended, and killed three En-
glifti captains at the head of their grenadiers. But the
Englifli foldiers having brilkly kept up their (ire, at
laft laid the muzzles of their pieces acrofs the top of
the breaft-work, and foon became mafters of it. This
was followed by the conqueft of all the other breaft-
works, of the town of Bayliffe itfelf, and of the Jaco-
bine church and plantation, both of which were ftrong-
ly fortified. At laft the main town of Baffe Terre was
taken, and the French retired to the fort, leaving all
the open country to be plundered and deftroyed by the
Englifli. When now nothing remained to complete the
conqueft of the ifland, but the reduction of Baffe Terre
ANT [ 484 ] ANT
Antigpa and caftle, a difagreement arofe between the fea
Antlhec- an^ officers, the particulars of which were fo lit-
ticutn*' tie to the credit of either, that they were never made
—  public: the expedition, however, was abandoned, on
pretence that the redu&ion of the ifland was a matter
of much greater difficulty than had been forefeen; and
that, confidering the vigorous defence made by the
French, the Englifh army, which was now both weak
and fickly, was unable to do duty any longer.
Colonel Codrington was fucceeded, in 1704, by Sir
William Matthews, and he by colonel Park, who re¬
ceived the government from the hands of John Yeo¬
mans, Efq; the prefident of the ifland, and of the
council. AH this time, notwithftanding the repeated
attacks of the French upon the other Weft-India
iflands, Antigua remained unmolefted; and the inha¬
bitants grew rich by their privateering, in which they
became fo expert, that a French floop with 50 men was
taken, and 40 of her men killed by an Englifh vefiel
having no more than nine men and fix boys on board.
The new governor began his adminiftration in the moft
unpopular manner that can be conceived. He appoint¬
ed a common foot-foldier to aft as provoft-marfhal of
the ifland; and that too without obliging him to give
any fecurity, which was highly neceflary. When talk¬
ed to upon this head, he refufed to give any other an-
fwer than, that a foot-foldier was a gentleman. In o-
ther refpefts he behaved in a manner fo unbecoming
his ftation, that an impeachment of his conduft was
tranfmitted to England by the principal inhabitants of
the ifland, and he was in the end ordered home. With
this command, however, he did not comply, but fuffered
a fhip to fail without him, in which he ought to have re¬
turned to England. Upon this, the iflanders began to
look upon him as an ufurper, and formed a defign of
taking him prifoner and fending him home by force.
Park prepared for his defence againft the iflanders, who
appeared in arms againft him to the number of 400.
He had garrifoned his houfe with all the regulars he
found upon the ifland, and was attended by fome of his
■worthlefs creatures whom he had raifed to places of
power and truft. He now fent his provoft-marfhal to
the inhabitants, with a proclamation, requiring them
to difperfe; but this they defpifed, declaring that the
governor’s troops fhould not prevent him from being
lent prifoner to England. The more moderate among
them were for compromifing matters, and Park him-
felf now offered them very reafonable terms; but the
greater part thinking that they had gone too far to re-
traft, attacked the houfe, and having wounded the go¬
vernor and then got him into their hands, murdered
him in a {hocking manner.
From this time, no very remarkable tranfaftions have
happened with regard to the ifland of Antigua. It
hath continued unmolefted in all the late wars with
France. The number of white inhabitants is reckon¬
ed about 10,000. It is divided into five parifhes; that
of St John’s-town, which is reckoned the capital of the
north-weft part, and confifts of above 200 houfes;
thofe of Falmouth, Porham, and Bridge-town, on the
fouth-fide; and St Peter’s, which is no town, but lies
almoft in the middle of the ifland.
ANTIHECTICS, in pharmacy, medicines good in
heftical diforders.
ANTIHECTICUM poterii, the name of a me¬
dicine formerly much celebrated, but now laid afide in AntiUes
common praftice. * ^
ANTILLES, the French name for the Caribbee n lmonr-
flands.
ANTILOGARITHM, the complement of the lo¬
garithm of a fine, tangent, orfecant; or the difference
of that logarithm from the logarithm of 90 degrees.
ANTILOGY, in matters of literature, an inconfift-
ency between two or more paffages of the fame book.
ANTILYSSUS pulvis. See Pharmacy, n° 807.
ANTIMERIA, in grammar, a figure whereby one
part of fpeeeh is ufed for another: e. gr. velle fuum
cuiqne eft, for, voluntas fua cuique ejl; alfo, populus
late rex, for populus late regnans.
Antimeria, in a more reftrained fenfe, is a figure
where the noun is repeated inftead of the pronoun.
The antimeria is frequent in the Hebrew, and is fome-
times retained in our verfion of the Old Teftament ac¬
cordingly : e. gr. Hear my voice, ye wives of Lantech,
for my wives, Gen. iv. 23.
ANTIMETABOLE, in rhetoric, a figure which
fets two things in oppofition to each other. The word
is Greek, compounded of againjl, and fuUCox*
from ftsUSaMo, I Jhift or transfer; i. e. a fhifting, or
fetting two things over-againft each other. This fi¬
gure is twice exemplified in an apophthegm of Mufo-
nius; which, on account of its excellence, is called au-
reum monitum, the golden maxim or precept.
ANTIMONARCHICAL, an appellation given to
whatever oppofes monarchical government.
ANTIMONIALS, in medicine, preparations of
antimony. See the references at Mat. Med. n° no.
ANTIMONY, a blackifh mineral fubftance, ftain-
ing the hands, full of long, fhining, needle-like ftriae,
hard, brittle, and confiderably heavy. It is found in
different parts of Europe, as Bohemia, Saxony, Tranfyl-
vania, Hungary, France and England; commonly in
mines by itfelf, intermixed with earth and ftony mat¬
ters. Sometimes it is blended with the richer ores of
filver, and renders the extraftion of that metal difficult
by volatilizing a part of the filver, or, in the language
of the miners, robbing the ore.
This mineral is feparated from its natural impurities
by fufion in an earthen pot whofe bottom is full of
holes ; the fluid antimony pafling through, while the
unfufible matters remain behind. The melting veflel
is fet into another pot funk in the ground. This laft,
which is of a conical figure, and ferves for a receiver,
gives the fhape to the loaves of antimony ufually met
with. The junfture of the two veffds is clofely luted,
the uppermoft oue covered, and a fire made round it.
In fome places, inftead of a pot with a perforated bot¬
tom, one is made ufe of which has no bottom, and a
perforated iron plate is interpofed betwixt it and the re¬
ceiver. But the former method is preferable, as the
antimony, while in fufion, is apt to diffolve fome of the
iron. Very little heat is neceflary in this operation, fot
the antimony melts before it is red hot.
Medicinal Ufes, &c. For a long time this mineral
was efteemed poifonous. In 1566, its ufe was prohi¬
bited in France by an edift of parliament; and in
1609, one Befnier was expelled the faculty for having
given it. The edift was repealed in 1650 ; antimony
having a few years before been received into the num¬
ber of purgatives. In 1668, a new edift came forth,
for-
ANT [ 485 ] ANT
AntinoeU forbidding its ufe by any but doctors of the faculty.—
jl It is now univerfally allowed, that pure antimony in its
ntloc ' crude date has no noxious quality; and that tho’ many
of its preparations are moft virulently emetic and ca¬
thartic, yet, by a flight alteration or addition, they lofe
their virulence, and become mild in their operation.
Antimony was ufed by the ancients in collyria againft
inflammations of the eyes, and for ftaining the eye¬
brows black. Its moft efficacious preparations, are the
’ See Chemi- regulus, glafs, and liver *. Antimony is alfo made ufe
fry, no 158, of for purifying and heightening the colour of gold,
■u. *J8> See that article.
Isp’ Alfo ANTINOEIA, in antiquity, annual facrifices, and
he refe- quinquennial games, in memory qf Antinous the Bithy-
ences ac nian. They were inftituted at the command of Adrian
'Catena the Roman emperor, at Mantinea in Arcadia, where
1 e lca" Antinous was honoured with a temple and divine wor-
ftiip.
ANTINOMIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, certain
heretics who firft appeared in the year 1535. The
word is formed from the Greek, againji, and
a law. They were fo called, becaufe they rejected the
law as of no ufe under the gofpel-difpenfation. They
held, that good works do not further, nor evil hinder,
falvation ; that the child of God cannot fin ; that God
never chaftifes any land for their fins ; that murder,
adultery, drunkennefs, and the like, are no fins in the
children of God; that an hypocrite may have all the
graces that were in Adam before his fall; and the like
ftrange opinions.
ANTINOUS, the favourite of Adrian, was born
at Bithynus in Bithynia. His beauty engaged the heart
of Adrian in fuch a manner, that there never was a
more boundlefs and extravagant pafiion than that of
this emperor toward this youth. After his death, the
emperor ordered divine honours to be paid him.
ANTIOCH, a city of Syria in Afia, fituated on
the river Orontes, in E. Long. 37.5. N. Lat. 36. 20.
It was built by Seleucus Nicator, founder of the Syro-
Macedonian empire, who made it his capital. It ftood
on the above mentioned river, about 20 miles from the
place where it empties itfelf into the Mediterranean;
being equally diftant from Conftantinople and Alex¬
andria in Egypt, that is, about 700 miles from each.
Seleucus called it Antioch, from, his father’s name, ac¬
cording to fome; or from that of his fon, according
to others. He built 16 other cities bearing the fame
name ; of which one, fituated in Pifidia, is probably
that where the name of Chriftians was firft given to
the followers of Jefus Chrift. But that fituated on
the Orontes, by far eclipfed, not only all the others of
this name, but all the cities built by Seleucus. Anti-
gonus, not long before, had founded a city in that
neighbourhood, which from his own name he had called
Antigonia, and defigned it for the capital of his em¬
pire; but it was rafed to the ground by Seleucus, who
employed the materials in building his metropolis, and
alfo tranfplanted the inhabitants thither.
The city of Antioch was afterwards known by the
name of Tetrapolis, being divided as it were into four
cities, each of them being furrounded with its proper
wall, befides a common one which inclofed them alL
The firft of thefe cities was built by Seleucus Nicator,
as already mentioned ; the fecond by thofe who flock¬
ed thither on its being made the capital of the Syro-
Vou I.
Macedonian empire; the third by Seleucus Callinicus; Antioch,
and the fourth by Antiochus Epiphanes.—About four
or five miles diftant, ftood a place called Daphne, which
was neverthelefs reckoned a fuburbs of Antioch. Here
Seleucus planted a grove, and in the middle of it built a
temple which he confecrated to Apollo'and Diana, ma¬
king the whole an afylum. To this place the inhabitants
of Antioch reforted for their pleafures and diverfions ;
whereby it became at laft fo infamous, that, “ to live
after the manner of Daphne,” was ufed as a proverb
to exprefs the moft voluptuous and difiblute way of li¬
ving. Here Lucius Verus, the colleague of M. Au¬
relius, chofe to take up his refidence, inftead of march¬
ing againft the Parthians ; while his general Caflius
forbad by proclamation any of his foldiers to enter or
even go near the place. In (hort, fo remarkable was
Daphne of old, that the metropolis itfelf was diftinguilh-
ed by it, and called Antioch near Daphne.
Though Antioch continued to be, as Pliny calls it,
the queen of the eaft, for near 1600 years; yet fcarce
any city mentioned in hiftory hath undergone fuch ca¬
lamities, both from the attacks of its enemies, and its
being naturally fubje&ed to earthquakes—The firft
difafter, mentioned in hiftory, which befel the Antio-
chians, happened about 145 years before Chrift. Being
at that time very much difaffefted to the perfon and
government of Demetrius their king, they were conti¬
nually railing tumults and feditions; infomuch that he
found himfelf at laft obliged to folicit afliftance from
the Jews ; and was furnifhed by Jonathan, one of the
Maccabees, with 3000 men : by which reinforcement
believing himfelf Sufficiently ftrong to reduce the mu¬
tineers by force, he ordered them immediately to de¬
liver up their arms. This unexpefted order caufed
a great uproar in the city. The inhabitants ran to
arms, and invefted the king’s palace, to the number
of 120,000, with a defign to put him to death. All
the Jews haftened to his relief, fell upon the rebels,
killed 100,000 of them, and fet fire to the city. On
the deftruftion of the Syrian empire by the Romans,
Antioch fubmitted to them as well as the other cities
of that kingdom, and continued for a long time under
their dominion. About the year 1x5, in the reign of
the emperor Trajan, it was almoft entirely ruined by
one of the moft dreadful earthquakes mentioned in
hiftory. Trajan himfelf happened to be there at that
time, being returned from an expedition againft the
Parthians; fo that the city was then full of troops,
and ftrangers come from all quarters either out of cu-
riofity or upon bufmefs and embaflies : the calamity
was by this means felt almoft in every province of the
Roman empire. The earthquake was preceded by vio¬
lent claps of thunder, unufual winds, and a dread¬
ful noife under ground. The fhock was fo terrible, that
great numbers of houfes were overturned, and others
tofled to and fro like a fhip at fea. Thofe who hap¬
pened to be in their houfes were for the moft part bu¬
ried under their ruins : thofe who were walking in the
ftreets, or in the fquares, were, by the violence of the
ftiock, dalhed againft each other, and moft of them ei¬
ther killed or dangeroufly wounded.—This earthquake
continued, with fome fmall intermilfion, for many days
and nights ; fo that vaft numbers perifhed. The moft
violent ftiock, according to the Aifts of St Ignatius,
was on a Sunday, December 23. By this Trajan was
P p p much
Antioch.
ANT [ 486 1 ANT
much hurt, but efcaped through a window. Dio Caf-
fius pretends, that he was taken out of the window by
one who exceeded the human fize in tallnefs. The
fame hiftorian adds, that mount Lifon, which flood at
a fmall diftance from the city, bowed with its head and
threatened to fall down upon it; that Other mountains
fell; that new rivers appeared^ and others, that had
flowed before, forfook their courfe and vanifhed. When
the earthquake ceafed, a woman was heard crying un¬
der the ruins ; which being immediately removed, flie
was found, with a living child in her arms. Search
was made for others; but none was found alive, except
one child, which continued fucking its dead mother.
No doubt, Trajan, who was an eye-witnefs of this
terrible calamity, would contribute largely towards the
re-eftablilhment of Antioch in its ancient fplendor. Its
good fortune, however, did not continue long; for in
155, it was almoft entirely burnt by accidental fire;
when it was again reftored by Antoninus Pius. In 176
or 177, the inhabitants having fided with Caflius, the
abovementioned Roman general, who had revolted from
M. Aurelius, that emperor publifhed a fevere edi£t a-
gainft them, deprived them of all their privileges, fup-
prefled their public affemblies, and took from them the
fhews and fpeftacles to which they were greatly addic¬
ted: but his anger being foon appeafed, he reftored
them to their former condition, and even condefcended
to vifit their city. In 194, having fided with Niger
againft Severus, the latter deprived them of all their
privileges, and fubjefted Antioch as a mere village to
Daodicea; but, however, pardoned them the next year
at the intreaties of his eldeft fon, then a child.
When the power of the Roman empire began to de¬
cline, Antioch became the bone of contention between
them and the eaftern nations; and accordingly, on the
breaking out of a Perfian war, it was almoft always
fure to fufler. In 242, it was taken and plundered by
Sapor; and, though he was defeated by Gordian, it un¬
derwent the fame misfortune in the time of Valerian,
about 18 years after; and after the defeat and capti¬
vity of Valerian, being taken by the Perfian monarch
a third time, he not only plundered it, but levelled all
the public buildings with the ground. The Perfians,
however, being foon driven out, this unfortunate city
continued free from any remarkable calamity till about
the time of the divifion of the Roman empire by Con-
ftantine in 3.31. It was then afflicted with fo grievous
a famine, that a bulhel of wheat was fold for 400 pieces
of filver. During this grievous diftrefs, Conftantine
fent to the bifhop 30,000 bufhels of corn; befides an
incredible quantity of all kinds of provifions, to be di-
ftributed among the ecclefiaftics, widows, orphans, &c.
In the year 347, Conftantine II. caufed an harbour to
be made at Seleucia, for the conveniency of Antioch.
This was effe&ed at an immenfe expence, the mouth
of the Orontes, where the port was made, being full
of fands and rocks. When the emperor Julian fet out
on his expedition againft the Perfians, he made a long
flay at Antioch; during which time, many of the Ro¬
man provinceswere affli&ed with a famine, but which
raged more violently at Antioch than in other places.
The ecclefiaftic writers of thofe times fay, that this fa¬
mine followed Julian from place to place; and as he
continued longer at Antioch than any other city, it
raged more violently there than any where elfe. To re¬
medy this evil, Julian fixed the prices of corn, by which
means the famine was greatly increafed, the merchants
conveying their corn privately to other places, fo that
this metropolis was reduced to a moft deplorable fitu-
ation. In 381, in the reigrt of Theodofius the Great,
Antioch was again vifited by a famine, accompanied by
a grievous plague. The latter foon ceafed: but, the fa¬
mine ftill continuing, the biftiop, LibaniuS, applied to
Icarius, count of the Eaft, requeft'ing him by fome
means or other to relieve the poor, who had flocked
from all parts to the metropolis, and were daily periih-
ing in great numbers ; but to this Icarius gave no o-
ther anfwer, than that they were abhorred and juftly
puniftied by the gods. This inhuman anfwer railed
great difturbances ; which, however, were terminated
without bloodihed. In 387, Theodofius finding his
exchequer quite drained, and being obliged to be at an
extraordinary expence in celebrating the fifth year of
the reign of his fon Arcadius, and the tenth of his own,
an extraordinary tax was laid upon all the people in the
empire. Moft: of the cities fubmitted willingly to this:
but the people of Antioch, complaining of it as an un-
reafonable oppreffion, crowded to the houfe of Flavia-
nus their biihop, as foon as the edift was publiftied, to
implore his proteftion. Being unable to find him, they
returned to the forum; and would have torn the gover¬
nor in pieces, had not the officers who attended him
kept back with great difficulty the enraged multitude,
till he made his efcape. Upon this, they broke fome
of the emperor’s ftatues and dragged others through
the city, uttering the moft; injurious andabufive expref-
fions againft him and his whole family. They were,
however, difperfed by a body of archers, who, by wound¬
ing only two of the rabble, ftruck terror into all the
reft. The governor proceeded againft the offenders with
the utmoft cruelty; expofing fome to wild beafts in
the theatre, and burning others alive. He did not fpare
even the children, who had infulted the emperor’s fta¬
tues ; and caufed feveral perfons to be executed, who
had been only fpeftators of the diforder. In the mean
time, a report was fpread, that a body of troops was at
hand, with orders.to plunder the city, and put all to the
fword, without diftinftion of fex or age; upon which,
the citizens abandoned their dwellings in the utmoft:
terror and confufion, retiring to the neighbouring moun¬
tains with their wives and families. As the report pro¬
ved groundlefs, fome of them returned; but the great¬
er part, dreading the cruelty of the governor, and
the difpleafure of the emperor, continued in their re¬
treats. To thofe who returned, St Chryfoftom preach¬
ed fome Homilies, which have reached our times, and
are greatly admired; and which are faid by St Chry¬
foftom himfelf, as well as fome cotemporary writers, to
have had a confiderable effect in reforming the lives of
this licentious and diffolute people. On hearing the
news of this tumult, Theodofius was fo much enraged,
that he commanded the city to be deftroyed, and its in¬
habitants to be put to the fword without diftinftion ;
but this order was revoked before it could be put into
execution, and he contented himfelf with a puniftunent
fimilar to that inflifted by Severus above-mentioned.
He appointed judges to punifh the offenders; who pro¬
ceeded with fiwh feverity, and condemned fuch num¬
bers, that the city was thrown into the utmoft. confter-
nation. On this occafion, St Chryfoftom and the her¬
mits.
Antioch.
ANT [ 487 ] ANT
Antioch mits, who were very numerous in the neighbourhood.
Anti ^ hus exerte^ t^ie*r ^ocluence in behalf of the unhappy
ntioctus. pe()p]ej an(j obtained a refpite for thofe who had been
condemned. They next proceeded to draw up a me¬
morial to the emperor in favour of the citizens in gene¬
ral; and being joined by Flavianus, at laft obtained a
general pardon, and had the city reftored to all its for¬
mer privileges.
In the year 458, Antioch was almoft entirely ruined
by an earthquake, which happened on the 14th of Sep¬
tember; fcarce a Angle houfe being left Handing in the
moll beautiful quarter of the city. The like misfor¬
tune it experienced in 525, during the reign ©f the em¬
peror Juftin; and 15 years after, being taken by Cof-
rhoes king of Perfia, that infulting and haughty mo¬
narch gave it up to his foldiers, who put all they met to
the fword. The king himfelf feized on all the gold and
filver velfels belonging to the great church; and caufed
all the valuable ftatues, pi&ures, &c. to be taken down
and conveyed to Perfia, while his foldiers carried off e-
very thing elfe. The city being thus completely plun¬
dered, Cofrhoes ordered his men to fet fire to it; which
was accordingly done fo effectually, that none of the
buildings even without the walls efcaped. Such of the
inhabitants as efcaped daughter were carried into Per¬
fia, and fold as flaves.
Notwithftanding fo many and fo great calamities,
the city of Antioch foon recovered its wonted fplendor;
but in a Ihort time underwent its ufual fate, being al¬
moft entirely deftroyed by an earthquake in 587, by
which 30,000 perfons loft their lives. In 634, it fell
into the hands of the Saracens, who kept poffeffion of
it till the year 858, when it was furprifed by one Burt-
zas, and again annexed to the Roman empire. The
Romans continued matters of it for fome time, till the
civil diffenfions in the empire gave the Turks an oppor¬
tunity of feizing upon it as well as the whole kingdom
of Syria. From them it was again taken by the Cru-
fadersin 1098. In 1262, it was taken by Bibaris ful-
tan of Egypt, who put a final period to its glory. It
is now only a fmall and contemptible village, known
by the name of Anthakia; and the name of the river
Orontes is changed for that of Ajp. The walls of each
quarter, as well as thofe which furrounded the whole,
are ftill remaining ; but as the houfes are entirely de¬
ftroyed, thefe quarters look like fo many inclofed fields.
Its former grandeur, however, appears in the many
magnificent ruins that ftill remain.
ANTIOCHETTA, a town of Turky, in Afia,
in Carimania, with a biftiop’s fee, over-againft the
ifland of Cyprus. E. Long. 32. 15. N. Lat. 36.42.
ANTIOCHUS the Great, king of Syria, fuc-
ceeded his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, 223 years be¬
fore Chrift. He was defeated in a bloody battle, by
Ptolemy Philojpater, near Raphia, 217 years before
Chrift. Some time after, he took Sardes; attacked the
Medes and Parthians; conquered Judea, Phoenicia, and
Coelofyria; and formed the defign of reducing Smyrna,
Lampfacus, and other cities of Afiatic Greece. Thefe
cities implored the afliftance of the Romans; who fent
ambaffadors to oblige him to reftore to Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus the countries he had taken from him, and to
fuffer the free cities of Greece to enjoy the bleffings of
peace. Antiochus being enraged, at the folicitation
of Hannibal declared war againil the Romans; but
was defeated by Acilius Glabrio, and loft a great bat- Antiochus
tie againft Scipio Afiaticus, near Magnefia : in fhort, . H
the Romans granted him a peace on very difgraceful Antiparos‘
conditions. At laft, finding his exchequer low, and
going to recruit it with the plunder of the temple of
Belus, he was killed by the rabble, who came to fave
the facred treafure, about 187 years before Chrift; and
was fucceeded by Seleucus Philopater.
Antiochus Epiphanes, or the Illuftrious, ufurped
the throne of Syria from his nephew Demetrius, 175
years before Chrift, and attempted to take Egypt from
his nephew Ptolemy Philometer; but was repulfed.
He depofed Onias, the high-prieft of the Jews ; and
beiieged and took Jerufalem, 170 years before Chrift,
when he prophaned the temple of God, offered facri-
fices in it to Jupiter Olympius, carried away the facred
veffels, and committed the moft horrid a£ts of cruelty.
At his return to Antioch, 167 years before Chrift,
he put to death the feven brothers, the Maccabees,
with old Eleazar. However, Matthias and Judas Mac¬
cabeus defeated his armies; and he himfelf was routed
by the Elymeans, and obliged to return to Babylon,
where he was feized with a dreadful difeafe, and died
in the greateft inward agonies, 164 years before the
Chriftian sera. He was fucceeded by his fon,—
Antiochus Eupator, king of Syria, 164 years
before Chrift. By the advice of Lyfias his fon-in-Iaw,
he entered Judea, with an army of 80,000 foot, and
80 elephants; but was defeated by Judas Maccabeus.
He was killed by Demetrius his coufin-german, 162
years before the Chriftian sera.
There have been feveral other princes of the fame
name.
Antiochus of Afcalon, a celebrated philofopher,
the difciple of Philo of Lariffa, the matter of Cice¬
ro, and the friend of Lucullus and Brutus. He was
founder of a fifth academy; but, inftead of attacking
other fefts, he fet himfelf down to reconcile them to- .
gether, particularly the fcft of the ftoics with that of
the ancient academy.
ANTIOPE, in fabulous hiftory, the wife of Lycus,
king of Thebes, who, being deflowered by Jupiter in
the form of a fatyr, brought forth Amphion and Ze-
thus.—Another Antiope was queen of the Amazons ;
and, with the affiftance of the Scythians, invaded the
Athenians; but was vanquiftied by Thefeus.
ANTIPAROS, an ifland in the Archipelago, op-
pofite to Paros, from which it is feparated by a ftrait
about feven miles over. It is the Clear os, or Oliaros,
mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, Virgil, Ovid, <bc.; and
was, according to Heraclides Ponticus as quoted by
Stephanus, firft peopled by a Phoenician colony from
Sidon.—According to Mr Tournefort’s account, it is
about 16 miles in circumference, produces a little wine
and cotton, with as much corn as is neceffary for the
maintenance of 60 or 70 families, who live together in
a village at one end of the ifland, and are moftly Mal-
tefe and French corfairs.
This ifland is remarkable for a fubterraneous cavern
or grotto, accounted one of the greateft natural curio-
fities in the world. It was firft difcovered in the laft
century by one Magni an Italian traveller, who has gi¬
ven us the following account. “ Having been inform¬
ed (fays he) by the natives of Paros, that in the little
ifland of Antiparos, which lies about two miles from
P p p 2 the
ANT [ 488 1 ANT
Antiparos. the former, of a gigantic ftatue that was to be feen at
‘ the mouth of a cavern in that place, it was refolvedthat
we (the French Conful and himfelf) ftiould pay it a vi-
fit. In purfuance of this refolution, after we hadland-
ed on the ifland, and walked about four miles through
the midft of beautiful plains and Hoping woodlands,
we at length came to a little hill, on the fide of which
yawned a moll horrid cavern, that with its gloom at
firft ftruck us with terror, and almoft repreffed curiofity.
Recovering the firft furprife, however, we entered
boldly; ^nd had not proceeded above 20 paces, when
the fuppofed ftatue of the giant prefented itfelf to our
view. We quickly perceived, that what the ignorant
natives had been terrified at as a giant, was nothing
more than a fparry concretion, formed by the water
dropping from the roof of the cave, and by degrees
hardening into a figure that their fears had formed in¬
to a monfter. Incited by this extraordinary appear¬
ance, we were induced to proceed ftill farther, in queft
of new adventures in this fubterranean abode. As we
proceeded, new wonders offered themfelves: the fpars,
formed into trees and fhrubs, prefented a kind of pe¬
trified grove; fome white, fome green ; and all rece¬
ding in due perfpeftive. They ftruck us with the more
amazement, as we knew them to be mere produftions
of Nature, who, hitherto in folitude, had, in her play¬
ful moments, dreffed the fcene, as if for her own amufe-
ment.
“ But we had as yet feen but a few of the wonders
of the place ; and we were introduced as yet only into
the portico of this amazing temple. In one corner of
this half-illuminated recefs, there appeared an opening
of about three feet wide, which feemed to lead to a
place totally dark, and that one of the natives affured
us contained nothing more than a refervoir of water.
Upon this we tried, by throwing down fome ftones,
which rumbling along the fides of the defcent for fome
time, the found feemed at laft quaftied in a bed of wa¬
ter. In order, however, to be more certain, we fent
in a Levantine mariner, who, by the promife of a good
reward, with a flambeaux in his hand, ventured into this
narrow aperture. After continuing within it for about
a quarter of an hour, he returned, carrying fome beau¬
tiful pieces of white fpar in his hand, which art could
neither imitate nor equal. Upon being informed by
him that the place was full of thefe beautiful incrufta-
tions, I ventured in once more with him, for about 50
paces, anxioufly and cautioufly defcending by a fteep
and dangerous way. Finding, however, that we came
to a precipice which led into a fpacious amphitheatre,
if I may fo call it, ftill deeper than any other part, we
returned; and being provided with a ladder, flambeaux,
and other things to expedite our defcent, our whole
company, man by man, ventured into the fame open¬
ing, and, defcending one after another, we at laft faw
ourfelves all together in the moft magnificent part of the
cavern.
“ Our candles being now all lighted up, and the
whole place completely illuminated, never could the eye
be prefented with a more glittering or a more magnifi¬
cent fcene. The roof all hung with folid icicles, tran-
fparent.as glafs, yet folid as marble. The eye could
fcarce reach the lofty and noble cieling; the fides were
regularly formed with fpars ; and the whole prefented
the idea of a magnificent theatre, illuminated with an
immenfe profufion of lights. The floor confifted of fo- Antiparos. ■
lid marble; and in feveral places, magnificent columns,
thrones, altars, and other objefts, appeared, as if nature
had defigned to mock the curiofities of art. Our voices,
upon fpeaking or finging, were redoubled to an afto-
nifhing loudnefs; and, upon the firing of a gun, the
noife and reverberations were almoft deafening. In the
midft of this grand amphitheatre rofe a concretion of
about 15 feet high, that, in fome meafure, refembled
an altar; from which, taking the hint, wecaufed mafs
to be celebrated there. The beautiful columns that
(hot up round the altar, appeared like candlefticks; and
many other natural objects reprefented the cuftomary
ornaments of this facrament.
“ Below even this fpacious grotto, there feemed an¬
other cavern; down which I ventured with my former
mariner, and defcended about 50 paces by means of a
rope. I at laft arrived at a fmall fpot of level ground,
where the bottom appeared different from that of the
amphitheatre, being compofed of foft clay, yielding to
the preffure, and in which I thruft a ftick to about fix
feet deep. In this, however, as above* numbers of the
moft beautiful cryftals were formed; one of which,
particularly, refembled a table. Upon our egrefs from
this amazing cavern, we perceived a Greek infcription
upon a rock at the mouth; but fo obliterated by time,
that we could not read it. It feemed to import, that
one Antipater, in the time of Alexander, had come
thither ; but whether he penetrated into the depths of
the cavern, he does not think fit to inform us.”
From this account Mr Tournefort’s differs confide-
rably. Mr Magni mentions only one defcent or pre¬
cipice from the entry of the cave to the grotto, or
moft magnificent part: Mr Tournefort fays that there
were many very dangerous precipices and rugged ways,
through which they were obliged to pafs fometimes on
their back, and fometimes on their belly; but gives no
particular account of his journey till he comes to the
grand cavern. This indeed he defcribes very pompouf-
ly; but as by it he evidently wants to fupport a favou¬
rite hypothefis, namely, the vegetation of ftones, per¬
haps the particulars are not altogether to be depended
upon. He informs us, that, at the entry into the ca¬
vern, he met with a Greek infcription almoft defaced,
containing a good number of proper names; and that
there was a tradition among the inhabitants, that thefe
were the names of fome who had confpired againft A-
lexander the Great, and having miffed their aim, had
taken refuge in this grotto.
The moft particular acount, however, of this fa¬
mous grotto that hath hitherto been publiflied, appear¬
ed in the Britifli magazine, in a letter figned Charles \ \
Saunders, and dated Feb. 24th 1746-7; which, as it
is very particular, and feems to bear fufficient marks of
authenticity, we fhall here infert. “ Its entrance lies
in the fide of a rock, about two miles from the fea-
fliore ; and is a fpacious and very large arch, formed
of rough craggy rocks, overhung with brambles and
a great many climbing plants, that give it a gloomi-
nefs which is very awful and agreeable. Gur furgeon,
myfelf, and four paffengers, attended by fix guides
with lighted torches, entered this cavern about eight
o’clock in the morning, in the middle of Auguft laft.
We had not gone 20 yards in this cavity, when we loft
all fight of day-light: but our guides going before us
with
ANT
j Amiparo?. with lights, we entered into a low narrow kind of al-
I' ]ey, furrounded every way with ftone ail glittering like
diamonds by the light of our torches; the whole be¬
ing covered and lined throughout with fmall cryftals,
which gave a thoufand various colours by their different
refleftions. This alley grows lower and narrower as
one goes on, till at length one can fcarce get along it.
At tne end of this paffage, we were each of us prefent-
ed with a rope to tie about our middles ; which when
we had done, our guides led us to the brink of a moft
horrible precipice. The defcent into this was quite
fteep, and the place all dark and gloomy. We could
fee nothing, in fhort, but fome of our guides with
torches in a miferable dark place, at a vaft diftance be¬
low us. The dreadful depth of this place, and the
horror of the defcent thro’ a miferable darknefs into it,
made me look back to the lane of diamonds, if I may
fo call it, thro’ which we had juft paffed ; and I could
not but think I was leaving heaven, to defcend into the
infernal regions. The hope of fomething fine at my
journey’s end, tempted me, however, to truft myfelf
to the rope and my guides at the top, to let myfelf
down. After about two minutes dangling in this po-
fture, not without much pain as well as terror, I
found myfelf fafe, however, at the bottom ; and our
friends all foon followed the example. When we had
congratulated here with one another on our fafe de¬
fcent ; I was inquiring where the grotto, as they call¬
ed it, was. Our guides, ftiaking iheir heads, told us,
we had a great way to that yet; and led us forward
about 3 a yards under a roof of ragged rocks, in a
fcene of terrible darknefs, and at a vaft depth from the
furface of the earth, to the brink of another precipice
much deeper and more terrible than the former. Two
of the guides went down here with their torches firft;
and by their light we could fee, that this paffage was
not fo perpendicular indeed as the other, but lay in a
very fteep flant, with a very flippery rock for the bot¬
tom ; vaft pieces of rough rugged rocks jutting out in
many places on the right hand, in the defcent, and for¬
cing the guides fometimes to climb over, fometimes to
creep under them, and fometimes to round them ; and
on the left, a thoufand dark caverns, like fo many mon-
ftrous wells, ready, if a foot fliould flip, to fwallow them
up for ever. We flood on the edge to fee thefe people
with their lights defcend before us ; and were amazed
and terrified to fee them continue defeending till they
feemed at a monftrous and moft frightful depth. When
they were at the bottom, however, they hallowed to
us; and we, trembling and quaking, began to defcend
after them. We had not gone 30 feet down, when we
came to a place where the rock was perfe&ly perpendi¬
cular ; and a vaft cavern feemed to open its mouth to
fwallow us up on one fide, while a wall of rugged
rock threatened to tear us to pieces on the other. I
was quite dilheartened at this terrible profpeft, and de¬
clared I would go back: but our guides affured us
there was no danger ; and the reft of the company re-
folving to fee the bottom now they were come fo far, I
would not leave them : fo on we went to a corner where
there was placed an old flippery and rotten ladder,
which hung down clofe to the rock; and down this,
one after another, we at length all defeended. When
we had got to the bottom of this we found ourfelves at
the entrance of another paffage, which was terrible e-
A N T
nough indeed ; but in this there was not wanting fome- Antlparos.
thing of beauty. This was a wide and gradual de¬
fcent ; at the entrance of which one of our guides feat-
ed himfelf on his breech, and began to Aide down,
telling us we muft do the fame. We could difeover, by
the light of his torch, that this paffage was one of the
nobleft vaults in the world. It is#about nine feet high,
feven wide, and has for its bottom a fine green gloffy
marble. The walls and arch of the roof of this being
as fmooth and even in moft places as if wrought by
art, and made of a fine glittering red and white gra¬
nite, fupported here and there with columns of a deep
blood-red ftu'ning porphyry, made, with the refle&ion
of the lights, an appearance not to be conceived. This
paffage is at leaft 40 yards long ; and of fo fteep a de¬
fcent, that one has enough to do, when feated on one’s
breech, not to defcend too quickly. Our guides that wc
kept with us, could here keep on each fide of us: and,
what with the prodigious grandeur and beauty of the
place, our eafy travelling thro’ it, and the diverfion of
our now and then running over one another whether we
would or not; this was much the pleafanteft part of
our journey'. When we had entered this paffage, I
imagined we ftiould at the bottom join the two guides
we had firft fent down : but alas ! when we were got
there, we found ourfelves only at the mouth of ano¬
ther precipice, down which we defeended by a fe-
cond ladder not much better than the former. I
could have admired this place alfo, would my terror
have fuffered me; but the dread of falling, kept all
my thoughts employed during my defcent. I could
not but obferve, however, as my companions were co¬
ming down after me, that the wall, if I may fo call it,
which the ladder hung by, was one mafs of blood-
red marble, covered with white fprigs of rock cryftal
as long as my finger, and making, with the glow of the
purple from behind, one continued immenfe fheet of a-
methyfts. From the foot of this ladder we Aided on
our bellies through another {hallow vault of poliflied
green and white marble, about 20 feet; and at the bot¬
tom of this joined our guides. Here we all got toge¬
ther once again; and drank fome rum, to give us cou¬
rage before we proceeded any farther. After this ftiort
reh-efliment, we proceeded by a ftrait, but fomewhat
flanting paffage, of a rough, hard, and fomewhat coarfe
ftone, full of a thoulhnd ftrange figures of fnakes rolled
round, and looking as if alive; but in reality as cold
and hard as the reft of the ftone, and nothing but fome
of the ftone itfelf in that fhape. We walked pretty
eafily along this defcent for near 200 yards; where we
faw two pillars feemingly made to fupport the roof from
falling in: but in reality it was no fuch thing; for they
were very brittle, and made of a fine glittering yellow
marble. When we had paffed thefe about 20 yards,
we found ourfelves at the brink of another very terrible
precipice: but this our guides affured us was. the laft;
and there being a very good ladder to get down by, we
readily ventured. At the bottom of this fteep wall, as
I may call it, we found ourfelves for fome way upon
plain even ground; but, after about 40 yards walking,
were prefented by our guides with ropes again; which
we faftened about our middles, though not to be fwung
down by, but only for fear of danger, as there are lakes
and deep waters all the way from hence on the left hand.
With this caution, however, we entered the laft alley;
and
C 4S9 1
ANT [ 490 1 ANT
Antiparos. and horrible work it was indeed to get through it. All
was perfectly horrid and difmal here. The Tides and
roof of the paflage were all of black ftone; and the
rocks in our way were in fome places fo deep, that we
were forced to lie all along on our backs, and Aide
down; and fo rough, that they cut our clothes, and
bruifcd us miferably in paffing. Over our heads, there
were nothing but ragged black rocks, fome of them
looking as if they were every moment ready to fall in
upon us; and, on our left hands, the light of our guides
torches fhewed us continually the furface of dirty and
miferably looking lakes of water. If I had heartily
repented of my expedition often before, here I affure
you I was all in a cold fweat, and fairly gave myfelf
over for loft; heartily curfing all the travellers that had
xvritten of this place, that they had defcribed it fo as
to tempt people to fee it, and never told us of the hor¬
rors that lay in the way. In the midft of all thefe re¬
flexions, and in the very difmaleft part of all the ca¬
vern, on a bidden we had loft four of our fix guides.
What was my terror on this fight! The place was a
thoufand times darker and more terrible for want of
their torches; and I expeXed no other, but every mo¬
ment to follow them into fome of thefe lakes, into
which I doubted not but they were fallen. The remain¬
ing two guides faid all they could, indeed, to cheer us
up; and told us we fliould fee the other four again
foon, and that we were near the end of our journey.
I don’t know what effeX this might have upon the reft
of my companions; but I affure you I believed no part
of the fpeech but the laft, which I expeXed every mo¬
ment to find fulfilled in fome pond or precipice. Our
paflage was by this time become very narrow, and we
were obliged to crawl on all-fours over rugged rocks;
when in an inftant, and in the midft of thefe melancho¬
ly apprehenfions, I heard a little hifiing noife, and faw
myfelf in utter, and not to be defcribed, darknefs. Our
guides called indeed cheerfully to us, and told us that
they had accidentally dropped their torches into a pud¬
dle of water, but we fhould foon come to the reft of
them, and they would light them again; and told us
there was no danger, and we had nothing to do but to
crawl forward. I cannot fay but 1 was amazed at the
courage of thefe people; who were in a place where,
I thought, four of them had already perifhed, and
from whence we could none of us ever efcape; and de¬
termined to lie down and die where I was. Words can¬
not defcribe the horror, or the extreme darknefs, of the
place. One of our guides, however, perceiving that I
did not advance, came up to me, and clapping his hand
firmly over my eyes, dragged me a few paces forward.
While I was in this ftrange condition, expeXing every
moment death in a thoufand fhapes, and trembling to
think what the guide meant by this rough proceeding,
he lifted me at once over a great ftone, fet me down on
my feet, and took his hand from before my eyes. What
words can defcribe at that inftant my aftoniihment and
tranfport! Inftcad of darknefs and defpair, all was
fplendor and magnificence before me; our guides all
appeared about us; the place was illuminated by 50
torches, and the guides all welcomed me into the grot¬
to of Antiparos. The four that were firft mifiing, I
now found, had only given us the flip, to get the torches
lighted up before we came; and the other two had put
©ut their lights on purpofe, to make us enter out of ut¬
ter darknefs into this pavilion of fplendor and glory. Antiparos.,
I am now come to the proper bufinefs of this letter; 1
which was, to defcribe this grotto. But I muft con-
fefs to you that words cannot do it. The amazing beau¬
ties of the place, the eye that fees them only can con¬
ceive. The b«ft account I can give you, however, pray
accept of.
The people told us, the depth of this place was 485
yards. The grotto, in which we now were, is a cavern
of 120 yards wide, and 113 long, and feems about 60
yards high in moft places. Thefe meafures differ fome-
thing from the accounts travellers in general give us; but
you may depend upon them as exaX, for I took them
with my own hand. Imagine then with yourfelf, an im-
menfe arch like this, almoft all over lined with fine and
bright chryftalized white marble, and illuminated with
56 torches; and you will then have fome faint idea of the
place I had the pleafure to fpend three hours in. This,
however, is but a faint defcription of its beauties. The
roof, which isa finevaulted arch, is hungall over with ici-
clesof white fhining marble, fome of them ten foot long,
and as thick as one’s middle at the root: and among
thefe there hang 1000 feftoons of leaves and flowers of
the fame fubftance ; but fo very glittering, that there
is no bearing to look up at them. The fides of the
arch are planted with feeming trees of the fame white
marble, rifing in rows one above another, and often
inclofing the points of the icicles. From thefe trees
there alfo hung feftoons, tied as it were from one to ano¬
ther in vaft quantities ; and in fome places among them
there feem rivers of marble winding through them in a
thoufand meanders. All thefe things are only made,
in a long courfe of years, from the dropping of water,
but really look like trees and brooks turned to marble.
The floor we trod upon was rough and uneven, with
cryftals of all colours growing irregularly out of it,
red, blue, green, and fome of a paie yellow. Thefe
were all fhaped like pieces of falt-petre ; but fo hard,
that they cut our fhoes: among thefe, here and there, are
placed icicles of the fame fiiining white marble with thofe
above, and feeming to have fallen down from the roof
and fixed there; only the big end of thefe is to the floor.
To all thefe our guides had tied torches, two or three
to a pillar, and kept continually beating them to make
them burn bright. Yon may guefs what a glare of
fplendor and beauty muft be the effeX of this illumina¬
tion, among fuch rocks and columns of marble. All
round the lower part of the fides of the arch are a thou¬
fand white maffes of marble, in the fhape of oak-trees.
Mr Tournefort compares them to cauliflowers, but I
fliould as foon compared them to toad-ftools. In ftiort,
they are large enough to inclofe, in many places, a piece
of ground big enough for a bed-chamber. One of
thefe chambers has a fair white curtain, whiter than
fattin, of the fame marble, ftretched all over the front
of it. In this we all cut our names, and the date of
the year, as a great many people have done before us.
In a courfe of years afterwards, the ftone blifters out
like this white marble over the letters. Mr Tourne¬
fort thinks the rock grows like oaks or apple-trees
for this reafon; but I remember I faw fome of the fineft
cockle and mufcle ftiells, in the rock thereabouts, that
ever I faw in my life. I wonder whether he thinks
they grow there too. Befides, if this rock grows fo
fall, the cavern ought to be all grown up by this time;
ANT [ 491 ] ANT
Antipater, and yet, according to his meafures and mine, it feems
Antipathy. on other hand to be grown bigger finct. Indeed,
all that l ean gather from his account of this glorious
place is, that he had drank a bottle or two too much
before he went down into it.”
ANTIPATER, the difciple of Ariftotle, and one
of Alexander the Great’s generals, was a man of great
abilities, and a lover of the fciences ; but was accufed
of poifoning Alexander. He fubdued the revolted
Thracians, relieved Megalopolis, and overthrew the
Spartans there. He died 321 years before the Chri-
ftian sera.
Antipater, an Idumean of illuftrious birth, and
pofiefled of great riches and abilities, taking advantage
of the confuiion into which the two brothers Hyrcanus
and Ariftobulus plunged Judea by their conteft for
the office of high-prieft, took fuch meafures as to gain
Hyrcanus that office, and under his government to
obtain the abTolute dire&ion of all affairs; while his
great abilites and application to bufinefs made him fo
confiderable, that he was honoured as much as if he
had been invelled with the royal authority in form:
but he was at laft poifbned by a Jew, named Malachus,
43 years before the Chriftian sera. He left among his
other children, the famous Herod king of the Jews.
Antipater (Cselius), a Roman hiftorian, who wrote
a hiftory of the Punic war, much valued by Cicero.
The emperor Adrian preferred him to Salluit.
Anti pater of Sydon, a Stoic philofopher, and like-
wife a poet, commended by Cicero and Seneca: he
flourifhed about the 171st Olympiad. We have feveral
of his epigrams in the Anthalogia.
ANTIPATHY, in phyfiology, is formed from the
two Greek words, «vti contrary, and pajjion. Li¬
terally taken, the word fignifies incompatibility : but for
the moft part the term antipathy is not ufed to fignify
jk fuch incompatibilities as are merely phyfical; it is re-
ferved to exprefs the averfion which an animated or
fenfitive being feels at the real or ideal prefence of par¬
ticular objects. In this point of view, which is the
light in which we at prefent confider the term, antipa¬
thy, in common language, fignifies, “ a natural hor-
ror and deteflation, an infuperable hatred, an invo-
“ luntary averfion, which a fenfitive being feels for fome
“ other objeft, whatever it is, though the perfon who
** feels this abhorrence is entirely ignorant of its caufe,
“ and can by no means account for it.” Such is, they
fay, the natural and reciprocal hoftility between the fa-
lamander and the tortoife; between the toad and the
weafel; or between fheep and wolves. Such is the in¬
vincible averfion of particular perfons againft cats, mice,
fpiders, &c.; a prepoffeffion which is fometimes fo vio¬
lent, as to make them faint at the fight <5f thefe ani¬
mals. Of thefe and a thoufand other antipathies the
ancient naturalifts, the fchoolmen, and the vulgar,
form fo many legends; and relate them as certain fafts,
that they tnay demand an explication of them from the
philofbphers. But thefe fages begin with invefligating
whether fuch antipathies actually exift or not.
To explore the matter without prejudice, we fhall
find it neceffary to abftra<5t from the fubjedts of this
difquifition, 1. All fuch antipathies as are not afeer-
tained; as that which is fuppofed to be felt by hens
at the found of an harp whofe firings are made of a
fox’s bowels, between the falamander and tortoife, and
between the weafel and the toad. Nothing is lefscon- Antipathy,
firmed, or rather nothing is more falfe, than thefe ~
fadls, with which vulgar credulity and aftoniffiment
are amufed and a&uated: and though fome of thefe
antipathies fliould be afeertained, this would be no
proof that the animals which feel them are not ac¬
quainted with their caufes, according to their mode and
proportion of knowledge ; in which cafe, it will be no
longer the antipathy which we have defined.
2. We muft abftract thofe antipathies which can be
extinguilhed or refumed at pleafure ; thofe fi&itious a-
verfions, which certain perfons feel, or pretend to feel,
with affedted airs, that they may appear more precife
and finical, or Angularly and prodigioufly elegant;
that they may feem to have qualities fo exquifitely fine,
as require to be treated with peculiar delicacy. One
who beftows any attention on the fubjedt, would be a-
ftoniffied to find how many of thefe chimerical aver-
fions there are, which are pretended, and pafled upon
the world by thofe who affect them as natural and un¬
conquerable.
3. When we abftraft thofe averfions the caufes of
which are known and evident; we fhall be furprifed,
after our deduction of thefe pretended antipathies from
the general fum, how fmall, how inconfiderable, is the
quantity of thofe which are conformable to our defini¬
tion. Will any one pretend to call by the name of an¬
tipathy, thofe real, innate, and inconteftable averfions
which prevail between fheep and wolves ? Their caufe
is obvious : the wolf devours the fheep, and fubfifts up¬
on his victims ; and every animal naturally flies with
terror from pain or deftrudtion : fheep ought therefore
to regard wolves with horror, which for their nutrition
tear and mangle the unrefifting prey. From principles
fimilar to this, arifes that averfion which numbers of
people feel againft ferpents; againft finall animals, fuch
as reptiles in general, and the greateft number of in¬
fers. During the credulous and fufceptible period of
infancy, pains have been taken to imprefs on our minds
the frightful idea that they are venomous; that their
bite is mortal; that their fting is dangerous, produc¬
tive of tormenting inflammations or tumours, and
fometimes fatal: they have been reprefented to us as
ugly and fordid ; as being, for that reafon, pernicious
to thofe who touch them; as poifoning thofe who have
the misfortune to fwallow them. Thefe horrible pre-
poffeffions are induftrioufly inculcated from our infan¬
cy ; they are fometimes attended and fupported by dif-
mal tales, which are greedily imbibed, and indelibly
engraven on our memories. It has been taught us
both by precept and example, when others at their
approach have affumed in our view the appearance of
deteftation and even of terror, that we fhould fly from
them, that we fhould not touch them. Is it then won¬
derful (if our falfe impreffions as to this fubjeft have
been correfted neither by future reflexions nor experi¬
ments), that we fhould entertain, during our whole
lives, an averfion from thefe objtXs, even when we
have forgot the admonitions, the converfations, and ex¬
amples, which have taught us to believe and apprehend
them as noxious beings ? and in proportion to the fen-
fibility of our frame, in proportion as our nerves are ir¬
ritable, our emotions at the fight of what we fear will
be more violent, efpecially if they anticipate our expec¬
tation, and feize us unprepared, though our ideas of
what
ANT * [ 492 ] ANT
Antipathy. what we have to fear from them are the moft confufed
and indiftinft imaginable. To explain thefe fadls, is it
neceffary to fly to the exploded fubterfuge of occult
qualities inherent in bodies, to latent relations produc¬
tive of antipathies, of which no perfon could ever form
an idea ?
It is often fufficient to influence a perfon who had
formerly no averfion for an object, if he lives with fome
other affociate who gives himfelf up to fuch capricious
panics; the habit is infenfibly contra&ed to be agitated
with difagreeable emotions at the prefence of an ob-
je6t which had been formerly beheld with indifference
and cold blood. I was acquainted, (fays the author
of the article Antipathy in the French Encyclopedic)
with a perfon of a very found underftanding, whom
thunder and lightning by no means terrified; nay,
to whom the fpeftacle appeared magnificent and the
found majeftic ; yet to a mind thus feemingly fortified
againft the infeftious terror, no more was neceffary
than fpending the fummer with a friend in whom the
appearance of lightning excited the ftrongeft emotions,
and whom the remotefl clap of thunder affe&ed with
extravagant parqxifms, to become timid in excefs at
the approach of thunder, nor could he ever afterwards
furmount the fear which it infpired.—The frightful
ftories of dogs and cats, which have killed their mafters,
or which have given them mortal wounds, are more
than fufficient to infpire a timorous perfon with aver¬
fion againft thefe animals ; and if the olfactory nerves
of fuch a perfon be delicate, he will immediately dif-
coverthe fmellof them in a chamber: difturbed by the
apprchenfion which thefe effluvia excite in his mind,
he gives himfelf up to the moft violent uneafinefs, which
is tranquillized when he is affured that the animal is no
longer in the room. If by chance, in the fearch which
is made to calm the uneafinefs of this timorous per¬
fon, one of thefe creatures fhould at laft be difcover-
ed, every one prefently exclaims, A miracle ! and ad¬
mits the reality of antipathies into his creed; whilft all
this is nothing but the effeft of a childilh fear, founded
on certain confufed and exaggerated ideas of the ha¬
zard which one may run with thefe animals. The an¬
tipathy which fome people entertain againft eels, tho’
they are eaten by others with pleafure, arifes from no¬
thing but the fear of ferpents, to which thefe fifties are
in fome degree fimilar. There are likewife other anti¬
pathies which do not originate in the imagination, but
arife from fome natural incongruity'; fuch as we often
remark in children, for particular kinds of victuals,
with which their tafte is not offended, but which their
ftomachs cannot digeft, and which are therefore dif-
gorged as foon as fwallowed.
To what then are thofe antipathies, of which we have
heard fo much, reducible ? Either to legendary tales ;
or to averfions againft objefts which we believe dange¬
rous; or to a chiklifti terror of imaginary perils ; or to
a difrelilh, of which the caufe is difguifed ; or to a ri¬
diculous affe&ation of delicacy ; or to an infirmity of
the ftomach ; in a word, to a real or pretended reluc¬
tance for things which are either invefted, or fuppofed
to be invefted, with qualities hurtful to us. Too much
care cannot be taken in preventing, or regulating, the
antipathies of children; in familiarizing them with ob-
jefts of every kind; in difcovering to them, without
emotion, fuch as are dangerous ; in teaching them the
means of defence and fecurity, or the methods of efca- Antipathy
ping their noxious influence ; and, when the rati°na^ Antipodes ■
powers are matured by age, in refle&ing tm the na-  If
ture of thofe objects which we fear, in afcertaining what
has been told concerning their qualities, or in vigor-
oufly operating upon our own difpofitions to overcome
thofe vain repugnances which we may feel. See Sym¬
pathy, which is the oppofite of Antipathy.
Antipathy, in ethics, hatred, averfion, repugnancy.
Hatred is entertained againft perfons; averfion, and
antipathy, indifcriminately againft perfons or things;
and repugnancy, againft a&ions alone.
Hatred is more voluntary than averfon, antipathy, or
repugnancy. Thefe laft have greater affinity with the
animal conftitution. The caufes of antipathy are lefs
known than thofe of averfon. Repugnancy is lefs per¬
manent than either the one or the other.—We hate a
vitious chara&er, we feel averfon to its exertions: we
are affedted with antipathy for certain perfons at firft
fight; there are fome affairs which we tranfadl with
repugnancy.—Hatred calumniates; averfon keeps us at
a diftance from certain perfons; antipathy makes
us deteft them ; repugnancy hinders us from imitating
them.
ANTIPHONY, in mufic, the name which the
Greeks gave to that kind of fymphony which was ex¬
ecuted in odtave or double odtave. It is likewife the
anfwer made by one choir to another, when an anthem
is fung between them.
ANTIPODES, in geography, a name given to
thofe inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically
oppofite to each other. The word is Greek, and com¬
pounded of kvt* oppofte, and a foot} becaufe their
feet are oppofite to each other.
The antipodes lie under oppofite meridians and op¬
pofite parallels; in the fame degreee of latitude, but
•of oppofite denominations, one being north and the
other fouth. They have nearly the fame degree of
heat and cold, days and nights of equal length, but
in oppofite feafons. It is noon to one, when midnight
to the other ; and the longeft day with the one, is the
fhorteft with the other.
Plato is efteemed the firft who thought it poffible
that the antipodes fubfifted, and is looked upon as the
inventor of the word. As this philofopher apprehen¬
ded the earth to be fpherical, he had only one ftep to
make to conclude the exiftence of the antipodes.
The ancients, in general, treated this opinion with
the higheft contempt; never being able to conceive
how men and trees could fubfift fufpended in the air
with their feet upwards, for fo they apprehended they
muft be in the other hemifphere.
They never reflefted that thefe terms upwards and 1J
downwards are merely relative; and fignify only
nearer to, or farther from, the centre of the earth, the
common centre to which all heavy bodies gravitate ;
and that, therefore, our antipodes have not their feet
upwards and head downwards any more than ourfelves;
becaufe they, like us, have their feet nearer the centre
of the earth, and their heads further from it. To have
the head downwards and feet upwards, is to place the
body in a direftion of gravity tending from the feet to
the head : but this cannot be fuppofed with regard to
the antipodes ; for they, like us, tend toward the cen¬
tre of the earth, in a direction from head to foot.
AN- I
1
ANT [ 493 ] ANT
I ( Antiquary ANTIQUARY, a perfon who ftudies and fearches
II . II . . after monuments and remains of antiquity.
T | iqul 'es‘ There were formerly, in the chief cities of Greece
and Italy, perfons of diftin&ion called antiquaries, who
1 made it their bufinefs to explain the ancient infcriptions,
and give every other affiftance in their power to ftran-
gers who were lovers of that kind of learning. There
is a fociety of antiquaries in London, incorporated by
the king’s charter. See Society.
ANTIQUATED, fomething obfolete, out of date,
or out of ufe.
ANTIQUE, in a general fenfe, fomething that is
ancient: but the term is chiefly ufed by fculptors, pain¬
ters, and architefts, to denote fuch pieces of their dif¬
ferent arts as were made by the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Thus we fay, an antique bull, an antique
ftatue, &c.
Autiqjje is fometimes contradiftinguiihed from an~
cient, which fignifies a lefs degree of antiquity. Thus,
antique architecture is frequently diftinguiftied from an¬
cient architecture.
ANTIQUITIES, a term implying all teftimonies,
or authentic accounts, that have come down to us, of
ancient nations. Bacon calls antiquities the wrecks
of hiftory, or fuch particulars as induftrious and learn¬
ed perfons have collected from genealogies, infcriptions,
monuments, coins, names, etymologies, archives, in-
ftruments, fragments of hiftory, &c.
Antiquities form a very extenfive fcience, including
!|j! “an hiftorical knowledge of the edifices, magiftrates,
offices, habiliments, manners, cuftoms, ceremonies,
worftiip, and other objeCts worthy of curiofity, of all
the principal ancient nations of the earth.”
r ' This fcience is not a matter of mere curiofity, but
is indifpenfable to the theologian ; who ought to be
thoroughly acquainted with the antiquities of the Jews,
to enable him properly to explain numberlefs pafiages
in the Old and New Teftaments : to the lawyer; who,
without the knowledge of the antiquities of Greece
and Rome, can never well underftand, and properly ap¬
ply, the greateft part of the Roman laws: to the
phyfician and the philofopher, that they may have a
complete knowledge of the hiftory and principles of
the phyfic and philofophy of the ancients : to the cri¬
tic, that he may be able to underftand and interpret
ancient authors : to the orator and poet ; who will be
thereby enabled to ornament their writings with num¬
berlefs images, allufions, comparifons, &c.
Antiquities are divided into facred and profane, into
public and private, univerfal and particular, &c. It is
true, that the antiquaries (efpecially fuch as are infeCted
with a fpirit of pedantry, and the number of thefe is
great) frequently carry their inquiries too far, and em¬
ploy themfelves in laborious refearches after learned
trifles : but the abufe of a fcience ought never to make
us neglect, the applying it to rational and nfeful pur-
pofes.
Many antiquaries alfo reftrain their learned labours to
the ecclairciffement of the antiquities of Greece and
Rome: but this field is far too confined, and by no
means contains the whole of this fcience, feeing it pro¬
perly includes the antiquities of the Jews, Egyptians,
Perfians, Phenicians, Carthaginians, Hetrufcans, Ger-
. mans, and, in general, all thofe principal nations men-
| r part n!* tioned in ancient hiftory *; fo far as any accounts
Von. I.
of them are come down to us. Antiquities.
If to the general fubje&s above-mentioned we add ’
the particular ftudy of antiques, of the ftatues, baff-
relieves, and the precious relics of archite&ure, paint¬
ing, camaieus, medals, &c. it is eafy to conceive that
antiquities form a fcience very extenfive and very com¬
plicated, and with which only a very fmall acquaintance
could have been attainable by any one man, if our pre-
deceflbrs had not prepared the way for us ; if they had
not left us fuch ineftimable works as thofe of Gronovius,
Graevius, Montfaucon, count Caylus, Winckelman,
the Hebraic antiquities of D. Iken of Bremen, the
Grecian antiquities of Brunings, the Roman antiqui¬
ties of Nieupoort, and efpecially that work which is
intitled Bibliographia Antiquaria Job. Alberti Fabricii,
profefibr at Hamburg ; &c. &c. Nor muft we here
forget that very valuable work, with which our coun¬
tryman Mr Robert Wood has lately enriched this
fcience, and which is fo well known, and fo juftly e-
fteemed by all true coijnoiffeurs, under the title of the
Ruins of Palmyra, and thofe of Balbeck. It is by this
work that we are fully convinced of the grandeur and
magnificence, the tafte and elegance, of the buildings
of the ancients. We here fee that the invention of
thefe matters is not all owing to the Greeks, but that
there were other nations who ferved them as models.
For, tho’ many of the edifices of Palmyra are to be at¬
tributed to the emperor Aurelian, and to Odenatus and
his wife Zenobia, who reigned there about the year
264, yet there are found, at the fame place, ruins of
buildings, that appear to be of far greater antiquity,
and that are not lefs beautiful. The ancient Perfe-
polis is fufficient to prove this affertion. When we
dnly refle£t on all thefe matters, and efpecially if
we attempt to acquire any knowledge of this fcience,
we fhall foon be convinced that it but ill becomes a
petit-maitre to laugh at a learned antiquary.
The knowledge of thofe monuments of the ancients,
the works of fculpture, ftatuary, graving, painting,
&c. which they call antiques, requires a ftri6l atten¬
tion, with regard to the matter itfelf on which the art
has been exercifed ; as the wax, clay, wood, ivory,
ftones of every kind, marble, flint, bronze, and every
fort of metal. We flrould begin by learning on what
matter each ancient nation principally worked, and in
which of the fine arts they excelled. For the matter
itfelf, .as the different forts of marble, compofitions of
metals, and the fpecies of precious ftones, ferve fre¬
quently to chara&erize the true antique, and to dif-
cover the counterfeit. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo
to know, by certain diftin& chara&ers in the defign
and execution of a work of art, the age and nation
where it was made. They find, moreover, in the in¬
vention and execution, a degree of excellence, which
modern artifts are not able to imitate. Now, though
we ought to allow, in general, the great merit of the
ancients in the polite arts, we ihould not, however,
fuffer our admiration to lead us into a blind fuperfti-
tion. There are pieces of antiquity of every fort,
which have come down to us; fame that are perfedlly
excellent; and others fo wretched, that the meaneft
among modern artifts would not acknowledge them.
The mixture of the good and bad has taken place in
all fubje&s, at all times, and in all nations. The mif-
fortune is, that rooft of our great antiquaries have
Q_q q been
ANT [ 494 ] ANT
Antiquities been fo little Ikilled in defigning, as fcarcely to know
Antfrrhi ^ow t0 ^raw a c*rc^e with a pair of compafles. It is
mim. prejudice, therefore, which frequently direfts them to
   give the palm to the ancients, rather than a judgement
dire&ed by a knowledge of the art. That chara&er
of expreflion, which they find fo marvellous in the
works of antiquity, is often nothing more than a mere
chimera. They pretend that the artifts of our days
conftantly exaggerate their expreffions ; that a modern
Bacchus has the appearance of a man diftrafted with
intoxication; that a Mercury feems to be animated with
the fpirit of a fury ; and fo of the reft. But let them
not decide too haftily. Almoft all the antique fi¬
gures are totally void of all fpirit of expreffion ; we
are forced to guefs at their charadlers. Every artifi¬
cial exprefiion requires, moreover, to be fomewhat ex-
aggerated. A ftatue or portrait is an inanimate
figure ; and muft therefore have a very different ef-
fe£t from one which, being endowed with life, has
the mufcles conftantly in play, and where the continual
change of the features, the motion of the eyes, and
the looks, more or lefs lively, eafily and clearly exprefs
the paffions and fentiments. Whereas, in a figure that
is the produce of art, the delicate touches, that fhould
exprefs the paffions, are loft to the eyes of the fpedla-
tors : they muft therefore be ftruck by ftrong, bold
chara&ers, which can affeft them at the firft glance of
the eye. A very moderate artift is fenfible, at the
fame time, that he is not to give his figures extravagant
expreffions, nor to place them in diftorted attitudes.
Befides the knowledge above explained, there re-
* See the ar-main, i. That of medals and coins * : 2. The diplo*
ele Medals, matic, and the explication of infcriptions f: And, 3,
•f See Diplo- knowledge of books J.
^"seeHiJlo- ANTIQUITY fignifies times or ages paft long a-
/•jr, PartVII. go. Thus, we fay, the heroes of antiquity, &c.
Antiquity is alfo ufed to denote the works or
monuments of antiquity. See Antiquities.
Antiquity likewife expreffes the great age of a
thing ; and in this fenfe we fay the antiquity of a fami¬
ly, the antiquity of a kingdom.
ANTIRRHINUM, snap-dragon, or calves-
snout ; a genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging
to the didynamia clafs of plants. To this genus Lin¬
naeus has joined the linaria and affarina; but as thefe
are generally kept feparate by other botanical writers,
and feveral fpecies of each of them defcribed, we chufe
to follow their example.
Species. 1. The majus, with fpear-fhaped leaves, ha¬
ving footftalks. This is not a native of Britain ; but
having been brought into gardens, the feeds fcattered a-
bout in fo great plenty, that it is become common upon
walls and old buildings in many parts of the country. Of
this fort there are feveral varieties, which differ in the
colour of their flowers; fome having red flowers with
white mouths, fome with yellow mouths, and others
have white flowers with yellow mouths. There is alfo
one with ftripped leaves. 2. The latifolium, with
fmooth fpear-ftiaped leaves, is a native of the Archi¬
pelago iflands. The leaves are much broader, the flowers
greatly larger and more beautiful, than thofe of any
other fpecies, and therefore this beft deferves a place in
gardens. The other fpecies are the minus, with ob-
tufe fpear-ftiaped leaves; the Italicum, with narrow,
hairy leaves; and the Siculum, with ibot-ftalks pro¬
ceeding from the wings of the leaves. Anurrhiuuv
Culture. Thefe plants grow beft on old walls, or . |
on a fandy rocky foil. In rich ground they grow very ArUl(~liene,!
luxuriant for a while, but are apt to rot in winter.
They are propagated by feeds, which ftiould be fown
in the beginning of March where they are to remain.
When the plants come up, they require no other care
than to be kept free from weeds. The variety of the
firft fpecies with ftripped leaves, may alfo be propaga¬
ted by cuttings. They begin to flower in July, and
continue flowering till prevented by froft. When plant¬
ed on walls, they will have ftrong woody ftems, which
are rarely hurt by froft.
ANTIRRHIUM, a promontory at the mouth of
the Corinthian bay, where it is fcarce a mile broad,
and where it feparates the jEtolians from the Pelopon-
nefus; fo called from its oppofite fituation to Rhium
in Peloponnefus, (Pliny): both are now called the
Dardanelles of Lepanto.
ANTISABBATARIANS, a modern religious
fe£t, who oppofe the obfervance of the Chriftian fab-
bath. The great principle of the Antifabbatarians is,
that the Jewifti fabbath was only of ceremonial, not
moral obligation ; and confequently is aboliflied by the
coming of Chrift.
ANTISAGOGE, in rhetoric, a figure differing
little from that called concejjion. The following paf-
fage from Cicet'o is an inftance of it: Difficilis rath
belli gerendi ; at plena fidei, plena pietatis : et Ji di-
cas, magnus labor, multa periculaproponuntur ; at glo¬
ria ex his immortalis ejl confecutura. See Concession.
ANTISCII, in geography, people who live on dif¬
ferent fides of the equator, whole ftiadows at noon are
projefted oppofite ways. Thus the people of the north
are Antifcii to thofe of the fouth ; the one projecting
their fliadows at noon toward the north pole, and the
other toward the fouth pole.
ANTISCORBUTICS, medicines good in fcorbu-
tical cafes.
ANTISEPTICS, among phyficians, a denomina¬
tion given to all fubftances that refill putrefaction * ; * See JV/rels
fuch as falls of all kinds, vinegar, myrrh, fnake-root, fodton.
pepper, &c.
ANTISTASIS, in oratory, a defence of an aCtion
from the confideration that had it been omitted worfe
would have enfued. This is called by Latin writers
comparativum argumentum; fuch, e. gr. would be the
general's defence, who had made an inglorious capi¬
tulation, that, without it, the whole army muft have
perilhed.
ANTISTHENES, a Greek philofopher, and foun¬
der of the Cynics. He was born at Athens, and paffed
the former part of his life as a foldier. Having after¬
wards been an attendant at the lectures of Socrates, he
wasprincipally charmed with thofe exhortations of that
great philofopher, which perfuadedto frugality, to tem¬
perance, and to moderation : thefe Antifthenes was re-
folved to praCtife by carrying every precept to its ut-
moft extent. Permitting therefore his beard to grow, he
went about the ftreets in a thread-bare coat, fcarcely
to be diftinguilhed from a common beggar. He prided
himfelf upon the moft rigid virtue, and thought himfelf
obliged to attack the vitious where-ever he found them.
This gave him fome reputation in the city ; but it may¬
be fuppofed, that, in a placefo very luxurious as Athens,
he
Autiftoe-
I chon
: I!
ANT
he had more enemies than difciples.
[495
His philofophy
confifted rather in adlion than fpeculation : it was in
therefore his conftant maxim, That to be virtuous was
- to be happy, and that all virtue confifted in aftion ;
that the wife man ftiould live for himfelf, contented in
all fituations, and happy alone in the confcioufnefs of
his own virtue. He acknowledged nothing to be good
but what was honourable; and afierted, that virtue
might be acquired by practice. Laertius tells us there
were 10 tomes of his works ; and he has given us many
of his apophthegms,
1
ANT
ANTIVARI, a ftrongtown of Turky, in Europe, Antivaii
in Dalmatia, a Greek archbifhop’s fee, and fubjeA to . .
the Turks. E.Lon. 29. 15. N. Lat. 43. o. Ant0imn°‘
ANTLER, among fportfmen, a ftart or branch of a
deer’s attire.
-Sroou-ANTLER, denotes the branch next the head;
and,
Zfar-Antler, the branch next above the brow-antler.
ANTLIA, an ancient machine, fuppofed to be the
fame with our pump. Hence the phrafe, in antliam
condemnari, according to the critics, denotes a kind
ANTISTOECHON, in grammar, the ufing one of puniftiment, whereby criminals were condemned to
letter inftead of another ; as olli for illi.
ANTISTROPHE, in grammar, a figure by which
two things mutually depending on one another, are re¬
ciprocally converted ; as, the fervant of the tnafler, the
majler of the fervant.
Antistrophe, among lyric poets, that part of a
fong and dance in ufe among the ancients, which was
drain ponds, ditches, or the like.
ANTOECI, in geography, thofe inhabitants of the
earth who live under the fame meridian, and at the
fame diftance from the equator; the one toward the
north, and the other toward the fouth. Hence they
have the fame longitude; and their latitude is alfo the
fame, but of a different denomination. They are in the
performed before the altar, in returning from weft to fame femicircle of the meridian, but oppofite in paral-
eaft ; in oppofition to ftrophe. See Strophe, and Ode. lels. They have precifely the fame hours of the day and
ANTITACTiE, in church-hiftory, a branch of night, but oppofite feafons; and the night of the one
Gnoftics, who held, that God was good and juft, but
that a creature had created evil; and confequently that
it is our duty to oppofe this author of evil, in order to
avenge God of his adverfary.
ANTITHENAR, in anatomy, a name given to
the addu&or indicis. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
ANTITHESIS, contrail:, or oppofition of words
er fentiments ; as,
 Though gentle, yet not dull ;
Strong, -without rage ; -without o'erfloiving, full.
Antithesis is fometimes ufed for controverfy. In
is always equal to the day of the other.
ANTOINE, a town of France, in Dauphiny, in the
diocefe of Vienne, with a celebrated abbey. It is feated
among the mountains, 13 miles eaft of Lyons. E. Lon.
5. 20. N. Lat. 45. 43.
ANTONIA, a citadel of Jerufalem, the origin of
which we have in Jofephus ; who fays, that Hyrcanus,
the firft high-prieft of that name, built Baris near the
temple, a hovffe with turrets, where he generally refi-
ded. Herod afterwards made it ftronger, for the fecu-
curity and defence of the temple; and in honour of
Marc Antony, who then commanded in the eaft, called
this fenfe, we meet with antithetic method, antithetic it Antonia. It was very extenfive, and could accommo-
difcourfes, &c. Marcion compofed a volume of Anti- date a Roman legion : from it there was a full view of
thefes, or contrarieties and oppofitions between the law the temple.
and the gofpel. ANTONIA (St), a town of France, in Rouergue,
ANTITRAGUS musculus, in anatomy, a mufcle in the diocefe of Rhodez, whofe fortifications are de-
©f the ear. See Anatomy, n° 405, a; and Table of the molilhed. It is feated on the river Aveirou. E. Long.
Mufcles. O.55. N.Lat. 44. 10..
ANTITRINITARIANS, a general name given ANTONIAN waters, medicinal waters of Ger-
to all thofe who deny the doarine of the Trinity, and many, very pleafant to the tafte, and efteemed good ia
particularly to the Arians and Socinians. many chronic and hypochondriac cafes.
ATITYPE, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes a ANTONIANO (Silvio), a man of great learning,
type correfponding to Tome other type or figure.
ANTIUM, (Livy;) Antia, Dionyfius Halicar-
naffseus; a city of the Volfci, (Livy) ; fituated on the
who raifed himfelf from a low condition by his merit,
was born at Rome in the year 1540. When he was but
ten years old, he could make verfes upon any fubject
Tufcan fea, yet without a harbour, becaufe they had propofed to him; and thefe fo excellent, though pro-
S'lbouring hamlet, called Ceno, with a harbour,
o). The Romans gained their firft reputation
in naval affairs againft the Antiates ; part of whofe
fhips they conveyed into the arfenal of Rome, and part
they burnt, and with their beaks, or roftra, adorned
the pulpit erected in the Forum, thence called Roflra,
(Livy, Florus). Several colonies were fucceffively fent
thither, (Livy, Tacitus). The epithet is Antianus^
nounced extempore, that even a man of genius could not
compofe the like without a good deal of time and pains.
The duke de Ferrara coming to Rome, to congratulate
Marcellus II. upon his being raifed to the pontificate,
was fo charmed with the genius of Antoniano, that he
carried him to Ferrara, where he provided able mafters
to inftruft him in all the fciences. From thence he was
fent for by Pius IV. who made him profeffor of the
Antienjis, Antiatinus, and Antias,-atis ; the people belles lettres in the college at Rome. Antoniano filled
- . J nr-r * r 1 C TP _ ^  IN t 110fl _ that. OTI t h P rlHV
Antiates. Here flood a famous temple of Fortune,
(Horace). Addifon fays, there were two Fortunae
worfhiped at Antium.—The birth-place of Caligula
this place with fo much reputation, that, on the day
when he began to explain the oration pro Marco Mar-
re’h, he had a vaft crowd of auditors, and among thefe
and Nero, (Sueton) : but, according to Pliny, the no lefs than 25 cardinals. He was afterwards chofen
Ambiatinus Vicus was the birth-place of Caligula. It reftor of the college and after the death of Pius IV.
- now extina, but the name ftill remains in the Capo beincr feized with a fmnt of devotion, he loined himielf
being feized with a fpirit of devotion, he joined himfelf
to Philip Neri, and accepted the office of fecrttary to
Qjj q 2 the
ANT L 496 ] ANT
Antonides. the facred college, offered him by Pius V. which he
executed for 25 years with the reputation of an honeft
and able man. He refufed a bifhopric which Grego¬
ry XIV. would have given him ; but he accepted the
office of fecretary to the briefs, offered him by Cle¬
ment VIII. who made him his chamberlain, and after¬
wards a cardinal. Antoniano killed himfelf by too great
fatigue : for he fpent whole nights in writing letters ;
which brought on a ficknefs, whereof he died, in the
63d year of his age. He wrote with fuch eafe and flu¬
ency, that he never almoft made any blot or rafure; and
it is faid of him, that he preferved the flower of his vir¬
ginity during his whole life.
ATONIDES Vander Goes (John), an eminent
Hutch poet, born at Goes, in Zealand, the 3d of April,
1647. His parents were Anabaptifts, people of good
chara&er, but of low circumftances. They went to live
at Amfterdam when Antonides was about four years
old ; and, in the ninth year of his age, he began his ftu-
dies, under the direction of Hadrian Junius and James
Cocceius. Antonides took great pleafure in reading the
Latin poets, and carefully compared them with Gro-
tius, Heinfius, &c. By this means he acquired a tafte
for poetry, and enriched his mind with noble ideas. He
firft attempted to tranflate fome pieces of Ovid, Horace,
and other ancients; and, having formed his tafte on
thefe excellent models, he at length undertook one of
the moft difficult tafks in poetry, to write a tragedy:
this was intitled Traz'd, or The Invajion of China. An¬
tonides, however, was fo modeft, as not to permit it to
be publifhed. Vondel, who was then engaged in a dra¬
matic piece, which was taken alfo from fome event that
happened in China, read Antonides’s tragedy; and was
fo well pleafed with it, that he declared, if the author
would not print it, he would take fome paffages out of
it, and make ufe of them in his own tragedy. He ac¬
cordingly did fo; and it was reckoned much to the ho¬
nour of Antonides, to have written what might be
adopted by fo great a poet, as Vondel was acknow¬
ledged to be by all good judges. Upon the conclufion
of the peace between Great Britain and Holland, in the
year 1697, Antonides wrote a piece, intitled Bellona
aan hand, i.e. “ Bellona chaineda very elegant poem,
confifting of feveral hundred verfes. He next wrote an
ingenious heroic poem, which he intitled The River T
(the river on which Amfterdam is built).
Antonides’s parents had bred him up an apothecary ;
but his remarkable genius for poetry foon gained him
the efteem and friendfhip of feveral perfons of diftinc-
tion; and particularly of Mr Buifero, one of the lords of
the admiralty at Amfterdam, and a great lover of poe¬
try, who fent him at his expence to purfue his ftudies
at Leyden, where he remained till he took his de¬
gree of doctor of phyfic, and then his patron gave him
a place in the admiralty. In 1678, Antonides married
Sufanna Bermans, a minifter’s daughter, who had alfo
a talent for poetry. His marriage was celebrated by
feveral eminent poets, particularly by the famous Pe¬
ter Francius, profeffor of eloquence, who compofed
fome Latin verfes on the occafion. After marriage, he
did not much indulge his poetic genius ; and within a
few years he fell into a confumption, of which he died
on the 18th September, 1684, being then but thirty-
feven years and a few months old. He is efteemed the
moft eminent Dutch poet, after Vondel. His works
have been printed feveral times, having been colle&edAntonia
by his father Anthony Tanfz. The laft edition was
printed by Nicholas Ten Hoorn, at Amfterdam, in the
year 1714, in quarto, under the diredlion of David Van
Hoogftraaten, one of the mafters of the Latin fchool of
that city, who added to it alfo the life of the poet.
ANTONINUS Pius, the Roman emperor, was
born at Lanuvium, in Italy, A. C. 86, of a family ori¬
ginally from Nifmes in Languedoc. His charafter was
in all refpefts one of the nobleft that can be imagined ;
and he had the title of Pius given him by the fenate.
We have no regular account of the tranfaftions of his
reign, fince Capitolinus has written in a very confufed
manner ; and we have only an abridgment of Dion
Calfius’s hiftory by Xiphilin now remaining. He ma¬
naged the public revenues with great frugality, yet was
extremely generous; was fond of peace, and in war
preferred the reputation of juftice to all the advantages
which might be gained by vidlory. He was more in¬
tent upon preferving the bounds of his empire, than
extending them; and he often made ufe of Scipio’s ex-
preffion, That he chofe rather to fave one citizen than
kill a thoufand enemies. By this condudt he made him¬
felf univerfally efteemed and revered in that age, and
admired by pofterity. This great and good emperor
died in 161, aged 75 years, having reigned 23.
ANTONINUS Philosophus (Marcus Aurelius),
the Roman emperor, born at Rome, the 26th of April,
in the 121st year of the Chriftian sera. He was called
by feveral names, till he was admitted into the Aure-
lian family, when he took that of Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus. Hadrian, upon the death of Cejonius Corn-
modus, turned his eyes upon Marcus Aurelius; but, as
he was not then 18 years of age, and confequently too
young for fo important a ftation, he fixed upon Anto¬
ninus Pius, whom he adopted, upon condition that he
fhould likewife adopt Marcus Aurelius. The year after
this adoption, Hadrian appointed him quaeftor, though
he had not yet attained the age prefcribed by the laws.
After the death of Hadrian, Aurelius married Faufti-
na, the daughter of Antoninus Pius, by whom he had
feveral children. In the year 139, he was invefted with
new honours by the emperor Pius, in which he beha¬
ved in fuch a manner as endeared him to that prince
and the whole people.
Upon the death of Pius, which happened in the year
161, he was obliged by the fenate to take upon him
the government, in the management of which he took
Lucius Verus as his collegue. Dion Caffius fays, that
the reafon of doing this was, that he might have leifure
to purfue his ftudies, and on account of his ill ftate of
health; Lucius being of a ftrong vigorous conftitution,
and confequently more fit for the fatigues of war. The
fame day he took upon him the name of Antoninus,
which he gave likewife to Verus his collegue, and be¬
trothed his daughter Lucilla to him. The two empe¬
rors went afterwards to the camp; where, after having
performed the funeral rites of Pius, they pronounced
each of them a panegyric to his memory. They dif-
charged the government in a very amicable manner. It
is faid, that, foon after Antoninus had performed the
apotheofis of Pius, petitions were prefented to him by
the pagan priefts, philofophers, and governors of pro¬
vinces, in order to excite him to perfecute the Chri-
ftians; which he rejected with indignation, and inter-
pofed ’
ANT f 497 ] ANT
mis. pofed his authority for their prote&ion, by writing a
letter to the common affembly of Afia, then held at
Ephefus (a). The happinefs which the empire began
to enjoy under thefe two emperors was interrupted, in
the year 162, by a dreadful inundation of the Tiber,
which deftroyed a vaft number of cattle, and occafioned
a famine at Rome. This calamity was followed by the
Parthian war; and at the fame time the Catti ravaged
Germany and Rhaetia. Lucius Verus went in perfon
to oppofe the Parthians; and Antoninus continued at
Rome, where his prefence was necefiary.
During this war with the Parthians, about the year
163 or 164, Antoninus fent his daughter Lucilla to
Verus, fhe having been betrothed to him in marriage,
and attended her as far as Brundufium: he intended to
have conduced her to Syria ; but it having been infi-
nuated by fome perfons,that his defign of going into the
eaft, was to claim the honour of having finilhed the
Parthian war, he returned to Rome. The Romans ha-
ving gained a vi&ory over the Parthians, who were
obliged to abandon Mefopotamia, the two emperors
triumphed over them at Rome, in the year 166 ; and
were honoured with the title of Fathers of their coun¬
try. This year was fatal, on account of a terrible pefti-
lence which fpread itfelf over the whole world, and a
famine under which Rome laboured: it was likewife
in this year that the Marcomanni, and many other peo¬
ple of Germany, took up arms againft the Romans;
but the two emperors having marched in perfon againft
them, obliged the Germans to fue for peace. The war,
however, was renewed the year following, and the two
emperors marched again in perfon; but Lucius Verus
wras feized with an apoplecftic fit, and died at Altinum.
The Romans were now defeated with great daugh¬
ter ; and the emperor, not chufing to burden his fub-
je<fts with new taxes, expofed to public fale the furni¬
ture of the palace, the gold and filver plate belonging
to the crown, and his wife’s rich garments embroider¬
ed with gold, and a curious colledtion of pearls, which
Adrian had purchafed during his long progrefs thro’
the provinces of the empire, and was called Adrian s
cabinet.
In the year 170, Antoninus made vaft preparations
againft the Germans, and carried on the war with great
vigour. During this war, in 174, a very extraordinary
event is faid to have happened, which, according to Dion
Caflius, was as follows: Antoninus’s army being block¬
ed up by the Quadi, in a very difadvantageous place,
where there was no poffibility of procuring water; in
this fituation, being worn out with fatigue and wounds,
oppreffed with heat and thirft, and incapable of retiring
or engaging the enemy, in an inftant the Iky was co¬
vered with clouds, and there fell a vaft quantity of rain:
the Roman army were about to quench their thirft,
when the enemy came upon them with fuch fury, that Antoninus
they muft certainly Lave been defeated, had it not been
for a fliower of hail, accompanied with a ftorm of thun¬
der and lightning, which fell upon the enemy, without
the leaft annoyance to the Romans, who by this means
gained the vidfory (b). ^In 175, Antoninus made a
.treaty with feveral nations of Germany. Soon after,
Avidius Caffius, governor of Syria, revolted from the
emperor : this infurreftion, however, was put an end to
by the death of Caflius, who was killed by a centurion
named Anthony. Antoninus behaved with great lenity
towards thofe who had been engaged in Caflius’s p^r-
ty : he would not put to death, nor imprifon, nor even
fit in judgment himfelf upon any of the fenators enga-
ed in this revolt; but he referred them to the fenate,
xing a day for their appearance, as if it had been on¬
ly a civil affair. He wrote alfo to the fenate, defiririg
them to a£b with indulgence rather than feverity; not
to filed the blood of any fenator or perfon of quality,
or of any other perfon whatfoever, but to allow this ho¬
nour to his reign, that, even under the misfortune of a
rebellion, none had loft their lives, except in the firft
heat of the tumult. In 176, Antoninus vifited Syria
and Egypt: the kings of thofe countries, and ambaf-
fadors alfo from Parthia, came to vifit him. He ftaid
feyeral days at Smyrna; and, after he had fettled the
affairs of the eaft, went to Athens, on which city he
conferred feveral honours, and appointed public profef-
fors there. From thence he returned to Rome with his
fon Commodus, whom, he chofe conful for the year fol¬
lowing, though he was then but 16 years of age, ha¬
ving obtained a difpenfation for that purpofe. On the
27th of September, the fame year, he gave him the title
of Imperator; and on the 23d of December, he entered
Rome in triumph, with Commodus, on account of the
vi&ories gained over the Germans. Dion Caflius tells
us, that he remitted all the debts which were due to
himfelf and the public treafury during 46 years, from
the time that Hadrian had granted the fame favour,
and burnt all the writings relating to thofe debts. He
applied himfelf likewife to correct many enormities,
and introduced feveral excellent regulations. In the
year 179, he left Rome with his fon Commodus, in
order to go againft the Marcomanni, and other barba¬
rous nations; and the year following gained a confider-
able vi&ory over them, and would, in all probability,
have entirely fubdued them in a very ftiort time, had
he not been taken with an illnefs, which carried him off
on the 17th of March, 180, in the 59th year of his
age, and 19th of his reign. The whole empire regret¬
ted the lofs of fo valuable a prince, and paid the great-
eft regard to his memory: he was ranked amongft the
gods, and almoft every perfon had a ftatue of him in
their houfes. His book of Meditations has been much
admired
(a) Eufebius has preferred this letter, Hift. Fcclef. lib. iv. cap. 13. but he falfely afcribes it to Antoninus Pius,
whereas it was wrote by Marcus Antoninus, as Valerius makes it appear in his annotations on Eufebius.
(b) The pagans as well as Chriftians, according to Mr Tillemont (p. 621. art. xvi.), have acknowledged the truth
of this prodigy, bnt have greatly differed as to the caufe of fuch a miraculous event; the former afcribing it, fome to
one magician and fome to another: In Antoninus’s Pillar, the glory is afcribed to Jupiter the god of rain and thun¬
der. But the Chriftians affirmed, that God granted this favour at the prayer of the Chriftian foldiers in the Roman
army, who are faid to have compofed the twelfth or Melitene legion ; and, as a mark of diftin<ftion, we are told that
they received the title of the Thundering Legion, from Antoninus, (Eufeb. Ecclef. Hift. lib. v. cap. 5.). Mr Moyle,
in the letters publilhed in the fecond volume of bis works, has endeavoured to explode this ftory of the Thundering
Legion ; which occafioned Mr Whifton to publiffi an anfwer, in 1726, intitled, Of the Thundering Legion; or, Of the
miraculous delivtrance of Marcus Antoninus and hit army, upon ike prayers of the Chrijlians.
ANT [ 49S ] ANT
Antoninus’s admired by the beft judges.
Wa'' Antoninus’s Wall, the name of the third rampart or
defence that had been built oi1 repaired by the Romans
againft the incurfions of the North Britons. It is call¬
ed by the people in the neighbourhood, Graham's Dyke;
from the notion that one Graham, or Grimus, firft made
a breach in it after the retreat of the Romans out of Bri¬
tain. The firft barrier erefted by the Romans was the
t Sec dgri- chain of forts made by Agricola f from the frith of
cola. porth to that of Clyde, in the year 81, to proteft his
conquefts from the inroads of the Caledonians. The
* See Adri- fecon(j was the vallum, or dyke, flung up by Adrian *
in the year 121. It terminated on the weftern fide of
the kingdom, at Axelodunum, or Brugh, on the Solway
fands; and was fuppofed to have reached no further
than Pons JElii, or Newcajlle, on the eaftern. But from
an infeription lately difeovered, it appears to have ex-
4 See Seve- tended as far as the wall of Severus if. This rampart
m' of Adrian’s was fituated much further fouth than A-
gricola’s chain; the country to the north having been
either, according to fome authors, recovered by the na¬
tive Britons after the departure of Agricola; or, ac¬
cording to others, voluntarilyflighted by Adrian. How¬
ever, this work of Adrian’s did not long continue to be
the extreme boundary of the Roman territories to the
north in Britain. For Antoninus Pius, the adopted
fon and immediate fucceffor of Adrian, having, by his
lieutenant Lollius Urbicus, recovered the country once
conquered by Agricola, commanded another rampart
to be erefted between the friths of Forth and Clyde, in
the trail where Agricola had formerly built his chain
of forts. The great number of inferiptions which have
been found in or near the ruins of this wall, or rampart,
to the honour of Antoninus Pius, leave us no room to
doubt its having been built by his direction and com¬
mand. If the fragment of a Roman pillar with an in¬
feription, now in the college library of Edinburgh, be¬
longed to this work, as it is generally fuppofed to
have done, it fixes the date of its execution to the third
confullhip of Antoninus, which was A. D. 140, only
20 years after that of Adrian, of which this feems to
have been an imitation. This wall or rampart, as fome
imagine, reached from Caer-ridden on the frith of
Forth, to Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde; or, as o-
thers think, from Kinniel on the eaft, to Dunglafs on
the weft. Thefe different fuppofitions hardly make a
mile of difference in the length of this work, which,
from feveral ailual menfurations, appears to have been
37 Englilh or 40 Roman miles. Capitolinus, in his life
of Antoninus Pius, diredlly affirms, that the wall which
that emperor built in Britain was of turf. This in the
main is unqueftionably true; though it is evident (from
the veftiges of it ftill remaining, which not very many
years ago were dug up and examined for near a mile
together) that the foundation was of ftone. Mr Cam¬
den alfo tells us, from the papers of one Mr Anthony
Pont, that the principal rampart was faced with fquare
ftone, to prevent the earth from falling into the ditch.
The chief parts of this work were as follows : 1. A
broad and deep ditch, whofe d’menfions cannot now be
difeovered with certainty and exa&nefs, tho’ Mr Pont
fays it was 12 feet wide. 2. The principal wall or
rampart was about 12 feet thick at the foundation, but
its original height cannot now be determined. This wall
was fituated on the fouth brink of the ditch. 3. A
military way on the fouth fide of the principal wall, Antoninus'd
well paved, and raifed a little above the level of the Wal1- •
ground. This work, as well as that of Adrian, was ~|
defended by garrifons placed in forts and ftations along
the line of it. The number of thefe forts or ftations,
whofe veftiges were vifible in Mr Font’s time, were 18,
fituated at about the diftance of two miles from each
other. In the intervals between the forts, there were
turrets or watch-towers. But the number of thefe,
and their diftance from each other, cannot now be dif¬
eovered.
It is not a little furprifing, that though it is now
more than 1600 years fincethis work was finiftied, and
more than 1300 fince it was flighted, we can yet dif-
cover, from authentic monuments, which are ftill re¬
maining, by what particular bodies of Roman troops
almoft every part of it was executed. This difeovery
is made from inferiptions upon ftones, which were ori¬
ginally built into the face of the wall, and have been
found in or near its ruins, and are carefully preferved.
The number of ftones with inferiptions of this kind now
extant, is 11 : of which fix may be feen at one view-
in the college of Glafgow, one in the college of Aber¬
deen, one in the college of Edinburgh, one in the col-
ledlion of Baron Clerk, one at Cochnoch-houfe, and
one at Calder-houfe. From thefe inferiptions it ap¬
pears in general, that this great work was executed by
the fecond legion, the vexillations of the fixth legion
and of the twentieth legion, and one cohort of auxilia¬
ries. If thefe corps were all complete, they would
make in all a body of 7800 men. Some of thefe in¬
feriptions have fuffered greatly by the injuries of time
and other accidents; fo that we cannot difeover from
them with abfolute certainty, how many paces of thig
work were executed by each of thefe bodies of troops.
The fum of the certain and probable information con¬
tained in thefe inferiptions, as it is colledled by the
learned and illuftrious Mr Horfley, Hands thus:
Paces.
The fecond legion built - - 11,603
The vexillation of the fixth legion - 7,411
The vexillation of the twentieth legion 7,801
All certain - - 26,8t5
The vexillation of the twentieth legion, the
monument certain, and the number probable 3,411
The fame vexillation, on a plain monument, no
number vifible, fuppofed - 3,500
The fixth legion, a monument, but no num¬
ber, fuppofed - - 3,000
Cohors prima Cugernorum - - 3,000
Total 39.726
or 39 miles 726 paces, nearly the whole length of the
wall. It would have been both ufeful and agreeable to
have known how long time thefe troops were employ¬
ed in the execution of this great work. But of this we
have no information. Neither do we know what par¬
ticular bodies of troops were in garrifon in the feveral
forts and ftations along the line of this wall, becaufe
thefe garrifons were withdrawn before the Notitia Impe¬
rii was written.
Though we cannot difeover exactly how many years
this wall of the emperor Antoninus continued to be
the
ANT [ 499 ] ANT
i Antonio, the boundary of the Roman territories In Britain, yet
|r" we know with certainty that It was not very long. For
'we are told by an author of undoubted credit, that,
in the reign of Commodus, A. D. 180, “ he had
wars with feveral foreign nations, but none fo danger-
(Dio. 1. 7*. ous as that of Britain. For the people of the illand, ba-
p 8l0, ving palled the wall which divided them from the Ro¬
mans, attacked them, and cut them in pieces.”
ANTONIO (Nicholas), knight of the order of St
James and canon of Seville, did great honour to the
Spanilh nation by his Bibliotheque of their writers. He
was born at Seville, in 16x7, being the fon of a gentle¬
man whom king Philip IV. made prefident of the ad¬
miralty eftablilhed in that city in 1626. After having
gone through a courfe of philofophy and divinity in his
own country, he went to ftudy law at Salamanca, where
he clofely attended the lectures of Francifco Ramos del
Manzano, afterwards counfellor to the king, and pre¬
ceptor to Charles II. Upon his return to Seville, after
he had finilhed his law-ftudies at Salamanca, he Ihut
himfelf up in the royal monaftery of Benedi&ines,
where he employed himfelf feveral years in writing his
Bibliotheca Hifpanica, having the ufe of the books of
Bennet de la Sana, abbot of that monaftery, and dean
of the faculty of divinity at Salamanca. In the year
1659, he was fent to Rome by king Philip IV. in the
character of agent-general from this prince : he had al-
fo particular commiffions from the inquifition of Spain,
the viceroys of Naples and. Sicily, and the governor of
Milan, to negociate their affairs at Rome. The cardi¬
nal of Arragon procured him, from pope Alexan¬
der VII. a canonry in the church of Seville, the in¬
come whereof he employed in charity and purchafing
of books: he had above 30,000 volumes in his library.
By this help, joined to continual labour and indefa¬
tigable application, he was at laft enabled to finifh his
Bibliotheca Hifpanica, in four volumes in folio, two
of which he publilhed at Rome in the year 1672. The
work conftfts of,two parts; the one containing the Spa-
ni(h writers who flouriftied before the 15 th century,
and the other thofe fince the end of that century. Af-
; ter the publication of thefe two volumes, he was re¬
called to Madrid by king Charles II. to take upon him
the office of counfellor to the crufade; which he dif-
charged with great integrity till his death, which hap¬
pened in 1684. He left nothing at his death but his vaft
library, which he had brought from Rome to Madrid;
and his two brothers, and nephews, being unable to pu-
blilh the remaining volumes of his Bibliotheca, fent
them to cardinal d’Aguifne, who paid the charge of
the impreffion, and committed the care thereof to Mon-
fieur Marti, his librarian, who added notes to them, in
the name of the cardinal.
ANTONIO (St), one of the Cape de Verd iflands,
lying in E. Long. o. 26. N. Lat. 18. xo. It is fe-
parated from St Vincent’s by a clear navigable chan¬
nel two leagues in breadth. On the north fide, it has a
good road for {hipping, with a colleftion of freffi wa¬
ter rifing from fprings, which, however, fcarcely merits
the name of a pond. The ifland ftretches from north-
pH eaft to fouth-weft, and is filled with mountains ; one of
which is of fo extraordinary a height, as to be compa¬
red with the Peak of Teneriffe: Its top is conftantly
covered with blow, and, notwithftanding the clearnefs
of the flty, is generally hid in clouds. Here are pro¬
duced a variety of fruits; oranges, lemons, palms, me- Antonio,
lons,&c. and fomefugar-canes. Thepotatoes and melons AntQn'us'
are particularly excellent, and are much fought after by
mariners. But, notwithftanding all this plenty, the in¬
habitants live in the moft wretched poverty. They are
in number about 500, chiefly negroes, under the pro-
teftion of the Portuguefe, whofe language they {peak,
and imitate their manners. To the north-weft hands a
village,' containing about 20 huts, and at leaft 50 fa¬
milies, under the direction of a governor, or, as they
call him, a captain; a prieft, and a fchoolmafter. The
latter trains up the children in the Chriftian religion,
and the firft principles of knowledge; which, however,
feldom exceeds the being able to read the bible in a
bungling manner.
ANTONIO (St), a Dutch fort in Axim* on the
gold coaft of Africa. It Hands on a high rock, which
projects into the fea in form of a peninfula; and is fo
environed by rocks and dangerous fhoals, as to be in-
acceffible to an enemy but by land, where it is fortified
by a parapet, draw-bridge, and two batteries of heavy
cannon. Befides this it has a battery towards the fea.
The three batteries confift of 24 cannon. Its form is
triangular; the building is neat; ftrong, and commo¬
dious for the extent, that being but fmall, on account
of the narrownefs of the rock on which it is built. The
garrifon is ufually compofed of 25 white men, and an
equal number of negroes, under the command of a fer-
jeant. It is maintained at the' expence of the Weft-
India Company; and, when well ftored with provifions,
is capable of making a long defence againft any num¬
ber of negroes. It is, however, as well as all other forts
on this coaft, liable to inconveniences from the heavy
and continual rains, which damage the walls, and ren¬
der frequent reparations neceffary. This obliges the
Dutch always to keep ready a quantity of lime or ce¬
ment made of calcined oyfter-flrells, of which the coaft
produces great numbers.
This fettlement was firft founded by the Portu¬
guefe during the reign of Emanuel. They fixed at firft
upon a fmall point;. where finding themfelves infecure,,
they built the fort where it now ftands. They were
driven out by the Dutch in 1642 ; and, upon the con-
clufion of a peace with the States-General, the fort re¬
mained by treaty in the hands of the Dutch Weft-India
Company, who have kept poffeffion of it ever fince.
ANTONIUS (Marcus), a famous Roman orator.
While he filled the office of praetor, Sicily fell to his-
lot, and he cleared the feas of the pirates which infeft-
ed that coaft. He was made conful with A. Pofthumi-
us Albinus, in the year of Rome 653; when he oppo-
fed the turbulent defigns of Sextus Titus, tribune of
the people, with great refolution and fuccefs. Some
time after, he was made governor of Cilicia, in quality
of proconful; where he performed fo many great ex¬
ploits, that he obtained the honour of a triumph. We
cannot omit obferving, that, in order to improve his
great talent for eloquence, he became a fcholar to the
greateft men at Rhodes and Athens, in his way to Ci¬
licia, and when on his return to Rome. Soon after, he
was appointed cenfor ; which office he difeharged with
great reputation, having carried his caufe before the
people, againft Marcus Duronius, who had preferred
an accufation of bribery againft him, in revenge for
Antonius’s having erafed his name out of the lift of fe~
nators*
ANT [ 500 ] ANT
nators, which this wife cenfor had done, becaufe Du-
ronius, when tribune of the people, had abrogated a
law which reftrained immoderate expence in feafts. He
was one of the greateft orators ever known at Rome ;
and it was owing to him, according to the teftimony of
Cicero, that Rome might boaft herfelf a rival even to
Greece itfelf in the art of eloquence. He defended, a-
mongftmany others, Marcus Aquilius; and moved the
judges in fo fenfible a manner, by the tears he fhed,
and the fears he (hewed upon the breaft of his client,
that he carried his caufe. He never would publifti any
of his pleadings, that he might not, as he faid, be
proved to fay in one caufe, what might be contrary to
what he (hould advance in another. He affedted to be
a man of no learning. His modefty, and many other
qualifications, rendered him no lefs dear to many per-
fons of diftindlion, than his eloquence made him uni-
verfally admired. He was unfortunately killed du¬
ring thofe bloody confuiions raifed at Rome by Marius
and Cinna. He was difeovered in the place where he
hid himfelf, and foldiers were fent to difpatch him ;
but his manner of addreffmg them had fuch an effedt,
that none but he who commanded them, and had not
heard his difeourfe, had the cruelty to kill him. His
head was expofed before the roftra, a place which he
had adorned with his triumphal fpoils. This happen¬
ed 90 years before the Chriftian sera.
ANTONIUS (Marcus) the triumvir, grandfon to
the former, was very handfome in his youth"; for which
reafon he was greatly beloved by Curio a fenator, who,
by carrying him about in all his debaucheries, made him
contract fuch heavy debts, that his own father forbad
•him his houfe. Curio, however, was fo generous as to
bail him for 250 talents. When the civil war broke
■out, Curio took Csefar’s party, and prevailed with An-
tonius to do the fame; for which he was made a tribune
of the people, and in that office did Casfar great fer-
vice. Caefar, having made himfelf mafter of Rome, gave
Antonius the goverment of Italy: at the battle of
Pharfalia, Caefar confided fo much in him, that he gave
him the command of the left wing of his army, whilft
he himfelf led the right. After Caefar was made dic¬
tator, he made Antonius general of the horfe, though
he had never been praetor; in which command he ex¬
erted his power with the utmoft violence. He was made
conful, when Caefar enjoyed that honour for the fifth
time, the laft year of that ufurper’s life. On Caefar’s
death he harangued the populace with great art, and
raifed their fury againft his murderers; flattering him¬
felf that he fliould eafily get into the place which Cas-
far had filled : but his haughty behaviour made him
lofe all the advantages his aifefted concern for Caefar
had gained him. His ill treatment of Oftavius, and
quarrel with him, produced another civil war; which
ended in an accommodation between him, Odlavius, and
Lepidus, fatal to the peace of Rome. They agreed to
fhare the fupreme power among them; and many of the
moft illuftrious Romans were facrificed by profeription
to cement this bloody league, which is known by the
name of the Second Triumvirate. But the triumvirs
were too ambitious, and hated one another too much,
to be long united. Antonius went into Afia to raife
money for his foldiers; during his abfence, Fulvia his
wife quarreled with Oftavius. When Antonius was in
Afia, indulging himfelf in all manner of luxury, the fa¬
mous Cleopatra infpired him with the moft violent paf-
fion. Hearing of the quarrel between Fulvia and 0<fta-
vius, and finding O&avius was become publicly his
enemy, Antonius entered into a confederacy with Sex¬
tus Pompeius, who was ftill mafter of Sicily. He then
went into Italy in order to fight Oftavius; but Fulvia,
who had been the author and promoter of this war,
dying, Oftavius and Antonius came to an agreement.
One of the conditions of this new peace was, that they
ffiould together attack Pompey, though the former had
lately made an alliance with him. Antonius then mar¬
ried Oftavia, filler to Oftavius, as a pledge of their re¬
newed friendlhip ; but returned foon after to his belo¬
ved Cleopatra, and again lived with her in Alexandria.
Oftavius took hold of this pretence to inveigh againft
him, and begin the war again. At laft they engaged
in a fea-fight at Aftium, in which Oclavius gained a
complete vi6tory; which was followed by the deaths
both of Antonius and Cleopatra. The infatuated An¬
tonius fell upon his own fword ; and Cleopatra Hung
herfelf to death with an afp, as was fuppofed, to avoid
gracing the vigor’s triumph at Rome.
ANTONOMASIA, a form of fpeech, in which,
for a proper name, is put the name of fome dignity,
office, profeffion, fcience, or trade; or when a proper
name is put in the room of an appellative. Thus a
king is called his majejly; a nobleman, his lordjhip.
We fay thephilofopher inftead of Ariftotle, and the ora¬
tor for Cicero : Thus a man is called by the name of
his country, a German, an Italian; and a grave man
is called a Cato, and a wife man a Solomon.
ANTRIM, the moft northerly county of Ireland.
It is bounded by that of Down on the fouth-eaft,
that of Londonderry on the weft, from which it is fe-
parated by the river Bann, part of Armagh on the
fouth, St George’s channel on the eaft, and the Deu-
caledonian ocean on the north. Its greateft length is
about 46 miles, its greateft breadth about 27 ; and the
number of acres it contains, plantation-meafure, are
computed at 383,000. Though the country is much
incumbered with bogs and marlhes, yet it enjoys a
pretty good air, and is well peopled, chiefly with pro-
teftants. Where it is free from bogs the foil is fruit¬
ful. It fends two members for the (hire, and two for
each of the following towns, viz. Lilburn, Belfaft,
Antrim, and Randalftown.
Certain narrow valleys, called glyns, beginning here,
and running a great way along the coaft, belonged
formerly to the Biflets, noblemen of Scotland, who, ha¬
ving been obliged to quit that country for having alfaf-
finated Patrick earl of Athol upon a private quarrel,
came hither, and had a great eftate bellowed upon them
by Henry III. of England ; of which, in the reign of
Edward 11. a part was forfeited by the rebellion of
Hugh, then chief of the family. Another tract near
this, called the Rowte, belonged anciently to the Mac-
guillers, but now to the M‘Donnels, earls of Antrim.
Upon the coaft of this country are the promontories
called by Ptolemy, Robogdium, Vennicinium, and Bo¬
res um, now Fair-Foreland, Ramjhead, and St He¬
len’s-head. The river alfo, ftyled by the fame author
Vidua, and now Crodagh, runs thro’ this country.—
Here alfo is the remarkable natural curiofity called the
Giant’s-caufeonay; for a particular defeription of which
fee that article.
Antrim,
ANT [ 501 ] ANT
Antrim Antrim, the capital town of the county of An-
trim, in Ireland, feated at the north end of the lake
niwarp. j^0Ug}1.jsj£ag}lt it is ];)Ut a p0or place, 13 miles weft
of Carrickfergus. W. Long. 6. 26. N. Lat. 54. 45'.
It fends two members to parliament.
ANTRUM, among anatomifts, a term ufed to de-
not’e feveral cavities of the body : as the antrum high-
morianum, or that in the maxillary or jaw-bone ; an¬
trum pylori, or that at the bottom of the pylorus, &c.
ANTWERP, a city of the duchy of Brabant, in
the Auftrian Netherlands, capital of the marquifate of
Antwerp, otherwife called the marquifate of the holy
Roman empire, fituated in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 51.
12. It lies in a low marlhy ground on the Scheld,
35 miles from Bruflels to the north. It is the third ci¬
ty in rank in Brabant, large and well built, contain¬
ing 22 fquares, and above 200 ftreets, all ftraight and
broad, efpecially that called the Mere, in which fix
coaches can go abreaft. Moft of the houfes are of free-
ftone, and have an air of antiquity, being high, with
courts before and gardens behind. At the head of the
Mere is a crucifix of brafs thirty-three feet high. The
cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the ftadt-houfe,
and the exchange, are magnificent ftru&ures: the lat¬
ter is the firft building of that kind in Europe, and
on its model the exchanges of London and Amfterdam
are built: its pillars are all of blue marble, and carved,
but all in a different manner. The exchange coft the
city 300,000 crowns. Antv/erp, towards the end of
the fifteenth century, was one of the moft celebrated
towns that ever exifted. The Scheld, on which it
Hands, being 20 feet at low water, and rifing 20 feet
more at flood, ftiips of the greateft burden came up to
the keys, as in the river Thames at London; but when
the United Provinces formed themfelves into a free ftate,
after having ftiakeu off the yoke of Spain, they got the
entire command of the navigation of the Scheld; which
ruined the trade of Antwerp, and transferred it to Am¬
fterdam. This made the inhabitants turn their heads to
painting, jewelling, and banking, which they have
continued to this day, with great fuccefs and reputa¬
tion : for at Antwerp bills of exchange may be nego¬
tiated for any fum to any part of Europe ; and in the
war before the laft, two brothers of the name of de
Koning, paid the one the army of France, and the o-
ther that of the confederates. Befides, here is a fine
manufadlure of tapeftry and lace; and, for the pro¬
moting of trade, an infurance-company has been erec¬
ted. This city is the fee of a bilhop, who, as ab¬
bot of St Bernard, is the fecond prelate in Brabant.
The bilhopric is <^J great extent, and the cathedral a
moft noble pile, with one of the fineft fteeples in the
world. The emperor Charles V. when he made his
entry into Antwerp, faid it ought to be put in a cafe,
and (hewed only once a-year for a rarity. The houfe
of the hanfe-towns, built when the city was in its
flouriftiing condition, is a (lately building, with ma¬
gazines above for dry goods, and cellars below for
wet, and in the middle ftory were 300 lodging rooms
for merchants; but now it is turned to a horfe-bar-
rack. There is a market here called the Fridays mar¬
ket, becaufe it is held every Friday, where all forts of
houfehold goods, pictures, and jewels, are fold by
audtion. No city in the Netherlands has fo many and
fo fine churches as this. Many of them, particularly
Vol. 1.
the cathedral and Jefuits church, are adorned with Antwerp-
paintings, by Sir Peter Paul Rubens, who was a na-
live of this city; and by Quintin Maffeys, who is
faid to have been a blackfmith; but having fallen in
love with a painter’s daughter, and been told by her
father, when he aflced her of him in marriage, that he
would have none but a painter for his fon-in-law, he
went to Italy to ftudy painting, and, in a few years,
returned fo eminent in his new profefiion, that he found
no difficulty in obtaining the father’s confent. He is
interred at the entry of the cathedral, where his effigy
is put up, with an infcription, fignifying, that conju¬
gal love made an Apelles of a blackfmith. The above-
mentioned Jefuits church is extremely magnificent, and
the chapel of the Virgin, joining to it, dill more fo.
Among the cloillers the moft remarkable are, the
noble and rich abbey of St Michael, on the banks of
the Scheld, the apartments of which are truly royal, and
in which all fovereign princes that pafs this way actual¬
ly lodge; and the Englilh nunnery, of the order of St
Terefa, the nuns of which never wear linen, nor eat
fle(h, and lie upon draw : the grates of the convent are
fo difmal, that it looks like a prifon. As to the forti¬
fications of the city, it is environed with a fine wall,
planted with rows of trees on each fide, with walks be¬
tween, broad enough for two coaches to go abreaft,
being alfo defended by a very ftrong, large, regular ci¬
tadel, in form of a pentagon, erefted by the duke of
Alva in 1568, which commands the town, and the
neighbouring country. The magiftracy of this city is
chofen only out of the feven patrician families; and
confifts of two burgomafters, and 18 echevins, befides
inferior magiftrates. Among the privileges granted to
it by its princes, there is one by which every perfon
born in it is a citizen, though both his father and mo¬
ther were foreigners.
In 1585, Antwerp underwent a remarkable fiege by
the duke of Parma. It was then the moft wealthy city
in the Netherlands, and had long been the objed of
his defigns; but the difficulties attending the enterprize
obliged him to poftpone it for a confiderable time.
In order to fucceed, it was neceffary to cut oft' the com¬
munication of the city with Holland, Ghent, and all
places above and below Antwerp on the Scheld. To
effeClthis, he laid fiege to Lilkenffiouk and Tillo, places
of the utmoft confequeuce to the fecurity and commerce
of the city; both were obllinately defended ; and the
fiege of the latter was raifed, after it had been carried on
for three months: however, the duke gained feveral o-
ther pods on the river, where he built forts, and great¬
ly annoyed the (hipping and trade of the city. He
next laid fiege to Dendermonde, in order to cut off the
communication with Ghent, in which he fucceeded by
the reduiftion of the town. His next attempt was on
Vilvorde: this place he took by affault, and thereby
cut off the communication with Bruffels. Finding,
however, this method of hemming in the city tedious,
and ineffedlual while an opening to the mouth of the ri¬
ver remained, he formed a defign of building a bridge
acrofs the Scheld, the extremities of which were to be
defended by ftrong forts and out-works. Fie began
with collefting great quantities of wood at Callo and
fort St Philip, where he intended the bridge (hould be
built; but his projedt was for fome time retarded by the
Antwerpers, who broke down the dykes, overflowed
Antwerp
A !L,r
ANT [ 502 1 A O R
the whole country, and carried off his magazines by
the inundation. Not difcouraged by this lofs, he ap¬
plied himfelf diligently to repair it, and with incredible
expedition cut a canal from Steken to Callo, by which
he carried off the waters. He then fet to work upon
the bridge, and finifhed it in feven months, without
any interruption from the Zealanders. During the
building of this bridge, Aldegonde, governor of Ant¬
werp, propofed building a fort on Couvenfteyn dyke,
in order to fecure that important poft, and then break¬
ing down the dyke, when the bridge was near finifhed:
but he was violently oppofed by certain citizens, who
apprehended that their lands and villas would be de-
flroyed by the inundation. This unfeafonable oppofi-
tion, with the negligence of the magiftrates, who, be-
caufe the markets were high, had not laid in a fuffi-
cient flock of corn, occafioned the lofs of the city.
However, in defpite of all the duke of Parma’s pre¬
cautions, the Zealanders found means to throw in a
convoy of corn: but the citizens, knowing they would
not run the rifle of carrying it back again, fo cheapened
the price, that thefe bold traders refufed ever to bring
their goods again to fo bad a market. The Antwerp-
ers, having thus through avarice brought on their ruin,
began in a fhort time to fuffer by famine'; they then
preffed the Zealanders to attempt fomething for their
relief, but it was now too late. While the magiftrates
were deliberating on feme means for deftroying the
bridge, which they might have prevented from being
ever completed, one Ginebelli, a Mantuan engineer,
offered his fervices, undertaking at a certain expence
to blow it into the air. Even in this extremity the ex¬
pence was grudged: but neceffity at laft overcame this
obftacle; Ginebelli was furnifhed with two large vef-
fels, a number of fmall boats, and every thing necef-
fary. He formed the two large veffels into fire-fhips,
which he fet adrift with the ftream, deceiving the ene¬
my by means of falfe fires lighted up in the fleet of
fmall boats. The train of one of the fire-fhips was ex¬
pended before the time expe&ed, and fhe blew up with a
terrible explofion, but with little.damage to the bridge.
The other was more fuccefsful, carrying off all the out¬
works, fetting fire to the whole bridge, and burying
above 500 foldiers in the ruins it made. The fire how¬
ever was foon extinguifhed, and the bridge repaired by
the duke of Parma, while the Antwerpers were pre •
vented by avarice from repeating the experiment; fo
that they were foon reduced to the greateft ftraits,
and obliged to furrender. It is faid that the city of
Amfterdam had obftrufted every meafure for the relief
of Antwerp, hoping to profit by its deftru&ion. It
was not doubted but the proteftants would forfake it
as foon as it fell into the hands of an arbitrary catho¬
lic prince; and this conjefture was foon fulfilled by the
removal of many families with their effefts to Amfter¬
dam.—After the battle of Ramillies, the city of Ant¬
werp furrendered to the duke of Marlborough. It
was taken by the French in 1746, but reftored to the
houfe of Auftria at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
ANXUR, a city of the Volfci, (Pliny, Livy), in
Latium ; called Tarracina, by the Greeks and Latins :
now Terracina ; fituated on an eminence, (Livy, Ho¬
race, Sil. Italicus). Anxuras, a citizen of Anxur, (Li¬
vy). And the epithet, Anxurus, a name of Jupiter, wor-
fhipped without a beard at Anxur, (Virgil). Though
others read Axurus, or Axyrus, without a razor. E.
Long. 14. 5. Lat. 41. 18.
AONIDES, in mythology, one of the many appel-_
lations of the mufes; fo called from Aonia, a part of
ancient Boeotia.
AORASIA, in antiquity, the invifibility of the
gods. The word is Greek, a^ao-ia, and derived from
«, priv. and to fee. The opinion of the ancients
with regard to the appearance of the gods to men, was,
that they never (hewed themfelves face to face, but
were known from their backs as they withdrew. Nep¬
tune affumed the form of Calchas to fpeak to the two
Ajaxes; but they knew him not till he turned his back
to leave them, and difcovered the godby hismajefticftep
as he went from them. Venus appeared to JEneEls in
the chara&er of a huntrefs : but her fon knew her not
till (he departed from him; her divinity was then be¬
trayed by her radiant head, her flowing robe, and her
majeftic pace.
AORIST, among grammarians, a tenfe peculiar to>
the Greek language, comprehending all the tenfes; or
rather, exprefling an adlion in an indeterminate man¬
ner, without any regard to pad, prefent, or future.
AORISTIA, in the fceptic philofophy, denotes that
(late of the mind wherein we neither affert nor deny
any thing pofitively, but only fpeak of things as feem-
ing or appearing to us in fuch a manner. The aoriftia
is one of the great points or terms of fcepticifm, to.
which the philofophers of that denomination had con¬
tinual recourfe by way of explication, or fubterfuge.
Their adverfaries, the Dogmatifts, charged them with
dogmatizing, and aflerting the principles and pofitions
of their fett to be true and certain.
AORNUS, a very high rock of India, having its
name from its extraordinary height, as being above the
flight of a bird. Its circuit was about 25 miles, its
height 11 furlongs, and the way leading up to the top
artificial and narrow. At the bottom, on one fide, ran
the river Indus ; on the top was a fine plain, part of
which was covered with a thick wood; the reft arable
land, with a fountain furniftiing abundance of excellent
water. This rock was taken by Alexander the Great,
in whofe time there was a report that Hercules had at¬
tempted it in vain; however, according to Arrian, this
report was without foundation. It is probable indeed,
that it was raifed after the place was taken, in order
to magnify Alexander’s exploit. While the Macedo¬
nian monarch was preparing all things neceffary for the
fiege, an old man with his two fons, who had long li¬
ved in a cave near the fummit, came and offered to (hew
him a private way of afcending. This being readily
accepted, Ptolemy, with a confiderable body of light¬
armed troops, was difpatched with them, with orders,
in cafe they fucceeded, to entrench themfelves ftrongly
upon the rock, in the wood to which the old man was
to dirett them, before they ventured to attack the In¬
dians. Ptolemy exadtly executed his orders; and gave
notice by a lighted torch fet upon a pole, that he had
got fafely up. Upon this, Alexander gave immediate
orders for a body of troops to attempt the paffage by
which the rock was commonly afcended; but they were
repulfed with great (laughter. He then fent an Indian
with letters to Ptolemy, defiring him, the next time an
attack was made by the common way, to fall upon the
enemy behind. But in the mean time, thofe who de¬
fended
Aonidej
Aornu*
A O R [ 503 ] A P A
Aorta fended the rock attacked Ptolemy with great vigour;
K Kcfeufia klIt were at laft repulffcd, though with much difficulty :
 1 but the next day, when Alexander renewed the attack,
though Ptolemy attacked the Indians in the rear, the
Macedonians were repulfed on both fides. At laft the
king, perceiving that the llrength of the Indians lay in
the ftraitnefs and declivity of the way by which they
were attacked, caufed a great quantity of trees to be
felled, and with them filed the cavities between the
plain on which the Indians were encamped, and the
higheft of his own advanced polls. The Indians at firft
derided his undertaking; but at length perceiving the
atdour with which the work was carried on, and having
felt the effefts of the miffile weapons of the Macedonians,
they fent deputies to propofe terms of capitulation.
Alexander, fufpe&ing that their defign was only to a-
mufe him till they -made their efcape, withdrew his
guards from the avenues. As foon as he knew the
Indians were defcended, he, with 700 of Ptolemy’s
light-armed foot, took poffeffion of the deferted rock,
and then made a fignal for his forces to fall upon the
flying Indians. They fetting up a loud fliout, fo ter¬
rified the fugitives, that numbers of them fell from the
rocks and precipices, and were dallied to pieces, while
the greateft part of the remainder were cut off in the
roads.
AORTA, in anatomy, the great artery which rifes
immediately from the left ventricle of the heart, and is
from thence diftributed to all parts of the body. It is
divided into two grand trunks, diftinguilhed by the epi¬
thets afcending and defcending. See Anatomy, n° 387.
AOUSTA, or Aost, a town of Italy, in Pied¬
mont, and capital of the duchy of the fame name, a
bilhop’s fee, and fubjedt to the king of Sardinia. It
is remarkable for feveral monuments of the Romans,
and for the birth of Anfelm archbilhop of Canterbury.
It is feated at the foot of the Alps, on the river Doria.
E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat. 45. 38.
Aousta, a territory of Piedmont, with the title of
a duchy. It is a valley 30 miles in length, and ex¬
tends from the pafs of St Martin’s, near the frontiers
of Yvree, to St Bernard. It abounds in paftures, and
all forts of fruits ; the capital is of the fame name.
APACHES, a people of New Mexico in North
America. They are brave, refolute, and warlike, fond
of liberty, and the inveterate enemies of tyranny and
oppreffion. Of this difpofition the Spaniards had fa¬
tal experience towards the end of the laft century, when
they revolted againft the Catholic king, maffacred fe¬
veral of his officers, and committed the greateft deva-
ftations. Ever fince, they have remained the allies, not
the fubjedts, of the Spaniards; and the viceroy of Mexi¬
co has been obliged to maintain a more formidable
garrifon, and a greater number of troops.
APiEDEUSIA, denotes ignorance or unikilfulnefs
in what relates to learning and the fciences. Hence al-
fo perfons uninftrudted and illiterate are called aptsdeu-
tce. The term apadeuta was particularly ufed among
the French in the time of Huet; when the men of wit
at Paris were divided into two fadtions, orie called by
way of reproach apadeuta-, and the others eruditi. The
aptedeuta: are reprefented by Huet, as perfons who,
finding themfelves either incapable or unwilling to un¬
dergo a fevere courfe of ftudy in order to become tru¬
ly learned, confpired to decry learning, and turn the
knowledge of antiquity into ridicule, thus making a Apagoge
merit of their own incapacity. The apadeutie in efiedt II
were the men of pleafure ; the eruditi the men of ftu- ApaiTiea'
dy. The a pa dent a: in every thing preferred the mo¬
dern writers to the ancient, to fuperfede the neceffity of
ftudying the latter. The eruditi derided the moderns,
and valued themfelves wholly on their acquaintance with
the ancients.
APAGOGE, in logic. See Abduction.
Apagoge, in the Athenian law, the carrying a
criminal taken in the fadt, to the magiftrate. If the
accufer was not able to bring him to the magiftrate, it
was ufual to take the magiftrate along with him to the
houfe where the criminal lay concealed, or defended
himfelf.
Ap agoge, in mathematics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note a progrefs or paflage from one propofition to ano¬
ther ;^when the firft having been once demonftrated, is
afterwards employed in the proving of others.
APAGOGICAL Demonstration, an indiredt
way of proof, by (hewing the abfurdity of the contrary.
APALACHIAN Mountains, mord properly
called the Aligany Mountains, have their fouthern be¬
ginning near the bay of Mexico, in the Latitude of 30°,
extending northerly on the back of the Britifti colo¬
nies, and running parallel with the fea-coaft to the La¬
titude of 40° North; but their diftance from the fea, on
the weft, is not exadlly known, though it is generally
thought to be above 200 miles. A great part of thefe
mountains are covered with rocks, fome of which are
of a stupendous height and bulk; the foil between them
is generally black and fandy, but in fome places diffe¬
rently coloured, compofed of pieces of broken rock and
fpar, of a glittering appearance, which feem to be in¬
dications of minerals and ores if proper fearch wa*
made for them. Chefnuts and fmall oaks are the trees
that principally grow on thefe mountains, with fome
chinkapin * and other fmall (hrubs. The grafs is thin, * Fagus p«-
mixed with vetch and fmall peafe; and in fome places mila. See
there is very little vegetable appearance. Fagus.
The rocks of the Apalachian mountains feem to en-
grofs one half of the furface. They are moftly of a
light grey colour: fome are of a coarfe-grained marble
like alabafter; others, of a metallic luftre: fome pieces
are in the form of (late, and brittle; others in lumps,
and hard: and fome appear with fpangles, or covered
over with innumerable fmall (hining fpecks, like filver.
Thefe frequently appear at the roots of trees when
blown down. The different fpars are found moft on
the higheft and fteepeft parts of the hills, where there
is little grafs and few trees; but the greateft part of
the foil between the rocks is generally a dark fandy-
coloured kind of mould, and (hallow; yet fertile, and
productive of good corn, which encourages the Talli-
poofes, a clan of the Cherokee Indians, to fettle among
them in Latitude 340; and they are the only Indian
nation that has a conftant refidence upon thefe moun¬
tains.
APAMEA, or Apamia, a city of Bithynia, for¬
merly called Myrlea, from Myrlus, general of the Co¬
lophonians: deftroyedby Philip, father of Perfeus; and
given to his ally Prufias, who rebuilt it, and called it
Aparnea, from the name of his queen Apama, (Strabo).
Stephanus fays, that Nicomedes Epiphanes, fon of Pru¬
fias, called it after his mother; and that it had its an-
R r r 2 cient
Apanage
Apaturia
A P A [ 504 ] APE
dent name from Myrlea, an Amazon. The Romans
Jed a colony thither, (Strabo); called Colons a Apame-
na, (Pliny, Appian). The gentilitious name is Apa-
maiuf, and Apamenus, (Trajan in a letter to Pliny).—
Another Apamea, called Cibotos, of Phrygia, at fome
diftance from the Meander, (Agathodsemon); but by
a coin of Tiberius, on the Meander. The name is from
Apame, mother of Antiochus Soter, the founder, and
the daughter of Artabazus, (Strabo). The rife, or at
leaft the increafe, of Apamea, was owing to the ruins
of Celenas. The inhabitants are called Apamienfes, (Ta¬
citus).—A third, on the confines of Parthia and Media,
furnamed Raphane, (Strabo, Pliny).—A fourth Apa¬
mea, a town of Mefene, an ifland in the Tigris, (Pliny,
Ammian); where a branch of the Euphrates, called the
Royal river, falls into the Tigris, (Ptolemy). A fifth
in Mefopotamia, on the other fide the Euphrates, op-
pofite to Zeugma on this fide, both founded by Seleu-
cus, and joined by a bridge, from which the latter
takes its name, (Pliny, Ifidor, Characenus).—A fixth
Apamea, now Afamia, alfo in Syria, below the conflu¬
ence of the Orontes and Marfyas; a ftrong city, and fi-
tuated in a peninfula, formed by the Orontes and a
lake : it was a place of fuch plenty, that Seleucus, the
founder of it, there maintained 500 elephants, (Stra¬
bo).—Apamea was alfo the ancient name of Pella, in
the Decapolis.
APANAGE, or Appennage, in the French cuf-
toms, lands affigned by a fovereign for the fubfiftence
of his younger fons, which revert to the crown upon
the failure of male iffue in that branch to which the
lands are granted.
APANOMIA, a town of Santorin, an ifland in the
Mediterranean fea, called in this part, by fome, the Sea
»f Candia: it has a fpacious harbour, in the form of a
half-moon ; but the bottom is fo deep, that fhips can¬
not anchor there. E. Long. 25. 59. N. Lat. 36. 18.
APANTHROPY, in medicine, denotes a love of
folitude, and averfion for the company of mankind.
Apanthropy is by fome reckoned among the fymptoms,
by others among the fpecies or degrees, of melancholy;
and alfo paffes for an ill indication in leucophlegmatic
cafes.
APARINE, in botany, a fynonime of the utricu-
laria and feveral other plants.
APARITHMESIS, in rhetoric, denotes the an-
fwer to the protafis or propofition itfelf. Thus, if the
protafis be, Appellandi tempus non erat,—the aparith-
mefis is, At tecum anno plus vixi.
APARTISMENUS, in the ancient poetry, an ap¬
pellation given to a verfe, which comprehended an en¬
tire fenfe or fentence in itfelf. This is fometimes alfo
written, apartemenus, i. e. fufpended, as not needing
any following verfe.
APATHY, among the ancient philofophers, im¬
plied an utter privation of paffion, and an infenfibility
of pain. The word is compounded of a priv. and
■nub®-, affection. The Stoics affefted an entire apathy:
they confidered it as the higheft wifdom to enjoy a per-
feft calmnefs or tranquillity of mind, incapable of
being ruffled by either pleafure or pain. The primitive
Chriflians ufed the word to exprefs a contempt for the
things of this world.
APATURIA, in antiquity, a folemn feaft celebra¬
ted by the Athenians in honour of Bacchus. It lafted
four days : the firft day, thofe of the fame tribe made
merry together ; and this they called Sopma, The fe-
cond day, which they called avuppvtn;, they facrificed to
Jupiter and Minerva. The third day, which they call¬
ed xvftuTff, foch of their young men and maids as
were of age were admitted into their tribes. The
fourth day they called
APAULIA, in antiquity, the third day of a mar¬
riage folemnity. It was thus called, becaufe the bride,
returning to her father’s houfe, did uxxu\it;t<rSui tv w/upia,
lodge apart from the bridegroom. Some will have the
apaulia to have been the fecond day of the marriage,
viz. that whereon the chief ceremony was performed ;
thus called by way of contradiftin&ion rrom the fir it day,
which was called On the day called u*«v\ix
(whenever that was),thebride prefented her bridegroom
with a garment called U7rav\nlr.gix.
APE, in zoology, the general Englifh name of a very
numerous race of animals, the natural hiftory of which
is given at large under the article Simia: comprehend¬
ing Apes properly fo called, or fuch as want tails; and
Monkeys and Baboons, or fuch as have tails, the former
long, and the a'CntsJhort, ones. See Simia.
APELITES, Chriftian heretics in the fecond cen¬
tury, who affirmed that Chrift received a body from
the four elements, which at his death he rendered back
to the world, and fo afcended into heaven without a body.
APELLA, among phyficians, a name given to
thofe, whofe prepuce is either wanting, or Ihrunk, fo
that it can no longer cover the glans. Many authors
have fuppofed this fenfe of the word Apella warrant¬
ed from the paflage in Horace, credat Judaus Apella,
non ego. But, according to Salmafius and others,
Apella is the proper name of a certain Jew, and not
an adje&ive fignifying circumcifed.
APELLES, one of the moft celebrated painters of
antiquity. He was born in the ifle of Cos, and flou-
riflied in the time of Alexander the Great, with whom
he was in high favour. He executed a pidlure of this
prince, holding a thunderbolt in his hand : a piece,
finifhed with fo much Ikill and dexterity, that it ufed
to be faid there were two Alexanders; one invincible,
the fon of Philip; the other inimitable, the produc¬
tion of Apelles. Alexander gave him a remarkable
proof of his regard : for when he employed Apelles
to draw Campafpe, one of his miftreffes, having found
that he had conceived an affe£tion for her, he refigned
her to him ; and it was from her that Apelles is faid to
have drawn his Venus Anadyomene.
One of Apelles’s chief excellencies was his making
his piftures fo exactly refemble the perfons reprefented;
infomuch that the phyfiognomifts are faid to have been
able to form a judgment as readily from his portraits as
if they had feen the originals. His readinefs and dex¬
terity at taking a likenefs was of great fervice to him,
in extricating him from a difficulty in which he was in¬
volved at the court of Egypt: He had not the good
fortune to be in favour with Ptolemy; a ftorm forced
him, however, to take fhelter at Alexandria, during
the reign of this prince: a mifchievous fellow, in or¬
der to do him a diikindnefs, went to him, and in the
king’s name invited him to dinner. Apelles wrent;
and feeing the king in a prodigious paffion, told him,
by way of excufe, that he Ihould not have come to his
table but by his orders. He was commanded to fliew
Apaulia
II
Apelles.
!|
■' Apcn.e
I I ‘11 ,
e| jApenzcI.
APE [ 505 ] APE
tlie man who had invited him ; this was impofiible,
the perfon who had put the trick upon him not being
prefent: Apelles, however, drew a Iketch of his pic¬
ture upon the wall with a coal, the firft lines’of which
difcovered him immediately to Ptolemy.
Apelles left many excellent piftures, which are men¬
tioned with great honour by the ancients ; but his Ve¬
nus Anadyomene is reckoned his mafter-piece. His
Antigonus has ^Ifo been much celebrated ; this was
drawn with a fide-face, to hide the deformity of An¬
tigonus, who had loft an eye. His picture of Ca¬
lumny has alfo been much taken notice of; and he is
faid to have painted a horfe fo naturally, that horfes
neighed when they faw it.
APENE, in antiquity, a kind of chariot where¬
in the images of the Gods were carried in procef-
fion on certain days, attended with a folemn pomp,
fongs, hymns, dancing, See. It was very rich, made
fometimes of ivory, or of filver itfelf, and varioufly de¬
corated.
APENNINUS, now the Apennine, a mountain, or
ridge of mountains, running thro’the middle of Italy,
from north-weft to the fouth-eaft for feven hundred
miles, in the form of a crefcent, (Pliny) j beginning
at the Alps in Liguria, or the Rivierra di Genoa; and
terminating at the ftrait of Meffana, or at Reggio,
and the promontory Leucopetra ; and feparating, as by
a back or ridge, the Adriatic from the Tufcan fea,
(Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy, Polybius, Vitruvius). This
mountain, though high, is greatly fhort of the height
of the Alps. Its name is Celtic, fignifying a high
mountain.
APENRADE, a town of Denmark, in the duchy
of Slefwick, feated at the bottom of a gulph in the
Baltic fea, between Flenfbourg and Hadafchleben. It
is 25 miles north from Slefwick. E. Long. 9. 28.
N. Lat. 55. 4.
APENZEL, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of the fame name, feated on the river Chuz, E. Long.
9. 1. N. Lat. 47. 31. The canton itfelf, which was
allied to the others in 1513, confifts only of three or
four valleys; having the town and abbey of St Gall on
the north ; the county of Toggenburg on the weft ;
the lordlhip of Sax in the canton of Zurich, and that
of Gambs in the canton of Schweiz, on the fouth ;
and the Rheinthal, or Rhine valley, on the eaft. Its
greateft length is about 30 miles, and its breadth about
20. It yields good pafturage, and confequently is not
deftitute of cattle, milk, butter, or cheefe. Confide-
rable quantities alfo of wheat, rye, barley, oats, beans,
peafe, flax, and wine, are produced in it; befides a
great deal of fruit, wood, and turf; with mineral wa¬
ters, and warm baths. There are many mountains in
the canton, the higheft of which is that called the Ho-
hefantis, or the Hohe-Mefmer, which commands a pro-
fpe& of a prodigious fextent. There are alfo feveral
lakes and rivers. The inhabitants, wdio are partly Pro-
teftants, and partly Roman-catholics, fubiift chiefly
by their manufactures of linen, crape, fuftian, and
thread, or by bleaching, and the fale of their cattle,
butter, cheefe, horfes, wood, and coal. Of the twen¬
ty-three parifties in the canton, four are Popifli and
nineteen Proteftant. Before the Reformation, the in¬
habitants were fubje-Ct to the abbot of St Gall ; but
they then {hook off his yoke, and united themfelves
with the other cantons; after that, however, there were Apepfia
violent animofities between the Papifts and ProteftantSi ij
the former continually perfecuting the latter, till at p aca‘
laft, in 1587, by the mediation of the other cantons,
the two parties came to an accommodation, by which
certain diftricts were affigned to each party, wherea*
before they lived promifeuoufly together; and though
thefe two divifions now conftitute but one canton, yet
each forms a diftinft community or free ftate, fending
its particular reprefentatives to the diets of the con¬
federacy, and having its feparate councils and'officers.
In fpirituals the Papifts are fubjedf to the biftiop of
Conftance, but the Proteftants to their own confiftory.
The militia of the former does not exceed three thou-
fand, whereas thofe of the latter amount to ten thou-
fand.
APEPSIA, (from <*> neg. and w£cr7«, to digeji.)
Indigeftion.
Abftemioufnefs and excefs are alike caufes of indi¬
geftion. An over diftenfion of the ftomach may in
fome meafure injure its proper tone ; and long falling,
by inducing a bad quality in thejuicesfecerned into the
ftomach, renders it feeble, and generates wind. Hard
drinking, and any of the caufes of an anorexy, alfo
injure digeftion.
The columbo root is particularly ufeful when the
ftomach is languid, the appetite defective, digeftion
with difficulty carried on, or when a naufea with fla¬
tulence attends. It may be given in fubftance with
any grateful aromatic, or infufed in Madeira wine,
now and then interpofing gentle dofes of the tindlure
of rhubarb.
A mixture of muftard-feed with the columbo root is
of admirable utility in complaints of this kind ; par¬
ticularly where acidity and flatulence prevail much in
the primae vise.
APER, in zoology, a fynonime of the fus ferofa *. * See Sus.
APERIENTS, in the materia medica, an appel¬
lation given to fuch medicines as facilitate the circula¬
tion of the humours by removing obftru&ions.—The
five aperient roots of the {hops are fmallage, fennel,
afparagus, parfley, and butcher’s broom.
APERTURE, the opening of any thing, or a hole
or cleft in any continuous fubjetl.
Aperture, in geometry, the fpace between two
right lines which meet in a point and form an angle.
Aperture, in optics, a round hole in a turned bit
of wood or plate of tin, placed within the fide of a
telefcope or microfcope, near to the objedl-glafs, by
means of which more rays are admitted, and a more
diftindl appearance of the object is obtained.
Apertures, or Apertions, in architefture, are ufed
to fignify doors, windows, chimneys, &c.
APETALOSE, or apetalous, among botanifts,
an appellation given to fuch plants as have no flower-
leaves.
APEX, in antiquity, the creft of a helmet, but
more efpecially a kind of cap worn by the flamens.
Apex, among grammarians, denotes the mark of a
long fyllable, falfely called a long accent.
APHACA, the name of a place in Syria, fituated
between the Heliopolis and Byblus, near Lebanon,
(Zofimus) ; infamous for a temple of Venus, called
Aphacitis, near which was a lake, round which fire
ufually burft forth, and its waters were fo heavy, that
bodies.
A P H [ 5c6 ] A P H
Aplisrefis bodies floated on them. The temple was deftroyed by
ApL Conftantine, as being a fchool of incontinence, (Eu-
 febius). The name is of Syriac origin, fignifying em-
' braces.
APHJERESIS, in grammar, a figure by which a
letter or fyllable is cut off from the beginning of a word.
Aphjeresis, that part of furgery which teaches to
take away fuperfluities.
APHAN£S, a genus of the monogynia order, be¬
longing to the tetrandria clafs of plants, of which there
is only one fpecies known. It is extremely common in
corn-fields. The ftalks rife five or fix together ; they
are three inches long, round, hairy, and procumbent
the leaves ftand very thick upon them, and are round-
ifli, but divided, 3s it were, into three parts, and thofe
deeply ferrated at their edges. The flowers come out
in a double feries, arranged all along the branches, and
are of a greenifh white, and the whole plant is of a
greyifh, or whitifh-green colour.
APHELIUM, or aphelion, in aftronomy, is that
point in any planet’s orbit, in which it is furtheft di-
ftant from the fun, being that end of the greater axis
of the elliptical orbit of the planet moft remote from
the focus where the fun is.
APHIOM KARAHISSART, a town of Nato-
lia, in Afiatic Turky; it is called dpbiom becaufe it
produces a great deal of opium, called aphiom by the
Turks. E. Long. 32. 18. N. Lat. 38. 35.
APHIS, in zoology, the puceron, vine-fretter,
or plant-louse ; a genus of infe&s belonging to the
order of infe&a hemiptera. The roftrum or beak of
the aphis is inflefted ; the antennas or feelers are long¬
er than the thorax ; the wings are four, and ereft, or
they are wanting ; the feet are of the ambulatory
kind; and the belly often ends in two horns, from
which is ejefted that moft delicate juice called Honey-
* See Honey-decw ^
Linnaeus enumerates 33 fpecies of the Aphis, all of
them inhabitants of particular plants, from which their
trivial names are taken; as, aphis ribis, ulmi, rofee. See.:
And he adds, that there feem to be a greater variety of
plants producingaphides, than there are differentforts of
this infeft. But fomelate obfervers havebeen able to dif-
tinguifli more than double the above number of fpecies;
and it is probable that many more remain ftill to be
added, as many of the fame kind of plants are found
to fupport two or three quite different forts of aphides.
Thus the plum-tree has two forts very diftinft from
each other: one of a yellowiih green, with a round
ftiort body; the other of a bluilh green, as it were
enamelled with white, and the fliape more oblong. On
the goofeberry-bufli and currant the fame aphides may
be found ; but each of thefe is inhabited by two very
different fpecies : one being of a dufley green, with a
fliort plump body ; the other of a paler green, the bo¬
dy more taper, and tranfverfely wrinkled. The rofe-
tree, again, fupports not lefs than three diftimff fpecies:
the largeft is of a deep green, having long legs of a
browniih caff, with the joints of a very dark brown,
as are alfo the horns and antennse ; a fecond fort is of a
paler green, has much fhorter legs, and a moreflat bo¬
dy ; the third fort is of a pale red, its body tranfverfe¬
ly wrinkled, and is moft frequently on the fweet-briar.
The extraordinary nature of thefe infefts have for
fome time paft juftly excited the wonder and atten¬
tion of naturalifts. They were long ranked among Aphis’j
the animals which had been claffed with the true an- -
drogynes fpoken of Mr Breynius; for having never
been catched copulating, it was haftily concluded that
they multiplied without copulation. This, however,
was but a doubt, or at beft a mere furmife : but this
furmife was believed and adopted by Mr Reaumur ; and
tho’ he fupported it by fome obfervations peculiar to
himfelf, the qiieftion remained ftill undecided, till Mr
Bonnet feemed to have cleared it up in the affirmative,
by taking and fhutting up a young aphis, at the inftant
of its birth, in the moft perfect folitude, which yet
brought forth in his fight ninety-five young ones. The
fame experiment being made on one of the individuals
of this family, that had been tried with its chief, the
new hermit foon multiplied like its parent; and one of
this third generation, in like manner brought up in fo¬
litude. proved no lefs fruitful than the former. Re¬
peated experiments, in this refpeft, as far as the fifth or
fixth generation, all uniformly prefenting the obfer-
ver with fecund virgins, were communicated to the
Royal Academy of Sciences ; when an unforefeen and
very ftrange fufpicion, imparted by Mr Trembley to Mr
Bonnet, engaged him anew in a feries of ftill more
painful experiments than the foregoing. In a letter
which that celebrated obferver wrote to him from the ’
Hague, the 27th January 1741, he thus expreffes him¬
felf : “ I formed, fince the month of November, the
defign of rearing feveral generations of folitary puce-
rons, in order to fee if they would all equally bring
forth young. In cafes fo remote from ufual circum-
ftances, it is allowed to try all forts of means ; and I I
argued with myfelf. Who knows, but that one copu¬
lation might ferve for feveral generations ? This “ who
knows f to be fure, was next to avouching nothing;
but, as it came from Mr Trembley, it was fufficient to
perfuade Mr Bonnet that he had not gone far enough
in his inveftigation. If the fecundity of aphides was
owing to the fecret copulation fuggeftedby Mr Trem¬
bley, this copulation ferved atleaftfive or more fuccef-
five generations. Mr Bonnet therefore reared to the
amount of the tenth generation of folitary aphides,
and had the patience to keep an account of the days
and hours of the births of each generation. In fhort,
it was difeovered, That they are really diftinguifhed by
fexes : that there are males and females amongft them,
whofe amours are the leaft equivocal of any in the
world: that the males are produced only in the tenth
generation, and are but few in number : that thefe, I
foon arriving at their full growth, copulate with the
females : that the virtue of this copulation ferves for J
ten generations : that all thefe generations, except J
the firft (from the fecundated eggs), are produced vi- J
viparous; and all the individuals are females, except
thofe of the laft generation, among whom, as we have
already obferved, fome males make their appearance,
to lay the foundations of a frefti feries,—Thefe circum-
ftances have been confirmed by other naturalifts. In
particular, we have a curious and accurate detail of
them by Dr Richardfon of Rippon, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions, Vol. xi. art. 22. an extraft of which
we fhall here infert, in order to give the reader as full
an infight into the nature of thefe Angular infefts, as can
be done by a mere detail of fafts in themfelves utterly
unaccountable.
“ The
A P H
A P H [ 507 J
“ The great variety of fpecies which occur in the
infers now under confideration, unay make an inquiry
into their particular natures feem not a little perplexed;
having them, however, fliillfully reduced under their pro¬
per genus, the difficulty is by this means confiderably
diminiffied. All the infe&s comprehended under any
diftinft genus, we may reafonably fuppofe to partake
of one general nature ; and, by diligently examining
any of the particular fpecies, may thence gain fome
infight into the nature of all the reft. With this view
I have chofen, out of the various fort of aphides, the
largeft of thofe found on the rofe-tree; not only as its
fize makes it the more confpicuous, but as there are
few others of fo long a duration. This fort, appearing
early in the fpring, continues late in the autumn ;
while feveral are limited to a much ftiorter term, in
conformity to the different trees and plants from whence
they drew their nourifhment.
1. “ If at the beginning of February the weather
happens to be fo warm, as to make the buds of the
rofe-tree fwell and appear green ; fmall aphides are
frequently to be found upon them, not larger than the
young ones in fummer when firft produced. But there
being no old ones to be found at this time of the year,
which in fummer I had obferved to be viviparous, I
was formerly not a little perplexed by fuch appearan¬
ces, and almoft induced to give credit to the old doc¬
trine of equivocal generation. That the fame kind of
animal fhould at one time of the year be viviparous,
and at another time oviparous, was an opinion I could
then by no means entertain. This, however, frequent
obfervation has at laft convinced me to be faft; having
found thofe aphides which appear early in the fpring,
to proceed from fmall black oval eggs which were de-
pofited on the laft years ftioots in autumn : though,
when it happens that the infe£ts make too early an
appearance, 1 have obferved the greateft part to fuffer
from the (harp weather that ufually fucceeds, by which
means the rofe-trees are fome years in a manner freed
from thenT.
“ Thofe which withftand the feverity of the weather
feldom come to their full growth before the month of
April; at which time they ufually begin to breed, af¬
ter twice calling off their exuviae or outward covering.
It appears then that they are all females, which pro¬
duce each of them a very numerous progeny, and that
without having intercourfe with any male infecl. As
I obferved before, they are viviparous ; and what is e-
qually uncommon, the young ones all come into the
world backwards. When they firft come'from the pa¬
rent, they are enveloped by a thin membrane, having
in thisfituation the appearance of an oval egg ; which,
I apprehend, muft have induced Reaumur to fufpeft
that the eggs difcovered by Bonnet were nothing more
than mere abortions. Thefe egg-like appearances ad¬
here by one extremity to the mother ; while the young
ones contained in them extend the other ; by that
means gradually drawing the ruptured membrane over
the head and body, to the hind feet. During this o-
peration, and for fome time after, by means of fome-
thing glutinous, the fore part of the head adheres to
the vent of the parent. Being thus fufpended in the
air, it foon frees itfeif from the membrane in which it
was confined, and, after its limbs are a little ftrengthen-
ened, is fet down on fome tender Ihoot, and then left to
provide for itfeif.
2. “In the fpring-months, there appear on the rofe- '
trees but two generations of aphides, including thofe
which immediately proceed from the laft years eggs ;
the warmth of the fummer adds fo much to their ferti¬
lity, that no lefs than five generations fucceed one ano¬
ther in the interval. One is produced in May, which
calls off its covering ; while the months of June and
July each fupply two more, which call off their cover¬
ings three or four times, according to the different
warmth of the feafon. This frequent change of the
outward covering is the more extraordinary, as it is
the oftgneft repeated when the infedts come the fooneft
to their growth ; which I have fometimes obferved to
happen in ten days, where warmth and plenty of nou-
rilhment have mutually confpired. From which conft-
derations I am thoroughly convinced that thefe various
coverings are not connate with the infedt; but that
they are, like the fcarf-lkin, fucceffively produced-
“ Early in the month of June, fome of the third
generation which were produced about the middle of
May, after calling off their laft covering, difeover four
eredt wings, much longer than their bodies: and the
fame is obfervable in all the fucceeding generations,
which are produced during the fummer-months; with¬
out, however, diftinguilhing any diverfity of fex, as
is ufual in feveral other kinds of infedls. For fome
time before the aphides come to their full growth, it is
eafy to difeover which of them will have wings, by a
remarkable fullnefs of the breaft, which, in the others,,
is hardly to be diftinguilhed from the body. When
the laft covering is rejedted, the wings, which were be¬
fore folded up in a very narrow compafs, gradually ex¬
tend themfelves in a moll furpvifing manner, till their
dimenfions are at laft very cbnfiderable. But thefe
winged ones have the peculiarity, that the number of
them does not feem fo much to depend on their origi¬
nal ftrudture, as on the quantity or quality of the nou-
rilhment with which they are fupplied: it being fre¬
quently obferved, that thofe on a fucculent Ihoot have
few or none with wings among them, while others of
the fame generation, on a left tender .branch, are molt
of them winged ; as if only the firft rudiments of wings
were compofed in the former, while nature thought
proper to expand them in the latter, that they might
be more at liberty to fupply their wants.
“ The increafe of thefe infedls in the fummer-time
is fo very great, that, by wounding and exhaufting the
tender fhoots, they would frequently fupprefs all vege¬
tation, had they not many enemies which reftrain them.
To enumerate the variety of other infedls that in their
worm and fly ftate are conftantly deftroying them,
would'exceed the bounds of the prefent defign : there
is one, however, fo Angular in the manner of executing
its purpofe, that I cannot pafs by it without fome fur¬
ther notice: This is a very fmall, black, ichneumon
fly, with a flender body and very long antennas, which
darts its pointed tail into the bodies of the aphides, at
the fame time depofiting an egg in each. This egg
produces a worm, which feeds upon the containing in-
iedl till it attains its full growth ; when it is ufual¬
ly changed to that kind of fly from whence it came.
In this, however, it is .fometimes prevented by ano¬
ther fort of fmall black fly, which wounds this worm
through its pearl-like habitation ; and by laying one
Aph
A P H [ 508 ] A P H
Aphis. 0f Its eggs therein, inftead of the former fly, produces
* its own likenefs. I muit, however, further obferve,
notwithftanding thefe infe&s have many enemies, they
are not without friends ; if we may confider thofe as
fuch who are very officious in their attendance, for the
good things they expeft to reap thereby. The ant
and the bee are both of this kind, collefting the ho¬
ney in which the aphides abound; but with this differ¬
ence, that the ants are conftant vifitors, the bee only
when flowers are fcarce. To which let me alfo add,
that the ants will fuck in the delicious neftar while
the aphides are in the aft of difcharging it from the
anus ; but the bees only colleft it from the leaves on
which this honey-dew has fallen.
3. “ In the autumn I find three more generations
of aphides to be produced; two of which make their
appearance in the month of Auguft, and the third
ufually appear before the middle of September. As
the two firft differ in no refpeft from thofe which we
meet with in fummer, it would be wailing time to
dwell any longer upon them ; but the third, differing
greatly from all the reft, demands our giving it a more
ferious attention. Though all the aphides which have
hitherto appealed were females, in this tenth genera¬
tion are found feveral male infefts 5 not that they are by
any means fo numerous as the females, being only pro¬
duced by a fmall number of the former generation.
To which I muff; further add, that I have obferved
thofe which produce males, previoufly to have produced
a number of females ; which in all refpefts refembling
thofe already deferibed, I lhall decline taking into any
further consideration.
“ The females have at firft altogether the fame ap¬
pearance with thofe of the former generations ; but
in a few days their colour changes from a green to a
yellow, which is gradually converted into an orange
colour before they come to their full growth. They
differ likewife in another refpeft, at leaft from thofe
which occur in the fummer, that all thofe yellow fe¬
males are without wings. The male infefts are how¬
ever ftill more remarkable, their outward appearance
readily diftinguiftiing them from the females of this and
of all other generations. When firft produced, they
are not of a green colour like the reft, but of a red-
difti brown; and have afterwards, when they begin
to thicken about the bread, a dark line along the mid¬
dle of the back. Thefe male infefts come to their full
growth in about three weeks time, and then caft off
their laft covering ; the whole infeft being, after this
operation, of a bright yellow colour, the wings only
excepted. But after this they foon change to a darker
yellow, and in a few hours to a very dark brown; if
we except the body, which is fomething lighter co¬
loured, and has a reddifti caft. They are all of the
winged fort; and the wings, which are white at firft,
foon become tranfparent, and at length appear like very
fine black gauze.
“ The males no fooner come to maturity than they
copulate with the females ; in which aft they are rea¬
dily difeovered, as they remain in conjunftion for a
confiderable time, and are not eafily difturbed. The
commerce between them continues the whole month of
Oftober, and may be obferved at all times of the day,
though I have found it moft frequent about noon ; e-
fpecially when the weather is moderately warm, and
the fun overcaft. The females, in a day or two after Aphlaftuj* 1
their intercourfe with the males, I have obferved to . II fc
lay their eggs ; which they ufually do near the buds, P r0 ltiu|j
when they are left to their own choice. Where there
are a number crowded together, they of courfe inter¬
fere with each other ; in which cafe they will frequent¬
ly depofit their eggs on other parts of the branches,
or even on the {pines with which they are befet.”
APHLASTUM, in the ancient navigation, a
wooden ornament, fliaped like a plume of feathers,
fattened on the goofe’s or fwan’s neck ufed by the an¬
cient Greeks in the heads of their (hips. The Aphla-
ftum had much the fame office and effeft in a fhip, that
the creft had on the helmet. Itfeems alfo to have had
this further ufe, viz. by the waving of a party-colour¬
ed ribband faftened to it, to indicate from what quar¬
ter the wind blew. J
APHONIA, among phyficians, fignifies a fuppref-
fion or total lofs of voice. It is never a primary dif-
eafe, but a confequence of many different diforders.
The cure is to be effefted by removing the diforder
from whence the Aphonia proceeds.
APHORISM, a maxim, or principle, of a fcience ;
or a fentence which comprehends a great deal in a few
words.
APHRACTI, in the ancient military art, denote*
open veffels, without decks or hatches, furnifhed on¬
ly at head and ftern with crofs planks, whereon the
men flood to fight.
APHRODISIA, in antiquity, feftivals kept in ho¬
nour of Venus, the moft remarkable of which was that
celebrated by the Cyprians. At this folemnity feveral
myfterious rites were praftifed : all who were initiated
to them offered a piece of money to Venus as an har¬
lot, and received as a token of the goddefs’s favour a
meafure of fait, and a ; the former, becaufe fait
is a concretion of fea-water, towhich Venus was thought
to owe her birth ; the latter, becaufe fhe was the god-
defs of wantonnefs.
APHRODISIACS, among phyficians, medicines
which increafe the quantity of feed, and create an in¬
clination to venery.
APHRODISIAS, an ifland on the coaft of Car-
mania, (Pliny;) facred to Venus, (Arrian). Another
ifland on the coaft of Cyrene, with a road for fhips,
(Scylax ;) called Aaea, or the ifland of Venus, (Pto¬
lemy.)
APHRODISIUS, an inland city of Caria, called
the Metropolis, (Ptolemy, Stephanus); faid by Suidas
to have been called Ninoe. Another of Cilicia, (Pto¬
lemy) ; fo called from the worfhip and a temple of Ve¬
nus, (Pliny). A third of Thrace, to the north of the j
ifthmus of the Cherfonefus ; an open town, till ftrongly
fortified by Juftinian, (Procopius).
APHRODITA, in zoology, an infeft of the or¬
der of vermes mollufca. The body of the aphrodita
is oval, with many fmall tentacula or protuberances on
each fide, which ferve as fo many feet: The mouth is
cylindrical, at one end of the body, and capable of
being retrafted, with two briftly tentacula. There
are four fpecies of this infeft, viz. 1. The aculeata,
with 3a tentacula, or feet, an inhabitant of the Eu¬
ropean feas, and often found in the belly of the cod-
fifti. See Plate XXIII. fig. 4. This figure is taken
from the life. It was found on the Ihore of the frith
of
A P I
Aphronitre Gf Forth, about a mile call from Leith, by Dr Let-
fom, and by him communicated to the proprietors of
 Li— this work. Johnfton, Seba, and other authors, have
given figures of the aphrodita; but they are not fo
accurate as could be wifhed. 2. The fcabra, of an ob¬
long lhape, fcabrous on the back, with about 20 ten-
tacula. 3. The fquamata, with 24 feet, and fcaly on
the back. 4. The imbricata, is very like the former,
only its feales are more glabrous.
APHRONITRE, in natural hiftory, a name given
by the ancients to a particular kind of natrum.
APHTHAE, in medicine, fmall, round, and fuper-
ficial ulcers arifing in the mouth. The principle feat
of this difeafe, is the extremity of the excretory vef-
fels, falival glands, and, in ihort, all glands that fur-
nifli a humour like the faliva, as the hps, gums, &c.
See the Index fubjoined to Medicine.
APHYLLANTPIES, or blue montpelier pink,
a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to thehex-
andria clafs of plants ; of which there is only one fpe-
cies known. It is a native of France; the root con-
fifts of a number of flender, hard, woody, long, and
contorted fibres : the radical leaves are very numerous,
two inches long, extremely narrow, and wither very
quickly. The ftalk is round, fmooth, without a joint
or knot, naked, and tolerably firm ; at its top Hands a
fingle and very beautiful blue flower, arifing from a
kind of compound imbricated cup.
APPIYTIS, a town of the Cherfonefus, called Fai¬
lure, in Macedonia, (Pliny) ; famous for an oracle of
Apollo.
APIARY, a place where bees are kept. See Apis.
APIASTER, in ornithology, the trivial name of
H a fpecies of the merops. See Merops.
w/firx. APICES, in botany, the fame with antherae #.
APICIUS. There were at Rome three of that
name, famous for their gluttony: the fecond is the moft
celebrated of the three. He lived under Tiberius,
fpent immenfe fums on his belly, and invented divers
forts of cakes which bore his name. He kept as it
were a fchool of gluttony at Rome. After having
fnent two millions and a half in entertainments, finding
himfelf very much in debt, he examined into the ftate
of his affairs ; and feeing that he had but 250,000 li¬
vers remaining, he poifoned himfelf, out of apprehenfion
of itafving with fuch a fum. Pie had proftituted him¬
felf when very young to Sejanus.
APINA, or Apina, a town of Apulia, built by
Diomedes, as was alfo Tricse, (Pliny).. Apime and
Trica is a proverbial faying for things trifling and of
no value, (Martial) ; and Apinarii was the appellation
for triflers or buffoons, (Trebellius Pollio.)
APION, a famous grammarian, born in Egypt,
was a profeflbr at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He
had all the arrogance of a mere pedant, and amufed
himfelf with difficult and infignificant inquiries. One
of his principal works was his Antiquities of E-
gypt-
APIS, in Pagan mythology, one of the Egyptian
gods, worfhipped in the form of a living bull. My-
thologifts fay, that Apis was a king of the Argives,
who, leaving his dominions to his brother, went into
Egypt, where he was known under the name of Oftris :
that he married Ifis; and having civilized the Egyp¬
tians, and taught them the manner of planting the
VOL. I.
A P I
vine, they revered him after his death as a god, under APij.
the figure of a bull. See the article Egypt. or Bee-
APIS, or Bee, in zoology, a genus of infe&s
belonging to.the order of infefta hymenoptera. The
mouth is furnilhed with two jaws, and a probofeis in¬
folded in a double Iheath; the wings are four in num¬
ber, the two foremoft covering thofe behind when at
reft: In the anus or tail of the females, and working
bees, which are of no fex, there is a hidden fling. Lin¬
naeus enumerates no lefs than 55 fpecies of the apis,
viz.
1. The mellefica, or honey-bee, is furnifhed with Defcription
downy hairs, has a dulky-coloured breaft,'and browniili ofthe ho-
belly; the tibiae of the hind-legs are ciliated, and tranf- ney'bec*
verfely ftreaked on the infide. Each foot of this bee ter¬
minates in two hooks, with their points oppofite to each
other; in the middle of thefe hooks there is a little thin
appendix, which, when unfolded, enables the bees to
fallen themfelves to glafs or the moft polilhed bodies.
This part they likewife employ for tranfmitting the
fmall particles of crude wax which they find upon flow¬
ers to the cavity in their thigh, hereafter deferibed.
The queen and drones, who never colledl wax in this
manner, have no fuch cavity. The bee is alfo furnilhed
with a probofeis or trunk, which ferves to extraft the
honey from flowers; and have, befides, a real mouth
fituated in the forepart of the head, with which they
are able to feed on the farina of flowers, from which
afterwards is made wax. The belly of the bee is di¬
vided into fix rings or joints; which fometimes fliorten
the body, by flipping the one over the other. In the
infide of the belly there is a fmall bladder or refervoir,
in which the honey is colle&ed, after having paffed thro*
the probofeis and a narrow pipe which runs through
the head and breaft. This bladder, when full of ho-
neyi is about the fize of a fmall pea. z
The fting, which is fituated at the extremity of the Its fling,
belly, is a very curious weapon ; and, when examined
by the microfcope, appears of a furprifing ftrufture.
It has a horny Iheath or fcabbard, which includes two
bearded darts. This {heath ends in a {harp point, near
the extremity of which a flit opens, through which, at
the time of flinging, the two bearded darts are pro¬
truded beyond the end of the flieath : one of thefe is a
little longer than the other, and fixes its beard firft; and
the othet inftantly following, they penetrate alternate¬
ly deeper and deeper, taking hold of the flelh with
their beards or hooks, till the whole fting is buried
in the flefli; and then a venomous juice is inje&ed
through the fame flieath, from a little bag at the root
of the fting, which occafions an acute pain and fwelling
of the part, which fometimes continues feveral days.
But this is beft prevented by enlarging the wound di-
re&ly, to give it fome difeharge. This poifon feems
to owe its mifehievous efficacy to certain pungent falls.
Let a bee be provoked to ftrike its fting againft a plate
of glafs, and there will be a drop of the poifon dif-
charged and left upon the glafs. This being placed
under a double microfcope, as the liquor evaporates,
the falls will be feen to concrete, forming oblong,
pointed, clear cryftals.—Mr Derham counted on the
fting of a wafp eight beards on the fide of each dart,
fomewhat like the beards of fifn-hooks; and the fame
number are to be counted on the darts of the bee’s
fting. When thefe beards are ftruck deep in the flefli,
Sff if
[ 5o9 1
A P I
[ 5i
AP>S> if the wounded perfon ftarts, or difcompofes the bee
or fiee‘ before it can difengage them, the fling is left behind
flicking in the wound; but if he have patience to
ftand quiet, the creature brings the hooks down clofe
to the fides of the darts, and withdraws the weapon ;
in which cafe, the wound is always much lefs painful.
The danger of being flung by bees may be in a great
meafure prevented by a quiet compofed behaviour. A
thoufand bees will fly and buzz about a perfon without
hurting him, if he ftand perfeftly ftill, and forbear
difturbing them even when near his face; in which cafe,
he may obferve them for hours together without dan¬
ger : but if he molefts or beats them away, he ufually
* luffers for it. It has been lately affirmed *, that a
Jical Corn- Perf°n *s 'n perfeft fafety in the midft of myriads of
menianet, bees, if he but carefully keep his mouth fhut, and
Vol. IV. breathe gently through the noftrils only ; the human
P' IS*- breath, it would feem, being peculiarly offenfive to
their delicate organs: and merely with this precaution,
it is faid, the very hives may be turned up, and even
part of the comb cut out, while the bees are at work.
As the honey-bees are both ufeful infects, and en¬
dowed with peculiar inftin&s, we ftiall give a particu¬
lar account of their generation and ceconomy, and of
the moft approved methods of managing them. .
I. Oeconomy, Instincts, &c. c/' the Honey-bee.
We may confider a hive of bees as a well peopled ci¬
ty, in which are commonly found from 15,000 to 18,000
inhabitants. This city is in itfelf a monarchy;'—com¬
pofed of a ; of males, which are the drones; and of
‘working bees, which are not of either fex. The combs,
which are of pure wax, ferve as their magazine of ftores,
and for the nurfing places of their young offspring.
There is between the combs a fpace fufficient for two
bees to march abreaft, without embarraffing each o-
ther; and in fome parts it is more fpacious. There are
alfo holes, or narrow paffes, which crofs the combs tranf-
verfely, and are intended to fliorten the way when the
3 bees pafs from one comb to another.
Queen-bee. The queen is eafily diftinguiffied from the other
bees, by the form of her body: ftie is longer and lar¬
ger than they are, and her wings are much fliorter than
theirs in proportion to her body; for the wings of the
other bees cover their whole body, whereas thofe of
the queen hardly reach beyond her middle, or end at
about the third ring of her belly. Her hinder parts
are more taper than thofe of the other bees, termina¬
ting fharper. Her belly and legs are of a deep yellow,
much refembling the pureft gold. The queen, like the
working bees, has a fling; contrary to the opinion of
many writers, who may have taken this for granted,
becaufe Ihe is extremely pacific. One may handle her,
turn her, and even teaze her for fome time, before ftie
determines herfelf to vengeance. Her fling differs not
from that of the working bee, excepting that it is big-
^ ger, and a little curved.
Attachment A hive of bees cannot fubfift without a queen, as
ofherfub- alone produces their numerous pofterity; and on
s* this account their fidelity and attachment to their fo-
vereign is admirable.
Mr Wilcfc Mf Wildman, by his dexterity in the management
man’s feats of bees, has lately furprifed the whole kingdom. He
by means of can order a fwarm to light where he pleafes, almoft in-
the queen, ftantanedufiy; he can order them to fettle on his head,
o ] API
then remove them to his hand; command them to de¬
part and fettle on a window, table, &c. at pleafure._
We ftiall fubjoin his method of performing thefe feats,
in his own words: “ Spe&ators,” fays he, “ wonder
much at my attaching bees to different parts of my bo¬
dy, and wifti much to be poffeffed of the fecret means
by which I do it. I have unwarily promifed to reveal
it; and am therefore under a neceffity of performing
that promife: but while I declare, that their fear and
the queen are the chief in thefe operations, I muft warn
my readers that there is an art neceffary to perform it,
namely pra&ice, which I cannot convey to them, and
which they cannot fpeedily attain; yet till this art is
attained, the deftruftion of many hives of bees muft be
the confequence; as every one will find on their firft
attempt to perform it.
“ Long experience has taught me, that as foon as I
turn up a hive, and give it fome taps on the fides and
bottom, the queen immediately appears, to know the
caufe of this alarm; but foon retires again among her
people. Being accuftomed to fee her fo often, I readily
perceive her at firft glance; and long pradlice has en¬
abled me to feize her inftantly, with a tendernefs that
does not in the leaft endanger her perfon. This is of
the utmoft importance; for the leaft injury done to her
brings immediate deftruftion to the hive, if you have
not a fpare queen to put in her place, as I have too of¬
ten experienced in my firft attempts. When poffeffed
of her, I can, without injury to her, or exciting that
degree of refentment that may tempt her to fling me,
flip her into my other hand, and, returning the hive to its
place, hold her there, till the bees miffing her, are all
on wing, and in the utmoft confufion. When the bees
are thus diftreffed, I place the queen where-ever I would
have the bees to fettle. The moment a few of them
difcover her, they give notice to thofe near them, and
thofe to the reft; the knowledge of which foon be¬
comes fo general, that in a few minutes they all colleft
themfelves round her; and are fo happy in having re¬
covered this foie fupport of their ftate, that they will
long remain quiet in their fituation. Nay, the fcent of
her body is fo attra&ive of them, that the flighteft
touch of her, along any place or fubftance, will attach
the bees to it, and induce them to purfue any path ftie
takes.
“ My attachment to the queen, and my tender re¬
gard for her precious life, makes me moft ardently wifti-
that I might here clofe the detail of this operation,
which, I am afraid, when attempted by unflcilful hands,
will coft many of their lives; but my love of truth
forces me to declare, that, by praftice, I am arrived at
fo much dexterity in the management of her, that I
can, without hurt to her, tie a thread of filk round her
body, and thus confine her to any part in which file
might not naturally wifti to remain; or I fometimes
ufe the lefs dangerous way of clipping her wings on
one fide.
“ I ftiall conclude this account in the manner of C.
Furius Crefinus, who being cited before the Curule E-
dile and an affembly of the people, to anfwer to a charge
of forcery, founded on his reaping much larger crops
from his fmall fpot of ground, than his neighbours did
from their extenfive fields, produced his ftrong imple¬
ments of hulbandry, his well-fed oxen, and a hale young
woman his daughter; and, pointing to them, faid,
Thefe,
Apis,
or Bee.
API [ jii ] API
I Apis, Thefe, Romans, are my inftruments of witchcraft; but
or ijfe' I cannot fhew you my toil, my fweats, and anxious
cares. So may I fay, Thefe, Britons, are my inilru-
ments of witchcraft; but I cannot fhew you my hours
of attention to this fubjedt, my anxiety and care for
thefe ufeful infefts; nor can I communicate to you my
6 experience, acquired during a courfe of years.”
Confequen- When a queen dies by any accident, the bees of her
death ^ ^‘ve immediately ceafe working, confume their own
honey, fly about their own and other hives at unufual
hours, when other bees are at reft, and die rather than
be without her, on whom alone depends the fupply of
future labourers. Her lofs is proclaimed by a clear and
interrupted humming. This fign fhould be a warning
to the owner of the bees, to take what honey remains
in the hive, or to procure them another queen.
The diffe&ion of the queen-bee fhews evidently that
fhe lays many thoufand eggs; and obfervations as well
as anatomy evince, that thefe eggs are impregnated by
the drones or males, in the fame manner as other infcfts
couple. It is computed that the ovaria of a queen-bee
contain more than 5000 eggs at one time; and there¬
fore it is not difficult to conceive that a queen-bee may
produce 10,000 or 12,000 bees, or even more, in the
7 fpace of two months.
Of the Drones are fmaller than the queen, and larger than
drones. wor]i;ng bees; and in flying they make a greater
noife. If a hive is opened in the beginning of fpring,
not a Angle drone will be found in it; from the middle
of May to the end of June, hundreds of them will be
found, commonly from 200 or 300 to 1000 ; and from
thence to the following fpring, it would be in vain to
feek for them. They go not out till 11 in the mor¬
ning, and return before Ax in the evening. To live,
feems to be their only bufinefs ; yet their difleftion in¬
forms us that they have the male parts of generation,
and obfervations have aflured us that they couple with
the queen. While their prefence is thus neceflary for
the queen, or whilft, in the opinion of many, their
warmth is neceflary to cherifh the young, they are
fuffered to enjoy the fweets of love and life; but as
foon as they become ufelefs in the hive, the working
bees declare the moft cruel war againft them, and make
terrible flaughter of them. The flings of the working
bees give them an advantage, which more than counter¬
balance the Aze of the drones, who have not any fling:
befides, we frequently fee feveral working bees fet on
i one drone. This war affefts not only the bees already
in life, but even the eggs and maggots ; for the law
which has pronounced the deftruftion of the males has
no exception, it extends equally to thofe which do not
yet breathe and to thofe which do ; the hive is cleared
-of every egg, maggot, or nymph; the whole is torn
away and carried off. After the feafon proper for in-
creaflng the number of bees is part, and when they
ftiould attend only to the fupplying of their magazines
fufficiently with winter-ftores, every veftige of the 1
drones is deftroyed, to make room for honey. When¬
ever drones are obferved to remain in a hive late in the
autumn,, it is held to be a bad Agn of the ftate of the
8 hive.
The work- The working bees compofe the greateft body of the
ing bees. ftate. Columella informs us, that the ancients dif-
tinguilhed feveral kinds of them. He joins in o-
pinion with Virgil, who approves of thofe which are
fmall, oblong, fmooth, bright, and Ihining, of a gentle Apir.,
and mild difpofltion : “ for,” continues he, “ by how or Bee.
much the larger and rounder the bee is, by fo much ’
the worfe it is; but if it be Aerce and cruel, it is the
worft of all. The angry difpoAtion of bees of a bet¬
ter charadler is eaftly foftened by the frequent intercourfe
of thofe who take care of them, for they grow more
tame when they are often handled.” The experience
of ages has now eftablilhed the fort of bees which have
been found to anfwer beft the purpofes of keeping
them.
The working bees have the care of the hive, collect
the wax and honey, fabricate and work up the wax,
build the cells, feed the young, keep the hive clean,
drive from thence ftrangers, and employ themfelves in
all other concerns relating to the hive.
The working bee has two ftomachs; one which con¬
tains the honey, and a fecond in which is contained the
crude wax. The working bees have no parts analo¬
gous to the ovaria of the queen, or that refemble the
male organs of the drones.
The fling is very neceflary for a working bee, both
as an offenftve and as a defendve weapon : for their ho¬
ney and wax excite the envy of many greedy and lazy
infe&s; and they have alfo to defend themfelves againft
enemies, who are fonder of eating them than their ho¬
ney. There is likewife a time when the drones muft
be facrificed and exterminated for the good of the fo-
ciety; and as .they are larger and ftronger than the
working bees, thefe laft would have a very unequal
match, were it not for this poifonous fling. ^
There happen alfo among bees, either of the fame Oftheirbat-
or of different hives, moft deadly feuds, in which their des.
flings are their chief weapons. In thefe contefts, great
Ikill may be difcerned in their manner of pointing the
fling between the fcaly rings which cover their bodies,
or to fome other eaftly vulnerable part. The bee which
ftrft gains the advantage remains the conqueror : tho’
the vi&ory cofts the viftor his life, if he has left his
fling in the body of the enemy; for, with the fling,
fo much of his body is torn out, that death inevi¬
tably follows. Bees have very fevere confli&s when
whole hives engage in a pitched battle, and many are
flain on both Ades. Their Aghting and plundering one
another ought chiefly to be imputed, as Mr Thorley
obferves, either to their perfect abhorrence of floth and
idlenefe, or to their infatiable thirft for honey; for
when, in fpring or autumn, the weather is fair, but
no honey can be colle&ed from plants, and is to be
found only in the hives of other bees, they will venture
their lives to get it there.
Dr Warder affigns another caufe of their Aghting,
which is, the neceffity that the bees are reduced to
when their own hive has been plundered, at a feafon
when it is too late for them to repair the lofs by any
induftry in the Adds.
Sometimes one of the queens is killed in battle. In
this cafe, the bees of both hives unite as foon as her
death is generally known among them. All then be¬
come one people ; the vanquifhed go off with the rob¬
bers, richly laden with their own fpoils, and return
every day with their new affociates to pillage their old
habitation. This caufes a throng, unufual for the fea¬
fon, at the door of the hive they are plundering; and
if the owner lifts it up at night, when all are gone
S f f 2 home.
API [5)
Apis, home, he will find it empty of inhabitants ; though
or ^ there perhaps will remain in it fome honey, which he
takes as his property.
When two fwarms take flight at the fame time, they
fometimes quarrel, and great numbers are deftroyed on
both fides, till one of the queens is flain. This ends
the conteft, and the bees of both fides unite under the
10 furviving fovereign.
Their la- When the bees begin to work in their hives, they
hours. divide themfelves into four companies : one of which
roves in the fields in fearch of materials ; another em¬
ploys itfelf in laying out the bottom and partitions of
their cells ; a third is employed in making the infide
fmooth from the corners and angles; and the fourth
company bring food for the reft, or relieve thofe who
return with their refpedlive burdens. But they are not
kept conftant to one employment; they often change
the talks affigned them : thofe that have been at work,
being permitted to go abroad; and thofe that have
been in the fields already, take their places. They
feem even to have figns, by which they underftand each
ether : for when any of them want food, it bends down
its trunk to the bee from whom it is expedted, which
then opens its honey-bag, and lets fome drops fall in¬
to the other’s mouth, which is at that time opened to
receive it. Their diligence and labour is fo great, that,
in a day’s time, they are able to make cells which lie
upon each other numerous enough to contain 3000
xx bees.
Of the In the plan and formation of thefe cells, they difeo-
copibs. ver a moq wonderful fagacity. In conftrufting habita¬
tions within a limited compafs, an architeft would have
three objefts in view: firlt, to ufe the fmalleft quantity
that can be of materials; next, to give to the edifice
the greateft capacity on a determined fpace ; and third¬
ly, to employ the fpot in fuch a manner that none of
it may be loft. On examination, it will be found that
the bees have obtained all thefe advantages in the hex¬
agonal form of their cells: for, firft, there is an (eco¬
nomy of wax, as the circumference of one cell makes
part of the circumferences of thofe contiguous to it;
fecondly, the (economy of the fpot, as thefe cells which
join to one another leave no void between them; and
thirdly, the greateft capacity or fpace ; as, of all the
figures which can be contiguous, that with fix fides
gives the largeft area. This thriftinefs prompts them
to make the partitions of their cells thin ; yet they are
conftrudted fo as that the folidity may compenfate for
the fcantinefs of materials. The parts moft liable to
injury are the entrance of the cells. Thefe the bees
take care to ftrengthen, by adding quite round the
circumference of the apertures a fillet of wax, by which
jneans this mouth is three or four times thicker than
I>he fides: and they are ftrengthened at the bottom by
the angle formed by the bottom of three cells falling
in the middle of an oppofite cell. The combs lie pa¬
rallel to each other; and there is left between every
one of them, a fpace which ferves as a ftreet, broad e-
nough for two bees to pafs by each other. There are
holes which go quite through the combs, and ferve as
lanes for the bees to pafs from one comb to another,
without being obliged to go a great way about. When
they begin their combs, they form at the top of the
hive a root or flay to the whole edifice, which is to
hang from it. Though they generally lay the foun-
2 ] API
dations of the combs fo that there fhall be no more Apis,
between them than what is fufficient for two bees to or Bee-
pafs, yet they fometimes place thofe beginings of two ‘
combs too far afunder; and, in this cafe, in order to fill
up part of the void fpace arifing from that bad difpo-
fition, they carry their combs on obliquely, to make
them gradually approach each other. This void fpace
is fometimes fo confiderable, that the bees build in it an
intermediate comb, which they terminate as foon as the
original combs have only their due diftances. As the
combs would be apt, when full, to overcome by their
weight all the fecurity which the bees can give them
againft falling; they who prepare hives, fet in them,
croffwife, fticks, which ferve as props to the combs,
and fave the bees a great deal of labour. It is not eafy
to difeover the particular manner of their working ;
for, notwithftanding the many contrivances ufed for this
purpofe, there are fuch numbers in continual motion,
and fucceed one another with fuch rapidity, that no¬
thing but confufion apears to the fight. Some of them,
however, have been obferved carrying pieces of wax in
their talons, and running to the places where they are
at work upon the combs. Thefe they faften to the
work by means of the fame talons. Each bee is em¬
ployed but a very fhort time in this way : but there is
fo great a number of them that go on in a conftant
fucceflion, that the comb increafes very perceptibly.
Befides thefe, there are others that run about beating
the work with their wings and the hinder part of their
body, probably with a view to make it more firm and
folid.
Whilft part of the bees are occupied in forming the
cells, others are employed in perfecting and polilhing-
thofe that are new modelled. This operation is per¬
formed by their talons, taking off every thing that is
rough and uneven. Thefe polifhers are not fo defultory
in their operations as thofe that make the cells ; they
work long and diligently, never intermitting their la¬
bour, excepting to carry out of the cell the particles
of wax which they take off in polilhing. Thefe par¬
ticles are not allowed to be loft; others are ready to
receive them from the polifliers, and to employ them
in fome other part of the work. 13
The balls which we fee attached to the legs of bees Of their
returning to the hives are not wax, but a powder col- bu'iding
lefted from the ftamina of flowers, and yet brought to ^*jcrials>
the ftate of wax. The fubftance of thefe balls, heated honsT0™
in any veffel, does not melt as wax would do, but be- 1. fTax,
comes dry, and hardens: it may even be reduced to a
coal. If thrown into water, it will fink; whereas wax
fwims. To reduce this crude fubftance into wax, it
muft firft be digefted in the body of the bee.
Every bee, when it leaves the hive to colled this
precious ftore, enters into the cup of the flower, par¬
ticularly fuch as feem charged with the greateft quanti¬
ties of this yellow farina. As the animal’s body is co¬
vered over with hair, it rolls itfelf within the flower*
and foon becomes quite covered with the dull, which
it foon after brufhes off with its two hind legs, and
kneads into two little balls. In the thighs of the hind¬
legs there are two cavities, edged with hair ; and into
thefe, as into a ba/ket, the animal fticks its pellets.
Thus employed, the bee flies from flower to flower, in-
creafing its ftore, and adding to its ftock of wax ; un¬
til the ball, upon each thigh, becomes as big as a grain
"g
API [ 513 1 API
4 Apis, of pepper : by this time, having got a fufficient load,
I* or Bee' it returns, making the belt of its way to the hive.
After the bees have brought home this crude fub-
flance, they eat it by degrees; or, at other times,
three or four bees come and eafe the loaded bee, by
eating each of them a fhare, the loaded bee giving them
a hint fo to do. Hunger is not the motive of their
,thus eating the balls of waxy matter, efpecially when
a fwarm is firft hived ; but it is their defire to provide a
fpeedy fupply of real wax for making the combs. At
other times, when there is no immediate want of wax,
| the bees lay this matter up in repofitories, to keep it
in ftore.
When this waxy matter is fwallowed, it is, by the
digeftive powers of the bee, converted into real wax,
which the bees again difgorge as they work it up into
combs ; for it is only while thus foft and pliant from
the ftomach, that they can fabricate it properly. That
the wax thus employed is taken from their ftomachs,
appears from their making a confiderable quantity of
comb foon after they are hived, and even on any tree or
fhrub where they have refted but a fhort while before
their being hived, though no balls were vifible on their
legs, excepting thofe of a few which may be juit re¬
turned from the field. This is farther confirmed by
i what happened in a fwarm newly hived : for two days
together, from the time of their quitting their former
home, it rained conftantly ; infomuch that not one bee
was able to ftir out during that time : yet at the end of
the two days, they had made a comb ly or 16 inches
long, and thick in proportion.
The crude wax, when brought home by the bees, is
often of as different colours as are the flowers from
which it is colle&ed: but the new combs are always of a
white colour, which is afterwards changed only by the
impurities arifing from the fleam, &c. of the bees.
Bees collect crude wax alfo for food; for if this was
not the cafe, there would be no want of wax after the
combs are made : but they are obferved, even in old
hives, to return in great numbers loaded with fuch mat¬
ter, which is depofited in particular cells, and is known
by the name of bee-bread. We may guefs that they
confume a great deal of this fubftance in food, by the
quantity colle&ed, which, by computation, may in fome
hives amount to an hundred weight in a feafon, whilft
the real wax in fuch an hive does not perhaps exceed
two pounds.
; i The fro- It is well known that the habitation of bees ought
s*. to be very clofe ; and what their hives want, from the
negligence or unfkilfulnefs of man, thefe animals fup¬
ply by their own induftry : fo that it is their principal
care, when firft hived, to flop up all the crannies. For
this purpofe they make ufe of a refinous gum, which is
more tenacious than wax, and differs greatly from it.
This the ancients called propolis : it will grow confi-
derably hard in the hive ; tho’ it will in fome meafure
foften by heat; and is often found different in confi-
ftence, colour, and fmell. It has generally an agree¬
able aromatic odour when it is warmed; and by fome it
■ j is confidered as a moft grateful perfume. When the
bees begin to work with it, it is foft; but it acquires a
firmer confiftence every day ; till at length it affumes
a brown colour, and becomes much harder than wax.
The bees carry it on their hinder legs ; and fome think
it is met with on the birch, the willow, and poplar.
However it is procured, it is certain that they plafter
the infide of their hives with this compofition.
Honey is originally a juice digefted in plants, which
fweats through their pores, and chiefly in their flowers,
or is contained in refervoirs in which nature ftores it.
The bees fometimes penetrate into thefe ftores, and at
other times find the liquor exfuded. This they colleft
in their ftomachs ; fo that, when loaded with it, they
feem, to an inattentive eye, to come home without any
booty at all.
Befides the liquor already mentioned, which is ob¬
tained from the flowers of plants, another fubftanee,
called honey-dew *, has been difeovered, of which the
bees are equally fond. Of this fubftance there are two
kinds, both deriving their origin from vegetables, tho’
in very different ways.
The firft kind, the only one known to hufbandmen,
and which paffes for a dew that falls on trees, is no o-
ther than a mild fweet juice, which, having circulated
through the veffels of vegetables, is feparated in proper
refervoirs in the flowers, or on the leaves, where it is
properly called the honey-dew : fometimes it is depofited
in the pith, as in the fugar-cane ; and, at other times,
in the juice of pulpy fummer-fruits, when ripe. Such
is the origin of the manna which is collected on the afh
and maple of Calabria and Brian^on, where it flows in
great plenty from the leaves and trunks of thefe trees,
and thickens into the form in which it is ufually feen.
The fecond kind of honey-dew, which is the chief
refource of bees after the fpring-flowers and dew by
tranfpiration on leaves are paft, owes its Origin to a
fmall mean infeA *, the excrement thrown out by which,
makes a part of the moft delicate honey we ever tafte.
From whatever fource the bees have collected their
honey, the inftant they return home, they feek cells in
which they may difgorge and depofit their loads.
They have two forts of ftores : one which confifts of
honey laid up for the winter; and the other of honey
intended for accidental ufe, in cafe of bad weather, and
for fuch bees as do not go abroad in fearch of it. Their
method of fecuringxach of thefe is different. They
have in each cell a thicker fubftance, which is placed
over the honey, to prevent its running out of the cell ;
and that fubftance is raifed gradually as the cell is fill¬
ed, till the bees, finding that the cell cannot contain
any more, clofe it with a covering of wax, not to be
opened till times of want, or during the winter.
It has been already obferved, that the cells are in¬
tended for other purpofes befides being places of ftore
for honey. One of the chief ufes is, their being nur-
feries for the young. The cells for thofe which are to
be working bees, are commonly half an inch deep;
thofe for drones, three quarters of an inch; and thofe
which are intended for keeping of honey only, ftill
deeper. This accounts for the inequalities obferved in
the furface of combs.
The queen-bee is generally concealed in the moft fe-
cret part of the hive, and is never vifible but when fhe
lays her eggs in fuch combs as are expofed to fight.
When ftie does appear, (he is always attended by ten or
a dozen of the common fort, who form a kind of re¬
tinue, and follow her wherever (he goes with a fedate
and grave tread. Before (he lays her eggs, (he exa¬
mines the cells where (he defigns to lay them ; and if
(he. finds that they contain neither honey, wax, nor
any
or IJte
14
3, Theho-
* See the ar¬
ticle Honey-
dew.
* Seethe ar¬
ticles Aphis
and Honey-
dew.
IS
Of the man¬
ner in which
bees breed.
API [5^4] API
any embryo, fhe introduces tbe poflerior part of her
body into a cell, and fixes to the bottom of it a fmail
white egg, which is compofed of a thin white mem¬
brane, full of a whitifh liquor. In this manner file
goes on, till (he fills as many cells as (he has eggs to
lay, which are generally many thoufands. After the
eggs lie four days in the cells, they appear in the form
of fmail caterpillars; and generally lie twifted round,
fo that the two extremities touch each other. The
bees then fupply them with a little honey for food, the
quantity of which they increafe till the eighth day from
the birth of the caterpillar. After this, the bees dif-
cover no more care about their young ; but (top up the
mouths of the cells with wax. The embryos lie in this
ftate twelve days, during which time they undergo
furprifing changes. They fir(l change their fituation
in the cells, and inftead of being rolled up, they ex¬
tend themfelves along, and place their heads towards
the mouth of the cell; after this, the head of the worm
begins to have a fmall extenfion, which is the rudiment
of the probofcis: upon this head there is likewife a
black point; and at a little diftance from this point, a
black ftreak upon the back : the firft lineaments of
the feet likewife appear ; but they are very fmall. After
the head is formed, and the probofjis lengthened, all the
other parts difplay themfelves fuccefiively ; fo that the
whole worm or embryo is changed into an aurelia or
nymph, which is the fly almoft perfedf, except that it
is yet white and foft, and wants that cruft with which
it is afterwards covered. By this transformation the
worm is dripped of a white thin pellicle, which adheres
to the fides of the cell. The young bee being dripped
of this pellicle, and all the parts being unfolded by
degrees, and changed thro’ fucceffive colours from yel¬
low to black, arrives at perfeftion on the 20th day;
when (he cuts, with her jaws or talons, the covering of
wax upon the mouth of the cells, and iffues out. When
the young bees firft get out of the cell, they appear
drowfy, but foon acquire agility and command of their
members ; for they have been often obferved to go to
the fields, and return loaded with wax the fame day
that they iffue from the cells. As foon as a young bee
quits its cell, one of the old ones takes off the wax-co¬
ver, and kneads and employs the wax for fome other
purpofe: Another of them repairs and cleanfes the
cell, removing the pellicle and other fordes which was
left by the young one.
The eggs from which drones are to proceed, are, as
already obferved, laid in larger cells than thofe of the
working bees. The coverings of thefe cells, when the
drones are in their nymph-ftate, are convex or fwelling
outward, whilft the cells of the working bees are flat.
This, with the privilege of leading idle effeminate lives,
and not working for the public flock, is what diftin-
guiflies the drones.
The bees depart from their ufual ftile of building
when they are to raife cells for bringing up fuch mag¬
gots as will become queens. Thefe are of a longifli
oblong form, having one end bigger than the other,
with their exterior furface full of little cavities. Wax,
which is employed with fo geometrical a thriftinefs in
the raifing of hexagonal cells, is expended with pro-
fufion in the cell which is to be the cradle of a royal
maggot. They fometimes fix it in the middle, and at
other times on one fide of a comb. Several common
cells are facrificed to ferve as a balls and fupport to it.
It is placed almoft perpendicular to the common cells,
the largeft end being uppermoft. The lower end is
open till the feafon for clofing it comes, or till the mag¬
got is ready for transformation. It would be difficult
to conceive how a tender maggot can remain in a cell
turned bottom upmoft, if we did not find it buried in
a fubftance fcarcely fluid, and if it was not in itfelf, at
firft, fmall and light enough to be fufpended in this
clammy pafte. As it grows, it fills all the upper and
larger part of the cell. As foon as the young queen
comes out of her cell, that cell is deftroyed, and its
place is fupplied by common cells ; but as the foun¬
dation of the royal cell is left, this part of the comb
is found thicker than any other. There are feveral
fuch cells prepared : for the queen lays from feven or
eight to 20 royal maggots; and if there was only one
reared in each hive, the fwarms might often want a
condudtrefs. Many accidents may alfo deftroy the little
maggot, before it becomes a bee. It is therefore ne-
ceffary that the queen (hould lay more than one of thefe
royal eggs ; and there are feveral young queens in the
beginning of the fumnrer, more than one of which of¬
ten takes flight when a fwarm departs.
A young queen is in a condition to lead a fwarra
from a hive in which (he was born, in four or five days
after (he has appeared in it with wings: and when (he
has refolved on her journey, her eggs have been alrea¬
dy impregnated; as appears evidently from there being
fwarms among which there is not a Angle male, and
from eggs having been found in cells within 24 hours
after the fettling of the fwarm. The bees of a fwarm
are in a great hurry when they know that their queen
is ready to lay. In this cafe, they give to their new
cells but part of the depth they are to have, and defer
the finifhing of them till they have traced the number
of cells requifite for the prefent time. The cells firft
made are intended only for working bees ; thefe being
the moil neceffary.
When the hive is become too much crowded, by the
addition of the young brood, a part of the bees think
of finding themfelves a more commodious habitation,
and with that view Angle out the mod forward of the
young queens. A new fwarm is therefore conftantly
compofed of one queen at leaft, and of feveral thou-
fand working bees, as well as of fome hundreds of
drones. The working bees are fome old, fome young.
Scarce has the colony arrived at its new habitation,
when the working bees labour with the utmoft dili¬
gence to procure materials for food and building.
Their principal aim is not only to have cells in which
they may depofit their honey. A ftronger motive feems
to animate them. They feem to know that their queen
is in hafte to lay her eggs. Their induftry is fuch, that
in twenty-four hours they will have made combs twen¬
ty inches long, and wide in proportion. They make
more wax during the firft fortnight, if the feafon is fa¬
vourable, than they do during all the reft of the year.
Other bees are at the fame time bufy in flopping all
the holes and crevices they find in their new hive, in
order to guard againft the entrance of infe&s which
covet their honey, their wax, or themfelves ; and alfo
to exclude the cold air, for it is indifpenfibly neceffary
that they be lodged warm.
When the bees firft fettle in fwarming, indeed when
they
Apis,
or Bee.
A p 1 . r 5
L .Apis, they at any time reft themfelves, there is fomething
-|j 'r ee' very particular in their method of taking their repofe.
It is done, by colleiting themfelves in a heap, and hang¬
ing to each other by their feet. They fometimes ex¬
tend thefe heaps to a confiderable length. It would
feem probable to us, that the bees from which the o-
thers hang muft have a confiderable weight fufpended
to them. All that can be faid is, that the bees muft
find this to be a fit nation agreeable to themfelves. They
may perhaps have a method of diftending themfelves
with air, thereby to leffen their fpecific gravity; in the
fame manner as filhes do, in order to alter their gravity
compared with water.
When a fwarm divides into two or more bands,
which fettle feparately ; this divifion is a fure fign that
there are two or more queens among them. One of
thefe clutters is generally larger than the other. The
bees of the fmaller clutter, or clufters, detach them¬
felves by little and little, till at laft the whole, together
with the queen or queens, unite with the larger clufter.
As foon as the bees are fettled, the fupernumerary
queen, or queens, muft be facrificed to the peace and
tranquillity of the hive. This execution generally
raifes a confiderable commotion in the hive; and feve-
ral other bees, as well as the queen or queens, lofe
their lives. Their bodies may be obferved on the
ground, near the hive. The queen that is chofen is of
a more reddilh colour than thofe which are deftroyed :
fo that fruitfulnefs feems to be a great motive of pre¬
ference in bees ; for the nearer they are to the time of
laying their eggs, the bigger, larger, and more ftii-
ning are their bodies. The method of hiving thefe
fwarms will be explained hereafter ; fee n° 2.
wher in- Befides the capital inftinfts above mentioned, bees
I iinfls. are pofieffed of others, fome of which are equally ne-
ceflary for their prefervatipn and happinefs.—They
anxioufly provide againft the entrance of infe&s into
the hive, by gluing up with wax the fmalleft holes in
the deep. Some ftand as centinels at the mouth of the
hive, to prevent infe&s of any kind from getting in.
But if a fnail, or other large infeft, (hould get in,
notwithftanding all refiftance, they fting it to death 5
and then cover it over with a coat of propolis, to pre¬
vent the bad fmell or maggots which might proceed
from the putrefaftion of fuch a large animal.—Bees
feem to be warned of the appearance of bad weather
by fome particular feeling. It fometimes happens, e-
ven when they are very affiduous and bufy, that they
on a fudden ceafe from their work ; not a fingle one
ftirs out; and thofe that are abroad hurry home in fuch
prodigious crowds, that the doors of their habitations
are too fmall to admit them. On this occafion, look up
to the Iky, and you will foon difcover fome of thofe
black clouds which denote impending rain. Whether
they fee the clouds gathering for it, as fome imagine,
or whether (as is much more probable) they feel fome
other effedts of it upon their bodies, is not yet deter¬
mined ; but it is certain, that no bee is ever caught even
in what we call a fudden ftiower, unlefs it have been
at a very great diftance from the hive, or have been be¬
fore injured by fome accident, or be fickly, and unable
to fly fo faft as the reft.—Cold is a great enemy to them.
To defend themfelves againft its effedts during a cold
winter, they crowd together in the middle of the hive,
and buzz about, and thereby excite a warmth which
■5 1 API
is often perceptible by laying the hand upon the glafs- Apis,
windows of the hive.—They feem to underftand one 01 Rctl‘
another by the motions of their wings: When the
queen wants to quit the hive, {he gives a little buzz,
and all the others immediately follow her example, and
retire along with her.
II. Of the Managements/’ Bees, atid mqft approved
Inventions for faving their Lives nubile <ive take their
Honey and Wax. ^
1. Of the Apiary, and Hives. Columella diredls Of the api-
that the apiary face the fouth, and be fituated in a a'{r'
place neither too hot, nor too much expofed to the
cold: that it be in a valley, in order that the loaded
bees may with the greater eafe defcend to their homes:
that it be near the manfion-houfe, on account of the
conveniency of watching them ; but fo fituated as not
to be expofed to noifome fmells, or to the din of men
or cattle : that it be furrounded with a wall, which
however fhould not rife above three feet high : that, if
poffible, a running ftream be near them; or, if that
cannot be, that water be brought near them in troughs,
with pebbles or fmall ftones in the water, for the bees
to reft on while they drink; or that the water be con¬
fined within gently declining banks, in order that the
bees may have fafe accefs to it; they not being able to
produce either combs, honey, or food for their mag¬
gots, without water: that the neighbourhood of ri¬
vers or bafons of water with high banks be avoided,
becaufe winds may whirl the bees into them, and they
cannot eafily get on ftiore from thence to dry them¬
felves ; and that the garden in which the apiary Hands
be well furnilhed with fuch plants as afford the bees
plenty of good pafture. The trees in this garden
{hould be of the dwarf kind, and their heads buflry, in
order that the fwarms which fettle on them may be the
more eafily hived.
The proprietor ftiould be particularly attentive that
the bees have alfo in their neighbourhood fuch plants as
yield them plenty of food. Columella enumerates ma¬
ny of thefe fitted to a warm climate : among them he
mentions thyme, the oak, the pine, the fweet-fmelling
cedar, and all fruit-trees. Experience has taught us,
that furze, broom, muftard, clover, heath, &c. are
excellent for this purpofe. Pliny recommends broom,
in particular, as a plant exceedingly grateful and very
profitable to bees.
With regard to hives, thofe made of ftraw are gene- hives,
rally preferred, on feveral accounts: they are not liable
to be over-heated by the rays of the fun; they keep
out cold better than wood or any other materials;
and the cheapnefs renders the purchafe of them eafy.
As the ingenious Mr Wildman's hives are reckoned to
be of a preferable conftruftion to any other, we {hall
give an account of them in his own words.
“ My hives,” fays he, “ are feven inches in height,
and ten in width. The fides are upright, fo that the
top and bottom are of the fame diameter. A hive holds
nearly a peck. In the upper row of ftraw, there is a
hoop of about half an inch in breadth; to which are
nailed five bars of deal, full a quarter of an inch in
ihicknefs, and an inch and quarter wide, and half an
inch afunder from one another ; a narrow ftiort bar is
nailed at each fide, half an inch diftant from the bars
next them, in order to fill up the remaining parts of
API [ 5>6 ] . A P 1
the circle ; fo that there are in all feren bars of deal, At this feafon, bees which are in good condition will
to which the bees fix their combs. The fpace of half get into the fields early in the morning, return loaded, _
an inch between the bars allows a fufficient and eafy enter boldly, and do not come out of the hive in bad
paflage for the bees from one comb to another. In or- weather; for when they do, this indicates they are in
der to give great fteadinefs to the combs, fothat, up- great want of provifions. They are alert on the lead
on moving the hive, the combs may not fall off, or in- difturbance, and by the loudnefs of their humming we
cline out of their diretStion, a ftick fhould be run thro’ judge of their ftrength. They preferve their hives free
the middle of the hive, in a dire&ion directly a-crofs from all filth, and are ready to defend it againft every
the bars, or at right angles with them. When the enemy that approaches.
hives are made, a piece of wood (hould be worked in- “ The fummer is an improper time for buying bees,
to the lower row of ftraw, long enough to allow a door becaufe the heat of the weather foftens the wax, and
for the bees, of four inches in length, and half an inch thereby renders the combs liable to break, if they are
in height. not very well fecured. The honey too, being then thin-
“ The proprietor of the bees fliould provide himfelf ner than at other times, is more apt to run out of the
ith feveral flat covers of ftraw, worked of the fame cells; which is attended with a double difadvantage.
thicknefs as the hives, and a foot in diameter, that fo
it may be of the fame width as the outfide of the hives.
Before the cover is applied to the hive, a piece of clean
paper, of the fize of the top of the hive, fhould be
namely, the lofs of the honey, and the daubing of the
bees, whereby many of them may be deftroyed. A
firft and ftrong fwarm may indeed be purchafed ; and,
if leave can be obtained, permitted to ftand in the fame
laid over it; and a coat of cow-dung, which is the leaft garden till the autumn ; but, if leave is not obtained,
—i x—»- ~f *• *■-- -i—-‘--J n—u ft may be carried away in the night after it has been
hived.
I fuppofe, that, in the ftocks purchafed, the bees
apt to crack of any cement eafily to be obtained, fhould
be laid all round the circumference of the hive. Let
the cover be laid upon this, and made fall to the hive
with a packing-needle and pack-thread, fo that nei- are in hives of the old eonftruftion. The only direc-
ther cold nor vermin may enter.
“ Each hive fhould ftand Angle on a piece of deal,
or other wood, fomewhat larger than the bottom of the
tion here neceffary is, that the firft fwarm from thefe
ftocks fhould be put into one of my hives ; and that
another of my hives fhould in a few days be put under
hive : That part of the ftand which is at the mouth of the old ftock, in order to prevent its fwarming again.”
the hive fhould projedt fome inches, for the bees to reft
on when they return from the field. This ftand fhould
be fupported upon a fingle poft, two and a half feet
high; to which it fhould be ferewed very fecurely, that
high winds, or other accidents, may not blow down
both ftand and hive. A quantity of foot mixed with
barley-chaff fhould be ftrewed on the ground round the
poft; which will effe&ually prevent ants, flugs, and
other vermin, from rifing up to the hive. The foot
and chaff fhould, from time to time, be renewed as it
s blown or wafhed away; though, as it is fheltered
Of Hiving. Bees, as has been already obferved, q
never fwarm till the hive be too much crowded by the tl
young brood. They firft begin to fwarm in May, or
in the end of April, but earlier or later according to
the warmth of the feafon. They feldom fwarm before
ten in the morning, and feldom later than three in the
afternoon. We may know when they are about to
fwarm, by clufters of them hanging on the outfide of
the hive, and by the drones appearing abroad more
than ufual: But the moft certain fign is, when the bees
refrain from flying into the fields, though the feafon be
by the ftand, it remains a confiderable time, efpecially inviting. . Juft before they take flight, there is
if care be taken that no weeds rife through it. Weeds,
indeed, fhould not be permitted to rife near the hive ;
for they may give flicker to vermin which may be hurt¬
ful to the bees.
“ The ftands for bees fhould be four yards afunder;
or, if the apiary will not admit of fo much, as far a-
funder as may be, that the bees of one hive may not
interfere with thofe of another hive, as is fometirnes the
cafe when the hives are near one another or on the
fame ftand; for the bees, miftaking there own hive:
common filence in the hive ; after this, as foon as one
takes flight, they all follow. Before the fubfequent
fwarmings, there is a great noife in the hives, which
is fuppofed to be occaiioned by a conteft whether the
young or the old queen fhould go out. When the bees
of a fwarm fly too high, they are made to defeend
lower, by throwing handfuls of fand or duft among
them, which they probably miftake for rain. For the
fame purpofe, it is ufual to beat on a kettle or frying-
pan : This pradtice may have taken its rife from ob-
light fometimes at the wrong door, and a fray enfues, ferving that thunder or any great noife prompts fuch
Cf the pro¬
per feafon
for purcha-
fing hives of
bees.
in which one or more may lofe their lives.
The perfon who intends to ere ft an apiary, fhould
bees as are in the fields to return home.
As foon as the fwarm is fettled, the bees which
purchafe a proper number of hives at the latter part of compofe it fhould be got into a hive with all convenient
the year, when they are cheapeft. The hives fhould
be full of combs, and well ftored with bees. The pi
fpeed, to prevent their taking wing again. If they
fettle on a fmall branch of a tree, eafy to come at, it
chafer fhould examine the combs, in order to know the may be cut off and laid upon a cloth ; the hive being
age of the hives. The combs of that feafon are white, ready immediately to put over them. If the branch
thofe of the former year are of a darkifh yellow; and
where the combs are black, the hives fhould be rejefted,
becaufe old hives are moft liable to vermin, and other
accidents.
“ If the number of hives wanted were not purchafed
in the autumn, it will be neceffary to remedy this ne-
gleft after the feverity of the cold is paft in the fpring.
cannot be conveniently cut, the bees may be fwept from
off it into a hive. Lodge but the queen into the hive,
and the reft will foon follow. If the bees muft be con-
fiderably difturbed in order to get them into a hive,
the moft advifable way is to let them remain in the place
where they have pitched, till the evening, when there
is lefs danger of their taking wing. If it be obferved,
that
or Bee.
Df unuiBj
(warms.
■'|
API [ 517 ] API
that they ftill hover about the place they firft alighted
upon, the branches there may be rubbed with rue, or
elder-leaves, or any other thing diftafteful to them, to
prevent their returning to it.
The hive employed on this occafion (hould be clean¬
ed with the utmoft care, and its infide be rubbed very
hard with a coarfe cloth, to get off the loofe ftravvs,
or other impurities, which might coft them a great
deal of time and labour to gnaw away. It may then be
rubbed with fragrant herbs or flowers, the fmell of
which is agreeable to the bees; or with honey.
The hive ftlould not be immediately fet on the ftool
where it is to remain ; but Thould be kept near the place
at which the bees fettled, till the evening, left fome
ftragglers fhould be loft. It {hould be {haded, either
with boughsf- or with a cloth, that the too great heat
of the fun may not annoy the bees.
We fometimes fee a fwarm of bees, after having left
their hive, and even alighted upon a tree, return to
their firft abode. This never happens but when the
young queen did not come forth with them, for want
of ftrength, or perhaps courage to truft to her wings for
the firft time; or poffibly from a confcioufnefs of her
not being impregnated.
g When a fwarm is too few in number for a hive, an¬
other may be added. The ufiial method of thus unit¬
ing fwarms is very eafy. Spread a cloth at night upon
the ground clofe to the hive in which the two calls
or fwarms, are to be united ; lay a ftick a-crofs this
cloth; then fetch the hive with the new fwarm, fet it
over the ftick, give a fmart ftroke on the top of. the
hive, and all the bees will drop down upon the cloth,
in a clufter. This done, throw afide the empty hive,
take the other from off the ftool, and fet this laft over
the bees, who will foon afcend into it, mix with thofe
already there, and become one and the fame family.
Others, inftead of ftriking the bees down upon the
cloth, place with its bottom upmoft the hive in which
the united fwarms are to live, and ftrike the bees of
the other hive down into it. The former of thefe hives
is then reftored to its natural fituation, and the bees of
both hives foon unite. If foitie bees ftill adhere to the!
other hive, they may be bfuftied off on the cloth, and
they will foon join their brethren. Or one may take
the followirlg method, which gives lefs difturbance to
the bees. Set with its month upmoft the hive into
which the young fwarm has been put, and fet upon it
the other hive. The bees in the lower hive, finding
themfelves in an inverted fifUation, will foon afcend in^
to the upper.
Though all wHters acknowledge, that one of the
queens is conftantly {lain on thefe occafions, and gene¬
rally a eonfiderable number of the working bees ; yet
none of them. Columella ekcepted, has propofed the
eafy remedy of killing the queen of the latter call or
fwarm before the union is made; a means by which
the lives of the vvofking bees may be preferved. This
may be done, either by intoxicating them, and then
picking her out; or by fearching. her out when the bees
are beaten down upon the cloth ; for this being done
in the night, to prevent the battle which might other-
wife enfue, there will be no great difficult^ in finding
her.
A large fwarm may weigh eight pounds, and fo
gradually lefs, to one pound: conlequently 3 very good
Vol. I.
one may weigh five or fix pounds. All fuch as weigh Apts,
lefs than four pounds {hould be ftrengthened, by uni- 0r Bee-
ting to each of them a lefs numerous fwarm. The fize
of the hive fhould be proportioned to the number of
the bees ; and, as a general rule, it Ihould be rather
under than over fized, becaufe bees require to be kept
warmer than a large hive will admit of. 23
3. Of Jhifting the Abode of Bees. Great improve- Shifting the
ments may certainly be made in the effential article of1,64:5 in
providing plenty of pafture for bees, whenever this fub- feaIche°f
je£l {hall be more carefully attended to than it has hi- a 1
therto been. A rich corn country is well known to be
a barren defart to them during the moft confiderable
part of the year; and'therefore the practice c>f other
nations, in ftiifting the places of abode of their bees,
well deferves our imitation.
Columella informs us, that, as few places are fo hap- Lii.ix, c.14.
pily fituated as to afford the bees proper pafture both
in the beginning of the feafon and alfo in the autumn,
it was the advice of Celfus, that, after the vernal pa-
ftures are confumed, the bees {hould be tranfported to
places abounding with autumnal flowers ; as was prac-
tifed by conveying the bees from Achaia to Attica;
from Eubcea and the Cyclad iflands to Scyrus ; and
alfo in Sicily, where they were brought to Hybla from
other parts of the ifland.
We find by Pliny, that this was likewife the ptac-
tiee of Italy in his time. “ As foon,” fays he, “ as c,ia‘
the fpring-food for bees has failed ih the valleys near
our towns, the hives of bees are put into boats, and
carried up againft the ftream of the river, in the night,
in fearch of better pafture. The bees go out in the
morning in queft of provifions, and return regularly to
their hives in the boats, with the ftores they have col-
le&ed. This method is continued, till the finking of
the boats to a certain depth in the Water fliews that
the hives are fufliciently full; and they are then car¬
ried back to their former homes, where their honey is
taken out of them.” And this is ftill the praftice of
the Italians who live near the banks of the Po, (th£
fiver which Pliny inftanced particuiaily in the above-
quoted paffage).
M. Maillet relates, in his curious defcription of E- Vol, IT.
gypt, that, 11 fpite of the ignorance and rufticity which P-14.
have got poffeffion of that country, there yet remain
in it ieveral footfteps of the induftry And {kill of the
ancient Egyptians. One of their moft admirable con¬
trivances is, their fending their bees annually into di-
ftant countries, in order to procure them fuftenanc£
there, at a time when they could hot find any at home;
and their afterwards bringing them back, like IhepherdA
who {hould travel with their flocks, and make them feed
as they go. It was obferved by the ancient inhabi¬
tants of lower Egypt, that all plants bloffomed, and
the fruits of the earth ripened, above fix weeks earlier
in upper Egypt, than with them. They applied this
remark to their bees; and the means then made ufe of
by them, to enable thefe ufefully induftrious infefts to
reap advantage from the more forward ftate of naturd
there, were exa&ly the fame as are now praftifed, for thd
like purpofe, in that country. About the end of Oc¬
tober, all fucb inhabitants of the lower Egypt as have
hives of bees, embark them on the Nile, and convey
them upon that river quite into upper Egypt; obfer-
ving to time it fo that they arrive there juft when the
T t t inunda-
or Bee.
API [51
inundation is withdrawn, the lands have been fown, and
the flowers begin to bud. The hives thus fent are mark¬
ed and numbered by their refpeclive owners, and pla¬
ced pyramidically in boats prepared for the purpofe.
After they have remained fome days at their fartheil
ftation, and are fuppofed to have gathered all the wax
and honey they could find in the fields within two or
three leagues around; their condu&ors convey them,
in the fame boats, two or three leagues lower down,
and there leave the laborious infefts fo long time as is
neceflary for them to collect all the riches of this fpot.
Thus, the nearer they come to the place of their more
permanent abode, they find the productions of the earth,
and the plants which afford them food, forward in pro¬
portion. In fine, about the beginning of February,
after having travelled through the whole length of E-
gypt, gathering all the rich produce of the delightful
banks of the Nile, they arrive at the mouth of that ri¬
ver, towards the ocean; from whence they fet out, and
from whence they are now returned to their feveral
homes: for care is taken to keep an exa& regifter of
every diftrift from whence the hives were fent in the
beginning of the feafon, of their numbers, of the names
of the perfons who fent them, and likewife of the mark
or number of the boat in which they were placed.”
In many parts of France, floating-bee-houfes are
very common. They have on board one barge, three-
fcore or an hundred bee-hives, well defended from the
inclemency of an accidental ftorm. With thefe the
owners fuffer themfelves to float gently down the river,
the bees continually choofing their flowery pafture a-
long the banks of the ftream ; and thus a Angle float¬
ing bee-houfe yields the proprietor a confiderable in¬
come.
They have alfo a method of tranfporting their bees
by land, well worth our imitation in many parts of
this kingdom. Their firfl care is, to examine thofe hives,
fome of whofe honey-combs might be broken or fepa-
rated by the jolting of the vehicle ; they are made faft
one to the other, and againft the fides of the hive, by
means of fmall flicks, which may be difpofed different¬
ly as occafion will point out. This being done, every
hive is fet upon a packing-cloth, or fomething like it,
the threads of which are very wide: the fides of this
cloth are then turned up, and laid on the outfide of
each hive, in which ftate they are tied together with
a piece of fmall pack-thread wound feveral times round
the hive. As many hives as a cart built for that pur¬
pofe will hold, are afterwards placed in this vehicle.
The hives are fet two and two, the whole length of the
cart. Over thefe are placed others; which make, as
it were, a fecond ftory or bed of hives. Thofe which
are ftored with combs Ihould always be turned topfy-
turvy. It is for the fake of their combs, and to fix
them the better, that they are difpofed in this, manner;
for fuch as have but a fmall quantity of combs in them,
are placed in their natural fituation. Care is taken in
this ftowage, not to let one hive flop up another; it
being effentially neceffary for the bees to have air; and
it is for this reafon they are wrapped up in a coarfe
cloth, the threads of which were wove very wide, in or¬
der that the air may have a free paffage, and leffen the
heat which thefe infefts raife in their hives; efpecially
when they move about very tumultuoufly, as often hap¬
pens. in thefe carts. Thofe ufed for this purpofe in
8 ] API
Yevre, hold from 30 to 48 hives. As foon as all are AP'S« j
thus flowed, the caravans fet out. If the feafon is ful- or >,e‘ •
try, they travel only in the night; but a proper ad¬
vantage is made of cool days. Thefe caravans do
not go faft. The horfes muft not be permitted even
to trot; they are led flowly, and through the fmooth-
eft roads. When there are not combs in the hives fuf-
ficient to fupport the bees during their journey, the
owner takes the earlieft opportunity of refting them
wherever they can collect wax. The hives are taken
out of the cart, then fet upon the ground, and after re¬
moving the cloth from over them, the bees go forth in
fearch of food. The firft field they come to ferves them
as an inn. In the evening, as foon as they are all re¬
turned, the hives are fhut up; and being placed again
in the cart, they proceed in their journey. When the
caravan is arrived at the journey’s end, the hives are
diftributed in the gardens, or in the fields adjacent to
the houfes of different peafants, who, for a very fmall
reward, undertake to look after them. Thus it is that,
in fuch fpots as do not abound in flowers at all feafons,
means are found to fupply the bees with food during
the whole year.
Thefe inftances of the great advantages which at¬
tend fhifting of bees in fearch of pafture, afford an ex¬
cellent leffon to many places in this kingdom: they di-
re& particularly the inhabitants of the rich vales, where
the harveft for bees ends early, to remove their flocks
to places which abound in heath, this plant continuing
in bloom during a confiderable part of autumn, and
yielding great plenty of food to bees. Thofe in the
neighbourhood of hills and mountains will fave the bees
a great deal of labour, by taking alfo the advantage of
fiiifting their places of abode. ^
4. Of feeding and defending Bees in Winter. Provi- Manage- •:
dence has ordained, that infe&s which feed on leaves, mentofWc
flowers, and green fucculent plants, are in an infenfible in winterj?
or torpid ftate from the time thatthe winter’s coldhas de¬
prived them of the means of fubfiftence. Thus the bees,
during the winter, are in fo lethargic a ftate, that little
food fupports them: but as the weather is very change¬
able, and every warm or funny day revives them, and
prompts them to return to exercife, food becomes ne¬
ceffary on thefe occafions.
Many hives of bees, which are thought to die of cold
in the winter, in truth die of famine; when a rainy
fummer has hindered the bees from laying in a fufficient
ftore of provifions. The hives ftiould therefore be care¬
fully examined in the autumn, and Ihould then weigh
at leaft 18 pounds.
Columella deferibes an annual diftemper which feizes
bees in the fpring, when the fpurge bloffoms, and the
elm difclofes its feeds; for that, being allured by the
firft flowers, they feed fo greedily upon them, that they
forfeit themfelves, and die of a loofenefs, if they are not
fpeedily relieved.
The authors of the Maifon Riftique impute this pur¬
ging to the bees feeding on pure honey, which does not
form a food fufficiently fubftantial for them, unlefs they
have bee-bread to eat at the fame time; and advife gi¬
ving them a honey-comb taken from another hive, the
cells of which are filled with crude wax or bee-bread.
There is ftill, however, a want of experiments to af-
certain both the time and the manner in which bees
flrould be fed. The common pra&ice is to feed them
Apis>
Or Bee.
Tom. T.
f- 43S-
API [ 519 ] API
in the autumn, giving them as much honey as will bring
the whole weight of the hive to near 20 pounds. To
this end, the honey is diluted with water, and then put
into an empty comb, fplit reeds, or, as Columella di¬
rects, upon clean wool, which the bees will fuck per-
feftly dry. But the dilution with water makes the ho¬
ney apt to be candied, and honey in that ftate is preju¬
dicial to bees.
The following directions given in the Maifon Ru-
Jiique feem to be very judicious. Replenifh the weak
hives, in September, with fuch a portion of combs full
of honey taken from other hives, as (hall be judged to be
a fufficient fupply for them. In order to do this, turn
up the weak hive, after taking the precaution of de¬
fending yourfelf with the fmoke of rags, cut out the
empty combs, and put the full ones in their place; where
fecure them with pieces of wood run a-crofs, in fuch
manner that they may not fall down when the hive is
returned to its place. The bees will foon fix them more
efFe&ually. if this method be thought too trouble-
fome, fet under the hive a plate of liquid honey, un-
mixed with water, with draws laid a-crofs, it, and over
thefe a paper pierced full of holes, through which the
bees will fuck the honey without daubing themfelves.
This (hould be done in cloudy or rainy weather, when
the bees ftir lead abroad; and the hive (hould be co¬
vered, to proteCt the bees from robbers, who might be
allured to it by the fmell of the honey.
Another circumdance which may render it very ne-
celfary to feed the bees, is, when feveral days of bad
weather enfue immediately after they have fwarmed ;
for then, being deditute of every fupply beyond what
they carried with them, they may be in great danger
of darving. In this cafe, honey (hould be given them
in proportion to the duration of the bad weather.
The degree of cold which bees can endure has not
been afcertained. We find that they live in the cold
parts of Ruffia, and often in hollow trees, without any
care being taken of them. Their hives are frequently
made of the bark of trees, which does not afford them
much protection from cold. Mr White, therefore, ju-
dicioufly obferves, that bees which dand on the north
fide of a building whofe height intercepts the fun’s
beams all the winter, will wade lefs of their provifions
(almod by half) than others which dand in the fun:
for coming feldom forth, they eat little; and yet, in
the fpring, are as forward to work and fwarm, as thofe
which had twice as much honey in the autumn before.
The owner (hould, however, examine their date in the
winter; and if he finds, that, indead of being cludered
between the combs, they fall down in numbers on the
dool or bottom of the hive, the hive (hould be carried
to a warmer place, where they will foon recover. He
mud be cautious in returning them again to the cold,
led the honey be candied.
Where the winters are extremely fevere, the authors
of the Maijon Rujiique advife, to lay on the bottom of
an old cade the depth of half a foot of very dry earth,
powdered, and prefled down hard, and to fet on this the
(tool with the hive; then, to preferve a communication
with the air, which is abfolutely neceflary, to cut a hole
in the calk, oppofite to the mouth of the hive, and place
a piece of reed, or of alder made hollow, from the mouth
of the hive to the hole in the calk; and after this to
cover the hive with more of the fame dry earth. If
there be any room to fear that the bees will not have a Apis,
fufficiency of food, a plate with honey, covered as be- or ^ee'
fore direCfed, may be put under the hive. If the num¬
ber of hives be great, boxes may be made of deals nail¬
ed together, deep enough to contain the hives when
covered with dry earth. The bees will thus remain all
the winter free from any danger from cold, hunger, or
enemies. X4
5. Of taking the Honey and Wax. In this country it Methods of
is ufual, in feizing the (tores of thefe little animals, to
rob them alfo of their lives. The common method thTwax."
is, That when thofe which are doomed for (laughter Common
have been marked out (which is generally done in method in
September), a hole is dug near the hive, and a (lick,thls coufl*
at the end of which is a rag that has been dipped try'
in melted brimftone, being (tuck in that hole, the
rag is fet on fire, the hive is immediately fet over it,
and the earth is inftantly thrown up all around, fo
that none of the fmoke can efcape. In a quarter of
an hour, all the bees are feemingly dead; and they will
foon after be irrecoverably fo, by being buried in the
earth that is returned back into the hole. By this lafl:
means it is that they are abfolutely killed: for it has
been found by experiment, that all the bees which have
been affeCted only by the fume of the brimftone, reco¬
ver again, excepting fuch as have been finged or hurt
by the flame. Hence it is evident, that the fume of
brimftone might be ufed for intoxicating the bees, with
fome few precautions. The heavieft and the lighted
hives are alike treated in this manner; the former, be-
caufe they yield the moft profit, with an immediate re¬
turn ; and the latter, becaufe they would not be able
to furvive the winter. Thofe hives which weigh from
15 to 20 pounds are thought to be the fitted; for keeping.
More humane andjudicious methods were praClifed by
theancients f; and the following Ample method is at this f Vide Coin-
daypraCIifed in Greece, degenerate as it is. “ Mount ntella,lib.\%.
Hymethus is celebrated for the bed honey in all Greece. Cy*r*r'}
This mountain was not lefs famous in times pad for '
bees and admirable honey; the ancients believing that Ub.m’c.tS.
bees were firft bred here, and that all other bees were 2s
but colonies from this mountain; which if fo, we aflu-
red ourfelves that it muft be from this part of the moun- ri °he
tain that the colonies were fent; both becaufe the ho- ney whh the
ney here made is the beft, and that here they never de- bees. See
ftroy the bees. It is of a good confidence, of a fair gold- Jf heeler's
colour, and the fame quantity fweetens more water than 5
the like quantity of any other doth. I no fooner knew p. 4II’
that they never deftroy or impair the (lock of bees in
taking away their honey, but I was inquifitive to un-
derftand their method of ordering the bees; which be¬
ing an art fo worthy the knowledge of the curious, I
(hall not think it bcfide the purpofe, to relate what I
faw, and was informed of to that efleA by fuch as had
(kill in that place.
“ The hives they keep their bees in are made of wil¬
lows or ofiers, fafliioned like our common duft-ba(kets,
wide at top and narrow at the bottom, and plaftered
with clay or loam within and without. They are fet
as in fig. 13. with the wide end uppermoft. The tops 4dpi.xXV.
are covered with broad flat (licks, which are alfo pla¬
ftered over with clay; and, to fecure them from the
weather, they cover them with a tuft of ftraw, as we
do. Along each of thefe (licks, the bees fallen their
combs; fo that a comb may be taken out whole, with-
T t t 2 out
Mr Thor-
ley’s obfer-
vations, Sic.
a p r [ no
out tlie lead bruifing', and with the. grcVefl, cafe ima¬
ginable. To increafe them in fpring->time, that is in
March or April, until the beginning of May, they di¬
vide them; firft feparating the (ticks on which-the
combs and bees are faftened, from one another, with a
•knife: fo, takipg'out the firft comb and bees together
on each fide, they put them into another bafket, in the
fame order as theji were taken out, until they have e-
qually divided them. After this, when they, are both
again accommodated with (ticks and plafter, they fet
the new ba(ket in the place of the old one, and the old
one in fome new place. And all this they do in the
middle of the day, at fuch time as the greateft part of
the bees are abroad; who at their coming home, with¬
out much difficulty, by this means divide themfelves e-
qually. This device hinders them from fwarming and
flying away. In Auguft, they take out their honey.
This they do in the-day-time alfo, while they are a-
broad; the bees being thereby, fay they, difturbed
lead: at which time they take out the combs laden
with honey, as before; that is, beginning at each out-
fide, and fo taking away, until they have left only fuch
a quantity of combs, in the middle, as they judge will
be fufficient to maintain the bees in winter; fweeping
thofe bees that are on the combs into the baficet again,
and then covering it with new (licks and plafter.”
The Greek method above related was introduced in¬
to France in 1754, as we are informed by M. de Reau¬
mur and Du Hamel, in the Memoirs of the Royal A-
cademy for that year, p. 331.
Attempts have been made in our own country, to
attain the defirable end of getting the honey and wax
without deftroying the bees; the mod approved of
which we (hall now relate as concifely as poffible.
Mr Thorley, in his Inquiry into the Nature, Order,
and Government of Bees, thinks colonies preferable to
hives, for the following reafons: Firft, The more cer¬
tain prefervation of very many thoufands of thefe ufe-
ful creatures; fecondly. Their greater ftrength (which
confifts in numbers), and confequently their greater
fafety from robbers; thirdly. Their greater vyealth, a-
rifing from the united labours of the greater number.
He tells us, that he has in fome hammers taken two
boxes filled with honey from one colony; and yet fuf-
ficient (lore has been left for their maintenance during
the winter; each box weighing 40 pounds. Add to
thefe advantages, the pleafure of viewing them, with
the greateft fafety, at all feafons, even in their bufieft
time of gathering, and their requiring a much lefs at¬
tendance in . fwarming time. The bees thus managed
are alfo more effectually fecured from wet and cold,
from mice and other vermin.
His boxes are made of deal, which, being fpungy,
fucks up the breath of the bees fooner than a more fo-
Jid wood would do. Yellow dram-deal thoroughly fea-
foned is the bed.
An oftagon, being nearer to a fphere, is better than
a fquare form;' for as the bees, in winter, lie in around
body near the centre of the hive, a due heat is then
conveyed to all the out-parts, and the honey is kept
from candying.
The dimenfions which Mr Thorley, after many years
experience, recommends for the boxes, are ten inches
depth, and 12 or 14 inches breadth in the infide. He
has tried boxes containing a bufliel or more, but found
A P I
them not to anfwer the defign like thofe of a leffer fize.
The larger are much longer in filling; fo that it is later _
ere you come to reap the fruits of the labour of the
bees : nor is the honey there fo good and fine, the
effluvia even of their own bodies tainting it.
The bed and pureft honey is that which is gathered
in the fivft five or fix weeks : and in boxes of lefs di¬
menfions you may take in a month or little more, pro¬
vided the feafon be favourable, a box full of the fined
honey.
The top of the box fhould be made of an entire board
a full inch thick after it has been planed; and it (hould
project, on all fides at lead an inch beyond the dimen¬
fions of the box. In the middle of this top there mud
be a hole five inches fquare, for a communication be¬
tween the boxes ; and this hole {hould be covered with
a Aiding (hutter, of deal or elm, running eafily in a
groove over the back window. The eight pannels,
nine inches deep, and three quarters of an inch thick
when planed, are to be let into the top fo far as to
keep them in their proper places ; to be fecured at the
corners with plates of bi-afs, and to be cramped with
wires at the bottom, to keep them firm : for the heat
in fummer will try their ftrength. There (hould be a
glafs-window behind, fixed in a frame, with a thin
deal-cover, two fmall brafs hinges, and a button to
fallen it. This window will be fufficient for infpefting
the progrefs of the bees. Two brafs handles, one on
each fide, are neceffary to lift up the box : thefe (hould
be fixed in w(ith two thin plates of iron, near three in¬
ches long, fo as to turn up and down, and put three
inches below the top-board, which is nailed clofe down
with fprigs.to the other parts of the box.
Thofe who chufe a frame within, to which the bees
may fallen their combs, need only ufe a couple of deal
(licks of an inch fquare, placed a-crofs the box, and
ftipported by two pins of brafs; one aninch and half
below the top, and the other two inches below it;
by which means the combs will quickly find a reft.
One thing more, which perfedts the work, is, a paf-
fage, four or five inches l6ng, and lefs than half an inch
deep, for the bees to go in and out at the bottom of
the box.
1. In keeping bees in colonies, an houfe is neceffary,
or at lead a (hade ; without which the weather, efpe-
cially the heat of the fun, would foon rend the boxes to
pieces.
Your houfe may be made of any boards you pleafe,
but deal is the bed. Of whatever fort the materials
are, the houfe mud be painted, to fecure it from the
weather.
The length of this houfe, we will fuppofe for fix co¬
lonies, (hould be full 12 feet and an half, and each co¬
lony (hould Hand a foot diftance from the other. It
(hould be three feet and an half high, to admit four
boxes one upon another; but if only three boxes are
employed, two feet eight inches will be fufficient. Its
breadth in the infide (hould be two feet. The four
corner-polls (hould be made of oak, and well fixed in
the ground, that no ftormy winds may overturn it; and
all the rails (hould be of oak, fupported by feveral up¬
rights of the fame, before and behind, that they may
not yield or fink under 6, 7, or 800 weight, or up¬
wards. The floor of the houfe (about two feet from
the ground) (hould be ftrong and fmooth, that the
lowed
Manage¬
ment of bees
in colonies,
and method
of taking
their htney
and wax.
Apis,
or Bee.
API [ 521 1 A P I
loweft box may {land clofe to it.
This floor may be made with boards or planks of
deal the full length of the bee-houfe; or, which is pre¬
ferable, with a board or plank to each colony, of two
feet four inches long, and fixed down to the rails; and
that part which appears at the front of the houfe may
be cut into a fetnieirclt, as a proper alighting place
for the bees. Plane it to a flope, that the wet may
fall off. When this floor to a iingle colony wants_to
be repaired, it may eafily be removed, and another be
placed in its room, without difturbing the other colo¬
nies, or touching any other part of the floor.
Upon this floor, at equal diftances, all your colonies
mull be placed, againft a door or pafiage cut in the
front of the houfe.
Only obferve farther, to prevent any falfe ftep, that
as the top-board of the box (being a full inch broader
than the other part) will not permit the two mohths
to come together, you muft cut a third in a piece of
deal of a fufficient breadth, and place it between the
other two, fo clofe, that not a bee may get that way
into the houfe. And fixing the faid piece of deal down
to the floor with two lath-nails, you will find after¬
wards to be of fervice, when you have occafion either
to raife a colony, or take a box of honey, and may prove
a means of preventing a great deal of trouble and mif-
chief.
The houfe being in this forwardnefs, you may co¬
ver it to your own mind, with boards, fine Hates, or
tiles. But contrive their pofition fo as to carry off the
wet, and keep out the cold, rain, fnow, or whatever
might any way hurt and prejudice them.
The back-doors may be made of half-inch deal, two
of them to {hut clofe in a rabbet, cut in an upright pil¬
lar, which may be fo contrived, as to take in and out,
by a mortife in the bottom rail, and a notch in the in-
fide of the upper rail, and faftened with a ftrong bafp.
Place thefe pillars in the fpaces between the colonies.
Concluding your houfe made after this model, with¬
out front doors, a weather-board will be very neceflary
to carry the water off from the places where the bees
fettle and reft.
Good painting will be a great prefervative. Forget
not to paint the mouths of your colonies with different
colours, as red, white, blue, yellow, &c. in form of a
half-moon, or fquare, that the bees may the better
know their own home. Such diverfity will be a direc~
tion to them..
Thus your bees are kept warm in the coldeft winter;:
and in the hotteft fummer greatly refreftied by the cool
air, the back-doors being fet open, without any air¬
holes made in the boxes.
Dr Warder obferves, that in June, July, and Au-
guft, when the colonies come to be very full, and the
weather proves very hot, the appearance of a {bower
drives the bees home in fuch crowds, that prefling to
get in, they flop the pafiage fo clofe, that thofe with¬
in are almoft fuffocated for want of air; which makes
thefe laft fo uneafy, that they are like mad things. In
this extremity, he has lifted the wrhole colony up a little
on one fide; and by thus giving them air, has foon
quieted them. He has known them, he fays, come
pouring out, on fuch an occafion, in number fufEcient
to have filled at once two or three quarts; as if they
3»ad been going to fwarm. To prevent this inconve¬
nience, he advifes cutting a hole two inches fqjuare in.
about the middl^of one of the hinder pannels of each
box, Over this hole, nail, in the infide of the box, a
piece-of tin-plate punched full of holes fo fmall tiiat a
bee cannot creep through them; and have over it, ori
the outfide, a very thin Aider, made to run in grooves;
fo that, when it is thruft home, all ipay be clofe and
warm.; and'when it is opened, in very hot weather, the
air may pafs through the holes, and prevent the fuffb¬
eating heat.- Or holes may be bored in the pannels
themfelves, on fuch an emergency, in a colony already
fettled.
Such a thorough paflage for the air may be conve¬
nient in extreme heat, which is fometimes fo great as
to make the honey run out of the combs. The Me¬
moirs of the truly laudable Berne Society, for the year
1764, give us a particular inftance of this, when they
fay, that, in 1761, many in Swifierland were obliged
to fmother their bees, when they faw the honey and
wax trickling down ; not knowing any other remedy
for the Ioffes they daily fuftained. Some fhaded their
hives from the fun, or covered them with clothes wet
feveral times a-day, and watered the ground all a-
round.
The beft time to plant the colonies is, either in
fpring with new {locks full of bees, or in fummer with,
fwarms. If fwarms are ufed, procure, if poffible, two
of the fame day : hive them either in two bolces, or in
a hive and a box: at night, place them in the bee-houfe,
one over the other; and, with a knife and a little lime
and hair, flop clofe the mouth of the hive, or upper
box, fo that not a bee may be able to go in or out, but
at the front-door. This done, you will, in a week or
ten days, with pleafure fee the combs appear in the
boxes; but if it be an hive, nothing can.be feen till the
bees have wrought down into the box. Never plant a
colony with a Angle fwarm, as Mr Thorley fays he has
fometimes done, but with little fuccefs.
When the fecond box, or the box under the hive,
appears full of bees and combs, it is time to raife your
colony. This fliould be done in the dulk of the even¬
ing, and in the following manner.
Place your empty box, with the Aiding {flutter drawn
back, behind the houfe, near the colony that is to be
raifed, and at nearly the height of the floor: then, lift-
ting up the colony with what expedition you can, let
the empty box be put in the place where it is to Hand,
and the colony upon it; and fliut up the mouth of the
then upper box with lime and hair, as before dire6led.
When, by the help of the windows in the back of
the boxes, you find the middle box full of combs, and
a quantity of honey fealed up in it, the loweft box half
full of combs, and few bees in the uppermoft box, pro¬
ceed thus.
About five o’clock in the afternoon, drive clofe, with
a mallet, the Aiding fliutter under the hive or box that
is to be taken from .the colony. If the combs are new,
the {flutter may be forced home without a mallet; but
be fare it be clofe, that no bees1 may afcend into the
hive or box to be removed. After this, {hut clofe the
doors of your houfe, and leave the bees thus cut off from
the reft of their companions, for the fpace of half an
hour or more. In this fpace of time, having loft their
queen, they will fill themfelves with honey, and be im¬
patient to be fet at liberty.
API [ 522 ] API
If, in this interval, you examine the hox or boxes
beneath, and obferve all to be quiet in them, you may
be confident that the queen is there, and iri fafety.
Hereupon raife the back part of the hive or box fo far,
by a piece of wood flipped under it, as to give thepri-
foners room to come out, and they will return to their
fellows : then lifting the box from off the colony, and
turning its bottom upmoft, cover it with a cloth all
night; and the next morning, when this cloth is re¬
moved, the bees that have remained in it will return to
the colony. Thus you have a hive or box of honey,
and all your bees fafe.
If the bees do not all come out in this manner, Dr
Warder’s method may be followed, efpecially if it be
with a hive. It is, to place the hive with the fmall end
downward in a pail, peck, or flower-pot, fo as to make
it ftand firm : then to take an empty hive, and fet it
upon the former, and to draw a cloth tight round the
joining of the two hives, fo that none of the bees may
be able to get out: after this, to ftrike the full hive
fo fmartly as to difturb the bees that are in it, but with
fuch paufes between the ftrokes as to allow them time
to afcend into the empty hive, which muft be held fall
whilft this is doing, left it fall off by the fhaking of
the other. When you perceive by the noife of the
bees in the upper hive, that they are got into this laft,
carry it to a cloth fpread for this purpofe before the
colony, with one end fattened to the landing-place,
and knock them out upon it: they will foon crawl up
the cloth, and join their fellows, who will gladly re¬
ceive them.
Mr Thorley next gives an account of his narcotic, and
of the manner of ufing it.
The method which he has purfued with great fuc-
Cefs, for many years, and which he recommends to the
public, as the moft effeftual for preferving bees in com¬
mon hives, is incorporation, or uniting two ftocks into
one, by the help of a peculiar fume or opiate, which
will put them entirely in your power for a time, to di¬
vide and difpofe of at pleafure. But as that dominion
over them will be of fhort duration, you muft be expe¬
ditious in this bufinefs.
The queen is immediately to be fearched for, and
killed. Hives which have fwarmed twice, and are con-
fequently reduced in their numbers, are the fitteft to
be joined together, as this will greatly ftrengthen and
improve them. If a hive which you would take is
both rich in honey, and full of bees, it is but dividing
the bees into two parts, and putting them into two
boxes, inftead of one. Examine whether the ftock to
which you intend to join the bees of another, have ho¬
ney enongh in it to maintain the bees of both: it Ihould
weigh full 20 pounds.
The narcotic, or ftupifying fume, is made with the
fungus maximus or pulverulent us, the large mufhroom,
commonly known by the name of bunt, puckfijl, or
frog-cheese. It is as big as a man’s head, or bigger :
when ripe, it is of a brown colour, turns to powder,
and is exceeding light. Put one of thefe pucks into a
large paper, prefs it therein to two-thirds or near half
the bulk of its former fize, and tie it .up very clofe ;
then put it into an oven fome time after the houfehold
bread has been drawn, and let it remain there all night:
when it is dry enough to hold fire, it is fit for ufe. The
manner of ufing it is thus;
Cut off a piece of the puck, as large as a hen’s egg, Apis;
and fix it in the end of a fmall ftick flit for that purpofe, or Bee‘
and fliarpened at the other end; which place fo that the
puck may hang near the middle of an empty hive.
This hive muft be fet with the mouth upward, in a pail
or bucket which fliould hold it fteady, near the ftock
you intend to take. This done, fet fire to the puck,
and immediately place the ftock of bees over it, tying
a cloth round the hives, that no fmoke may com*
forth. In a minute’s time, or little more, you will
hear the bees fall like drops of hail into the empty hive.
You may then beat the top of the full hive gently with
your hand, to get out as many of them as you can:
after this, loofing the cloth, lift the hive off to a table,
knock it feveral times againft the table, feveral more
bees will tumble out, and perhaps the queen among
them. She often is one of the laft that falls. If fhe
is not there, fearch for her among the main body in
the empty hive, fpreading them for this purpofe on a
table.
You muft proceed in the fame manner with the other
hive, with the bees of which thefe are to be united.
One of the queens being fecured, you muft put the
bees of both hives together, mingle them thoroughly,
and drop them among the combs of the hive which
they are intended to inhabit. When they are all in,
cover it with a packing or other coarfe cloth which will
admit air, and let them remain fhut up all that night
and the next day. You will foon be fenlible that they
are awaked from this fleep.
The fecond night after their union, in the dulk of
the evening, gently remove the cloth from off the mouth _
of the hive, (taking care of yourfelf), and the bees will
immediately fally forth with a great noife; but being
too late, they will foon return: then, inferting two
pieces of tobacco-pipes to let in air, keep them confined
for three or four days, after which the door may be left
open.
The beft time for uniting bees is, after their young
brood are all out, and before they begin to lodge in
the empty cells. As to the hour of the day, he ad-
vifes young praftitioners to do it early in the afternoon,
in order that, having the longer light, they may the
more eafily find out the queen. He never knew fuch
combined ftocks conquered by robbers. They will ei¬
ther fwarm in the next fummer, or yield an hive full of
honey. ,3
Mr N. Thorley, fon of the above-mentioned clergy- Glai's-hives
man, has added to the edition which he has given of his
father’s book, a poftfcript, purporting, that perfons who
chufe to keep bees in glafs-hives may, after uncover¬
ing the hole at the top of a flat-topped ftraw-hive, or
box, place the glafs over it fo clofe, that no bee can
go in or out but at the bottom of the hive or box.
The glafs-hive muft be covered with an empty hive, or
with a cloth, that too much light may not prevent the
bees from working. As foon as they have filled the
ftraw-hive or box, they will begin to work up into the
glafs-hive. He tells us, that he himfelf has had one of
thefe glafs-hives filled by the bees in 30 days, in a fine
feafon; and that it contained 38 pounds of fine honey.
When the glafs is completely filled, Aide a tin-plate
between it and the hive or box, fo as to cover the paf-
fage, and in half an hour the glafs may be taken off
with fafety. What few bees remain in it, will readily
go
API [ J*3 ] API
Apis
adpLXXV.
19
Of bees in
boxes, and
method of
taking their
honey and
wax.
go to their companions. He has added a glafs win¬
dow to his ftraw-hives, in order to fee what progrefs
bees make ; which is of fome importance, efpecially if
one hive is to be taken away whilft the feafon ftill con¬
tinues favourable for their colledling of honey: for when
the combs are filled with honey, the cells are fealed up,
and the bees forfake them, and refide moltly in the
hive in which their works are chiefly carried on. Ob-
ferving alfo that the bees were apt to extend their combs
thro’ the pafiage of communication in the upper hive,
whether glafs or other, which rendered it neceflary to
divide the comb when the upper hive was taken away,
he now puts in that paflage a wire fcreen, or netting,
the melhes of which are large enough for a loaded bee
to go eafily through them. This prevents the joining
of the combs from one box to the other, and confe-
quently obviates the necdfity of cutting them, and of
fpilling fome of the honey, which, running down among
a crowd of bees, ufed before to incommode them much,
it being difficult for them to clear their wings of it.
Fig. 14. is a drawing of one of his colonies.
2. The reverend Mr White informs us, that his
fondnefs for thefe little animals foon put him upon en¬
deavouring, if poffible, to fave them from fire and
brimfione; that he thought he had reafon to be con¬
tent to (hare their labours for the prefent, and great
reafon to rejoice if he could at any time preferve their
lives, to work for him another year; and that the
main drift of his obfervations and experiments has
therefore been, to difcover an eafy and cheap method,
fuited to the abilities of the common people, of taking
away fo much honey as can be fpared, without deftroy-
ing or ftarving the bees; and by the fame means to en¬
courage feafonable fwarms.
In his directions how to make the bee-boxes of his
inventing, he tells us, fpeaking of the manner of con-
ftruCting a Angle one, that it may be made of deal or any
other well-feafoned boards which are not apt to warp or
fplit. The boards Ihould be near an inch thick ; the fi¬
gure of the box fquare, and its height and breadth nine
inches and five eighths, every way meafuring within.
With thefe dimenfions it will contain near a peck and
an half. The front-part muft have a door cut in the
middle of the bottom-edge, three inches wide, and near
half an inch in height, which will give free liberty to
the bees to pafs through, yet not be large enough for
their enemy the moufe to enter. In the back-part you
muft cut a hole with a rabbet in it, in which you are to
fix a pane of the cleareft and beft crown-glafs, about
five inches in length and three in breadth, and fatten it
with putty : let the top of the glafs be placed as high
as the roof within-fide, that you may fee the upper
part of the combs, where the bees with their riches are
moftly placed. You will, by this means, be better
able to judge of their ftate and ftrength, than if your
glafs was fixed in the middle. The glafs muft be co¬
vered with a thin piece of board, by way of fliutter,
which may be made to hang by a ftring, or turn up¬
on a nail, or Aide fideways between two mouldings.
Such as are defirous of feeing more of the bees works,
may make the glafs as large as the box will admit
without weakening it too much; or they may add a
pane of glafs on the top, which muft likewife be cover¬
ed with a fliutter, faftened down with pegs, to prevent
accidents.
The fide of the box which is to be joined to another -Apis*
box of the fame form and dimenfions, as it will not be or Beg'
expofed to the internal air, may be made of a piece of
flit deal not half an inch thick. This he calls the fide
of communication, becaufe it is not to be wholly inclo-
fed : a fpace is to be left at the bottom, the whole
breadth of the box, and a little more than an inch in
height; and a hole or paflage is to be made at top,
three inches long, and more than half an inch wide.
Through thefe the bees are to have a communication
from one box to the other. The lower communication
being on the floor, our labourers, with their burdens,
may readily and eafily afcend into either of the boxes.
The upper communication is only intended as a paflage
between the boxes, refembling the little holes, or nar¬
row pafles, which may be obferved in the combs form¬
ed by our fugacious architedls, to fave time and fhorten
the way when they have occafion to pafs from one comb
to another; juft as, in populous cities, there are narrow
lanes and alleys puffing tranfverfely from one large
ftreet to another.
In the next place you are to provide a loofe board,
half an inch thick, and large enough to cover the fide
where you have made the communications. You are
likewife to have in readinefs feveral little iron ftaples,
an inch and half long, with the two points or ends
bended down more than half an inch. The ufe of thefe
will be feen prefently.
You have now only to fix two flicks croffing the box
from fide to fide, and croffing each other, to be a ftay
to the combs; one about thre"e inches from the bot¬
tom, the other the fame diftance from the top; and
when you have painted the whole, to make it more du¬
rable, your box is finilhed.
The judicious bee-mafter will here obferve, that the
form of the box now defcribed is as plain as is poffible
for it to be. It is little more than five fquare pieces of
board nailed together; fo that a poor cottager, who has
but ingenuity enough to faw a board into the given
dimenfions, and to drive a nail, rnay make his own
boxes well enough, without the help or expenfe of a
carpenter.
No direftions are neceflary for making the other
box, which muft be of the fame form and dimenfions.
The two boxes differ from each other only in this, that
the fide of communication of the one muft be on your
right hand ; of the other, on your left. Fig. 15. re- adPI.XIiY.
prefents two of thefe boxes, with their openings of com¬
munication, ready to join to each other.
Mr White’s manner of hiving a fwarm into one or
both of thefe boxes, is thus:
You are to take the loofe board, and fatten it to one
of the boxes, fo as to flop the communications. Thi*
may be done by thr.ee of the ftaples before mentioned;
one on the top of the box near the front; the two o-
thers on the back, near the top and near the bottom.
Let one end of the ftaple be thruft into a gimlet-hole
made in the box, fo that the other end may go as tight
as can be over the loofe board, to keep it from flipping
when it is handled. The next morning, after the bees
have been hived in this box, the other box fhould be
added, and the loofe board fhould be taken away. This
will prevent a great deal of labour to the bees, and
fome to the proprietor.
Be careful to fatten the fhutter fo clofe to the glafs,
that
Apis,
or Bee.
adPl.XXY.
API [ 524 1 API
that no light may enter through it; for the bees feetn
to look upon fuch light as a hole or breach in their
houfe, and on that account may not fo well like their
new habitation. But the principal thing to be obfer-
ved at this time, is to cover the box, as foon as the bees
are hived, with a linen cloth thrown loofely over it, or
with green boughs, to protect it from the piercing heat
of the fun. Boxes will admit the heat much fooner
than ftraw-hives; and if the bees find their houfe too
hot for them,, they will be wife enough to leave it. If
the fwarm be larger than ufual, inftead of faftening the
loofe board to one box, you may join two boxes toge¬
ther with three ftaples, leaving the communication open
from one to the other, and then hive your bees into
both. In all pther refpecls, they are to be hived in
boxes after the fame manner as in common hives.
The door of the fecond box Ihould be carefully ftop.-
ped up, and be kept conftantly clofied, in order that the
bees .may not have an entrance but thro’ the firft box.
When the boxes are fet in the places where they are
to remain, they mull be fereened from the fummer’s
fun, becaufe the wood will otherwife be heated to a
greater degree than either the bees or their works can
bear; and they Ihould likewife be fereened from the
winter’s fun, becaufe the warmth of this will draw the
bees from that lethargic ftate which is natural to them,
as well as many other infefts, in the winter-feafon. For
this purpofe, and alfo to (helter the boxes from rain,
our ingenious clergyman has contrived the following
frame.
Fig. 12. reprefents the front of a frame for twelve
colonies, a, a, are two cells of oak, lying flat on the
ground, more than four feet long. In thefe cells you
are to fix four oaken pofts, about the thicknefs of fuch
as are ufed for drying linen.
The two pofts 5, b, in the front, are about fix feet
two inches above the cells: the other two, Handing
backward, five feet eight inches.
You are next to nail feme boards of flit deal hori¬
zontally from one of the fore-pofts to the other, to
fereen the bees from the fun. Let thefe boards be fe-
ven feet feven inches in length, and nailed to the infide
of the pofts; and be well feafoned, that they may not
fhrink or gape in the joints.
e, c. Are two fplines of deal, to keep the boards even,
and ftrengthen them.
Fig. x 7. reprefents the back of the frame, d, d, d, d.
Are four ftrong boards of the fame length with the frame,
on which you are to place the boxes. Let the upper
fide of them be very fmooth and even, that the boxes
may Hand true upon them: or it may be ftill more ad-
vi fable, to place under every pair of boxes a fmooth
thin board, as long as the boxes, and about a quarter
of an inch wider. The bees will foon faften the boxes
to this board, in fuch manner, that you may move or
weigh the boxes and board together, without breaking
the wax or refin, which for many reafons ought to be
avoided. Thefe floors muft be fupported by pieces of
wood, of bearers, e, e, &c. which are nailed from poft
to poft at each end. They are likewife to be well nail¬
ed to the frame, to keep them from finking with the
weight of the boxes.
Reprefents the roof, which projefts backward about
feven or eight inches beyond the boxes, to ftielter them
from rain.
You have now only to cut niches or holes in the
frame, over againft each , mouth or entrance into the
boxes, at h, b, h, in fig. 16. Let thefe niches be near
four inches long; and under each you muft nail a fmall
piece of wood for the bees to alight upon.
The morning or evening fun will Ihine upon one or
both ends of the frame, let its afpeft be what it will:
but you may prevent its over-heating the boxes, by a
loofe board fet up between the pofts, and kept in by
two or three pegs.
The fame gentleman, with great humanity, obferves,
that no true lover of bees ever lighted the fatal match
without much concern ; and that it is evidently more
to our advantage, to fpare the lives of our bees, and
be content with part of their (lores, than to kill and
take poflefiion of the whole.
About the latter end of Auguft, fays he, by a little
infpeftion through your glaffes, you may eafily difeo-
ver which of your colonies you may lay under contri¬
bution. Such as have filled a box and an half with
their works, will pretty readily yield you the half box.
But you art not to depend upon the quantity of combs
without examining how they are ftored with honey.
The bees ftiould, according to him, have eight or nine
pounds left them, by way of wages for their fummer’s
work.
The mod proper time for this bufinefs is the middle
of the day; and as you Hand behind the frame, you
will need no armour, except a pair of gloves. The
operation itfelf is very Ample, aud eafily performed,
thus: Open the mouth of the box you intend to take;
then, with a thin knife, cut through the refin with
which the bees have joined the boxes to each other, till
you find that you have feparated them ; and after this,
thruft a (heet of tin gently in between the boxes. The
communication being hereby Hopped, the bees in the
fulled box, where it is mod likely the queen is, will be
a little difturbed at the operation; but thofe in the o-
ther box where we fuppofe the queen is not, will run
to and fro in the utmoft hurry and confuiion, and
fend forth a mournful cry, eafily diltinguiftied from
their other notes. They will iflue out at the newly
opened door; not in a body as when they fwarm, nor
with fuch calm and cheerful aftivity as when they go
forth to their labours; but by one or two at a time,
with a wild flutter, and vifible rage and diforder. This,
however, is foon ever: for as foort as they get abroad
and fpy their fellows, they fly to them inftantly and
join them at the mouth of the other box. By this
means, irt an hour or two, for they go out (lowly, you
will have a box of pure honey, without leaving a bee in
it to moled you; and likewife without dead bees,
which, when you burn them, are often mixed with
your honey, and both vvafte and damage it.
Mr White acknowledges, that he has feme times
found this method fail, when the mouth of the box to
be taken away has not been conftantly and carefully
clofed : the bees will, in this cafe, get acquainted with
it as an entrance ; and when you open the mouth in
order to their leaving this box, many of them will be
apt to return, and, the communication being Hopped,
will, in a (hort time, carry away all the honey from
this to the other box; fo much do they abhor a repa¬
ration. When this happens, he has recourfe to the
following expedient, which he thinks infallible. He
takes
API [ 525 ] API
Api*. takes a piece of deal, a little larger than will cover the
| or Bee. mouth of the box, and cuts in it a fquare nich fome-
~ what more than half an inch wide. In this nich he
hangs a little trap-door, made of a thin piece of tin,
turning upon a pin, with another pin croffing the nich
a little lower, fo as to prevent the hanging door from
opening both ways. This being placed clofe to the
mouth, the bees which want to get out will eafily thruft
open the door outwards, but cannot open it the other
way, to get in again ; fo muft, and will readily, make
to the other box, leaving this in about the fpace of two
hours, with all its ftore, juftly due to the tender heart¬
ed bee-mafter, as a ranfom for their lives.
What led Mr White to prefer collateral boxes to
thofe before in ufe, was, to ufe his own words, his
“ compaffion for the poor bees, who, after traverfing
the fields, retprn home weary and heavy laden, and
muft perhaps depofit their burden up two pair of ftairs,
or in the garret. The lower room, it is likely, is not
yet furnilhed with ftairs : for, as is well known, our
little architefts lay the foundation of their ftrudtures
at the top, and build downward. In this cafe, the
weary little labourer is to drag her load up the fides
of the walls : and when ftie has done this, fhe will tra¬
vel many times backward and forward, as I have fre¬
quently feen, along the roof, before fhe finds the door
or paffage into the fecond ftory; and here again fhe is
perplexed with a like puzzling labyrinth, before fhe
gets into the third. What a wafte is here of that
precious time which our bees value fo much, and which
they employ fo well! and what an expence of ftrength
and fpirits, on which their fupport and fuftenance de¬
pend ! In the collateral boxes, the rooms are all on
the ground-floor; and becaufe I know my bees are
wife enough to value convenience more than ftate, I
have made them of fuch a moderate, though decent,
height, that the bees have much lefs way to climb to
the top of them, than they have to the crown of a
Of th° common hive.”
• nagement of Wildman’s hives have been already defcribed,
1 Bees in (n° 19, 20.) Agoodfwarm will foonfill one ofthefehives,
1 Mr Wild- and therefore another hive may be put under it the next
( man’s hives, morning. The larger fpace allowed the bees, will ex¬
cite their induftry in filling them with combs. The
queen will lay fome eggs in the upper hive ; but fo
foon as the lower hive is filled with combs, fhe will lay
moft of them in it. In little more than three weeks,
all the eggs laid in the upper hive will be turned into
bees; and if the feafon is favourable, their cells will be
foon filled with honey.
So fbon as they want room, a third hive fhould be
placed under the two former; and in a few days after
the end of three weeks from the time the fwarm was
put into the hive, the top hive may be taken away at
noon of a fair day 5 and if any bees remain in it, carry
it to a little diftance from the ftand, and, turning its
bottom up, and ftriking it on the fides, the bees will be
: alarmed, take wing, and join their companions in the
fecond and third hives. If it is found that the bees
are very unwilling to quit it, it is probable that the queen
remains among them. In this cafe, the bees muft be
treated in the manner that fhall be direfted, when we
defcribe Mr Wildman’s method of taking the honey and
the wax, (n° 31.) The upper hive now taken away
fhould be put in a cool place, in which no vermin, mice,
V#L. I.
&c. can come at the combs, or other damage can hap- ap;s>
pen to them, and be thus preferved in referve. or Bee'
So foon as the hives feem to be again crowded, and
the upper hive is well ftored, or filled with honey, a
fourth hive fhould be placed under the fhird, and the
upper hive be taken off the next fair day at noon, and
treated as already directed. As the honey made du¬
ring the fummer is the beft, and as it is needlefs to
keep many full hives in ftore, the honey may be taken
out of the combs of this fecond hive for ufe.
If the feafon is very favourable, the bees may ftill
fill a third hive. In this cafe, a fifth hive muft be put
under the fourth, and the third taken away as before.
The bees will then fill the fourth for their winter-ftore.
As the honey of the firft hive is better than the ho¬
ney collected fo late as that in the third, the honey may
be taken out of the combs of the firft, and the third
may be preferved with the fame care as direfted for
that.
In the month of September, the top hive fhould be
examined: if full, it will be a fufficient provifion for
the winter; but if light, that is, not containing 20
pounds of honey, the more the better, then, in the
month of O&ober, the fifth hive fhould be taken away,
and the hive kept in referve fhould be put upon the re¬
maining one, to fupply the bees with abundant provi-
fions for the winter. Nor need the owner grudge them
this ample ftore; for they are faithful ftewards, and
will be proportionally richer, and more forward in the
fpring and fummer, when he will reap an abundant-
profit. The fifth hive which was taken away fhould
be carefully preferved during the winter, that it may
be reftored to the fame flock of bees, when an addi¬
tional hive is wanted next fummer; or the firft fwarm
that comes off may be put into it. The combs in it,
if kept free from filth and vermin, willfave much labour,
and they will at once go to the colle&ing of honey.
It is almoft needlefs to obferve, that when the hives
are changed, a cover, as already directed (fee n° 19.)
fhould be put upon every upper hive; and that when a
lower hive becomes an upper hive, the door of it fhould
be fhut up, that fo their only paffage out fhall be by
the lower hive ; for otherwife the queen would be apt
to lay eggs in both indifcriminately. The whole of
the above detail of the management of one hive, may
be extended to any number ; it may be proper to keep
a regifter to each fet, becaufe, in reftoring hives to the
bees, they may be better pleafed at receiving their own
labours, than that of other flocks.
If in the autumn the owner has fome weak hives,
which have neither provifion nor numbers fufficient for
the winter, it is advifable to join the bees to richer
hives : for the greater number of bees will be a mutual
advantage to one another during the winter, and ac¬
celerate their labours much in the fpring. For this pur-
pofe, carry a poor and a richer hive into a room, a lit¬
tle before night: then force the bees out of both hives
into two feparate empty hives, in a manner that fhall
be hereafter directed : fhake upon a cloth the bees out
of the hive which contains the feweft; fearch for the
queen; and as foon as you have fecured her with a fuf¬
ficient retinue, bring the other hive which contains the
greater number, and place it on the cloth on which
the other bees are, with a fupport under one fide, and
with a fpoon fhovel the bees under it. They will fpon
U u u afcend;
API [ 526 ] API
-Apisi afcend; and, while under this impreffion of fear, will
or Bee' unite peaceably with the other bees; whereas, had they
been added to the bees of the richer hive, while in pof-
fefiion of their caftle, many of the new-comers muft
have paid with their lives for their intrufion.
It appears from the account of the management of
bees in Mr Wildman’s hives, that there is very little
art wanting to caufe the bees to quit the hives which
are taken away, unlefs a queen happens by chance to
be among them. In that cafe, the fame means may be
ufed as are neceffary when we would rob one of the
common hives of part of their wealth. The method
is as follows:
His method Remove the hive, from which you would take the
wax an^ boney, into a room, into which admit but
aud vvaxy ^tt^e %ht, that it may at firft appear to the bees as
if it was late in the evening. Gently invert the hive,
placing it between the frames of a chair, or other fteady
fupport, and cover it with an empty hive, keeping that
fide of the empty hive raifed a little, which is next the
window, to give the bees fufficient light to get up in¬
to it. While you hold the empty hive fteadily fup-
ported on the edge of the full hive, between your fide
and your left arm, keep ftriking with the other hand
all round the full hive from top to bottom, in the man¬
ner of beating a drum, fo that the bees may be fright¬
ened by the continued noife from all quarters; and
they will in confequence mount out of the full hive in¬
to the empty one. Repeat the ftrokes rather quick
than ftrong round the hive, till all the bees are got
out of it, which in general will be in about five minutes.
It is to be obferved, that the fuller the hive is of bees,
the fooner they will have left it. As foon as a num¬
ber of them have got into the empty hive, it fliould
be raifed a little from the full one, that the bees may
not continue to run from the one to the other, but ra¬
ther keep afcending upon one another.
So foon as all the bees are out of the full hive, the
hive in which the bees are muft be placed on the ftand
* from which the other hive was taken, in order to re¬
ceive the abfent bees as they return from the fields.
If this is done early in the feafon, the operator
fhould examine the royal cells, that any of them that
have young in them may be faved, as well as the combs
which have young bees in them, which ftiould on no
account be touched, though by fparing them a good
deal of honey be left behind. Then take out the other
combs, with a long, broad, and pliable knife, fuch as
the apothecaries make ufe of. The combs ftiould be
cut from the fides and crown as clean as pofiible, to
fave the future labour of the bees, who muft lick up
the honey fpill, and remove every remains of-wax; and
then the fides of the hive ftiould be fcraped with a table-
fpoon, to clear away what was left by the knife. Du¬
ring the whole of this operation, the hive fhould be
placed inclined to the fide from which the combs are
taken, that the honey which is fpilt may not daub the
remaining combs. If fome combs were unavoidably
taken away, in which there are young bees, the parts
of the combs in which they are fhould be returned in¬
to the hive, and fecured by flicks in the beft manner
pofiible. Place the hive then for fome time upright, that
any remaining honey may drain out. If the combs are
built in a direilion oppofite to the entrance, or at right
angles with it, the combs which are the furtheft from
the entrance are to be preferred ; becaufe there they Apis,
are beft ftored with honey, and have the feweft young or Bee*
bees in them.
Having thus finifhed taking the wax and honey, the
next bufinefs is to return the bees to their old hive ;
and for this purpofe place a table covered with a clean
cloth, near the ftand, and giving the hive in which the
bees are a fudden fhake, at the fame time ftriking it
pretty forcibly, the bees will be fhaken on the cloth.
Put their own hive over them immediately, raifed a
little on one fide, that the bees may the more eafily en¬
ter ; and when all are entered, place it on the ftand as
before. If the hive, in which the bees are, be turned
bottom uppermoft, and their own hive be placed over
it, the bees will immediately afcend into it, efpecially
if the lower hive is ftruck on the fides to alarm
them.
As the chief objeft of the bees, during the fpring,
and beginning of the fummer, is the propagation of their
kind, honey, during that time, is not colledled in fuch
quantity as it is afterwards : and on this account it is
fcarcely worth while to rob a hive before the latter
end of June ; nor is it fafe to do it after the middle of
July, left rainy weather may prevent their reftoring
the combs they have loft, and laying in a flock of ho¬
ney fufficient for the winter, unlefs there is a chance
of carrying them to a rich pafture.
Explanation of the Plates.
Plate XXV. Fig. 1. is the queen-bee. 2. Is the
drone. 3. Is the working bee. 4. Reprefents the
bees hanging to each other by the feet, which is the
method of taking their repofe. 5. The probofcis or
trunk, which is one of the principal organs of the
bees, wherewith they gather the honey and take their
nourifhment. 6. One of the hind-legs of a working-
bee, loaded with wax. 7. A comb, in which the
working bees are bred. The cells are the fmalleft of
any. Two of them have the young bees inclofed. A
royal cell is fufpended on one fide. 8. A comb in
which the drones are bred, being larger than the for¬
mer ; the young drones being included in feveral of
them ; with two royal cells fufpended on the fide.
9. A fimilar comb, in which the royal cell is fixed in
the middle of the comb ; and feveral common cells are
facrificed to ferve as a bafis and fupport to it. In
general, the royal cells are fufpended on the fide of a*
comb, as in fig. 7, 8. To the fide of fig. 9. two
royal cells are begun, when they refemble pretty much
the cup in which an acorn lies. The other royal cells
have the young queens included in them.
2d Plate XXV. Fig. 1. exhibits the fling and all
its parts. The fling is compofed of a fheath or cafe,
and two fhanks, united to each other, and terminating
in a fharp point, fo as to look like a fingle part, h. The
poifonous bag. c. The tube that ferves to convey the
poifon from its bag to the thickeft part of the fling’s
fheath. d d, The two fhanks of the fling, mutually
conveying to each other, e e, The fheath of the fling.
f f. The thickeft end of the fheath, where the tube o-
pens into it, by which it receives the infeft’s poifon.
g. The extreme point of the fling, formed by the two
fhanks of that organ, that are in this place clofely uni¬
ted. h h, The beards with which the fhanks of the
fling are armed at their extremities, e, The tube that
ferves to fecrete the poifon, which it difcharges into
riiifc. .Y.YV .
' JO
a Taran
WSsz
mmm
mm
* ■
-f-
HarelXXy: (A|
CAy. /3.
<%/'■
m
t
6^y. //
API [ 527 ] API
i'”* me ponon-aag, h k. The two blind extremities of
te' faid tube. ////, Two pair of cartilages, of different
forms, which are for the moft part of a deep black,
and articulated among themfelves and with the fhanks
of die fling, mm. Two other cartilages lefs confpi-
cuous than the former, with one pair of which they
are articulated. Thefe two cartilages m m, are almoft
entirely of a membranaceous fubftance. nnn7innnn.
Eight places in which the foregoing cartilages are arti¬
culated among themfelves, and with the fhanks of the
fling dd. 0000, Four mufcles ferving to move the
fling different ways, by the afliflance of the fame car¬
tilages. p p, Two mufcles which draw the fhanks of
the fling into its fheath. q q. Two appendages of the
fling which are moved along with it, and feem to an-
fwer no other purpofe but that of ornament Fig 2.
The ovary. — Fig. 3. Six eggs drawn after nature, and
placed on their ends: Thefe eggs are oblong, very
flender, but fomewhat thicker on their upper parts.—
Fig. 4. An egg viewed with a microfcope: it refem-
bles the fkin of a fifh, divefted of its fcale, but flill
retaining the marks of their infertion Fig. 5. Worms
of bees of different fuses, drawn after nature, a, A
worm newly hatched, b c d% Four worms that re¬
ceived more nourifhment, and are more grown, f, g.
Two worms flill bigger than the former, having had
more time to make ufe of the nourifhment provided
for them. They are here reprefented as they lie dou¬
bled in their cells, h, A worm placed on its belly, fo
as to fhew on its back a black line, inclining to a light
blue or grey. This line denotes the flomach, which
appears in this place through the tranfparent parts that
lie over it. i, A worm lying on its back, and begin¬
ning to draw in the hinder part of its body, and move
its head.—Fig. 6. A full-grown worm viewed with a
microfcope. a a. Its 14 annular incifions or divi-
fions. b, The head and eyes, &c. c c c. Ten breathing
holes -—Fig. 7. The worm forming its web. a a. The
Tides of the c^tt that contain it. b, The bottom of
the cell, c, The entrance or door of the cell. The
worm is here reprefented as making its web in the pro-
pereft manner to fhut up this entrance.—Fig. 8. Worm
taken out of the web in which it had inclofed itfelf,
and juft ready to caft its fkin.— Fig. 9. A cell con¬
taining the worm changed into a nymph, and per-
fe£lly lined with the faid worm’s web. Likewife the
faid web entire, with the nymph contained in it, as
they appear on opening the cell, a a. The Tides of
the cell, lined with the worm’s web. b. The mouth
of the cell, perfectly clofed by the web. c, The
bottom of the cell, d. The web entire, as it appears
on opening the cell, which it greatly refembles in form.
e, The upper part of the web, of a convex form. This
part fhews its filaments pretty diftinftly. f. The in¬
clofed nymph appearing through the tranfparent Tides
of the web. g. The bottom of the web, anfwering
to that of the wax-cell.—Fig. 10. Worm changed to
a nymph, of its natural fize and form, yet fo as to ex¬
hibit its limbs, which are folded up in a moft wonder¬
ful manner.—Fig. 11. The nymph of the bee viewed
with the microfcope, difplaying in a diftintft manner
all the parts of the inclofed infeft, and the beautiful
manner in which they are laid up. a. The head,
bloated with humours. bb. The eyes, projecting
confiderably. c c, The horns, or antennae, d, The
hp. e e, The teeth, or jaw-bones, f f The fifft Ay
pair of joints belonging to the probofeis. b, The pro- II
bofeis itfelf. i i. The firft pair of legs, k k. Two Apiu
tranfparent ftiff little parts, lying againft the low-
eft joints of the firft pair of legs. Thefe little parts
are not to be found as they remain in the Ikin it
ftieds on quitting the nymph ftate. / /, The fecond
pair of legs, m m. The wings. « n. The blade-
bones. 00, The laft pair of legs, p p. The abdomi¬
nal rings, q, (g) The hinder part of the body. The
fting projeCts a Tittle in this place, r. Two little parts
accompanying the fting. s. The anus.—Fig. 12. a,
A cell full of bees-bread, placed in layers, b, Eittlc
grains, of which the faid fubltance, viewed with the
microfcope, appears to confift.—The other figures have
been already deferibed.
Other Species of Apis.
The moft remarkable are, 2. The centuncularis, or
black bee, having its belly covered with yellow down.
The nefts of this fpecies are made of rofe-leaves curi-
oufiy plaited in the form of a matt or quilt. 3. The
florifomnis, or black bee with a cylindrical incurvated
belly, having two tooth-like protuberances at the anus,
and a kind of prickles on the hind-legs. This bee
fleeps in flowers. 4. The dentata, or Ihining green
bee, with black wings, and a kind of teeth on the
hind thighs. The tongue of this bee is almoft as long
as its body. 5. The variegata : the bread and belly
are variegated with white and black fpots ; the legs
are of an iron colour. It is a native of Europe. This
fpecies fleeps in the geranium phasum, or fpotted
crane’s-bill. 6. The roftrata is diftinguilhed by
the upper lip being infleCted and of a conical Ihape,
and by the belly being invefted with bluifti belts.
They build their nefts in high fandy grounds, and
there is but one young in each neft. 7. The ferru-
inea, or fmooth black bee, with the feelers, mouth,
elly, and feet, of an iron colour. This is a fmall
bee, and fuppofed to be of an intermediate kind be¬
tween the bee and wafp. It is a native of Europe.
8. The cariofa is a yellowifti hairy bee; and the feet-
and front are of a bright yellow colour. It builds in
the rotten trees of Europe. 9. The violacea is a red
bee, and very hairy, with bluiih wings. It is a native
of Europe. The violacea is faid to perforate trees, and
hollow them out in a longitudinal direction ; they be¬
gin to build their -eells at the bottom of thefe holes,
and depofit an egg in each cell, which is compofed
of the farina of plants and honey, or a kind of gluten.
10. The terreftris is black and hairy, with a white
belt round the breaft, and a white anus : it builds its
neft very deep in the earth. 11. The lapidaria, or red
hairy bee, with a yellow anus, builds in holes of
rocks. 12. The mufeorum, or yellow hairy bee, with
a white belly, builds in mofly grounds. 13. The hyp-
norum, or yellow hairy bee, with a black belt on the
belly. The laft three fpecies are alfo natives of Eu¬
rope. 14. The brafilianorum, or pale-red hairy bee,
with the bafis of the thighs black. This is a very
large bee, every where covered with a teftaceous Ikin.
It is a native of America.
APIUM, parsley, a genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus Dr Linnaeus reckons only
two fpecies, the petroxelinum and graveolens; but Mr
U u u 2 Miller
API [ 528 1 API
Apium. Miller mentions the feven following. 1. The petro-
‘ felinum, or common parfley, which is generally culti¬
vated for common ufe, and is what the phyficians have
diftinguifhed by the name of petrofelinurn, the graveo-
lens or fmallage being conftantly mentioned under that
of Apium. 2. The crifpum, or curled parfley, has
been generally fuppofed to be only a- variety of the
firfl; but, according to Mr Miller, this is a miftake
arifing from the feeds of the two' forts being ufually
mixed in the fhops. 3. The latifolium, or large root¬
ed parfley, is cultivated on account of its roots, which
are as large as common carrots, as well as very tender
and fweet. This kind was known in Holland long be¬
fore the Englifh gardeners could be prevailed upon to
raife it. Mr Miller received the feeds from thence in
1727. 4. The graveolens, or fmallage, is by Linnaeus
joined to the celery ; but in this he is greatly miftaken.
Mr Miller affures us that he cultivated this plant for
forty years together, to try if it could be brought to
the fame goodnefs as celery ; but without fuccefs. It
does not grow fo tall as celery, nor will it rife with a
ftraightftem; but fends out many fuckers near the root,
and, when blanched, retains its ftrong rank tafte,
which no culture can alter. 5. The dulce, or upright
celery. 6. The rapaceum, or turnep-rooted celery.
The laft of thefe was fuppofed to be a degenerate fpe-
cies from the former; but this is likewife denied by Mr
Miller. The leaves of the rapaceum are fliort when
compared with thofe of the dulce, and fpread open ho¬
rizontally ; the roots grow as large as common tur¬
nips. The only difference obferved from culture was,
that on rich ground, and where the plants were care¬
fully cultivated, the roots were much larger than on
poorer land; but the leaves and outward appearance of
the plant never vary. 7. The lufitanicum, the feeds
of which were received from the royal garden at Pa¬
ris, and has fince been cultivated in fame Englifh gar¬
dens, and ftill fhews itfelf to be fpecifically dillind,
but has no remarkable property.
Culture. The common parfley muft be fown early in
the fpring, as the feeds remain a long time in the
ground, the plants feldom appearing in lefs than fix
weeks after fowing. It is generally fown in drills by
the edges of borders ; it being much eafier to keep
clear from weeds, by following this method, than if the
feeds are fown promifcuoufly on a border. When it
is defigned for medicinal ufe, the feeds muft be fown
thin ; and when the plants come up, they fhould be
hoed out Angle, as is pra&ifed for carrots, onions, &c.
obferving alio to cut up the weeds. If this is obfer¬
ved, the roots will become fit for ufe in July or Auguft,
and continue till the fpring. As there is danger of ha¬
ving the leaves of the lefler hemlock mixed with par¬
fley, from their near refemblance, it would be proper
to cultivate only the curled fort, which will be readily
known on account of the peculiar form of its leaves.
The beft time for fowing this fpecies is in the middle
or latter end of February. One buihel of feed will
fow an acre of land. The large rooted parfley may
be fown about the fame time ; and in April, when the
plants are up, they muft be cut out with a hoe, to five
or fix inches fquare, and kept conftantly free from
weeds. In July, the roots will be fit to draw for ufe ;
but if they are cut out fo as to allow them more room
to grow, the roots will grow, in a good foil, to the
fize of a middling parfnep, by September.—Sfnallage Api
is a common weed by the fides of ditches and brooks in
many parts of England, fo that it is feldom cultivated
in gardens : but if any perfon is willing to cultivate it,
the feeds fhould be fown foon after they are ripe, on a
moift fpot of ground; and when the plants are come
up, they may be either tranfplanted on a moift foil, or
hoed out, and left fix or eight inches afunder where
they are to remain.—The feeds of the two forts of ce¬
lery ftiould be fown at two or three different times, the
better to continue it for ufe through the whole feafon,
and prevent its running up to feed. The firft fowing
ftiould be in the beginning of March, on a gentle hot¬
bed : the fecond may be a fortnight or three weeks af¬
ter, which ought to be in an open fpot of light earth,
where it may enjoy the benefit of the fun : the third
time of fowing ftiould be in the end of April or be¬
ginning of May, which ought to be in a moift foil;
and if expofed to the morning fun only, fo much the
better, but it (hould not be under the drip of trees.
The feeds which were fown on the hot-bed will come up
in about three weeks or a month after fowing, when
the plants fliould be carefully cleared from weeds ; and
if the feafon prove dry, they muft be carefully watered.
In about a month or five weeks after it is up, the
plants may. be removed to fame beds of moift rich
earth, in a warm fituation, in which they are to be
placed at about the diftance of three inches from one
another. If the feafon proves cold, they muft be co¬
vered with mats to fcreen them from the morning
frofts ; and, in cafe of drought, they muft be watered
till they have taken root.
Medicinal Ufes, &c. The roots and feeds of the pe-
trofelinu?n are ufed in medicine. The root of parfley
is one of the five aperient roots, and in this intention
is fometimes made an ingredient in apozems and diet-
drinks : if liberally ufed, it is apt to occafion flatulen¬
cies; and thus, by diftending the vifcera, produces a
contrary effect to that intended by it: the tafte of this
root is fomewhat fweetifli, with a light degree of
warmth and aromatic flavour. The feeds are an ingre¬
dient in the electuary of bay-berries. The roots of
fmallage are alfo in the number of aperient roots, and
have been fometimes prefcribed as an ingredient in ape¬
rient apozems and diet-drinks, but are at prefent dif-
regarded. The feeds of the plant are moderately aro¬
matic, and were formerly ufed as carminatives ; in
which intention they are, doubtlefs, capable of doing
fervice, though the other warm feeds,, which the ftiops
are furnifhed with, render thefe unneceffary; and ac-i
cordingly the Edinburgh college, which retains the
roots, has expunged the feeds.
Befides its medicinal virtues abovementioned, the
common parfley is reckoned an effectual cure for the
rot in flieep, provided they are fed with it twice a-
week for two or three hours each time : but hares and
rabbits are fo fond of this herb, that they will come
from a great diftance to feed upon it; and in the
countries where thefe animals abound, they will de-
ftroy it if not very fecurely fenced againft them ; ft>
that whoever has a mind to have plenty of hares in
their fields, may draw them from all parts of the coun¬
try by cultivating parfley.
Apium anisum dictum. See Pimpinella.
Apium Macedonjcum. See Bubon.
APIVORUS*.
A P O [ 5*9 ] A P O
Apivorus APIVORUS, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpe-
: II cies of falco. See Falco.
poca > p e. APLUDA, a genus of the monoecia order, belong¬
ing to the polygamia clafs of plants. The calix is a
bivalved gluma ; the flofcules of the female are feffile,
and the male flofcules are furniflied with pedunculi;
the famale has no calix ; the corolla has a double valve;
there is but one ftylus, and one covered feed. The
male has three ftamina. There are three fpecies of a-
pluda, viz. the mutica, ariftata, and zeugites, all na¬
tives of the Indies.
APOBATANA, the metropolis of Media, and
where the kings kept their treafure, (Ifidorus Chara-
cenus) ; fuppofed to be the fame with Ecbatana.
APOBATERION, in antiquity, a valediftory
fpeech or poem made by a perfon on departing out of
his own country, and addreffed to his friends or rela¬
tions.
APOBATHRA, a place near Seftos, (Strabo) ;
the landing place where Xerxes’s /hips were frozen,
and lluck in the ice, (Euftathius).
APOCALYPSE, Revelation, the name of one
the facred books of the New Teftament, containing
revelations concerning feveral important doftrines of
Chriftianity.
The word is Greek, and derived from «Tox«xuTra,
to reveal, or difcover.
This book, according to Irenseus, was written a-
bout the year 96 of Chrifl:, in the ifland of Patmos,
w'hither St John had been bani/hed by the emperor
Domitian. But Sir Ifaac Newton places the writing
of it earlier, viz. in the time of Nero. Some attri¬
bute this book to the arch-heretic Cerinthus : but the
ancients unanimoufly afcribed it to John, the fon of
Zebedee, and brother of James; whom the Greek fa¬
thers call the Divine, by way of eminence, to diftin-
gui/h him from the other evangelifts. This book has
not, at all times, been efteemed canonical. There
were many churches in Greece, as St Jerome informs
us, which did not receive it; neither is it in the cata¬
logue of canonical books prepared by the council of
Laodicea, nor in that of St Cyril of Jerufalem : but
Juftin, Irenseus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of Alex¬
andria, Tertullian, and all the fathers of the fourth,
fifth, and the following centuries, quote the Revela¬
tions as a book then acknowledged to be canonical.
The Alogians, Marcionites, Cerdonians, and Luther
himfelf, reje&ed this book: but the Proteftants have
forfaken Luther in this particular; and Beza has
ftrongly maintained againft his objedions, that the A-
pocalypfe is authentic and canonical.
The Apocalypfe confifts of twenty-two chapters.
The three firfi: are an inftru&ion to the bifliops of the
feven churches of Afia Minor. The fifteen following
chapters contain the perfecutions which the church was
to fuffer from the Jews, heretics, and Roman empe¬
rors. Next, St John prophefies of the vengeance of
God, which he will exercife againft thofe perfecutors,
againft the Roman empire, and the city of Rome,
which, as the Proteftants fuppofe, he deferibes under
the name of Babylon, the great whore, feated upon
feven hills. In the laft place, the 19th, 20th, 21st, and
22d chapters, deferibe the triumph of the church over
its enemies, the marriage of the Lamb, and the hap-
pinefs of the church triumphant.
“ It is a part of this prophecy (fays Sir Ifaac New¬
ton), that it /hould not be underftood before the laft age
of the world ; and therefore it makes for the credit of
the prophecy, that it is not yet underftood. The folly
of interpreters has been to foretel times and things
by this prophecy, as if God defigned to make them
prophets. By this ra/hnefs they have not only expofed
themfelves, but brought the prophecy alfo into con¬
tempt. The defign of God was much otherwife : he
gave this and the prophecies of the Old Teftament,
not to gratify mens curiofities, by enabling them to
foreknow things ; but that, after they were fulfilled,
they might be interpreted by the events, and his own
providence, not the interpreters, be then manifefted
thereby to the world. And there is already fo much
of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take
pains in this ftudy, may fee fufficient inftances of God’*
providence.”
There have been feveral other works publi/hed
under the title of Apocalypfes. Sozomen mentions
a book ufed in the churches of Paleftine, called the
Apocalypfe, or Revelation of St Peter. He alfo men¬
tions an Apocalypfe of St Paul; which the Coph-
tse retain to this day. Eufebius alfo fpeaks of both
thefe Apocalypfes. St Epiphanius mentions an Apo¬
calypfe of Adam ; Nicephorus, an Apocalypfe of Ef-
dras; Gratian and Cedrenus, an Apocalypfe of Mofes,
another of St Thomas, and another of St Stephen ;
St Jerom, an Apocalypfe of Elias. Porphyry, in his
life of Plotin, makes mention of the Apocalypfe or
Revelations of Zoroafter, Zoftrian, Nicothseus, Allo-
genes, &c.
APOCOPE, among grammarians, a figure which
cuts off a letter or fyllable from the end of a word ;
as ingent for ingenii.
APOCRISARIUS, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a
fort of refident in an imperial city, in the name of a
foreign church or bifhop, whofe office was to nego¬
tiate, as proftor, at the emperor’s court, in all eccle¬
fiaftical caufes in which his principals might be con¬
cerned. The inftitution of the office feems to have
been in the time of Conftantine, or not long after,
when, the emperors being become Chriftians, foreign
churches had more occafions to promote their fuits at
court than formerly. However, we find it eftablifhed
by law in the time of Juftinian. In imitation of
this officer, almoft every monaftery had its Apocrifa-
rius, or refident, in the imperial city.
The title and quality of Apocrifary became at length
appropriated to the Pope’s agent, or Nuncio, as he is
now called ; who refided at Conftantinople, to receive
the Pope’s difpatches, and the emperor’s anfwers. The
word is formed from A^ox.pivsiv, to anfwer.
APOCRUSTICS, in medicine, the fame with repel¬
lents. See Repellents.
APOCRYPHA, or apocryphal books, fuch
books as are not admitted into the canon of feripture,
being either not acknowledged as divine, or fpurious.
The word is Greek; and derived from «wo, and
xpunrra to hide or conceal.
When the Jews publi/hed their facred books, they
gave the appellations of canonical and divine only to
fuch as they then made public: fueh as were ftill re¬
tained in their archives they called apocryphal, for no
other Teafon but becaufe they were not public; fo
that
ApocalypTe
s
Apocrypha.
A r O [ ijo ] A P o
Apocrypha that they might he really facred and divine, though not
II proraulged as fueh.
Apocymim. Thus, in refpe£t of the Bible, all books were called
apocryphal which were not inferted in the Jewifh canon
of fcripture. Voffius obferves, that, with regard to
the facred books, none are to be accounted apocry¬
phal, except fuch as had neither been admitted into
the fynagogue nor the church, fo as to be added to the
canon, and read in public.
The Proteftants do not only reckon thofe books to
be apocryphal which are eftecmed fuch in the church
of Rome, as the prayer of Manaffeh king of Judah,
the third and fourth books of Efdras, St Barnabas’s
epiftle, the book of Hermos, the addition at the end
of Job, and the I5isr pfalm ; but alfo Tobit, Judith,
Either, the book of Wifdom, Jefus the fon of Sirach,
Baruch the prophet, the Song of the Three Children,
the hiftory of Sufannah, the hiftory of Bell and the
Dragon, and the firft and fecond books of Maccabees.
It is now pretended that thefe books were not recei¬
ved by the Jews, or fo much as known to them. None
of the writers of the New Teftament cite or mention
them: neither Philo nor Jofephus fpeak of them. The
Chriftian church was for fome ages an utter ftranger
to thefe books. Origen, Athanafius, Hilary, Cyril
of Jerufalem, and all the orthodox writers, who have
given catalogues of the canonical books of fcripture,
unanimoufly concur in reje&ing thefe out of the canon.
And for the New Teftament, they are divided in their
opinions, whether the epiftle to the Hebrews, the e-
piftle of St James, and the fecond epiftle of St Peter,
the fecond and third epiftles of St John, the epiftle of
St Jude, and the Revelations, are to be acknowledged
as canonical or not.
The Proteftants acknowledge fuch books of fcripture
only to be canonical as were fo efteemed to be in the
firft ages of the church ; fuch as are cited by the ear-
lieft writers among the Chriftians as of divine authori¬
ty, and after the moft diligent inquiry were received
and fo judged to be by the council of Laodicea. The
feveral epiftles abovementioned, and the book of Re¬
velations, whatever the fentiments of fome particular
perfons are or may have been of them, are allowed by
all the reformed churches to be parts of the canon of
the New Teftament.
The apocryphal books, however, according to the
fixth article of the church of England, are to be read
for example of Life and inftrudtion of manners; but
it doth not apply them to eftablifh any doftrine.
APOCYNUM, (Avoxunoy, of aa-oand !tui®'adog, be-
caufe the ancients believed this plant would kill dogs,)
Dogsbane ; a genus of the digynia order, belonging
to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus botanical writers enumerate
i x fpecies; of which the following are the moft re¬
markable: i. The venetum, with an upright herbace¬
ous ftalk, grows on a fmall ifland in the fea near Ve¬
nice, but is fuppofed to have been originally brought
from fome other country. There are two varieties of
this; one with a purple, and the other with a white
flower. The roots creep very much, and by them only
it is propagated ; for it feldom produces any feeds ei¬
ther in the gardens where it is cultivated, or in thofe
places where it grows naturally. Mr Miller tells us,
that he had been affured by a very curious botanift, who
refided many years at Venice, and conftantly went to Apaevnuw
the fpot feveral times in the feafon to procure the feeds, li '
had any been produced, that he never could find any   
pods formed on the plants. The ftalks rife about two
feet high, and are garnifhed with fmooth oval leaves
placed oppofite ; the flowers grow at the top of the
ftalks, in-fmall umbels, and make a very pretty appear¬
ance. The flowers appear in July and Auguft. 2.
The fpeciofiffimum, with large flowers, is a native of
Jamaica in the Savannahs, whence it has the name of
Savannah-flower, by which it is generally known in
that ifland. This fort rifes three or four feet high, ha¬
ving woody ftalks, which fend out a fewf lateral bran¬
ches, garnilhed with fmooth oval leaves placed by pairs
oppofite, of a flxining green colour on their upper fides,
but pale and veined underneath. The flowers are pro¬
duced from the fides of the branches, upon long foot-
ftalks: there are commonly four or five buds at the end
of each; but there is feldom more than one of them which
comes to the flower. The flower is very large, having a
long tube which fpreads open wide at the top,of a bright
yellow, and makes a fine appearance, efpecially in thofe
places where the plants grow naturally, being moft part
of the year in flower. 3. Cordatum, with a climbing
ftalk. 4. The villofum, with hairy flowers and a climb¬
ing ftalk. Thefe were difcovered at La Vera Cruz in
New Spain, by Dr William Houfton, who fent their
feeds to England. They are both climbers, and mount
to the tops of the talleft trees. In England they have
climbed over the plants in the ftoves, and rifen to up¬
wards of 20 feet high. The third fort has produced
flowers feveral times: but the fourth never ftiewed an
appearance of any.
Culture. The firft fort is hardy enough to live in
England in the open air, provided it is planted in a
warm fituation and dry foil. It is propagated, as we
have already obferved, by its creeping roots; the belt
time for removing and planting which is in the fpting,
juft before they begin to pufti out new ftalks. The
other forts are propagated by feeds, but are fo tender
as to require being kept conftantly in a ftove.
Properties. All the fpecies of this plant abound
with a milky juice, which flows out from any part of
their ftalks and leaves when they are broken : this is
enerally fuppofed to be hurtful if taken inwardly, but
oth not blifter the fkin when applied to it as the juice
of fpurge and other acrid plants. The pods of all the
forts are filled with feeds, which are for the moft part
comprefled and lie over one another imbricatim, like
the tiles of a houfe ; thefe have each a long plume of
a cottony down fattened to their crowns, by which,
when the pods are ripe and open, the feeds are wafted
by the wind to a confiderable diftance, fo that the plants
become very troublefome weeds. This down is'in great
efteem in France, for Huffing of eafy chairs, making
quilts, &c. for it is exceedingly light and elaftic. It
is called by the French delawad; and might probably
become a vendible commodity in England, were peo¬
ple attentive to the colle&ing of it in Jamaica where
the plants are found in plenty.
APODECTiE, in antiquity, a denomination given
to ten general receivers appointed by the Athenians
to receive the public revenues, taxes, debts, and the
like. The apodeftx had alfo a power to decide con-
troverfies arifing in relation to money and taxes, all but
thofe
■
I
A P O [ 53* J A P O
Apodeftai thofeof the mofl: difficult nature and higheft concern,
P.. which were referved to the courts of judicature.
rkn.na‘ APODECTiEI, in the Athenian government, of-
—    fleers appointed to fee that the meafures of corn were
juft.
APODES, in a general fenfe, denotes things with¬
out feet. Zoologifts apply the name to a fabulous fort
of birds, faid to be found in fome of the iflands of the
new world, which, being entirely without feet, fupport
themfelves on the branches of trees by their crooked
bills.
Apodes, in the Linnaean fyftem, the name of the
firfl order of fifties, or thofe which have no belly-fins.
See Zoology, n® xo.
APODICTICAL, among philofophers, a term
importing a demonftrative proof, or fyftematical me¬
thod of teaching.
APODOSIS, in rhetoric, makes the third part of
a complete exordium, being properly the application,
or reftri&km of the protajis. The apodofis is the fame
with what is otherwife called axioms; and ftands op-
pofed to frrotajts: e. gr. protajis, all branches of hi-
ftory are neceflary for a ftudent ; catafceue, fo that,
without thefe, he can never make any confiderable fi¬
gure ; apodojis, but literary hiftory is of a more efpe-
cial ufe, which recommends it, &c.
APODYTERIUM, in the ancient baths, the a-
partments where perfons drefied and undrefled.
APOGEE, in aftronomy, that point in the orbit
of a planet, which is at the greateft diftance from the
earth. The apogee of the fun is that part of the earth’s
orbit which is at the greateft diffiance from the fun;
and confequeotly the fan’s apogee, and the earth’s a-
phelion, are one and the fame point.
APOLIDES, in antiquity, thofe condemned for
life to the public works, or exiled into fome ifland, and
thus divefted of the privileges of Roman citizens.
APOLLINARIAN games, in Roman antiquity,
were inftituted in the year of Rome 542. The occa-
fion was a kind of Oracle delivered by the prophet Mar¬
cus after the fatal battle at Gannas, declaring, that to
expel the enemy, and cure the people of an infeftfous
difeafe which then prevailed, facred games were to be
annually performed in honour of Apollo; the praetor
to have the direftion of them, and the decemviri to of¬
fer facrifices after the Grecian rite. The fenate order¬
ed that this oracle ftiould be obferved the rather, be-
caufe another of the fame Marcus, wherein he had
foretold the overthrow at Cannae, had come true 5 for
this reafon they gave the praetor 12000 afes out of the
public cafti to defray the folemnity. There were facri-
ficed an ox to Apollo, as alfo two white goats, and a
cow to Latona: all with their horns gilt. Apollo had
alfo a colleftion made for him, befides what the people
who were fpeftators gave voluntarily. The firft prae¬
tor by whom they were held was P. Cornelius Sylla.
For fome time they were moveable or indi&ive; but at
length were fixed, under P. Licinius Varus, to the fifth
of July, and made perpetual. The men, who were
fpeftators at thefe games, wore garlands on their heads;
the women performed their devotions in the temples at
the fame time, and at laft they caroufed together in the
veftibles of their houfes, the doors ftanding open. The
Apollinarian games were merely fcenical; and at firft
only obferved with finging, piping, and other forts of
mufic; but afterwards there were alfo introduced all Apollim-
manner of mountebank-tricks, dances, and the like; yet . n,a."s’ .
fo as that they ftill remained fcenical, no chariot races, 
wreftling, or the like laborious exercifes of the body,
being ever praftifed at them.
APOLLINARIANS, or Apollinarists, in
church-hiftory, a feft of heretics who maintained, that
Jefus Chrift had neither a rational human foul, nor a
true body.—Apollinaris of Loadicea, their leader, in-
vefted Chrift with a fanciful kind of flefti, which he
fuppofed to have exifted with the Son from all eternity.
—He alfo diftinguiftied between the foul of Chrift,
and what the Greeks call m, mind or underflanding ;
and from this diftinftion took occafion to affert, that
Chrift affumed a foul without its underftanding, and
that this defeft was fupplied by the Word : tho’ fome
of his followers held that Chrift had no human foul at
all.—Apollinaris further taught, that the fouls of men
were propagated by other fouls, as well as their bo¬
dies.—Theodoret charges him with confounding the
perfons of the Godhead, and with giving into the er¬
rors of Sabellius ; and Bafil accufes him of abandon¬
ing the literal fenfe of feripture, and taking up wholly
with the allegorical fenfe. The herefy was very fub-
tile, and overfpread moft of the churches of the eaft ;
it was condemned in a fynod of Alexandria, under St
Athanafius, in the year 362. It was fubdivided into
feveral different herefies, the chief whereof were the
Dimoerites.
APOLLINARIS (Caius Sulpicius), a very learned
grammarian, born at Carthage, lived in the 2d century,
under the Antonines ; he is fuppofed to be the author
of the verfes which are prefixed to the comedies of Te¬
rence, and contain the arguments of them. He had
for his fucceffor in the profeffion of grammar Helvius
Pertinax, who had been his fcholar, and was at laft
emperor.
Apollinaris Sxdonius (Cains Sollius), an eminent
Chriftian writer and biftiop in the 5th century, was
born of a noble family in France. He was educatedT
under the bell mailers, and made a prodigious pro-
grefs in the feveral arts and fciences, but particularly
in poetry and polite literature. After he had left the
fchools, he applied himfelf to the profeffion of war. He
married Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was
conful, and afterwards emperor, by whom he had three
children. But Majorianus in the year 457 having de¬
prived Avitus of the empire, and taken the city of
Lyons, in which our author refided, Apollinaris fell
into the hands of the enemy. However, the reputation
of his learning foftened Majorianus’s refentments, fo
that he treated him with the utmoft civility, in return
for which Apollinaris compofed a panegyric in his ho¬
nour ; which was fo highly applauded, that he had a
ftatue erefted to him at Rome, and was honoured with
the title of Count. In the year 467 the emperor An¬
themius rewarded him for the panegyric, which he had
written in honour of him, by railing him to the poll of
governor of Rome; and afterwards to the dignity of a
patrician and fenator, and erefting a ftatue to him.
But he foon quitted thefe fecular employments for the
fervice of the church. The bilhoprick of Clermont be¬
ing vacant in 472 by the death of Eparchius, Apolli¬
naris, who was then only a laymen, was chofen to
fucceed him without any intereft or felicitation on his
part,
Apollina-
Apollo.
A P O L 53^ ] A P O
part, in which fee he a£led with the greateft inte¬
grity. Clermont being befieged by the Gotha, he
animated the people to the defence of that city, and
would never confent to the furrender of it; fo that,
when it was taken about the year 480, he was obli¬
ged to retire; but he was foon reftored by Evariges
king of the Goths, and continued to govern the church
as he had done before. He died in peace the 21st of
Auguft 487; and his feftival is ftill obferved in the
church of Clermont, where his memory is had in great
veneration. He is efteemed the moft elegant writer of
his age, both in profe and verfe. He wrote a great
many little pieces; but preferved none but thofe which
he thought were worthy of being continued down to
pofterity. He collefted himfelf the nine books which
we have remaining of his letters. His chief pieces in
poetry are the three panegyrics upon the emperors A-
vitus, Majorianus, and Anthemius. The reft of them
are a colleftion of poems addrelfed to his friends upon
particular fubje&s. His letters contain a variety of
particulars relating to polite literature and profane hi-
ftory.
APOLLINARIUS (Claudius), a learned bilhop
of Hierapplis, who, about the year 170, prefented to
Marcus Aurelius an excellent Apology for the Chri-
ftians.
Apollinarius the Younger, thus called to diftin-
guifh him from his father, called Apollinarius the El¬
der, was at firft leftor or reader of Loadicea, and af¬
terwards bilhop of that city. He was univerfally e-
fteemed the greateft man of his age, both for learning
and piety, and a moft accurate and nervous defender of
the faith againft all its enemies: but notwithftanding
this, on his advancing fome opinions that were not ap¬
proved, he was anathematized as an heretic by the fe-
cond general council of Conftantinople in 381.
APOLLO. Of all the divinities of Paganifm, there
was no one by whom the polite arts were faid to have
been in fo particular a manner cherifhed and protec¬
ted, as by Apollo. Cicero mentions four of his name:
the moft ancient of whom was the fon of Vulcan ; the
fecond a fon of Corybas, and born in Crete ; the third
an Arcadian, called Nomian, from his being a great
legiflator; and the laft, to whom the greateft honour is
afcribed, the fon of Jupiter and Latona.
Apollo had a variety of other names, either derived
from his principal attributes, or the chief places where
he was worfhipped. He was called the Healer, from
his enlivening warmth and cheering influence; Paan,
from the peftilential heats: to fignify the former, the
ancients placed the graces in his right hand; and for
the latter, a bow and arrows in his left: Nomius, or
the (hepherd, from his fertilizing the earth, and thence
fuftaining the animal creation; Delius, from his ren¬
dering all things manifeft; Pythius, from his victory
over Python ; Lycias, Phoebus, and Phaneta, from his
purity and fplendor. As Apollo is almoft always con¬
founded by the Greeks with the fun, it is no wonder
that he fhould be dignified with fo many attributes.
It was natural for the moft glorious object in nature,
whofe influence is felt by all creation, and feen by e-
very animated part of it, to be adored as the fountain
of light, heat, and life.
The power of healing difeafes being chiefly given by
the ancients to medicinal plants and vegetable produc¬
tions, it was natural to exalt into a divinity the vifible
caufe of their growth. Hence he was ftyled the God
of Phyfw, and that external heat which cheers and in¬
vigorates all nature, being transferred from the human
body to the mind, gave rife to the idea of all mental
effervefcence coming from this god; hence, likewife,
poets, prophets, and muficians, are faid to be Numine
afflati, infpired by Apollo.
Whether Apollo was ever a real perfonage, or only
the great luminary, many have doubted. Indeed, Vof-
fius has taken great pains to prove this god to be only
a metaphorical being, and that there never was anyo-
ther Apollo than the fun. “ He was ftyled the fon of
Jupiter, (fays this author), becaufe that god was rec¬
koned by the ancients the author of the world. His
mother was called Latona, a name which fignifies hid¬
den; becaufe, before the fun was created, all things were
wrapped up in the obfeurity of chaos. He is always
reprefented as beardlefs and youthful, becaufe the fun
never grows old or decays. And what elfe can his
bow and arrows imply, but his piercing beams
And adds, “ that all the ceremonies which were per¬
formed to his honour, had a manifeft relation to the
great fource of light, which he reprefented. Whence
(he concludes) it is in vain to feek for any other divi¬
nity than the fun, which was adored under the name
of Apollo.”
However, though this is in general true, yet it does
appear, from many paflages in ancient authors, that
there was fome illuftrious perfonage named Apollo, who,
after his apotheofis, was taken for the fun; as Ofiris
and Orus in Egypt, whofe exiftence cannot be called
in queftion, were, after their death, confounded with
the fun, of which they became the fymbols, either
from the glory and fplendor of their reigns, or from a
belief that their fouls had taken up their refidence in
that luminary.
Of the four Apollo’s mentioned by Cicero, it ap¬
pears that the three laft were Greeks, and the firft an
Egyptian ; who, according to Herodotus, was the fon
of Ofiris and Ifis, and called Orus. Paufanias is of
the fame opinion as Herodotus, and ranks Apollo a-
mong the Egyptian divinities. The teftimony of Dio¬
dorus Siculus is ftill more exprefs; for in fpeaking of
Ifis, after faying that (he had invented the practice of
medicine, he adds, that ftie taught this art to her fon
Orus, named Apollo, who was the laft of the gods that
reigned in Egypt.
It is eafy to trace almoft all the Grecian fables and
mythologies from Egypt. If the Apollo of the Greeks
was faid to be the fon of Jupiter, it was becaufe Orus
the Apollo of the Egyptians had Ofiris for his father,
whom the Greeks confounded with Jupiter. If the
Greek Apollo was reckoned the god of eloquence, mu-
lic, medicine, and poetry, the reafon was, that Ofiris,
who was the fymbol of the fun among the Egyptians,
as well as his fon Orus, had there taught thofe liberal
arts. If the Greek Apollo was the god and conduc¬
tor of the mufes, it was becaufe Ofiris carried with him
in his expedition to the Indies finging women and mu¬
ficians. This parallel might be carried on ftill further;
but enough has been faid to prove that the true Apollo
was that of Egypt.
To the other perfe£lions of this divinity the poets
have added beauty, grace, and the art of captivating
the
Apollo.
f
A P O [ 533 ] A P 6
i, Apollo, the ear and the heart, no lefs by the fweetnefs of his
f “ ^ eloquence, than by the melodious founds of his lyre.
However, with all thefe accomplilhments, he had not
the talent of captivating the fair, with whofe charms
he was enamoured. But the amours and other adven¬
tures related of this god during his refidence on earth,
are too numerous, and too well known, to be inferted
here. His mufical contefts, however, being more Con-
ne&ed with the nature of this work, mull not be wholly
unnoticed.
To begin, therefore, with the difpute which he had
with Pan, that was left to the arbitration of Midas.
Pan, who thought he excelled in playing the flute,
offered to prove that it was an inftrument fuperior to
the lyre of Apollo. The challenge was accepted; and
Midas, who was appointed the umpire in this conteft,
deciding in favour of Pan, was rewarded by Apollo,
according to the poets, with the ears of an afs, for his
flupidity.—This fiftion feems founded upon hiflory.
Midas, according to Paufanias, was the fon of Gor¬
dius andGybele; and reigned in the Greater Phrygia,
as we learn from Strabo. He was pofiefi’ed of fuch
great riches, and fuch an inordinate defire of increafing
them by the moft contemptible parfimony, that, ac¬
cording to the poets, he converted whatever he touch¬
ed into gold. However, his talent for accumulation
did not extend to the acquirement of tafte and know¬
ledge in the fine arts; and, perhaps, his dulnefs and
inattention to thefe provoked fome mufical poet to in¬
vent the fable of his descifion -in favour of Pan againft
Apollo. The fcholiaft upon Ariftophanes, to explain the
fidiion of his long ears, fays, that it was defigned to in¬
timate that he kept fpies in all parts of his dominions.
Marfyas, another player on the flute, was ftill more
unfortunate than either Pan or his admirer Midas.
I See the ar- This Marfyas *, having engaged in a mufical difpute
tele Mar- with Apollo, chofe the people of Nyfa forjudges. A-
’a1' polio played at firft a Ample air upon his inflrument;
but Marfyas, taking up his pipe, ftruck the audience fo
much by the novelty of its tone, and the art of his
performance, that he feemed to be heard with more
pleafure than his rival. Having agreed upon a fecond
trial of A ill, it is faid that the performance of Apollo,
by accompanying the lyre with his voice, was allowed
| greatly to excel that of Marfyas upon the flute alone.
Marfyas, with indignation, protefted'againft the deci-
flon of his judges; urging that he had not been fairly
vanquifhed according to the rules ftipulated, becaufe
the difpute was concerning the excellence of their feve-
ral inftruments, not their voices; and that it was wholly
unjuft to employ two arts againft one.
Apollo denied that he had taken any unfair advan¬
tage of his antagonift, flnce Marfyas had employed both
his mouth and Angers in performing upon his inftru¬
ment; fo that, if he was denied the ufe of his mouth,
he would be ftill more difqualifled for the contention,
The judges aprov’d of Apollo’s reafoning, and ordered
a third trial. Marfyas was again vanquiflied; and
Apollo, inflamed by the violence of the difpute, flea’d
i him alive for his prefumption.
Paufanias relates a circ.umftance concerning this con¬
teft, that had been omitted by Diodorus, which is, that
Apollo.accepted the challenge from Marfyas, upon con¬
dition that the vidfor ftiould ufe the vanquiflied as he
pleafed.
' Vol. i.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo, foon repenting of Apollo,
the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas, broke
the firings of the lyre, and by that means put a flop,
for a time, to any further progrefs in the praftice of
that new inftrument.
The next incident to be mentioned in the hiftory of
Apollo is his defeat of the ferpent Python.
The waters of Deucalion’s deluge, fays Ovid, which
had overflowed the earth, left a flime, from whence
fprung innumerable monfters; and among others the fer¬
pent Python, which made great havock in the country
about Parnaifus. Apollo, armed with his darts, put
him to death; which, phyflcally explained, implies, that
the heat of the fun having diffipated the noxious fteams,
thofe monfters foon difappeared : or, if this fable be re¬
ferred to hiftory, the ferpent was a robber, who haunt¬
ing the country about Delphos, and very much infeft-
ing thofe who came thither to facriflce ; a p’rince, wrho
bore the name of Apollo, or one of the priefts of that
god, put him to death.
This event gave rife to the inftitution of the Pythian
games, fo frequently mentioned in the Grecian hiftory;
and it was from the legend of Apollo’s vidlory over the
Python that the god himfelf acquired the name of Py-
t/jjus, and his prieftefs that of Pythia*. The city of * See the ar-
Delphos, where the famous oracles were fo long deliver- t'ck Pytbia.
ed, was likewife frequently ftyled Pytho.
As Apollo was the god of the flne arts, thofe who
cultivated them were called his Jons. Of this number
was Philammon of Delphos, whom the poets and mytho-
logifts make the twin-brother of Autolychus, by the
nymph Chione, and Apollo and Mercury. It is pre¬
tended that both thefe divinities were favoured by the
nymph on the fame day, and that their Ares were known
from their different talents. Philammon, a great poet
and muAcian, was reported to be the offspring of the
god who preAdes over thofe arts ; and Autolychus,
from the craftinefs and fubtilty of his difpofltion, was
faid to have fprung from Mercury, god of theft and
fraud. Philammon is one of the ftrft, after Apollo,
upon fabulous record, as a vocal performer, who ac¬
companied himfelf with the found of the lyre: his fon
was the celebrated Thamyris *. * See Tba-
There can be no doubt but that Apollo was more
generally revered in the Pagan world than any other
deity; having, in almoft every region of it, temples, o-
racles, and feftivals, as innumerable as his attributes :
the wolf and hawk were confecrated to him, as fymbols
of his piercing eyes ; the crow and the raven, becaufe
thefe birds were fuppofed to have by inftindl the faculty
of prediction ; the laurel, from a perfuaAon that thofe
who flept with fome branches of that tree under their
heads received certain vapours, which enabled them to
prophefy. The cock was confecrated to him, becaufe
by his crowing he announces the riAng of the fun ;
and the grafshopper on account of his ftnging faculty,
which was fuppofed to do honour to the god of muAc.
Moft of the ancient poets have celebrated this tuneful
infedl, but none better than Anacreon, Ode 43.
Plato fays that the grafshopper fings all fummer with¬
out food, like thofe men who, dedicating themfelves to
the mufes, forget the common cqncerns of life.
The fwan was regarded by the ancients as a bird fa-
cred to Apollo in two capacities; flrft, as being, like the
crow and raven, gifted with the fpirit of predidlion ;
X x x and
A P O [ 534 ] A P O
Apollo, and, fecondly, for his extraordinary vocal powers.
The fweetnefs of his fong, efpecially at the approach
of death, was not only extolled by all the poets of
antiquity, but by hiftorians, philofophers, and fages ;
and to call a great writer the fwan of his age and na-
* See ‘j16 ar* tion, was a full acknowledgement of his fovereignty *.
tic e rws. 'pjjyg Horace calls Pindar the Theban fwan.
Plutarch, who was himfelf a prieft of Apollo, im-
prefled with the higheft refpeft and veneration for him
and for mulic, in his dialogue upon that art, makes
one of his interlocutors fay, that an invention fo ufe-
ful and charming could never have been the work of
man, but mull have originated from fome god, fuch
as Apollo, the inventor of the flute and lyre, impro¬
perly attributed to Hyagnis, Marfyas, Olympus, and
others ; and the proofs he urges in fupport of this af-
fertion, fliew, if not its truth, at leaft that it was the
common and received opinion.
All dances and facrifices, fays he, ufed in honour
of Apollo, are performed to the found of flutes : the
ftatue of this god at Delos, erefted in the time of Her¬
cules, had in its right-hand a bow; and on the left ftood
the three graces, who were furnifhed with three kinds
of inftruments ; the lyre, the flute, and the fyrinx.
The youth alfo, who carries the laurel of Tempe to
Delphos, is accompanied by one playing on the flute ;
and the facred prefents formerly fent to Delos by the
Hyperboreans, were conduced thither to the found of
lyres, flutes, and fhepherd’s pipes. He fupports thefe
fa&s by the teftimonies of the poets Alcaeus, Alcmon,
and Corinna.
It feems as if the account of Apollo could not be
concluded by any thing that is left to offer on the fub-
jeft, fo properly, as by part of the celebrated hymn
of Callimachus, which during many ages was performed
and heard by the mofl: polifhed people on the globe,
with the utmoft religious zeal, at the feftiTals inftitu-
fed to this god.
Hah! how the laurel, great Ap ollo’s tree.
And all the cavern, lhakes! Far off, far off,
The man that is unhaliow’d : for the god
, Approaches. Hark! he knocks: the gates
Feel the glad impulfe ; and the fever’d bars
Submiffive clink againft their brazen portals.
Why do the Delian palms incline their boughs,
Self-mov’d ; and hov’ring fwans, their throats releas’d
From native filenee, carol founds harmonious?
Begin, young men, the hymn : let all your harps
Break their inglorious filence; and the dance,
In myftic numbers trod, explain the mufic.
But firft by ardent pray’r, and clear luftration.
Purge the contagions fpots of human weaknefs
Impure no mortal can behold Apollo.
So may you flourilh, favour’d by the god,
In youth with happy nuptials, and in age
With filver hairs, and fair defcent of children;
So lay foundations for afpiring cities,
At)d blefs your fpreading colonies’ increafe.
Pay facred rev’rence to Apollo’s fong;.
Left watchful the far-fhooting god emit
His fatal arrows. Silent, Nature (lands;
And feas fubfide, obedient to the found
Oflo! lo Paean! nor dares Thetis
Longer bewail her lov’d Achilles’ death ;
For Phoebus was his foe. Nor muft fad Niobe
In fruitlefs forrow perfevere, or weep
Even thro’ the Phrygian marble. Haplefs mother!
Whofe fondnefs could compare her mortal offspring
To thofe which fair Latona bore to Jove,
lo! again repeat ye, lo! Paean!
Recite Apollo’s praife till night draws on, A poll*
The ditty ftill unfinifti’d; and the day [j '!
Unequal to the godhead’s attributes ApolloniaJ
Various, and matter copious of your fongs.  
Sublime at Jove’s right-hand Apollo fits,
And thence diftributes honour, gracious king,
And theme of verfe perpetual. From his robe
Flows light ineffable! his harp, his quiver.
And Latlian bow, are gold: with golden fandals
His feet are (hod. How rich ! how beautiful!
Beneath his fteps the yellow min’ral rifes;
And earth reveals her treafures. Youth and beauty
Eternal deck his cheek: from his fair head
Perfumes diftil their fweets; and cheerful Health,
His duteous hand-maid, through the air improv’d
With lavilh hand diffufes feents ambrofial,
The fpearman’s arm by thee, great god, direfled,
Sends forth a certain wound. The laurel’d hard
Infpir’d by thee, compofes verfe immortal.
Taught by thy art divine, the fage phyfician
Eludes the urn, and chains or exiles death.
Perpetual fires (hine hallow’d on thy altars,
When annual the Garnean feaft is held :
The warlike Libyans, clad in armour, lead
The dance, with clanging fwords and (hitlds they beat.
The dreadful meafure : in the.chorus join
Their women, brown but beautiful; fuch rites
To thee well pleafing.  |
 Tire monftrous Python
Durft tempt thy wrath in vain ; for dead he fell,.
To thy great (Length and golden arms unequal.
lot while thy unerring hand elanc’d
Another and another dart, the people
Joyfully repeated lol lo Team!
Elance the dart, Apollo : for the fafety
And health of man, gracious thy mother bore thee!
Prior.
APOLLODORUS, born at Damafcus, a famous
architeft under Trajan and Hadrian : he had the di¬
rection of the bridge of ftone which Trajan ordered to
be built over the Danube in the year 104, which was
efteemed the mofl; magnificent of all the works of that
emperor. Hadrian, one day as Trajan was difeour-
fing with this architect upon the buildings he had rai-
fed at Rome, would needs give his judgment, and
(hewed he underftood nothing of the matter. Apollo-
dorus turned upon him bluntly, and faid to him, Go
paint citruls, for you are very ignorant of the fubjeft
we are talking upon. Hadrian at this time boafted of
his painting citruls well. This infult coft Apollodo-
rus his life.
Apollodorus, a celebrated painter of Athens, a-
bout 408 years before the birth of Chrift, was the firfl:
who invented the art of mingling the colours, and of ex¬
prefling the lights and lhadows. He was admired alfo
for his judicious choice of fubjefts, and for the beauty
and ftrength of colouring furpafled all the mafters that
went before him. He excelled likewife in ftatuary.
Apollodorus the Athenian, a famous grammarian,
the fon of Afclepiades and difciple of Ariftarchus. He
wrote many works not now extant; but his moft fa¬
mous produftion was his Bibliotheca, concerning the
origin of the gods: this work confifted of 24 books,
but only three are now in being. Several other pieces
of his are to be found in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Graca.
There were various other perfons of this name : Sci-
pio Tefti, a Neapolitan, has written a treatife of the
Apollodorufes, which was printed at Rome in 1555 ;
and Dr Thomas Gale publiihed a work of the fame
kind in 1675.
APOLLONIA, the name of feveral ancient cities*
parti-
A P O [ 535 J A P O
Apollonia particularly of a colony of the Milefians in Thrace, from
lj . which Lucullus took away a coloifus of Apollo, and
|Ar° °n'us' placed it in the capitol. The greateft part of the town
was fituated in a fmall ifland on the Euxine, in which
was a temple of Apollo, (Strabo). Pliny fays the co-
loflus was 30 cubits high, and coft 500 talents. There
was alfo an Apollonia at mount Parnaflus, near Delphi,
(Stephanus). Troezen was formerly called Apollonia.
A pollonia, feafts facred to Apollo, inftituted up¬
on the following occafion. Apollo, having vanquiih-
ed Python, went with his filler Diana to iEgialea ;
but, being driven from thence, he removed to the
illand Crete. The Aigialeans were foon after vifited
with a plague ; upon which, confulting the foothfay-
ers, they were ordered to fend feven young men, and
as many virgins, to appeafe thofe deities and bring
them back into their country. Apollo and Diana be¬
ing thus appealed, returned to jEgialea : in memory
of which, they dedicated a temple to Pitho, the god-
defs of perfuafton; whence a cuftom arofe of chufing
every year feven young men, and as many virgins, to
go as it were in fearch of Apollo and Diana.
Apollonia, in geography, a promontory of Afri¬
ca, upon the coaft of Guinea, near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Mancu.
APOLLONIUS, the author of the Argonautics,
was born at Alexandria in Egypt: he taught rhetoric
at Rhodes, and hence was called Rhodius. He flourilhed
about the 137th Olympiad, and was keeper of the Alex¬
andrian library. Longinus, in his treatife Of the Sub¬
lime, commends this poet. The ancient Scholia upon
his Argonautics, Hill extant, are extremely ufeful, and
full of learning.
Apollonius of Perga, a city of Pamphylia, was a
great geometrician, under the reign of Ptolemy Euer-
getes, which reaches from the 2d year of the 133d O-
lymp. to the 3d year of the 139th. He ftudied along
time at Alexandria, under the difciples of Euclid; and
compofed feveral works, of which that only of the Co¬
nics remains.
.Apollonius, a Pythagorean philofopher, born at
Tyana in Cappadocia, about the beginning of the firll
century. At 16 years of age he became a ftridt ob-
ferver of Pythagoras’s rules, renouncing wine, women,
and all forts of flelh; not wearing Ihoes, letting his
hair grow, and wearing nothing but linen. He foon
after fet up for a reformer of mankind, and chofe his
habitation in a temple of JEfculapius, where he is faid
to have performed many wonderful cures. Philoftratus
has wrote the Life of Apollonius, in which there are
numberlefs fabulous llories recounted of him. We are
told that he went five years without fpeaking; and yet,
during this time, that he Hopped many feditions in
Cilicia and Pamphylia: that he travelled, and fet up
for a legifiator; and that he gave out he underftood all
languages, without having ever learned them ; that he
could tell the thoughts of men, and underftood the
oracles which birds gave by their finging. The hea¬
thens were fond of oppofing the pretended miracles of
this man to thofe of our Saviour: and by a treatife
which Eufebius wrote againft one Hierocles, we find
that the drift of the latter, in the treatife which Eufe¬
bius refutes, feems to have been to draw a parallel be¬
twixt Jefus Chrift and Apollonius, in which he gives
the preference to this philofopher. Mr.Du Pin has
wrote a confutation of Philoftratus’s Life of Apollo- Apologue
nius. II
Apollonius wrote fome works, viz. four books of ju- pono'
dicial aftrology ; a treatife upon the facrifices, Ihewing
what was proper to be offered to each d<;ity; and a
great number of letters, all of which are now loft.
APOLOGUE, in matters of literature, an inge¬
nious method of conveying inftrudlion by means of a
feigned relation called a moralfable.
The only difference between a parable and an apo-
logue is, that the former, being drawn from what paf-
fes among mankind, requires probability in the narra¬
tion ; whereas the apologue, being taken from the
fuppofed aftions of brutes, or even of things inanimate,
is not tied down to the ftri£l rules of probability. iE-
fop’s fables are a model of this kind of writing.
APOLOGY, a Greek term» literally importing an
excufe or defence of fome perfon or a&ion.
APOMEL1, among ancient phyficians, a decoc¬
tion of honey and vinegar, much ufed as a detergent,
promoter of ftool, urine, fee.
APONEUROSIS, among phyficians, a termfome-
times ufed to denote the expanfion of a nerve or ten¬
don in the manner of a membrane; fometimes for the
cutting off a nerve; and, finally, for the tendon it-
felf.
APONO (Peter d’), one of the moft famous philo-
fophers and phyficians of his age, born in the year 1250,
in a village about four miles from Padua. He ftudied
fome time at Paris, and was there promoted to the de¬
gree of do&or in philofophy and phyfic. When he came
to pradlife as a phyfician, he is faid to have infilled on
very large fums for his vifits: we are not told what he
demanded for the vifits he made in the place of his re-
fidence; but it is affirmed, that he would not attend the
fick in any other place under 150 florins a-day; and
when he was fent for by pope Honorius IV. he de¬
manded 400 ducats for each day’s attendance. He was
fufpe&ed of magic, and profecuted by the inquifitioa
on that account. “ The common opinion of almoft all
authors (fays Naude) is, that he was the greateft ma-
fpcian of his age; that he had acquired the know-
edge of the feven liberal arts, by means of the feven
familiar fpirits, which he kept inclofed in a cry-
ftal; and that he had the dexterity to make the mo¬
ney he had fpent, come back into his purfe.” The
fame author adds, that he died before the procefs a-
gainft him was finilhed, being then in the 80th year
of his age; and that, after his death, they ordered
him to be burnt in effigy, in the public place of the
city of Padua; defigning thereby to ftrike a fear into
others, of incurring the like punifliment; and to fup-
prefs the reading three books which he had wrote; the
firft being the Heptameron, which is printed at the
end of the firft volume of Agrippa’s work; the fecond,
that which is called by Trithemius, Elucidaripm ne-
cromanticum Petri de Albano; and the laft, that which
is intitled by the fame author. Liber experimentorum
mirabilium de annulis fecundum xxviii. manfones lunce.
His body being fecretly taken up by his friends, efca-
ped the vigilance of the inquifitors, who would have
burnt it. It was removed feveral times, and was at laft
placed in the church of St Auguftin, without an epi¬
taph or any mark of honour. The moft remarkable
book which Apono wrote, was that which procured
X x x 3 him
A P O [ 536 ] A P O
Apdnoge- him the firname of Conciliator; he wrote alfo a piece
Jon intitled De medicina omnimoda. There is a ftory told
Apofiopefis. having no well in his houfe, he caufed
 — his neighbour's to be carried into the ftreet by devils,
when he heard they had forbidden his maid fetching
water there. He had much better (fays Mr Bayle)
have employed the devils to make a well in his own
houfe, and have flopped up his neighbour’s; or, at
leaft, tranfported it into his houfe, rather than into the
ftreet.
APONOGETON, in botany. See Zannichel-
LIA.
APONUS, a hamlet near Patavium, with warm
baths. It was the birth-place of Livy, (Martial); and
is now called E. Long. 10. Lat. 45. 15.
APOPEMPTIC, in the ancient poetry, a hymn
addreffed to a ftranger on his departure from a place to
his own country. The ancients Ead certain holidays,
wherein they took leave of the gods with apopemptic
fongs, as fuppofing them returning each to his own
country. The deities having the patronage of divers
places, it was but juft to divide their prefence, and al¬
low fome time to each. Plence it was, that among the
Delians and Milcfians we find feafts of Apollo, and a-
tnong the Argians feafts of Diana, called Epidemic,
as fuppofmg thefe deities then more peculiarly refident
among them. On the laft day of the feaft they dif-
mifled them, following them to the altars with apopemp-
tic hymns.
APOPHASIS, a figure in rhetoric, by which the
orator, fpeaking ironically, feems to wave what he
would plainly infinuate: as, Neither ’will I mention
thofe things, which if IJhould, you notwithfanding could
neither confute nor [peak againjl them.
APOPHLEGMATIZ ANTS, in pharmacy, medi¬
cines proper to clear the head from fuperfluous phlegm,
whether by fpitting, or by the nofe.
APOPHTHEGM, a fhort, fententious, and inftruc-
tive remark, pronounced by a perfon of diflinguifhed
eharafter. Such are the apophthegms of Plutarch, and
thofe of the ancients colle&ed by Lycofthenes.
APOPHYGE, in architedlure, a concave part or
ring of a column, lying above or below the flat mem¬
ber. The French call it le conge d'en has, or d'en haut;
the Italians, cavo di bajfo, or di fopra; and alfo, /V vivo
di baffo. The apophyge originally was no more than
the ring, or ferril, at firft fixed on the extremities of
wooden pillars, to keep them from fplitting; which af¬
terwards was imitated in ftone.
APOPHYSIS, in anatomy, a procefs or protube¬
rance of a bone. See Anatomy, Chap. I. e.
APOPLEXY, a diftemper in which the patient is
fuddenly deprived of all his fenfes, and of voluntary
motion. See the Index fubjoined to Medicine.
APORIA, is a figure in rhetoric, by which the
fpeaker fhews, that he doubts where to begin for the
multitude of matter, or what to fay in fome ftrange and
ambiguous thing; and doth, as it were, argue the cafe
with himfelf. Thus Cicero fays, Whether he took them
from his fellows more impudently, gave them to a harlot
more tafcivioufly, removed them from the Roman people
more wickedly, or altered them more prefumptuoufy, 1
tannot well declare.
APOSIOPES1S, a form of fpeech, by which the
fpeaker, through fome affedlion, as forrow, bafhfulnefs,
fear, anger, or vehemency, breaks off his fpeech before Apo
it be all ended. A figure, when, fpeaking of a thing,
we yet feem to conceal it, though indeed we aggravate
it: or when the courfe of the fentence begun is fo
flayed, as thereby fome part of the fentence, not be¬
ing uttered, may be underftbod; as, I might fay much
more, but madefy commands filence.
APOSTACY, the abandoning the true religion.
The primitive Chriftian church diftinguifhed feverai
kinds of apaftacy. The firft, of thofe who went over
entirely from Chriftianity to Judaifm ; the fecond, of
thofe who mingled Judaifm and Chriftianity together;
and the third, of thofe who complied fo far with the
Jews as to communicate with them in many of their un¬
lawful pra&ices, without making a formal profeflion of
their religion. But the fourth fort was of thofe who,
after having been fome time Chriflians, voluntarily re-
lapfed into Paganifm.
The perverfion of a Chriftian to Judaifm, Paganifm,
or other falfe religion, was punifhed by the emperors
Conftantius and Julian with confifcation of goods; to
which the emperors Theodofnis and Valentinian added
capital punifhment, in cafe the apottate endeavoured to
pervert others to the fame iniquity. A puniftiment too
fevere for any temporal laws to inflift: and yet the
zeal of our anceftors imported it into this country-; for
we find by Bradlon, that in his time apoftates were to
be burnt to death. Doubtlefs the prefervation of Chri-
ftianity, as a national religion, is, abftra&ed from its
own intrinfic truth, of the utmoft confequence to the
civil ftate: which a fingle inftance will fufficiently de-
monftrate. The belief of a future ftate of rewards and
puniftiments, the entertaining juft ideas of the moral
attributes of the fupreme Being, and a firm perfuafion
that he fuperintends and will finally compenfate every
adlion in human life (all which are clearly revealed in
the doctrines, and forcibly inculcated by the precepts*,
of our faviour Chrift), thefe are the grand foundation of
all judicial oaths; which call God to witnefs the truth;
of thofe fafts, which perhaps may be only known to
him and the party attefting : all moral evidence there¬
fore, all confidence in human veracity, muft be weak¬
ened by apoftacy, and overthrown by total infidelity.
Wherefore all affronts to Chriftianity, or endeavours to
depreciate its efficacy, in thofe who have once profeffed
it, are highly deferring of cenfure. But yet the lofs
of life is a heavier penalty than the offence, taken in a
civil light, deferves ; and, taken in a fpirkual light,
our laws have no jurifdidtion over it. This puniftiment,
therefore, has long ago become obfolete; and the of¬
fence of apoftacy was for a long time the objedl only
of the eccleliaftical courts, which corredled the offend¬
er pro feriute animee. But about the clofe of the laft
century, the civil liberties to which we were then re-
ftored being ufed as a-cloke of malicioufnefs, and the
moft horrid. doiSlrines fubverfive of all religion being
publicly avowed both in difeourfeand writings, it was
thought neceffary again forthe-civil power to interpofe,
by not admitting thofe mifereants to the privileges of
fociety, who maintained fuch principles as deftroyed all
moral obligation. To this end it was enacted by fta-
tute 9 & 10 W. III. c. 32. That if any perfon educa¬
ted in, or having made profeffion of, the Chriftian
religion, ftiall by writing, printing, teaching, or ad-
vifed fpeaking, deny the Chriftian religion to be true.
A P O
A P O [ 537 ]
Apoftafis or the holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he (hall
A ()je uPon the firft offence be rendered incapable to hold any
• p° ' e' office or place of truft ; and, for the fecond, be render¬
ed incapable of bringing anyadlion, or of being guar¬
dian, executor, legatee, or purchafer of lands, and
fhall fuffer three years imprifonment without bail. To
give room however for repentance, if, within four
months after the firft conviction, the delinquent will in
open court publicly renounce his error, he is difchar-
ged for that once from all difabilities.
APOSTASIS, in medicine, the fame with abfcefs.
APOSTATE, one who deferts his religion. Among
the Romanifts, it fignifies a man who, without a legal
difpenfation, forfakes a religious order of which he had
made profeffion. Hence,
APOSTATA capiendo, in the Englifh law, a writ
that formerly lay againft a perfon who, having entered
into fome order of religion, broke out again, and wan¬
dered up and down the country.
A POSTERIORI, or demonftration a pojleriori.
See Demonstration.
APOSTIL, in matters of literature, the fame with
a marginal note.
APOSTLE properly fignifies a meffenger or perfon
fent by another upon fome bufinefs; and hence, by way
of eminence, denotes one of the difciples commiffioned
by Jefus Chrift to preach the gofpel.
Our bleffed Lord fele&ed twelve out of the number
of his difciples to be invefted with the apoftlefhip.
Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, James the
greater, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Mat¬
thew, James the lefs, Jude firnamed Lebbeus or Thad-
deus, Simon the Canaanite, and Judas Ifcariot. Of
thefe Simon, Andrew, James the greater, and John,
were filhermen ; and Matthew a publican, or receiver
of the public revenues: of' what profelfion the reft
were,,we are not told in Scripture ; though it is pro¬
bable they were fiihermen.
There are various conjeClures as to thereafon of our
Saviour’s making choice of twelve apoftles. The moft
probable is, that it might be in allufion to the twelve
patriarchs, as the founders of their feveral tribes; or to
the twelve chief heads or rulers of thofe tribes, of which
the body of the Jewiffi nation confifted. This opinion
feems to be countenanced by what our Saviour tells his
apoftles, that, “ when the Son of man ftiall fit in the
throne of his glory, they alfo fhall fit upon twelve
thrones judging the twelve tribes of Ifrael.”
Our Lord’s firft commiffion to his apoftles was in the
third year of his public miniftry, about eight months
after their folemn eleCIion.; at which time he fent them
out by two and two. They were to make no provi-
fion of money for their fubfiftence in their journey,
but to expert it from thofe to whom they preached.
They were to declare, that the kingdom of heaven,
or the Meffiah, was at hand; and to confirm their
doftrine by miracles. They were to avoid going ei¬
ther to the Gentiles or to the Samaritans, and to con¬
fine their preaching to the people of Ifrael. In obe¬
dience to their Mafter, the apoftles went into all the
parts of Paleftine inhabited by the Jews, preaching
the gofpel, and working miracles. The evangelical hi-
ftory is filent as to the particular circumftances attend¬
ing this firft preaching of the apoftles; and only informs
us, that they returned, and told their Mafter of all that
they had done. ApofHe.
Their fecond cofnmiffiop, juft before our Lord’s a-
fcenfion into heaven, was of a more extenfive and par¬
ticular nature. They were now not to confine their
preaching to the Jews, but to “ go and teach all na¬
tions, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft.” Accordingly
they began publicly, after our Lord’s afcenfion, to ex-
ercife the office of their miniftry, working miracles
daily in proof of their miffion, and making great num¬
bers of converts to the Chriftian faith. This alarmed
the Jewifh Sanhedrim ; whereupon the apoftles were
apprehended, and, being examined before the high-
prieft and elders, were commanded not to preach any
more in the name of Chrift. But this injunction did
not terrify them from perfifting in the duty of their
calling ; for they continued daily, ‘in the temple, and
in private houfes, teaching and preaching the gofpel.
After the apoftles had exercifed their miniftry for
twelve years in Paleftine, they refolved to difperfe
themfelves in different parts of the world, and agreed
to determine by lot what parts each Ihould take. Ac¬
cording to this divifion, St Peter went into Pontus,
Galatia, and thofe other provinces of the Leffer Afia.
St Andrew had thevaft northern countries of Scythia and
Sogdiana allotted to his portion. St John’s was partly
the fame with Peter’s, namely the Leffer Afia. St Philip
had the Upper Afia afligned to him, with fome parts of
Scythia and Colchis. Arabia Felix fell to St Bartholo¬
mew’s (hare. St Matthew preached in Chaldaea, Perfia,
and Parthia. St Thomas preached likewife in Parthia;
as alfo to the Hyrcanians, Badtrians, and Indians. St
James the Lefs continued in Jerufalem, of which church
’he was biftiop; St Simon had for his portion Egypt,
Cyrene, Libya, and Mauritania; St Jude Syria and
Mefopotamia; and St Matthias, who was chofen in the
room of the traitor Judas; Cappadocia and Colchis.
Thus, by the difperlion of the apoftles, Chriftianity
was very early planted in a great many parts of the
world. We have but very ftiort and imperfed! accounts
of their travels and adlions. .
In order to qualify the apoftles for the arduous talk
of converting the world to the Chriftian religion, they
were, in the firft place, miraculoufiy enabled to fpeak
the languages of the feveral nations to whom they were
to preach ; and, in the fecond place, were endowed
with the power of working miracles, in confirmation
of the dodlrines they taught ; gifts which were unne-
ceffary, and therefore ceafed, in the after ages of the
church, when Chriftianity came to be eftablilhed by the
civil power.
The feveral apoftles are ufually reprefented with
their refpedtive badges or attributes; St Peter with
the keys ;- St Paul with a fword ; St Andrew with a
crofs ; St James the Lefs with a fuller’s pale ; St John
with a cup, and a winged ferpent flying out of it; St
Bartholomew with a knife ; St Philip with a long ftaff,
whofe upper end is formed into a crofs ; St Thomas
with a lance ; St Matthew with a hatchet; St Mat¬
thias with a battle-ax ; St James the Greater with a pil¬
grim’s ftaff, and a gourd-bottle; St Simon with a faw;
and St Jude with a club.
The Jews alfo had their apojUes, by which they
meant officers, fent into feveral parts, by way of vifi-
tors or commiffaries, to receive the moneys colledled for
the.
A P O [ 538 ] A P O
ApofHes the reparation of the temple, and the tribute payable
£,ee(i^ to the Romans. The name was likewife given, in the
primitive church, to bifhops; and a bilhop’s fee was
called apojiolica fedes.
Apostles Creed: A formula, or fummary, of the
Chriftian faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by
the apoftles themfelves ; who, during their ftay at Je-
rufalem, foon after our Lord’s afcenfion, agreed upon
this creed, as a rule of faith, and as a •word of diftinc-
tion by which they were to know friends from foes.
Baronius, and fome other authors, conjedture, that
they did not compofe it till the fecond year of the reign
of Claudius, a little before their difperfion. As to
their manner of compofing it, fome fancy, that each
apoftle pronounced his article, which is the reafon of
its being cTiWcifynibolum apofolicum, it being made up
of fentences jointly contributed, after the manner of
perfons paying each their club (Jymbolum) or lhare of
a reckoning.
But there are reafons which may induce us to que-
ftion whether the apoftles compofed any fuch creed as
this. For, firft, neither St Luke in the Afts, nor any
other ecclefiaftical writer before the 5th century, make
any mention of an aflembly of the apoftles in order to
the compofing of a creed. Secondly, the fathers of
the three firft centuries, in difputing againft the here¬
tics, endeavour to prove that the dodlrine contained in
this creed was the fame which the apoftles taught; but
they never pretend, that the apoftles compofed it.
Thirdly, if the apoftles had made this creed, it would
"have been the fame in all churches, and in all ages;
and all authors would have cited it after the fame man¬
ner. But the cafe is quite otherwife. In the fecond
and third ages of the church, there were, as many
creeds as authors, and one and the fame author fets
down the creed after a different manner in feveral pla¬
ces of his works ; which is an evidence, that there was
not at that time any creed which was-1 reputed to be
the apoftles. In the 4th century, Ruffinus compares
together the three ancient creeds of the churches of
Aquileia, Rome, and the Eaft, which differ very con-
fiderably in the terms. Befides, thefe creeds differed
not only in the terms and expreflions, but even in the
articles, fome of which were omitted in one or other
of them, fuch as thofe of the defcent into hell, the com¬
munion of the faints, and the life everlajling. From
thefe reafons it may be gathered, that tho’ this creed
may be faid to be that of the apoftles in regard to the
doftrines contained therein, yet it is not to be referred
to them as the authors and firft cOmpofers of it. Who
was the true author of it, is not fo eafy to determine ;
tho’its great antiquity may be inferred from hence, that
the whole form, as it now ftands in the Englifti liturgy,
is to be found in the works of St Ambrofe and Ruffinus,
the former of whom flouriftied in the 3d century, and
latter in the 4th century.
The primitive Chriftians, in regard they always con¬
cealed this and their other myfteries, did not publicly
recite the creed, except at the times of baptifm; which,
unlefs in cafes of neceflity, were only at Eafter and
Whitfuntide. The conftant repeating it was not in¬
troduced into the church till the end of the 5th cen¬
tury ; about which time Petrus Gnapheus, bifhop of
Antioch, prefcribed the recital of it every time divine
fervice was performed.
APOSTOLICAL, an epithet, or name, given to Apoftolicat I
things that have a relation to the apoftles; as apojlolical H ... . ;
age, apofolical do Brine, &c. The Romanifts call their  1
church, by way of eminence, catholic and apofolical.
In the primitive times, the appellation was given to fuch
churches as had been founded by the apoftles them¬
felves ; of which the four principal were thofe of Rome,
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerufalem. In progrefs of
time, the bifhop of Rome growing in power above the
reft, and the three patriarchates of Alexandria, An¬
tioch, and Jerufalem, falling into the hands of the Sa¬
racens, the title apofolical became reftrained to the
Pope and fee of Rome. Hence we meet with apofoli¬
cal fee, apofolical nuncio, apofolical notary, apofolical
brief, apofolical chamber, &c.
Apostolical Canons, rules, or laws, for the go¬
vernment of the Chriftian church, fuppofed by fome to
have been drawn up by the apoftles themfelves. Baro¬
nins and Bellarmin rejefted the laft 35 as apocryphal,
but admitted the firft 50 as genuine. Dr Beveridge is
of opinion, with others, that, though thefe canons
were not written by the apoftles, yet that they were
very ancient, and were properly a colle&ion of the ca¬
nons of feveral councils held before that of Nice.
Indeed, that the apofolical canons are of great anti¬
quity, is plain from hence, that the council of Nice
frequently cites them under the names of ancient laws,
canons of the fathers, eccleftafical and even apofolical
canons. We cannot certainly fay when, or by whom,
they were compiled. However, it is very probable the
colledlion was made at different times, becaufe there
is no connexion or order obferved in them. The
Greek church always acknowledged them as of great
authority. They are cited by Juftinian in his fixth
novel.
APOSTOLICS, an early fe£l of Chriftians, who
called themfelves fo, upon a pretence of being the
only men who led their lives in imitation and after the
example of the apoftles : they likewife called them¬
felves apotattics, from a fhew of renouncing the world
more than other men. They condemned marriage.
APOSTROPHE, in rhetoric, a figure by which
the orator, in a vehement commotion, turns himfelf on
all fides, and applies to the living and dead, to angels
and to men, to rocks, groves, &c. Thus Adam, in
Milton’s Paradife Loft:
O Woods, O fountains, hillocks, dales, and bowers,
With other echo, <b'C.
Apostrophe, in grammar, the contradlion of a
word by the ufe of a comma : as call’d for called, tho'
for though.
APOTEICHISMUS, in the ancient military art,
a kind of line of circumvallation drawn round a place
in order to befiege it. The firft thing the ancients
went about, when they defigned to lay clofe fiege to
a place, was the Apoteichifmus ; which fometimes con-
fifted of a double wall, or rampart, raifed of earth ;
the .innermoft to prevent fudden fallies from the town,
the outermoft to keep off foreign enemies from coming
to the relief of the befieged. This anfwered to what
is called lines of contravallation and circumvallation
among the moderns.
APOTACTITES, in church hiftory, a name gi¬
ven to the Apoftolics, from the fliew they made of re- * see U
nouneing the world more than other men *. Ha.
APO-
Apothecary
|ap parent
* See De-
coftion.
A P O [ 539 J A P P
APOTHECARY, one who pra&ifes the art of
pharmacy. In London, the apothecaries are one of the
city-companies. They were incorporated by a char¬
ter from king Jaimes I. procured at the folicitation
of Dr Mayerne and Dr Aitkins: till that time they
only made a part of the grocers company ; plums,
fugar, fpice, Venice treacle, mithridate, Ac. were
fold in the fame fhop and by the fame perfon. The
reafon of feparating them was, that medicines might
be better prepared, and in oppofition to divers per-
fons who impofed unwholefome remedies on the peo¬
ple. By an aft which was made perpetual in the
ninth year of George I. they are exempted from fer-
ving upon juries, or in ward and parifh offices. They
are obliged to make up their medicines according to
the formulas prefcribed in the college difpenfatory; and
are liable to have their (hops vilited by the cenfors of
the college, who are empowered to deftroy fuch me¬
dicines as they think not good.
APOTHEOSIS, in antiquity, aceremony by which
the ancient Romans complimented their emperors and
great men, after their death, with a place among the
gods. It is defcribed as follows. After the body of
the deceafed had been burnt with the ufual folemnities,
an image of wax, exaftly refembling him, was placed
on an ivory couch, where it lay for feven days, attend¬
ed by the fenate and ladies of the higheft quality in
mourning ; and then the young fenators and knights
bore the bed of ftate through the via facra to the old
forum, and from thence to the campus martins, where
it was depofited upon an edifice built in form of a py¬
ramid. The bed being thus placed amidft a quantity
of fpices and other combuftibles, and the knights having
made a folemn proceffion round the pile, the new em¬
peror, with a torch in his hand, fet fire to it, whilft an
eagle, let fly from the top of the building, and mount¬
ing in the air with a firebrand, was fuppofed to convey
the foul of the deceafed to heaven ; and thenceforward
he w^as ranked among the gods.
We often meet with the confecration or Apotheofis
of emperors reprefented on medals; where we fee the
pyramids of feveral ftories, each growing lefs and lefs,
we fee alfo the eagles flying away with the fouls of the
deceafed emperors. A gem in the mufaeum of Branden¬
burg, reprefents the apotheofis of Julius Caefar, mount¬
ed upon the celeftial globe, and holding an helm in
his hand, as if he were now the governor of Heaven,
as before of the earth.. See Deification.
APOTOME, in geometry, the difference between
two incommenfurable lines.
Apotome, in mufie, the difference between a great¬
er and leffer femi-tone; expreffed by the ratio, 128;
lz5‘
APOZEM, in medicine, the fame with decoftion*.
APPARATUS, a term ufed to denote a complete
fet of inftruments, or other utenfils, belonging to any
artifi: or machine.
APPARENT, in a general fenfe, fomething that
is vifible to the eyes, or obvious to the underftanding.
Apparent, among mathematicians and aftronomers,
denotes things as they appear to ns, in contradiftinftion
from real or true ; thus we fay, the apparent diameter,
diftance, magnitude, place, figure, Ac. of bodies.
Apparent i/e/r, inlaw. No inheritance can veft, nor
can any peribn be the aftual complete heir of another,
till the ancellor is previoufly dead. Nemo ejl hares vi-
ventis. Before that time the perfon who is next in the
line of fucceffion is called an heir apparent, oxheir pre-
fumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch, whofe right of in¬
heritance is indefeaiible, provided they outlive the an-
ceftor; as the eldeft fon or his iffue, who muft by the
courfe of the common law be heirs to the father when¬
ever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are fuch,
who, if the anceftor fhould die immediately, would in
the prefent circumftances of things be his heirs: but
whofe right of inheritance maybe defeated by the con¬
tingency of fome nearer heir being born ; as a brother
or nephew, whofe prefumptive fucceffion may be de¬
ft royed by the birth of a child; or daughter, whofe
prefent hopes may be hereafter cut off by the birth of
a fon. Nay, even if the eftate hath defcended, by the
death of the owner, to fuch brother, or nephew, or
daughter; in the former cafes, the eftate fhall be di-
vefted and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous
child; and, in the latter, it fhall alfo be totally diveft-
ed by the birth of a pofthumous fon.
APPARITION, in a general fenfe, denotes fimply
the appearance of a thing. In a more limited fenfe,
it is ufed for a fpeftre or ghoft. — Several inftances of
apparitions occur in the Bible; that of Samuel, railed
by the witch of Endor, has occafioned great difputes.
We find great controverfies among authors, in relation
to the reality, the exiftence or non-exiftence, the pof-
fibility or iinpofiibility, of apparitions. The Chaldeans,
the Jews, and other nations, have been the fteady af-
ferters of the belief of apparitions. The denial of
fpirits and apparitions is by fome made one of the
marks of infidelity, if not of atheifm. Many of the
apparitions we are told of in writers, are doubtlefs mere
delufions of the fenfe ; many others were feen but in
dreams or deliquiums; many others are fiftitious, con¬
trived merely to amufe, or anfwer fome purpcfe. Ap¬
paritions, it is certain, are machines that on occafion
have been of good fervice both to generals, to minifters,
of ftate, to priefts, and others.
APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term
to comprehend all attendants of judges and magiftrates
appointed to receive and execute their orders, appa¬
ritor, in England, is a mefienger that ferves the procefs
of a fpiritual court, or a beadle in an Univerfity who
carries the mace.
APPAUMEE, in heraldry, denotes one hand ex¬
tended, with the full palm appearing, and the thumb
and fingers at full length.
APPEAL, in law, the removal of a caufe from an
inferior to a fuperior court or judge, when a perfon
thinks himfelf aggrieved by the fentence of the inferior
judge. Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts of ju-
ftice to the Houfe of Lords. In ecclefiaftical cafes, if
an appeal is brought before a bilhop, it may be remo¬
ved to the archbilhop; if before an archdeacon, to the
court of arches, and thence to the archbilhop; and-
from the archbilhop’s court to the king in chancery.
Appeal, in common law, denotes an accufation by
a private fubjeft againft another, for fome heinous
crime; demanding punilhment on account of the par¬
ticular injury fuffered, rather than for the offence againft:
the public.
This private procefs, for the puMlhment of public
crimes, had probably its original in thofe times, when
a?
A ppareut
Appeal.
A P P [ 540 ] A P P
Appeal, a private pecuniary fatisfa&ion, called a weregild, was
conitantly paid to the party injured, or his relations, to
expiate enormous offences. This was a cuflom derived
to the Englifh, in common with other northern nations,
from their anceftorsthe ancient Germans; among whom,
according to Tacitus, luitur homicidium certo armento-
ruin ac pecorutn nutnero ; recipitque fati.fadionem uni-
verfa domus. In the fame manner, hy the Irifh Brehon
law, in cafe of murder, the brehon or judge was ufed
to compound between the murderer, and the friends of
the decafed who profecuted him, by caufing the male-
fadlor to give unto them, or to the child or wife of him
that was flain, a recompence which they called an eriach.
And thus we find in the Anglo-Saxon laws (particular¬
ly thofe of king Athelftan) the feveral weregilds for
homicide eftablifhed in progreflive order, from the death
of the ceorl or peafant, up to that of the king himfelf.
And in the laws of Henry I. we have an account of
what other offences were redeemable by weregild, and
what were not fo. As therefore, during the conti¬
nuance of this cuftom, a procefs was certainly given,
for recovering the weregild by the party to whom it
was due; it feems, that, when thefe offences by degrees
grew no longer redeemable, the private procefs was
ftill continued, in order to infure the infliftion of pu-
nifhment upon the offender, though the party injured
was allowed no pecuniary compenfation for the offence.
But, though appeals were thus in the nature of pro-
fecutions for fome atrocious injury committed more im¬
mediately againft an individual, yet it alfo was ancient¬
ly permitted, that any fubjeft might appeal another
fubjedf of high-treafon, cither in the courts of common
law, or in parliament, or (for treafons committed be¬
yond the feas) in the court of the high conflable and
marfhal. The cognizance of appeals in the latter ftill
continues in force ; and fo late as 1631, there was a
trial by battel awarded in the court of chivalry, on fuch
an appeal of treafon: but that in the ftrft was virtu¬
ally abolifhed by the rtatutes 5 Edw. III. c. 9. and
2 Edw. III. c. 24. and in the fecond exprejs/y hy fta-
tute I Hen. IV. c, 14. So that the only appeals now
in force, for things done within the realm, are appeals
of felony and mayhem.
An appeal of felony may be brought for crimes com¬
mitted either againft the parties themfelves, or their re¬
lations. The crimes againft: the parties themfelves are
larceny, rape, and arjon. And for thefe, as well as for
mayhem, the perfons robbed, ravifhed, maimed, or
whofe houfes are burnt, may inftitute this private pro¬
cefs. The only crime againft: one’s relation, for which
an appeal can be brought, is that of killing him, by ei¬
ther murder or manflaughter. But this cannot be
brought by every relation ; but only by the wife for
the death of her hulband, or by the heir-male for the
death of his anceftor; which heirftu'p was alfo confined
by an ordinance of Henry I. to the four neareft: de¬
grees of blood. It is given to the wife, on account of
the lofs of her hulband: therefore, if Die marries again,
before or pending her appeal, it is loft and gone ; or,
if Ihe marries after judgment, Ihe lhall not demand ex¬
ecution. The heir, as was faid, muft alfo be heir-male,
and fuch a one as was the next heir by the courfe of the
common law at the time of the killing of the anceftor.
But this rule has*three exceptions: 1. If the perfon
killed leaves an innocent wife, Ihe only, and not the
heir, fhall have the appeal: 2. If there be no wife, and Appeal. jj
the heir be accufed of the murder, the perfon, who ' """ |'|
next to him would have been heir-male, lhall bring the
appeal: 3. If the wife kills her hulband, the heir may
appeal her of the death. And, by the ftatute of Glou-
cefter, 6 Ed. I. c. 9. all appeals of death muft be fued
within a year and a day after the completion of the fe¬
lony by the death of the party: which feems to be only
declaratory of the old common law; for in the Gothic
conftitutions we find the fame “ praferiptio annalis, qu<e
currit adverfus acior 'em, f, de homicida ei non conjlat in-
tra annum a cade fafta, nec quenquam interea arguat
et accufet.,>
Thefe appeals may be brought previous to any in-
di&ment; and, if the appellee be acquitted thereon, he
cannot be afterwards indi<fted for the fame offence. In
like manner as by the old Gothic conftitution, if any
offender gained a verditl in his favour, when profecu¬
ted by the party injured, he was alfo underftood to be
acquitted of any crown-profecution for the fame of¬
fence: but, on the contrary, if he made his peace with
the king, ftill he might be profecuted at the fuit of the
party. And fo, in England, if a man be acquitted on
an indictment of murder, or found guilty, and pardoned
by the king, ftill he ought not (in ftriftnefs) to go at
large, but be imprifoned or let to bail till the year and
day be paft, by virtue of the ftatute 3 Hen. VII. c. 1.
in order to be forthcoming to anfwer any appeal for
the fame felony, not having as yet been punifhed for it:
though, if he hath been found guilty of manflaughter
on an iridi6tment,and hath had the benefit ©f clergy, and
fuffered the judgment of the law, he cannot afterwards
be appealed; for it is a maxim in law, “ nemo bis
punitur pro eodem deliclo.” Before this ftatute was
made, it was not ufual to inditft a man for homicide
within the time limited for appeals; which produced
very great inconvenience.
If the appellee be acquitted, the appellor (by virtue
of the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 12.) fhall
fuffer one year’s imprifonrnent, and pay a fine to the
king, belides reftitution of damages to the party for the
imprifonment and infamy which he has fuftained: and,
if the appellor be incapable to make reftitution, his a-
bettors fliall do it for him, and alfo be liable to impri¬
fonment. This provifion, as was forefeen by the author
of Fleta, proved a great difeouragement to appeals; fo
that thenceforward they ceafed to be in common ufe.
If the appellee be found guilty, he lhall fuffer the fame
judgment, as if he had been convicted by indi&ment :
but with this remarkable difference, that on an indic-
ment, which is at the fuit of the king, the king may
pardon and remit the execution; on an appeal, which
is at the fuit of a private fubje£I, to make an atone¬
ment for the private wrong, the king can no more par¬
don it, than he can remit the damages recovered on an
aftion of battery. In like manner as, while the were¬
gild continued to be paid as a fine for homicide, it
could not be remitted by the king’s authority. And
the ancient ufage was, fo late as Henry IV.’s time, that
all the relations of the flain fhould drag the appellee to
the place of execution: a cuftom, founded upon that
favage fpirit of family-refentment which prevailed uni-
verfally through Europe after the irruption of the nor¬
thern nations, and is peculiarly attended to in their fe¬
veral codes of law; and which prevails even now among
the h
A P P [ 54" 1 A P P
(A.ppearancf the wild and unttitored inhabitants of America: as if
h ii. t the finger of nature had pointed it out to mankind, in
 their rude and uncultivated ftate. However, the pu-
nifhment of the offender may be remitted and difchar-
ged by the concurrence of all parties interefted; and
as the king by his pardon mayfruftrate an indiftment,
fothe appellant by his releafe may difcharge an appeal:
“ nam quilibet potefl renunciare juri pro fe introdufto.”
APPEARANCE, in a general fenfe, the exterior
furface of a thing, or that which immediately ftrifees
the fenfes.
Appearance, in law, fignifies a defendant’s filing a
common or fpecial bail, on any procefs ifiued out of a
court of judicature.
APPELLANT, in a general fenfe, one who ap¬
peals. See Appeal.
Appellants, in church hiftory, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch of the catholic clergy as appeal from the
Conllitution unigenitus to a general council.
APPELLATIVE. Words and names are either
common or proper. Common names are fuch as Hand
for univerfal ideas, or a whole rank of beings, whether
general or fpecial. Thefe are called appellatives. . So
fifli, bird, man, city, river, are common names; and fo
are trout, eel, lobfter; for they all agree to many in¬
dividuals, and fome to many fpecies.
APPELI.EE, among lawyers, the perfon againft
whom an appeal is brought. See Appeal.
APPENDIX, in literature, a treatife added at the
end of a work, to render it more Complete.
APPERCEPTION, or Adperception, a term u-
fed by Leibnitz and his followers for confcioufnefs.
APPETITE, in a general fenfe, the defire of en¬
joying fome objeft, fuppofed to be conducive to our
happinefs. When this inclination is guided by reafon,
and proportioned to the intrinfic value of the obje6f, it
is called rational appetite; as, on the other hand, it is
denominated fenjitive appetite, when we have only a
blind propenfity to a thing, without determinate ideas
of the good qualities for which we defire it.
Appetite, in medicine, a certain painful or uneafy
fenfation, always accompanied with a defire to eat or
drink.—An exceffive appetite is called by phyficians
bulimy, or fames canina; adefeft or lofs of it, anorexy;
and that after things improper for food, pica.
APPIA via, a way reaching from Rome through
Capua to Brundufium, between 330 and 350 milesdong.
Appiiis Claudius, furnamed Cecils, in the year of the
city 441, carried it’ from the Porta Capena to Capua,
(Livy, Frontinus). It was afterwards carried on to
Brundufium; but by whom, or when, is uncertain. It
was laid with very hard ftone, brought from a great di-
flance, large, and fquared, (Hiodorus) ; and it was fo
wide, that feveral waggons could go abreaft. Statius
calls it the queen of roads. Its courfe is defcribed by
Horace, Strabo, and Antonine.
APPIAN, an eminent writer of the Roman hiftory
in Greek, under the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. He
was of a good family in Alexandria in Egypt; whence
he went to Rome, and there diftinguiftied himfelf fo
well as an advocate, that he was chofen one of the pro¬
curators of the empire, and the government of a pro¬
vince Was committed to him. He did not complete the
Roman hiftory in a contipued feries ; but wrote diftinfk
hiftories of all nations that had been conquered by the
VOL. I.
Romans, in which he placed every thing relating to •Appiiss
thofe nations in the proper order of time. His ftyle is cla''tlius
plain and fimple : in the opinion of Photius, he has Appleby.
fhown the greateft knowledge of military affairs, and    
the ha'ppieft talent at defcribing them, of any of the
hiftorians; for while we read him, we in a manner fee the
battles which he defcribes. Of all this voluminous Work
there remains only what treats of the Punic, Syrian,
Parthian, Mithridatic, and Spanifh wars, with thofe
againft Hannibal, the civil wars, and the wars in Ulyri-
cum, and fome fragments of the Celtic or Gallic wars.
APPIUS CLAUDIUS, a Sabine by birth, one of
the principal inhabitants r»f Regilium: his fhining me¬
rit having drawn the envy of his fellow-citizens upon
him, he retired to Rome with all his family. Appius
was admitted into the fenate, and was made conful*
with Publius Servilius Prifcus, in 258 from the build¬
ing of Rome : but he was hated by the plebeians, be¬
ing an auftere oppofer of their clamours and feditions.
The Claudian family continued long one of the moil
illuftrious of the patricitn families in Rome; and fe¬
veral in fucceffion of the name of Appius fupported
the fame ftern character that diftinguiftied their firft
founder.
Appius Claudius, the decemvir. See Virginia.
APPLAUSE, an approbation of fomething, figni-
fied by clapping the hands, ftill pra&ifed in theatres.
-—Applaufe,in antiquity, differed from acclamation*, as * SccAccIa-
the latter was articulate and performed with the voice, matl0n‘
the former with the hands. Among the Romans, ap-
plaufe was an artificial mufical kind of noife, made by
the audience or fpeftators to exprefs their fatisfaftion.
There were three fpecies of applaufe, denominated
from the different norfes made in them, viz. Bornbus,
Imbrices, and Teflec; the firft a confufed din, made ei¬
ther by the hands or the mouth; the fecond and third,
by beating on a fort of founding veffels placed in the
theatres for this purpofe. Perfons were inftruCted to
give applaufe with (kill; and there were even mailers
who profeffed to teach the art. The proficients in this
way let themfelves out for hire to the vain-glorious a-
mong the poets, aftors, &c. and were properly difpo-
fed to fupport a loud applaufe. Thefe they called Lau-
dicceni, and SofoxKcic. At the end of the play, a loud
peal of applaufe was expected, and even alked of the
audience, either by the chorus, or the perfon who fpoke
laft. The formula was, Speflatores plaudite, or Valete
et plaudite. The plaufores, or applauders, were divided
into chori, and difpofed in theatres oppofite to each
other like the chorifters in cathedrals, fo that there was
a kind of concert of applaufes.
APPLE, the fruit of the malus, or apple-tree *. * See .Ms-
Apple of the eye, a name not unfrequently given to ^
the pupil. See Anatomy, n° 406, m.
K.vvx.'z.s of Love. See Lycopersicon.
Mad Apples. See Mklongena.
APPLEBY, the county-town of Weftmoreland, where
the affixes are held, is feated on the banks of the river
Eden, which almoft furrounds it. It was formerly a
very confiderable town, and had great privileges ; but
it is long ago gone to decay, and now only confifts of
mean houfes in one broad ftreet, which runs with an
eafy afcent from north to fouth; at the head of which
is the caftle, almoft entirely furrounded by the river.
It has two churches; a town-hall, in which the affizes
Y y y are
A P P [ 542 1 A P P
Application are held ; a county jail; and an hofpital for a gover-
. " , nefs and twelve widows, founded in 1651 by a daugh-
ing> ter of lord Clifford. It is governed by a mayor, twelve
  aldermen, a common-council, and two ferjeants at mace,
&c. Here is faid to be the befl corn-market in thefe
* See /llal- northern parts. W. Long. 3. 52. N. Lat. 54. 30. *
laba. APPLICATION, in a general fenfe, is the laying
two things together, in order to difcover their agree¬
ment or difagreement.
Application, in geometry, is ufed either for di-
vifion, for applying one quantity to another, whofe a-
reas, but not figures, fhall be the fame; or, for tranf-
ferring a given line into a circle, or other figure, fo
that its ends lhall be in the perimeter of the figure.
Application, among divines, a term ufed to fignify
the fame as imputation. See Imputation.
APPOGIATURA, in mufic, a fmall note inferted
by the practical mufician, between two others, at fome
diftance.
APPOINTEE, a foot foldier or officer in the French
army who receives a greater pay than others of the fame
rank, in confideration of his valour or long fervice.
Appointe'e, in heraldry, the fame as aguifee: Thus
we fay, a crofs appointee, to fignify that with two
angles at the end cut off, fo as to terminate in points.
APPOINTMENT, in a general fenfe, the fame as
affignation: See Assignation. In a more reftrained
fenfe, it fignifies a penfion given by princes and noble¬
men to retain certain perfons in their fervice.
APPOSITION, in grammar, the placing two or
more fubftantives together in the fame cafe, without
any copulative conjunifion between them ; as, Ardebat
Alexim, delicias domini.
APPRAISING, the aft of rating, valuing, or fet-
ting a price on goods, by a perfon who is a competent
judge, and is authorifed thereto.
APPREHENSION, in logic, the firft or moft
fimple aft of the mind, whereby it perceives, or iscon-
fcious of fome idea.
APPRISING, in Scots law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor formerly carried off the eftate
of his debtor for payment. It is now abolifhed, and
adjudications are appointed in place of it.
APPROACH, or Approaching, in a general
fenfe, the acceding or coming together of two or more
things.
Approaches, in fortification, the works thrown up
by the befiegers, in order to get nearer a fortrefs, with¬
out being expofed to the enemy’s cannon.
APPROACHING, in fowling, a term ufed to ex-
prefs fuch devices as are contrived for the getting with¬
in (hot of fhy birds. It is principally ufed in marfhy
low places. The belt method of approaching is by
means of three hoops tied together at proper diftances
according to the height of the man that is to ufe it,
and having boughs of trees tied all round it, with cords
to hang it over his fhoulders ; a man getting into this,
conceals himfelf, and approaches by degrees towards
his game in the form of a moving bulh. Geefe, ducks,
and teal, quit the waters in the evening, and pafs the
night in the fields; but at the approach of morning
they return to the water again, and even when on the
water they will retire to great diftances, on the ap¬
proach even of a horfe or cow, fo that the bufinefs of
the ftalking-horfe is of little ufe; but this device of
approaching by the moving bulh fucceeds tolerably Approach*
well with them. il?.g j
Approaching, in gardening, the inoculating or in- Appropria*
grafting the fprig of one tree into another, without cut- lion,
ting it off the parent-tree.
APPROBATION, a ftate or difpofition of the
mind wherein we put a value upon, or become pleafed
with, fome perfon or thing. Moralifts are divided on
the principle of approbation, or the motive which de¬
termines us to approve and difapprove. The Epicu¬
reans will have it to be only felf-intereft : according to
them, that which determines any agent to approve his
own aftion, is its apparent tendency to his private hap-
pinefs ; and even the approbation of another's aftion
flows from no other caufe but an opinion of its ten¬
dency to the happinefs of the approver, either imme¬
diately or remotely. Others refolve approbation into a
moral fenfe, or a principle of benevolence by v/hich we
are determined to approve every kind affeftion either
in ourfelves or others, and all publicly ufeful aftions,
which we imagine to flow from fuch affeftion, without
any view therein to our own private happinefs.
APPROPRIATION, in the canon law, a fever¬
ing of a benefice ecclefiaftical to the proper and per- m ^ ^ ^
petual ufe of fome religious ho ufe *. udtParfoti
The contrivance of appropriations feems to have |
fprung from the policy of the monaftic orders, who
have never been deficient in fubtile inventions for the
increafe of their own power and emoluments. At
the firft eftablilhment of parochial clergy, the tithes
of the parilh were diftributed in a fourfold divifion;
one for the ufe of the bilhop, another for main¬
taining the fabric of the church, a third for the
poor, and the fourth to provide for the incum¬
bent. When the fees of the bilhops became otherwife
amply endowed, they were prohibited from demanding
their ufual fhare of thefe tithes, and the divifion was
into three parts only. And hence it was inferred by
the monafteries, that a fmall part was fufficient for the
officiating prieft ; and that the remainder might well
be applied to the ufe of their own fraternities, (the en¬
dowment of which was conftrued to be a work of the
moft exalted piety), fubjeft to the burthen of repairing
the church and providing for its conftant fupply. And
therefore they begged and bought, for maffes and o-
bits, and fometimes even for money, all the advowfons
within their reach,, and then appropriated the benefices-
to the ufe of their own corporation. But, in order to
complete fuch appropriation effeftually, the king’s li¬
cence, and confent of the bifhop, mutt firft be obtain¬
ed ; becaufe both the king and the bilhop may fome
time or other have an intereft, by lapfe, in the pre-
fentation to the benifice; which can never happen
if it be appropriated to the ufe of a corporation,
which never dies : and alfo becaufe the law repofes a
confidence in them, that they will not confent to any
thing that lhall be to the prejudice of the church. The
confent of the patron alfo is neceffarily implied, be¬
caufe the appropriation can be originally made to
none but to fuch fpiritual corporation as is alfo the
patron of the church ; the whole being indeed nothing
elfe but an allowance for the patrons to retain the
tithes and glebe in their own hands, without prefent-
ing any clerk, they themfelves undertaking to provide
for the fervice of the church. When the appropriation
APR [ 543 1 . . ,A P U
\ppropria- i's thus made, the appropriators and their fuccefibrs are towards a conjunction with the fun or any of the fixed
■ tI.?n perpetual parfons of the church ; and muft fue and be ftars.
Appulfe. fued, in all matters concerning the rights of the church, APRICOT, in botany. See Armeniaca.
    by the name of parfons. APRIES, fon of Pfammis, king of Egypt; the
This appropriation may be fevered, and the church fame with Pharaoh Hophrah in Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
become difappropriate, two ways ; as, firft, if the pa- He ruined Sidon, and fome fay he put Jeremiah to
tron or appropriator prefents a clerk, who is inftituted death. He thought neither God nor man could de-
and inducted to the parfonage: for the incumbent fo throne him ; which yet was eafily done by Amafis,
inftituted and indufted is to all intents and purpofes and he himfelf was ftrangled by the Egyptians,
complete parfon’; and the appropriation being once fe- APRIL, in chronology, the fourth month of the
vered, can never be re-united again, unlefs by a repe- year, containing only 30 days,
tition of the fame folemnities. And, when the clerk A PRIORI, a kind of demonftration *.
fo prefented is diftinft from the vicar, the re£tory thus APRON, in gunnery, the piece of lead which co-
vefted in him becomes what is called a fine-cure ; be- vers the touch-hole of a cannon,
caufe he hath no cure of fouls, having a vicar under APSIS, in aftronomy, a term ufed indifferently for
him to whom that cure is committed. Alfo, if the either of the two points of a planet’s orbit, where it
corporation which has the appropriation is diffolved, is at greateft or leaft diftance from the fun or earth ;
the parfonage becomes difappropriate at common law : and hence the line conne&ing thofe points is called the
becaufe the perpetuity of perfon is gone, which is ne- line of the apfides. The word is Greek, and derived
ceffary to fupport the appropriation. from arra, to conneft. The apfis at the greateft dif-
In this manner, and fubjeft to thefe conditions, may tance from the fun is called the aphelion, and at the
appropriations be made at this day: and thus were greateft diftance from the earth the rf/iogwy while that at
moft if not all of the appropriations at prefent exifting the leaft diftance from the fun is termed the perihelion,
originally made ; being annexed to bifhopricks, pre- and at the leaft diftance from the earth the perigee.
bends, religious houfes, nay, even to nunneries, and Apsis, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes the in¬
certain military orders, all of which were fpiritual cor- ner part of the ancient churches, anfwering to the mo-
porations. At the diffolution of monafteries, by ftatutes dern choir. It is alfo ufed for the biftiop’s throne, and
27 Hen. VIII. c. 28. and 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13. the fometimes for the ambo. See Ambo.
appropriations of feveral parfonages, which belonged APTA, or Apta Julia, (Pliny); now Apte, in
to thofe refpeftive religious houfes, (amounting to more Provence, on the river Calavon, feven leagues to the
than one third of all the parifhes in England), would north of Aix, and nine to the north of Avignon. In
have been by the rules of the common law difappro- the Notitiae it is called Civitas Aptenjium : Pliny rec-
priated ; had not a claufe in thofe ftatutes intervened, kons it among the Latin towns. That it was a co-
to give them to the king in as ample a manner as the lony, appears from an infcription on a ftone found at
abbots, &c. formerly held the fame at the time of Arles, (Sirmond). E. Long. 5. 56. Lat. 43. 23.
their diffolution. This, though perhaps fcarcely de- APTERA, (Strabo, Stephanus); Apteron, (Pli-
fenfible, was not without example: for the fame was ny) ; Apteria, (Ptolemy): an inland town of Crete,
done in former reigns, when the alien priories (that whofe port was Cifamus, on the weft fide of the ifland,
is, fuch as were filled by foreigners only) were dif- (Strabo); 12 miles to the fouth of Cydonia, towards
folved and given to the crown. And from thefe two the Montes Leuci, and as many from the Sinus Am-
roots have fprung all the lay-appropriations or fecular phimales. So called from the Sirens, who, being
parfonages which we now fee in the kingdom ; they there vanquilhed in fong by the Mufes, ftript them-
having been afterwards granted out from time to time felves of their wings, and out of grief leaped into the
by the crown. See the article Parson T/V«r. fea, (Stephanus). There was a town of Lycia of the
APPROXIMATION, in arithmetic and algebra, fame name. E. Long. 25. Lat. 35. 50.
the coming nearer and nearer to a root, or other quan- Aptera, a term ufed by Linnams for his feventh
tity fought, without expe&ing to be ever able to find order of infefts, comprehending fuch as have no wings,
it exaftly. APTHANE, a title anciently given to the higheft
APPUI, in the manage, (q. d. reft or ftay upon degrees of nobility in Scotland. See Thane.
the hand), is the reciprocal effort between the horfe’s APTOTE, among grammarians, an indeclinable
mouth and the bridle-hand, or the fenfe of the aftion noun, or one which has no variation of cafes,
of the bridle on the hand of the horfeman. APULEIUS (Lucius), a Platonic philofopher, u-
A juft appui of the hand, is the nice bearing up or niverfally known by his performance of the Golden
ftay of the bridle, fo that the horfe, being awed by the Afs. He lived in the fecond century, under the An-
fenfibility and tendernefs of his mouth, dares not reft tonines ; and was born at Madaura, a Roman colony
too much upon the bit-mouth, nor check or beat up- in Africa. He ftudied firft at Carthage, then at A-
on the hand to withftand it. A horfe is faid to have thens, and afterwards at Rome, where he learned the
no appui, when he is too apprehenfive of the hand, Latin tongue without the help of a matter. He was
, and cannot bear the bit. He is faid to have too much a man of a curious and inquifitive difpofition, efpecial-
appui, when he refts or throws himfelf too much upon ly in religious matters : this prompted him to take fe-
the bit. Horfes defigned for the army, ought to have veral journeys, and to enter into feveral focieties of re-
a full appui upon the hand. To give a horfe a ligion. He fpent his whole fortune almoft in travel-
good appui, he ihould be galloped, and put often ling; fo that, at his return to Rome, when he was about
back. to dedicate himfelf to the fervice of Ofiris, he had not
APPULSE, in aftronomy, the approach of a planet money enough to defray the expence attending the ce-
Y y y 2 retnonies
Apricot
Apuleius.
See De-
ntnjiration.
A P U [ 544 ] A CLU
Aptileios. remonies of the reception, and was obliged to pawn
bis clothes to raife the neceflary fum. He fupported
himfelf afterwards by pleading caufes ; and as he was
a great mailer of eloquence, and ©f a fubtle genius,
many confiderable caufes were trufted to him. But he
availed himfelf more by a good marriage than by his
pleadings : a widow, named Pudentilla, who was nei¬
ther young nor handfome, but wanted a hulband, and
was very rich, took a great fancy to him. This mar¬
riage drew upon him a troublefome law-fuit. The la¬
dy’s relations, pretending he made ufe of forcery to
gain her heart and money, aceufed him of being a ma¬
gician before Claudius Maximus, proconful of Africa.
Apuleius was under no great difficulty of making his
defence. As Pudentilla was determined, from confi-
derations of health, to enter upon a fecond marriage,
even before Ihe had feen this pretended magician, the
youth, deportment, pleafing converfation, vivacity, and
other agreeable qualities of Apuleius, were charms fuf-
ficient to engage her heart. He had the moll favour¬
able opportunities too of gaining her friendlhip, for he
lodged fome time at her houfe : Pudentilla’s eldell fon
having a great friendlhip for him, was likewife defirous
of the match, and folicited him in favour of Pudentil-
la. “ Do you make a wonder (faid Apuleius, in his
defence) that a woman ffiould marry again, after ha¬
ving lived a widow 13 years ? it is much more wonder¬
ful that file did not marry again fooner. You think
that magic mull have been employed to prevail with a
widow of her age, to marry a young man; on the con¬
trary, this very circumftance Ihews how little occafion
there was for magic.” He offered to prove by his
marriage-contraft, that he got nothing of Pudentilin
but a promife of a very moderate fum, in cafe he fur-
vived her and had children by her. He was alfo obli¬
ged to make fuch confeffions in court as Pudentiila
would gladly have excufed. He faid Ihe was neither
handfome nor young, nor fuch as could any ways tempt
him to have recourfe to inchantments : moreover, he
added, that Pontianus her fon propofed the marrying
his mother to him only as a burden, and the adlion of
a friend and philofopher. He alfo took notice of ma¬
ny inconveniences which attend the marrying of wi¬
dows, and fpoke highly of the advantages of a maid
above a widow: “ A handfome virgin (faid he), let
her be ever fo poor, is abundantly portioned; Ihe
brings to her hulband a heart quite new, together with
the flower and firft-fruits of her beauty. It is with
great reafon that all hulbands fet fo great a value upon
the flower of virginity: all the other goods which a
woman brings her hulband are of fuch a nature, that
he may return them again, if he has a mind to be un¬
der no obligation to her t that alone cannot be refto-
red, it remains in the poffefiion of the firft hulband. If
you marry a widow, and Ihe leaves you, Ihe carries a-
way all that Ihe brought you.” Upon which paffage
Mr Bayle makes a very coarfe remark, viz. “ That
this good which is never taken back out of the hands
1 of a hulband, is very chimerical; and that there is ne¬
ver a baker nor a butcher, who would lend fixpence
upon this unperilhable poffcffion.” The apolpgy is
Hill extant, and is reckoned a very fine piece. Apu¬
leius was extremely indefatigable in his ftudies ; and
compofed feveral books, fome in verfe, and others in
grofe ; but moft of them have been loft. Pie took
great pleafure in declaiming, and was heard generally -Apul't
with great applaufe : when he declaimed at Oeca, the .
audience cried out with one voice, that they ought to  
confer upon him the honour of citizen. The citizens
of Carthage heard him with great fatisfa&ion, and e-
recled a ftatue to him } and feveral other cities did him
the fame honour. Several critics have publilhed notes
on Apuleius’s Golden Afs, and there have been tranf-
lations of it into different languages.
APUJLIA, now Puglia, a territory of Italy, bor¬
dering on the Adriatic, and extending from the river
Frento to Tarentum in length, and from the Adriatic
to the Lucani in breadth, dpuli the people* (Ho¬
race), divided into the Apulia Daunt a, now called Pu¬
glia Phma, or the Capitanata; and into the Apulia
Peucstia, now Terra di Barri, (Pliny, Ptolemy). A-
pulia abounded in ftieep, which yielded the fineft wool,
(Martial). It is now the eaft fide of the kingdom of
Naples.
APYCNI suoni, in mufic, founds diftant one or
more oilaves, and yet concord.
APYCNOS, in mufic, is faid of the diatonic genus,
on account of its having fpacious intervals, in compa-
rifon of the chromatic and enharmonic.
APYREXY, among pbyficians, denotes the inter-
miffion of a fever.
APYROUS, a word applied to denote that proper¬
ty of forne bodies, by which they refill the moft violent
fire without any fenfible alteration. Apyrous bodies
ought to be diftingui Ihed from thofe which are refrac¬
tory. Refractory fubftances are thofe which cannot
by violent heat be fufed, whatever other alteration they
may fuftain. But a body, properly fpeaking, apy¬
rous, can neither be fufed by heat, nor can undergo
any other change. Diamonds were long thought to
be poffeffed of this, property. But fome late experi¬
ments have Ihown, that diamonds may be entirely^ dif-
fipated or evaporated by heat, and are therefore not
entitled to be ranked among apyrous fubftances. Per¬
haps there is no body in nature effentially and rigorouf-
ly apyrous. But it is fufficient that there be bodies a-
pyrous relatively to the degree of fire which art can
produce, to entitle them to that name.
AQUA, a term frequently met with in the writings
of phyficians, chemifts, fyc. for certain medicines, or
menftruums, in a liquid form, diftinguilhed from each
other by peculiar epithets, as Aqjja Alexiteria, AquA .
Aluminofa, Aqua Mirabilis, <bc. for which fee Phar¬
macy, n° 501, &c.
Aqua Extintta, orExtinguifhed Water, is aquafor¬
tis into which fome river-water has been poured, in or- j
der to qualify it, and render it lefa corrofive. Its ufe
is to get the filver from the aqua fortis that ferved to
part gold from it.
Aqua Fortis, a name given by artifts to nitrous a-
cid of a certain ftrength, from its diffolving power *. * See C\ 1
Aqua Marina, a name by which the jewellers call n° '
the beryl, on account of its fea-green colour f. f See JS
Aqua Regia, an acid corrofive fpirit, fo called be- (
caufe it ferves as a menftruum to diffolve gold, com¬
monly efteemed the king of metals *. *See C
Aqua Sectinda, is aqua fortis which has loft part of n°
its diffolving quality, after being ufed in the parting of
metals.
Aqua Fit#,, is commonly underlined of what is o-
therwife ]
All-
i' g»aas
A CL U
tlierwife called brandy, or fpirit of wine, either fimple,
or prepared with aromatics. Some, however, diftin-
gm'fh between them; appropriating the term brandy to
what is drawn from wine, or the grape; and aqua vit*
to that drawn after the fame manner, from malt, <bc>
AQUM AUGUST7E, (Ptolemy); Ac^ Tar-
bellic^:, (Antonine); ActuENSis Civitaf, in the
Notitia. Now sdcqs, or Dax, a town in Gafcony, on
the river Adour, famous for its baths. W. Long, x0 40.
Lat. 43. 56.
Aquae Cutiliae, a lake of the Sabines, in the ter¬
ritory ofReate, (Pliny); LacusCutiliensis, (Varro);
with a moveable ifland in it, (Seneca, Pliny); fuppo-
fed to be the centre of Italy, (Varro). The waters
were medicinal, and extremely cold, good for a weak
ftomach and in weak nerves, (Pliny). Vefpafian ufed
them every fummer; and there he died, (Sueton, Xi-
philin from Dio). Now La go di Contigliano.
AQUiEDUCT, in hydraulics and archite&ure, a
ftrufture formed for conveying water from one place to
another, over grounds that are unequal. The word is
compounded of the.Latin fubftantive aqua water, and
of duttus a channel, by which that water may be con¬
ducted.
Architects diftinguifh two kinds of aquaeduCts; the
vifible, and the fubterraneous.—The vifible are conftruc-
ted in valleys or marfhes, and protraCted in longitude
or latitude as the fituation requires. They are compo-
fed of adminicula for fupporting the arches and con¬
fining the ftream, and of arcades.—The fubterraneous
are formed, by piercing the mountains, and conducing
them below the furface of the earth. They are built of
ftone, hewn or rough; and covered above with vaults,
or with flat Hones, which may be termed flags: thefe
flags (helter the waters from the heat of the fun.
They divide them Hill into double and triple aquae¬
duCts ; that is to fay, fuch as are fupported either by
two or by three ranges of arcades. Such was the aqwe-
dutt which Procopius records to have been built by
Cofroes king of the Perfians, for the city of Petra in
Mingrelia: it had three conduits upon the fame line,
each elevated above the other.
Frequently aquaeduCts are paved. Sometimes, the
waters flow through a natural channel of clay. Fre¬
quently they are conveyed by pipes of lead into refer-
voirs of the fame metal, or into troughs of hewn ftone.
The channels are cut with an imperceptible defcent,
that the current may be accelerated by its own weight.
Parallel to its courfe, on each fide, is cut a narrow foot
path, where people may walk when neceflary. By con¬
duits, or grooves, the waters are conveyed into large
eifterns, but not forced above their original level. To
make them rife and iflue from their apertures with force,
they muft be confined in tubes of a fmall diameter, and
abruptly fall from a confiderable declivity.
Aquadutts of every kind were long ago the wonders
of Rome. The vaft quantity of them which they had;
the prodigious expence employed in conducting waters
over arcades from one place to another, at the diftance
of 30, 40, 60, and even too.miles, which were either
continued or fupplied by other labours, as by cutting
mountains and piercing rocks; all this ought to fur-
prife us; nothing like this is undertaken in our times:
we dare not even think of purchafing public conveni-
ency at fo dear a rate. Appius the cenfor advifedand
[ 545 ]
A U
conftruCted the firft: aqua dull. His example gave the Aqusdu®.
public luxury a hint to cultivate thefe objeCts; and the
force of prodigious and indefatigable labour diverted
the courfe of rivers and floods to Rome. Agrippa, in
that year when he was sedile, put the lafl hand to the
magnificence of thefe works. It is chiefly in this re-
fpeCt that the modern fo much refembles the ancient
city of Rome. For this advantage, ftie is peculiarly
indebted to Sextus V. and to Paul V. who for gran¬
deur and magnificence emulated the mafters of the uni-
verfe *. There are Hill to be feen, in different places * See Nca>
contiguous to Rome, ftriking remains of thefe aqua- Memoirs of
duds; arches continued thro’ a long fpace, over which Ilab> vo*- r*
were extended the canals which carried the water to
the city. The arches are fometimes low, fometimee
raifed to a vaft height, to humour the tumidities or de-
preffions of the ground. There are fame which have
two arcades, one conftru&ed above the other; and this
precaution was obferved, left the height of a Angle ar¬
cade, if extended as far as the fituation required, might
render the ftru&ure lefs firm and permanent. They are
commonly of bricks; which by their cement cohere fo
ftrongly, that the parts are not feparated without the
utmoft difficulty.—When the elevations of the ground
were enormous, it became neceffary to form fubterrane¬
ous aquxdufts. Thefe carried the waters to fuch aquse-
dinfts as were raifed above ground, in the declivity or at
the foot of mountains. If the artificial channel of the.
water was not fufceptible of a downward bias but by
paffing through a rock, through this they cut a paffage
at the fame height with the fuperior aqiiaeduft : fuch
an one may be feen above the city of Tivoli, ahd at
the place called Vicavaro. The canal which formed the
courfe of the aqueduct is hewn out of the rock to the
extent of more than a mile, about .five feet in height,
and four in breadth.
There is one thing, however, which deferves to be
remarked. It is, that thefe aquaduds, which might
have been directed in a ftraight line to the city, did not
arrive at it but by frequent and winding mazes. Some
have faid that this oblique tra£t was purfiied to avoid
the expence which muft attend the building of arcades
to an extraordinary height: others, that it was their
intention to dinainifh the impetuofity of the current ;
which, rolling in a ftraight line through an immenfe
fpace, muft always have increafed its velocity, muft have
worn the canals by perpetual and forcible attrition,
and of confequence afforded an impure and u n whole-
fome draught to the inhabitants. But fince there was fo
great a defcent between the cafcade of Tivoli and Rome,
it is demanded why they Ihould go to draw water from
the fame river at the diftance of more than 2,0 miles
higher ; nay, of more than 30 miles, if we reckon the
curvatures of its direction through that mountainous
country. It is replied, the motive of obtaining the
water more falubrious, and more limpid, was fufficient
to make the Romans think their labour neceffary, and
their expence properly bellowed; and to thofe who re¬
flect that the waters of this river were impregnated with
mineral particles, and by no means wholefome, the an-
fwer will appear fatisfa6lory.
If any one will call his eyes upon plate 128th of the
Antiquities of Father Montfaucon, he wall fee with how Vol. IV.
much care thefe immenfe works were conftrubled.
From diftance to diftance fpiramenta were left, that, if
the
A CL U L 546 ] A <L U
AqiigclHft. tjie water Hiould happen to be flopped by any accident,
it might gradually difembogue, till they could clear its
ordinary pafiage. There were likewife, even in the very
canals which conveyed the water, cavities confiderably
deeper than its internal furface, into which the ftream
was precipitated, and where it remained ftagnant till
it was refined from mud and feculence ; and ponds,
where it might expand itfelf till it was purified.
The aqutedutt of the aqua Marcia had an arch of 16
feet in diameter. The whole was compofed of three
different kinds of ftone ; one of them redifh, another
brown, and a third of an earth colour. Above, there
appeared two canals; of which the higheft was fed by
the new waters of the Tiverone, and the lower by what
they call the Claudian river. The entire edifice is 70
Roman feet high. Near this aquceduft, we have in Fa¬
ther Montfaucon the plan of another with three canals;
the higheft fupplied by the water called Julia, that in
the middle from Tepula, and the loweft from the aqua
Marcia.
The arch of the aquaeduft of the aqua Claudia is of
hewn ftone, very beautiful; that of the aquaeduft of the
aqua Neronia is of bricks : they are each of them 72
Roman feet in height.
The canal of the aqueduA which was called the aqua
Mppia, deferves to be mentioned for a Angularity which
is obferved in it: for it is not, like the others, plain,
nor gradual in its defcent; but much narrower at the
lower than the higher end.
The conful Frontinus, who fuperintended the aqua-
dull s under the emperor Nerva, mentions nine of them
which had each 13594 pipes of an inch in diameter.
Vigerus obferves, that, in the fpace of 24 hours, Rome
received 500,000 hogfheads of water.
We might likewife have mentioned the aquadull of
Drufus, and that of Riminius : but we fhall fatisfy
ourfelves with obferving here, that Auguftus caufed all
the aquxdutts to be repaired; and afterwards pafs to o-
ther monuments of the fame kind, and ftill more im¬
portant, which give the moft ftriking ideas of Roman
magnificence.
One of thefe monuments is the a qua dull of Metz, of
which a great number of arcades ftill remain. Thefe
arcades crofted the Mofelle, a river which is broad
and vaft at that place. The copious fources of Gorze
furniftied water for the reprefentation of a fea-fight.
This water was colleAed in arefervoir: from thence it
wasconduAed by fubterraneous canals formed of hewn
ftone, and fo fpacious that a man could walk ereA in
them: it traverfed the Mofelle upon its fuperb and lof¬
ty arcades, which may ftill be feen at the diftance of
two leagues from Metz ; fo nicely wrought and fo
firmly cemented, that, except thofe parts in the mid¬
dle which have been carried away by the ice, they have
refifted, and will ftill refift, the fevereft fhocks of the
moft violent feafons. From thefe arcades, other aqua-
dulls conveyed the water to the baths, and to the place
where the naval engagement was mimicked.
If we may truft Colmenarus, the aquadutt of Sego¬
via may be compared with the moft admired labours
of antiquity. There ftill remain 159 arcades, wholly
confifting of ftones enormoufly large, and joined with¬
out mortar. Thefe arcades, with what remains of
the edifice, are 102 feet high ; there are two ranges
of arcades, one above another. The aquaduli flows thro’
the city, and runs beneath the greateft number of hou- A qu* Fla
fes which are at the lower end. viae
After thefe exorbitant ftruAures, we may be in fome Aqueduft
degree believed when we fpeak of the aqua dull which
Lewis XIV. caufed to be built near Maintenon, for
carrying water from the river Bucq to Verfailles: it is
perhaps the greateft aquaeduA which now fubfifts in the
world; it is 7000 fathoms in length, above 2560 in
height, and contains 242 arcades.
Aqu;e flavin, a town on the confines of Gallicia
and Portugal, fo called from Vefpafian and Titus. The
inhabitants are called Aquifiavienfes, (Coins). Now
called Chiaves, a mean hamlet: but the ruins of its
bridge teftify its former grandeur. W. Long. 6. 6.
Lat. 41. 40.
Aqua tauri, hot waters or baths in Tufcany, at
the dittance of three miles from the fea, faid to be dif-
coveredby a bull; whence the appellation. There are
ftill to be feen the ruins of thefe baths. The people
are called Aquenfes Taurini, (Pliny). Now Acquapen-
dente, in Orvieto. E. Long. 12. 40. Lat. 42. 40.
AQUAMBOE, one of Sie greateft monarchies on
the coaft of Guinea in Africa, ftretching twenty miles
in breadth, and ten times that fpace in length from
eaft to weft. According to Bofman, the coaft is divi¬
ded into a great number of petty royalties, but all of
them fubjeA to the king of Aquamboe, who indiferi-
minately ufes an unlimited authority over them and
the meaneft of his fubjeAs. His defpotifm gave rife
to a proverbial faying, that “ there are only two ranks
of men at Aquamboe; the royal family, and flaves.,,
The natives of this country are haughty, turbulent,
and warlike ; and their power is formidable to all the
neighbouring nations. They grievoufly infeft fuch na¬
tions as are tributaries to the king of Aquamboe, en¬
tering their territories by troops, carrying off from
the inhabitants whatever they think proper; nor do
they ever meet with any oppofition from the inhabi¬
tants, as they are fenfible the king would not fail to
refent this as an indignity offered to him.
AQUARIANS, Chriftians in the primitive church
who confecrated water in the eucharift, inftead of wine.
This they did under pretence of abftinence and tempe¬
rance ; or, becaufe they thought it univerfally unlaw¬
ful to eat flefti, or drink wine. Epiphanius calls them
Encratites, from their abftinence; St Auftin, Aqua¬
rians, from their ufe of water; and Theodoret, who
fays they fprang from Tatian, Hydroparajiata, becaufe
they offered water inftead of wine.
Befides thefe, there was another fort of Aquarians,
who did not rejeA the ufe of wine as unlawful; for they
adminiftered the eucharift in wine at evening fervice:
but, in their morning affemblies, they ufed water, for
fear the fmell of wine ftiould difeover them to the hea¬
thens.
AQUARIUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation which
makes the eleventh fign in the zodiac, marked thus
AQUARTIA, in botany, a genus of the tetran-
dria monogynia clafs. There is only one fpecies, called
aculeata, a native of Europe.
AQUATIC, in natural hiftory, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch things as live or grow in the water.
AQUAVIVA, a town of the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Barri.
AQUEDUCT. See Aquaduct.
AQUEOUS,
Aqueous
Aquilegia,
\
l
A U [ 547 ] A U
AQUEOUS, in a general fenfe, fomething parta- be cutoff as foon as the flowers are pad. In order to Aquik'm
king of the nature of water, or that abounds with it. keep up a fucceffion of good flowers, frefh feeds fhould U.
1 Aqueous Humour. See Anatomy, n° 406, q. be fown every year ; and it will likewife be -advanta- q
AQUILA, in ornithology, a fynonime of the fal- geous to exchange the feeds with fome brought from
co, or eagle. See Falco. a diflant place.
Aquila, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the nor- , Medicinal Ufes. Columbine has been looked upon
them hemifphere. as aperient; and was formerly in great efteem among
Aquila, a fine large city of Italy, and the capital the common people for throwing out the fmall-pox
of Abruzzo, feated on a hill, on the banks of the ri- and meafles. A diftilled water, medicated vinegar,
ver Pefcara, near its fource. It has an ancient caftle, and conferve, were prepared from the flowers; but
and is a bifhop's fee immediately under the pope. The they have long given place to medicines of greater ef-
land about it produces great plenty of faffron. It was ficacy.
very near being all deftroyed by an earthquake, in Fe- AQUILEIA, a large city of the Carni, or Veneti,
bruary 1703. The firft fhock was fo terrible, that and a noble Roman colony, which was led thither be-
the inhabitants abandoned the city; but returning to tween the firft and fecond Macedonian wars, (Livy),
vefpers, it being Candlemas-day, the fhocks followed It is wafhed by two rivers, the Natifo and Turrus,
one another with fuch violence, that twenty-four thou- (Pliny). The reafon of leading this colony was, in
fand people perifhed, and great numbers were wounded; order to be a bulwark againft the neighbouring bar-
eight hundred were killed in one fingle church : many barians. The colony was afterwards increafed with
other churches, monafteries, noble buildings, and the fifteen hundred families by a decree of the fenate,
town-houfe, were either fwallowed up or overturned, (Livy) ; from which it became a very famous port-
together with the greater part of the city and its walls. town, (Herodian). The emperor Julian aferibes the
Aquila Hands thirty miles from the fea, and about fix- appellation to the augury of an eagle at the time oF
teen from the confines of the Pope’s dominions. E. long, building it; but Ifaac Vollius on Mela, to the great
14. 20. N. Lat. 42. 20. plenty of water, as if the town were called Aquilegia.
AQUILEGlA, columbine, a genus of the pen- The harbour, at the mouth of the Natifo, is diftant
tagynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of fixty ftadia from the city; fo that fhips of burden are
plants. towed up the river, (Strabo). It is flill called Aquileia,
Species. 1. The vulgaris or wild columbine, with but greatly fallen from its former fplendor. E. Long,
blue flowers, is found growing wild in fome woods of 15. 32. Lat. 45. 4J.
England. 2. The alpina, with long oval flowers, AQUIL1CIUM, or Aquiliciana, in Roman an-
grows naturally near Ingleborough-hill in Yorkfhire. tiquity, facrifices performed in times of exceffive-
The flowers are much larger than thofe of the garden drought, to obtain rain of the gods,
columbine. 3. The inverfa, or garden columbine. Of AQUILINE, fomething belonging to orrefem-
this there are great varieties, not only in the colour and bling an eagle: Thus, an aquiline nofe is one bent
fullnefs of their flowers, but alfo in their form. Thefe fomewhat like an eagle’s beak.
are commonly called rofe columbines ; the colours are AQUINAS (StThomas), ftyled the Angelical Doc-
chefnut, blue, red, and white, and fome are finely va- tor, was of the ancient and noble family of the count®
riegated with two colours. There are others with of Aquino, defeended from the kings of Sicily and
fharp-pointed petals in form of a ftar, and of thefe Arragon; and was born in the caftle of Aquino, in
there are fingle and double flowers of the fame colours the Terra di Lavora in Italy, in the year 1224 or
with the former. 4. The canadenfis, or Canada co- 1225'. He entered into the order of the Dominicans;.
lumbine, flowers almoft a month before the other forts, and, after having taught fchool-divinity in moft of the
and therefore is preferved in the gardens of the curious, univerfities of Italy, at laft fettled at Naples : where
though not at all remarkable for its beauty. There is he fpent the reft of his life in ftudy, in reading of lee-
a variety of this with taller flower-ftems. tures, and in afts of piety ; and was fo far from the
Culture. Thefe plants are all propagated by fowing views of ambition or profit, that he refufed the arch-
the feeds, or parting the old roots; but the former me- biftioprick of that city, when it was offered him by
thod is chiefly pra&ifed, for the old roots are very apt Pope Clement IV. He died in 1274, leaving an ama-
to degenerate. The feeds ftiould be fown in a nurfery- zing number of writings, which were printed at Ve-
bedin Auguft or September; for thofe which are kept nice in 17 vols folio, in the year 1490. He was ca-
till the fprmg feldom grow well, or at leaft remain in lionized by Pope John XXII. in the year 1323 ; and
the ground a whole year. The fpring following the Pius V. who was of the fame order with him, gave
plants will appear above ground, and fliould be kept him, in 1567, the title of the Fifth Dodlor of the
clear of weeds; and if the feafon proves dry, they church, and appointed his feftival to be kept with the
muft be watered. In the middle or latter end of May, fame folemnity as thofe of the other four doctors. His
they will be ftrong enough to tranfplant; for which authority has always been of great importance in the
purpofe, fome beds of good undunged earth ftiould be fchools of the Roman Catholics. Lord Herbert, in
prepared, planting them therein at eight or nine inches his Life of Henry VIII. tells us, that one of the prin-
diftance from each other. In the following autumn, by cipal reafons which induced that king to write againft
which time the plants will have acquired ftrength e- Luther, was, that the latter had fpoken contemptuouf-
nough to flower the year following, the roots fliould be ly of Aquinas.
carefully taken up and planted in the borders of the AQUINO (Philip d’), in Latin Aquinas or Aquini-
flower-garden : but where their roots are defigned to us, having turned from Judaifm, had a penfion from the
be preferved in perfection, all the flower-ftalks muft clergy of France ; and acquired much reputation by hie
knowledge
A R A [ 548 1 A R A
Aquino knowledge of the Hebrew language, which he taught
Arabia at •^ar^s> *n t^ie reign °f Lewis XIII. and by tlie
  L_ books he publifhed, among which is his Difihnarium
Hebrxo-ChalcLro-Thalmudico-Rabbinicum. His grand-
fon, Anthony D’Anquin, was firft phyfician to Lewis
XIV.
Aquino, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and Terra di Lavora ; a biihop’s fee, but ruined
by the emperor Conrade ; and now confifts of about
35 houfes. It was the birth-place of the poet Juve¬
nal, and Thomas Aquinas. E. Long. 14, 30. N. Lat.
4T» 32*
ARA, in aftronomy, a fouthern Conflellation, con¬
taining eight ftars.
ARABIA, a country of Afia, famous from the re-
moteft antiquity for the independency of its inhabi¬
tants during the vaft conquefts of the Affyrians, Per-
fians, Greeks, and Romans; and, in latter times, for
being the centre of an empire equal, if not fuperior, in
* extent to any that ever exifted.
■Vyhence This country, or at leaft the greateft part of it, was
named. jn eav]jfcft ages called rfrabah: concerning the ety¬
mology of which word there are various conjeftures ;
. but the moft probable is, that it is derived from the
Hebrew word mn, fignifying, the weft, mixture, or
traffic. In its largeft extent, Arabia lies between the
12th and 35th degrees of N. Lat. and the 36th and 6Ist
of E. Long. Its greateft length from north to fouth
a _ is about 1 too miles, and its breadth from eaft to welt
Boundaries, between 1300 and 1400. It is bounded on the weft
by Paleftine, port of Syria, the ifthmus of Suez, and
the Red fea, called by the Arabs the fea Al Kolzom ;
on the eaft by the Euphrates, the Perfian gulf, and bay
of Ormus ; on the north by part of Syria, Diyar-Becr,
Irak, and Khuzeftan; and on the fouth by the llraits
of Babel Mandel, and the Indian ocean. It grows nar¬
rower as we approach the frontiers of Syria and Diyar-
Beer; and, by reafon of the proximity of the Euphra¬
tes to the Mediterranean, may be looked upon as a pe-
ninfiila, and that one of the largeft in the whole world.
—Arabia Proper, however, is much narrower, including
little more than what was comprehended by the an¬
cients under the name of Arabia Felix, which we fhall
prefently deferibe ; and here the Arabs have been fet-
3 tied almoft iince the flood.
Divifion. The firft divifion of the peninfula of Arabia was in¬
to Arahah and Kettem, as we learn from Scripture; the
firft of which implies the weft, and the other the eaft,
denoting the fituation of the two countries.—Ptolemy
was. the firft who divided the peninfula we fpeak of in¬
to three parts, Arabia Petraea, Arabia Deferta, and A-
rabia Felix, which divifion has generally prevailed fince
his time.
Arabia Petrcea, on the eaft, was bounded by Syria
and Arabia Deferta ; on the weft by Egypt, or
rather the Ifthmus of Suez which feparates Afia from
Africa, and the Heroopolitan gulph or weftern arm
of the Red Sea. On the north it was bounded by Pa¬
leftine, the lake Afphaltites, and Coelofyria ; and on
the fouth by Arabia Felix. This traft did not admit
of much cultivation, the greateft part being covered
with dry fands, or riling into rocks, interfperfed here
and there with fome fruitful fpots. Its metropolis was
Petra, which by the Syrians was ftiled Rakam, and in
Scripture Joktheel. Several other cities of Arabia Pe-
trtea are mentioned by Ptolemy; but as it is very im- Arabia.'®
probable fuch a barren country Ihould abound with large ~ ;
cities, we muft look upon them as inconfiderable places.
Arabia Deferta was bounded on the north by the
Euphrates, which feparated it from Mefopotamia ; on
the weft by Syria, Judaea, and Arabia Petraea; on the
eaft, by a ridge of mountains which feparated it from
Babylonia and Chaldxa ; on the fout-h, by Arabia Felix,
from which it was likewife feparated by feveral ridges
of hills. By far the greateft part of this kingdom, a*
well as the former, was a lonefome defart, diverfified
only with plains covered with fand, or mountains con¬
futing of naked rocks and precipices ; nor were they
ever, unlefs fometimes at the equinoxes, refrefhed with
rain. The few vegetables which they produced were
ftinted by a perpetual drought, and the nourilhment af¬
forded them by the nodlumal dews was greatly impair¬
ed by the heat of the fun in the day-time. Through¬
out the defarts were found huge mountains of fand,
formed by the violence of the winds that continually
blew over them in the day-time, though they ceafed in
the night. Wells and fountains were for the moft part
exceedingly rare ; however, notwithftanding the fteri-
lity of thefe countries, the vaft plains of fand juft now
mentioned were interfperfed with fruitful fpots, which
appeared here and there like fo many iflands in the
midft of the ocean. Thefe being rendered extremely
delightful by their verdure, and the more fo by the
neighbourhood of thofe frightful defarts, the Arabs en¬
camped upon them ; and having confumed every thing
they found upon one, removed to another, as is the cu-
ftom of their defeendants the Bedoweens at this day.
Thefe fruitful fpots were likewife frequent in Libya,
and by the Egyptians called auafes, or abafes, as we
learn from Strabo. The barren part of Arabia Felix,
bordering upon the Red Sea, was in like manner in¬
terfperfed with abafes ; which probably gave the name
of Abafeni to a nation fettled there, and in the adja¬
cent fertile region. A body of thefe, it is faid, crofs-
ing the ftraits of Babel-Mandel, paffed into Ethiopia,
which from them received the name of Abaffia. From
this account of Arabia Deferta, we may reafonably
conclude, that the towns faid by Ptolemy to have been
fituated in it were places of very little confequence.
Arabia Felix was bounded on the north by the two
kingdoms juft deferibed ; on the fouth, by the Red fea;
on the eaft and weft, by part of that fea, together with
the Arabian and Perfian gulfs. In Strabo’s time, it
was was divided into five provinces, by the oriental hi-
ftorians called Taman, Hejaz, Tehlma, Najd, and Ta¬
man/a ; for a particular defeription of which, fee thofe
articles. In this diftridf ftood feveral towns, particu¬
larly Nyfa, famous for being the birth-place of Bacchus;
and Mufa, or Muza, a celebrated emporium or har¬
bour, where the Arabian merchants reforted with their
frankincenfe, fpices, and perfumes. Thefe two were
fituated in the province of Yaman. In that of Hejaz
ftood the ftill more famous cities of Mecca and Medina;
alfo Thaifa or Taifa, Gjudda or Jodda, Yanbo or A1
Yanbo, and Madian, the Modiana of Ptolemy, and the
Midian or Madian of Scripture. 4
At what time the abovementioned kingdoms were When peo-
firft peopled we have no certain accounts. The moft P^*
confiderable nations inhabiting Arabia Petraea, in the
early ages, were the Ilhmaelites, the Nabatei or Naba-
tlieans,
A R A
[ 549 ]
A R A
theans, the Cedrsei or Kedareni, and the Agareni or with a three years drought; and therefore fent Kail Arabia.
Hagareni; and of thefe the Ilhmaelites were the moft Ebn Ithar, and Morthed Ebn Saad, with 70 other"  
powerful, if they did not comprehend all the reft; and principal men to Mecca, then in the hands of the tribe
if the Hagareni were not the fame people with them, of Amalek, whofe prince was Moawiyah Ebn Beer, to
they muft at leaft have been nearly related. Kimchi, an obtain of God fome rain. Kail having begged of God
oriental hiftorian, infinuates, that they were originally that he would fend rain to the people of Ad, three
the children of Hagar by an Arab, after ftie had left clouds appeared, a white, a red, and a black one; and
Abraham. In after ages, the names of all the nations ft- a voice from heaven ordered him to chufe which he
tuated here were abforbed in that of Saracens, by which would. Kail failed not to make choice of the laft,
the Iftimaelites are diftinguilhed in the Jerufalem Tar- thinking it would be laden with moft rain ; but when
gum. A nation alfo is mentioned by Pliny, called this cloud came over them, it proved to be fraught
raceni, and Sarraceni by Ptolemy and Diofcorides,which with the Divine vengeance, and a tempeft broke forth
was probably no other than the Iftimaelites above men- from it which deftroyed them all.’’
tioned. In Arabia Deferta feveral tribes refided, all of The prefent Arabs, according to their own hifto- Arabs from
whom were very obfeure, except the Aifitse and Agraei. rians, are fprung from Kahtan, the fame with Joktan, whom de-
the fon of Eber; and Adnan, defeended in a direft line fcen(led-
from Ilhmael the fon of Abraham. The former of
thefe they call the genuine or pure Arabs, and the lat¬
ter the naturalized or infttitious Arabs.
Joktan the fon of Eber had 13 fons, who fome time
after the confufion of languages fettled in Arabia, ex-
Melha t
The former are fuppofed by Bochart to have been Job’s
countrymen, and the latter to have been the fame with
the Hagareni, Arraceni, or Sarraceni, above mentioned.
Arabia Felix was inhabited by many different tribes;
the moft remarkable of which were the Sabasi, Ger-
raei, Minaei or Minnsei, Atramitae, Maranitas, Cata-
bani, Afcitar, Homeritae, Sapphoritae, Omanitae, Sa-
raceni, Nabathsei, Thamydeni, and Bnizomenas; but
neither their limits nor fituation can now be determined
with any manner of precifion.
Divifion of According to the Oriental hiftorians, the Arabs are
he Arabs. t0 he divided into two claffes ; viz. the old lojl Ara¬
bians, and the prefent. The moft famous tribes among
the former were thofe of Ad, Thamud, Tafm, Jades,
Jorham, Amalek, Amtem, Halbem, Abil, and Bar.
Concerning thefe, though now entirely loft, and fwal-
lowed up among other tribes, there are fome remark¬
able traditions, of which the following may ferve as a
fpecimen.
Irradilion
tending themfelves from Meftfa to Sephar, a mountain¬
ous place in the fouth-eaftern part of that peninfula.
According to the Arabian hiftorians, he had 31 fons,
all of whom left Arabia and went into India, except
two, viz. Yayab and Jorham; the former of whom, they
fay, gave the name both to their country and language.
Ifhnjael and his mother Hagar having been difmiffed
by Abraham, entered into the wildernefs of Paran, as
related in the book of Genefis. The facred hiftorian
informs us, that during his refidence in the wildernefs
he married an Egyptian ; and the Arabian writers fay
that he alfo took to wife the daughter of Modad king
of Hejaz, lineally defeended from Jorham the founder
The tribe of Ad deduced their origin from Ad the of that kingdom. By the Egyptian, he was probably
he tribe'o’f ^on -^ws’ or Uz, the fon of Aram, the fon of Shem,
who, after the confufion of tongues, fettled in A1 Ab-
kaf, or the winding fands in the province of Hadra-
mant, on the confines of Yaman, where his pofterity
greatly multiplied. Their firft king was Sheddad, the
fon of Ad, who built a ftately palace and made a de¬
lightful garden in the defarts of Aden, which he defign-
ed as an imitation of the celeftial paradife. This gar¬
den he called Irem: and when it was finifhed, he fet out
with a great retinue to take a view of it; but, having
fome thoughts of affuming divine honours, he was de¬
ftroyed by a tempeft from heaven, while yet a day’s
journey from his paradife. The garden and palace,
however, were preferred, though invifible, as a monu¬
ment of divine vengeance.
After the death of Sheddad, the kingdom of Ad
was governed by a long feries of princes, concerning
whom many fables are related by the eaftern writers.
The conclufion of their hiftory, however, is as follows.
“ The Adites, in procefs of time falling from the
worfhip of the true God, into idolatry, God fent the
prophet Hud, fuppofed to be the fame with Heber, to
preach to and reclaim them. But they refufing to ac-
the father of the Scenite or wild Arabs; and having
allied himfelf to the Jorhamites, he is confidered by
the Arabians as the father of the greateft part of their
nation. s
Kahtan, or Joktan, is faid to have firft reigned, and Joktan the
worn a diadem in Yaman ; but the particulars of his kinS’
reign we no where learn. He was fucceeded by Yarab
already mentioned, he by Yaftiab, and Yaftrab by Abd
Shems. He was fuccefsful in his expeditions againft
his enemies, carried off great fpoils, and took many 9
of them prifoners. He is faid to have built the city Refervoir of
of Saba or Mareb, and above it a ftupenduous mound Saba-
or building which formed a vaft refervoir, containing
all the water that came down from the mountains. By
means of this refervoir the kings of Yaman not only
fupplied the inhabitants of Saba and their lands with
water, but likewife kept the territories they had fubdued
in greater awe, as by cutting off their communication
with it they could at any time greatly diftrefs them.
Abd Shems was fucceeded by his fon Hamyar, from
whom the tribe of Hamyar is faid to take its name ;
and he by a feries of 17 kings, concerning whom we
have no remarkable particular, except that from one of
them called-the continent of Africa took its
knowledge his million or to obey him, God fent an hot
and fuffocating wind, which blew feven nights and eight name. The laft of thefe was fucceeded by a daughter Balkis flip-
days, and, entering at their noftrils, palled thro’ their named Balkis or Belkis, whom fome will have to be pofed to be
, entering at their noitnls, pal
bodies, and deftroyed them all, a very few only except¬
ed, who had liftened to Hud, and retired with him to
another place.” Others relate, “ that, before this ter¬
rible cataftrophe, they had been previoully chaftifed
Vol. I.
the queen of Sheba who paid a vifit to Solomon. Af- ‘be <Iueen of
ter Balkis came Malea, furnamed Najherolneam on ac- cba’
count of his magnificence and liberality. Having had
bad fuccefs in an expedition, where his army was over-
Z z z whelmed
A R A [ 550 ] A R A
Arabia, whelmed by torrents of fand, he caufed abrafen ftatue
  t0 be ere£ted with the following infcription in the old
Hamyaritic charadler. “ There is no paffage behind
me, no moving farther; the fon of Sharhabil.', He was
11 fucceeded by Shamar Yaraafh, fo called on account of
Samarcand, his being affefted with a conftant tremor. To this
by whom prince the city of Samarcand is faid to owe its exiftence.
U11* After Shamar Yaraafli we have a lift of 15 kings, of
whom nothing worth mentioning is recorded, except
of one Abu Carb Afaad, who adorned the Caaba or
temple of Mecca with tapeftry, and firft introduced
Judaifm among the Hamyarites. He was put to death
by his fubjefts, probably on account of religion. The
laft of the 15 kings above-mentioned was called Abra-
hah, who was fucceeded by his fon Sabban. He had
that famous fword called Samfanah, which afterwards
came into the hands of the Khalif A1 Rafhid. This
prince was fucceeded by Dhu Shanater, who had fix
fingers on each hand. He was abandoned to unnatu-
It ral luft, and dethroned for abufing fome of the nobleft
Yeufef, a youths in the kingdom. To him iucceeded Yufcf, who
bloody per- lived about 70 years before Mahomet. He perfecutcd
ecu or. tjjofe who would not turn Jews, putting them to
death by various tortures, the moft common of which
was throwing them into a glowing pit of fire ; whence
he had the appellation of the lord of the pit. This per-
fecution is taken notice of in the Koran. The laft of
the Hamyaritic monarchs was Dhu Jadan, according
to Abulfeda; but, according to others, the Yufef juft
mentioned, who was furnamed Dhu No’was on account
of his flowing curls, and was the laft who reigned in
an uninterrupted fucceffion. He was a bigotted Jew,
13 as already mentioned; and treated his fubjefts with fuch
His fubjefts barbarity, that they were obliged to a Ik the afllftance
kin "of^e^>aas or Elefbaan, king of Ethiopia, againft him.
thiopia who E^hu Nowas, not being able to make head againft the
dethrones Ethiopians, was at laft driven to fuch extremity, that
Yufef. he forced his horfe into the fea, and loft both his life
14 and crown together.
Chriftianre- The king of Ethiopia, having thus become mafter of
^onena- Yaman, eftablilhed there the Chriftian religion, and
Arabia.*11 upon the throne one Abryat an Ethiopian. He
was fucceeded by Abraha-Ebn-Al-Sabah, furnamed
the fit-no fed, from a wound he had formerly received
iu it. He was likewife ftiled lord of the elephant, from
a ftory too ridiculous to deferve notice. He was fuc¬
ceeded by two other Ethiopian princes; but at laft Seif
Ebn Dhu Yazan, of the old royal family of Hamyar,
having obtained afliftance from the king of Perfia which
is had been denied him by the emperor Heraclius, reco-
Ithiopians vered his throne, and drove out the Ethiopians ; but
driven out. was hijnfcif f]a;n by f0me of them who were left be¬
hind. The fucceeding princes were appointed by the
1(; Perfians, till Yaman fell into the hands of Mahomet.
Terrible in- We have already taken notice of the vaft mound or
undanon by refervoir made by Abd Shems, from which he fupplied
in6 down of t^le c,ty w'fh water. This building flood like
the refervoir a mountain above the city, and was by the Sabseans
®f Saba. efteemed fo ftrongr that they were under no fear of its
ever failing. The water rofe almoft to the height of
20 fathoms ; and was kept in on every fide by a work
fo folid, that many of the inhabitants had their houles
upon it. About the time of Alexander the Great,
however, a terrible inundation happened. According
to the Arabian hiftorians, God being difpleafed at the
pride and infolence of the inhabitants of this city, re- Ar*bia.
folved to humble them ; and for this purpofe fent a " “ 1
mighty flood, which broke down the mound by night,
while the inhabitants were afleep, and carried away the
whole city with the neighbouring towns and people.
This inundation is ftyled in the Koran the inundation
of Ai-Hareni; and occafioned fo terrible a deftru&ion,
that from thence it became a proverbial faying to ex-
prefs a total difperfion, “ that they were gone and Mat¬
tered like Saba.”—By this accident no lefs than eight
tribes were forced to remove their habitations, fome of
which gave rife to the kindoms of Hira and Ghaflan. >7
The kingdom of Hira was founded by Malec, a de- I
feendant of Cahlan the brother of Hamyar ; but after dom 0f'yifjij
three defeents, the throne came by marriage to the ra. i
Lakhmians, who were defeendants of Lakhm the fon
of Amru, the fon of Abd Ems. Thefe princes, whofe
general name was Mondar, preferred their dominion,
notwithftanding fome fmall interruption from the Per¬
fians, till the khalifat of Abubecr, when A1 Mondar
Maghrur, the laft of them, loft his life and crown by
the arms of Khaled-Ebn-Al-Walid. This kingdom
continued 622 years and eight months, according to
Ahmed Ebn Yufef. Its princes were under the pro-
te&ion of the kings of Perfia, and were their lieute¬
nants over the Arabs of Irak, as the kings of Ghaffan
were for the Roman emperors over thofe of Syria. 18
The kingdom of Ghaffan was founded by the tribe of Ghaflan. i
of Azd, who, according to fome, fettling in Syria Da-
mafeena, near a water called Ghaffan, from thence took
their name ; but others fay they went under this ap¬
pellation before they left Yaman. Having driven out
theDajaamian Arabs, who before poffeffcd the country,
they made themfelves mafters of a confiderable terri¬
tory. Here they maintained themfelves, according to
fome 400, according to others 600, and according to
Abulfeda 613 years, when the laft of their kings fub-
mitted to the khalif Omar, and embraced the Maho¬
metan religion; but receiving afterwards a difguft, foon
returned to Chriftianity, and took refuge in Conftanti-
nople. ,,
The kingdom of Hejaz was founded by Jorham the Of Hejaz.
fon of Kahtan, where princes of his line reigned till
the time of lihmael, who married the daughter of Mo-
dad one of thofe princes. Some authors relate that
Kidar, one of Ilhmael’s fons, had the crown refigned
to him by his uncles the Jorhamites: but, according to
others, the defeendants of Iflimael expelled that tribe ;
who, retiring to Johainah, were after various adventures
deftroyed by an inundation. After the expulfion of
the Jorhamites, the government of Hejaz feems not to
have continued long in the hands of one prince, but to
have been divided among the heads of tribes, almoft
in the fame manner as the Arabs of the defert are go- 10 >
verned at this day. The tribe of Khozaab, after the Tribe of
abovementioned inundation of Saba, fled into the king- Khozaab a.
dom of Htjaz, and fettled themfelves in a valley cal- fi|mes
led Marri near Mecca. Here they founded an arif- |f Mecca/
tocracy, affuming to themfelves both the government
of the city of Mecca, and the cuftody of the Caaba or
temple there. They continued mafters of this city and
territory, as well as prefidents of the Caaba, for many
ages; till at length one Kofa, of the tribe of Koreifh,
circumvented Abu Gabfhan, a weak and filly man, of
whom, while in a druken humour, he bought the keys of
" - —_ —
A R A [ 55i ] A R A
Arabia, the temple for a bottle of wine; but when Abu Gablhan
if ^ grew cool, and refle&ed on his imprudence, he fufficient-
' Folly of A- ly repented of what he had done; whence the Arabian
i|bu Gablhan. proverbs, “ More vexed with late repentance than Abu
Gablhan; More foolifh than Abu Gabfhan,” &c. The
tribe of Khozaab endeavoured afterwards to give fome
difturbance to the Koreifh in the poffeffion of the keys
of the Caaba, which furnilhed the latter with a pretence
for depriving them of the civil government of Mecca.
After the Koreifh had poffeffed themfelves of this city,
they kept up the fame form of government which had
prevailed there before. Befides thefe kingdoms there
were many others of leffer note, of which we find no¬
thing remarkable.
Thus we have briefly mentioned the moft memorable
events recorded by the Arabian hiftorians previous to
the time of Mahomet; but, before entering upon an
account of that famous impoftor and the kingdom foun¬
ded by him, it will be proper to take notice of feveral
circumftances in different parts of the world, which at
that time concurred to facilitate Mahomet’s fcheme, and
without which, in all probability, he would never have
a* been able to accoraplilh it.
Caufes of ^ The firft: and great caufe of Mahomet’s fuccefs in
foccefs™61 * ProPagating hi3 infamous impofture, was the grofs cor¬
ruption and fuperllition with which the Chriflian reli¬
gion was at that time obfcured in all parts of the
world. Had the pure doftrines of Chriftianity been
then as publicly known, as the ridiculous fopperies
which deformed the Eaftern and Weftern churches,
Mahometanifm could never have got a hearing. But,
along with the true religion, mankind feemed alfo to
have loft the ufe of their rational faculties, fo that they
were capable of fwallowing the groffeft abfurdities;
fuch as it now appears almoft incredible that any of the
human race could receive as truths. Another caufe was,
the manner of government and way of life among the
Arabs. Divided into fmall independent tribes, they
never were capable of a firm union but by fuperftition;
and had Mahomet attempted their conqueft in any o-
ther way, it was impoflible he could have fucceeded.
. As there were alfo among them Jews, Pagans, and Chri-
ftians of all forts, this impoftor, by adopting fomething
out of every religion then extant, cunningly recom¬
mended himfelf to the profeffors of every one of them.
Add to all this, that, by allowing of polygamy, and
fetting forth his paradife as confifting in the enjoyment
of women, he adapted himfelf to the corrupt difpofi-
tions of mankind in general.
If the did:rafted ftate of religion favoured the de-
figns of Mahomet on the one hand, the weaknefs of
the Grecian and Perfian monarchies affifted him no lefs
powerfully on the other. Had thofe once formidable
empires been in their vigour, either of them would have
been fufficient to crulh Mahometanifm in its birth; but
both of them were then ftrangely reduced. The Ro¬
man empire had continued to decline after the time of
Conftantine; the weftern parts of it were then entirely
over-run by the Goths and other barbarous nations;
and the eaftern, or Greek empire, was fo much redu¬
ced by the Huns on one hand, and the Perfians on the
other, as to be incapable of making any great effort.
The Perfian monarchy itfelf was in little better con¬
dition. It is true, they ravaged the dominions of the
Greeks, and often overcame them in the field; but
that was more owing to the weaknefs of the Grecian
empire, than to the ftrength of the Perfians; and fo
effectually did the inteftine broils, which arofe chiefly on
account of religion, weaken the kingdom of Perfia, that
the moft confiderable part of it was annexed by the
khalif Omar to his dominions.
As the Greeks and Perfians were then in a languilh-
ing fituation, fo the Arabs were ftrong and flourilhing.
Their country had been peopled at the expence of the
Grecian empire, whence the violent proceedings of the
different religious feCtaries forced many to take refuge
in Arabia. The Arabs were not only a populous na¬
tion, but unacquainted with the luxuries and delicacies
of the Greeks and Perfians. They were inured to hard-
Ihips of all kinds, and confequently much better fitted
than their effeminate neighbours to endure the fatigues
of war, as the event very fully verified.
Mahomet was born in the year of Chrift 578. Ac- Mahomet’s
cording to the Eaftern hiftorians, he was defcended in birth, de-
a direft line from Iflimael. Kedar, or, as the Arabians fcent, &c.
call him, Kiddr, after his father Ilhmael’s death, com¬
municated his name to the greateft part of Arabia Pe-
traea. He was fucceeded in his authority and poffef-
fions by his fan Hamal; Hamal by Nabet, and Nabet
by Salaman. After Salaman came A1 Homeifa, then
Al Yafa, whofe fon Odad was fucceeded by Odd the ,4
father of Adnan. Counting ten generations forward in Fehr head
the fame line, we come at laft to Fehr, who feems to °f the K-0'
have diftinguilhed himfelf by fome glorious aftions, as rei h*
he was denominated Koreijh, on account of his bravery.
He is to be confidered as the root of the politeft and
moft celebrated tribe of the Arabs. He had three fons,
Caleb, Mohareb, and Al Hareth. From Mohareb the
Banu Mohareb, denominated likewife Sheibdn, took
their origin; from Al Hareth, the Banu Al Kholoj;
and from Galeb, in a direcl line, the impoftor Mahomet.
Caleb was the father of Lowa; and he of Caab, whofe
fon Morrah had for his immediate defcendant Kc-
lab the father of Kofa. It was this Kofa who aggran¬
dized the tribe of the Koreifh, by purchafing the keys
of the Caaba from Abu Gabfhan, as we have already
related. By this he not only aggrandized his tribe, but
became the prince of it himfelf. He was fucceeded
by his fecond fon Abd Menaf, to whom the prophetic
light, which is faid to have manifefted itfelf in his face,
gave the right of primogeniture. Abd Menaf was 1S
fucceeded by his fon Amni, furnamed Hajhem, or one Halhein’s
that broke bread, on account of his Angular generofity generofity.
during a famine at Mecca. Having amaffed great fums
of money, he took a journey into Syria, where he pur-
chafed a vaft quantity of meal, which he made into
cakes and divided with his own hands amongft the peo¬
ple of Mecca. He likewife killed a prodigious number
of camels, with which he fed them, and relieved them
in the time of their diftrefs : and finding that the foil
about Mecca was fo barren as to produce no fruits
but what are common in the defarts, and confequently
no corn or grain, which the Meccans are obliged to
bring from other places, he appointed two caravans to
fet out yearly for that purpofe, the one in fummer, and
the other in winter; by means of which, the city was
amply fupplied with provifions of all kinds. The pro-
vifions brought by them were diftributed twice a-year;
and Halhem, by his prudent conduct, raifed the glory
of his people to the bigheft pitch; infomuch, that all
Z z z 2 the
A R A
[ 552 ]
A R A
the neighbouring great men, and heads of tribes made
“ their court to him. Nay, fo great veneration is the
memory of HaJhem held in by the Arabs, that from
him the family of Mahomet among them are called
Hujhemites ; and he who prefides over Mecca and Me¬
dina, who mull always be of the race of Mahomet, has
to this day the title of the “ Chief or Prince of the
Hafhemites.”
Halhem died at Gaza in Syria, and was fucceeded by
his fon Abdal Motalleb or Mateleb. He is faid to have
been extremely affable and eafy of accefs, as well as juft
near Mecca, he there opened the fecret of his miflion
to Khadijah; acquainting her that the angel Gabriel
had juft appeared to him, and told him that he was
appointed the Apoftle of God. He alfo repeated to
her a paffage which he faid had been revealed to him
by the miniftry of the angel, with an account of many
prodigies which happened at his birth*. This pretend- • See
ed revelation was received by Khadijah with the great- mel'
eft joy; and in a kind of ecftafy {he immediately com¬
municated the good news to her coufin Waraka Ebn
Nawfal, who, being a Chriftian, could write in the He-
and generous to a great degree; fo that, in the beginning brew chara&er, and was pretty well verfed in the Scrip-
iS
Well Zem-
zem difco-
vered by
Abdal Mo¬
talleb.
of the monthRaMadan, he entertained the poor upon the
flat roof of his houfe, and afterwards fupplied the fowls
of the air and wild beafts of the field with provifions
of various kinds which he ordered his fervants to leave
upon the fummits of the neighbouring mountains. The
well which God fhewed to Hagar in the wildernefs is
faid to have been miraculoufly difcovered to Abdal Mo-
coufin, &c^J
tures both of the Old and New Teftament. He very Converts his#
readily came into her opinion, fwore by God that what
fhe faid was true, and that “ Mahomet was the great
prophet foretold in the law by Mofes the fon of Am-
ram.”
Mahomet finding his firft ftep fo fuccefsful, as Wa¬
raka was a very confiderable perfon, began to entertain
talleb, about 500 years after it had been filled up by great hopes of accoinplifhing his defign. He next con-
Amru prince of the Jorhamites. This well is by the
Arabs called 7,emzem; which fome derive from her call¬
ing to Ifhmael, when fhe fpied it, in the Egyptian
tongue, Zew, Zew, i. e. Stay, Stay; though others
afcribe it to a different origin. The water of this well,
which is on the eaft-fide of the Caaba, and covered with
a fmall building and cupola, is highly reverenced; be¬
ing not only drank with particular devotion by the pil
verted his fervant Zeid, to whom he gave his liberty o
the occafion, which afterwards became a rule to his
followers; and then Ali the fon of Abu Taleb, though
at that time only nine or ten years of age. This laft,
however, making no account of the other two, he ufed
to call the JirJi of believers. The next perfon he applied
to was Abu Beer, a man of very confiderable autho¬
rity among the Koreifh. He was eafily gained over,
gnms, but alfo fent in bottles as a great rarity to moft and by his influence feveral others, fo that Mahomet
parts of the Mahometan dominions.
Abdalla, the father of Mahomet, was a younger fon
of Abdal Motalleb; and fo remarkable for his beauty,
that feveral ladies of the tribe of Koreifh fell defperate-
ly in love with him, and are faid to have made the
fame attempt upon him that Potiphar’s wife did upon
Jofeph. In his 24th or 25th year, he married Amena,
the daughter of Waheb, the fon of Abdal Menaf. She
is reprefented as the moft beautiful, prudent, and vir¬
tuous lady of her tribe; and confequently the moft wor¬
thy of fuch an extraordinary perfon as Abdalla. He
died young, and, in his father’s life-time, left his widow
and infant fon in very mean circumftances; his whole
fubftance confifting only of five camels, and one female
Ethiopian flave. Abdal Motalleb was, therefore, obli-
  made his miffion no longer a fecret. To Abu Beer
he gave the name of Al Saddik, or the faithful •witnefs;
becaufe he not only vouched for every thing he faid,
but alfo greatly increafed the number of his followers.
Mahomet likewife complimented him with the title of
Atik, or preferved; intimating thereby that he was cer¬
tainly faved from hell-fire.
Having given out that he was commanded from hea¬
ven to admonifh his near relations, Mahomet dire&ed
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite to it the
fons and defendants of Abdal Motalleb. He intended
to open his mind to them; but Abu Laheb, one of
Mahomet’s uncles, making the company break up be¬
fore the prophet had an opportunity of fpeaking to
them, he was obliged to invite them again the next
ged to take care of his grandfon Mahomet; which he day. Having now propofed the matter, he afked which
not only did during his life, but at his death enjoined
his eldeft fon Abu Taleb to provide for him for the fu-
Mahomet at
firft a mer¬
chant.
ture. Abu Taleb was extremely kind to his nephew,
and inftrutted him in the bufinefs of merchandife; for
which purpofe, he took him into Syria when he was
but 13 years of age, recommending him to Khadijah,
a noble and rich widow, for her factor; in whofe fer-
vice he behaved fo well, that fhe married him, and thus
raifed him to an equality with the richeft in Mecca.
of them would become his wazir, prime minifter,
vicegerent. This was accepted by Ali; upon which
Mahomet faid to him, “ This is my brother, my de¬
puty, and my (khalif) fucceffor, or vicar; therefore 30
fhew yourfelves fubmiffive and obedient to him.” At Rejected by
this fpeech all the company fell a-laughing, telling Abu the Koreifll>
Taleb that he mull now pay obedience and fubmiffion
to his own fon. Notwithftanding this repulfe, how¬
ever, Mahomet was fo far from being difeouraged, that
Though Mahomet had probably formed a defign of he began to preach to the people in public. They
Begins to
broach his
dodtrine.
introducing his new religion pretty early, he did not
think proper to avow it till the 40th year of his age.
The grand article of his faith was, the unity of the di¬
nature, which he pretended was violated by the
heard him with fome patience till he began to upbraid
them with the idolatry, obftinacy, and perverfenefs of
themfelves and their fathers;: ijwhich fo highly provoked
them, that they openly declared themfelves his enemies.
Jews and Chriftians no lefs than by the Pagans; for except fome few who were converted. The prophet was
which reafon, he refolved to make an attempt to refeue
the world from the ignorance and fuperftition which
prevailed at that time. This reformation he intended
fhould begin in his own family; and therefore, having
retired with his houfehold to a cave in Mount Hara,
now prote&ed by the authority of his uncle Abu Ta¬
leb; who, however, was earneftly folicited to perfuade
his nephew to defift, and at laft threatened with an
open rupture in cafe he could not prevail on him fo to
do. This had fuch an effedl upon Abu Taleb, that he
advifed
A R A [ 5SZ I' A R A
Arabia.
rlis follow-
irs perfccu-
'he Koreifti
iter into a
1 ague a-
i jiinft him.
advifetl his nephew not to pufh the matter any farther;
reprefenting the great danger he and his followers
would otherwife run : but our prophet was not to be
fo intimidated ; and told his uncle plainly, that “ if
they fet againft him the fun on his right hand, and the
moon on his left, he would not abandon his enter-
prize.” Abu Taleb, therefore, finding him fo firmly
refolved, ufed no further arguments, but promifed to
Hand by him to the utmoft of his power: fo that not-
withftanding the people of his tribe came to a determi¬
nation to expel both Mahomet and his followers, he
found a powerful fupport in his uncle againft all their
machinations.
Mahomet now entered upon his apoftolic funftion
with uncommon diligence and application; and foon
gained over his uncle Hamza, and Omar Ebn A1
Khattah, a perfon very much efteemed, and who be¬
fore had been his violent oppofer. Notwithftanding
this fuccefs, however, the Koreiih continued their op-
pofition, and came to a refolution to profcribe all who
had embraced Mahomet’s doctrine. In confequence of
this refolution, the Mojlems, as his followers were cal¬
led, were now treated with fuch feverity, that they found
it no longer fafe to continue in Mecca ; nay, feveral of
them in the fifth year of his million found themfelves
obliged to fly into Ethiopia, where they were kindly
received by the Najafhi or king of that country, who
refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom the Koreiih
fent to demand them. At this refufal they were fo ex-
afperated, that they came to a refolution to fupprefs
effe&ually the new religion which had now made a
confiderable progrefs. In order to this, they entered
into a folemn league or covenant againft the Halher
mites, and the family of Abdal Motalleb in particu¬
lar, engaging themfelves to contraft no marriages with
them, nor to have any manner of communication with
them otherwife ; and, to give this the greater weight,
they reduced it into writing,, and laid it up in the
Caaba. Upon this, the tribe became divided into two
fadtions ; and all the family of Halhem, both Mof-
lems and unbelievers, repaired to Abu Taleb as their
head; except only Abdal Uzza, furnamed Abu La-
heb, the fon of Abdal Motalleb, who, out of hatred
to his nephew and his do&rine, went over to the op-
pofite party. After this the authority of Abu Taleb
was fcarce fufficient to protect Mahomet from the fury
of the Koreiih ; who, according to A1 Jannabi, made
frequent attempts upon him ; fometimes endeavouring
to deftroy him by force, at other times by fecret wiles
and machinations: nay, to compafs their end, he tells
us that they had recourfe to magic, inchantments, and
diabolical illufions. In fhort, they gave him at laft fo
much trouble, that he was obliged to change his habi¬
tation, and feek a new afylum for himfelf and his com¬
panions. This he found in the houfe of one Orkam,
which was advantageoully fituated on a hill called Safa.
Here he converted Orkam’s family, and the houfe was
afterwards held in high eftimation by the Moflems.
The two factions into which the tribe of Koreiih
||| was divided fubfifted for five years, when they were
neir writ- put an end to by a very ftrange accident. Mahomet
| deftroy-told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly
bVa Ihewedhis difapprobation of the covenant entered into
againft them, by fending a worm to eat out every word
of the inftrument except the name of God. With
this particular Abu Taleb immediately acquainted the Arabia.
Koreiih; offering, in cafe it proved falfe, to deliver up
his nephew to them ; but if it Ihould prove true, he
infilled that they ought to lay a fide their animofity,
and annul the league they had made againft the Halhe-
mites. To this they acquiefced; and going to infpedl
the writing, found it to be as Abu Taleb had told
them j the words “ In thy name O God,” being the
only ones which remained. On fo remarkable a proof
of the divine difpleafure, the league was immediately
annulled, and all adls of hoftility between the two par¬
ties ceafed.
After this memorable event Mahomet remained with
his uncle Abu Taleb, who furvived the reconciliation
only about eight months. The fame year alfo died
Khadijah, Mahomet’s wife. Her death, as well as that
of his uncle, proved a great detriment to his affairs ;
for the Koreiih, notwithftanding the former reconcilia- 35
tion, began now to profecute him with more violence Mahomet
than ever. He was therefore obliged to fly for Ihelter to
A1 Tayef; which he chofeon account of its being the Koreiih. °
refidence of his uncle A1 Abbas, whofe prote&ion he
imagined he would be able to fecure. In this, how¬
ever, he found himfelf miftaken; and though he ftaid a
month in the city, during which time he gained over
a few, yet at laft the lower fort of people rofe againft
him and obliged him to return to Mecca. This refu¬
fal, though it greatly difcouraged the new converts,
did not in the leaft abate the zeal of Mahomet : on the
contrary, he continued to preach boldly to the public
affemblies at the pilgrimage to Mecca, exclaiming a-
gainft idolatry, and particularly againft the worlhip of
two idols Allat and A1 Uzza, to which the tribes, e-
fpecially the women of that of Thakif, were very much
addi&ed. By this the prophet was often expofed to
great danger : however, he gained fome converts, and
amongft them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb, of the
Jewilh tribe of Khazraj ; who, on their return home,
failed not to fpeak much in commendation of their
new religion, and exhorted their fellow-citizens imme- 3(j
diately to embrace it. Thefe converts of the tribe of Anfars, wh»
Khazraj are by the Arab writers called Al Anfar, Al
Anfarii, or Atifars; that is, afliftants, favourers, fup-
porters, &c. becaufe they aflifted and fupported the
prophet when he was purfued to the very brink of de-
ftru&ion. They firft met Mahomet on a little hill cal¬
led Al Akaba, where a temple ftood, and where they
firft took an oath to exert themfelves in fupport of their
new apoftle and his religion. An uninterrupted friend-
‘fhip and harmony reigned for a long time amongft the
members of the Jewifh tribes of Khazraj, Koreidha,
and Nadir, whofe great progenitor, fay the Arabs,
was Aaron the fon of Amran. Mahomet therefore
infinuating himfelf into the good graces of the An-
fars, they readily embraced his religion, and proved of
very confiderable fervice. ^
The next remarkable thing recorded of Mahomet is Mahomet’s
the invention of his night-journey to heaven. This he journey t*
probably intended to fupply the place of miracles; heaven"
which, being performed by all other prophets, would no
doubt have been confidered as a capital defeat in Maho¬
met’s million, had they been totally wanting. The
abfurdities contained in that relation, however, are fo
great, that when he related it to his uncle Al Abbas,
and Omm Hana the daughter of Abu Taleb, they en¬
deavoured
A R A
[ S54 ]
A R A
Arabia, deavoured to difluade him from making it public. This thcrto he had propagated his religion by fair means on- Arabia
' advice he was fo far from following, that he related the
whole to Abu Jahl, one of his moft inveterate enemies,
who ridiculed him for it. Nay, he placed this ftory in
fuch a ridiculous light to the Koreifh, that they were on
the point of infulting him ; feveral of his followers
left him; and the whole defign had probably been ruin-
tTof hi« ech had not Abu Beer vouched for his veracity, and
oi ms  .  ..    ^   i
ly; and in feveral paffagesof the Koran, which hepre- '
tended were revealed before this time, he declared, that
his bufinefs was only to preach and admonilh ; that he
had no authority to compel any perfon ; and that
whether they believed or not, was none of his concern,
but belonged folely to God. But no fooner did he find
himfelf enabled, by the alliance abovementioned, to
caufe. declared, that, if Mahomet affirmed it to be true, he refill his enemies, than he gave out that God had ah
firmly believed the whole. This happy incident not
only retrieved the prophet’s credit, but increafed it to
fuch a degree, that he was fure of making his difciples
fwallow whatever he pleafed ; and on this occafion it is
lowed him and his followers to defend themfelves ; and
at length, as his forces increafed, he pretended not
only to have leave to a£l on the defenfive, but to attack
the infidels, deftroy idolatry, and fet up the true re¬
faid by fome that he gave Abu Beer the name of the ligion by the power of thefword. To this he was ex-
faithful nuitnefs, as we have already related.
In the twelfth year of Mahomet’s miffion, twelve
cited by an apprehenfion that pacific meafures would
greatly retard, if not entirely overthrow, his defigns;
men of Yathreb, or Medina, of whom ten were of and therefore he determined to ufe the moft violent
the tribe of Kharai, and two of that of Aws, came
to Mecca, and took an oath of fidelity to the prophet
at the hill A1 Akaba. When they had folemniy en¬
gaged to do all required of them, Mahomet fent one
of his difciples, named Mafab Ebn Omair, home with
them, to inftrudt them more fully in the grounds of
their new religion. Mafab being arrived at Medina,
with the affillance of the new profelytes, gained feve¬
ral others ; and acquainting Mahomet with the fuccefs
methods to convert the Pagan Arabs, or rather to ex¬
tend his own authority. 40 |
The Koreifh, in the mean time, finding that Maho- The Koreifhjl
met had confiderably extended his influence, and hear- ref°Ive ,j!
ing of the league concluded with the Anfars, began to °“ H
think it abfolutely neceffary that he fhould be prevent- death. ;■
ed from efcaping to Medina ; and, in order to do this
the more effedtually, they refolved in a council, wherein
it is faid the devil affifted in perfon, to put an end to
39 of his miffion, defired leave to form a congregation of his life. To accomplifh this with the greater fafety,
Congrega- Modems at Medina. This the prophet readily grant-
tinn of Mo- r, J °
t Medi larly aflembled, to the number of forty perfons, in the
houfe of Saad Ebn Khaithama. The next year Ma¬
fab returned to Mecca, accompanied by feventy-three
they agreed that a man fhould be chofen out of every
tribe, and that each fhould have a blow at him ; that
fo the guilt of his death might fall equally on all the
tribes, and thus the Hafhemites would be prevented
from attempting to revenge the death of their kinfman,
men and two women of Medina, who had profeflfed as they were much inferior in power to the reft of the
-Mahometanifm, befides feveral others who were yet un¬
believers. On their arrival they fent immediately to
Mahomet, and offered him their affiftance, of which
he now flood in the greateft need; for his adverfaries
were by this time grown fo powerful in Mecca, that
he could not flay there much longer without imminent
danger. He therefore accepted their propofal, and
met them one night by appointment at the hill A1 A-
tribes put together. Mahomet now direfted his com¬
panions to repair to Medina, where, in confequence of
the late treaty, they might be affured of prote&ion.
This they accordingly did : but he himfelf, with Abu
Beer and Ali, remained behind; not having received,
as he pretended, the divine permiffion to retire. Here
he narrowly watched the motions of the Koreifh, and
was foon apprifed of their machinations; for the above-
kaba. At this interview he was attended by his uncle mentioned confpiracy was fcarce formed, when by fome
A1 Abbas; who, though then an unbeliever, wifhed
his nephew well, and made a fpeech to the people of
Medina, wherein he told them, that as Mahomet was
obliged to quit his native city and feek an afylum elfe-
where, and as they had offered him their prote&ion,
they would do well not to deceive him; and if they
were not firmly refolved to defend, and not to betray
him, they had better declare their minds, and let him
feek for protedlion fomewhere elfe. Upon their pro-
tefting their fincerity, Mahomet fwore to be faithful
to them, a part of the Koran being read to all prefent,
means or other it came to Mahomet’s knowledge; and
he gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel
Gabriel, who alfo commanded him to retire from Mec-
The confpirators were already affembled at the
prophet’s door; but he, to amufe them, ordered Ali
to lie down in his place, and wrap himfelf in his green 4i
cloak : this Ali complied with, and Mahomet miracu- He outwijU
loufly, according to the Arabs, efcaped to the houfe t*lem an<,!
of Abu Beer. The confpirators, in the mean time, e capes* *
perceiving through a crevice Ali wrapped up in the
_ green cloak, took him for Mahomet himfelf, and
on condition they fhould proteA him againft all infults, watched there till morning, when Ali arofe, and they
as heartily as they would do their own wives and fa- found themfelves deceived. The prophet next retired 4*,
milies. They then afked him what recompence they in company with Abu Beer to a cave in mount Thur, Tn great 1
were to expedl if they fhould happen to be killed in an hill a little fouth of Mecca. Here he had ftill a more dan8er a'
his quarrel: he anfwered, Paradife ; upon which they narrow efcape, concerning which we have the follow-
pledged their faith to him, after Mahomet had chofen ing account from an Arabic tradition. “ The Ko-
twelve out of their number, who were to have the reifh having detached a party from Mecca to recon¬
noitre the mouth of the cave, when they came there,
found it covered by a fpiders web, and a neft built at
the entrance by two pigeons which they faw, and
which had laid two eggs therein. On fight of this
they reafoned with themfelves in the following man-
fame authority under him that the twelve apoftles had
under Chrift.
Finding now a confederacy formed in his favour,
our prophet began to pull off the mafic as to his true
fentiments concerning the means of reformation. Hi-
ner :
A R A
[ J55 ]
A R
43
He is pur-
fued and c
vertaken,
but dill e-
fcapes.
JEra of the
Hegira.
ner : “ If any perfon had lately entered this cavern, fence, and occafioned the apoftacy of many of his dif- Arabia
“ the eggs now before us would infallibly have been ciples. About this time Mahomet receiving advice 
“ broke, and the fpider’s web demolilhed ; there can that a rich caravan of the Koreifh was on the road from
“ therefore be no body in itafter which, they im- Syria to Mecca, he detached his uncle Hamza, at the
mediately retired. As the prophet, therefore, and his head of 30 horfe, to feize upon it; who accordingly
friend, were now faved fo miraculoufly, by means of lay in wait for it in one of the woods of Yamama, thro’
the pigeon’s eggs and the interpcfitipn of the fpider’s which it was to pafs : here, however, he was inform-
web, he afterwards enjoined his followers, in memory ed that the caravan was guarded by 300 men, fo that
of fo remarkable an event, to look upon pigeons as a he returned without making any attempt; but the
kind of facred animals, and never to kill a fpider.” prophet made the proper difpofitions for a6ting here-
The prophet and Abu Beer having (laid in this cave after againft the Koreifh with fuccefs. This year alfo
three days in order to recover a little from their con- Mahomet fent out a party of 60 or 80 horfe, all Mo-
fternation, fet out for Medina ; but the Koreilh, being hajerin, except one who was an Anfar, to make repri-
informed of the route they had taken, fent a party af- fals on the Koreifh. They were met by a party of
ter them, under the command of Soraka Ebn Malec. their enemies, and both fides immediately prepared for
an engagement: however, they parted without blood-
fhed, except one of the Koreifh, who was killed by an
arrow fhot by one of the Moflems.
Mahomet, having now put himfelf into an offenfive Mahomet
poflure, began in earneft to make reprifals on the Ko- takes a car&'
reifh. His firft exploit was the taking of a caravan v*?,,s^g
attended by a fmall guard; and this being accomplifh- battle of
ed by a party confifling only of nine men, contributed Bedr,
greatly to encourage the Moflems. But what moft e-
ftablifhed the impoftor’s affairs, and was indeed the
true foundation of all his future greatnefs, was his gain¬
ing the battle of Bedr, of which we have the follow¬
ing account. The prophet being informed that Abu
Sofian Ebn Harb efcorted a caravan of the Koreifh
with only 30 or 40 men, refolved to advance at the
head of a fmall detachment of his troops to intercept
it. To this he was excited by the riches of the cara¬
van, which confifted of a large quantity of merchan¬
dize, confifting of the riches of Syria, carried on the
backs of a thoufand camels. He therefore fent out a
party to reconnoitre it, with orders to wait in fome
convenient place, where they might remain undifeo-
vered. But Abu Sofian having notice of Mahomet’s
motions, difpatched a courier to Mecca, requefling
fuccours from his countrymen, that he might be able to
Thefe overtook them ; and, as the Arab hiftorians tell
us, Soraka’s horfe fell down when he attempted to
feize Mahomet. Upon this he recommended himfelf to
the prophet’s prayers, and remounted his horfe without
hurt : but, as he ftill continued the purfuit, his horfe
fell down with him a fecond time; upon which he re¬
turned to Mecca, without offering any further violence;
and Mahomet, thus happily delivered from the greateft
dangers, arrived without further moleftation at Medina,
where he was received with the greateft demonftrations
of joy.—This flight of the prophet from Mecca to Me¬
dina was reckoned fo remarkable by the Mcflems, that
they made it the sera from whence all their remarkable
tranfa&ions were dated; calling it the Mr a c,f the
Hegira, or flight. The beginning of the Hegira corre-
fponded with the 16th of July, A. D. 622.
On Mahomet’s arrival at Mecca, his firft care was to
build a mofque for his religious worfhip, and an houfe
for himfelf. The city of Medina at that time was inha¬
bited partly by Jews, and partly by heretical Chriftians,
that formed two factions which perfecuted one another
with great violence. This gave the impoftor fuch an
opportunity of propagating his new religion, that in a
fhort time the city was entirely at his devotion. Here
he ftrengthened himfelf by marry ing Ayefha the daugh- #
ter of Abu Beer, though then only feven years of age, defend the caravan. Upon this Mahomet drew toge-
45
itTnion of
the Anfars
and Moha-
jerin.
and gave his own daughter Fatima in marriage to Ali
the foh of AbuTaleb. The next point he had in view
was the union of the Mohajerin, or thofe who fled from
Mecca on account of their religion, with the Anfars a-
bove mentioned. To facilitate this, after his mofque
and houfe were finifhed, he eftablifhed among the Mof¬
lems a fraternity, the principal ftatute of which was,
that they Ihould not only treat one another like bre¬
thren, but likewife moft cordially love and mutually
eherifti one another to the utmoft of their power. But,
left even this fhould prove infufficient, he coupled the
individuals of the two bodies of A nfars and Mohajerin ;
and this was the laft tranfadlion of the firft year of the
Hegira.
The next year was ufttered in, according to Abulfe-
da, with a change of the Kebla, or place whither the
Mahometans were to turn their faces in prayer. At
firft it had been declared to be perfectly indifferent
where they turned their faces. Afterwards he directed
them to pray with their faces towards the temple of uncle.
thcr all his forces, which amounted to no more than.
313; while his enemies confifted of very near 1000,
Abu Sofian having been reinforced by the Meccans
with 950 men. The two armies did not long remain
in a ftate of inaftion: but before the battle three cham¬
pions from each party engaged each other in Angle
combat. In this the Moflem champions were victo¬
rious, and the event greatly difeouraged the Koreilh.
Mahomet, in the mean time, taking advantage of this
lucky event, offered up his prayers to God with great
fervency and vehemence ; after which, feigning himfelf
in a trance, he pretended that God had affured him of
victory. Then, throwing an handful of dull or gravel
towards the enemy, he cried out, “ May the faces of
them be confounded;” and attacked the Koreifti with
fuch bravery, that they were foon put to flight, leaving
70 dead on the fpot, and having as many taken pri-
foners. The lofs on Mahomet’s fide was only 14 men,
and among the prifoners was A1 Abbas the prophet’s
Jerufalem, probably with a view to ingratiate himfelf
with the Jews ; and now, in order to gain the Pagan
Arabs, he ordered his followers to pray with their fa¬
ces towards the eaft. This inconftancy gave great of-
Though this aCtion may feem of little confequence
in itfelf, it was of very great advantage to Mahomet’s
affairs at that time. He was immediately treated with
the higheft refpeCt by the Najaihi, or king of Ethio¬
pia?
A R A L 556 ] A R A
pia, who received a particular account of the viftory
foon after it was gained; while the fuperftitious Mof-
lems did not fail to look upon it as an evident declara¬
tion of heaven in their favour. Nay, notwithftanding
the fmall number of enemies to be overcome, and who
were only mortal men, thefe ignorant bigots did not
hefitate to own the affiftance of no lefs than four thou-
fand angels, who, according to them, rode on black and
white horfes, having on their heads white and yellow
falhes, that hung down between their fhoulders!
Notwithftanding this difafter, however, Abu Sofian
made a pretty good retreat, and conducted the greateft
part of the caravan to Mecca. This chagrined the
Moflems, though they found great fpoils on the field
of battle, the divifion of which had likely to have
proved fatal to their caufe, by the quarrels that it oc-
cafioned among them. So hot, indeed, were the dif-
47 putes on this occafion, that the impoftor was obliged
cerninW'th”* t0 Preten£^ an imniediate revelation from heaven, em-
divifion 0/ Powering h*m to retain a fifth part for religious pur-
fpoils. pofes, and to diftribute the reft equally. This became
a law for his fucceffors; but, with regard to himfelf, the
prophet often took the liberty of infringing it; for
which, no doubt, a new revelation was always a ready
and convenient falvo. As for thofe who were flain on
Mahomet's part in this battle, they were all looked
upon by the Moflems as martyrs; and the prophet per¬
ceiving among the prifoners two of his inveterate ene¬
mies, immediately caufed their heads to be ftruck off.
The Koreilh, in order to be revenged on Mahomet
for their late defeat at Bedr, fent Amru Ebn A1 As,
who afterwards conquered Egypt, with fome other of
their principal people, on an embaffy to the king of
Ethiopia, in order to intereft him in their quarrel. To
do this the more effe&ually, they accufed Mahomet
and his followers of fpeaking difrefpe&fully of Jesus,
and of his mother Mary ; which accufation they ho¬
ped would likewife induce him to deliver up the Mof-
lem refugees that were then at his court. But the bad
fuccefs that had attended the arms of the Koreifti hi¬
therto, joined to the excufes made by the refugees,
not only hindered the Najafhi from delivering them up,
but alfo prompted him to difinifs the ambafladors, and
return the prefents they had brought him. In the
mean time, Abu Sofian, who had fworn never to ufe
perfumes or enjoy women till he had another battle
with Mahomet, fet out from Mecca with a body of two
hundred horfe. He advanced to a poft within three
miles of Medina; from whence he fent a detachment,
who burnt a barn, together with a man in it that was
winnowing wheat. Mahomet, being informed of this
outrage, moved immediately towards him with a de-
4a tachment of cavalry ; but Abu Sofian was fo intimida-
Abu Sofi- ted by his approach, that he fled with precipitation,
an’s cowar- leaving behind him all the facks of flower or meal that
dlce- had been brought for the fubfiftence of his troops. In-
ftead therefore of coming to an engagement with the
impoftor, as he had fworn, he contented himfelf with a-
larming the country, and pillaging fuch as he fufpec-
ted of favouring Mahometanifm.—This year alfo Ma¬
homet conquered the tribes called Barm Solaim, Ghat-
farty and the Banu Kainoka; plundering likewife a
rich caravan belonging to the Koreilh, and acquiring
from thence 25,000 dirhems for his own lhare of the
plunder.
In the year of Chrift 625, being the third of the He- Arabia,
gira, the Koreifh affembled an army of 3000 men, a- '
mong whom were 200 horfe and 700 armed with coats
of mail. The command of this army was given to
Abu Sofian, who was attended by his wife Henda
Bint Otba, and fat down at a village about fix miles
diftant from Medina. Mahomet, being much inferior
to the enemy, refolved at firft to keep himfelf within
the town, and receive them there ; but afterwards, by
the advice of his companions, marched out againft
them at the head of 1000, according to fome, 1050
according to others, or, as fome fay, only 900 men.
Of thefe 200 were cuirafliers ; but he had only one
horfe befides his own in the whole army. He diftri-
buted three ftandards among his troops ; of which one
was given to the tribe of Aws, another to that of
Khazraj, and the third to the Mphajerin. The grand
ftandard was carried before the prophet by Mofaab
Ebn Omair. With thefe forces Mahomet formed a Battle of
camp in a village near Ohod, a mountain about four Ohod.
miles north of Medina, which he contrived to have on
his back ; and the better to fecure his men from being
furrounded, he placed 50 archers, the flower of his
troops, in the rear, with ftrift orders not to quit their
poft. On the other hand, the army of the Koreilh was
drawn up in the form of a crefcent, and made a very
good appearance. The right wing was commanded
by Khaled Ebn A1 Walid, afterwards fo terrible to
the Greeks ; the left by Acrema Ebn Abu Jahl; and
the centre by Abu Sofian. The corps de referve
was headed by Abu Sofian’s wife, accompanied by 15
other matrons, who performed the office of drummers,
lamenting the fate of their countrymen flain at Bedr,
in order to animate the troops who attended them.
The attack was begun by the Moflems, who fell upon
the enemy with fuch fury, that their centre immedi¬
ately began to give way. Ali, or, according to Abul-
feda, Hamza, flew Arta the enemy’s great ftandard-
bearer; which ftruck them with fuch terror, that they
foon betook themfelves to flight, falling foul upon
their own corps de referve. Victory had now been
no longer doubtful, notwithftanding the vaft inferiori¬
ty of Mahomet’s troops, had not the 50 archers, con¬
trary to the prophet’s exprefs commands, quitted their
poft to pillage the enemy. Upon this, Khaled per¬
ceiving the Moflem army to be greatly expofed, at¬
tacked them in the rear with fuch bravery, that he
turned the fortune of the day. Not content with put¬
ting the troops there in diforder, he cried out with all
his might “ Mahomet is flain and this had fuch an
effeft upon the Moflems, that they immediately took
to their heels, nor could the utmoft endeavours of the
prophet himfelf afterwards rally them. He therefore Mahomet
found himfelf obliged to quit the field of battle, in defeated,
doing which he was very near lofing his life; being
ftruck down by a ffiower of ftones, and wounded in
the face by two arrrows, which occafioned the lofs of
two of his fore-teeth. He likewife received a contu-
fion on his upper lip ; and had even been killed on the
fpot, had not one of his companions, named Telha,
Abu Beer’s nephew, received a blow that was levelled
at him. On this occafion Telha received a wound in his
hand, which deprived him ever after of the ufe of fome
of his fingers. Of the Moflems 70 were flain; among
whom were Hamza the prophet’s uncle, and Mofaab
A R A
the ftandard-bearer. Amongft tlie wotmded were A-
bii Beer, Omar, and Othman ; but as foon as they un-
derftood that the prophet was fafe, they returned to
the charge with a ccnlklerable body, and, after an ob-
ftinate difpute, carried him off. The good retreat made
by thefe champions fo difeouraged the troops of Abu
Sofian, that they did not purfue the flying ^nemy, but
contented themfelves with remaining matters of the
field of battle ; nor did that general, tho’ he exulted
not a little in his vi&ory, make any further ufe of it
than to give Mahomet a challenge to meet him the
next year at Bedr, which was accepted ; and after his
return to Mecca, he defired a truce with the Modems,
which was readily granted.
L 557 J
A R A
the challenge was immediately accepted by Ali, who Arabia,
flew him and another that came to his affittance : after
which, thofe who had been corrupted by Mahomet’s
agents fo foured a confiderable part of the forces, that
they deferted their camp ; upon which all the refl were
obliged to raife the fiege, and return home. 53
The prophet, being now happily delivered from the The hege
mod; powerful combination that had ever been formed raifed.
againft him, was vifited by the angel Gabriel; who
afleed him whether he had fuffered his men to lay down
their arms, when the angels had not laid down theirs,
ordering him at the fame time to go immediately againfl:
the tribe of Koreidha, and afluringhim that he himfelf
ould lead the way. Upon this, Mahomet immediate-
This defeat had like to have proved the total ruin of ly fet out for the fortrefs of the Koreidhites, and pufli-
the impoftor’s affairs, and mutt inevitably have done fo
had the conquerors made the lead ufe of their viftory.
Some of his followers now afferted, that, had he been
really a prophet fent from God, he could" not have
been thus defeated; and others were exafperated on ac¬
count of the lofs of their friends and relations who had
been flain in the late engagement. To ftill the mur¬
ed on the iiege with fo much vigour, that, tho’ it v
deemed impregnable, he obliged the garrifon to capi¬
tulate in twenty-five days. The Koreidhites, not daring
to truft themfelves to the impoftor’s mercy, furrender-
ed at diferetion to Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Aws, hoping that he, being one of their old
friends and confederates, would have foftre regard for
murs of the former, he laid the blame on the fins of them. Here, however, they found themfelves difap-
thofe who had accompanied him; and, to pacify the
latter, he pretended a revelation from heaven, wherein
the period of all mens lives was faid to be unalterably
fixed without regard to their own a&ions, or to any
external obje&s; fo that thofe who were killed in bat¬
tle behoved to have died, though they had remained at
home in their own houfes. By the affiftance of this
lafl doftrine he encouraged his followers to fight,
■without fear, for the propagation of their faith, as all
their caution would not be fufficient to avert their de-
fliny, or prolong their lives even for a Angle moment.
The next year, (A. D. 626), Mahomet, befides fe-
veral other lefs confiderable fuccefles, reduced a fortrefs
belonging to the Jewifli tribe of A1 Nadir, who had
revolted on account of the defeat at Ohod: on this
occafion, by an exprefs revelation, as he pretended, he
kept the whole booty to himfelf; and, about the fame
time, forbad his followers the ufe of wine, or to play
at games of chance, on account of the difturbances and
quarrels which were likely to be excited by that means
among them. This year alfo he marched with a body
of infantry to Bedr; to meet Abu Sofian, as he had
promifed the year before : but that general’s heart fail¬
ing. him, he returned home without facing the prophet;
and this piece of cowardice the Modems did not fail to
S1 impute to a terror fent immediately from God. The
of Me-year following, however, the Koreifh, in conjunction
with the tribe of Ghatfan, and the Jews of A1 Nadir
and Koreidha, aflembled an army of 12,000 men, with
which they formed the fiege of Medina; thus threaten¬
ing the impoftor and all his followers with utter de-
ftru&ion at once. On the enemies approach, Maho¬
met, by the advice of a Perfian named Salman, or¬
dered a deep ditch to be dug round the city, and went
out fo defend it with 3000 men. The Arabs having
invefted the town, both Tides remained in a ftate of in-
aftivity for fome time, which was fo well employed by
pointed ; for Saad, being highly provoked at them for
affifting the Koreifh, while in league with Mahomet,
ordered the men to be put to the fword, the women
and children made flaves, and their goods divided a-
mong the Moflems. This fentence was no fooner
heard by Mahomet, than he cried out that Saad had yt
pronounced the fentehce of God ; and, in confequence KhordJ-
of this decifion, ordered the men, to the number of Nfes mafTa-
600 or 700; to be immediately maflacred. The wo- cm1,
men and children were alfo carried into captivity.
Their immoveable pofieffions were given to the Moha-
jerin, and the goods divided equally.
Mahomet now continued to be fuccefsful, gradually
reducing the Arab tribes one after another. In 628,
. he fent an agent to Conftantinqple, defiring leave of the
Greek emperor to trade with his fubjeifrs ; which was
immediately granted. The fame year alfo he conclu¬
ded a peace for ten years with the inhabitants of Mecca,
and obtained liberty the next year to perform his devo¬
tions at the Caaba. • What tended confiderably to bring
about this pacification was an account brought to the a
Koreifh by one whom they had fent with an adlual de- Prodigious
fiance to Mahomet, of the prodigious veneration which f^rMaho'1
his followers had for him. This meffenger acquainted met>
them that he had been at the courts both of the Ro¬
man emperors and of the kings of Perfia, but never
faw any prince fo highly refpefted as Mahomet was
by his companions. Whenever he made the ablution,
in order to fay his prayers, they ran and caught the
water- which he had ufed; whenever he fpit, they licked
it up, and gathered up every hair that fell from him,
with great veneration. This intimated how defpe-
rately they would fight in his defence, and probably
inclined his enemies to avoid hoftilities. In 629, the j.je
impoftor began to think of propagating his religion be- foreign
yond the bounds of Arabia, and fent meflengers to fe- princes to
veral neighbouring princes to invite them to embrace ei’1I»race his
the impoftor, that he found means to corrupt fome of Mahometanifm; but, before fending the letters, he leJls'
the leading men in the enemy’s camp. The good effeds
of this foon appeared; for a champion having advan¬
ced to the Moflem entrenchments, and challenged the
beft man in their army to fight him in Angle combat,
Vol. I.
caufed a filver feal to be made, on which were engra¬
ved in three lines the following words, “ Mahomet
the Apostle of God.” This feal, he believed, would
procure the, letters to which it was affixed a more fa-
4 A vour-
A R A [ 55S ] A R A
Arabia, yourablc reception at the courts of thofe princes whi-
ther they were direfted. The firft to whom he applied
was Khofru Parviz the king of Perfia ; but he, finding
that Mahomet had put his own name before his, tore the
letter in pieces, and fent away the mefienger very ab¬
ruptly. He alfofent a letter to the fame purpofe to Con-
ftantinople; but though the emperor Heraclius difmif-
fed his mefiengers honourably, he refufed to abahdon
the Chriftian faith. Befides thefe, he wrote five other
letters, which he diftributedamotigthofewho he thought
would be moft likely to acknowledge him for an apoltle.
However, we do not hear, that by means of letters he
J7 ever introduced his religion into a foreign country.—
Is poifoned, But while our impoftor was thus going on in the full ca¬
bin reco- reer 0f fuccefs, and induftrioufly propagating his infa-
vers' mous falfehoods by all the means he could think of, he
was poifoned by a maid, who wanted, as fhe faid, to
make an experiment whether he was a prophet or not.
This was done by communicating fome poifon to a
(houlder of mutton, of which one of his companions na¬
med Bajhar Ebn Al Bara, eating heartily, died upon
the fpot; and Mahomet himfelf, though he recovered
a little, and lived three years after, yet never enjoyed
perfect health. Notwithstanding this misfortune, how¬
ever, he itill continued his enterprizes. The year 630
proved remarkably fortunate. It was uthered in by
the converfion of Khalid Ebn A1 Walid, Amru Ebn
A1 As, and Othman Ebn Telha, three of the moft
confiderable perfons among the Koreith; and this foon
53 enabled him to become mafter of the whole peninfula
Meccans of Arabia. This year alfo the inhabitants of Mecca
treattC t00^ ^ *nt° t^r beads to violate the treaty concluded
Mahomet "'bh Mahomet: for the tribe of Beer, who were the
confederates of the Koreifh, attacking thofe of Kho-
zaab, who were in alliance with Mahomet, maffacred
20 of them, and afterwards retired ; being Supported
in this a&ion by a party of the Koreiih themfelves.—
Theconfequence of this violation was foon apprehended;
and Abu Sofian himfelf made a journey to Medina, in
order to heal the breach, and renew the truce: but in
vain ; for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refufed
to fee him. Upon this, he applied to Abu Beer, AH,
Omar, and Fatima, to intercede for their countrymen
with the prophet ; but fome of thefe giving him rough
anfwers, and others none at all, he was obliged to re¬
turn to Mecca as he came. Mahomet immediately gave
orders -for the necelfary preparations, that he might fur-
prife the Meccans, who were by no means in a condition
to receive him ; but Hateb Ebn Abu Bahaa, hitherto
a faithful Modem, attempted to give them notice of
their danger by a letter, though without efFedl. His
letter was intercepted ; and he alleged in his excufe,
that the only reafon he had for his conduft was to in¬
duce the Koreifh to treat his family with kindnefs.
This excufe the prophet accepted, as he had greatly
diftinguifhed himfelf at the battle of Bedr, but ftri&ly
forbad any fuch pradfices for the future ; which hav¬
ing done, he immediately made the neceffary difpofitions
for Setting forward.
Mahomet’s army, on this occafion, was compofed of
Mohajerin, Anfars, and other Arabs, who had lately
become profelytes. As they drew near to Mecca, he
fet up his ftandards, and advanced in order of battle
to Mar Al Dhahran, a place about four parafangs from
Mecca, where the whole army encamped. Here he
ordered 10,000 fifes to be lighted, and committed Arabia,
the defence of the camp to Omar, who cut off all com- 1
munication with the town, fo that the Meccans could
receive no certain advice of their approach. Among
others that came from Mecca to reconnoitre the Mo¬
dem camp, Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, Hakim Ebn He-
zam, andBodail Ebn Warka, fell into Omar’s hands;
and being conducted to Mahomet, were obliged to
embrace Mahometanifm in order to fave their lives.
The firft rumour of this expedition had not a little
terrified the Koreifh, though they were not apprized
that the prophet had refolved upon a war ; but perceiv¬
ing now, upon the report of Abu Sofian, who had been
fent back to them, that the enemy was at their gates,
they were thrown into the utmoft confternation. Of
this Mahomet being informed, he refolved to take ad¬
vantage of the confufion that then reigned among them.
He therefore firft difpatched Hakim and Bodail to the
Meccans, inviting them to take an oath of allegiance '
to him, and become converts to his new religion; after
which, he made the following difpofition of his forces.
Al Zobeir was ordered to advance with a detachment
towards the town on the fide of mount Cada. Saad
Ebn Obad, prince of the tribe Khazraj, marched by
his order with another detachment towards the height
of Coda, which commands the plain of Mecca. Ali
commanded the left wing of the army, confifting of An¬
fars and Mohajerin. Tlie prophet put into his hands
the great ftandard of Mahometanifm, with orders to
poft himfelf upon mount Al Hajun, and to plant the
ftandard there ; ftridfly enjoining him, however, not
to ftir from thence till he himfelf arrived, and till a
proper fignal fhould be given him from Saad for that
purpofe. Khaled led the right wing, confifting of the
Arabs lately converted, with which he was to poflefs
himfelf of the plain of Mecca. Abu Obeidah com¬
manded in the centre, which confifted entirely of infan¬
try : the prophet himfelf remained in the rear, from
whence he could moft eafily difpatch his orders to all
the generals as occafion ftiould require. He exprefsly
prohibited Khaled and all his other officers to aft of-
fenfively unlefs they were firft attacked. Things being
in this fituation, the army upon a fignal given put itfelf
immediately in motion. The prophet mounted his
camel with great alacrity, and was that day cloathed
in red. Al Zobeir purfued the route affigned him with¬
out oppofitipn; nor did Saad difeover the fainteft tra¬
ces of an enemy: Ali took poffeffion of his poft with¬
out the lofs of a man ; and in like manner Abu Obeidah
feized on the fuburbs. Khaled, however, in his march
to the plain, was met by a large body of the Koreifh
and their confederates, whom he immediately attacked
and defeated, putting 28 of them to the fword. Not
content with this, he purfued them into the town, and Mecca ta- ;s
maffacred a great number of the inhabitants ; which fo ken.
terrified the reft, that fome {hut themfelves up in their
houfes, while others fled different ways in order to avoid
the fury of the mercilefs and impious tyrant, who was
now become mafter of the city. Thus was Mecca redu¬
ced, with the lofs only of two men bn the fide of the
impoftor.
Mahomet, being now mafter of the city, made his
public entryinto it exaftly at fun-rifing. When the firft
tumult was over, he went in proceffion round the Caaba
feven times, touching the corner of the black ftone with
the
A R A [ 559 ] A R A
Arabia, t]ie Jn hand, as often as he pafled it, with
great devotion. Then he entered the Caaba, where
obferving feveral idols in the form of angels, and the
ftatues of Abraham and Khmael with the arrows of
divination in their hands, he caufed them all to be de-
ftroyed. He alfo broke in pieces with his own hands
a wooden pigeon, that had long been efteemed a deity
by the idolatrous Koreifh. Afterwards entering into
the interior part of the Caaba, he repeated with a loud
voice the form ufed at this day by the Mahometans,
“ Allah Akbar, God is Great,” &c. turning towards
every part of the temple. Then he prayed between
the two pillars there, with two. inclinations, as well as
without the Caaba ; faying to thofe that attended him,
“ This is your Kebla, or the place towards which you
are to turn your faces in prayer.”
Having thus effeftually fubdued the Koreifh, put
an end to all commotions, and purged the Caaba of
360 idols, the prophet’s next care was to ingratiate
himfelf with the people. Sending therefore for fome
of the principal of them, he afked them what kind of
treatment they expe&ed from him, now he had con¬
quered them ? To this they replied, “ None but what
is favourable, O generous brotherupon which he
difmifled them, telling them they were from that mo¬
ment a free people. After this, pretending a new re¬
velation, he reftoredthe keys of the Caaba to Othman
Ebn Telha, who was in pofTeffion of them before; and
who was nowfo much affedled by this piece of juftice,that
he immediately became a profylete. Next day, the pro¬
phet declared Mecca an afylum, and publicly gave out
that he would maintain to the utmoft of his power the
inviolable fecurity of the place. He then was folemnly
inaugurated; after which he profcribed, according to
fome, fix men and four women, according to others,
eleven men and one woman : but of thefe only three
men and one woman were put to death ; the reft being
pardoned on their embracing Mahometanifm, and one
woman making her efcape. The remainder of this
year was fpent in various expeditions againft different
tribes of the Arabs, which were in general attended
with fuccefs.
The ninth year of the Hegira, being that of Chrift
631, is called by the Mahometans the year of Embaf-
Jies ; for the Arabs, ■who had hitherto been expe&ing
the iffue of the war between Mahomet and the Koreilh,
no fooner faw that which was the moft conliderable of
the whole fubmit to him, than they began to come
in to him in great numbers, and to fend embaffies to
make their fubmiflions to him, both while at Mecca,
and after his return to Medina, whither he had returned
foon after the taking of Mecca: and thus good fortune
60 continued without interruption to the year 632, when
Mahomet this famous impoftor breathed his laft, having juft re-
dies- duced under his fubjection the whole peninfula of Ara¬
bia, and being ready to break into the neighbouring
jjj kingdoms in order to fatisfy his ambition.
Great con- The death of Mahomet occafioned fuch a confterna-
fufion on his tion in Mecca, that the governor hid himfelf, fearing
death. to |)t, ca]]e(J to an account for his former conduct; and
the inhabitants, upon theftrll arrival of this melancholy
news, conlidered themfelves as deftitute of all manner
of proteftion. After the firft impreffions of their fear,
however, were over, they began to meditate a revolt;
but were prevented by one Sohail Ebn Amru, a prin¬
cipal man of the Koreifh. The tumults at Medina, how¬
ever, were not fo eafily appeafed. The news of this fad
event was no fooner publifhed there, than a number of
people affembled before his door, crying out, “ How
can our apoftle be dead ? Our interceffor, our media¬
tor, has not entirely left us! He is taken up into hea¬
ven, as was Ifa (Jefus); therefore he fhallnot be buried.”
This was confirmed by Omar; who drew his fword, and
fwore, that, if any perfon affirmed Mahomet to be dead,
he would cut off his hands and his feet. “ The apof¬
tle of God, fays he, is not dead: he is only gone for
a feafon, as Mofes the fon of Amran was gone from
the people of Ifrael for forty days, and then returned
to them again.” The populace therefore kept the body
above ground, even after the belly began to fwell;
nor could the prophet’s uncle A1 Abbas, notwithftand-
ing this, convince them to the contrary. Upon hear¬
ing of thefe tranfadlions; Abu Beer immediately pofted
from A1 Sonah, another quarter of the city, and ex-
poftulated with them in the following manner: “ Do
you worfhip Mahomet, or the god of Mahomet ? If
the latter, he is immortal, and liveth for ever ; but if
the former, you are in a manifeft error, for he is cer¬
tainly dead.” The truth of this affertion he imme¬
diately evinced from feveral paffages of the Koran, in fo
clear and conclufive a manner, that he not only fatisfied
Omar, but ealmed the minds of all the people.
The prophet having left no dire&ions concerning a
fucceffor, very warm difputes arofe between the Moha-
jerin and the Anfars about the right of electing a kha-
lif. The former infifted on having that right, becaufc
they had attended Mahomet in his flight to Medina;
and the others, becaufe they had fupported him when
expelled from his native city, &c. In fliort, the dif¬
putes became fo hot, that an open rupture muft have
commenced, had not they been terminated by a propo-
fal that each party ftiould chufe a khalif. This amufed
them a little for the prefent; but not proving perfe&ly
agreeable to the Mohajerin, Abu Beer propofed two
perfons, Omar and Abu Obeidah, offering to fwear al¬
legiance to him on whom the fuffrages of both parties
ftiould fall. But this producing no decifion, Omar oa
fwore fealty to Abu Beer, and his example was follow- Abu Beer
ed by all the Modems on the fpot; upon which, he was Succeeds
acknowledged, both by the Mohajerin and Anfars, as kim.
the rightful fucceffor of Mahomet.
Thefe tranfaftions, however, were not at all agree- AHdiffatif-
able to Ali, who, as fqn-in-3aw to the prophet, had fad-
undoubtedly the beft title to the fucceffion. He exp’o-
ftulated with Abu Beer about the manner of his elec¬
tion, which had been effedled without his knowledge;
and received for.anfwer, that the exigence of affairs
would not admit of deliberation; and that, had not the
ele&ion been fo fudden, the oppofite party would have
wrefted the power entirely out of their hands. Ali was
in Fatima’s apartment when Abu Beer had the good
luck to be elefted khalif; and, upon the arrival of the
news, expreffed great diffatisfaftion. He found him¬
felf, however, foon obliged to change his note, when
the new khalif fent Omar with orders to burn the houfe
where he and his friends were affembled, in cafe he did
not concur in fupporting the election. But, notwith-
ftanding his forced compliance on this occafion, it is
not to be doubted that he reckoned himfelf injured; and
his pretenfions were thought to be juft by a great num-
4 A 2 her
A R A
[ 5&> ]
A R A
ber of Moflems: which notion is entertained by a very
confiderable party of Mahometans even at this day;
and thefe are called Shiites', or feflaries.
Soon after Abu Beer’s acceffion, many of the Arabs
refufed to pay the tribute impofed upon them by Ma¬
homet, and even attempted to fhake off his yoke alto¬
gether. This fo alarmed the khalif and his fubje&s at
Medina, that, fearing a general revolt, they fent all not
able to bear arms int6 the cavities of the rocks and
according to A1 Makin, was the firfl: tribute-money
ever brought to Medina.
The exigence of the khalif’s affairs in Syria, how¬
ever, did not fuffer Khaled long to remain in Irak.
Before the departure of the army under his command,
Abu Beer had come to a refolution to invade Syria;
and finding his defign approved by the principal offi¬
cers of his court, he fent circular letters to the petty
princes of Yaman, the chief men of Mecca, &c. in¬
mountains, and put themfelves in as good a pofture of forming them of his intention to take Syria out of
64 defence as the ffiort time would permit. In the mean the hands of the infidels; acquainting them, at the fame
Rebellions time, Khaled was difpatched with an army of 4500 men, time, that a war for the propagation of the true reli-
ed'b^Kha" t0 reduce the rebels; and he foon coming up with them, gion was an adl; of obedience to God. To thefe letters
■ >>y a* gave them a total defeat, brought off avail quantity of they paid a proper regard; and in a very Ihort time
plunder, and made many of their children Haves. Nor
was he content with this; for being fent by Abu Beer
to Malec Ebn Noweirah, an eminent perfon among the
Arabs, and famous for his Ikill in poetry, as well as his
horfemanfhip and bravery, to bring him over by fair
means, he immediately ordered his head to be cut off.
By this means, indeed, he extinguilhed all the remains
of rebellion; but rendered himfelf exceedingly obnoxi¬
ous to Abu Beer, who would have put him to death,
had not Omar ftrongly interceded for him: for Khaled
had greatly exceeded his commiffion, as Malec had re¬
turned to Mahometanifm, and had offered to pay the
money. This was not, however, the only piece of fer-
vice Khaled performed at this time; he alfo defeated
and killed Mofeilama, who had fet up for a prophet in
the time of Mahomet, and even wanted to take the
grand impoftor himfelf into company with him. The
lame general likewife defeated and difperfed the troops
of another prophet, called Toleiah Ebn Khonvailed, obli¬
ging himfelf to remain concealed till after the death of
Abu Beer. About the fame time another body of rebels
committed great diforders in the province of Bahrein.
Againft thefe, Abu Beer difpatched A1 Ola at the head
of a confiderable army, who foon obliged them to re¬
turn to Mahometanifm ; having put great numbers of
them to the fword, and plundered their country in a
$ dreadful manner.
War with Abu Beer having now no enemy to contend with in
1 ree ‘c’ Arabia, and being free from all apprehenfions of a com¬
petitor, refolved next to turn his arms againft the Greek
emperor. Some Ikirmilhes had happened, in the time
of Mahomet, between the Moflems and Greeks; in one
of which, Zeid, a Moflem commander, had been killed,
to revenge his death, his fon Ofama was on the point
of making an irruption into Syria at the time of Ma¬
homet’s deceafe. This enterprize the khalif ordered
him to go on with, and it was executed by Ofama with
great fuccefs. He entered Syria, and laid wafte the
appeared at Medina at the head of their refpe&ive
troops, and pitched their tents round the city. Here
they ftaid, till the Moflem army deftined to a£l againft;
the emperor was completely formed, and in a capacity
to begin its march. The khalif, having viewed the
troops from the top of an hill, and prayed to God for
fuccefs, attended the generals a little way on foot. As
the generals were on horfeback, they could not forbear
expreffing their uneafinefs at the khalif’s thus demean¬
ing himfelf; but he told them, that it fignified little
whether they walked on foot or rode, as they had all
the fame views, viz. the fervice of God, and the pro- <57
pagation of religion. At parting, he addreffed Yezid Abu Beer’s
Ebn Abu Sofian, whom he had invefted with the fu-
preme command, in the following manner: “ Take “
care, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, to treat your men with
tendernefs and lenity. Confult with your officers on all
preffing occafions, and encourage them to face the e-
nemy with bravery and refolution. If you lhall hap¬
pen to be viftorious, deftroy neither old people, wo¬
men, nor children. Cut down no palm-trees, nor burn
any fields of corn. Spare all fruit-trees, and flay no
cattle but fuch as you fhall take for your own ufe.
Adhere always inviolably to your engagements, and
put none of the religious perfons you lhall meet with
in monafteries to the fword. Offer no violence to the
places they ferve God in. As for thofe members of
the fynagogue of Satan ■who Jhave their crenvns, cleave
their fculls, and give them no quarter, except they em¬
brace Iflamifm (Mahometanifm), or pay tribute.”
The Greek emperor was greatly alarmed at the ap¬
proach of the Moflem army ; however, he made all ne-
ceffary preparations for his defence, and fent out a de¬
tachment to reconnoitre the enemy. Thefe having fal¬
len in with the Arabs, a battle enfued, in which the
Greeks were defeated with the lofs of 1200, while the
Arabs loft only 120 men. This was fucceeded by a
great many Ikirmilhes, in which the Moflems were ge-
country, doing the Greeks a good deal of damage; nerally viftorious. The rich fpoil taken on thefe oc-
Hira de-
Slroyed.
after which, he returned to Arabia without any confr
66 derable lofs.
Kingdom of Soon after, the khalif fent Khaled at the head of a
powerful army to invade Irak, and put an end to the
kingdom of Hira. In this undertaking he was attend¬
ed with his ufual fuccefs. The king A1 Mondar A1
Maghrur loft his life in defence of his dominions ; and
the kingdom was totally deftroyed, after it had conti¬
nued 622 years and eight months,, as we have already
hinted. The inhabitants became tributaries; and, ac¬
cording to Eutychius, the tribute collected on this oc-
safion amounted to 76,000 pieces of money. This,,
cafions was fent as a prefent to the khalif; who having
acquainted the inhabitants of Mecca with his good fuc¬
cefs, they were thereby fo elated, that theyTurnilhed
him with a ftrong reinforcement, which was immedi¬
ately ordered into Syria.. The Greek emperor, in the
mean time,, having ordered another body of his troops
to advance towards the frontiers, they found anoppor- gg.
tunity of engaging the Moflem army under Abu Obei- The Mo-
dah, a perfon of great piety, but little experience in. ff-ms defeat-
war. Him they totally defeated; and Abu Beer was e ’
fo much provoked at his defeat, that he deprived him
of the command, which was given to Khaled, who was
for.
A R A
[ 56i ]
A R A
i.Damafcus
Bfefieged.
for this purpofe recalled from Irak. That general’s firft
exploit was the redu&ion of Boftra, a very rich and po¬
pulous city of Syria Damafcena; which, however, he
accomplifhed by treachery rather than by force of arms.
Having left a garrifon of 400 men in Boitra, and be¬
ing joined by Abu Obeidah’s forces, he laid liege to
Damafcus with an army of 45,000 men. This fo a-
tempt than they had been before ; being utterly de- Arahi;!,
feated, with the lofs of 50,000 men, fo that they were
no more in a condition to attempt any thing; and, in The city ta-
contequence of this, the city was foon taken, notwith- hen.
Handing the ut-moft efforts of the befieged.
This difaftrous event happened in the year 634; and 11
the very day that Damafcus was taken, Abu Beer died
termed the emperor, that he difpatched an army of of a confumption in the 63d year of his age. He was i-llcc^le^s
100,000 men, commanded by one Werdan, to the re¬
lief of that city. Khaled, on hearing of the approach
of this formidable army, was for marching immediately
fucceeded by Omar, who was proclaimed khalif that by Omar
very day; and the hrft title affigned him was, The kha¬
lif of the khalif of the apof.le of God. But the Arabs
with all his forces, and giving them battle; but this confidering, that, by the additions to be continually
was oppofed by Abu Obeidah, as it would enable the
inhabitants of Damafcus to procure frefn fupplies both
of arms and provisions, and confequently render the re-
duftion of the place more difficult. It was, therefore,
at laft agreed, that a body of troops (hould be detached
under Derar Ebn A1 Wazar, an excellent officer, and
a implacable enemy to the Chriftians (as indeed
made at the acceffion of every new khalif, the title
would become too long, they with one voice faluted
him, Emperor of the believers ; which illuftrious title
defeended afterwards to his fucceffors by a kind of in-
conteftable right.
The new khalif was no fooner fettled than he repla¬
ced Abu Obeidah in the command of the army in Sy-
all the Modem generals except Abu Obeidah), to fight ria, being greatly difpleafed with the cruel and blood-
ILL T°
{The Greek-s
defeated
Hyith great
iflaughter.
the enemy, whilft the fiege was carried on by the tw
generals.
Khaled, fearing left Derar’s furious zeal and hatred
thirfty difpofitian of Khaled. He alio commanded A-
bu Obeidah to have an eye upon Paleftine, and to in¬
vade it as foon as an opportunity offered. Khaled bore
to the Chriftians ffiould prove fatal to his troops, told his difgrace with great magnanimity; and fwore, that
1 *  - C   a   a.   l .I.        i 1 _ 1 J 1  1 J „    1 „fl.        di A ..
him before his departure, that though they were  
manded to fight for the propagation of their religion.
though he had always had the greateft regard for Abu
Beer, and the utmoft averfion to Omar, he would fubmit
yet they were not allowed to throw away the lives of to God’s will, and obey the new khalif as the lawful
their men ; and therefore ordered him to retire to the fucceffor of Mahomet. The Modem forces in the mean
main body of the army, in cafe he found himfelf preffed time having made all proper difpofitions for improving
by a fuperior force. But Derar, deaf to this falutary
admonition, with his fmall body of troops rufned upon
the whole Chriftian army, notwithftanding the vaft dif-
proportion of numbers. He charged them, however,
with fuch bravery, that he penetrated to the fpot where
the general gave his orders, killed the ftandard bearer,
arid carried off the ftandard itfelf, in which was a crofs
the advantages they had gained, Abu Obeidah fent a
detachment of 500 horfe to a place called Dair Abil
Kodos, about 30 miles from Damafcus, to plunder the 73
Chriftians there. In this place there lived a prieft fo Governor0f
eminent for his fan&ity, that the neighbouring people Tnp?'1 3
of all ranks reforted to him for his bleffing and inftruc-
When any perfon of diftin&ion married, he took
richly adorned with precious ftones. Nay, he would with him his new fpoufe, in order to receive this holy
t all probability have put Werdan’smarmy to flight,
had not that general’s fon, the commandant of Hems,
arrived in the heat of the engagement with a body of
to,000 men; with which he attacked the Moflems fo
brilkly in the rear, that he forced them to retire, and
took Derar himfelf prifoner. This fo difeouraged
them, that they would have taken to their heels, had
not Rafi Ebn Omeirah animated them with the follow¬
ing words.. “ What! do not you know, that whoever
turns his back upon his enemies offends God and his
man’s benedi&ion. The fame of this prieft’s fandlity
drew fuch numbers of people to that place every Eafter,
that a great fair was kept annually at his houfe, to
which were brought vaft quantities of the richeft filks,
plate, jewels, &c. When the Arabs drew near to this
place, to which they were conducted by a Chriftian,
they were informed that the governor of Tripoli had
married his daughter to a perfon of diftinftion, who
had carried his lady to the above-mentioned prieft. She
was attended by a guard of 5000 men ; befides which
prophet ? and that the prophet declared the gates of the Jews, Greeks, Copts, and Armenians, at that time
paradife (hould be open to none but fuch as fought for
religion? Come on ! I will go before you. If your
captain be dead, or taken prifoner, yet your God is a-
Kve, and fees what you do.” This exhortation had
fuch an effedl upon his troops, that, returning to Ae
charge, they maintained their ground with unparallel¬
led bravery, till Khaled arrived with a confiderable bo¬
dy of infantry and 1000 horfe. The arrival of this ge-
affembled about the monaftery, amounted to 10,000.
Notwithftanding this, the Moflem commander determi¬
ned to carry off the lady; and having told his men, that
they ftiould either enjoy the riches of the Chriftians, or
the pleafures of paradife, he commanded them to fall1
on the enemy. The impetuofity of thefe enthufiafts at
firft bore all down before them; but the Chriftians, per¬
ceiving they were but an handful of men, furrounded
neral foon turned the fortune of the day. A party of them on all iides, and refolved to make them pay dear
the imperial army went over to the Moflems, and the
reft took to their heels. Derar alfo was retaken, and
carried off in triumph. However, Werdan, having col-
le£ted the ftiattered remains of his forces, and received
a reinforcement from the emperor, found his army ftill
to amount to 70,000 men, with which he refolved to
make another attempt for the relief of Damafcus. They
were attended with ftill worfe fuccefs in this fecond at¬
for their temerity. But Abu Obeidah, being informed
of their dangerous fituation, immediately difpatched
Khaled with a ftrong detachment to the relief of his
diftreffed countrymen. The confequenee of this was,
that the Chriftians were entirely defeated, and the un¬
happy lady carried off, with 40 maids that waited upon
her, as well as all the wealth brought to the above-men¬
tioned fair; among which were many rich garments
curioufly
A R A [ 562 ] A R A
Arabia, curioufly wrought, and in particular one adorned^with
“ ,-ije effigies qf our Saviour. All thefe were fold for ten
times their weight of gold to fome of the opulent A-
rabs of Yaman. The young lady was given to Abdal¬
lah, who kept her to the reign of Yezid. Of this ad¬
vantage Abu Obeidah fent notice to the khalif by a let-
?4 ter, in which he alfo acquainted him that fome of his
Punifhment men had drunk wine. Thefe delinquents, by the ad-
of fome fol- v;ce 0f Adi, had each of them 80 ftripes beftowed upon
had drunk t^ie ^es t^e’r feet; after which, many others, who
wine. had never been fufpe&ed of drinking this prohibited li¬
quor, made a voluntary confeffion, and received the
fame chaftifement.
The Modem general next fet about reducing the
principal fortrefles in Syria, and foon became matter of
Kinnifrin, Baalbec, Adeftan, Shaizar, and Hems; on
the news of which, the Greek emperor Heraclius, re-
folving if poffible to put a ftop.to the cruel and unpro¬
voked ravages of thefe barbarians, fent againft them an
75 army of 240,000 men, commanded by one Manuel,
The Greeks whom the Arabs call Mahan. But this vaft multitude
tea ted atC was utterty defeated by Khaled; upon whom Abu O-
Yermouk. beidah conferred the fupreme command, on account of
his fuperior ikill in military affairs. This battle was
fought near a village called Yermouk ; and, according
to the Arabian hiftorians, the Chriffians had 150,000
men killed, and 40,000 taken prifoners, while the Mo¬
dems loft no more than 4030 men.
The defeat of Yermouk was immediately followed
76 by the lofs of the whole province of Paleftine. The
Omar vifits reduction of Jerufalem was one of its firft confequences;
Jerufalem. an(j Omar, being apprifed of the fuccefs of his arms, im¬
mediately fet out to vifit that holy place, at the requeft,
it is faid, of the inhabitants. The khalif was attended
in his journey by a numerous retinue, moft of whom
afterwards returned home. He rode upon a red ca¬
mel, and carried with him two facks, one of which
contained a fort of provifton, confifting of barley, rice,
or wheat, fodden and unhufked, and the other, fruits.
Before him he had a leather bottle, very neceffary in
thefe defart countries to put water in; and behind him
a wooden platter. Before he left the place where he
had refted the preceding night, he conftantly faid the
morning prayer; after which he addreffed himfelf to
his attendants in a devout ftrain, always uttering be¬
fore them fome pious ejaculations. Then he commu¬
nicated his provifton to them; every one of his fellow-
travellers eating with him out of the fame platter, with¬
out the leaft diftin&ion. His clothes were made of
camels hair, and were in a very tattered condition; nor
could any thing be more mean or fordid than the fi¬
gure he made. On the road he diftributed juftice a-
mong his fubje&s, concerning which we have feveral
77 anecdotes; but that moft to his honour is the follow-
Anecdote of jng. Having obferved fome poor tributaries expofed
im‘ to the heat of the fun, a very cruel punifhment in thofe
hot countries, for not being able to pay the fum de¬
manded of them, he ordered them to be releafed; telling
his attendants, that he once heard the apoftle of God
fay, “ Do not afflict men in this world ; for thofe who
do fo, God ihall punifh in hell-fire at the day of judge¬
ment.” His orders were immediately executed, to the
great grief of the oppreffors; and the khalif continued
his route. On the confines of Syria he was met by
Abu Obeidah attended by an efcorte, who conduced
him to the Mofiem camp, where he was received with Arabia,
the utmoft dernonftrations of joy; and from thence to —™~
Jerufalem. The morning after his arrival, he faid pray¬
ers and preached to the troops. In his fermon he re-
peatedthefollowingpaffage out of the koran, “ Whom-
foever God fhall direft, he fhall be rightly diredted;
and whomfoever he fhall caufe to err, thou fhalt not
find any to defend or to direft.” Upon this a Chri-
ftian rofe up, and faid aloud twice, “ God caufes no
one to err.” Omar made no anfwer to him, but com¬
manded the Moflems near him to ftrike off the infidel’s
head if he repeated thofe words again ; but the prieft
took care to give him no further interruption. After
the conclufion of his fermon, he pitched his tent made
of hair, within fight of the city. Then he figned the
articles of capitulation, by which the inhabitants were
intitled to the free exercife of their religion, the pof-
fefiion of their properties, and his protection.
The articles of capitulation being figned, Omar, in
purfuance of his engagements, gave the inhabitants a
fchedule, by which they were fecured in the full pof-
fefiion of all that had been agreed upon; after which
the gates were opened to him, and he entered the town,
where he was waited upon by the patriarch So.phronius,
with whom he converfed familiarly, and alked him ma¬
ny queftions concerning the antiquities of the city.
One of the firft places they vifited was the temple of
the refurrection, in the midft of which Omar fat down,
and when the hour of prayer was come, told the pa¬
triarch he had a mind to pray, and defired him to ihew
him a place for that purpofe. Sophronius told him he
might do fo where he was ; but this he abfolutely re-
fufed. Then the patriarch led him to St Conftantine’s
church; but he likewife declined praying there. At
laft he faid his prayers upon one of the fteps of the eaft
gate of the church; telling the patriarch afterwards,
that, had he prayed in any of the churches, the Mo¬
flems would have infallibly have taken it from them,
which he faid they might attempt as it was, and there¬
for gave him a paper, wherein the Moflems were com¬
manded not to pray on the fteps of St Conftantine’s
church in any numbers, but only one by one. After
this he defired the patriarch to Ihew him a place:where
he might erehl a mofque; and was conducted to the
place where Jacob’s ftone lay, on which he flept when
he faw the vifion of the ladder. This ftone had been
hitherto flighted, and no building fuffered to be erec¬
ted upon it, in order to fulfil our Saviour's prophe¬
cy, that the habitation of the Jews Ihould be left un¬
to them defolate, and that not one ftone fhould be
left upon another. In confequence of this negleA
it was entirely covered with dirt, wdiieh the khalif
immediately began to carry away in his veft ; and
the Moflems foon haftening to affift him, the ftone was
cleared in a very fliort time. We are told by Theo-
phanes, that wdien Omar entered the temple of the re-
furreftion, he was clad in fuch mean and dirty apparel,
that the patriarch took great offence at his appearance,
and with much difficulty at laft prevailed upon him to
put on fome clean linen and clothes, till his own could
be walhed. The fame author relates, that when the
patriarch firft faw Omar in that place, he could not
forbear crying out, “ This is of a truth the abomina¬
tion of defolation, fpokemof by Daniel the prophet,
{landing in the holy place!” Thefe words, as Mr Oc-
kley
Arabia.
Arabia.
He returns
I to Medina.
A Moflem
Ketachment
efeated by
Youkitma.
A R A L 563 ] A R A
kley imagines, being overheard by the Moflems, they
~ trumped up a ftory of the patriarch’s having owned
that the conqueft of Jerufalem by Omar was foretold
by the prophet Daniel; and that an ancient prophecy
was kept in Jerufalem concerning Omar, wherein his
perfon was defcribed, his name and religion fpecified,
and he declared to be the only man that could reduce
that city.
Before the khalif left Syria, he divided that coun¬
try into two parts; one of which, that lay between
Hauran or Auran and Aleppo, which was not perfe6lly
conquered, he committed to the care of Abu Obei-
dah, giving'him the ftri&eft orders to reduce it asfoon
as poflible. Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian was commanded
to take upon him the care of the other, which compre¬
hended Paleftine, and the fea-coaft, and to make him-
felf abfolute matter of it, having a body of troops af-
figned him for that purpofe. He alfo direfted Amru
Ebn A1 As to invade Egypt, then in a very languifh-
ing condition, with a body of Moflem forces. After
having made thefe difpofitions for extending his con-
quefts, Omar fet out for Medina, where he arrived in
perfeft health, to the great joy of the inhabitants, who
apprehended, from his long ftay at Jerufalem, that he
had intended to fix his refidence there.
Soon after Omar’s departure, Yezid advanced to Cae-
farea; but found the place fo ttrong, that he was obli¬
ged to continue fame time in a ftate of ina&ion. Abu
Obeidah, in the mean time, advanced towards Aleppo,
the citadel of which was at that time the ftrongeft in
Syria. The citizens were {truck with the utmott con-
fternation at his approach. They had at that time two
governors, who were brothers, and refided in the cattle,
which was fituated at a little diftance from the city.
The names of thefe two governors, who were of very-
different difpofitions, were Youkinna and John. Their
father, by the emperor Heraclius’s appointment, pre-
fided over all that tradt which lay betwixt Aleppo and
the Euphrates; and, after his death, the chief manage¬
ment of affairs devolved upon Youkinna, his brother
John fpending his time moftly in devotion and adts of
charity. He would therefore gladly have prevailed on
Youkinna to purchafe a peace from the Arabs with
money, rather than make his country a fcene of blood
and ravages} but this not fuiting the martial genius of
Youkinna, he armed a confiderable number of the ci¬
tizens, among whom were feveral Chriftian Arabs, and
dittributed money among them. He then told his men
that he intended to aft offenfively againft the Arabs,
and even to engage them if pofiible before they drew
too near. To infpire them with the greater refolution,
he obferved, that the Moflem army was divided into fe¬
veral bodies; one of which had orders to befiege Cae-
farea, another to march to Damafcus, and the third to
invade Egypt. Having thus animated his troops, he
put himfelf at the head of 12,000 of them, and march¬
ed forwards to get intelligence of the enemy’s motions.
Abu Obeidah, in the mean time, had fent before him
Caab Ebn Damarah, with 1000 men; giving him ex-
prefs orders not to fight till he had received information
of the enemy. Youkinna’s fpies difcovered Caab and
his men retting themfelves and watering their horfes
without the leaft apprehenfion of danger; of which the
general being apprifed, he potted one part of his troops
in ambufcade, and with the other attacked the Mo¬
flems. The Arabs behaved with their ufual valour;
and at firft repulfed the Chriftians, notwithftanding
their fuperiority in numbers : but being attacked by
the troops that lay in ambufli, they were at laft for¬
ced to retire; having 170 killed, and almoft all the reft
wounded.
After Youkinna’s departure, the inhabitants of A~
leppo, confidering the calamities that awaited them if
their city Ihould be taken by ftorm, fubmitted without
delay to Abu Obeidah, and were taken under the pro-
teftion of the khalif. This difagreeable news being
communicated to Youkinna, he potted home with all
poffible expedition, left an attempt ftiould be made on
the cattle in his abfence. On his arrival at Aleppo,
he was fo highly incenfed againft the inhabitants, that
he threatened them with death if they did not difannul
the treaty with the Arabs, and deliver up the authors
of it into his hands. This demand not being immedi¬
ately complied with, he fell upon the citizens with
great fury, and killed 300 of them; among whom was
his brother John, whofe head he caufed to be ftruck
off, charging him with being the author and abettor of
the late pernicious fcheme. He would have made a
much greater {laughter, had not the Moflem army at
that inftant arrived before the town; upon which You¬
kinna retired into the cattle with a confiderable body
of troops : but before this could be effefted, he was
obliged to fuftain an attack from the Arabs, in which
he loft 3000 men. The aftion was no fooner ended than
the inhabitants of Aleppo brought out forty of You¬
kinna’s men, and as a proof of their fidelity delivered
them into Abu Obeidah’s hands. Of thefe, feven em¬
braced Mahometanifm, and the reft were beheaded.
Immediately after Youkinna had {hut himfelf up in
the cattle, a council of war was held in the Moflem
camp, wherein it was deliberated what meafures were
to be purfued on the prefent occafion. Khaled gave it
as his opinion, that the cattle ought immediately to be
attacked with all the Arab forces, before the emperor
had time to fend them any afliftance. This advice was
followed by Abu Obeidah, who caufed the citadel to
be immediately invefted, and foon after he had fur-
rounded it with all his forces, made a moft vigorous af-
fault. The befieged defended themfelves with great
bravery, and after a very warm difpute drove the enemy
into their camp; and as they threw a great many ftones
out of their military engines, many of the Moflems
were killed, and a much greater number wounded. This
encouraged Youkinna to make a fally with a ftrong
party of the garrifon the following night. The fires
being then out in the Moflem camp, and the befiegers
not expefting fuch an unfeafonable vifit, 60 of them
were killed on the fpot, and 50 taken prifoners. You¬
kinna, however, being brifkly attacked by Khaled, who
foon drew together a body of troops to oppofe him, loft
about 100 men in his retreat. The next day, he caufed
the prifoners to be beheaded in fight of the Moflem
camp ; and, receiving advice that a ftrong party of A-
rabian cavalry was fent out to forage, he ordered a
body of his horfe to drive them to their camp ; which
they accordingly did, killed 130 of them, feized all
their camels, horfes, &c. and then retired to the moun¬
tains. Here they propofed to remain concealed till the
following night, and then return to the cattle; but
Abu Obeidah, being informed of what had happened,
detached
80
Aleppo fub-
mits to Abu
Obeidah.
81
Cruelty of
Youkiuna.
82
He is befie¬
ged in the
citadel.
A R A [ 564 ] A R A
A:rtSia- detached Khaled and Derar with a ho4y of troops to
purfue the Greeks, and revenge the late affront. Kha¬
led, being informed of the route the Chriftians had ta¬
ken, pofleffed himfelf of the only pafs by which they
could return to the caftle ; and, having ported there a
body of his men whofe courage he could depend upon,
took 300 of the Greeks prifoners as they attempted
to return, and put all the reft to the fword. The next
morning, to retaliate Youkinna’s cruelty, the prifoners
were ail brought out and beheaded in fight of the
83 garrifon.
roiis de"" Notwithftanding this difafter, Youkinna made fe-
fence. " veral fallies with good fuccefs, wherein he killed a
great number of the enemy, and harraffed them to
fuch a degree, that .Abu Obeidah found himfelf ob¬
liged, for his greater fecurity, to remove his camp to
about a mile’s diftance from the caftle ; by which ma¬
noeuvre he likewife hoped that Youkinna would be lefs
upon his guard. Herein, however, he found him¬
felf miftaken : for the Greek commander, by the pru¬
dent meafures he took, eluded all furprize ; and tho’
Abu Obeidah continued the fiege for four months af¬
ter the laft-mentioned blow given to the garrifon by
Khaled, yet he had fcarce any hopes of making himfelf
mafter of it at laft. Having nothing material to write to
the khalif, he remained a long time filent; at which O-
mar being very much concerned, wrote to him, defi¬
ring an account of the affairs in Syria. Abu Obeidah
acquainted him that the city of Aleppo had fubmitted
to him ; and that the citadel was the only place which
held out in all that country, before which he had loft a
great number ©f men, which, he faid, had induced him
to think of raifing the fiege, and moving with his ar¬
my in that track which lay between Antioch and A-
leppo. This news was by no means agreeable to the
khalif, who commanded his general to continue the fiege
at all events, and fent him a reinforcement of Arab
troops, together with 70 camels, to aifift the infantry
84 in their march.
takenCbtatlel Among the troops fent by Omar on this occafion,
ftratagem t^iere w-35 an Arab of a gigantic fize, called Dames,
who was a man of great courage and refolution. He
obferving the little progrefs made by the Modems, be¬
thought himfelf of a ftratagem by which that fortrefs
might be reduced, which feemed fo difficult to be ac-
■complifhed by force. He therefore defired that Abu
Obeidah would affign him the command of a party con-
fifting only of thirty men, which at Khaled’s requeft
was readily granted. Then he begged the general to
raife the fiege, and retire to about three miles diftance
from the caftle, which was likewife immediately com¬
plied with. The following night Dames, who had
ported himfelf with his party very near the citadel,
found means to feize a Greek, from whom he learned
that Youkinna, after the fiege was raifed, had exacted
large fums of money from the citizens, on account of
the treaty they had concluded with the Arabs; and
that he was one of thofe who had endeavoured to make
their efcape from the oppreffion of fuch a tyrant, by
Ibaping down from the wall. This man Dames took
underhis pro t eft ion; but beheaded five or fix others who
fell into his hands, and could give no good account of
themfelves. He then covered his head and fhoulders
with a goat’s fkin, and took a dry cruft in his hand,
creeping on the ground till he got clofe to the foot of
the wall. If he heard any noife, or fufpefted any Arabia-, I
perfon to be near, he made fuch a noife with his cruft ' f
as a dog does when he is gnawing a bone ; his compa¬
nions fometimes walking, and fometimes creeping after
him in the fame manner. He had before difpatched
two of his men to Abu Obeidah, to defire that a de¬
tachment of horfe might be fent him by break of day,
to fupport his fmall party, and facilitate the execution
of the plan he had formed. At laft Dames found
an opportunity of raifing feven men upon his thoul-
ders, who flood one upon another’s (boulders in fuch
a manner that the higheft reached the top of the
wTall. Here he foon placed himfelf, feized a watch¬
man whom he found afleep, and threw him over the j
wall. Two others, whom he found in the fame condi¬
tion, he ftabbed with his dagger, and threw them over
likewife. Then he laid down his turbant, and drew
up the fecond of his brethren, as they two did the
third, and by their help Dames himfelf and all the
reft were enabled to mount the wall. He then private¬
ly {tabbed the centry at each of the gates, and put
his men in pofleffion of every one of them. The fol-
diers of the garrifon, however, were at laft alarmed,
and furrounded the Arabs, who were on the point of
periling, when Khaled appeared at the head of a de¬
tachment of cavalry. On fight of that general, who
was now grown terrible to the Chriftians, the befieged
threw down their arms and furrendered at diferetion. 8j
Youkinna and fome of the principal officers turned Youldnna’s
Mahometans, in order to fave their poffeffions; and the aP°ftaer*
caftle, being taken by ftorm, was pillaged by the
Modems. Dames acquired great glory by this exploit;
and, out of complaifance to him. the army did not de¬
camp from Aleppo till he and his men were perfeftly
cured of their wounds.
After the reduftion of the citadel of Aleppo, Abu
Obeidah intended to march to Antioch; hut was di¬
verted by Youkinna, who was now become a violent
enemy to the Chriftians. He told the Modem gene¬
ral, that his conqueft of that part of the country would
not be complete without the reduftion of Azaz, a
place of great importance, where Theodorus, Youkin¬
na’s coufin-german, was commandant. This fortrefs he
propofed to become mafter of, by putting himfelf at
the head of 100 Arab horfe dreffed in the Greek habit,
who were to attend him to Azaz. Upon his arrival
there, he was to aflure Theodorus that he was ftill in
reality a Chriftian, and had taken that opportunity to
efcape from the Modem camp. But, to make his fto-
ry more probable, Abu Obeidah was to fend after him
a detachment of 1000 horfe, who were to purfue him
as far as Morah, a village in the neighbourhood of
Azaz, with orders to port themfelves there; from
whence, if fuch a meafure Ihould be found neceffary,
they might eafily advance to Azaz, to facilitate the
conqueft of that place. To this fcheme Abu Obeidah
agreed; but Youkinna with all his men were immedi¬
ately taken prifoners by Theodorus, who had been in¬
formed of the whole affair by a fpy in the Modem
camp, who had fent him a letter by a pigeon. The
fortrefs, however, was foon reduced, and Youkinna re- gg ,
gained his liberty ; but was foon after taken prifoner a He is takesw
fecond time, and brought before his old mafter Hera- prifoner anqu
clius, who then redded at Antioch. He told the em- f,™e H^ra-ft
peror, that he had only pretended to embrace Maho- ci;USi ■
metanifm, ji
A R A [ 565 ^ ] A R A
Arabia, metanifm, in order to be able to do his Imperial Ma-
' jefty the more effential fervice ; and fo far gained upon
him, that he was foon after appointed governor of that
city ; the confequence of which was, that the Arabs
87 were put in poffeffion of it by his treachery.
Attempt to The emperor being quite diflieartened at his conti-
Ornar'mif- nua^ fticcefs, it was fuggefted to him by the king
carries. Ghaffan, who had fled to him for refuge, as we
have already obferved, that, however defperate his af¬
fairs might be, they would be perfedflly reftored by the
aflafiination of the khalif. This piece of fervice he
undertook to perform for the emperor ; and difpatch-
ed one Wathek Ebn Mofafer, an Arab of his tribe,
and a refolute young man, to Medina for that purpofe.
Wathek, feme time after his arrival there, having ob¬
ferved the khalif to fall afleep under a tree, on which he
had placed himfelf fo as not to be obferved by any
one, drew his dagger, and was upon the point of ftab-
bing him ; but, as the Arab writers tell us, he was de¬
terred by a lion, who walked round the khalif, and lick¬
ed his feet till he awoke, after which he inftantly went
away. This ftruck Wathek with a profound reve¬
rence for Omar;. he came down from his tree where he
had been confined by the lion, confefled his defign, and
88 embraced the Mahometan religion.
defeated*^ Soon after the reduction of Antioch, Abu Obeidah
fent an account of his fuccefs to Omar; and receiving
an order to invade the mountainous parts of Syria, he
afked his general officers which of them would com¬
mand the body of troops deflined for that purpofe.
One Meifarah Ebn Mefrouk having offered his fervice,
the general gave him a black ftandard, with the fol¬
lowing infcription upon it in white letters, “ There is
but one God ; Mahomet is the Apoftle of God.”
The body affigned him for this purpofe confiffed of
300 Arabs, and 1000 black flaves commanded by
Dames. Meifarah, at the head of his troops, with
fome difficulty afcended the mountains, and, with
much more, advanced to that part where the emperor’s
forces wrere polled. The cold was fo intenfe on the
fummits of thofe mountains, that the Arabs, who had
been accuftomed to a warm climate, could hardly bear
it. For fome time they could not meet with a Angle
perfoh to give them intelligence of the enemy’s mo¬
tions ; but at lall they took a Greek prifoner, who in¬
formed them, that the imperial army, which confifted
of 30,000 men, lay encamped on a fpot not three
leagues diflant. The prifoner refufing to profefs Ma-
hometanifm, they cut off his head, and then marched
towards the imperial camp. The Greeks, hearing of
their approach, advanced to meet them; and the Mof-
lems being furrounded on all fides, were on the point
of being all cut off, when Khaled appeared at the head
of 3000 horfe, and after him Ayab Ebn Ganem with
2000 more. At the approach of the horfe under the
command of the terrible Khaled, the Greeks retired,
leaving all their tents, together with their rich furni¬
ture and effefts, to the Arabs. In this engagement,
one of Omar’s chief favourites, named Abdallah Ebn
Hodafa, was taken prifoner, and fent direftly to Con-
ftantinople. The khalif was fo much concerned at
8!) this, that he fent a letter to Heraclius, defiring his re-
Omar’s dif- leafe ; which the emperor not only complied with, but
intcrefted- made him many valuable prefents, fending at the fame
nefs. tjme a jewel of immenfe value as a prefent to thekha-
Vol. I.
lif. This Omar offered to the jewellers of Medina, Arabia,
but they were ignorant of its value: the Moflems
therefore begged him to keep it for his own ufe ; but
this he faid he could not be anfwerable for to the pub¬
lic. It was therefore fold, and the money depofited in
the public treafury.
About this time alfo, Khaled advanced with a bo¬
dy of troops as far as the Euphrates, and took Man-
bij, Beraa, Bales or Balis, exa&ing of the inhabitants
100,000 dinars for their prefent fecurity, and impofing
on them an annual tribute for the future. He alfo
made himfelf mafter of Raaban, Dulouc, Korus, the
Cyrus or Cyrrhus of the ancients, and feveral other
fortified towns, nothing being now able to Hand before
him. Amru Ebn A1 As now likewife prepared for
the reducing fome places in Paleftine that ftill held out.
While he remained in this province, he had a conference
with Conftantine the emperor’s ft>n, who endeavoured
to perfuade him to make peace with the Chriftians;
but this he not agreeing to, unlefs they would confent
to pay tribute, all hopes of an accommodation vanifli-
ed, and the generals on both fides prepared to enter
upon action. In the mean time an officer came from
the Chriftian camp, dreffed in very rich apparel, who
challenged the ftouteft man among the Moflems to fight
him in lingle combat. The challenge was accepted
by a young Arab officer of Yaman; who being ani¬
mated by a notion, derived from the prophet himfelf,
that “ the fpirits of the martyrs reft in the crops of
green birds, that eat of the fruits and drink of the ri¬
vers of paradife,” difeovered an uncommon eagernefs
to encounter his enemy. But the Chriftian officer not
only killed this youth, but two or three more of the
Moflems who came to his affiftance. He was then at¬
tacked by Serjabil Ebn Hofanah, one of the generals,
but a man fo weakened by fading, that he could fcarce
Hand before him, and would therefore have been un- Account of
doubtedly killed, had not a Greek horfeman very op- Toleiha the
portunely interpofed, and with one blow of his fey- Pr°-
mitar cut off the Chriftian’s head. Serjabil, greatly p^et*
furprized at this deliverance, alked the horfeman who
he was, and from whence he came; to which he replied
in the following terms: “ I am the unfortunate To¬
leiha Ebn Khowaid, who fet up for a prophet, and,
lying againft God, pretended to infpiration.” In con¬
fequence of having faved his life, Serjabil introduced
him to Amru; and writing a letter to Omar, wherein he
acquainted him with the fignal proof Toleiha had gi¬
ven of his repentance, he obtained his pardon from the
khalif.
Though the two armies did not come to a general
engagement, yet they had frequent fkirmilhes, in which
the Arabs always got the better, and in fome the Greeks
fuffered very confiderably. This, together with the fe-
verity of the feafon, which was then uncommonly cold,
fo deje&ed the foldiery, that they began to defert in
great numbers. Conftantine therefore, finding his troops
to diminiffi daily, and the Arabs to grow ftronger and
ftronger, took the advantage of a tempeftuous night to
efcape to Cssfarea, which Yezid had not been able to
take, leaving his camp to be plundered by the enemy. SJ
This city was foon after invefted by Amru; and at the Yonkinna
fame time Youkinna, having made himfelf mafter of takes Tri-
Tripoli by treachery, feized 50 fhips from Cyprus and P°^‘
Crete, which carried a fupply of arms and provifions for
4 B the
A R A [ 566 ] A R A
'Arallia- the emperor’s troops and had entered the port with¬
out knowing that the Arabs were matters of the town.
With thefe fhips he undertook an expedition againft
Tyre; and, telling the inhabitants that he brought a
fupply of arms and provifions for Conftantine’s army,
he was admitted into the town, and received with great
kindnefs. Here, however, he had not been long before
he was difcovered by one of his own foldiers, and put
under arreft, with 900 of his men. He was however
fet at liberty by thofe to whofe care he was committed;
Tyre and and then opened the gates of the town to Yezid, by
Cadarea re- whom it had been invefted. Conftantine, having got
dnced.. intelligence at Caefarea of thelofs of Tripoli and Tyre,
was fo dilheartened, that he fet fail from that city with
all his family and the greateft part of his wealth; and
the citizens then thought proper to make the beft
terms they could with Amru. The furrender of this
city was followed by that of all the other cities and
fortrefles in the province; and thus the Arabs drove
the Greeks out of the whole country of Syria extend¬
ing from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates. This
conqueft was completed in the 18rh year of the Hegi-
P3 ra, fix years after it had been undertaken.
Violent This year, there happened fuch violent ftorms of hail
ue’ &'• t^lc Penin^u^a Arabs, that a confiderable extent
S ’ 'of territory was laid watte by them, and a great num¬
ber of animals of various kinds deftroyed. An epide¬
mical dittemper likewife raged at Medina, which fpread
itfelf all over the neighbouring territory, and fwept
away great numbers of people. Syria alfo was vifited
by a dreadful plague; fo that the Moflems loft there
25,000 men, among whom were Abu Obeidah him-
felf, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, Serjabil, and many other
peribns of diftin&ion. In fhort, fo great was the mor¬
tality occafioned by the plague, both in Arabia and
Syria, that the Arabs ftile the 18th year of the Hegi-
94 ra the year of dejlruftion.
Egypt re- Amru Ebn A1 As, having now executed the khalif’s
duced. orders in Syria, fet out on his expedition againft Egypt.
His firft attempt was on Tarma, a town lituated on the
ifthmus of Suez. This he reduced after a month’s
fiege; and having narrowly viewed its fituation, he
formed a defign of cutting through the ifthmus, and
thus joining the Mediterranean and Red fea : but this
roje& was not well relifhed by the khalif, who appre-
ended that it would facilitate the entrance of the
Chriftians into the peninfula of Arabia. From Tarma
he marched to Mefr, the Memphis of the ancient geo¬
graphers; which, after a fiege of feven months, was de¬
livered up to him by the treachery of A1 Mokawkas
the governor. From Mefr he continued his march to¬
wards Alexandria, and, having defeated the emperor’s
army, clofely invefted that city. While his army lay be¬
fore this capital, Amru himfelf had the misfortune to
be taken prifoner and carried into the town. Being
brought before the governor, he afked him why he
committed fuch ravages and depredations in the Chri-
ftian territories ? To this Amru refolutely anfwered,
“ We are come hither fo oblige you either to profefs
Mahometanifm,. or pay an annual tribute to the kha¬
lif ; te one of which conditions you mutt fubmit, or be
all of you put to the fword.” A Greek who ftood by,,
hearing this, told the governor, that Amru was cer¬
tainly the Modem general, and therefore defired him
to cut off his head. Upon this, Werdan, one of Am-
ru’s Haves, perceiving the extreme danger his matter Arabia,
was in, gave him a box on the ear, exclaiming againft
his impudence for talking in fuch a manner. The go¬
vernor, being impofed upon by this (hallow artifice,
not only faved his life, but, to (hew his generofity, dif-
miffed him without ranfom. This was foon followed by
the lofs of Alexandria, and that by the conqueft of the
whole kingdom : after which, Amru difpatched Okba -
Ebn Nafe, with a body of troops, to penetrate farther
into Africa ; and that general made himfelf mailer of pS
all the country lying between Barka and Zoweilah, re- Together
ducing under his dominion alfo that part of the conti- w>th Barca
nent which now forms the piratical kingdom of Tri- “"dTripoli,
poli in Barbary.
Soon after the Modems had made themfelves mafters
of Alexandria, a grievous famine raged in Arabia, par¬
ticularly at Medina, then the refidence of the khalif.
This obliged Omar to write to Amru to fend him a
fupply of corn, with which Egypt at that time abound¬
ed. In compliance with this order, Amru fent a train
of camels laden with corn, in a continued line from E-
gypt to Medina, the lirft of which were entering Me¬
dina when the laft were leaving Alexandria. But this
method of conveying corn proving too tedious and ex-
penfive, he ordered him to clear the Amnis Trajanus
of Ptolemy, now the Khalis, which runs from one end
of Cairo to the other, of the fand and gravel with which
it was choked. This he accordingly did, and by that
means rendered the communication between Egypt and
Arabia much more eafy than it had formerly been. p(j
While the Arabs thus extended their conquefts in The Fer¬
tile weft, they were no lefs fuccefsful in the eaft. We flans defeat-
have already taken notice of Khaled’s having been fent e<*'
into Irak to reduce the kingdom of Hira, and of his
being recalled to affift in the conqueft of Syria. As
the kings of Hira were under the protedlion of the
Perfian monarchs, the deftrudlien of that kingdom ne-
ceffarily brought on a war with the Perfians. After
the departure of Khaled, the command of the forces
was left with Abu Obeid Ebn Mafud, together with
A1 Mothanna Ebn Haretha, Amru Ebn Hafem, and
Salit Ebn Kis. Abu Obeid having paffed a river, con¬
trary to the advice of the other generals, was killed,
and his troops in great danger; however, A1 Mothanna
made an excellent retreat, and repaffed the river with¬
out any conliderable lofs. After this he fortified him¬
felf in his camp till he received a confiderable reinforce¬
ment from the khalif; when the Modem army marched
to Dir Hind, and thence continued to make frequent
excurfions, ravaging that part of Irak that lay next to
the Euphrates. A body of 12,000 chofen horfe was now
difpatched againft thofe invaders, under the command
of one Mahran. At firft the Perfians had the advan¬
tage, and obliged the Arabs to retire; but they were
foon brought back by A1 Mothanna, and the battle
lafted from noon till funfet. At laft A1 Mothanna, en-
gaging Mahran in fingle combat, laid him dead at his
feet; upon which the Perfians fled to A1 Madayen, a
town fituated on the Tigris, about a day’s journey from
Bagdad. After this a powerful army was difpatched by
the Perfians under the command of one Ruftam; but he
alfo was killed, and his troops were entirely difperfed.
At the fame time, Abu Mufa, another Modem general,
defeated a formidable body of troops under the com¬
mand of A1 Harzaman, a noble Perfian, at Ahwaz.
Not
A R A [ 567 ] A R A
Incredible
ireafure ta¬
ken from
them.
98
Mefopota-
mia redu¬
ced.
O "
Not content with thofe vi&ories, foon after the re-
du&ion of Damafcus, the khalif difpatched Saad Ebn
Abu Wakkas, to diflodge the Perfians from fome dif-
tricfs they poffefred in the neighbourhood of the Eu¬
phrates. Saad having drawn together a body of 12,000
men, advanced to Kadefia, a city bordering upon
the defarts of Irak ; where having utterly defeated an
army of 120,000 Perfians, he made hitnfelf mailer of
the opulent dity of A1 Madayen, and poflefied himfelf
of Yezd^jerd’s treafure; which was fo rich, if we may
believe the Arabian writers, that Saad took out of it
three thoufand millions of dinars, amounting to two
thoufand and twenty-five millions of pounds iterling,
an enormous andalmoll incredible fum. From thence
Saad went to that part of the palace where the king’s
plate was depofited, which he carried off, as well as an
immenfe quantity of camphire with which another part
of the palace was entirely filled. This laft the Arabs
feem to have carried off merely, for the fake of plun¬
dering, as they were fo much unacquainted with the
nature of it, that they mixed it with their bread, which
gave it a bitter and difagreeable tafte. Afterwards the
Arab general carried off the crown and royal garments,
adorned with gold and jewels of ineftimable value.
He alfo plundered his armoury, which was well ftored
with all forts of weapons; after which he caufed the
roof of his porch to be opened, where he found ano¬
ther treafure equal in value to ten million? of crowns.
He alfo found among the furniture of the palace, a
piece of filk tapeftry, 60 cubits fquare, which was ad¬
orned with a great variety of beautiful flowers, herbs,
and plants, formed of gold, filver, and jewels the moil
valuable that could be procured. This being brought
to Omar, he cut it in pieces, and diflributed it among
the Moilems ; and that part which fell to All’s (hare,
and which was yet none of the bell, he fold for 20,000
crowns.
In the twentieth or twenty-firft year of the Hegira,
the Arabs, ilill unfated with conqueft, invaded Me-
fopotamia under Aiyad Ebn Ganem, where the city
of Edeifa fubmitted on the firil fummohs. From E-
deffa he marched to Conftantia, or Conftantina, fup-
pofed to be the Nicephorium of the ancients. This
he took by florm, as likewife Daras, where he mafla-
cred all the people he found in the place; and thefe
repeated fuccefies fo terrified the reft of the fortified
towns, that they all fubmitted without refiftance. At
the fame time A1 Mogheirah Ebn Shaaba, one of the
khalif’s commanders, made himfelf mafter of Shiz, a
place famous for the birth of Zerdufht the Perfian
philofopher, and over-ran the whole province of Ader-
bijan. He alfo poffefied himfelf of all the country of
x\rmenia bordering on mount Taurus; nay, he in a
manner obliged the whole region to own the authority
of the khalif, and penetrated into Cappadocia. The
fame year alfo Saad made himfelf mafter of Ahwaz, the
capital of Khuzeftan (the ancient Sufiana); in confe-
quence of which he became mafter of the greateft part,
if not the whole, of that province; at the fame time
that A1 Nooman conquered the greateft: part of Kho-
' rafan. But while Omar’s troops were thus irrefiftibly
over-running the fineft countries in the known world,
a period was put to his conquefts and his life, by a
Perfian named Abu Lulua, who ftabbed him thrice in
the belly, while he was performing his devotions at
Medina. The reafon of this was becaufe the khalif Arabia,
refufed to remit him fome part of the tribute which “
according to the Mahometan cuftom he was obliged
to pay for the free exercife of his religion. The A-
rabs, perceiving that he had killed their fovereign, im¬
mediately rufhed upon him ; but the aflaffin defended
himfelf fo defperately, that he killed feven of them and
wounded 13 : but at lafl one of the khalif’s attendants
threw his veil over him, and feized him; upon which
he ftabbed himfelf, and foon after expired.
Omar, having languifhed three days after the wounds
given him by the Perfian, expired in the 10th, 11th, or
12th year of his reign, and after his death Othman Ebn succeeded
Affan was chofen ; though Ali had a better title, and by Othman.
feems indifputably to have been the moil virtuous* if
not the bnly virtuous perfon, as well as thebraveft wa-
riour among them. He was inaugurated in the 34th
year of the Hegira, nearly coincident wu’th the year
of our Lord 645.
Othman was no fooner fettled on the throne, than
he commanded A1 Mogheirah to complete the conqueft
of the territory of Hamadan ; which he eafily accom-
plilhed, and at the fame time reduced Bira, a ftrong
caftle in Mefopotamia, which either had never fubmitted,
or had revolted on the departure of the Moflem troops
out of that province. Another army, under Abdallah
Ebn Amar, was alfo difpatched into Perfia, to deprive
Yezdejerd of the poor remains of his dominions 5 and
this was done fo effe&ually, that the unhappy monarch
was obliged to fly to Sijeftan and abandon Perfia alto¬
gether.
In the 27th year of the Hegira, the ifland of Cy¬
prus was reduced by Moawiyah; who foon after con¬
quered the ifland of Aradus, and took Ancyra; after
which he reduced the ifland of Rhodes, broke in pieces r .
the famous Coloffus, and fold the metal of it to a Jew Rhodes* de-
of Edefla. In the mean time, another of the Arab com- ftroyed.
manders entered Ifauria, where he committed dreadful
depi-edations, plundering many towns and villages, put¬
ting a great number of people to the fword, and Car¬
rying off 5000 prifoners. In the 31st year of the He¬
gira, one Habib, having made an irruption into that
part of Armenia which was ftill unconquered, defeat¬
ed a body of the emperor’s troops, purfuing them as
far as mount Caucafus, and laying wafte all the neigh¬
bouring ten-itory. About the fame time alfo, Abul
Abar, who had been conftituted admiral by Moawiyah,
gave the emperor Conftans a fignal defeat by fea, on
the coaft of Lycia, in which fuch a number, of Chri-
ftians were killed, that the neighbouring fea w’as dyed
with their blood. I02,
But while Othman w’as thus carrying every thing ir- InfbrrecH-
refiftibly before him abroad, he negledled to fecure a"s agpmft
the affe&ions of his fubjefts at home, which foon pro- 1 6 ha 1 '
ved his ruin. Sedition was induftrioufly propagated
through all the provinces of the empire, and articles of
accufation brought againft the khalif. The chief of
thefe were, That he had recalled one who had been ba-
nifhed by the prophet; that he had removed Saad, an
officer of diilinguifhed bravery, and fupplied his place
by one who drank wine, and was otherwife of a fcan-
dalous life ; that he had fquandered away vaft fums a-
mong his favourites ; that he had removed Amru from
the government of Egypt, to which he had preferred
his own fofter-brother; and, laftly, that he had pre-
4 B 2 fumed
A R A [ 568 ] A R A
Arabia, fumed to fit on the top of Mahomet’s pulpit, whereas
Abu Beer had always fat on the higheft ftep, and Omar
on the loweft. To this formidable accufation the poor
khalif pleaded guilty, and promifed to make all the re¬
paration in his power; but his condefcenfion only fer-
ved to increafe the infolence of the rebels. They were
however appeafed by Ali; and public tranquillity had
undoubtedly been reftored, had it not been for Ayefha,
one of Mahomet’s widows, who procured the deftruc-
tion of the khalif by a fcheme truly worthy of the wife
of fuch an huiband. That traitrefs, being defirous of
raifing one of her favourites named Telha to the digni¬
ty of khalif, prevailed on Merwan thefecretary offtate
to write a letter to the prefect of Egypt, enjoining him
to put to death Mahomet Ebn Abu Beer, with whom
it was fent, and who was to be his fucceffor. This
letter Merwan took care Ihould be difeovered; and Ma¬
homet taking it for a genuine order of the khalif, pu-
bliihed the fuppofed injury all over the neighbouring
countries. He then marched with a body of rebels to
Medina, where the innocent khalif was befieged in his
palace; and, notwithftanding all his proteftations, no¬
thing lefs than his death could fatisfy the enraged mul¬
titude. In this deplorable fituation, Othman fent to
Ali for affiftance, who commanded his two fons Hafan
and Hofein to defend the palace-gates. This they did
for fome time with fidelity enough, till finding the
khalif reduced to great ftraits for want of water, they
abandoned their polls; upon which the rebels eafily
103 made themfelves mailers of the palace, and cruelly
He is mur- murdered the khalif, in the 82d year of his age, after
toed. he had reigned 12 year's. His body remained three
days unburied; and was at lall thrown into a hole made
for it, without the ufual ablution, or the leaft funeral
folemnity.
The arms of the Moflems had hitherto been fo fuc-
cefsful, and their conquells fo rapid, that they may
feem not only to have vied with Alexander, but to have
bid fairer for univerfal monarchy than any nation ei¬
ther before or fince.—The ruin of mighty empires al¬
ways originates from the impolfibility of keeping them
united. Divifions arife; civil wars break out; and the
kingdom being weakened by thefe intelline feuds, the
common enemies take advantage of them to ruin the
whole fabrick.—If we confider Mahomet, as in truth
he was, not as an enthufiall, but as a politician, and
the founder of an empire; we lhall find him, in that
capacity, fuperior perhaps to any that ever exifted.
The empire of Alexander the great, which arofe with
Hill more rapidity than that of the Arabs, had nofup-
port but from his own ambition and perfonal qualifi¬
cations. While he lived, he was without a rival, be-
caufe all were afraid of him ; but when he died, the
bands of union, whereby his empire had been held to¬
gether, were immediately diffolved. His captains were
not infpired with the fame veneration for his fon, who
was unborn at the time of his death, that they had for
his father; and therefore they fought not to conquer
for him, but for themfelves; and the confequence was,
that the kingdom fell to pieces the moment that he
died. The fame thing happened to the empires of
Jenghiz Khan, Tamerlane, and others, who made vail
conquells in a Ihort time. They eredled mighty em¬
pires indeed; but their duration, we may fay, was but
momentary.. The empire of the Romans was founded
on a kind of enthufiaflic defire of aggrandizing the city Arabia,
of Rome : patriotifrn became falhionable ; and as the 1 i!
city never ceafed to exift, thofe who conquered always
had the fame end in view, namely to exalt the republic
more and more. This empire therefore was not only
very extenfive, but very durable; though, as it was im-
poffible that mankind could always continue to vene¬
rate a city, the fame divifions that ruined other em¬
pires, at lall brought this to an end.—The foundation
of Mahomet’s empire feemed to be Hill more firm. He
was not only the king, but, we may fay, the God of
his people. Whatever enthufiafm people may Ihew in
defending their country, nay even their neareft rela¬
tions, experience has taught us, that it is greatly infe¬
rior to what is Ihewn by thofe who fight in defence of
religion. This enthufiafm Mahomet had taken care,
not only to bring over to his fide, but to exalt to its
highell pitch, by inculcating upon his followers, that
their rewards in the next world Ihould be proportion-
able to the fury with which they fought in this. To
live at peace, except with thofe who fubmitted to his
will, did not at all enter into his plan; and he who
made no conquells, or at leall did not llrive to make
them, was no true believer. By this means, let his
empire be ever fo much extended, the temptation to
making frelh conquells was Hill equally llrong; and not
only the commanders of armies, but every private per-
fon, had the moll powerful motives to urge him towards
the conquell of the whole world, had that been pof-
fible.—The only thing Mahomet feems to have failed Caufes of
in, was the appointment of the fucceflion to the apollle- the decline 1 j
Ihip; and why he was deficient in this, is inconceivable. of t*ie M°f-
From this one fource proceeded the divifions which *em emPire~
ruined his empire when it was fcarce ere£led, and of
which we are now to give the hillory.
Tho’ the prophet had been fo deficient in providing
for the fafety of his kingdom as not to name a fuccef-
for at his death; yet his fon-in-law Ali was always of
opinion, that the fucceffion belonged of right to him ;
and that it ought to be, like that of other kingdoms, he- charaaerof
reditary. This difpofition to render the apoltlelhip he- All.
reditary in his family, was, in all probability, what dif-
gulled the Modems with Ali; againll whom they could
otherwife have no objedlion: for he was endowed with
every amiable quality; a firm believer in Mahomet; and
of fuch unparallelled ftrength and courage, that he
never declined a combat to which he was challenged,
nor ever failed to come off victorious ; for which rea-
fon he was ftiled by his countrymen, “ the Lion of
God.’’
On the death of Othman, however, notwithftanding
the prejudices againft Ali, as none could pretend fo I0(j, I
good a right to the khalifat as he, the Arabs imme- He is chofe»>l|
diately took the oath of allegiance to him, tho’ with khalif. j
an intention to break it as foon as poffible, as was fully
evinced by the event. The dilturbances which hap¬
pened immediately on All’s acceffion were owing part¬
ly to the machinations of Ayelha, who, having got
Othman murdered on purpofe to raife Telha to the dig¬
nity of khalif, and now finding Ali unanimoufly cho-
fen, refolved to deftroy him alfo. She therefore pre¬
tended great concern for the death of the late khalif,
and accufed Ali of being his murderer: but being re¬
proved by one of the Moflems for endeavouring to
blacken an innocent perfon, when ftie could not but
know.
A R A [ 569 ] A R A
■j Arabia, know herfelf guilty; fhe replied, that Othman’s infide¬
lity had indeed made her his enemy, but that Ihe had
forgiven him upon his repentance. At the time of A-
li’s inauguration fhe was at Mecca, where fhe enjoyed
Diftm-ban- a very confiderable fhare of influence and authority.
Ices raifed by -At her inftigation, Telha Ebn .Obeidallah, andZobeir
J Ayefha, Ebn A1 Awam, began to reprefent to Ali, that the
murderers of Othman ought to be brought to condign
punifhment; offering themfelves at the fame time for
that purpofe. This they did purely to fow diffenfion,
for they themfelves had been deeply concerned in the
murder; and Ali, fufficiently aware of their intention,
told them it was impoflible till the empire fhould be
more fettled. Finding themfelves difappointed in this
attempt, they next begged the government of Cufa and
Bafra, that they might with the greater facility extin-
guifh any rebellion that fhould happen. Here again
Ali was aware of their intention ; and refufed their re-
queft, under pretence that he flood in need of perfons
of their great capacity, as counfellors, about his per-
fon. Then they defired leave to perform a pilgrimage
to Mecca, which the khalif could not refufe; and they
were no fooner got there, than they fet about rai-
fing an army againft him without any provocation
, io9 at a,1\
1 And Moa- This, however, was not the only fource of difcord
| jwiyah. at prefent. Ali had been difpleafed with the gover¬
nors of provinces appointed by Othman ; and therefore
difmiffed them immediately upon his acceflion. This
was very impolitic; but he was prompted to it by that
rafhnefs and want of prudence which is infeparable
from, or rather is the very effence of, great courage.
The confequence of this was, that Moawiyah, gover¬
nor of Syria, was, immediately upon his difmifiion by
Ali, proclaimed khalif by the troops under his com¬
mand.—Thus the Modems were divided into two fac¬
tions ; the one, under Moawiyah and Ayefha, who ad¬
hered to the houfe-of Ommiyah, to which Othman and
Moawiyah belonged; and the other, to Ali. The ad¬
herents of the houfe of Ommiyah were called Motaza-
t 105 Utes, orJeparatifis.
Ali raifes an Ali finding how matters were fituated, and that a
isriny. very ftrong party was formed againft him, endeavoured
to ingratiate himfelf as much as poffible with the Ko-
reifh; and to raife an army againft Ayefha, who had
now taken the field, and even reduced the city of Bafra.
He made a formal fpeech to the people on hearing this
bad news, and defired their affiftance. But tho’ he was
very much beloved on account of his perfonal merit, and
the beft orator of the age, he could not with all his e-
loquence for fome time prevail on them to give a de-
cifive anfwer in his favour. At laft Ziyad Ebn Hante-
lah ftept to Ali of his own accord, and faid, “ Who-
foever retreats, we will advance.” Upon this two An-
fars, dodlors of the law, flood up, and pronounced Ali
innocent of the death of Othman ; which decifiqn
foon induced the Anfars and the body of the people
to efpoufe his quarrel. He then left Medina with a
body of 900 men, and advanced to Arrabah, where
he was joined by feveral other parties. From this place
he wrote to the people of Cufa and Medina, preffing
them to fend him farther affiftance, and to difpofe the
Motazalites to an accommodation. From Medina he
very foon obtained a large fupply of horfes, arms, and
other neceffaries; and from Cufa he obtainedwith dif¬
ficulty a reinforcement of 8000 men. , Arabia.
Being greatly animated by this feafonable fupply,
Ali advanced towards Bafra, where the troops of A-
yefha were ready to receive him. Both parties feemed
averfe to an engagement; and Ayefha began to be very
much intimidated at the fight of Ali’s army, which,
however, was inferior to her own : but, by fome means no
or other, a battle was at laft brought about, in which He defeats
Ayefha was defeated and taken prifoner. The only and *akes.
remarkable effort that was made by the troops of Aye- prI"
fha in this engagement, was in defence of her perfon.
It is faid, that no fewer than 70 men who held her camel
by the bridle, had their hands cut off fucceffively; and
that the pavilion in which fhe fat was fo full of darts
and arrows, that it refembled a porcupine. Ayefha
was treated very kindly by Ali, who at firfl fet her at
liberty, but afterwards confined her to her houfe at
Medina, and commanded her to interfere no more with
ftate-affairs, though he ftill allowed her to perform the
pilgrimage to Mecca.
After this viftory, Ali had no enemies to contend
with either in Arabia, Irak, Egypt, Perfia, or Khora-
fan. A ftrong party, however, ftill remained in Sy¬
ria, headed by Moawiyah, who founded his claims to
the khalifat on a pretended declaration of Otbman that
he fhould be his fucceffor. In this defe&ion he was-
joined by Amru Ebn A1 As, who had obtained a pro-
mife of the government of Egypt, provided Moawiyah
could be advanced to the dignity of khalif.
Ali, with his ufual good-nature, endeavoured to bring
the rebels to a fenfe of their duty, and often fent pro-
pofals of accommodation to Moawiyah; but he ftill re¬
mained inflexible. Perceiving, therefore, that it would
be neceffary to invade Syria, he entered that country
with an army of 70,000 men, while Moawiyah ad¬
vanced to meet him with 80,000; and by repeated rein¬
forcements Ali’s army at laft amounted to 90,000, and
and Moawiyah’s to 120,000. The two armies came
in fight of each other towards the clofe of the 36th
year of the Hegira, when they feemed ready to en¬
ter upon adlion; but only fome fkirmifhes happened
between them, wherein neither party fuftained any con¬
fiderable lofs. The firft month of the 37th year was
fpent in fruitlefs negociations; but in the fecond month
they began to fight in different parties, without ever
hazarding a general engagement. Thefe battles con¬
tinued, according to fome, for forty days, and accord¬
ing to others, an hundred and ten. Moawiyah’s lofs
amounted to 45,000 men, and Ali’s to 25,000, among
whom were 26 who had been intimately acquainted
with Mahomet himfelf, and were dignified with the
title of The companions. The moll famous of thefe was
Ammar Ebn Yafer, Ali’s general of horfe, who was
upwards of 90 years of age, and was highly efteemed
by both parties. The lofs of this general fo exafpe-
rated Ali, that he charged the Syrians with a body of
12,000 men, broke them, and challenged Moawiyah Moau'iyafv
to fight him in fingle combat. This challenge Moa- challenged
wiyah declined, infilling that it was not a fair one, t0 a Angle
as Ali could not but be fenfible of his fuperiority in
ftrength. As the challenge was given in the hearing
of both armies, Amru infilled that Moawiyah could
not in honour refufe it ; but the coward made no other
reply than that Amru afpired to the khalifat him¬
felf, and wanted to enjoy it after his death. The
battle.
AmruV
ftratagem.
AH dcpofed.
He defeats
the Khare-
jitss.
A R A
[ 57° ]
A R A
battle being now reneveed with great fury, Moawiyah’s
forces were pufhed to their camp ; which had certainly
been taken, had not Amru bethought himfelf of the
following ftratagem to retrieve Moawiyah’s affairs,
when he feemed on the very brink of deftru£lion. He
ordered fome of his men to fix copies of the Koran to
the points of their lances, and carry them to the front
of the battle, crying out at the fame time, “ This is
the book that ought to decide all differences between
us; this is the book of God between us and you, that
abfolutely prohibits the effufion of Modem blood.”—
This produced the defired effect. The khalif’s troops
threw down their arms, and even threatened him wfith
death if he did not found a retreat: which he therefore
found himfelf obliged to do, and thus had a decifive
victory wrefted out of his hands.
According to this new mode of decifion, the two par¬
ties were each to choofe their arbitrator; but even this
was not allowed to Ali, though Moawiyah had liberty
to choofe Amru Ebn A1 As. The troops of Irak, not
content with offering fo grofs an affront to the khalif,
infifted on naming for his arbitrator Abu Mufa A1
Afhavi; a very weak man, and one who had already
betrayed him. The confequence of this appointment
was, that, Ali was depofed by both the arbitrators; and
he accordingly dropt his title to the khalifat, but with¬
out laying down his arms, or putting himfelf in Moa¬
wiyah’s power.
After this decifion, Ali retired to Cufa; where he was
no fooner arrived, than 12,000 of thefe troops who bad
themfelves forced him to accept of the arbitration, pre¬
tending to be offended with the ftep he had taken, re¬
volted from him. Thefe were called Kharejites, that is,
rebels or revolters; and Mohakkcmites, or judiciarians,
becaufe they affirmed that Ali had referred to the judg¬
ment of men what ought to have been only referred
to the judgment of God; and, therefore, that inftead
of keeping the peace he had made with Moawiyah ;
he ought to purfue his enemies, who were likewife the
enemies of God, without mercy. To this Ali re¬
plied, That as he had given his word, he ought to keep
it; and, in fo doing, he only followed what was prefcri-
bed by the law of God. The Kharejites replied, That
God was the only judge between him and Moawiyah,
and thatconfequently he had committedan enormous fin,
of which he ought fincerely to repent. This irritating
Ali, he with fome warmth replied, That if any fin had
been committed on this occafion, it was by themfelves,
who had forced him to take the fteps of which they
now complained. This anfwer not proving agreeable,
they chofe for their general Abdallah Ebn Waheb,
who appointed for their rendezvous Naharwan, a town
feated between Wafet and Bagdat, about four miles to
the ealtward of the Tigris. Here they affembled an
army of 25,000 men; and Ali, having tried gentle me¬
thods ineffe&ually, at laft marched againft them in per-
fon. Before he attacked them, however, he planted a
ftandard without the camp, and made proclamation by
found t)f trumpet, that whoever would repair to it
Ihould have quarter, and whoever would retire to Cufa
fhould find a fanttuary there. This had fuch an effeft,
that Abdallah’s army was foon reduced to 4000 men,
with whom he rufhed upon the khalif’s forces; but all
of them were cut in pieces, except nine who efcaped.
Had Ali marched againft Moawiyah immediately af¬
ter the defeat of the Kharejites, and while his troops Arabta.
were flulhed with victory, he had probably reduced l|
him entirely: but by allowing his troops to refrelh
themfelves, they all deferted him, and Mowiyah's
party had an opportunity of gathering ftill more
ftrength; and though Moawiyah’s troops often made
incurfioirs into the territories of Ali, the latter feems trs
afterwards to have acted only on the defenfive. At laft They at-
the Kharejites, imagining that it would be for the good tempt to ,
of the Moflem affairs that Moawiyah, Ali, and Amru, lTlurder'AJ!|
were dead, difpatched affafiins to murder all the three. jy^J^iyah 1
Moawiyah was wounded, but recovered; Amru’s fe-
cretary was killed by miftake; but Ali was wounded
with a poifoned fword, which occafioned his death. Iltf
The affaifin was taken, and Ali would have pardoned Ali aflafli-j*
him had he recovered, but ordered him to be put to naied. j
death if he died, that he might, as he faid, “ have an
immediate opportunity of accufing him before God.”
Even in this order he Ihewed his ufual clemency, as he
ordered the affaffin to be difpatched at one blow, and
without torture of any kind.
Thus fell Ali, the moft virtuous of all the Mahometan
khalifs, after he had reigned near five years, and lived
fixty-three. He was preffed by thofe about him to no¬
minate a fucceffor before he died; but this he declined.
faying, he would follow the example of the Apoftle of Iiy
God, who had not named any: however, as his fon Succeeded1.
Hafan inherited his father’s piety, though not his cou- by Hafan.
rage, he was declared khalif without any fcruple. Mo¬
awiyah, however, behaved in fuch a manner towards
him, as fiiewcd his holtile intentions; and thofe about
Hafan preffed him to declare war immediately. This
Hafan, who was of an exceeding mild and peaceable
difpofition, could hardly be perfuaded to do; and tho’
he at laft took the field, yet he immediately perceived
his incapacity to difpute the empire with Moawiyah; Whorefigi;
and therefore refigned it, in fpite of |all the remon- the khalif!
ftrances of his friends, to a traitor, who caufed h'm af- to Moawf
ter fome years to be poifoned by his wife.
Moawiyah, being thus left foie mailer of the Mof¬
lem empire, found himfelf under a neceffity of reducing
the Kharejites, who were his enemies as well as Ali’s,
and had now gathered together a coniiderable army.
Againft thefe rebels the khalif would have difpatched
Hafan, but that prince refufed ; upon which he fent
the Syrian troops againtt them, who were defeated:
however the Cufans, being at laft perfuaded to take up
arms, foon extinguiihed the rebellion, and fettled Moa¬
wiyah more firmly than ever on the Mofiem throne.
In the 48th year of the Hegira, the khalif fent his fon
Yezid with a powerful army to befiege Conftantinople. Conflanti
In this expedition he was attended by three or four of pop)^ be.
the Companions, who, notwithftanding tbeir age, were oufVu^ci
prompted by zeal to undergo incredible fatigues. The
Motlem forces too, thoughthey fuffered extremely, were
animated to furmounl all difficulties by a tradition, ac¬
cording to which the prophet in his lifetime declared,
“ That the fins of the firft army that took the city of
Casfarea thould be forgiven.” Concerning the particu¬
lars of this expedition we are in the dark: only, in ge¬
nera], that it proved unfuccefsful; and in it Abu Ayub,
who had been with Mahomet at the battles of Bedr and
Ohod, loft his life. . His tomb is held in fuch venera¬
tion by the Moflems, that the Sultans of the Otto¬
man family gird their fvvords on at it, on their accef-
A R A [ 5?i ] A R A
Arabia, fion to the throne. In the 54th year of the Hegira, the
—' “Arabs made an irruption into Bukharia, and defeated
iJo' a Turkiih army that oppofed them. The Turks loft
Porks de- a great number of men; and the queen, who command-
eated. ed in perfon, with great difficulty made her efcape.
She had only time to put on one of her bulkins ; the
other fell into the hands of the Arabs, who valued it
at no lefs than 2000 dinars. About this time alfo,
according to the Greek hiftorians, a treaty was con¬
cluded between the emperor and the Moderns, wherer
by the latter were allowed to keep the territories they
had fcized ; in confideration of which they were to pay
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 Haves, and as many
choice horfes. To thefe difhonourable conditions they
were obliged to fubmit, in confequence of their late
unfuccefsful expedition to Conftantinople, and fome o-
ther defeats they had received. This peace was to con¬
tinue for 30 years. The next year, Moawiyah, ha¬
ving conferred the government of Khorafan upon Saad,
Othman’s grandfon, that general, foon after his pro¬
motion, pafled the Jihun, or Amu, the Oxus of the
ancients, and advanced with a body of troops to Sa¬
markand, which opened its gates to him on his ap¬
proach ; fbon after which he defeated an army of Uf-
beck Tartars, and marched dire&ly to Tarmud, or Tar-
mid, which alfo furrendered without oppofition. The
57th year of the Hegira was remarkable for nothing
but vaft fwarms of locufts, which did incredible da¬
mage in Syria and Mefopotamia; and great difcontents
on account of the khalif’s having nominated for hisfuc-
cefibr his fon Yezid, a perfon of fcandatbus life, and
no way worthy of the throne. The 58th year of the
Hegira was rendered remarkable by the death of
i tzi Ayeffia, Mahomet's widow; and the 60th by that of
ttoawiyah Moawiyah, after having reigned, from Hafan’s refig-
[ies. nation, nineteen years, three months, and five days ; but
concerning his age authors are not agreed. He was
interred at Damafcus, which was made the refidence of
the khalifs as long as the houfe of Ommiyah continued
tl2 on the throne.
Succeeded Yezid was proclaimed, in confequence of his nomi-
'iy Yeiid. nation, the fame day his father died. His inaugura¬
tion was performed on the new moon of the month Ra-
jeb, correfponding to April 7*h, 680. Immediately af¬
ter his eledlion, he wrote to A1 Walid, governor of Me-
? 4 diua, to feize Hofein the remaining fon of Ali, and
oftin and Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in cafe they refufed to acknow-
bdallah ledge his right. He accordingly tendered the oath of
sfufe to ac- allegiance to Hofein, who returned an evafive anfwer,
nowledge an{j founJ
means to efcape to his own houfe. As for
Abdallah, he delayed waiting upon the governor, un¬
der various pretences, for 24 hours; after which he
made his efcape to Mecca: hither Hofein followed
him ; but received an invitation from the people of Cu-
fa, who promifed to affift him in vindicating the rights
of his father Ali and himfelf. In the mean time,
Yezid, being informed of A1 Walid’s negligence in fuf-
feting Abdallah and Hoftin to efcape, removed him
from his employment, appointing in his room Amru
Ebn Saad, at that time commandant of Mecca. The
new governor immediately difpatched againft Abdal¬
lah Amer Ebn Zobeir, Abdallah’s own brother, who
mortally hated him : but Abdallah, having engaged
Amer in the field, defeated and took him prifoner;
which greatly railed his reputation at Medina, altho’
Hofein’s fuperior intereft among them ftill rendered Arabia,
him incapable of afpiring to the khalifat by himfelf.
While Abdallah was thus ftrengthening himfelf at
Mecca and Medina, Hofein was doing the fame at
Gufa. On the firft notice of their inclinations, he had
fent to them Moflem Ebn Okail, to whom, as repre-
fentative of the fon of Ali, they had taken an oath of
allegiance, and were now very preffing on Hofein to
honour their city with his prefence. Befides this, Ho¬
fein was fupported by the forces of Irak, who retained
a great veneration for the memory of his father, and
had all along confidered the government of Moawiyah
as a downright ufurpation.
Notwithftanding all thefe fteps taken at Cufa in fa¬
vour of Hofein, the deliberations of the confpirators
were carried on with fuch fecrecy, that A1 Nooman
the governor continued a ftranger to them, even after
the Cufans had determined immediately to enter upon
adlion with an army of 18,000 men. At laft, how¬
ever, he began to be roufed from his lethargy; but
Yezid being difpleafed with his conduft, removed him
from his government, appointing for his fucceffor O-
beidallah Ebn Ziyad. This governor entered the city
in the evening, and was received with all poffible de-
monftrations of joy by the Cufans, who miftook him
for Hofein, owing to a black turban which he had on
his head, refembling that which Hofein ufually wore.
His firft care was to extinguifti the fedition that had
been excited by Moflem. In order to this, he com¬
manded a trufty fervant to difguife himfelf, and perfon-
ate a ftranger come out of Syria to fee the inaugura¬
tion of Hofein ; that he might get admiffion into Mof-
lem’s houfe, and penetrate all hiscouncillr. This com-
miffion was faithfully executed ; and Obeidallah under-
ftanding that Moflem lodged in the houfe of one Sha-
rik, who was then fick, fent a meflenger to Sharik^
letting him know that he intended to vifit him on
a certain day. Sharik immediately came to a refblu-
tion to receive him, and appointed Moflem a place ia
the corner of the room whence he might rufh out up¬
on Obeidallah and kill him. The vifit was according¬
ly made ; but Moflem’s heart failing him, the gover¬
nor efcaped : Hani, however, in whofe houfe Moflem
had firft lodged, was imprifoned by Obeidallah. Up¬
on the news of this, Moflem affembled about 4000-
men, and befieged Obeidallah in the caftle. The go¬
vernor, however, not in the leaft difpirited, made a
fpeech to Moflem’s followers, which had fuch an ef¬
fect upon them, that they all deferted him except a-
bout 30. By the favour of the night, Moflem efcaped
to a poor woman’s cottage in the neighbourhood; but
being betrayed by her fon, Obeidallah fent a detach¬
ment of 80 horfe to feize him. Moflem made a gal¬
lant refiftance, and thrice cleared the houfe of them ;
but being at laft overpowered with numbers, and grie-
voufly wounded, he was taken and brought to Cufa.
While on the road, he endeavoured to fend an account
of his bad fuccefs to Hofein, then, as he fuppofed, on
the road to Cufa; but without fuccefs. When arrived
at the caftle, he begged a draught of water : but thofe
who flood by told him he fhould have none till he drank
the hamim, or boiling liquor, which the Mahometans
pretend is drunk by the damned in hell ; and foon af¬
ter this, being brought before the governor, he was
beheaded along with Hani, and both their heads fent
as
A R A
[ 572 ]
A R A
Ilofein’sob-
ftinacy.
Abdallah
proclaimed
as a prefent to Yezid.
Hofein, in the mean time, was preparing to fet out
for Cufa, having received the moft favourable advices
from Moflem, of whofe fate he was ignorant, and who
had fent him a lift of 140,000 men that were ready to
obey his orders. This the wifeft of his friends repre-
fented as a defperate en'terprize, and intreated him to
drop it, or at lead to defer his journey till he firould be
better affured of fuccefs : but Hofein was deaf to all
falutary counfel; nay, he could not, by the moft ear¬
ned intreaties, be prevailed upon to forbear taking his
wives and children along with him. The confequences
of this obftinacy may be eafily imagined: Obeidallah
difpatched firft 1000, and then 5000 men againft him;
with orders, however, not to offer any violence to him,
provided he fubmitted himfelf. To thefe terms the
infatuated Hofein would not agree: he offered indeed
to return home, if Obeidallah would permit; but that
not being granted, he defperately engaged the troops
of Obeidallah, and was after long refiftance cut in
pieces with all his men. His head was brought to O-
beidallah, who ftruck it over the mouth with a ftick,
and treated it with great contempt. He was alfo inclined
to have put his family to death; but probably feared
an infurredtion, as the people of Cufa expreffed great
refentmerit on account of Hofein’s death ; nor was it at
all agreeable to the khalif Yezid, who treated the fa¬
mily of the unfortunate Hofein with thegreateft kind-
11 efs.
This year, the 61st of the Hegira, Yezid appointed
Salem Ebn Ziyad governor of Khorafan ; who, foon
after entering upon the government, made an irruption
into the Turkiffi territories. He took his wife along
with him in this expedition, who was delivered of a
child in the neighbourhood of Samarcand ; on which
occafion (he is faid to have borrowed fome jewels from
the prince of Sogd’s lady, which ffie afterwards carried
off with her. In the mean time, Salejn detached Mo-
halleb with a confiderable body of troops to Khowa-
razm, the principal city of the Turks or Tartars in
thofe parts, from which he extorted the immenfe fum
of 50,000,000 pieces of money ; from whence advan¬
cing to Samarcand, he forced the inhabitants of that
city alfo to pay him an immenfe fum ; and then reti¬
red, with little lofs, into the province he governed.
In the mean time, Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, finding
himfelf, by the death of Hofein, at the head of the
partizans of the houfe of Haftiem, who were greatly
oppreffed by Yezid, began in earneft to afpire to the
khalifat. As he had therefore never owned the autho¬
rity of Yezid, he now openly declared againft him,
and was proclaimed khalif at Medina foon after the ar¬
rival of Hofein’s family in that place. Soon after his
inauguration, to render himfelf the more popular, he
expatiated on the circumftances of Hofein’s death,
which indeed were very tragical, and reprefented the
Cufans as the moft abandoned and perfidious villains
upon earth. This went fo well down with the citizens
of Mecca and Medina, that they flocked to him in great
numbers, fo that he foon found himfelf at the head of
a confiderable force. The khalif Yezid being inform¬
ed of his progrefs, fwore he would have him in chains;
and accordingly fent a filver collar for him to Mer-
wan, then governor of Medina : but the intereft of
Abdallah was now fo ftrong, that he laughed at the
menaces both of the khalif and Merwan. Nay, the Arabia.
governor of Mecca, though he fecretly hated him,   —I
thought it good policy, as matters then flood, to keep
up a good underftanding with Abdallah : but this co¬
ming to the ears of Yezid, he depofed the governor ;
appointing in his place Walid Ebn Otbah, a man of
kn6wn fidelity, and a bitter enemy of Abdallah. The
new governor, therefore, immediately on his acceffion,
ufed all his art and fldll to circumvent Abdallah ; but
to no purpofe, as the latter was always on his guard.
This conduft, however, giving him great difguft, as
well as terrible apprehenfions, he wrote to the khalif,
informing him that all the difturbances were owing to
the untraftable difpofition of Walid; and that, if he
would fend a perfon of a different character, peace
would foon be reftored. This letter the khalif very in-
judicioufly gave ear to, and difmiffed his faithful go¬
vernor, appointing in his room one who was totally un¬
qualified for that poft. - The people of Medina, now
having frefh intelligence of Yezid’s diffolute manner of
life, renounced their allegiance to him, and formally
. ’ r , 1 • at Yezid for-
depoled him in a very lingular manner. After they m:i]|y
had affembled in the mofque, about the pulpit there, fed.
one of them faid, “ I lay afide Yezid as I do this tur-
bant,” and immediately threw his turbant on the
ground. Another faid, “ I put away Yezid as I do
this ftioe,” calling away his Ihoe at the fame time.
Thefe examples being followed by others, there was a
large heap of Ihoes and turbants almoft inftantly form¬
ed upon the fpot. They then difmiffed Yezid s go¬
vernor, and banilhed from the city all the friends and
dependents of the houfe of Ommiyah. Thefe, to the
number of about 1000, took refuge in the houfe of
Merwan Ebn A1 Hakem, where they were fo clofely
befieged by Abdallah’s party, that they found them-
felves obliged to fend to Yezid for immediate afliftance;
acquainting him, that if they were not fuccotired, they
mull all inevitably perilh. The khalif, though he won¬
dered that fuch a number of men Ihould fuffer them-
felves to be fo cooped up without making the leaft re¬
fiftance, difpatched Mollem Ebn Okbato Medina, with
a confiderable body of troops, to quell the difturban¬
ces. He ordered him to fpare AH the £bn of Hofein
and his family, as they had no hand at all in the dif¬
turbances: then he was: to fummon the town of Me ¬
dina to furrender for three days fucceflively; which if
they refufed, he was to take it by ftorm, and give it
up to be plundered by the foldiers for three whole days.
The inhabitants of Medina, being now fenfible of
their danger, fuffered the friends of the houfe of Om¬
miyah to withdraw qui*tly out of the city ; tho’, be¬
fore they departed, a promife was extorted from them
not to appear in arms againft the reigning faftion.
Moflem, in the mean time, advanced towards the city
at the head of 5000 foot and 12,000 horfe; and having
fummoned it according to his inftru£lions, upon its re-
fufal, made the necdffary preparations for an attack.
The garrifon, however, for a confiderable time, made
a vigorous defence; but at laft, moft of the Anfars
and principal officers being killed, the Arabs propofed
a capitulation. Moflem, however, would hearken to Medina
no terms, -and infifted on their furrendering at difcre- k£n antl |
tionj which being refufed, he entered the city after a fe |
faint refiftance. Ali was treated with great refpect; Hfsfoic k
but all the men that had carried arms were put to the
fword,
A R A [ 573 1 A R A
Arabia, fword, and Moflem fuffered his troops to ravifli 1000
u ~ women, and to pillage the city for three days fuccef-
fively, Thofe that efcaped the daughter he forced to
acknowledge themfelves the flaves and vaffals of Yezid.
For this extreme feverity he was furnamed by the A-
rabs, Al Mufrif or the Extravagant, and ever after
confidered as an impious perfon, eTpecially as the pro¬
phet had declared that the wrath of God fhould moll
ceitainly remain upon thofe who facked or plundered
the city of Medina.
After the redu&ion of Medina, Moflem directed
his courfe to Mecca, where Abdallah then redded;
but he died by the way, and the command of the
troops devolved upon Hofein Ebn Thamir A1 Selwi.
This general advanced to Mecca, which he bdieged for
40 days, battering the town with fuch fury, that he
beat down a great part of the famous temple there,
and burnt the reft ; nor would the city itfelf have e-
fcaped the fame fate, had not an end been put to the
up war by the arrival of certain accounts of the death of
Yezid dies. Yezid, who departed this life in the 64th year of the
Hegira, anfwering to the year 684 of the Chriftian
sera, having lived 39, and reigned three years and fix
or eight months. On the news of his death, Hofein
offered to take the oath of allegiance to Abdallah; but
the latter at that time durft not truft him, of which he
1had afterwards fufficient reafon to repent,
prochimed Yezid was hicceeded by his fon Moawiyah II. who
khalif and was proclaimed khalif at Damafcus the fame day that
refigns. his father died; but, being of a weakly conftitution, and
unable to bear the fatigues of government, refigned
the crown fix weeks after his inauguration, and died
foon after, without naming a fucceffor.
This abdication having left the Moflem empire ab-
folutely without a mailer, great commotions enfued.
On the death of Yezid, Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad, go¬
vernor of Bafrah, reprefented to the citizens that they
ought to choofe a protedlor till a new khalif fhould be
chofen; and if the perfon fo chofen fhould be difagree-
able to them, they might then remain in a flate of in¬
dependency under the protedlor whom they had chofen.
The inhabitants, perceiving the drift of this fpeech,
complimented him with that honour ; which he accep¬
ted with feeming difficulty : but, fending a deputy to
Cufa, the inhabitants of that city not only refufed to
acknowledge his authority, but threw dull and gravel
131 at his meffenger. This coming to the ears of the peo-
Obeidallah p]e Qf Bafrah, they not only deprived Obeidallah of
IntcTsyrk * t^le dignity they had newly conferred upon him, but
even expelled him the city. Nor could he prevail up¬
on the Najari, a tribe of Anfars, to efpoufe his quarrel,
nor even upon his own relations, though he diflributed
among them great part of the fixteen millions of pieces
of money which he had found in the treafury of Bafra,
and kept the rertiainder to himfelf. Nay, fo odious
had he rendered himfelf to all ranks, on account of his
cruelties, particularly the death of Hofein the fon of
Ali, that his brother Abdallah was unable to protect
him from the fury of the populace, though he kept
him concealed in womens cloaths, and diftributed a-
mong the mob 200,000 pieces of money. He was
therefore at laft conllrained to leave the city, attended
by a guard of too men. Immediately after his de¬
parture, the mob plundered his houfe, and purfued him,
fo that he was obliged to exchange his camel for an
Voc. I.
afs, and thus with the utmoft difficulty efcaped into Arabk.
Syria.
In the mean time, Hofein Ebn Thamir, being re¬
turned into Syria with the forces under his command,
gave a faithful account of the fituation of affairs in A-
rabia to Merwan Ebn A1 Hakem. He alfo acquainted
him of the offer he had made to Abdallah of the oath
of allegiance, which the latter had refufed, or at lead
would not come to Damafcus in order to be invefted
with the fupreme authority there. On this account he
advifed Merwan to take care of himfelf and the reft
of the houfe of Ommiyah, who had fled to Damafcus
after their expulfion from Medina. On this difeourfe,
Merwan was inclined to fubmit to Abdallah; but was
diverted from it by Obeidallah, who infifted that no
fuperior ought to be acknowledged by Merwan, who
was at the head of the Koreifti. The people of Da¬
mafcus had conftituted Dahak Ebn Kais their protec¬
tor, who inclined to Abdallah. The Bafrans were at
this juncture entirely in tumult and confufion, not be¬
ing able to agree about a pi-ote&or after the expulfion
of Obeidallah ; fo that at laft they wrote to Abdallah,
offering him the government of their territory. This he
accepted, but could not be prevailed upon to ftir from
Mecca ; nor could Merwan be perfuaded to fuffer any
of the Syrians to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca, left
they fliould join Abdallah, and thereby contribute to
his exclufion from the throne. 13*,
In the midft of this confufion Abdallah might have Merwan
eafily fecured the khalifat to himfelf, had he not with
the utmoft imprudence as well as inhumanity given £>am'afcUS.
orders for the extermination of the houfe of Ommiyah.
This ruined his affairs; for they being now obliged to
provide for their own fafety, Merwan was proclaimed
khalif at Damafcus; and thus the whole Mofiem empire
was rent into two potent faftions, the one under Mer¬
wan, and the other under Abdallah.
We have already obferved, that Dahak Ebn Kais
inclined to favour Abdallah. This he continued to do
after Merwan was proclaimed khalif, infomuch that a
battle foon enfued between his followers and thofe of
Merwan, in which Dahak was defeated and killed; and
thus Merwan became matter of all the province of Sy¬
ria. Soon after this victory, Merwan advanced with a
confiderable body of troops towards Egypt; but fent
before him Amru Ebn Said with a detachment, in or¬
der to facilitate his paffage. That general having de¬
feated Abdalrahman, Abdallah’s lieutenant, in feveral
hr ilk aftions, he at laft furrendered the whole country
to Merwan for a fum of money, and retired with the
Arabs under his command to Hejaz. The Syrian
troops, therefore, immediately took poffeffion of that
country, and obliged the inhabitants to take an oath
of allegiance to Merwan, who, having appointed his
fon Abdalazziz to prefide over Egypt, returned with
the greateft part of his forces to Damafcus. Here he 133
was informed that Abdallah had difpatched againft him Abdallah’s
his brother Mufab with a confiderable army. Againft £>rce*
him Merwan difpatched Amru Ebn Said; who, having Merewan^s
foon come up with him, gave him a total defeat, and
difperfed his troops in fuch a manner, that Mufab found
it impoffible to rally them again. ' 134
In the 65th year of the Hegira, the inhabitants of The t:ufans
Cufa, pretending to be feized with remorfe of con- rero t‘
fcieace for their treachery to Hofein the fon of Ali,
4 C railed
A R A
raifed an infurre&ion againft both the kbalifs, and
therefore aflembled a body of 16,000 men, under the
command of one Soliman, who was to revenge the death
of Hofein upon Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad and his adhe¬
rents. But while Soliman and his troops remained yet
inaftive, A1 Mokhtar, who had ferved under Abdallah,
and was difgufted at not having been promoted as he
expe&ed, arrived at Cufa, and, reprefenting the inca¬
pacity of Soliman, who indeed appears to have been
totally unfit for fuch an enterprize, offered to take the
command upon himfelf. This, however, was refufed;
and as A1 Mokhtar had no opinion of Soliman’s mili-
[ 574 ]
A R A
Zobeir; but he, juftly fufpe&ing his fincerity, by a
ftratagem cut off near 3000 of his men. Upon this di-
fafter, A1 Mokhtar, fearing the houfe of Ali might be
intimidated, fent a letter to Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah,
one of that family, in which he offered his affiftance 139
with a powerful army. This offer Mahomet declined, Narrow e-
declaring himfelf only for pacific meafures ; but though ^caP.^ of fthe
he and all the reft of Ali’s family behaved in the moft y °
peaceable manner, Abdallah did not think himfelf fafe
till they owned his authority. He therefore imprifoned
them, together with 17 of the principal citizens of
Cufa, whom he threatened to put to death, and after-
tary capacity, he found means to draw off 2000 of wards burn their bodies, if they did not within a limit-
hist roops ; while 10,000 more chofe rather to vio- ed time take an oath of allegiance to him. A1 Mokhtar
late the oaths they had taken, than run the rifle of being informed of the diftreffed fituation they were in,
being cut to pieces by a fuperior enemy. Soliman, fent a body of 750 horfe to Mecca, under Abu Ab-
‘ 11’ dallah, to releafe them. That general not only execu-
Soliman’s however, put a good face upon the matter and, telling
thufiafin Cn" his trooPs that they were to fight for another world
and not this, fet forward to invade Syria with the 4000
who remained with him : but being advanced as far as
Ekfas upon the Euphrates, he found that he had loft
1000 men by defertion ; nor was he joined by the Se¬
parates of Bafra and A1 Madayen, though they had
promifed him a reinforcement. Firmly perfuaded, how¬
ever, that his caufe was the caufe of heaven, Soliman
continued his march all night, and next day arrived at
the tomb of Hofein, where his men performed their
devotions with fuch enthufiafm of penitence, that one
prefent fwore he never faw fuch crowding about the
black ftone in the temple of Mecca itfelf.—Continuing
{fill to advance, he received a friendly letter from Ab¬
dallah Ebn Yezid, the governor of Cufa, advifing him
to return, and reprefenting to him the folly of enga¬
ging fo powerful an army as would be fent againft
him, with an handful of men : but Soliman, imagining
that he was only recalled in order to fupport Abdallah
Ebn Zobeir in his pretenfions to the khalifat, perfifted
in his refolution of penetrating into Syria. He told
his troops, that they would never be nearer the two
Hofeins ( Hofein, and his brother Hafan, to whom alfo
the Shiites give that name) than they were at prefent;
and that, Ihould they at this time meet with death,
they would be in a ftate of repentance, and confequent-
ly could never die in a more proper time; and after
*37 this fpeech, continuing ftill to advance, he was at laft
He is cut in met by Obeidallah at the head of 20,000 horfe, who,
aU his men a^ter an °bftinate engagement, cut to pieces Soliman
,33 " and all his troops. •
Merwan Soon after this decifive a&ion died the khalif Mer-
dies. wan, after he had reigned eleven months. He is faid
by fome authors to have been poifoned by his wife
Zeinab, Moawiyah’s widow. Her he had married, with
a promife that her fon Khaled fliould fucceed him ; but
afterwards altering the fucceflion in favour of his own
fon Abdalmalec, young Khaled reproached him with
his breach of promife : upon this, Merwan calling him
lajiard, the child complained to his mother, who, to be
revenged for this affront, is faid to have poifoned him,
or fmothered him with a pillow.
In the beginning of the khalifat of Abdalmalec, A1
Mokhtar, who had been imprifoned by the governor
of Cufa, was releafed at the interceffion of Abdallah
Ebn Omar, who had married his fifter. The year fol¬
lowing, having put himfelf at the head of the Shiite
fedanes,. he fent propofiils of alliance to Abdallah Ebn
ted his orders with great bravery, but took Abdallah
himfelf prifoner, whom he would have cut to pieces on
the fpot, had he not been releafed at the interceffion of
Mahomet, who for the prefent adjufted the difference*
to the mutual fatisfadion of all parties. After this, re¬
conciliation, Abu Abdallah, or rather Mahomet him¬
felf, diftributed among 4000 of Ali’s friends a fum of
money brought for that purpofe, in order to indemnify
them for the Ioffes they had fuftained. Thus the friends
of Ali were happily delivered, when only two days of
the time granted them by Abdallah remained, and a
fufficient quantity of wood and other combuftibles was
colle&ed, in order to confume their bodies. Notwith-
ftanding the reconciliation, however, that had lately
taken place, Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah thought proper
to poll himfelf on a mountain near Mecca with a body
of 4000 men.
The Cufans having received advice before Merwan’s
death, that he had fent Obeidallah with a powerful
army towards their city, and even given him permif-
fion to plunder it in cafe it fliould be taken, appointed
Yezid Ebn Ares, a man of undaunted courage, to op-
pofe him ; but Merwan dying before Obeidallah could
execute his commiflion, an end was put for the prefent
to this expedition. The memory of it, however, ftill
remained; and A1 Mokhtar, to whom Obeidallah was
perfonally obnoxious, affembled a body of troops to
aft offenfively againft him, and even againft the Syrian
khalif himfelf, in cafe he fliould fupport Obeidallah. A- impiety 0f
mong other preparations for this enterprize, A1 Mokh- A1 Mokh¬
tar caufed a kind of portable throne to be made, tell- ,ar- 1
ing his troops, that “ it would be of the fame ufe to
them that the ark was to the children of Ifrael.” It
was therefore carried on a mule before the troops that
were to march againft Obeidallah, and the following
prayer faid before it: “ O God ! grant that we may
live long in thy obedience ; help us, and do not for¬
get us, but proteft us.” This expedient was fo well
adapted to the hot-headed enthufiafts who compofed ,4r
A1 Mokhtar’s army, that they attacked Obeidallah’s Obeidallah ffi
camp, defeated him, and gained a complete viftory. defeated anil:
Obeidallah himfelf was killed in the aftion, his head ed*
fent to A1 Mokhtar, and his body reduced to alhes.—
By this viftory the feftaries were rendered fo formi¬
dable, that Nifibin or Nifibis, and feveral other cities,
furrendered to them without oppofition. They now
began to entertain thoughts of depofing both the kha-
lifs, and placing on the Moflem throne one of the fa¬
mily;
A R A
[ 575 ]
A R A
and killed
by Mufab.
Horrid
cruelties
committed
by the Aza-
rakites.
Arabia, nvily of AH ; but all their towering hopes were foon
,41 frullrated by the defeat and death of A1 Mokhtar by
A1 Mokh- Mufab brother to Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, A1 Mokhtar,
tar deteated after being defeated in a general engagement by Mu-
and fa}J} ge(j to caft]e 0f Cufa, where he defended him-
felf with great bravery for fome time ; but being at laft
killed, his men, to the number of 7000, furrendered at
difcretion, and were all of them put to the fword on
account of the outrages they had committed.
The next year, the 68th of the Hegira, the Azara-
kites, fo denominated from Nafe Ebn A1 Azarak, the
author of their fe£t, having aflembled a conliderable
force, made an irruption into Irak. They advanced
alriioft to the gates of Cufa, and penetrated to A1 Ma-
dayen. Being fworn enemies of the houfe of Ornmi-
yah, and acknowledging no government fpiritual or
temporal, they committed terrible ravages in every part
of the Modem territories through which they palled.
They carried their exceffes to fuch a height as to mur¬
der all the people they met with,' to rip open women
with child, and commit every fpecies of cruelty that
could be invented upon the inhabitants without diftinc-
tion. The governor of Mawfel and Mefopotamia, be¬
ing informed of thefe unparallelled outrages, marched
againd them with a body of troops, and carried on a
brilk war with them for eight months. During this
period their leader Nafe Ebn A1 Azarak died; and was
fucceeded by Katri Ebn A1 Fojat, under whofe con-
dudl they continued their depredations. Mufab not
being pleafed with his lieutenant’s management of the
war, recalled him, and fent in his place one Omar Ebn
Abdallah Temimi, who gave the Azarakites a great
overthrow at Naifabur in Khorafan, put many of them
to the fword, and purfued the reft as far as Ifpahan
They are and the province of Kerman. Here having received
they retired. So great, however, was Abdalmalec’s ArabSa-
avarice, that, after the tumult was appealed, he recal¬
led all the money which had been diftributed, and com¬
manded it to be depofited in the public treafury. ,45
In the 70th year of the Hegira, the Greeks made Difgraceful
an irruption into Syria; and Abdalmalec having occa- treaty with
fion for all his forces to aft againft Abdallah Ebn Zo- 1 ,e Grec s'
beir, was obliged to pay a tribute of 1000 dinars per
day, according to Theophanes, and fend every year
365 flaves and as many horfes to Conftantinople. In
this treaty it was alfo ftipulated, that the revenues of
Cyprus, Armenia, and Heria, fhould be equally divi¬
ded between the khalif and the Greek emperor. 147
Abdalmalec, being now at leifure to purfue his in- Mufab <Ic-
tended expedition againft Mufab, marched againft him ^nd
in perfon ; and having arrived at Malken, afmall town Abdalma-
on the frontiers of Mefopotamia, where he was waited lec.
for by Mufab, the latter was defeated through the
treachery of his troops, and himfelf killed. After the
battle, Abdalmalec repaired to Cufa, where he was re¬
ceived with the utmoft fubmiffion; and people of all
ranks came in crowds to take the oath of allegiance to
him. He then ordered vaft fums of money to be dif¬
tributed among them, and gave a fplendid entertain¬
ment to his new fubje&s, to which even the meaneft of
them were not refufed admittance. During this enter¬
tainment, the unfortunate Mufab’s head was prefented
to the khalif; upon which one of the company took
occafion to fay to him, “ I faw Hofein’s head in this
fame caftle prefented to Obeidallah; Obeidallah’s to A1
Mokhtar; A1 Mokhtar’s to Mufab; and now at laft
Mufab’s to yourfelf.” This obfervation fo affe&ed the
khalif, that, either to avert the ill omen, or from fome
other motive, he ordered the caftle to be immediately
demolifhed. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in the mean time.
defeated and a reinforcement, they returned into the province of having received the melancholy news of the defeat and
per e . Ahway. and did incredible damatre to the eonntrv death of his brother, aflembled the neonle of Mecca.
Ahwaz, and did incredible damage to the country
through which they pafled. But Omar advancing a-
gainft them a fecond time, they retired at his approach
to A1 Madayen, ravaging the diftrift belonging to
the city in a dreadful manner. However, Omar pur-
fuing them thither alfo, they fled into the province of
Kerman, and thence gradually difperfed themfelves.
This year there was a grievous famine in Syria, which
fufpended all military operations.
The next year, being the 69th of the Hegira, Ab¬
dalmalec left Damafcus, to march againft Mufab. In
his abfence he left Amru Ebn Said governor of the
city ; but he immediately feized upon it for himfelf,
which obliged the khalif to return. After feveral fkir-
mifhes had happened between fome detachments of the
khalif’s troops with thofe of Amru, a pacification was
14s concluded at the intercefiion of the women : but Ab-
Barbarity of Jalmalec barbaroufly put Amru to death with his own
iec 3 ma" hand> notwithftanding his promife; and was immedi-
death of his brother, aflembled the people of Mecca,
and from the pulpit made a fpeech fuitable to the oc¬
cafion. He alfo did his utmoft to put Mecca in a
proper pofture of defence, expefling a fpeedy vifit from
his formidable competitor, who now gave law to Irak,
Syria, and Egypt, without controul.
Soon after Abdalmalec’s return to Damafcus, he ap¬
pointed his brother Baftiar governor of Cufa; and Kha-
led Ebn Abdallah, governor of Bafra. The latter had
no fooner entered upon his office, than he indifcreetly
removed from the command of the army A1 Mohalleb,
one of the greateft generals of the age; appointing in
his room Abdalaziz, who was grfeatly his inferior in
military Ikill. Of this difmiffion the Azarakites being
informed, they immediately attacked Abdalaziz, en¬
tirely defeated him, and took his wife prifoner. A dif-
pute arifing among the viftors about the price of that
lady, one of them, to end it, immediately cut off her
. head. Upon this difafter, Khaled was commanded to
ately feized with fuch a tremor, that he loft the ufe of replace A1 Mohalleb, which he did; and having in con- i4s
aim oft all his faculties, and was obliged to be laid in jundrion with him attacked the Azarakites, forced their Azarakites
camp, and entirely defeated them. defeated.
In the 72d year of the Hegira, Abdalmalec having
no enemy to contend with but Abdallah Ebn Zobeir,
bed. In the mean time the palace was attacked by
Yahyah, Amru’s brother, at the head of 1000 flaves.
After a warm difpute, they forced open the gates.
killed feveral of the guards, and were upon the point made great preparations for an invafion of Hejaz, gi-
of entering the palace, when the people within threw
Amru’s head among them. This fo cooled their ar¬
dour, that they defifted from the attempt; and fome
money having been afterwards diftributed among them,
ving the command of the army to be employed on this
occafion to A1 Hejaj, one of his moll warlike and elo¬
quent captains. Before that general had put his army
in march for Mecca, he offered his proteftion to all the
4 C 2 Arabs
A R A [ 576 ] A R A
 Arabs there that would accept of it. Abdallah being
informed of the enemy’s approach, fent out feveral par¬
ties of horfe to reconnoitre, and give him intelligence
of their motions. Between thefe and fome of Al He-
jaj’s advanced guards feveral Ikirmilhes happened, in
which Abdallah’s men had generally the worft. This
encouraged Al Hejaj to fend to the khalif for a rein¬
forcement, his troops amounting to no more than 2000
men, who were infufficient for reducing Mecca. He
aflured him at the fame time, that Abdallah’s fierce-
nefs was very much abated, and that his men deferted
to him daily. The khalif, upon this, ordered a reinforce-
149 ment of 5000 men under the command of Tharik Ebn
kut» notwithftanding this additional ftrength,
IlJjaj. ^ * he made but little progrefs in the fiege for fome time.
While he battered the temple of Mecca with his ma¬
chines, it thundered and lightened fo dreadfully, that
the Syrians were {truck with terror, and refufed to play
them any longer upon that edifice. Upon this, Al He¬
jaj (tuck the corner of his veft into his girdle, and put¬
ting into it one of the {tones that was to be difcharged
out of the catapults, Hang it into the town, and this
occafioned the recommencement of the operations. The
next morning, the Syrians were annoyed by frefii {forms,
which killed 12 men, and quite difpirited them. Al
Hejaj, hov/ever, animated them, by obferving that he
was a fon of Tehama; that this was the {form of Te¬
hama, and that their adverfaries fuffered as much as
they. The day following, fome of Abdallah’s men
were killed by a very violent ftorm, which gave Al He-
aj a farther opportunity of animating his troops. At
aft, Abdallah, having been deferted by moll of his
friends, 10,000 of the inhabitants of Mecca, and even
by his own fans Hamza and Khobeib, defired to know
his mother’s fentiments as to what courfe he was to take.
He reprefented to her, that he was almoft entirely a-
bandoned by his fubje&s and relations ; that the few
who perfifted in their fidelity to him could fcarce en¬
able him to defend the city any longer; and that the
Syrian khalif would grant him any terms he fliould
think fit to demand. His mother, however, being of an
inflexible refolution, and not able to bear the thoughts
of feeing her fon reduced to the rank of a private per-
fon, being herfelf the daughter of Abu Beer the firft
khalif, advifed him by no means to furvive the fove-
reignty, of which he was on the point of being depri¬
ved. This advice being agreeable to his own fentiments,
he refolved to die in defence of the place. In purfu-
ance of this refolution, he defended the city, to the a-
mazement of the befiegers, for ten days, though defti-
tute of arms, troops, and fortifications. At laft, ha¬
ving taken a final leave of his mother, and being ani¬
mated by defpair, he made a fally upon the enemy, de-
i$o ftroyed a great number of them with his own hand,
Abdallah and was at length killed fighting valiantly upon the
killed. fp0t< the laft interview he had with his mother, {he
is faid to have defired him to put off a coat of mail he
had on for his defence; and, in order to infpire him with
the greater fortitude, {he gave him a draught in which
a whole pound of mu fie had been infufed. Al Hejaj
ordered his head to be cut off, and his body to be af¬
fixed to a crofs; and by reafon of the mufk he had drank,
the body emitted a grateful odour for feveral days.
By the redudlion of Mecca, and the death of Ab¬
dallah Ebn Zobeir, Abdalmalec remained foie mafter
of the Moflem empire ; he fuftained a great lofs how- Arabia,
ever next year, in having an army of 100,000 men to¬
tally cut off by the Khazarians in Armenia. The go¬
vernor, however, having marched in perfon againft
them at the head of only 40,000 men, but all cbofen I?,
troops, penetrated into the heart of Armenia, defeat- Khazarians
ed and difperfed a large body of the Khazarians, drove reduced,
them into their temples, and reduced them to aflies.
One of his generals alfo defeated an army of 80,000
Kharazians at the Iron or Cafpian gates, and de-
ftroyed a great number of them, obliging the reft to
embrace the Mahometan religion. uz
Al Hejaj, in confequence of his fervices, was made .of
governor, firft of Medina, and then of Irak, Khorafan, A e-'^‘
and Sijiftan; in all which places he behaved with the
greateft cruelty. Having entered the city of Cufa
muffled up in his turbant, he was furrounded by crowds
of people who preffed forward to fee him. He told
them their curiofity would foon be gratified; which he
effe&ually did, by afeending the pulpit, and treating
them in a very coarfe manner; fwearing that he would
make the wicked bear his own burden, and fit him with
his own ftioe; and telling them, among other things,
that “ he imagined he faw the heads of men ripe and
ready to be gathered, and turbants and beards be-
fprinkled with blood.” At Bafra he made a fpeech
much to the fame purpofe; and, to give the inhabi¬
tants a tafte of his difeipline, caufed one of them who
had been informed againft as a rebel to be beheaded
on the fpot, without any trial. So great indeed was
the abhorrence in which he was held by thofe over
whom he prefided, that having once recommended
himfelf to the prayers of a religious Moflem, the latter
inftantly prayed that it would pleafe God to kill Al
Hejaj quickly; “ for nothing, faid he, could be more
advantageous for himfelf or the people.” In confe¬
quence of thefe cruelties, rebellions were foon raifed a-
gainft him; but they were eafily fupprefied, and Al He¬
jaj continued in the full enjoyment of all his employ¬
ments till he died. 153
In the 76th year of the Hegira, one Saleh Ebn Marj, Saleh and
a hot-headed enthufiaft, and Shebib Ebn Zeid, a Kha- j^jebib rc'
rejite, took up arms againft the khalif. They had con-
fpired againft him the year before, when on a pilgrimage
to Mecca; and Al Hejaj had been ordered to feize them:
but at that time they found means to make their efcape;
and having now aflembled about 120 men, Saleh was
proclaimed emperor of the faithful at Daras in Mefopo-
tamia. The governor foon received intelligence of
their motions; and ordered a body of 500 men, under
the command of one Adi, to march againft them: but
that general, being afraid to attack them notwithftand¬
ing his fuperiority in numbers, demanded a reinforce¬
ment. He therefore was fupplied with 500 more
troops, with which he advanced to Daras : but being
ftill afraid of the rebels, he entered into negotiations
with them ; during which they attacked him, entirely
defeated his army, and made themfelves mafters of his t}4
camp. Upon this the governor fent a detachment of Their bra-
1500 horfe againft them; but the rebels, not with-
Handing the fmallnefs of their number, defended them¬
felves in fuch a manner, that the khalif’s troops were
forced to difmount, and fight on foot. The engage¬
ment continued till night; when the rebels, finding
themfelves unable to contend with fuch numbers, reti¬
red
A R A
[ 577 1
A R A
which gave great offence to the fuperftitions Moflems, Arabia,
as they imagined that the name of God would be *~
thereby profaned by the touch of unclean perfons.
In the 77th year of the Hegira, the Arabs made an
incurfion into the imperial territories, and had Lazica
and Bernucium betrayed to them ; and the next year
they made themfelves mailers of Africa Propria, de- ,gT
molifhing the city of Carthage fo effectually, that fcarce Carthage
a veftige of it was left. They were foon driven out, demoJilhed.
however, by John the Patrician, a man of great valour
and experience in war; but returning with a fupe-
rior force, they obliged John in his turn to fly to Con-
ftantinople.
The 79th year of the Hegira is remarkable for no¬
thing but the rebellion of Abdalrahman in Perfia; who
drove the Khakan, or emperor of the Turks, Tartars,
or Moguls, out of that country: but the following
year, one of the Greek generals, named Heraclius, pe¬
netrated into Syria as far as Samofata, and deftroyed id*
200,000 Arabs, ravaging the country in a terrible *°o,coo A-
manner; and Abdalrahman was defeated and killed ^abs
by A1 Hejaj, after a great number of engagements, Heracliusf
feme fay 8i, and others too. In the 83d year of the
Hegira, the nobility of Armenia revolting, drove the
Arabs out of that province ; but Mahomet, one of the
khaliPs generals, entering the country with a power*-
ful army, got the authors of the revolt into his hands,
and caufed them all to be burnt alive. Encouraged
by this fuccefs, the Moflems invaded Cilicia under
one Azar; but were, to the number of 10,000, cut
in pieces by Heraclius; and the next year, having a-
gain entered that country, 12,000 of them were de¬
ftroyed by the fame general, and the reft forced to fly
into their own country. ,6^
In the 86th year of the Hegira died the khalif Abdalmalee
Abdalmalec, after a reign of 21 years. He is faid to d'es*
have had fuch a ftinking breath, that the flies which
accidentally fettled on his lips were almoft inftantly
ftruck dead by it. He was fucceeded by A1 Walid,
who greatly extended the Moflem dominions. The firft
Afltid’s either embracing Mahometanifm, or paying year of his reign, one of his generals having paffed the
them an annual trbute ; which he refufing, they drove Oxus, (now the Jihum), defeated a numerous army
him into Irak, where he implored the khaliPsprote&ion. of Turks and Tartars. He then over-ran and entirely
Afltid afterwards condufted a body of Moflem troops reduced the countries of Sogd or Sogdiana, Bagrafa,
into Tabreftan, where they fell upon the rebels with Shafli, Targana, and the whole immenfe trad going
hey are all fuch fury, that they killed Katri himfelf, cut a great num- under the name of Mawaralnahr, or Great Bukharia. t6i
leftroyed. ber of his men to pieces, and took all the reft prifoners. He alfo conquered the Khan of Khowarazm, obliging Prodigious
This year alfo (the 76th of the Hegira), money him to pay an annual tribute of two millions of dinars. C0Dquefts of
was firft coined in Arabia. Before this time, the di- About the fame time another general, called 'he M°-
nars, or gold coins, had Greek inferiptions ; and the made an irruption into India, and fubdueda confider- emS‘
dirhems, or filver ones, Perfic inferiptions. The firft e- able part of that country. He alfo entirely fubdued the
Arabia. red to Mawfel. After this, A1 Hejaj being informed
that they had taken poll at Dafcara, lent againft them
an army of 5000 men. The rebels, hearing of this for¬
midable army, abandoned their camp; but were fo
clofely purfued, that they found themfelves obliged to
ftand an engagement at Modbaj, a fmall village on the
Tigris. Saleh’s forces, confifting only of three compa-
nies of 30 men each, were foon thrown into diforder,
llalehkilled.and himfelf killed: but Shebib made an excellent re¬
treat to a neighbouring caftle; from whence he fallied
out at midnight on the khalif’s forces, penetrated to the
very heart of the camp, where he wounded the gene¬
ral himfelf, and difperfed the greateft part of his army.
U Hej<y de- After this viftory, the rebels became terrible even
to A1 Hejaj himfelf, whom they afterwards defeated in
feveral engagements, and, taking advantage of his be¬
ing at Bafra, made themfelves mailers of Cufa with
little oppolition. A1 Hejaj was now conftrained to
write to the khalif for a ftrong detachment of the Sy¬
rian troops, with which he advanced againft Shebib,
whofe army bearing no proportion to that of A1 He¬
jaj, the former was totally defeated, had his wife’s
brother killed in the aftion, and was obliged to fly in¬
to Kerman. Having refrelhed his men in this province,
he again advanced to Ahwaz, where he was met by one
of A1 Hejaj’s generals at the head of the Syrian army.
Shebib defended himfelf with incredible valour, and
feveral times repulfed the khaliPs forces; but being o-
verpowered by numbers, as his army confifted of no
more than 600 men, he was at Jaft put to flight, and,
in palling a bridge was thrown off by his horfe and
drowned. His body was drawn up by a net, and the
head lent to A1 Hejaj, who was not a little pleafed
at the fight. After his death, the rebels quarrelled a-
mong themfelves, fo that the khalif’s troops cut off the
freatell part of them. The remainder, under Katri
ibn Fojat, fled to Tabrellan. Here they were kind¬
ly received by Alhid the king, who affigned them a
158 part of his territories for their habitation. Here they
gratitude jja(j not been long fettled, before they infilled upon
1 itath,
reftion of a mint in Arabia was occafioned by the fol¬
lowing accident. Abdalmalee added to the letters he
wrote to the Greek emperor, this Ihort paffage of the
Koran, “ Say, God is one,” or “ Say there is one
God;” and then inferted the year of the Hegira, with
kingdom of A1 Sind, lying between Perfia and India.
In this expedition, Derar king of A1 Sind was defeat¬
ed and killed, and had his head cut off by Mahomet.
In the 90th year of the Hegira, the Moflems made an
irruption into Cappadocia, defeated the emperor’s army
the name of the prophet, in fuch a manner as gave the who oppofed them, and took the city of Tyana. The
TT ’• 1 . . a, , , next year they made another incurfion into the impe¬
rial territories, whence they carried off vail numbers of
Haves ; and the year following, one Othman penetra-
emperor great offence. Upon this, he wrote to Abdal¬
malec, defiring him to alter that manner of writing,
or he would fend him fome coins in which the name
' of Mahomet fliould be mentioned in fuch a manner as ted into the heart of Cilicia, where he made himfelf ma-
iloney firft would not prove very agreeable. Abdalmalec now re- Her of feveral cities, but does not appear to have long
l ined in A- folved to coin money of his own; and accordingly fome kept bis conquells.
bia* dirhems were this year ftamped by A1 Hejaj, with In the 93d year of the Hegira, anfwering to that
the infeription, d//aA Samad, “ God is eternal;” of Chrift 712, Tarek Ebn Zarka made a defeent in Spain6'
Spain,
i<Ss
A R A
Arabia. Spain, defeated Roderic the laft king of the Goths, re-
diiced the city of Toledo, and over-ran a confiderable
part of the kingdom. Being afterwards joined by
Mufa, commander of the African Modems, the two ge-
i(J(J nerals made themfelves mailers of moll of the fortreli’es.
And over- fubjugating in a manner the whole country, and obli-
rnn the ging it to pay tribute to the khalif. In thefe expedi-
wholecoun- tions the Modems acquired fpoils, of immenfe value;
try' and, amongll other things, an exceeding rich table,
called by the Arab writers “ the table of Solomon the
fon of David.” According to thefe writers, this table
confided entirely of gold and filver, and was adorned
with three borders of pearls ; but Roderic of Toledo,
a Spanilh hiltorian, fays it confided of one entire Hone,
of a green colour, and of an immenfe fize, having no
lefs than 365 feet. He adds, that it was found in a
certain village or town, near the mountain called in
his day's Jibal Soliman, or “ the mountain of Solo¬
mon.”
After Mufa and Tarik had committed dreadful de¬
predations in Spain, they were both recalled by the
khalif; but the next year, Tarik having undertaken an¬
other expedition into the fame ebuntry, landed a body
of 12,000 men at Gibraltar, with which he plunder¬
ed the whole province of Baetica, and over-ran the
greatefi: part of Lufitania. Roderic hearing of thefe
depredations, fent againlt him an army of raw undifei-
plined troops, who were eafily defeated, and mod of
them left dead on the fpot; which fo animated the A-
rab commander, that he refolved not to lay down his
arms till he had made an abfolute conqued of Spain.
About the fame time that Tarif made fuch progrefs in
Spain, another Modem general entered Pifidia with a
powerful army, took the city of Antioch, and, after ha¬
ving ravaged the country, retired into the khalif’s ter-
1157 ritories with very little lofs.
Al Hejaj ln the 95th year of the Hegira, died A1 Hejaj go-
>dK:s• vernor of Irak, 6c. after he had prefided over that
country 20 years. He exercifed fuch cruelties upon
thofe who were in fubje&ion to him, that he is faid to
have killed 120,000 men, and to have differed 50,000
men and 30,000 women to perifh in prifon. To ex-
cufe this cruelty, he ufed frequently to fay, That a
-fevere, or even violent government, is better than one
too weak and indulgent; as the fird only hurts parti¬
cular perfons, but the latter the whole community.
This year alfo the Arabs gained a complete victory in
Spain over Roderic king of the Goths, who perifhed
in the action. In this campaign, Tarif poffeffed him-
felf of immenfe treafures; by which means he was ena¬
bled to reward not only his officers, but common fol-
diers alfo. In the eadern parts of the world alfo, the
Arabs were this year very formidable; Moflema, an A-
rab general, having entered the imperial territories, ra¬
vaged the whole province of Galatia, carrying off with
him many rich fpoils, and a vad number of prifoners.
The Greek emperor, hearing that Al Walid defigned to
attack him both by fea and land, fent fome of his no¬
bles to treat of a peace ; and, among other things, de-
fired them to bring him a particular account of the
force with which the khalif defigned to invade the
Greek empire. This they reprefented as fo terrible,
that it would be next to impoffible to oppofe it. The
emperor therefore caufed a great number of light ffiips
to be built, the walls to be repaired, and ordered fuch
A R A
of the citizens as had not laid up provifions for three Arabia. . ]
years to depart the city. Al Walid, in the mean time, —  rs
continued his warlike preparations with the utmod vi¬
gour, being determined to make himfelf mader of Con-
dantinople in a fingle campaign. ,6g j
In the 96th year of the Hegira died the khalif Ah Al WaIid 1
Walid, and was fucceeded by his brother Soliman.‘Jies an<1 is J
This year the Modem conqueds on the ead fide were bySollma];
increafed by the reduction of Tabreden and Jurjan or 7 lma**
Georgiana. In Spain alfo, the city of Toledo which
had revolted was reduced, and Csefar-Auguda, now
Saragoffa, as well as feveral others. The next year 'j
Moflema fet out for Condantinople, which he befieged Conrtanti-1
without fuccefs till the 99th year of the Hegira; at nopleunfue|L
which time he was obliged to return, after having lod ‘iefsf"lly bc‘ ‘
before it 120,000 men. The foldiers were reduced to ie^e *
the greated extremities of hunger, being forced to live
upon hides, the roots and bark of trees, the moll noi-
fome animals, and even the dead bodies of their com¬
panions. This year alfo (the 99th of the Hegira) is ,70 i
remarkable for the death of the khalif Soliman. Ac- Death of Sa
cording to fome, he was poifoned by Yezid his brother, hman.
governor of Periia, who was difpleafed with his having
appointed his coufin-german Omar Ebn Abdalaziz
as his fucceffor, to the exclufion of himfelf. Accord¬
ing to others, he died of an indigedion; which is not
greatly to be wondered at, if, as thofe authors fay, he
ufed to devour 100 pounds weight of meat everyday,
and dine very heartily after eating three lambs roaded
for breakfad. In the latter part of his reign, the Mo¬
dems were by no means fuccefsful in Spain ; the king¬
dom of Navarre being founded at this time by Pela-
gius, or Pelayo, whom the Arabs were never able to
reduce.
The new khalif Omar Ebn Abdalaziz'was by no
means of a martial charadler ; but is faid to have been
very pious, and poffeffed of very amiable qualities. He
fuppreffed the ufual maledidlion, which was folemnly
pronounced by the khalifs of the houfe. of Ommiyah,
againd the houfe of Ali; and always Ihewed great kind-
nefs to the latter. He was poifoned by Yezid, after a New fchal i
Ihort reign of two years and five months. It is rela- poifoned. j
ted, as an indance of this khalif’s humility, that when
Mollema vifited him in his lad ficknefs occafioned by
the poifon, he lay upon abed of palm-tree leaves, fup-
ported by a pillow formed of beads Ikins, and covered
with an ordinary garment. He had alfo on a dirty
Ihirt; for which Moflema blamed his fider Fatima, O-
mar’s wife; butflie excufed herfelf, by telling, him that
the emperor of the faithful had not another flrirt to put
on.
Concerning Yezid the fucceffor of Omar we find
very little worth mentioning. He did not long enjoy 1
,the dignity he had fo iniquitoufly purchafed, dying af¬
ter a reign of little more than four years. He died of
grief for a favourite concubine, named Hababah, who
was accidentally choked by a large grape which duck
in her throat.
Yezid was fucceeded by his brother Hefham, who
afeended the throne in the 105th year t^ie Hegira. I
In the fecond and third year of his reign, feveral in-
curfions were made into the imperial territories, but ge¬
nerally without fuccefs. In the 109th year •&-
gira, Moflema drove the Turks out of Armenia and 172 f:
Aderbijan, and again confined them within the Cafpian defeated*
t 578 1
A R A [ 579 ] A R A
gates. The next year, he obliged them to take an oath
that they would keep their own country; but this they
foon violated, and were again driven back by Moflema.
173 About this time alfo the Arabs, having paired the Py-
r3n'J®in' renees, invaded France to the number 400,000, inclu-
'\rabs ^ women and Haves, under the command of one
Abdalrahman. Having advanced to Arles upon the
Rhone, they defeated a large body of French that op-
pofed them; and having alfo defeated count Eudo,
theypurfued him through feveral provinces, wafted the
whole country with fire and fword, making themfelves
mailers of the city of Tours, moll of which they redu-
174 ced to alhes. Here however a Hop was put to their
They are nt- devaftations by Charles Martel; who, coming up with
IdlfyChar- t^em near the abovementioned city, engaged them for
:ks Martel. feven days together, and at laft gave them a total o-
verthrow. The French general made himfelf ma-
1 Her of all their baggage and riches; and Abdalrah¬
man, with the lhattered remains of his army, reached
the frontiers of Spain with the utmoft difficulty. The
following year alfo, according to fome hillorians, the
Arabs were overthrown at Illiberis, fcarce any of them
making their efcape. To make amends for this bad
fortune, however, the khalif’s arms were fuccefsful a-
gainft the Turks, who had again invaded fome of the
eaftern provinces.
In the 125th year of the Hegira died thekhalif He-
fham, after a reign of 19 years, feven months, and ele¬
ven days. He was fucceeded by A1 Walid II. who is
reprefented as a man of a moll diflblute life, and was
aflaffinated the following year on account of his profef-
fing Zendicifm, a fpecies of infidelity nearly refembling
Sadducifm. He was fucceeded by Yezid the fon of
A1 Walid I. who died of the plague after a reign of
fix months; and was fucceeded by Ibrahim Ebn A1
1 i^j Walid, an imprudent and ftupid prince. He was depo-
Leign of fed in the 127th Year t^ie Hegira by Merwan Ebn
Kerwan. Mahomet, the governor of Mefopotamia; who gave out
as an excufe for his revolt, that he intended to revenge
the murder of the khalif A1 Walid II. He was, no
fooner feated on the throne, than the people of Hems
rebelled againft him. Againft them the khalif march¬
ed with a powerful army; and, a iking them what could
excite them to this rebellion, fummoned them to fur-
render. They affured him that they were difpofed to
admit him into their city; and, accordingly, one of
' . the gates being opened, Merwan entered with about
300 of his troops. The men that entered with him
were immediately put to the fword; and the khalif
himfelf efcaped with great difficulty. However, he af¬
terwards defeated them in a pitched battle, put a great
number of them to the fword, difmantled the city, and
crucified 600 of the principal authors of the revolt.
This however was far from quieting the commotions
in different parts of the empire. The inhabitants of
Damafcus foon followed the example of thofe of Hems,
and depofed the khaliPs governor ; but Merwan, im¬
mediately after the extinction of the former rebellion,
marched to Damafcus with great celerity, entered the
city by force, and brought to condign punifliment the
authors of the revolt. Peace, however, was no fooner
eftablilhed at Damafcus, than Soliman Ebn Helham
fet up for himfelf at Bafra, \yhere he was proclaimed
khalif by the inhabitants. Here he afiembled an army
of 10,000 men, with whom he marched to Kinniffin,
where he was joined by vaft numbers of Syrians who Arabia,
flocked to him from all parts. Merwan, receiving ad-
vice of Soliman’s rapid progrefs, marched againft him
with all the forces he could aflemble, and entirely de¬
feated him. In this engagement Soliman loft 30,000
men, fo that he was obliged to fly to Hems, where
900 men took an oath to Hand by him to the laft. Ha¬
ving ventured however to attack the khalif’s forces a
fecond time, he was again defeated, and forced to fly to
Hems. But being clofely purfued by Merwan, hecon-
ftituted his brother Said governor of the city, leaving
with him the ftiattered remains of his troops, and him¬
felf fled to Tadmor. Soon after his departure Merwan
appeared before the town, which he befieged for feven
months ; during which time he battered it mceflantly
with 80 catapults. The citizens being reduced to the
laft extremity, furrendered, and delivered Said into the
khalif’s hands. In confideration of this fubmiffion Mer¬
wan pardoned the rebels, and took them all under his
protection. About the fame time, another pretender to
the khalifat appeared at Cufa; but Merwan took his
meafures fo well, that he extinguiihed this rebellion be-
. fore it could come to any height. 175
Notwithftanding the fuccels, however, that had hi- A party
therto attended Merwan, a ftrong party was formed fo!mre(J.a'
againft him in Khorafan by the houfe of A1 Abbas. ^KhoratTn
The firft of that houfe that made any confiderable fi¬
gure was named Mahomet, who flouriftied in the reign
of Omar Ebn Abdalaziz. He was appointed chief of
the houfe of A1 Abbas, about the 100th year of the
Hegira; and is faid to have prophefied, that, after his
death, one of his fons named Ibrahim Ihould prefide
over them till he was killed, and that his other fon Ab¬
dallah, furnamed Abul Abbas Al Saffah, ftiould be kha¬
lif, and exterminate the houfe of Ommiyah. Upon
this, Al Saffah was introduced as the future fovereign,
and thofe prefent kified his hands and feet.
After the deceafe of Mahomet, his fon Ibrahim no¬
minated as his reprefentative in Khorafan one Abu
Moflem, a youth of 19 years of age; who, beginning
to raife forces in that province, Merwan difpatched a-
gainft him a body of horfe under the command of Nafr ,77
Ebn Sayar: but that general was entirely defeated by Merwan’s.
Abu Moflem, and the greateft part of his men killed. forces de-
The next year (the 128th of the Hegira), Merwan feated"
made vaft preparations to oppofe Abu Moflem, who
after tke late viftory began to grow formidable to fe¬
veral parts of the empire. According to fome authors,
Merwan gained two victories over fome of Ibrahim’s ge¬
nerals : but the year following, Abu Moflem brought
fuch a formidable army into the field, that the khalif’s
troops could not make head againft them ; his officers
in Khorafan therefore were obliged either to take an
oath of allegiance to Ibrahim, or to quit the province
within a limited time.
In the 130th year of the Hegira, the khaliFs gene¬
ral Nafr, having drawn together, another army, was
again defeated by Kahtaba another of Ibrahim’s gene¬
rals, and forced to fly to Raya, a town of Dylam, ac¬
cording to fome, or of Khorafan, according to others. ,7g
The next year Ibrahim, having foolilhly taken it into Ibrahim pat
his head to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, attended by t0 death,
a numerous retinue fplendidly accoutred, was feized
and put to death by Merwan; and the year following,
Abul Abbas was proclaimed khalif at Cufa. As foon
A R A [ 580 ] A R A
Arabia, as the ceremony was ended, he fent his uncle Abdallah
*—• a powerful army to attack Merwan’s forces that
were encamped near Tubar, at a fmall diftance from
Moful, where that khalif was then waiting for an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of his troops under Yezid gover¬
nor of Irak againft Khatahba, one of A1 Saffah’s ge¬
nerals. Khatahba, receiving advice of Yezid’s approach,
immediately advanced againft him, and entirely defeat¬
ed him; but, in crofting the Euprates, the waters of
which were greatly fwelled, he was carried away by
the current, and drowned. The purfuit, however, was
continued by his fon Hamid, who difperfed the fugi-
*79 lives in fuch a manner that they could never afterwards
bimfelfde ^ ra^‘ed* At the news of this difafter, Merwan was
feated. e" at greatly difpirited; but foon recovering himfelf,
he advanced to meet Abdallah. In the beginning of
the battle, the khalif happened to difmount; and his
troops perceiving their fovereign’s horfe without his
rider, concluded that he was killed, and therefore im¬
mediately fled ; nor was it in the power of the knalif
himfelf to rally them again, fo that he was forced to
fly to Damafcus: but the inhabitants of that city, fee¬
ing his condition defperate, fliut their gates againft him.
r8o Upon this he fled to Egypt, where he maintained him-
nd killed. pej£ for fQrne tjme. ^ut vvas at ]aft attacked and killed
by Saleh, Abdallah’s brother, in a town of Thebair,
called Bnfir Kuridas. The citizens of Damafcus, tho’
they had fhamefully deferted Merwan, refufed to open
their gates to the vi&ors; upon which Saleh entered
the city by force, and gave it up to be plundered for
three days by his foldiers.
By the total defeat and death of Merwan, A1 Saffah
remained foie mafter of the Moflem throne; but we
hear of no very remarkable events that happened during
his reign: only that he maflacred great numbers of the
partifans of the houfe of Ommiyah ; and that Conftan-
tine Copronymus, taking advantage of the inteftine
divifions among the Moflems, ravaged Syria. The
khalif died of the fmall-pox in the 136th year of the
r • ,8lf ai Hegira, in the 33d year of his age; and was fucceeded
Manfur. hy his brother A1 Manfur. In the beginning of A1
Manfur’s reign, hoftilities continued againft the houfe
of Ommiyah, who ftill made refiftance, but were al¬
ways defeated. Abdallah, however, the khalif’s uncle,
caufed himfelf to be proclaimed khalif at Damafcus ;
and having aflembled a powerful army in Arabia, Sy¬
ria, and Mefopotamia, advanced with great expedition
to the banks of the Mafias nea.* Nifibis, where he en¬
camped. A1 Manfur, being informed of this rebellion,
difpatched Abu Moflem againft Abdallah. This gene¬
ral, having harrafled him for five months together, at
laft brought him to a general a&ion; and, having en¬
tirely defeated him, forced him to fly to Bafra, Not-
withftanding all his fervices, however, Abu Moflem
182 was foon after ungratefully and barbaroufly murdered
He murders by A1 Manfur, on fome ridiculous pretences of being
Qem 1^°" deficient in refpeA towards him.
After the death of Abu Moflem, one Sinan a Ma-
gian, or adorer of fire, having made himfelf mafter of
that general’s treafures, revolted again ft the khalif; but
he was foon defeated by Jamhur Ebn Morad, who had
been fent againft him with a powerful army. In this
expedition Jamhur having acquired immenfe riches,
the covetous difpofition of the khalif prompted him to
fend a perfon exprefs to the army to feize upon all the
wealth. This fo provoked Jamhur, that he immediate- Arabia,
ly turned his arms againft his mafter; but was foon de- |
feated, and entirely reduced. The following year (the
139th of the Hegira), one Abdalrahman, of the houfe ,83
of Ommiyah, after the entire ruin of that family in A- Abdalrah- |
fia, arrived in Spain, where he was acknowledged kha- ma.n Pro*
lif; nor did he or his defeendants ever afterwards own
fubje&ion to the Arabian khalifs. Spain.
The 140th year of the Hegira is remarkable for an 184 1
attempt to aflaflinate the khalif. This attempt was Attempt to 1
made by the Rawandians; an impious fed, who held j |
the dodrine of metempfyehofis or tranfmigration.— ‘ ’ 1
They firft offered A1 Manfur divine honours, by going
in proceflion round his palace, as the Moflems were
wont to do round the Caab ; but the khalif, highly in-
cenfed at this impiety, ordered 100 of the principal of
them to be imprifoned. Thefe however were foon re¬
leafed by their companions; who then went in a body
to the palace with an intention to murder their fove-
reign : but he being a perfon of uncommon bravery,
though he was furprized with very few attendants,
mounted a mule, and advanced towards the mutineers
with an intention to fell his life as dear as pofiible. In
the mean time, Maan Ebn Zaidat, one of the chiefs of
the Ommiyan fadion, who had concealed himfelf in
order to avoid the khalif’s refentment, fallied out of
his retreat, and putting himfelf at the head of A1 Man-
fur’s attendants, charged the rebels with fuch fury,
that he entirely defeated them. This generofity of
Maan was fo remarkable, that it afterwards paffed in¬
to a proverb. On this occafion 6000 of the Rawan¬
dians were killed on the fpot, and the khalif delivered
from inftant death: he was, however, fo much dif-
gufted with the Arabs on account of this attempt, that
he refolved to remove the capital of his empire out of ,85
their peninfula; and accordingly founded a new city on He remove
the banks of the Tigris, which from that time to this the (eat of
has been known by the name of Bagdad. The foun-
dations of it were laid in the i45'th year of the Hegi- S
ra, and finifired four years after.
On the removal of the feat of government to Bag¬
dad, the peninfula of the Arabs feems all at once to
have loft its confequence, and in a ftrort time the in¬
habitants feem even to have detached themfelves from
the jurifdiftion of the khalifs: for, in the 156th year of
the Hegira, while A1 Manfur was yet living, they made
irruptions into Syria and Mefopotamia, as if they had
defigned to conquer thefe countries over again for them¬
felves ; and though the Arabs, properly fo called, con¬
tinued nominally fubjeA to the khalifs of Bagdad till j.
the abblition of the khalifat by Hulaku the Tartar, Arabs nev li
yet they did not become fubjedt to him when he be- fubdued b; ]
came mafter of that city. Nay, we have the ftrongeft any fore‘g 1
reafon to believe that the Arabs (i. e. the inhabitants pjwcr*
of the peninfula properly called Arabia) have remain¬
ed independent, not only of Hulaku, but of every other
conqueror that the world hath yet produced. To prove
this will require no long time : for no governor of A-
rabia is mentioned in hiftory but what was chofen by
the Arabs themfelves; which abundantly fliews the fu¬
tility of the pretences to conquefts of Arabia made by-
Trajan, Severus, the Turks, &c. From the charafter
of the Arabs in all ages, it is certain that no nation ever
had more occafion for governors than they have; and if
the princes who pretended to conquer them did not ap-
A R A
point governors over thofe unruly TuBje&s, we can only
fuppofe it to have been becaufe they were not able,
i. e. becaufe their pretended conquefts were never made.
As the hiftory of Arabia, properly fo called, therefore,
is not to be found in the hiftory of the khalifs of Bag¬
dad, we muft refer our readers for the hiftory of thofe
khalifs to the article Bagdad, and conclude this long
article with fome account of the manners, cuftoms, &c.
of the. Arabs, and which, according to all accounts,
feem now to be much the fame with what they have
always been.
With regard to the difpofition of the ancient Arabsj
.Chara&er of         
ArabsCient ^ *3e Pr0Per to remark> that they had their good
and bad qualities, their excellencies anddefe<fts,as wellas
other nations. Hofpitality was fo habitual to them, that
in this they feem to have exceeded all their neighbours.
Agatharchides reprefents them as the moft hofpitable
people in the world to all nations, but particularly fome
[ j8i ] A R A
ings, and have a cap or turban on their heads. Many
of them go almoft naked; but the women are fo wrap¬
ped up, that nothing can be difcerned but their eyes.
Except thofe that live in the cities and towns on the
fea-coafts, they have no fettled habitation, but rove
from place to place, with their flocks and herds, for
the conveniency of water and pafture. While they con¬
tinue in any particular fpot, they live and fleep in tents.
They frequently rob or impofe a tribute upon the ca¬
ravans between Turky and Perfia ; and the king of
Mufcat is little better than a pirate, having generally a
fquadron of cruizers, with which he takes all the de-
fencelefs fltips he can meet with in the Perfian and A-
rabian feas. They pretend, that God gave permiffion
to Ilhmael and his pofterity to take whatever they
could, efpecially from the Jews.
The food of the Arabs is chiefly rice, fifh, herbs,
venifon, fowl, and moft other forts of flefli: but camels
of the Greeks. Hatem of the tribe of Tay, and Hafn flefti is moft admired ; and they take care to drain the
of that of Fezarah, were principally famous on this ac¬
count : the latter of thefe, we are told, fell into as great
a tranfport ef joy when he conferred any fignal favour
upon a petitioner, as others did when they received
fuch a favour. Nay, the contrary vice was fo much in
contempt among the Arabs, that a certain poet up¬
braids the inhabitants of Wafet, as with the greateft
reproach, that none of their men had the heart to give,
nor their women to deny. As a mark of their hofpi¬
table difpofition, the Arabs ufed to light fires on the
tops of hills, which in the night conduced travellers
to their tents, and affured them of a kind reception.
Every one of thefe fires they called the fire of hofpitali-
ty; and the larger and higher it was, the greater ho¬
nour and glory it refle&ed on the perfon or perfons con¬
cerned in lighting it. The higheft compliment that
could be paid a man was to pafs an encomium upon his
munificence; as that moft acceptable to a woman was,
to celebrate her parfimony, and her beauty. The an¬
cients likewife commend the Arabs for being exadt to
their words, and refpedlful to their kindred; and they
have always been celebrated for their quicknefs of ap-
188
refent A-
fabs defci i-
isd.
blood from the flefti, as the Jews do, and, like them,
abftain from fuch fifh as have no fcales. Their drink is
chiefly water or fherbet; they have no ftrong liquors.
Dr Shaw fays, the wild Arabs (by which we fup¬
pofe he means the wandering Arabs) are a very fierce,
rapacious, unpolifhed race, without the leaft literature
among them: that Europeans have little or no converfe
with them; and, if they had, could learn but little of
them.
Though the far greater part of the nation deferves
the charadter given of them above, yet there are many
of them, efpecially fuch as live in towns, that apply
themfelves to trades and commerce, arts and fciences,
in which they often make a great progrefs; being na
turally ingenious, fubtile, and witty; and great admi
rers of poetry, mufic, and rhetoric. Many of the Ara
bian performances in phyfic, aftronomy, and mathema
tics, fhew the authors to have been men of great ge
nius and application. Figures, and,the curious difpo¬
fition of them, fo as to exprefs any number whatfoever
with cafe and expedition, is allowed to be an invention
of the Arabians. To conclude their char after, both
prehenfion and penetration, as well as the vivacity of fexes are faid to be very vindiftive, and exceffively gi-
..l • . -r • ii— .v _/■  1..11 .1   . 11 0
their wit; efpecially thofe of the Defert.
On the other hand, that the Arabs had a natural in¬
clination to war, bloodfhed, cruelty, and rapine, is ac¬
knowledged by their own writers. They had always
been fo much addifted to bear malice, that they fcarce
ever forgot an old grudge ; which vindiftive temper,
fome phyficians fay, ought to be attributed to their fre¬
quent feeding on camels flefh, that creature being moft
malicious, and tenacious of anger. This account, ac¬
cording to Mr Sale, fuggefts a good reafon for diftinc-
tion of meats.
The prefent Arabs are of a middle ftature, thin, and
of a fwarthy complexion, with black hair and black
ven to lull, as the natives of hot climates generally are.
How ftrong the Arab genius is tinftured with enthu-
fiafm and fuperftition, and confequently inclined to fa¬
ble and romance, appears eminently in moft of their
compofitions.
As the Arabs are one of the moft ancient nations in .
the world, having inhabited the country they at prefent gUage
poflefs almoft from the deluge, without intermixing &
with other nations, or being fubjugated by any foreign
power, their language muft have been formed foon af¬
ter, if not at, the confufion of Babel. The two princi¬
pal dialefts of it were, that fpoken by the Hamyarites
and other genuine Arabs, and that of the Koreifti, in
eyes, which however are common to them with other which Mahomet wrote the Koran. The firft is ftyled by-
people in the fame climate. Their voices are rather ef- the Oriental writers the Arabic of Hamyar, and the o-
feminate than ftrong. They are very fwift of foot, and ther the pure or defecated. As Yarab, grandfather of
excellent horfemen; and are faid to be a brave people, Hamyar, is fuppofed by the Oriental writers to have
expert at the bow and lance, and, fince they became been the firft whofe tongue deviated from the Syriac to
acquainted with fire-arms, good markfmen.
The habit of the roving Arabs is a kind of blue fhirt,
tied about them with a white farti or girdle ; and fome
of them have a veft of furs, or ftieep-lkins, over it. They
wear alfo drawers, and fometimes flippers, but no ftock-
Vol. I.
the Arabic; the Hamyaritic dialeft, according to them,
muft have approached nearer to the purity of the Sy¬
riac ; and confequently have been more remote from the
true genius of the Arabic, than that of any other tribe.
The dialeft of the Koreifti, termed by the Koran the
4 D P-
i8p
Letters.
A R A [ 582 ] A R A
perfpicuous and clear Arabic, is referred to I/htnael as
its author; who, fay the above-mentioned writers, firft
fpoke it; and, as Dr Pocock believes, after he had con-
trafted an alliance with the family of Jorham by mar¬
riage, formed it of their language and the original He¬
brew. As, therefore, the Hamyaritic dialeft partook
principally of the Syriac, fo that of the Koreiih was
fuppofed to confift chiefly of the Hebrew. But, ac¬
cording to Jallalo’ddin, the politenefs and elegance
of the dialeft of the Koreifli ought rather to be
attributed to their having, from the remoteft anti¬
quity, the cuftody of the Caaba, and dwelling in Mec¬
ca the centre of Arabia. The Arabs are full of the
commendations of their language; which is very har¬
monious, expreffive; and, as they fay, fo immenfely co-
pious, that no man uninfpired can be a perfeft mafter
of it in its utmoft extent. How much, in this laft ar¬
ticle, it is fuperior to the Greek and Latin tongues, in
feme meafure appears from hence, that fometimes a bare
enumeration of the Arabic names of one particular
thing, and an explication of them, will make a confi-
derable volume. Notwithftanding this, the Arabs
believe the greateft part of their language to be loft ;
which will not feem improbable, when we confider how
late the art of writing became generally praftifed a-
mong them. For though it was known to Job their
countryman, to the Edomites, as well as the other Ara¬
bian nations bordering upon Egypt and Phoenicia, and
to the Hamyarites many centuries before Mahomet, as
appears from fome ancient monuments faid to be re¬
maining in their charafter; yet the other Arabs, and
thofe of Mecca in particular, unlefs fuch of them as
were either Jews or Chriftians, were to the time ofMo-
ramer perfeftly ignorant of it. It was the ancient A-
rabic language preceding the reign of Juftinian, which
fo nearly refembled the Ethiopic; for fince that time,
and efpecially fince the age of Mahomet, all the Arabic
dialefts have been not a little corrupted. This is now
the learned language of the Mahometans, who ftudy it
as the European Chriftians do the Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin.
The charafter ufed by them, the moft ancient of any
peculiar to the Arabs, wherein the letters were not di-
ftinftly feparate, went by the appellation of 41 Mof-
nad, from the mutual dependency of its letters or parts
upon one another. This was neither publicly taught,
nor fuffered to be ufed, without permiflion firft obtain¬
ed. Could we depend upon what A1 Firauzabadius re¬
lates from Ebn Halhem, this charafter muft have been
of a very high antiquity; fince an infeription in it, ac¬
cording to the laft author, was found in Yaman, as old
as the time of Jofeph. Be that as it will, Moramer
3£bn Morra of Anbar, a city of Irak, who lived not
many years before Mahomet, was the inventor of the
prefent Arabic charafter, which Bafhar the Kendian,
who married the fitter of Abu Sofian, is faid to have
/earned from the houfe of Anbar, and to have introduced
;/at Mecca but a little time before the inftitution of Ma-
hometifm. Moramer’s alphabet the Oriental authors
agree to have been very different from the ancient one
of the Hamyarites, fince they diftinguifti the Hamya¬
ritic and Arabic pens. In Mahomet’s time, the Mo-
rameric alphabet had made fo final! a progrefs, that no
one in Yaman could either write or read it; nay, Ma¬
homet himfelf was incapable of doing either; for which
reafon, he was called the illiterate prophet. The letters AraMa.
of this alphabet were very rude; being either the fame
with, or very much like, the Cufic; which charafter is
ftill found in inferiptions and the titles of ancient books;
nay, for many years it was the only one ufed by the
Arabs, the Koran itfelf being at firft written therein.
In order to perpetuate the memory of Moramer’s in¬
vention, fome authors call the Arabic letters al Mora¬
mer, i. e. the progeny of Moramer. Themoft remark¬
able fpecimens of the Cufic charafter (fo denominated
from Cufa, a city of Irak, where fome of the firft co¬
pies of the Koran were written) are the following: Part
of that book in it on vellum, brought from Egypt by
Mr Greaves; fome other fragments of the fame book
in it publilhed by Sir John Chardin ; certain paffages
of a MS. in the Bodleian library; the legends on feve-
ral Saracenic coins dug up not many years ago on the
coaft of the Baltic, not far from Dantzick ; and, ac¬
cording to Mr Profeffor Hunt, thofe noble remains of
it that are, or were lately, to be feen in Mr Jofeph
Ames’s valuable collection of antique curiofities. As to
the true origin of the ancient and modern Arabic al¬
phabets, we muft own ourfelves pretty much in the dark. I50
The fciences chiefly cultivated by the ancient Ara- Learning,
bians were three; that of their hiftory and genealo- &c.
gies, fuch a knowledge of the ftars as to foretel the
changes of weather, and the interpretation of dreams.
They valued themfelves extremely on account of the no¬
bility of their families; and fo many difputes happen¬
ed on that occafion, that it is no wonder if they took
great pains in fettling their defeents. Their knowledge
of the ftars was gathered from long experience, and not
from any regular ftudy or aftronomical rules. The A-
rabians and Indians applied themfelves to obferve the
fixed ftars, contrary to other nations, whofe obferva-
tions were almoft confined to the planets; and they fore¬
told their effefts from their influences, not their nature.
The ftars or afterifins they moft ufually foretold the
weather by, were thofe they call Annua, or the houfes
of the moon. Thefe are 28 in number, and divide the
zodiac into as many parts, through one of which the
moon paffes every night. As fome of them fet in the
morning, others rife oppofite to them, which happens
every thirteenth night; and from their rifing and fet-
ting, the Arabs, by long experience, obferved what
changes happened in the air; and at length came to
aferibe divine power to them, faying, that their rain
was from fuch or fuch a ftar. This expreffion Maho¬
met abfolutely forbad them to ufe in the old fenfe, un¬
lefs qualified in fuch a manner as to make the Supreme
Being the direftor and manager of them. We find Al
Rayefh, one of the kings of Yaraan, furnamed the Phi-
lofopher, not fo much on account of his learning, as of
his great prudence and intelleftual endowments. That
the Arabs underftood fomething of phyfic before the
time of Mahomet, appears from hence, that the famous
Arabian phyfician Al Harith Ebn Khalda, fo celebra¬
ted amongft his countrymen, was older than that impo-
ftor. They feem to have made no farther progrefs in
aftronomy, which they afterwards cultivated with fo
much fuccefs and applaufe, than to obferve the influ¬
ence of the ftars upon the weather, and to give them
names; which it was obvious for them to do, by rea¬
fon of their paftoral way of life, lying night and day
in the open plains* The names they impofed on the
ftars
A R A [ 583 ] A R A
Arabia, ftars generally alluded to cattle and flocks; and they
were io nice in diftinguiftung them, that no language
has fo many names of ftars and afterifms as the Ara-
ij>i bic.
Mechanical That fome of the Arabs had a good degree of know-
arts‘ ledge in feveral mechanical arts, appears from Strabo,
who informs us, that the people of Tamna and the ad¬
jacent provinces had magnificent temples, and elegant
houfes, built in the Egyptian tafte. The fame author
likevvife relates, that in Arabia Felix, befides the huf-
bandmen, there were many artificers; and, amongft o-
thers, thofe which made palm-wine, which, he inti¬
mates, was much ufed by the Arabs. As for the ex-
ercife of arms and horfemanfhip, they looked upon this
as one of their principal accomplifhments, being obli¬
ged to praftife and encourage it by reafon of the inde¬
pendency of their tribes, whofe frequent jarring made
wars almoft continual amongft them, which for the moft
part ended in field-battles. Hence it became an ufual
faying amongft them, that God had beftowed four pe¬
culiar things on the Arabs, viz. turbans inftead of dia¬
dems, tents inftead of walls and houfes, fwords inftead of
intrenchments, and poems inftead of written laws. The
principal arms ufed by the ancient Arabs were bows
and arrows, darts or javelins, and broad fwords or fey-
metars. The bows and arrows were the moft ancient
of thefe; being ufed by Hhmael himfelf, according to
Scripture. It is probable alfo, that fome of them were
acquainted with every branch of the military art culti¬
vated by their neighbours the Egyptians, Syrians, and
ip j Phoenicians.
Religion. The religion of the Arabs before Mahomet, which
they call the ft ate of ignorance, was chiefly grofs ido¬
latry; the Sabian religion having almoft over-run the
whole nation; though there were alfo great numbers
of Chriitians, Jew.s, and Magians, amongft them. The
idolatry of the Arabs, as Sabians, chiefly confifted in
worfnipping the fixed ftars and planets, and the angels
and their images; which they honoured as inferior dei¬
ties, and whofe interedfion they begged as their me¬
diators with God. For they acknowledged one Su¬
preme God, the Creator and Lord of the univerfe,
whom they called Allah Taala, the moft high God} and
their other deities, who were fubordinate to him, they
called fimply Al Ilahnt, i. e. the goddejfes.
Of the angels or intelligences which they worfhip-
ped, we find only three mentioned in the Koran, viz.
A Hat, Al-Uzzah, and Manah: thefe they called god¬
dejfes, and the daughters of Gpd; an appellation they
gave not only to angels, but alfo to their images, which
they believed either to be inipired with life by God, or
elfe to become the tabernacles of the angels, and to be
animated by them ; and they paid them divine honours,
becaufe they believed them to intercede with God for
their votaries. The Arab Sabians likewife, in common
with thofe of other nations, imagined that the fun,
moon, and fixed ftars, were inhabited by intelligences
of a middle nature betwixt men and the fupreme Being,
who actuated their orbs in the fame manner as the foul
does the human body; and that this was the true
caufe of all their motions. Thefe beings, they had a
notion, became mediators between God and them : for
the necefiity of a mediator they clearly difeovered from
the beginning ; and therefore to them, as God’s medi¬
ators, directed divine worlhip. They firft worfltipped
them by their tabernacles, i. e. their orbs themfelves; Arab'».
but thefe, by their rifing and felting, being as much
under the horizon as above, they were at a lofs how
to addrefs themfelves to them in their abfence. To re¬
medy this, they had recourfe to the invention of images,
in which, after their confecration, they thought thefe
inferior deities to be as much prefent by their influence
as in the ftars themfelves, and therefore that all ad-
drefles were made as effeftually before the one as be¬
fore the other- Several of thefe idols were no other
than large rude ftones, the worlhip of which, according
to A1 Jannabius, was introduced by the pofterity of
Ilhmacl. Since the days of Mahomet, the only religi¬
on tolei-ated in the Arabian peninfula is what was in¬
vented by that impoftor ; for an account of which fee
the article Mahometanism.
Before the Portuguefe interrupted the navigation of Commerce,
the Red Sea, the Arabs were the Factors of all the trade
that paffed thro’that channel. Aden, which is fituatedat
the moft fouthern extremity of Arabia upon the Indian
ocean, was the martin thefe parts. The fituation of its
harbour, which opened an eafy communication with
Egypt, Ethiopia, India, and Perfia, had rendered it,
for many ages, one of the moft flouriftiing fa&ories in
Afia. Fifteen years after it had repulfed the great Al¬
buquerque, who attempted to demolilh it in 1513, it
fubmitted to the Turks, who did not long remain ma¬
tters of it. The king of Yaman, who poffefled the
only diftridl in Arabia that merits the title of happy,
drove them from thence, and removed the trade to
Mocha, a place in his dominions which till then was
only a village.
This trade was at firft inconfiderable; confifting
principally in myrrh, incenfe, aloes, balm of Mecca,
fome aromatics, and medicinal drugs. Thefe articles,
the exportation of which is continually retarded by
exorbitant imports, and does not exceed at prefent
30,625 1. were at that time more in repute than they
have been fince : but muft have been always of little
confequence. Soon after, a great change enfued from
the introdu&ion of coffee.
Though this article is generally ufed in the Arabian
entertainments, none but the rich citizens have the
pleafure of tatting the berry itfelf. The generality are
obliged to content themfelves with the fhell and the
hulk of this valuable production. Thefe remains, fo
much defpifed, make a liquor of a pretty clear colour,
which has a tafte of coffee without its bitternefs and
ftrength. Thefe articles may be had at a low price at
Betelfagui, which is the general market for them.
Here likewife is fold all the. coffee which comes out of
the country by land. The reft is carried to Mocha,
which is 35 leagues diftant, or to the nearer ports of
Lohia or Hodeida, from whence it is tranfported in
fmall veffels to Jodda. The Egyptians fetch it from
the laft mentioned place, and all other nations from the
former.
The quantity of coffee exported may be eftimated at
twelve millions five hundred and fifty thoufand weight.
The European companies take off a million and a half;
the Perlians three millions and a half; the fleet from
Suez fix millions and a half; Indoftan, the Maldives,
and the Arabian colonies on the coaft of Africa, fifty
thoufand ; and the caravans a million.
As the coffee which is bought up by the caravans
4 D 2 and
A R A [ 584 ] A R A
Arabia, and the Europeans, is the belt that can be procured,
“ “ it cofts about 8 j- d. a pound. The Perfians, who con¬
tent themfelves with that of an inferior quality, pay no
more than about 64- d. a pound. The Egyptians pur-
chafe it at the rate of about 8 d ; their cargoes being
compofed partly of good, and partly of bad coffee. If
we eftimate coffee at about y-f- d. a pound, which is the
mean price, the profits accruing to Arabia from its
annual exportation will amount to 384,343!. 15 s.
This money does not go into their coffers ; but it en¬
ables them to purchafe the commodities brought from
the foreign markets to their ports of Jodda and Mocha.
Mocha receives from Abyffinia, fheep, elephants
teeth, mufk, and flaves. It is fupplied from the ea-
ftern coaft of Africa with gold, flaves, amber, and i-
vory ; from the Perfian gulf, with dates, tobacco, and
corn ; from Surat, with a vail quantity of coarfe, and a
few fine, linens; from Bombay and Pondicherry, with
iron, lead, copper, which are carried thither from Eu¬
rope ; from Malabar, with rice, ginger, pepper, In¬
dian faffron, with coire, cardamom, and alfo with
planks; from the Maldives, with gum, benzoin, aloes-
wood, and pepper, which thefe iflands take in ex¬
change ; from Coromandel, with 400 or 500 bales of
cottons, chiefly blue. The greateff part of thefe com¬
modities, which may fetch 262,500!. are confumed in
the interior part of the country. The reft, particular¬
ly the cottons, are difpofed of in Abyffinia, Socotora,
and the eaftern coaft of Africa.
None of the branches of bufinefs which are managed
at Mocha, as well as throughout all the country of Ya-
man, or even at Sanaa the capital, are in the hands of
the natives. The extortions with which they are per¬
petually threatened by the government, deter them from
interfering in them. All the warehoufes are occupied
by the Banians of Surat or Guzarat, who make a point
of returning to their own country as foon as they have
made their fortunes. They then refign their fettlements
to merchants of their own nation, who retire in their
turn, and are fucceeded by others.
The European companies, who enjoy the exclufive
privilege of trading beyond the Cape of Good Hope,
formerly maintained agents at Mocha. Notwithftand-
ing it was ftipulated by a folemn capitulation, that the
impofts demanded fhould be rated at two and a quarter
fer cent, they were fubjeft to frequent extortions :
the governor of the place infilling on their making him
prefents, which enabled him to purchafe the favour of
the courtiers, or even of the prince himfelf. However,
the profits they obtained by the fale of European goods,
particularly clothes, made them fubmit to thefe repeat¬
ed humiliations. When thefe feveral articles were fur-
nilhed by Grand Cairo,.it was then impoflible to with-
ftand the competition, and the fixed fettlements were
therefore given up.
The trade was carried on by Ihips that failed from;
Europe with iron, lead, copper, and filver, fufficient to
pay for the coffee they intended to buy. The fuper-
cargoes, who had the care of thefe tranfa&ions, fettled
the accounts every time they returned. Thefe voyages,
which at firft were pretty numerous and advantageous,
have been fuccefiively laid afide. The plantations of
coffee, made by the European nations in their colonies,
have equally leffcned the confumption and the price of
that, which comes from Arabia. In procefs of time,
thefe voyages did not yield a fufficient profit to anfwer Arabia
the high charges of undertaking them on purpofe. A tl. |li|
The companies of England and France then refolved, r' 1
one of them to fend Ihips from Bombay, and the o-
ther from Pondichery, to Mocha, with the merchandife
of Europe andlndia. They even frequently had recourfe
to a method that was lefs expenfive. The Englilh and
French vifit the Red Sea every year. Tho’ they difpofe
of their merchandife there to good advantage, they can
never take in cargoes from thence for their return. They
carry, for a moderate freight, the coffee belonging to
the companies who lade the veffels with it, which they
difpatch from ‘Malabar and Coromandel to Europe.
The Dutch company, who prohibit their fervants from
fitting out Ihips, and who fend no veffels themfelves,
to the gulph of Arabia, are deprived of the lhare they
might take in this branch of commerce. They have
alfo given up a much more lucrative branch, that of
Jodda.
Jodda is a port fituated near the middle of the
gulph of Arabia, 20 leagues from Mecca. The go¬
vernment there is of a mixed kind: the grand Signior
and the Xeriff of Mecca lhare the authority and the
revenue of the cuftoms between them. Thefe impofts
are levied upon the Europeans at the rate of 8 per
cent, and upon other nations at 13. They are always
paid in merchandife, which the managers oblige the
merchants of the country to buy at a very dear rate.
The Turks, who have been driven from Aden, Mocha,
and every part of the Yaman, would long ago have
been expelled from Jodda, if there had not been room
to apprehend that they might revenge themfelves in
fuch a manner as to put an end to their pilgrimages
and commerce. ,94.
The coins, which are current at Mocha, the prin- Coins,
cipal port of the Red Sea, are dollars pf all kinds ; but
they abate five per cent, on the pillar dollars, becaufe
they are reckoned not to be the pureft filver, and the
dollar weight with them is 17 drachms 14 grains.
All their coins are taken by weight, and valued ac¬
cording to their purenefs. The gold coins current here
are ducats of Venice, Germany, Turky, Egypt, &c..
The comaffes are a fmall coin, which are taken at fuch
a price as the government fets on them; and they keep
their accounts in an imaginary coin, called cabeers, of
which 80 goto a dollar. For an account of the ancient
coins called dinars and dirhems, fee thefe two articles.
Gum ARABIC. See Gum.
ARABICI, a kind of heretics, who fprung up in
Arabia, about the year 207 ; whofe diftinguifhing te¬
net was, that the foul died with the body, and alfo
rofe again with it.
ARABIS, bastard tower-mustard; a genus
of the filiquofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
clafs of plants..
Species, <bc. Of this genus there are nine different
fpecies enumerated by Linnasus. None of them are
at all remarkable for their beauty or other properties..
Only one of thefe, the thaliana or moufe-ear, is a na¬
tive of Britain. It is a low plant, feldom rifingmore
than four or five inches high, branching on every fide,,
having fmall white flowers growing alternately, which
have each four petals in form of a crofs, that are fuc¬
ceeded by long flender pods filled with fmall round feeds..
It grows naturally on fandy ground, or old walls..
Sheep
A R A [ 585 1 A R A
Arable, Sheep are not fond of it, and fwine refufe it. The o-
AniCan' ther fpecies are, the alpina, grandiflora, beliidifolia,
iyrata, halleri, Canadenfis, pendula, and turrita ; they
are not at all fuperior to the thaliana abovementioned,
are all very hardy, and require no other culture than
to be kept clear of weeds.
ARABLE lands, thofe which are fit for tillage,
or which have been formerly tilled.
ARACAN, the capital of a fmall kingdom to the
north-eaft of the bay of Bengal, fituated in E. Long.
93. o. N. Lat. 20. 30. It has the conveniency of a fpa-
cious river, and a harbour large enough to hold all the
fhips in Europe. It is faid by Schouten to be as large
as Amflerdam ; but the houfes are flight, being made
with palm-trees and bamboo-canes, and covered with
leaves of trees. They are feldom above fix feet high,
but have many windows or air-holes. But the people
of the higheft rank are much better accommodated.
They have no kitchens, chimneys, or cellars, which
oblige the women to drefs the victuals out of doors.
Some of the ftreets are on the ridges of rocks, where¬
in are a great many {hops. Their orchards and gar¬
dens contain all the fruit common to the Indies, and
their trees are green all the year. Their common drink
is toddy; which is the fap of the cocoa-tree, and when
new will intoxicate like wine, but foon grows four.
Elephants and buffaloes are very numerous here, and
are made ufe of inftead of horfes. They have plenty
of provifions, and but little trade : for when Mr Chan-
noch was here in 1686, with fix large fhips, there was
nothing to be had in the way of commerce ; and yet
the country produces lead, tin, ftick-lac, and ele¬
phants teeth. The Mogul’s fubje&s come here to
purchafe thefe commodities ; and fometimes meet with
diamonds, rubies, and other precious ftones. They
were formerly governed by a king of their own, called
the king of the White Elephant; but this country has
been conquered by the king of Pegu. They pay little
or no regard to the chaftity of their women, and the
common failors take great liberties among them.
Their religion is Paganifm; and the idols, temples, and
priefts are very numerous. The drefs of the better
fort is very flight, for it confifts chiefly of a piece
of white: cotton over their arms, breaft, and belly,
with an apron before. The complexion of the women
is tolerable ; they wear thin flowered gauze over their
breaft; and fhoulders, and a piece of cotton, which they
roll three or four times round their waift, and let it
hang as low as their feet. They curl their hair, and
ut glafs rings in their ears, and ftretch them of a mon-
rous length. On their arms and legs they have hoops-
of copper, ivory, filver, &c. The country produces
reat quantities of rice, and the water is good. Their
ocks of fheep and herd's of cattle are alfo numerous
near Aracan ; but what they fay of the towns and vil¬
lages, with which the country is pretended to be o-
verfpread, may be doubted. Captain Hamilton af¬
firms, that there are but few places inhabited, on ac¬
count of the great number of wild elephants and buf¬
faloes, which would deftroy the fruits of the ground ;
and that the tigers would deftroy the tame animals.
There are fome iflands near the fea, inhabited by a few
miferable fifhermen, who can juft keep themfelves from
ftarving, tho’ they are out of the reach of oppreffion.
The.rich burn the dead bodies; but the poor, who are
not able to buy wood, throw them into the river. Arachis
AR ACHIS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia I!
decandria clafs. There is only one fpecies, viz. the - raeometf1'*
hypogaea, a native of America. - The calix is divided
into two parts ; and the capfule or pod is cylindrical,
and contains two feeds.
ARACHNE, in fabulous hiftory, a young maid of
Lydia, faid to have been the inventrefs of fpinning.
She is fabled to have been fo fldlful in this art, as to
challenge Minerva at it; who tore her work, and ftruck
her; which difgrace driving her to defpair, (lie hanged
herfelf. Pallas, from compaffion, brought her to life,
and transformed her into a fpider, which ftill employs
itfelf in fpinning.
ARACHNOIDES, in anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven to feveral membranes; as the tunic of the cryftal-
line humour of the eye, the external lamina of the pia
mater, and one of the coverings of the fpinal marrow.
ARACK, arrack, or rack, a fpirituous liquor
imported from the Eaft Indies, ufed by way of dram
and in punch. The word arack is an Indian name for
ftrong waters of all kinds; for they call our fpirits
and brandy Englijh arack. But what we underhand-
by the name arack, is really no other than a fpirit
procured by diftillation from a vegetable juice called
toddy, which flows by incifion out of the cocoa-nut
tree, like the birch juice procured among us.
The toddy is a pleafant drink by itfelf, when new,
and purges-thofe who are not ufed to it; and, when
ftale, it is heady, and makes good vinegar. The
Englifti at Madrafs ufe it as leaven to raife their bread,
with.
Goa and Batavia are the chief places for arack. At
Goa there are different kinds; Angle, double, and treble
diftilled. The double diftilled, which is that com¬
monly fent abroad, is but a weak fpirit in comparifon
to Batavia arack: yet, on account of its peculiar and
agreeable flavour, it is preferred to all other arack s of- -
India. This is attributed to the earthen veffels,
which alone they ufe at Goa to draw the fpirit; where ¬
as at Batavia they ufe copper ft ills. The Parier arack.
made at Madrafs, and the Colombo and Quilone arack
at other places, being fiery hot fpirks, are but little
valued by the Europeans, and therefore feldom im¬
ported, though highly prized among the natives.
ARiE Phil/enon, or Philjenorum, (Strabo) ;
to the fouth of the Syrtis Major ; but in Peutinger,
more wefterly, to the fouth almoft of the Syrtis Mi¬
nor. In Strabo’s time, the altars were not extant, but
a village of the fame name ftood on the fpot. On a.
difpute about limits, between the Cyreneans and Car¬
thaginians, it was agreed that two of each people
fhould fet out on the fame day, and that where they
ftiould happen to meet, there the limits of both fliculd
be fixed. The Philseni, two brothers, Carthaginians,
undertook it for Carthage : thefe, after having advan¬
ced a great many miles into the territory of the Cy¬
reneans, v/ere met by their antagonifts ; who, enraged
at their being before-hand with them fo far, gave them
the option of either returning back, or of being buried
alive on the fpot : like zealous patriots, they chofe the
latter ; and' there the Carthaginians raifed two altars
in honour of the Fhilseni. (Salluft, Valerius Maxi¬
mus).
ARJEOMETER, an inftrument to meafure thcgra-
Arssoftyle
II
Aragon.
A R A [ ] A R A
vlty'of liquors; which is ufually made of a thin glafs
ball, with a taper neck, fealed at the top, there being
firll as much mercury put into it as will keep it fwim-
ming in an exadl pofture. The neck is divided into two
parts, which are numbered, that fo, by the depths of
its defcent into any liquor, its lightnefs may be known
by thefe divifions.
ARiEOSTYJLE, in architefture, a term ufed by
Vitruvius, to fignify the greateft interval which can be
made between columns.
ARiEOTICS, in medicine, remedies which rarify
the humours, and render them eafy to be carried off by
the pores of the Ikin.
ARAF, among the Mahometans. See Alaraf.
ARAFAH, the ninth day of the laft month of the
Arabic year, named Dhoulhegiat; on which the pil¬
grims of Mecca perform their devotions on a neigh¬
bouring mountain, called Arafat. The Mahometans
have a very great veneration for this mountain, becaufe
they believe that Adam and Eve, after they were ba-
nilhed out of Paradife, having been feparated from
each other during 120 years, met afterwards on this
mountain.
ARAFAT, or gibel el orphat, the mountain
of knowledge, a mountain in Arabia, near Mecca.
The Mahometans fay this was the place where A-
dam firft met with and knew his wife Eve after their
expulfion from Paradife. This mountain not being
large enough to contain all the devotees that come an¬
nually in pilgrimage to Mecca, ftones are fet up all
round it to fhow how far it reaches. The pilgrims are
clad in robes of humility and mortification, with their
heads uncovered. They feem to be very much affec¬
ted; for the tears flow down their cheeks, and they fob
and figh moil bitterly, begging earneftly for remiffion
of fins, and promifing to lead a new life. They con¬
tinue here about four or five hours, and at half an hour
after fun-fet they all decamp to perform a religious
duty called AJham nomas. After this, they all receive
the honourable title of Hadgees, which is conferred up¬
on them by the imam or pried. This being pronoun¬
ced, the trumpet founds, and they all return to Mecca.
ARAGON, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north by the Pyrensean mountains, which feparate it
from France ; on the weft, by Navarre and the two Caf-
tiles ; on the fouth, by Valencia; and on the eaft, by
Catalonia. It is in length about 180 miles, and in
breadth 149; but the land is mountainous, dry, fandy
or ftony, badly cultivated, and worfe peopled. How¬
ever, it does not want rivers; for befides the Ebro,
which croffes it in the middle, there are the Xalo, the
Cinea, the Galego, and the Aragon. The air is pure
and wholefome ; and there are mines of iron, and fome
fey of gold. The moft fertile parts are about the ri¬
vers : for there the land produces corn, wine, oil, flax,
hemp, various fruits, and a fmall quantity of faffron,
befides large flopks of flieep, and plenty of game in
the woods.
The Aragonefe are bold, courageous, and well-
bred ; but pofitive in their opinions, and bigotted in
their religion. Thefe were the firft of the Spaniards
that threw off the Moorifli yoke. Saragoffa is the ca¬
pital of this province ; and the other chief towns are
Balbaftro, Jaca, Sarazona, Haefca, Calatajud, Albar-
razin, Trevel, Daroca, and Boria.
ARAL, a great lake, in the kingdom of Khowa- Aral
razm, lying a little to the eaftward of the Cafpian fea. ^r|nea
Its length from north to fouth is faid to be near 150 *
miles, and its breadth from eaft to weft; about 70. The
ftiore on the weft fide is high and rocky, and defti-
tute of good water: yet there are abundance of wild
horfes, affes, antelopes, and wolves ; as alfo a fierce
creature called a jolbart, which the Tartars fay is of
fuch a prodigious ftrength as to carry off a horfe. It
is furprifing that this lake ftiould be quite unknown to
geographers, till within thefe few years. Several great
rivers, which were fuppofed to run into the Cafpian
fea, are now known to fall into this lake, particularly
the Sihun or Sirr, and the Gihun or Amo, fo often
mentioned by the Oriential hiftorians. This lake, like
the Cafpian fea, has no vifible outlet. Its water is alfo
very fait; and for that reafon is conveyed by the neigh¬
bouring inhabitants by fmall narrow canals into fandy
pits, where the heat of the fun, by exhaling the water,
leaves them a fufficient quantity of fait. The fame
kinds of fifli are found in Aral that are found in the
Cafpian fea. The former is alfo called the Lake of
Eagles.
ARALIA, BERRY-BEARING ANGELICA, a gCUUS
of the pentagynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus fome authors enumerate five
fpecies; but none of them merit defcription, except one
called nudicaulis, having a naked ftalk. This grows
three or four feet high ; the leaves have two large tri¬
foliate lobes, which are fawed on their edges. The
flower-ftalks arife between thefe, immediately from the
root, and are terminated by round umbels of fmall
four-leaved flowers of a whitifh colour. What is re¬
markable of this fpecies is, that its roots were brought
over from North America where it grows, and fold
here for farfaparilla, and it is ftill ufed as fuch by the
inhabitants of Canada ; though it is very different from
the true fort. All the fpecies of this plant are hardy,
except one called the fpinofa, which requires an hot¬
bed ; but is deftitute of the little beauty poffeffed by
the others, fo is very feldom cultivated except in bota¬
nic gardens for variety.
ARAMONT, a town of Languedoc, in France,
feated on the river Rhone. E. Long. 4. 52. N. Lat.
43- 54-
ARANEA, the Spider, a genus of infedts belong¬
ing to the order of aptera, or infedls without wings.
All the fpecies of fpiders have eight legs, with three
joints in each, and terminating in three crooked claws;
eight eyes, two before, two behind, and the reft on the
fides of the head. The mouth confifts of two claws or
talons, denticulated like a few. A little below the point
of the claw, there is a fmall hole; through which the
fpider emits a kind of poifon. Thefe claws are the wea¬
pons with which they kill flies, fyc. for their food. The
belly or hinder part is feparated from the head and
breaft by a fmall thread-like tube. The fkin or outer
furface is a hard polifhed cruft. Spiders have five tu¬
bercles or nipples at the extremity of the belly, whofe
apertures they can enlarge or contraft at pleafure. It
is through thefe apertures that they fpin a gluey fub-
ftance with which their bellies are full. They fix the
end of their threads by applying thefe nipples to any
fubftance, and the thread lengthens in proportion as
A R A t 587 ] A R A
Aranea, the animal recedes from it. They can Hop the ifluing ing it back again with fuch rapidity, that it attaches
er fpider. 0f tjje threads by contradling the nipples, and re-afcend underneath a bubble of air, which it has the art of de- _
by means of the claws on their feet, much in the fame taining under water, by placing it underneath the
manner as fome men warp up a rope. When the com- threads above mentioned, and which it binds like a co-
mon houfe-fpider begins her web, Ihe generally chufes vering almoft all round the air-bubble. Then it afcends
a place where there is a cavity, fuch as the corner of a again for another air-bubble; and thus proceeds until
room, that Ihe may have a free palfage on each fide, to it has conftru&ed a large aerial apartment under wa-
make her efcape in cafe of danger. Then {he fixes one ter, which it enters into or quits at pleafure. The male
end of her thread to the wall, and palfes on to the other conftrufts for himfelf one near to the female; and when
fide, dragging the thread along with her (or rather the love invites, he breaks through the thread walls of the
thread follows her as (he proceeds), till Ihe arrives at female’s dwelling, and the two bubbles attached to the
the other fide, and there fixes the other end of it. Thus bellies of both unite into one, forming one large nup-
Ihe pafles and repafies, till Ihe has made as many paral- tial chamber. The female is fometimes laid for a whole
lei threads as Ihe thinks neceffary for her purpofe. Af- day together ftretched on her back, waiting for the ar-
ter this, Ihe begins again and crofles thefe by other pa- rival of the male, without motion, and feemingly as if
rallel threads, which may be named the woof. Thefe dead. As foon as he enters and glides over her, fhe
are the toils or fnares which (he prepares for entangling feems to be brought to life again, gets on her legs and
flies, and other fmall infe&s, which happen to light up- runs after the male, who makes his efcape with all pof-
on it. But, befides this large web, Ihe generally weaves fible fpeed : the female takes care of the young, and
a fmall cell for herfelf, where Ihe lies concealed watch- conftructs fimilar apartments on purpofe for them. The
ing for her prey. Betwixt this cell and the large web figure of this fpider has nothing remarkable, and would
fhe has a bridge of threads, which, by communicating be overlooked among a crowd of curiofities, if the fpec-
with the threads of the large one, both give her early tator be unacquainted with its Angular art of conftruft-
intelligence when any thing touches the web, and ing an aerial habitation under water, and thus uniting
enables her to pafs quickly in order to lay hold of it. together the properties of both elements.
There are many other methods of weaving peculiar to 6. The tarantula, Plate XXV. fig. 10. The breaft (1)
different fpecies of fpiders. But, as they are all intended and belly (2) are of an afh-colour ; the legs (3) are
for the fame purpofe, it is needlefs to give particular likewife afh-coloured, with blackifh rings on the under
deferiptions of them. part; the fangs, or nippers (4), are red on the inner
Linnaeus enumerates 47 fpecies of fpiders : But it fide, the reft being bfackifh; (5) is the antennas or
will be fufficient here to mention only the moft re- feelers : Two of its eyes are larger than the other, red,
markable and uncommon ; as, and placed in the front; four other eyes are placed in
1. The calycina, with a round pale yellow belly, and a tranfverfe direction towards the mouth; the other
two hollow points. It lives in the cups of flowers, af- two are nearer the back. It is a native of Italy, Cy-
ter the flower-leaves have fallen off; and catches bees, pms, Barbary, and the Eaft Indies. The breaft and
and other flies, when they are in fearch of honey. belly are about two inches long, terminated by two
2. The avicularia, has a convex round breatt, hoi- fhort tails. This figure was taken from the life, in the
lowed tranfverfely in the middle. It is a native of A- ifiand of Cyprus, by Alexr Drummond, Efq; late con-
merica, and feeds upon fmall birds, infe&s, &c. The ful at Aleppo.
bite of this fpider is as venomous as that of the ferpent. The bite of the tarantula is faid to occafion an
3. The ocellata, has three pair of eyes on its thighs, inflammation in the part, which in a few hours brings
It is about the fame fize with the tarantula, of a pale on ficknefs, difficulty of breathing, and univerfal faint-
colour, with a black ring round the belly, and two nefs. The perfon afterwards is affesfted with a de-
large black fpots on the lides of the breaft. It is a na- lirium, and fometimes is feized with a deep melan-
tive of China. choly. The fame fymptoms return annually, in fome
4. The faccata, has an oval belly of a dulky iron cafes, for feveral years; and at laft terminate in death,
colour. It lives in the ground, and carries a fack with Mufic, it has been pretended, is the only cure. A mu-
its eggs where-ever it goes. This fack it glues to its fician is brought, who tries a variety of airs, till at laft
belly, and will rather die than leave it behind. he hits upon one that urges him to dance ; the vio-
5. The aquatica, is of a livid colour, with an oval lence of which exercife produces a proportionable agi-
belly, and a tranfverfe line, and two hollowed points, tation of the vital fpirits, attended with a Confequent
It frequents the frefh waters of Europe. But it is in degree of perfpiration, the certain confequence of which
fome fort amphibious: for it can live on the earth as is a cure. Such are the circumftanees that have been
well as in the water, and comes often to land for its generally related, and long credited, concerning the
food ; yet it fwims well in water, both on its belly and bite of this animal. Kircherus, in his Mufurgia, gives a
back: it is diftinguiftiable by its brightnefs. In the very particular account of the fymptoms and cure, il-
water its belly appears covered with a. filver varnifh, luftrated by hiftories of cafes. Among thefe, he men-
which is only a bubble of air attached to its belly by trons a girl, who, being bitten by this infedf, could be
means of the oily humours which tranfpire from its cured only by the mufic of a drum. He then proceeds
body, and prevent the immediate contaft of the water, to relate that a certain Spaniard, trufting to the effi-
This bubble of air is made the fubftance'of its dwelling, cacy of mufic in the cure of the frenzy occafioned by
which it conftru&s under water : for it fixes feveral the bite of the tarantula, fubmitted to be bitten on the
threads of filk, or fuch fine matter, to the ftalks of hand by two of thefe creatures, of different colours, and
plants in the water; and then afeending to the furface, poffeffed of different qualities. The venom was no fooner
thrufts the hinder part of iu body above water, draw- diffufed about his body, than the fymptoms of the
» ' dborder
Aranea,
or fpider.
The
Taraatiila
Errors,
book III.
chap. 18.
A R A [ 588 ] A R A
diforder began to appear; upon which harpers, pipers,
and other muficians, were fent for, who by various
kinds of mafic endeavoured to roufehim from that ftu-
por into which he was fallen : but here it was obfer-
ved that the bites of the two infedls had produced con¬
trary effefts; for by one he was incited to dance, and
by the other he was reftrained therefrom ; and in this
conflict of nature the patient expired. The fame ac¬
count is given in his Phomrgia Nova, with the addition
of a cut reprefenting the infedl in two pofitions, the pa¬
tient in the action of dancing, together with the mufi-
cal notes of the tune or air by which in one ioftance
the cure was effe&ed.
In his Mufurgia., this author, attempting mechani¬
cally to account for the cure of the bite of the taran¬
tula by mufic, fays of the poifon, That it is fharp,
gnawing, and bilious; and that it is received and incor¬
porated into the medullary fubftance of the fibres.
With refpeft to the mufic, he fays, That the founds of
chords have a power to rarify the air to a certain har-
monical pitch ; and that the air thus ratified, pene¬
trating the pores of the patient’s body, affe&s the
mufcles, arteries, and minute fibres, and incites him to
dance, which exercife begets a perfpiration, in which
the poifon evaporates.
Unfatisfaftory as this theory appears, the belief of
this ftrange phenomenon has prevailed among the ableft
of modern phyficians. Sir Thomas Brown, fo far from
difputing it, fays, That fince many atteft the faft from
experience, and that the learned Kircherus hath pofi-
tively averred it, and fet down the fongs and tunes fo-
lemnly ufed for the cure of the difeafe, and fince fome
alfo affirm that the tarantula itfelf will dance at the
found of mufic, he fliall not at all queftion it *.
Farther, that eminent Italian phyfician of the laft
century, Baglivi, a native of Apulia, the country where
the tarantula is produced, has written a diflertation
De anatomia, morfu, et effeftibus tarantula. In this he
defcribes the region of Apulia where the tarantula is
produced, with the anatomy and figure of the infe&
and its eggs, illuftrated by an engraving ; he mentions
particularly the fymptoms that follow from the bite,
and the cure of the difeafe by mufic, with a variety of
hiftories of cures thus wrought, many of them com¬
municated by perfons who were eye-witneffes of the
procefs.
Ludovicus Valetta, a Celeftine monk of Apulia, pu-
bliflied at Naples, in the year x 706, a treatife upon
this fpider, in which he not only anfwers the objeftions
of thofe who deny the whole thing, but gives, from
his own knowledge, feveral inftances of perfons who
had fuffered this way, fome of whom were of great fa¬
milies, and fo far from being diffemblers, that they
would at any rate, to avoid fliame, have concealed the
misfortune which had befallen them.
The honourable Mr Robert Boyle, in his treatife of
Languid and Unheeded Motions, fpeaking of the bite
of the tarantula, and the cure of the difeafe which fol¬
lows it by means of mufic, fays, That, having himfelf
had fome doubts about the matter, he was, after ftrift in¬
quiry, convinced that the relations in the main were true.
Laftly, Dr Mead, in his Mechanical Account of
Poifons, has given an efiay on the tarantula, con¬
taining the fubftance of the above relations, which he
endeavours to confirm by his own reafoning thereon.
Notwithftanding the number and weight of thefe au¬
thorities, and the general acquiefcence of learned and
ingenious men in the opinion that the bite of the ta¬
rantula is poifonous, and that the cure of the diforder
occafioned by it is effefted by mufic, we have reafon
to apprehend that the whole is a miftake.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for the year 1672,
p. 406. is an extraft of a letter from Dr Thomas
Cornelio, a Neapolitan phyfician, to John Doddington,
Efq; his majefty’s refident at Venice, communicated by
the latter, in which, fpeaking of his intention to fend
to Mr Doddington fome tarantulas, he fays, “ Mean
while I ihall not omit to impart to you what was re¬
lated to me a few days fince by a judicious and unpre-
judicate perfon ; which is, that being in jhe country
of Otranto, where thofe infefts are in great numbers,
there was a man who, thinking himfelf flung by a taran¬
tula, ftiewed in his neck a fmall fpeck, about which in
a very fliort time there arofe fome pimples full of a
ferous humour; and that, in a few hours after, the
poor man was forely afflifted with very violent fymp¬
toms, as fyncopes, very great agitations, giddinefs of
the head, and vomiting; but that, without any inclina¬
tion at all to dance, and without all defire of having
any mufical inftruments, he miferably died within two
days. The fame perfon affirmed to me, that all thofe that
think themfelves bitten by tarantulas, except fuch as
for evil ends feign themfelves to be fo, are for the mofl
part young wanton girls, whom the Italian writers call
Duke di Sale; who, by fome particular indifpofition
falling into this melancholy madnefs, perfuade them¬
felves, according to the vulgar prejudice, to have been
flung by a tarantula.”
Dr Serao, an Italian phyfician, as it feems, has writ¬
ten an ingenious book, in which he has effe&ually ex¬
ploded this opinion as a popular error; and in the Phi¬
lofophical Tranfaftions, N° LX. for the year 1770,,
p. 236. is a letter from Dominico Cirillo, M. D. pro-
fefibr of natural hiftory in the univerfity of Naples,
wherein, taking notice of Serao’s book, he fays, That,
having had an opportunity of examining the effedts of
this animal in the province of Taranto, where it is
found in great abundance, he finds that the furprifing
cure of the bite of the tarantula by mufic has not the
leaft truth in it; and that it is only an invention of the
people, who want to get a little money by dancing
when they fay the tarantifm begins. He adds, “ I
make no doubt but fometimes the heat of the climate
contributes very much to warm their imaginations, and
throw them into a delirium, which may be in fome mea-
fure cured by mufic; but feveral experiments have been
tried with the tatantula, and neither men nor animals
after the bite have had any other complaint than a very
trifling inflammation upon the part, like that produ¬
ced by the bite of a fcorpion, which goes off by it¬
felf without any danger at all. In Sicily, where the
fummer is ftill warmer than in any part of the king-
don of Naples, the tarantula is never dangerous; and
mufic is never employed for the cure of the pretended
tarantifm.”
ARANJUEZ, a palace of the king of Spain, in
the province of New Caffile, feated on the river Ta¬
gus, in W. Long. 3. 3. N. Lat. 41. 40. This edifice
tho’ much inferior to the efeurial in fize and elegance
of ftru&ure, greatly exceeds it in the many delicious
gardens.
Aranea,
Aranjuez.
The
Tarantala.
A R A
[
gardens, and furprifing water-works, which are here
_ in the higheft perfeftion. The gardens, being in an
ifland in the middle of the Tagus, arefo well fupplied
with water by the immenfe quantity and variety of
thefe water-works, which are fet in motion with the
ftream, that they are never fcorched with the fun’s
heat, but enjoy a cohftant bloom and delicions ver¬
dure.
ARAR, (Caefar, Strabo); Araris, (Dio Caflius) ;
Saucona, (Ammian) ; a river of Celtic Gaul, how the
Saone ; which rifes out of mount Vogefus on the con¬
fines of Lorrain, runs through the Franche Comte and
Burgundy, and below Lyons falls into the Rhone. It
is fo incredibly flow, that the eye cannot diftinguifh
which way it moves, (Caefar) ; and therefore Pliny
calls it the Sluggijh river. Its courfe is from north to
fouth. It is famous for a bridge of Caefar, which was
built by the foldiers in one day. It is navigable e-
qually with the Rhone.
ARARAT, the name of the mountain on which
Noah’s ark refted, after the abatement of the waters
of the univerfal deluge. Concerning this mountain
there are various conjeftures ; though it is almoft uni-
verfally allowed to be in Armenia Major. Some are
of opinion that it. is one of the mountains which divide
Armenia on the fouth from Mefopotamia and that part
of Aflyria inhabited by the Curds ; from whom thefe
mountains took the name of Curdu or Cardu, by the
Greeks turned into Gordyai, See. Others, that it lies
towards the middle of Armenia, near the river Araxes,
above 280 miles diftant from the abovementioned moun¬
tains, making it belong to mount Taurus; but the
Armenians are pofitive that Noah’s Ararat is no other
than a mountain to which they now give the name of
Majis, which lies about 12 leagues to the call of Eri-
ran, and four leagues from the Aras. It is encompaf-
fed by feveral petty hills: on the tops of them are found
many ruins, thought to have been the buildings of the
firft men, who were, for fome time, afraid to defeend
into the plains. It (lands by itfelf, in form of a fugar-
loaf, in the midft: of a very large plain, detached, as it
were, from the other mountains of Armenia, which
589 T A R A
whereon the ark refted: but the excefs of cold may
very reafonably be fuppofed able to fruftrate all fuch
attempts, without any fupernatural interpofition. The .
mod diftinft account we have of this mountain is that
given by Mr Tournefort; which, however, being much
(welled with immaterial circumftances, it is needlefs to
trouble our readers with at length. He tells us, that this
mountain is one of the mod difagreeable fights upon
earth, without either houfes, convents, trees, or fhriibs;
and feemsasif continually waftingand mouldering away.
Hedividesit into three regions: The lowermoft, he fays,
is the only one which contains any human creatures,
and is occupied by a few miferable ihepherds that tend
fcabby flocks ; and here are alfo found fome patridges:
the febond is inhabited by crows and tigers ; and ail
the reft is covered with fnow, which half the year is
involved in thick clouds. On the fide of the moun¬
tain that looks towards Erivan, is a prodigious preci¬
pice, from whence rocks of an immenfe fize are con¬
tinually tumbling down with a hideous noife. This
precipice feems quite perpendicular ; and the extremi¬
ties are rough and blackifh, as if fmutted with fraoke.
The foil of the mountain is loofe, and on the fandy
parts it is impoffible to take a firm ftep ; fo that our
traveller encountered great difficulties in his afeent and
defoent of this mountain ; being often obliged, in or¬
der to avoid the fand, to betake himfelf to places
where great rocks were heaped on one another, under
which he pafled as through caverns, or to places full
of ftones, where he was forced to leap from one (lone
to another. If we may believe Struys, a Dutch wri¬
ter, however, all thefe difficulties may be furmount-
ed. He affures us, he went five days journe'y up mount
Ararat, to fee a Romilh hermit: that he pafled through
three regions of clouds; the firft dark and thick, the
next cold and full of fnow, and the third colder ftill 5
that he advanced five miles every day; and when he
came to the place where the hermit had his cell, he
breathed a very ferene and temperate air: that the
hermit told him, he had perceived neither wind nor
rain all the 25 years he had dwelt there; and that on
the top of the mountain there ftill reigned a greater
Arafat
A \
make a long chain. It confifts, properly fpeaking, of tranquillity, whereby the ark was preferved uncorrup-
hills ; the leffer of which is the more (harp and
pointed : the higher, on which it is faid the ark refted,
lies to the north-weft of it, and rifes far above the
neighbouring mountains. It feems fo high and big,
that, when the air is clear, it may be feen four pr five
days journey off; yet travellers think the height is not
extraordinary. Chardin is of opinion that he paffeda
part of mount Caucafus which is higher ; and Poullet
thinks the height of mount Mafis, or Ararat, not above
twice as great as that of mount Valerian near Paris.
They therefore think that its being vifible at fuch a
great diftance is owing to its lonely fituation in a vaft
plain, and upon the mod elevated part of the country,
without any mountains before it to obftrudl the view.
Nor is the fnow with which it is always covered from
the middle upwards any argument of its height; for, in
this country, ice hath often been obferved in the mor-
See Arme- nings of the middle of July *. Certain it is, however,
ia. that this mountain hath never yet been afeended; v/hich
the Armenians pretend was owing to the interpofition
of angels, in order to difappoint the curiofity of thofe
who wanted to advance to fuch a facred place as that
VOL. I.
ted. He farther pretends, that the hermit gave him
a crofs made out of the wood of the ark, together
with a certificate, a formal copy of which the author
has given in his (ham relation.
ARASSI, a maritime, populous, and trading town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa. E. Long. 7. 20,
N. Lat. 44. 3.
ARATUS, general of the Achseans, conquered
Niocles tyrant of Sicyon. Two years after, he fur-
prifed the caftle called Acrocorintkus, and drove out
the king of Macedonia : he delivered Argos from its
tyrants, and was poifoned by Philip II. king of Ma¬
cedonia, whom he had newly reftored: he was about
62 when he died, the fecond year of the iqi5' Olymp.
He was interred at Sicyon, and received the greateft
honours from his countrymen. His fon, who had alfo
been praetor, was poifoned by king Philip. Polybius
gives us fo great a charafter of Aratus the father’s
Commentaries or Hiftory, that the iofs of fo valuable
a work is highly to be regretted.
Aratus, a Greek poet, born at Soli, or Solae,
a town in Cilicia, which afterwards changed its name,
4 E and
A R A [* 590 ] ARB
and was called Pompeiopolis, in honour of Pompey the
Great. He flourilhed about the 124th, or, according
to forne, the 126th Olympiad, in the reign of Ptole¬
my Philadelphus king of Egypt. He difcovered in
his youth a remarkable poignancy of wit, and capaci¬
ty for improvement ; and having received his education
under Dionyfius Heracleotes, a Stoic philofopher, he
efpoufed the principles of that deft. Aratus was phy-
fician to Antigonus Gonatus, the fon of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, king of Macedon : this prince, being a
great encourager of learned men, fent for him to court,
admitted him to his intimacy, and encouraged him in
his ftudies. The Phenomena of Aratus, which is ftill
extant, gives him a title to the charafter of an aftro-
nomer, as well as a poet; in this piece he defcribes the
nature and motion of the ifars, and fhews the particular
influences of the heavenly bodies, with their various dif-
politions and relations. He wrote this poem in Greek
verfe: it was tranflated into Latin by Cicero ; who tells
us, in his firltbook De oratore, that the verfes of A-
ratus are very noble. This piece was tranflated by o-
thers as well as Cicero ; there being a tranflation by
Germanicus Csefar, and another into elegant verfe
by Feftus Avienus. An edition of the Phenomena
was publifliedby Grotius, at Leyden, in quarto, 1600,
in Greek and Latin, with the fragments of Cicero’s
verfion, and the tranflations of Germanicus and Avie¬
nus, all which the editor has illuftrated with curious
notes. He was certainly much efteemed by the an¬
cients, frnce we find fo great a number of fcholiafts
and commentators upon him. There are feveral other
works alfo afcribed to Aratus. Suidas mentions the
following: Hymns to Pan; Aftrology and Aftrothefy;
a compofition of Antidotes; an EkiSvIixov on Theopro-
pus; an Hdoxout on Antigonus ; an Epigram on Phila,
tfie daughter of Ahtipater, and wife of Antigonus ;
an Epicedium of Cleombrotus; a Corre6fion of the
Odyffey ; and fome Epiftles, in profe. Virgil, in his
Georgies, has imitated or tranflated many paffages
from this author; and St Paul has quoted a pafiage of
Aratus. It is in his fpeech to the Athenians (A&s
xvii. 28.) wherein he tells them, that fome of their
own poets have faid, “ Tv-yag x.ou yivigr ta/tiv : For we
are alfo his offspring.” Thefe words are the beginning
of the fifth line of the Pbanomena of Aratus.
ARAVA, a fortrefs of Upper Hungary, in a coun¬
ty and on a river of the fame name. E. Long. 20. o.
N. Lat. 49. 20.
ARAUCO, a fortrefs and town of Chili, in South
America; fituated in a fine valley, on a river of the
fame name. The natives are fo brave, that they drove
the Spaniards out of their country, though they had
no fire-arms. W. Long. 51. 20. S. Lat. 42. 30.
ARAUSIO, or Civitas Araufienfu, or Arauftco~
rum, (Notitias); Colonia Secundanorum, (Mela, Pli¬
ny, Coins), fo called becaufe the veterans of thefecond
legion were there fettled : The capital of the Cavares,
In Gallia Narbonenfis ; now Orange, in the weft of
Provence, on an arm of the rivulet Egue, which foon
after falls into the Rhone, from which it is diftant a
league to the eaft, at the foot of a mountain. Here
is an ancient amphitheatre to be ftill ften. E. Long. 4.
46. Lat. 44. 10.
ARAW, a town of Swifferland, in Argow, feated
-on the river Aar. It is handfome, large, and remark-
ble for its church, its fountain, and the fertility of
the foil. E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 47. 25.
ARAXES, now the Aras, a river of Armenia
Major, which takes its rife in a mountain called Al¬
ios, where the Euphrates alfo hath its origin. From
this mountain it runs eaftward with a ferpentine courfe,
difeharging itfelf into the Cafpian fea, after a run of up¬
wards of 500 miles, during which it receives fomecon-
fiderable rivers. Some have imagined that it hath its
rife in mount Ararat; but Tournefort affures us that
it comes no nearer that mountain than 12 miles. The
Araxes is a very rapid river, and is fuppofed to be the
Gihon mentioned by Mofe's. Befides this extreme ra¬
pidity, it is very apt to overflow after rains; fo that they
have in vain endeavoured to build bridges over it; tho’
fome of them appear, from the few arches remaining, to
have been built of the belt materials, and in the ihong-
eft manner. Such is the vehemence of its current af¬
ter the thawing of the adjacent fnows, or fome fierce
rains, that neither banks nor dykes can refift it ; fo
that nothing can be more terrible than the noife and
violence of its waves at fuch times : but in winter*
when its waters are low, it is fordable in fome places on
camels.
ARB ACES governed Media under Sardanapalus-
Seeing him fpinning among a company of his women,
he ftirred up his people to revolt, and dethroned Sar-
danapalus ; who thereupon burnt himfelf in his palace-
Arbaces being crowned, began the monarchy of the
Medes, which lafted 317 years under nine kings, till
Aftyages was expelled by Cyrus. Arbaces reigned 22
years, and died a. m. 3206.
ARBELA, now Irbil, a city of Affyria, lying
in E. Long. 44. 5. N. Lat. 35. 15. It is famous for
the laft and deciiive battle fought in its neighbourhood
between Alexander the Great and Darius Codoman-
nus. This battle was fought 331 years before Chrift,
and the event of it determined the fate of the Perfian
empire. Arrian relates, that Darius’s army coniifted
of a million of foot, and 40,000 horfe ; according to
Diodorus, there were 200,000horfe, and 800,000 foot;'
Plutarch relates, that the horfe and foot together made
up a million ; and Juftin gives us exa6ily half Diodo¬
rus’s number. The Macedonian army, according to
Arrian, confifted of 40,000 foot, and 7000 horfe. To
prevent the endeavours of Darius to furround them,
Alexander caufed his front to be extended as wide as
poflible without weakening the centre. Darius’s front
was covered with 200 chariots armed with feythes*
whofe appearance was very terrible, and threatened de-
ftru&ion to the whole army; but Alexander’s light¬
armed troops killed many of the horfes and drivers,
fo that few reached the Macedonian line, which open¬
ing as Alexander had direded, they onlypaffed thro’,
and were then either taken or difabled by his bodies of
referve. Some ancient writers deferibe this battle very
particularly: but as the Macedonians loft only 30a
men, while the Perfians had 30,000 killed, according,
to Arrian; 40,000, according to Curtius; and 90,000,
according to Diodorus; it is impoffible the Perfians
could have made any great refiftance. Indeed, as the
compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory obferve, “ had the
7 or 800,000 men which Darius brought into the field
thrown each one dart, or one ftone, the Macedonians
could never have bought the empire of the eaft at f»
eafy
ARB [ 59i ] ARB
Arberg eafy a rate.” Darius, on feeing his numerous army fo
II fhamefnlly put to flight, was fome time in fufpence
Arhon- whether or not he fhould put an end to his life ; but,
being perfuaded by his friends, or probably hurried a-
way by the multitude who fled, he was obliged to fly
with the reft ; and arrived at Arbela the fame night.
After he had palled the river Lycus, he was advifed to
break down the bridge, in order to ftop Alexander’s
purfuit: but, conlidering how many of his own fub-
jedts had yet to pafs, he could not be prevailed upon to
do fo; anfwering, that he had rather leave an open way
to a purfuing enemy, than Unit it to a flying friend.
This battle is likewife called the battle of Gaugamela^
a village nearer the fcene of adtion ; but as Arbela is
the place of greateft confequence, its name is moft
ufually retained.
ARBERG, a town of Swiflerland, in the canton
of Bern, with a handfome caftle, where the bailiff re-
lides. It is feated on the river Aar, in a kind of ifland.
E. Long. 17. 15. N. Lat. 47. o.
ARBITER, in the civil law, implies a judge no¬
minated by the magiftrate, or chofen voluntarily by
the two contending parties, in order to decide their
differences.
The civilians make a difference between arbiter and
arbitrator, though both found their power on the com -
promife of the parties; the former being obliged to
judge according to the cuftoms of the law, whereas the
latter is at liberty to ufe his own difcretion, and ac¬
commodate the difference in the manner that appears
to him moft juft and equitable.
ARBITRARY, that which is left to the choice or
arbitration of men, or not fixed by any politive law or
injundiion.
Arbitrary Punijhment, in law, denotes fuch pu-
niftiments as are by ftatute left to the difcretion of the
judge. It is a general rule in arbitrary puniftiments,
that the judge cannot inflidt death. Hence all punifti¬
ments that are not capital have acquired the name of
arbitrarypunifhments, even although they be exprefsly
pointed out by ftatute.
ARBITRATION is where the parties, injuring and
injured, fubmit all matters in difpute, concerning any
perfonal chattels or perfonal wrong, to the judgment of
two or more arbiters or arbitrators ; who are to decide
the controverfy : and if they do not agree, it is ufual
to add, that another perfon be called in as umpire,
(imperator or impar), to whofe foie judgment it is then
referred; or frequently there is only one arbitrator ori¬
ginally appointed. This decifipn, in any of thefe caf¬
fes, is called an award. And thereby the queftion is
as fully determined, and the right transferred or fet¬
tled, as it could have been by the agreement of the par¬
ties or the judgment of a court of juftice. See alfo
Law, Part III. N° clxxxv. 15, &c.
ARBITRATOR, a private extraordinary judge,
chofen by the mutual confent of parties, to determine
controverfies between them. See Arbiter and Arbi¬
tration.
ARBOIS, afmall populous town of France, in the
Tranche Compte, famous for its wines. E. Long. 5. 40.
N. Lat. 46. 55.
ARBON, an ancient town in Swifferland, on the
fouth banks of the lake Conftance, in Thurgaw. It
has a caftle built by the Romans, and is under the ju-
rifdi&ion of the biftiop of Conftance. In the time of Arbor
war, the Swifs have a right to put in a garrifon. The ^rbuthnot
Popifti and Proteftant religions are equally tolerated in '
this town. E. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 4. 38.
ARBOR, in botany, a tree. Trees are by Linnasus
claffed in the feventh family of the vegetable kingdom,
and are diftinguiftied from ftirubs in that their ftems
come up with buds on them ; but this diftinftion holds
not univerfally, there being rarely any buds on the
large trees in India.
Arbor, in mechanics, the principal part of a ma¬
chine, which ferves to fuftain the reft ; alfo the axis or
fpindle on which a machine turns, as the arbor of a
crane, windmill, &c.
Arbor Diana. See Chemistry, n° 198.
ARBORESCENT, an epithet applied to fuch ob-
je£Is as refemble trees.
Arborescent Star-fijh, in zoology, a fpecies of a-
fterias. See Asterias.
ARBORIST, a perfon flcilled in that part of bo¬
tany which treats of trees.
ARBOUR, in gardening, a kind of (hady bower,
formerly in great efteem; but of late rejefted, on ac¬
count of its being damp and unwholfome.
Arbours are generally made of lattice-work, either
of wood or iron; and covered with elms, limes, horn¬
beams ; or with creepers, as honey-fuckles, jafmines,
or pafiion-flowers; either of which will anfwer the pur-
pofe very well, if rightly managed.
ARBROATH. See Aberbrothic.
ARBURG, a town of Swifferland, in the canton
of Bern, on the river Aar. It is final], but very ftrong,
being feated on a rock, and defended by a good fortrefs
cut out of the rock. E. Long. 17. 55. N. Lat. 47. 10.
ARBUTHNOT (Alexander), principal of the u-
niverfity of Aberdeen in the reign of James VI. of Scot¬
land, was born in the year 1538. He ftudied firft at
Aberdeen; and was afterwards fent over to France,
where, under the famous Cujacius, he applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the civil law. In the year 1563, he
returned to Scotland, and took orders. Whether he
was ordained by a biftiop, or by prefbyters, is a matter
of uncertainty. In 1568, he was appointed minifter of
Arbuthnot and Logy-Buchan ; and in the following
year, Mr Alexander Anderfon being deprived, our au¬
thor was made principal of the king’s college at Aber¬
deen, in his room. In the general affembly which met
at Edinburgh in the years 1573 and 1577, he was
chofen moderator; and to the end of his life was an
aftive fupporter of the reformed religion. He died in
1583, in the 45th year of his age; and was buried in
the college church of Aberdeen. We are told in the
Biographia, that he was eminent as a poet, a philofo-
pher, a mathematician, a lawyer, a divine, and a phy-
fician. He wrote, Orationes de origine & dignitateju¬
ris, printed Edinb. 1572, 4tJ. His cotemporary,
Thomas Maitland, wrote a copy of Latin verfes on
the publication of this book : they are printed in the
Delia. Poetar. Scot. He publiftied Buchanan’s hiftory
of Scotland in the year 1582.
Arbuthnot (Dr John), was born in Kincardin-
fhire, near Montrofe, and was educated at Aberdeen,
where he received his degree in phyfic. The difficul¬
ties in which his family was involved on account of
their political principles making it neceffary that he
4 E 2 fhould
ARB [ 592 ] ARC
Arhinhnot, fhould court preferment in another country than his
Abutus. ownj he Went to London. The firft charafter in which
he a£ted there was, a teacher of the mathematics ; and
while he was employed in this manner, he had occafion
to publifh his Examination of Dr IVoodivard’s account
of the deluge. This traft, which abounded with learn¬
ing and good fenfe, ferved to make him known. He
publifhed, foon after, his EJfay on the ufefulnsf of mathe¬
matics. In the profeffion of phyfic, he advanced by
flow but fure degrees; and his reputation in it was at
length fully eftablifhed, by a fuccefsful cure which he
performed on Prince George of Denmark. Queen Anne,
in confequence of it, appointed him one other phyfi-
cians in ordinary in 1709; and, fome years before this,
his extenfive knowledge had procured Iris admiffion
into the Royal Society. His talents and worth were
the ftrongelt recommendations of him to the men of
wit and learning of his day; and he entered into par¬
ticular connexion with Pope and Swift, witli whom
he joined in publilhing feveral volumes of mifcellanies;
among which are the well known Memoirs of Martinas
Scriblerus, a fatire of infinite humour on the abufes
of human learning. In tyiy, he affifted Pope and
Gay in the Three hours after marriage; a dramatic
performance, which was brought upon the ftage with¬
out fuccefs. In 1727, he publifhed Tables of ancient
coinsy ’weights, and meafures; a work of great ufe,
and real erudition. In 1732, his valuable tract con¬
cerning The nature and choice of aliments appeared;
which, the year after, was followed by his remarks on
The ejfefts of air on human bodies. A conftitutional
afthma had diftrefled him at different periods of his life,
and proved fatal to him in 1734.—Dr Arbuthnot ap¬
pears to have been in all refpedts a moft accomplifhed
and amiable perfon. He has (hewed himfelf equal to
any of his cotemporaries in wit and learning, and he
was fuperior to moft men in the moral duties of life,
in a&s of humanity and benevolence. His letter to
Mr Pope, written as it were upon his death-bed, and
which no one can read without the tendered emotion,
difcovers fuch a noble fortitude of mind at the approach
of his diffolution, as could be infpired only by a clear
confidence, and the calm retrofpexS of an uninterrupted
Courfe of virtue. In 1751, came out, in two vol. 8vo.
printed at Glafgow, The mifcellaneous works of the late
Dr Arbuthnot; which are faid to comprehend, with
what is inferted in Swift’s mifcellanies, all the pieces
of wit and humour of this admirable author.
ARBUTUS, the strawberry-tree; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs
of plants.
Species. There are fix fpecies of arbutus enumera¬
ted by botanical writers; of which the following are the
moft remarkable. 1. The unedo,or common ftrawberry-
tree. It is a native of Italy, Spain, and alfo of Ire¬
land; and is now very common in the Britifh gardens.
This hath the Angular property that its fruit doth not
come to perfection till a year after it has flowered;
and thus the fruit and flowers are mixed together on
the fame tree. Thefe trees flower and bear their fruit
in the months of October and November ; by which
ftieans they are great ornaments, the feafon of moft o-
ther flowers being then paft. Of this fpecies there are
IJcveral varieties; particularly one with red flowers, which
are very beautiful, and may be preferved by inarching
or ingrafting them on the common arbutus. Thefe
turn purple before they fall off. There is alfo a variety
with double flowers; but as thefe have only two rows
of leaves, and bear little fruit, the former are prefer¬
able. 2. The adrachne, or oriental ftrawberry-tree,
grows naturally in the eaft, particularly about Magne-
fia, where it is found in fuch plenty as to be commonly
ufed for fuel. The leaves are large and oval, ferrated
while young, but entire after they are two or three
years old. The flowers are fhaped like thofe of the
common fort, but grow thinly on the branches. The
fruit is oval, and of the fame colour and confiftence with
that of the common fort; but the feeds of the adrachne
are flat, whereas thofe of the former fpecies are pointed
and angular. The largenefs of the leaf of the adrachne
gives it a fine appearance, and renders this fpecies well
worthy of cultivation.
Culture. The common arbutus is propagated from
feeds; to preferve which it is necefl'ary to bury the fruit,
as foon as it is perfectly ripe, in dry fand. They are
to be fown about the middle or latter end of March in
pots, which ought to be plunged into a moderate hot¬
bed ; and, if properly managed, the young plants will be
eight or ten inches high before winter. In fummer, they
will be greatly forwarded by being plunged into an old
tan-bed. In the beginning of October, they are to be
fhaken out of the pots, and the roots carefully feparated.
They are then to be planted fingly in fmall pots filled
with light earth, which fhould remain during the win¬
ter under a common frame, in an old tan-bed. The
fpring following, they may be plunged into the ground
in a fheltered fituation, obferving to water them fre¬
quently in dry weather ; but it will be advifeable to
fcreen them from froft the following winter, by cover¬
ing them with mats. This fpecies thrives beft in a
wet foil, and is feldom hurt by hard winters, though
the young and tender branches are often deftroyed by
froft ; but, however dead the trees may appear, they
ought always to be fufiered to remain till the following
fummer (hews what are living and what are dead.—
The adrachne muft be preferved in pots for three or
four years, till they have obtained ftrength; and may
be then planted in a warm fituation, and on a dry foil;
for this fpecies will not thrive on wet ground.
ARCADI, or Arcadians ; the name of a learned
fociety at Rome. See Academy, N° IX. par. 4. etfeti.
ARCADIA, an inland diftriCt in the heart of Pe-
loponnefus, (Strabo). It is mountainous, and fitter for
pafture than corn ; and therefore chiefly celebrated by
bucolic or paftoral poets, who feign Pan, the god of
fhepherds, to be the guardian of it, (Virgil). It has
to the north Achaia, to the eaft Argos and Laconia,
Meffenia to the fouth, and Elis to the weft. According
to Pliny, the wine of this country cured barrennefs in
women, and infpired the men with rage; and the berries
of the yew gathered there were fo ftrong a poifon, that
whoever flept or took refrefhment under that tree were
fure to die. In Strabo’s time there were few cities
remaining in it, moft of them being deftroyed in the
Grecian wars. Euftathius fays, that the country was
anciently called Pelafgia, from Pelafgos, who brought
the people, from roots, herbs, and leaves of trees, to
feed on acorns, efpecially beech-maft ; as Artemidorus
obferves, that the Arcadians ufually lived on acorns.
It was alfo called Lycaonia, Gigantis, and Parrhafin,
ARC [5
Ai-cangis (Stephanas). The Arcadians are greatly commend-
ed for their love of, and ikill in, mufic, (Virgil, Poly-
 L_ bins). To imitate the Arcadians, is to labour and
toil for the benefit of others, never conquering their
own, but the enemies of others, (Hefychius). This
probably took its rife from the ancient Arcadians be¬
ing accuttomed to hire themfelves out as mercenaries
to foreign nations. Homer commends their martial
prowefs, their paftures, their flieep, and their country'
well-watered. The gentilitious name is Arcades ; who
boafted of their great antiquity, and that they were
older than the fun and moon : (Apollonius Rhodiiis,
Nonnius, Plutarch, Ovid, Statius). They were the firft
who had a year of three months, and therefore called
Proceleni, becaufe their year was prior to that adjufted
in Greece to the courfe of the moon, (Cenforinus).
ARCANGIS, in the Turkifh armies, an inferior
kind of infantry, which ferve as enfans perdus, and to
harrafs and pillage the enemy’s frontiers. The Arcan-
gis are an order inferior to the Janifaries ; and, when
any of them dillinguifii themfelves, are ufually prefer¬
red into the Janifaries order. They have no pay, but
are to fubfift on their plunder.
ARCANUM, among phyficians, any remedy, the
preparation of which is induftrioufly concealed, in or¬
der to enhance its value.
ARCBOUTANT, in building, an arched but-
trefs. See Buttress.
ARCESILAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
about 300 years before the Chriftian tera, was born at
Pitane, in Eolis. He founded the fecond academy,
which is called the fecond fcfiool. He was a man of great
erudition, and well verfed in the writings of the ancients.
He was remarkable for the feverity of his criticifms ;
but neverthelefs he knew how to accommodate him-
felf to the age, and purfue the allurements of pleafure.
He had a great number of difciples. His doctrines
were different in feveral refpefts from thofe of the an¬
cient fchool: and perhaps he was led into this diverfity
of opinions by many capital errors in the ancient fchool,
fuch as the incredible arrogance of the dogmatics, who
pretended to afiign caufes for all things ; the myfte-
rious air they had thrown upon the doctrine of ideas ;
the entirely difcarding the teftimony of the fenfes ; the
objections of the Pyrrhonifts, who now began to broach
their opinions ; the powerful oppofition of the Stoics
and Peripatetics, who difcovered the feeble parts of
the academic philofophy. Thefe might have given
caufe to reform the ancient fchool, and to found a new
one. The middle fchool, therefore, laid it down as a
principle, that we could know nothing, nor even affure
ourfelves of the certainty of this pofition ; from whence
they inferred, that we fhould affirm nothing, but al¬
ways fufpend our judgment. They advanced, that a
philofopher was able to difpute upon every fubjeft, and
bring conviction with him, even upon contrary fides
of the fame queftion 5 for there are always reafons of
equal force both in the affirmative and negative of every
argument. According to this doCtrine, neither our fen¬
fes, nor even our reafon, ace to have any credit; and
therefore, in common affairs, we are to conform our-
ielves to received opinions. Arcefilaus was fucceeded
by his difciple Lacydes.
ARCH, in geometry, any part of the circumference
of a circle or curved line, lying from one point to ano-
93 ] ARC
ther, by which the quantity of the whole circle or Arch
line, or fotne other thing fought after, may be gathered. II
Arch, a concave or hollowed piece of building, con- rc an^e
ftru&ed in fuch a manner that the feveral ftones of
which it is compofed keep one another in their places.
The terms arch and vault properly differ only in this,
that the arch expreffes a narrower, and the vault a
broader piece of the fame kind. The principal diffe¬
rence in the form of arches is, that fome are circular,
and others elliptical; the former having a larger or
fmaller part of a circle, the other of an cllipfu. What
are called Jlrait arches, are thofe frequently ufed over
doors and windows, the upper and under edges of which
are ftrait and parallel, and the ends and joints all point¬
ing toward a centre. The fpace between two piers of
a bridge is called an arch, becaufe ufually arched over.
Triumphal Arches are magnificent entries into ci¬
ties, ere&ed to adorn a triumph, and perpetuate the me¬
mory of the aftion. The arches of Titus and Con-
ftantine make at this time a great figure among the
ruins of old Rome.
Arch, in compofition, fignifies chief, or of the firfi
clafs; as archangel, archbifhop, &c.
ARCHiEUS, orAacHEUs. See Archeus.
ARCHANGEL, an angel occupying the eighth
rank in the celeftial hierarchy *. » See Angel
Archangel, a city of Ruffia, in the province of an(l Hiernr-
Dwina, fituated on the eaft fide of the river Dwina,
about fix miles from the White Sea, in E. Long. 40.
2 r. N. Lat. 64. 30. The city extends about two miles
in length, is rich, populous, and built in the modern
tafte: it is a metropolitan fee. Archangel owed its
wealth and importance originally to the Englith, by
whom it was difcovered in the year 1553. Richard
Chancellor, mafter of one of the fhips fitted out under
the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby, who had re¬
ceived a commiffion to go in quelt of the north-caff
paflage to China, was feparated from the reft of the
fleet, and obliged by ftrefs of weather to put into the
bay of St Nicholas on the White Sea. The Czar I wan
Balilowitz, being informed of his arrival, invited him to
his court, where he was hofpitably entertained; and
the Czar indulged the Englifli with a free trade in his
dominions: in confequence of this permiffion, a com¬
pany of merchants was incorporated in London; and,
being encouraged by particular privileges from the
Czar, fet on foot a confiderable commerce, to the mu¬
tual advantage of both nations. Before this period, the
Ruffian commodities were ufually conveyed to Narva,
in the gulph of Finland: but the channel of trade was
foon turned to Archangel, and this traffic the Englifh
for fome time enjoyed without competition. The
Dutch, however, and other nations, gradually inlinu-
ated themfelves into this commerce; which they car¬
ried on to a very great difadvantage, as not being fa¬
voured with thofe privileges which the Czar had grant¬
ed to the Englifh company: thefe were at laft unhap¬
pily loft, in the time of the great rebellion. When
the Czar heard that the Englifn nation had brought
their fovereign to the fcaffold, he was fo exafperated a-
gainft them, that he forthwith deprived them of the
immunities in trade which they had hitherto enjoyed
in the dominions of Ruffia; nor could our company
with all its efforts retrieve them in the foqnel; fo that
our merchants were obliged to trade at Archangel on
the
ARC L 594 1 ARC
Aichangel the footing of other European nations.
II The commodities chiefly imported into Archangel,
berkin™" were S0^ anc^ ^lver ftnffs and laces, gold wire, cochi-
——  heal, indigo, and other drugs for dying; wine, brandy,
and other diftilled fpirits. The cuftoms arifing to the
Czar were computed at 200,000 rubles a-'year, and the
number of foreign Ihips at 400 annually: but fince the
ports of Peterfburg and Riga were opened, great part
of the trade has been removed to the Baltic, and the
commerce of Archangel is greatly decayed.
The houfes of Archangel are generally of wood, but
well contrived; and every chamber is provided with a
ftove, as a fence againft the cold, which is here excef-
five in the winter. The ftreets are paved with broken
pieces of timber and rubbifh, difpofed fo unlkilfully,
that one cannot walk over it without running the rifque
of falling, except when the ftreets are rendered fmooth
and equal by the fnow that falls and freezes in the
winter. Notwithftanding the feverity of the cold in
this place, there is always plenty of good provifions:
butcher’s meat, poultry, wild fowl, and fifh, in great
variety, are fold furpriiingly cheap. A brace of par¬
tridges may be bought for 4 d. Thefe birds, as well
as the hares'of this countiy, grow white in the winter;
and when the weather becomes more mild, refume their
natural colour.
The moft remarkable edifice in Archangel is a large
town-houfe, built of fquare ftones in the Italian man¬
ner, and divided into three parts. One of thefe confifts
of large commodious apartments, for the accommoda¬
tion of merchants, ftrangers as well as natives: here
they are permitted to relide with their merchandife till
the month of O&ober, when all the foreign fhips fet
fail for the refpeftive countries to which they belong.
Then the traders are obliged to remove their quarters
from the town-houfe or palace, which hath a fpacious
court, that reaches down to the river.
ARCHBISHOP, the name of a church dignitary
of the firft clafs. There are but two now in England,
viz. thofe of Canterbury and York.—The archbifliop
of Canterbury is confidered as the firft peer of England,
next to the royal family: he writes himfelf, by Divine
Providence ; and has the title of Grace given him, as to
dukes; and likewife Moji Reverend Father in God. He
is ftiled Primate of all England, and Metropolitan.—
The archbifhop of Fork has precedence of dukes and
great officers of ftate, except the lord chancellor: his
title is Grace, and Mojl Reverend Father in God; and
writes himfelf, as other biftiops do, by Divine Permif-
fion. He is ftiled Primate of England, and Metropo¬
litan.
Scotland, whilft epifcopacy prevailed in that coun¬
try, had two archbifhops, of St Andrews and Glafgow;
the former of whom was primate of all Scotland.
Ireland has four archbifhops; of Armagh, Dublin,
Caffil, and Tuam; of whom the former is primate of
all Ireland.
ARCHBISHOPRIC, in ecclefiaftical geography,
a province fubjeft to the jurifdiftion of an archbifhop.
ARCHBUTLER, one of the great officers of the
•German empire, who prefents the cup to the emperor
on folemn occafions. This office belongs to the king of
Bohemia.
ARCHCHAMBERLAIN,an officerofthe empire,
much the fame with the great chamberlain in England.
The eleftcr of Brandenburg was appointed by the gol- Archchan-
den bull archchamberlain of the empire. cellor ,,
ARCHCHANCELLOR, an high officer who, in Arcbelaus
ancient times, prefided over the fecretaries of the court. r e a '!
Under the two firft races of the kings of France, when
their territories were divided into Germany, Italy, and
Arles, there were three archchancellors: and hence the
three archchancellors ftill fubfifting in Germany; the
archbifhop of Mentz being archchancellor of Germany,
the archbifhop of Cologn of Italy, and the archbiftiop
of Treves of Arles.
ARCHCHANTOR, the prefident of the chantors
of a church.
ARCHCOUNT, a title formerly given to the earl
of Flanders, on account of his great power and riches.
ARCHDEACON, an ecclefiaftical dignitary or
officer next to a bilhop, whofe jurifdiftion extends ei¬
ther over the whole diocefe, or only a part of it. He
is ufually appointed by the bilhop himfelf; and hath
a kind of epifcopal authority, originally derived from
the bilhop, but now independent and diftinA from his.
He therefore vifits the clergy; and has his feparate
court for punilhment of offenders by fpiritual cenfures,
and for hearing all other caufes of ecclefiaftical cog¬
nizance. There are 60 archdeacons in England.
Archdeacon’s Court, is the moft inferior court in
the whole ecclefiaftical polity. It is held, in the arch¬
deacon’s abfence, before a judge appointed by himfelf,
and called his official; and its jurildiction is ibmetimes
in concurrence with, fometimes in exclufion of, the bi-
Ihop’s court of the diocefe. From hence, however, by
ftatute 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12. there lies an appeal to
that of the bilhop.
ARCHDUKE, a title given to dukes of greater au¬
thority and power than other dukes. The archduke ot
Auftria is among the moft ancient: his principal pri¬
vileges are, that he lhall diftribute juftice in his own
country, without appeal; that he cannot be deprived
of his countries, even by the emperor and the ftates of
the empire; and that he have a power of creating
counts, barons, &c. throughout the whole empire.
ARCHELAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
the difciple of Anaxagoras, flourilhed about 440 years
before Chrift. Fie read leftures at Athens, and did
not depart much from the opinions of his mailer. He
taught that there was a double principle of all things,
namely, the expanfon and condenfation of the air, which
he regarded as infinite. Heat, according to him, was
in continual motion. Cold was ever at reft. The earth,
which was placed in the midft of the univerfe, had no
motion. It originally refembled a wet marih, but was
afterwards dried up; and its figure, he faid, refembled
that of an egg. Animals were produced from the heat
of the earth, and even men were formed in the fame
manner. All animals have a foul, which was born with
them; but the capacities of which vary according to
the ftru&ure of the organs of the body in which it re-
fides.—Socrates, the moll illuftrious of his difciples, was
his fucceffbr.
Archelaus, the fan of Herod the Great, was de¬
clared king of Judea the fecond year after the birth of
Chrift. He put to death 3000 perfons before he went
to Rome to be confirmed by Auguftus. However, that
emperor gave him half of what had been poflefled by
his father; but at length, on frclh complaints exhibit¬
ed
ARC [ 595 1 ARC
Archdaus ed againfl: him by the Jews, he banifhed him to Vienne
. Arj|_h.| in Gaul, A. D. 6, where he died.
1 Archelaus, the fon of Apollonius, ones of the
greateft fculptors of antiquity, was a native of Ionia,
and is thought to have lived in the time of the empe¬
ror Claudius. He executed, in marble, the apotheofis
of Homer. This mallerpiece in fculpture was found
in 1568, in a place named Fratocckia, belonging to
the princes of Colonna, where, it is faid, the emperor
Claudius had a pleafure-houfe. Father Kircher, Cu-
pert, Spanheim, and feveral other learned antiquaries,
have given a defcription and explication of this work.
ARCHER, in the ancient military art, one who
fought with bow and arrows.
ARCHES-court, in Englilh ecclefiaftical polity,
is a court of appeal, belonging to the archbilhop of
each province ; whereof the judge is called the dean of
the arches, becaufe he anciently held his court in the
church of St Mary le bow (fancla Maria de arcubns),
though all the principal fpiritual courts are now holden
at Do&ors’ Commons. His proper jurifdidfion is only
over the 13 peculiar parilhes belonging to the archbi¬
lhop in London ; but the office of dean of the arches
having been for a long time, united with that of the
archbilhop’s principal office, he now, in right of the
laft mentioned office, receives and determines appeals
from the fentences of all inferior eccleliattical courts
within the province. And from him there lies an ap¬
peal to the king in chancery (that is, to a court of de¬
legates appointed under the king’s great feal) by fta-
tute.25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. as fupreme head of the
Englilh church, in the place of the bilhop of Rome,
who formerly exercifed this jurifdiilion; which circum-
ftance alone will furnifh the reafon why the Popilh cler¬
gy were fo anxious to feparate the fpiritual court from
the temporal.
ARCHETYPE,, the firft model of a work, which
is copied after to make another like it.—Among mint-
ers, it is ufed for the ftandard weight by which the o-
thersare adjufted.—The archetypal world, among Pla-
tonifts, means the world as it exilled in the idea of God
before the vifible creation.
ARCHEUS, (from the principal, chief, or
firft mover) ; a fort of primum mobile fet up by Hel-
mont, to fuperintend the animal ceconomy, and pre-
ferve it. It is akin to Plato’s anima mundi.—Hippo¬
crates ufes the words *pxai» to fignify the former
healthy ftate before the attack of the difeafe.
ARCHIEROSYNES, in the Grecian antiquity, a
high prieft veiled with authority over the reft of the
pnefts, and appointed to execute the more facred and
myfterious rites of religion.
ARCHIL, Archilla, Rocella, Orsielle, is
a whitilh mofs which grows upon rocks, in the Canary
and Cape Verd illands, and yields a rich purple tinc¬
ture, fugitive indeed, but extremely beautiful. This
weed is imported to us as it is gathered. Thofe who
prepare it for the ufe of the dyer, grind it betwixt
Hones, fo as to thoroughly bruife, but not to reduce it
into powder ; and then moiften it occafionally with a
ftrong fpirit of urine, or urine itfelf mixed with quick¬
lime : in a few days it acquires a purplilh red, and at
length a blue colour. In the firft ftate, it is called Ar¬
chil; in the latter, Lacmus or Litmafe.
The dyers rarely employ this drug by itfelf, on ac¬
count of its dearnefs and the perilhablenefs of its beau- Archil
ty. The chief ufe they make of it is, for giving a Archii0-
bloom to other colours, as pinks, &c. This is effec- chus.
ted by palling the dyed cloth or filk through hot wa- — 
ter lightly impregnated with the archil. The bloom
thus communicated foon decays upon expofure to the
air. Mr Hellot informs us, that by the addition of a
little folution of tin, this drug gives a durable dye ;
that its colour is at the fame time changed towards a
fcarlet; and that it is the more permanent, in propor¬
tion as it recedes the more from its natural colour.
Prepared archil very readily gives out its colour to
water, to volatile fpirits, and to fpirit of . wine ; it is
the fubftance principally made ufe of for colouring the
fpirits of thermometers. As expofure to the air de-
ftroys its colour upon cloth, the exclufion of the air
produces a like effeft in thefe hermetically fealed tubes,
the fpirits of large thermometers becoming in the com-
pafs of a few years colourlefs. M. 1’Abbe Nollet ob-
ferves, (in the French Memoirs for the year 1742),
that the colourlefs fpirit, upon breaking the tube, foon
refumes its colour, and this for a number of times fuc-
ceffively ; that a watery tincture of archil, included
in the-tubes or thermometers, loft its colour in three
days ; and that, in an open deep veffel, it became co¬
lourlefs at the bottom, while the upper part retained
its colour.
A folution of archil in water, applied on cold
marble, ftains it of a beautiful violet, or purplilh blue
colour, far more durable than the colour which it com¬
municates to other bodies. Mr du Fay fays he has
feen pieces of marble ftained with it, which in two
years had fullered no fenfible change. It finks deep
into the marble, fometimes above an inch ; and at the
fame time fpreads upon the furface, unlefs the edges
be bounded by wax or other like fubftances. It feems
to make the marble fomewhat more brittle.
Linnaeus informs us, in the Swedilh Tranfadlions
for the year 1742, that the true archil mofs is to be
found on the weftern coafts of England.
ARCHILOCHIAN, a term in poetr)'-, applied to
a fort of verfes, of which Archilochus was the inventor,
confifting of feven feet, the four firft whereof are ordi¬
narily daftyls, though fometimes fpondees, the three
laft trochees; as in Horace,
Scivitur acris hyems., grata vice veris & Favoni.
ARCHILOCHUS, a famous Greek poet and mu-
fician, was, according to Herodotus, cotemporary with
Candaules and Gyges, kings of Lydia, who flourilhed
about the 14th Olympiad, 724 years before Chrift. But
he is placed much later by modern chronologifts; viz.
by Blair 686, and by Prieftly 660 years, B. C.
He was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades. His fa¬
ther Teleficles was of fo high a rank, that he was cho-
fen by his countrymen to confult the oracle at Del-
phos concerning the fending a colony to Thafos: a
proof that he was of one of the moft diftinguilhed fa¬
milies upon the illand. However, he is faid to have
fullied his birth by an ignoble marriage with a Have
called Enipo, of which alliance our poet-mufician was
the fruit.
Though Archilochus fhewed an early genius and at¬
tachment to poetry and mufic, thefe arts did not pre¬
vent his going into the army, like other young men of
his birth: but in the firft engagement at which he was
prefent.
ARC [ 596 1 ARC
Archilo- prefent, the young poet, Hke Horace, and like our own
chns' Suckling, loft his buckler, though he fared his life by
the help of his heels. It is much eaftcr, faid he, to get
a new buckler, than a new exigence. This pleafantry,
however, did not fave his reputation ; nor could his
poetry or prayers prevail upon Lycambes, the father
of his miftrefs, to let him marry his daughter, though
ftre had been long promifed to him. After thefe mor¬
tifications, his life feems to have been one continued
tiflue of difgrace and refentment.
Archilockum proprio rabies armavit iamlo.
Hor. Art. Poet. 79.
Archilochus, wish fierce refentment warm’d,
Was with his own fevere iambics arm’d. Francis.
The rage of Archilochus was proverbial in antiquity ;
which compared the provoking this fatyrift to the
treading upon a ferpent : A comparifon not very fe¬
vere, if it be true that Lycambes, and, as fome fay, his
three daughters, were fo mortified by his fa tire, as to
be driven to the confolation of a halter.
In this piece, many adventures are mentioned, full of
defamation, and out of the knowledge of the public.
There were likewife many loofe paffages in it; and it
is faid to have been on account of this fatire that the
lilf vi^aX" Lacedcemonians laid a prohibition on his verfes *.
1 . vi. c. 3. jqowever-jacCordingtoPlutarch,thereisno bard ofan-
tiquity by whom the two arts of poetry and mufic have
been fo much advanced, as by Archilochus. To him is
attributed particularly the fudden tranfition from one
rhythm to another of a different kind, and the manner
of accompanying thofe irregular meafures upon the lyre.
Heroic poetry, in hexameter verfe, feems to have been
folely in ufe among the more ancient poets and mufi-
cians ; and the tranfition from one rhythm to another,
which lyric poetry required, was unknown to them: fo
that, if Archilochus was the firft author of this mixture,
lie might with propriety be ftiled the Inventor of Lyric
Poetry, which, after his time, became a fpecies of ver-
fification wholly diftinif, from heroic.—To him is like¬
wife aferibed the invention of Epodes. See Epode.
Our poet-mufician is generally ranked among the
firft vidtors of the Pythic games: and we learn from
Pindar, that his mufe was not always a termagant;
for though no mortal efcaped her rage, yet file was at
times fufficiently tranquil and pious to diftate hymns
in praife of the gods and heroes. One in particular,
written in honour of Hercules, acquired him the ac¬
clamations of all Greece; for he fung it in full affembly
at the Olympic games, and had the fatisfa&ion of re¬
ceiving from the judges the crown of vi&ory confe-
crated to real merit. This hymn, or ode, was after¬
wards fung in honour of every vi&or at Olympia, who
had no poet to celebrate his particular exploits.
Archilochus was at laft flain by one Callondax Co¬
rax, of the ifland of Naxos ; who, though he did it in
fight, according to the laws of war, was driven out of
the temple of Delphi, by command of the oracle, for
having deprived of life a man confecrated to theMufes.
The names of Homer and Archilochus were equally
revered and celebrated in Greece, as the two moft excellent
poets which the nation had ever produced. This appears
from an epigram in the Anthologia; and from Cicero,
who ranks him with poets of the firft clafs, and in his
Epiftles tells us, that the grammarian Ariftophanes,
the moft rigid and fcrupulous critic of his time, ufed to
fay, that the longeft poem of Archilochus always ap- Arcliilo-
peared to him the moft excellent. c ..lls
ARCHIMAGUS, the high-prieft of the Perfian Archimedes
Magi or worfhippers of fire. He refided in the high- —  
eft fire-temple; which was had in the fame veneration
with them, as the temple of Mecca among the Maho¬
metans. Zoroaftres firft. fettled it at Balch ; but after
the Mahometans had over-run Perfia in the 7th cen¬
tury, the Archimagus was forced to remove from thence
into Kerman, a province of Perfia, lying on the fouth-
ern ocean, where it hath continued to this day. Da¬
rius Hyftafpes took upon himfelf the dignity of Ar¬
chimagus : for Porphyry tells us, he ordered before
his death, that, among the other titles, it (hould be en¬
graven on his monument, that he had been Majler of
the Magi; which plainly implies that he had born
this office among them, for none but the Archi¬
magus was mailer of the whole feft. From hence it
feems to have proceeded, that the kings of Perfia were
ever after looked on to be of the facerdotal tribe, and
were always initiated into the facred order of the Ma¬
gi, before they took on them the crown, and were in¬
augurated into the kingdom.
ARCHIMANDRITE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory,
was a name given by the ancient Chriftians to what
we now call an abbot. Father Simon obferves, that
the word mandrite is Syriac, and fignifies a folitary
monk.
ARCHIMEDES, a celebrated geometrician,born
at Syracufe in the ifland of Sicily, and related to
Hiero king of Syracufe. He was remarkable for his
extraordinary application to mathematical ftudies ; in
which he ufed to be fo much engaged, that his fervants
were often obliged to take him from thence by force.
He had fuch a furprifing invention in mechanics, that
he affirmed to Hiero, if he had another earth, where¬
on to plant his machines, he could move this which we
inhabit. He is faid to have formed a glafs fphere, of
a moft furprifing workmanfhip, wherein the motions of
the heavenly bodies were reprefented. Pie difeovered
the exaft quantity of the filver which a goldfmith had
mixed with the gold, in a crown he had made for the
king : he had the hint of this difeovery from his per¬
ceiving the water rife up the fides of the bath as he
went into it, and was filled with fuch joy, that he ran
naked out of the bath, crying, “ I have found it! I
have found it!” By the invention of machines, he, for
a long time, defended Syracufe *, on its being belieged * See Syra-
byMarcellus. On the city’s being taken, that general
commanded his foldiers to have a particular regard to
the fafety of this truly great man ; but his care was in¬
effectual. “ What gave Marcellus the greateft con¬
cern (fays Plutarch), was the unhappy Archimedes,
who was at that time in his mufseum, and his mind, as
well ns his eyes, fo fixed and intent upon fome geome¬
trical figures, that he neither heard the noife and hurry
of the Romans, nor perceived the city was taken. In
this depth of ftudy and contemplation, a foldier came
fuddenly upon him, and commanded him to follow him
to Marcellus; which he refufing to do till he had finifh-
ed his problem, the foldier, in a rage, drew his fword,
and ran him through the body.” Others have related
the circumftances of his death in a fomewhat different
manner. It however happened 208 years before the
Chriftian ara. Cicero, when he was quatftor in Italy,
dif-
ARC L 597 ] ARC
Archimedes difcovered his tomb, on which was carved a cylinder
f Tufc u i. and fphere f. Some of the works of this great mathe-
Quadt. lib. matician are loft, but others are preferved. His pieces
iv. which remain are, i. Two books of the Sphere and Cy¬
linder. 2. The Dimenfions of a Circle. 3. Of Cen¬
tres of Gravity, or ^Equiponderants. 4. Of Spheroids
and Conoids. 5. Of fpiral Lines. 6. The Quadra¬
ture of a Parabola. 7. Of the Number of the Sand.
8. Of Bodies that float on Fluids. The beft edition
of thefe is that publilhed at London, in 1675, 4'°.
Among the works of Archimedes which are loft, we
may reckon the defcriptions of the following inventions,
which we may gather from himfelf and other ancient
authors. 1. nsp/rue cEyavnc, or his account of the me¬
thod which he ufed to difeover the mixture of gold and
fdver in the crown. 2. His defeription of the
or Ko^Xiov, an engine to draw water out of places where
it is ftagnated. Athenseus, fpeaking of the prodigious
(hip built by the order of Hiero, tells us, that Archi¬
medes invented the cochlion, by means of which the
hold, notwithftanding its depth, could be drained by
one man. (AsiTvoo-opicav, lib. v.) Diodorus Siculus in¬
forms us (lib. v.) that he contrived this machine to
drain Egypt, and that by a wonderful mechanifm it
would empty the water from any depth. 3. The
by means of which (according to Athenaeus, Atia-vtxr.
lib. v.) he launched Hiero’s great (hip. 4. The T?«r-
*as-o», of the power of which Tzetzes gives a hyperbo¬
lical relation, Chil. ii. hift. 35. 5. The machines he
A R C H I T
N the utmoft latitude of the word, fignifies the art
of building in general; but the term is moft fre¬
quently applied only to the conftruftion of fuch build¬
ings as are for the purpofes of civil life, fuch ashoufes,
halls, churches, bridges, porticos,
Hi fiery of ArchiteElure.
The origin of this art, like that of moft others, is
totally unknown. We are aflured, however, that it is as
old as Cain: for Mofes tells us that he built a city; tho'
what werethe materials, or how the buildings^were con-
i ftru&ed, we are entirely ignorant. It is commonly
Materials faid, that the firft materials employed in building were
firft ufed in branches and twigs of trees, wherewith men conftruc-
ui !D^‘ ted huts, fuch as the 'wigwams in ufe among the A-
merican Indians at prefent. This, however, appears
difputable. The natural (helter afforded by hollows
in the fides of mountains or rocks, it may be fup-
pofed, would much more readily fuggeft the idea of
uling (tones and earth as materials for building houfes.
Indeed, confidering that tents were not invented before
the days of Jabal, Tubal-Cain’s brother, it is very pro¬
bable that fuch temporary houfes as the Indian wig¬
wams were not originally known ; otherwife the method
of covering poles with the (kins of beads, inftead of fmall
branches or twigs, muft very foon have taken place.
Thefe temporary houfes feem to have come into ufe
only when men began to lead an idle wandering life,
like the Tartars, and could not be at the trouble of
conftru&ing durable habitations in every place where
they were obliged to wander with their cattle ; and Ja¬
bal no doubt from them took the hint of making por-
Vol. I.
ufed in the defence of Syracufe againft Marcellus. Of Archipelago
thefe we have an account in Polybius, Livy, and Plu- .rcj|jteft
tarch. 6. His burning-glafles, with which he is faid rc lte
to have fet fireto the Roman galleys. Galen, n£fi x?a<rfu«,
lib. iii. 7. His pneumatic and hydraulic engines, con¬
cerning which he wrote books, according to Tzetzes,
Chil. ii. hift. 35.
ARCHIPELAGO, in geography, a general term
fignifying a fea interrupted with iflands ; it is however
more efpecially applied to that lying between Europe
and Afia, which contains the iflands anciently called
Cyclades and Sporades. See thefe two words.
ARCHPRESBYTER, or arch-priest, a pried
eftabliftied in fome diocefes with a fuperiority over the
reft. He was anciently chofen out of the college of
prefbyters, at the pleafure of the biftiop. Thefe arch-
prelbyters were much of the fame nature with deans
in the cathedral churches, as the college of prefbyters
anfwers to the chapter. See Presbyter.
ARCHISYNAGOGUS, the chief of the fyna-
gogue ; the title of an officer among the Jews, who
preiided in their fynagogues and aflemblies. The num¬
ber of thefe officers was not fixed, nor the fame in all
places ; there being 70 in fome, and in others only
one. They are fometimes called princes of the fyna-
gogue, and had a power of excommunicating fuch as
deferved that punilhment.
ARCHITECT, a perfon (killed in architecture.
E C T U R E,
table houfes, or tents. Accordingly wc fee, that no
nations, except thofe who are in a perpetually unfettled
(late, make ufe of fuch wretched materials. Even
in America, where the human race have appeared
in the moft defpicable form, they were no fooner col¬
lected into great bodies under the emperors of Mexico
and Peru, wrho forced them to leave off their wandering
way of life, than ftone-buildings began to be creCted.
We are not, therefore, to look for the origin of ar¬
chitecture in any (ingle nation ; but in every nation,
when the inhabitants began to leave off their favage
way of life, and to become civilized; and if there is
any nation to be found which hath been always in a ci¬
vilized (late, we may be aflured that architecture hath
always had an exiftence there. But whatever may
be in this, the origin of regular buildings hath been de¬
duced from the conftruCtion of the meaneft huts in a
very natural and plaufible manner by feveral authors.
“ Anciently (fays Vitruvius), men lived in woods,
and inhabited caves; but in time, taking perhaps ex¬
ample from birds, who with great induftry build their a
nefts, they made themfelves huts. At firft they made
thefe huts, very probably, of a conic figure; becaufe
that is a figure of the fimpleft ftrufture ; and, like the (sYfiv.'
birds, whom they imitated, compofed them of branches
of trees, fpreading them wide at the bottom, and join¬
ing them in a point at the top ; covering the whole
with reeds, leaves, and clay, to fereen them from tem-
pefts and rain.
“ But finding the conic figure inconvenient on ac- >pi]e;3;m
count of its inclined fides, they changed both the form rr0veir)ent.
and conftruCtion of their huts, giving them a cubical
4 F figure
598
Plate XXV.
(B). fig. a.
F'g- 3-
Jtate of ar-
ehitefture a-
ipong the E-
gyptians.
A R C H I T
figure, and building them in the following manner:
“ Haying marked out the fpace to be occupied by
the hut, they fixed in the ground feveral upright trunks
of trees to form the fides, filling the intervals between
them with branches clofely interwoven and covered
with clay. The fides being thus completed, four large
beams were placed on the upright trunks; which, being
well joined at the angles, kept the fides firm, and
likewife ferved to fupport the covering or roof of the
building, compofed of many joifts, on which were laid
feveral beds of reeds, leaves, and clay.
“ Infenfibly mankind improved in the art of build¬
ing, and invented methods to make their huts lading
and handfome, as well as convenient. They took off
the bark, and other unevenneffes, from the trunks of
trees that formed the fides ; raifed them, probably, a-
bove the dirt and humidity, on ftones ; and covered each
of them with a flat ftone or flate, to keep off the rain.
The fpaces between the ends of the joifts were clofed
with clay, wax, or fome other fubftance; and the ends
of the joifts covered with thin boards cut in the man¬
ner of triglyphs. The pofition of the roof was like¬
wife altered: for being, on account of its flatnefs, un¬
fit-to throw off the rains that fell in great abundance
during the winter feafon, they raifed it in the middle j
giving it the form of a gable roof, by placing rafters on
the joifts, to fupport the earth and other materials that
compofed the covering.
“ From this Ample conftru&ion the orders of archi-
teffure took their rife. For when buildings of wood
were fet afide, and men began to ereft folid and (late¬
ly edifices of ftone, they imitated the parts which ae-
ceflity had introduced into the primitive huts; in fo
much that the upright trees, with the ftones at each
end of them, were the origin of columns, bafes, and
capitals; and the beams, joifts, rafters, and ftrata of
materials that formed the covering, gave birth to ar¬
chitraves, frizes, triglyphs, and cornices, with the co¬
rona, the mutules, the modillions, and the dentils.
“ The firft buildings were in all likelihood rough
and uncouth ; as the men of thofe times had neither
experience nor tools: but when, by long experience
and reafoning upon it, the artifts had eftablilhed cer¬
tain rules, had invented many inftruments, and by great
pradlice had acquired a facility in executing their ideas,
they made quick advances towards perfection, and at
length difcovered certain manners of building, which fuc-
ceedingages have regarded with the higheft veneration.”
Among the ancient Egyptians, Affyrians, and Per-
fians, this art was carried to an incredible length.
The pyramids of Egypt are fuch ftruftures as would
exceed the power of the mod potent monarch on earth
to raife at this day. The largeft of thefe, according
to the account of M. Goguet, is near 500 feet high,
and contains 313,590 folid fathoms. It is compofed
of ftones enormoufly large ; many of them being 30
feet long, four feet high, and three in breadth ; and
all this huge mafs of building was coated over with
fquare (Tags of marble—The ftrudlure called the laby~
rinthy in the fame country, according to Herodotus,
who faw it, excelled every thing which he could have
conceived from the imagination either of himfelf or o-
thers. Within the fame circuit of walls they had in-
clofed 3000 halls, 12 of which were of a Angular form
and beauty; and of thefe, half were above, and half
E C T U R E. Hifiory.
below ground; and the whole was terminated by a pyra¬
mid 40 fathoms high. All this prodigious mafs of build¬
ing was compofed of white marble,.and the walls were
adorned with engravings.—The obelifks were not lefs
aftonilhing; the largeft of them being entire pieces of
granite, no lefs than 180 feet high.—Near Andera, in
upper Egypt, are the ruins of a palace of gray gra¬
nite, the cielings of which are fupported by columns of
fuch thicknefs, that four men can fcarcely fathom them.
The cielings themfelves are compofed of ftones of the
fame kind, fix or feven feet in breadth, and 18 feet in
length. The grand hall is 112 feet long, 60 high, and
5 8 broad. The roof of the whole edifice is a ter¬
race, on which the Arabs formerly built a very large
village, the ruins of which are dill vifible. s
Among the Babylonians and Perfians, too, fuch im- Among the
menfe piles of building have been raifed, as appear ut- BaM°olans
terly inconceivable, and incredible to many modern au- and Per“an*;
thors where their former grandeur is not demonftrable
by ruins vifible at this day. The ruins of Perfepolis,
the ancient capital of Perfia, were fo ftupendous in the
time of Avicenna the Arab phyfician, that his coun¬
trymen could not believe fuch ftru&ures pofiible to be
erefted but by evil fpirits. Of their extraordinary
magnificence, indeed, we may have fome idea from the
account of the ftair-cafes belonging to the palace. The
remains, fome time ago, confided of 95 fteps of white
marble, fo broad and flat, that 12 horfes might conve¬
niently go up abreaft. 5
In thefe vaft ft ruptures, however, the nations of whom Their build-
we fpeak feem to have regarded the greatnefs, rather ,ngs
than the elegance or ufefulnefs, of their works. In the foTgrert-6 '
pyramids and obelifks of Egypt this is exceedingly nefs than e-
confpicuous; but whether it was fo in the labyrinth, or kgance.
in the palace at Thebes above-mentioned, it is impof-
fible to determine, unlefs the buildings were entire, and
we knew for what purpofe they had beendefigned. If the
kings who built the pyramids defigned to immortalize
their memories by building, they certainly could not
have fallen upon any thing more proper for this pur¬
pofe ; though even in this they havefome how or other
failed, the names of thofe who erefted them not being 7
certainly known even in the time of Herodotus. — It is rgnorant oSjf)
certain, however, that neither the ancient Affyrians tlie,ufe of ! :
nor Babylonians knew the method of conftru&ingarC eS*
arches. The roofs of all their halls were flat, and co¬
vered with prodigioufly large ftones, fome of them fo
big as to cover a whole room fingly. Their manner of
building was alfo quite deftitute of what is now called
tajle ; the columns were ill-proportioned, and their ca¬
pitals executed in the pooreft manner imaginable. This
was obferved by the Greeks, who improved upon the
proportions formerly ufed, and were the inventors of
three of the five orders of architecture, viz. the Do- g
ric, Ionic, and Corinthian. “ Anciently, (fays Vi- Andofprcm
truvius), they were ignorant of the art of proportioning portioning <>
the various parts of a building: they ufed columns; but colBmBS*
they cut them at hazard, without rules, without prin¬
ciples, and without having any attention to the propor¬
tions which they ought to give them: they placed them
likewife without any regard to the other parts of the
edifice. Dorus, fon of Helen and grandfon of Deu¬
calion, having caufed a temple to be built at Argos in 0r; £ 0p. |
honour of Juno, that edifice was found by chance to be the Doris, a
conftrufted according to the tafte and proportions of order.
the
Hiftory. A R C H I T
the order which afterwards they called Doric. The form
of this building having appeared agreeable, they con¬
formed to it for the conftruftion of ediiicas which they
afterwards had to build.
“ About the fame time, the Athenians fent into A-
fia a colony under the conduct of Ion, nephew of Do-
rus : this undertaking had very good fuccefs. Ion
feized on Caria, and there founded many cities : thefe
new inhabitants thought to build temples. They pro-
pofed for a model that of Juno at Argos ; but, igno¬
rant of the proportion which they ought to give to the
columns, and in general to the whole edifice, they
fought for rules capable of regulating their operation.
Thefe people wanted, in making their columns fuffi-
ciently tlrong to fupport the whole edifice, ■ to render
them at the fame time agreeable to the fight. For
this purpofe, they thought to have given it the fame
proportion that they found between the foot of a man
and the reft of his body. According to their ideas,
the foot made a fixth part of the human height: in con-
fequence, they gave at firft to a Doric column, taking
in its chapiter, fix of its diameters; that is to fay, they
made it fix times as high as it was thick: afterwards
10 they added to it a feventh diameter.
Ofthelonic. “ This new order of archite&ure was not long in
iving birth to a fecond: they would immediately go
eyond their firft invention. The lonians tried to
throw ft ill more delicacy and elegance into their edifi¬
ces. They employed the fame method which they had
before put in praftice for the compofition of the Doric
order : but inftead of taking for a model the body of a
man, the lonians were regulated by that of a woman.
With a view to make the columns of this new order
more agreeable and more pleafing, they gave them
eight times as much height as they had diameter.
They alfo made channelings all along the trunk to imi¬
tate the folds of the robes of women : the volutes of
the chapiter reprefented that part of the hair which
hung in curls on each fide of the face. The lonians
added, laftly, to thefe columns abafe, which was notin
life in the Doric order.” According to Vitruvius,
thefe bafes were made in the manner of twifted cords,
as a kind of cafe for the columns. This order of ar¬
chitecture was called Ionic, from the name of the peo¬
ple who had invented it.
Such is the account given by Vitruvius of the origin
of improvements in the proportion of columns. Had
thefe improvements, however, exifted in fuch early
times, Homer, who was greatly pofterior to them, would
certainly have made mention of fomething of that kind;
but in all his writings he gives us no account of any
thing like columns of ftone, but ufes a word which
would rather incline us to think that his columns were
, x nothing more than bare pofts.
Hintsof im- It is remarkable, that improvements in architefture
provement did not take place in any nation till after, or about,, the
probably ta- 1;jnie jerufa}em was taken by Nebuchadnezzar.
Solomon’s ^ie grandeft buildings erected among the Affyrians
temple. feem to have owed their exiftence to this monarch; and
it can fcarce be imagined that he would not endeavour
to imitate the architefture of Solomon’s temple, to
which, by his conqueft of Jerufalem, he had full ac-
cefs.— It is alfo remarkable, that the dimeniions of the
two pillars, Jachin and Boaz, fet up by Solomon, very
nearly correfpond with thofe of the Doric order, firft
E C T U R E. 599
invented by the Greeks, and which originally came
from their colonies fettled in Afia Minor. The height
of Solomon’s pillars, without the chapiter, was 18 cu¬
bits ; that of the chapiter itfelf was five cubits ; the
circumference was 12 cubits ; from whence, according
to the Scripture language, we may reckon the diame¬
ter to have been exaftly four cubits. Had they been
a fingle cubit higher, they would have been precifely
of the fame height with columns of the original Doric
order. We do not indeed mean to affert, that this fa¬
mous temple gave a model of archite&ure to the whole
world ; although it is fcarce conceivable, but imitations
of it, as far as it could be known, muft have taken place
among many nations. m
Notwithftanding all their defedfts, however, the* E- Egyptian
gyptian buildings undoubtedly had an air of vaft gran-
deur and magnificence, if we may credit the defcription l)ecj>
given of one of their banqueting rooms by Vitruvius.
The ufual fize of one of thefe rooms was from 100 to
150 feet in length, and its breadth fomewhat more
than half its length. At the upper end, and along the
two fides, they placed rows of pillars tolerably well
proportioned to one another, though not of any regu¬
lar order ; and at the lower part they made a magnifi¬
cent and fpacious entrance : this, with its ornaments,
feemsto have taken up one end of the building entire.
We are not told that there were any pillars there; tho’
perhaps they placed two or more toward the angles on
each fide, for uniformity, the central fpace being e-
nough for an entrance in the grandeft and moft auguft
manner. Thefe rows of columns were fet at a diftance
from the wall, forming a noble portico along the two
fides and upper end of the building. Upon the pillars
was laid an architrave ; and from this was carried up a
continued wall with three quarter columns, anfwering
dire&ly to thofe below, and in proportion one fourth
fmaller in all their parts. Between thefe three quarter
columns were placed the windows for enlightening the
building. From the tops of the lower pillars to the
wall was laid a floor: this covered the portico over¬
head within, and made on the outfide a platform, which
was furrounded by a corrider with rails and ballufters.
This was terraced, and ferved as a plain for people to
walk on; and from this they could look through the
windows down into the room. To this terrace there
was no covering required, as the Egyptians were in no
fear of rain. The Egyptians decorated this fort of
building with ftatues; and no kind of ornament could
anfwer it fo well, as the light cannot fall upon ftatues
to fuch advantage in any dire&ion, as when it comes
from above, in fuch a regular, proportioned, and unin¬
terrupted manner. 13
We have already taken notice, that among the an- Ancient ar¬
dent Egyptians, Perfians, and Babylonians, the vaft chitefture
ftrength and extent of their buildings feems to have gr2ndeur to
been what they chiefly valued; and in this they cer- the modern,
tainly as much excelled the Greeks and modern nations,
as the latter excel them in the beautiful proportion
and elegance of their ftructures. There are not want¬
ing, however, fome modern authors, who endeavour to
deprive the ancients of what isjuftly their due, and
will have every thing to be exaggerated which feems be¬
yond the power of modern princes to accomplifli. In
this way M. Goguet remarkably diftinguiflies himfelff
and that without giving any reafon at all, but merely
4 F 2 that
/
6oo A R C H I T
that he takes it into his head. Speaking of the won¬
ders of ancient Babylon, “ All thefe works (fays he),
fo marvellous in the judgment of antiquity, appear to
me to have been extremely exaggerated by the authors
who have fpoken of them. How can we conceive, in
effeft, that the walls of Babylon could have been 318
feet high, and 81 in thicknefs, in a compafs of near
ten leagues ?” To this we may eafily reply, that the
pyramids of Egypt, and the immenfe wall which di¬
vides China from Tartary, fhew us, that even fuch a
work as the wall of ancient Babylon is faid to have
been is not altogether incredible. The loweft com¬
putation of the dimenfion of the Chinefe wall is, that
it extends in length 1200 miles, is 18 feet high at a
medium, and as many thick ; according to which com¬
putation, it mull contain 9,504,000 folid fathoms;
and yet, if we may credit the Chinefe hiltorians, this
immenfe mafs of building was fmifhed in five years. If
therefore we can fuppofe Nebuchednezzar, or whoever
fortified the city of Babylon, to have been capable of
employing as many men for ten years as were employ¬
ed in railing the Chinefe wall, we may fuppofe him
able to have fortified the city of Babylon as llrongly as
it is faid to have been ; *for the mafs of building is not
quite double that of the Chinefe wall, though nearly
fo, amounting to 18,189,600 folid fathoms. When
our author afterwards gafconades about the works of
the French king, it is difficult to avoid laughter at
hearing him declare, that “ infinitely more money has
been expended, and much more genius required, as well
as more power, tafte, and time, to finilh Verfailles,
with all its defe&s, than to confiruA a pyramid, or e-
re& an obelilk.” The genius, tafte, and time, we
(hall not difpute ; but as the fame author confefles that
100,000 men were employed for 30 years together in
the conftruflion of the largeft pyramid, we think the
power may juftly be doubted. This doubt will appear
ftill the more reafonable, when we confider what time
the abovementioned number of men would have taken
to accomplilh fome of the works of which M. Goguet
boafts fo much. The canal of Languedoc, he tells us,
extends in length upwards of 70 leagues, and required
the removal of two millions of cubic fathoms of earth.
This was no doubt a great work ; but had 100,000
men been employed upon it at once, they muft have
removed this quantity of earth in three weeks, fuppo-
fing each to have removed only a tingle fathom a-day.
Nor can we imagine, that any modern work will at all
ftand in competition with the works of the ancients
as to greatnefs, whatever they may do in other refpefts.
Architec- As to the improvements in architecture, the Greeks
mre impro- were undoubtedly the firft European nation who began
ved by the to diftinguith themfelves in this way. Whence they
Greeks. took the firft hint of improvement, we have no means
of knowing : though, as we have already hinted, it is
fcarce credible but that Solomon's temple muft have
fomewhat contributed thereto ; efpecially as we learn
from Scripture, that the capitals of the columns there
were ornamented in the richeft manner. The origin of
the Doric and Ionic orders we have already given an
account of from Vitruvius ; to which we may add, that
the volutes, which are the peculiar ornament of the Io¬
nic capital, are by fome faid to reprefent the natural
curling down of a piece of bark from the top of a
beam, which is fuppofed to have been the firft kind of
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
column.—The Corinthian order was not invented till ij
long after the others, and is faid to have taken its rife
from the following accident: A balket had been fet
upon the ground, and covered with a fquare tile ; there
grew near it a plant of acanthus or bears-breech ; the
leaves ftiot up and covered the outer furface of the
baiket ; and as the ftalks rofe up among them, they
foon reached the tile which overhung the edges of the
balket at the top ; this flopping their courfe upwards,
they curled and twilled themfelves into a kind of vo¬
lutes. In this fituation a fculptor, Callimachus, faw it;
the twilled part of the ftalk reprefented to him the vo¬
lutes of the Ionic capital, which, as they were here
fmaller, and more numerous, appeared in a new form :
he faw the beauty, of railing them among leaves, and
was ftruck with the reprefentation of a noble and lofty
capital; which being afterwards put into execution, has
been univerfally admired. id
In their private houfes the Greks had great conve- ^r|^a'eof,
niencies, but much lefs magnificence than the Romans, ^
as the former referved the ufe of their grandell archi-
te&ure for their temples and public buildings. The en¬
trance to their private houfes, however large they were,
was always final], narrow, and plain. The whole edi¬
fice ufually con filled of two courts, and feveral ranges
of building. The porter’s lodge, if fuch a phrafe may
be allowed, was ufually on the right hand of this nar¬
row entrance, and oppofite to this were the llables.
From this entrance one came into the firft or fmaller
court. This had piazzas on three fides ; and on the
fourth, which was ufually the fouth fide, there were
hutments of pilafters, which fupported the more inward
parts of the cieling.—A fpace being thus left between
the one and the other, they had places for the lodgings
of men and maid fervants, and fuch as had the princi¬
pal care of the houfe. Upon the fame floor with thefe
butments they had feveral regular apartments, conlift-
ing of an antichamber, a chamber, and clofets; and a-
bout the piazzas, rooms for eating and other common
purpofes.—Oppofite to the entrance was a lobby or
veftibule, through which lay the pafiage into the feve¬
ral rooms; and through this, in front, one entered a
large pafiage, which led into the larger or principal
fquare. Round this they had four piazzas, which, in
the common way of building, were all of one height;
but, in more magnificent houfes, they made that which
faced the great entrance loftier, and every way nobler,,
than the other three. A nobleman of Rhodes added
this to the common method of building; and it was
thence called the Rhodian manner. In this more noble
part of the building were the apartments of the family.
Thefe were adorned with lofty galleries, and here were
the beft rooms: they were called the mens apartments;
for, in rude times, the Greeks lodged their wives and
female rehtions in the beft rooms of the firft court,
where they had alfo their feparate and detached place.
The two fides of this larger court were kept for the re¬
ception of vifitors; and lervants were appointed to wait
upon them. The mafter of the houfe entertained his
guefts the firft day in his own apartments ; but after
this, how long foever they ftaid, they lived without re-
llraint in one of thofe feparate piazzas, and joined the
family only when they chofe it. Thus was the upper
end and two fides of the great court difpofed of; and
its lower end, being the fame range of building that
was
Hiftory.
ARCHITECTURE.
601
18
Decline of
the art a-
mong tlie
Romans.
19
Gothic
manner of
building.
»o
Arabian
' manner.
was the upper end of the firft court, held the lady of
the houfe and her female friends.
The Romans borrowed their archite&ure from the
Greeks, but did not imitate them in the modefty of
their private dwellings. They placed the principal front
of their houfe towards the fouth, and on this they be¬
llowed all the decoration of expenfive ornament. They
had here lofty galleries and fpacious rooms, and every
thing carried an air of greatnefs and fhew. In their
country houfes they preferved the fame fituation, and
the fame front; but the inner dillribution was different.
At the entrance they placed the meaner and more of-
fehfive offices, after the manner of the Greeks. The
firft gallery, which received the ftranger at his entrance,
had on one fide a paflage to the kitchen, and on the
other to the flails where they kept cattle, that their
noife or fmell might not be offenfive within, while yet
they were in readinefs for all fervices. Thefe flails were
placed to the left, as in the Greek houfes ; on the
right was the kitchen, which had its light from above,
and its chimney in the middle. Farther within the
building were placed on one fide bathing rooms, and
on the other family-conveniences, in the manner of our
butteries and ftore-rooms : the bathing rooms were on
the left, and the others on the right. Backwards, and
full to the north, they placed their cellars, for fear of
the fun; and over thefe were other ftore-rooms. From
this part of the ftrufture one came into the court; for
in thefe there generally was only one court: this was
taken up by fervants, and thofe who had the care of the
cattle ; and on each fide there were flails for the cattle.
In front from the entrance, but very far from all thefe
annoyances, flood the nobler apartments for the mafter
of the family.
How magnificent the Romans were in their temples
and public buildings, is yet to be feen in what remains
of them, and which are not only models for all modern
architedls, but have never been furpaffed or even equal¬
led to this day. But though the art of architefture
continued almofl at its higheft pitch among the Ro¬
mans for two centuries, it declined exceedingly as the
empire began to fail. Tacitus relates, that after the
battle of Adlium no men of genius appeared ; and af¬
ter the reign of Alexander Severus, a manner of build¬
ing altogether confufed and irregular was introduced,
wherein nothing of the true graces and majefty of the
former was preferved. When the empire was entirely
over-run by the Goths, the conquerors naturally intro¬
duced their own method of building. Like the ancient
Egyptians, the Goths feem to have been more ftudious
to amaze people with the greatnefs of their buildings,
than to pleafe the eye with the regularity of their
flruAure, or the propriety of their ornaments. They
corredted themfelves, however, a little by the models of
the Roman edifices which they faw before them : but
thefe models themfelves were faulty; and the Goths
being totally deftitute. of genius, nefther architedlure,
nor any other art, could be improved by them.
When the Arabs conquered Spain, they introduced
a mode of architedlure which was juft the reverfe of the
Gothic. This was as remarkable for its lightnefs as the
Gothic was for its clumfinefs ; and the fantaftic genius
of the Arabs difplayed itfelf in the great number of
fuperfluous and unnatural ornaments wherewith it was
loaded. Examples of this kind of building are extant
in fome cathedrals in Spain built by the Moors, par¬
ticularly that of Burgos. It is falfely, though com¬
monly, called the modern Gothic. zx
In the 15th and 16th centuries, when learning of all Revival of
kinds began to revive, architedlure feemed as it were 1116 art-
to be recalled intodife. The firft improvements in it
began in Italy, and owed their exiftence to the many
ruins of the ancient Roman flrudlures that were to be
found in that country, from whence an improved me¬
thod of building was gradually brought into the other
countries of Europe: and though the Italians for a
long time retained the fuperionty as architedls over
the other European nations; yet, as men of genius tra¬
velled from all quarters into Italy, where they had an
opportunity of feeing the originals from whence the
Italians copied, architedls have arifen in other nations
equal, if not fuperior, to any that ever appeared in I-
taly. Of this we have a recent inftance in our own
countryman Mr Mylne, who lately gained the prize in
architedlure at Rome, where it would no doubt be dif-
puted by fuch natives of Italy as were beft /killed in
that art.
We /hall conclude this hiftory with an account of
the mode of architedlure followed by thofe nations who
never had any connedlion either with the Jews, Greeks,
or Romans, and whofe manner of building muft confe-
quently be reckoned quite original, and peculiar to
themfelves. Thefe nations are the Chinefe, the Ameri¬
cans, and the ancient Celtes; by the laft of which the
ifland of Britain moft probably was firft peopled. The
firft are a very ingenious people, and pretend to very
high antiquity ; but their architedlure is univerfally al¬
lowed to be much inferior to that of the Greeks and
Romans. It is true, they excelled the ancient Egyp- Chinei'e
tians in knowing the method of conlirndling arches ;
but though they make ufe of arches in confirudling
bridges, and build fome of thefe of a prodigious height
and.length, they feem ftrangely deficient in the know¬
ledge of finifhing them with propriety. Their method
of building them is as follows.’ As foon as they finilh
the fides of the arch next to the land, or, if there are
more arches than one, as foon as they finilh the piers
that Hand between them, they proceed to lay on the
Hones (which are commonly about four or five feet
long, and half a foot broad', alternately upright and
croflwife, fo that the key-ftones always lie horizon¬
tally. The top of the arch is ufually no thicker than
thefe ftones ; and becaufe the bridges, efpecially thofe
that have but one arch, are fometimes 40 or 50 feet
between the piers, and confequently much higher than
the caufeway, they make an afeent on both fides by Heps
about three inches thick; the inconvenience of which for
horfes and carriages is very evident. In other refpefts,
however, the Chinefe bridges are well built, and fome
of them exceedingly beautiful. One in particular, near
Pekin, was built of white marble curioully wrought
and polilhed. It had 70 pillars on each fide, divided
by cartridges of fine marble, beautifully carved with
flowers, foliage, birds, beafts, and a variety of other
ornaments. On each fide of the entrance on the bridge,
at the call end, Hood two lions of an extraordinary fize,
on two marble pedeftals, with feveral other fmaller
lions in different attitudes. At the other end of the
bridge flood likewife two curious pedeftals, on which
were Ikilfully carved two children ; and all the reft of
602
A R C H I T
the workmtinfhip was anfwerable to it.
The fize of fome of the Chinefe bridges is aftonifhing;
fortie of them confiding of above too lofty arches, and
being upwards of 160 fathoms in length. A very fuf-
prifing one is to be feen at the city of Swen-chtfw-fu,
built over the point of an arm of the fea, which other-
wife mull be croffed in a bark, and often not without
danger. It is 2520 Chinefe feet in length, and 20 in
breadth ; and is fupported by 252 huge piers, 126 on
each fide. All the dories of it are of a greyilh co¬
lour, and of fuch a length and thicknefs as to go acrofs
from one fide to the other. Another fort of bridges
are built over a valley, 'to join two mountains together.
Of this kind there is one mentioned by travellers, call¬
ed pons volans, which is reckoned to be 400 cubits in
length, and 500 in height. Another dill more ftu-
pendous is to be feen in the province of Shen-fi. It
was built over feveral high hills, and employed 100,000
men. To ereft this bridge, fome of the hills were le¬
velled, and vaft arches built between others, fome of
which were fupported by pillars of a monftrous height
and thicknefs, where the valley proved too wide.
Triumphal The Chinefe are likewife very' fond of triumphal
arches. arches. Thefe are to be feen in great numbers, not
only in all their cities, but on the mountains and emi¬
nences along the roads. They were originally eretled
in memory of their heroes, or perfons who had figna-
lized themfelves by fervices done the ftate ; but fome
of them are alfo ere&ed to the memories of noble and
illuftrious women. The ornamental part of their an¬
cient triumphal arches is fo curioufly wrought, the fef-
toons and flowers fo neatly cut, and the birds and o-
ther animals carved in fuch lively attitudes, that Father
Le Compte looked upon them as Chinefe mafter-pieces
of that kind. Thefe ornaments are fo wonderfully de¬
tached from one another, that they feem to be only
joined to, or run into, each other by fmall cordons,
without the leafl: confufion. This fufficiently (hews
the fuperior (kill of their ancient workmen ; for in
thofe of later date the feulpture is fparing, looks coarfe
and heavy, and is without any piercing, or variety to
enliven it. Except this neatnefs in the carving, how¬
ever, neither the ancient nor modern architedlure of the
Chinefe can be compared with the European, either
with regard to the proportion, or the difpofitiort of its
parts. They have neither cornices nor capitals ; and
that which bears fome refemblance to our frizes, is of
fuch a height, that it rather fhocks the eye that isun-
accuftomed to it; tho’ it is fo much the more agreea¬
ble to the Chinefe tafte, as affording more fpace for
ornaments.
Am^fcan Among the Americans, as may be naturally imagi-
architec-” nech architefture was in a much lower ftate than either
ture. among the ancient Egyptians, or perhaps any other
nation whatever. The Peruvians, who were the moll
civilized nation in America, had indeed attained to the
art of poliftiing ftones and fitting them to one another ;
but they were entirely ignorant of the ufe of cement,
and were equally deftitute of contrivance in their buil¬
dings. Their temples were often of a vail extent.
That of Pachacamac, together with a palace of the
Inca, and a fortrefs, were fo connedled together, as
to form a ftru&ure half a league in circuit. Being un¬
acquainted, however, with the ufe of the pulley, they
were unable to raife the large ftones, employed in build-
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
ing it, to any confiderable height, and confequently
the walls of all their edifices were.low Thofe of the
temple of Pachacamac rofe only twelve feet from the
ground. They were indeed built with fo much nicety,
that the feams could hardly be difcerned; but the apart¬
ments, as far as they can be traced in the ruins, were
ill difpofed, and afforded little accommodation. There
was not a Angle window in any part of the building ;
and as no light could enter but by the door, the great-
eft part of the building muft'either have been totally
dark, or artificially illuminated.
In the kingdom of Mexico, many magnificent cities
and temples are faid to have been found by the Spa¬
niards ; but, as not the leaft yeftiges of any fuch build¬
ings are now to be feen, it may juttly be queftioned
whether they ever had an exiftence. Nor do even the
exaggerated defcriptions of the Spanifli writers, when
they defcend to particulars, tend to give us any high
idea of their magnificence. As far as can be gather¬
ed from their obfeure and inaccurate defcriptions, the
famous temple of Mexico was only a fquare mafs of
earth partly faced with Hone. It was raifed to fuch a
height, that the afcent to it was by a flair-cafe of 114
fteps. Its bafe extended 90 feet on each fide; and at
the top it terminated in a quadrangle of 30 feet fquare,
where were placed a fhrine of the Deity, and two al¬
tars on which the vi&ims were facrificed. All the o-
ther celebrated temples in the kingdom were formed
exaftly on the fame model; from which we can enter¬
tain no very high idea of the progrefs of the Mexi¬
cans in architedlure.
The Celtic archite&ure is ftill vifible in fome remains Celtic,
of ancient Druidic temples, &c. in fome parts of Bri¬
tain. It appears to have been ftill more barbarous
than the American ; the ftones being not only put to¬
gether without any cement, but without the leaft po-
lifh; although, like other nations, they endeavoured to
Ihew their magnificence by the vaft fize of the ftones
whereof thefe rude ftrudlures were compofed. Of this
there is a remarkable inftance in the ruin called 5/ow-
near Salifbury in England. This, by Dr Stuke- ®r'
ly, is reckoned to be the remains of the chief Druidic ^ one'
temple in the ifland ; and fome of its ftones are fo big,
that it would require above x 40 oxen to draw them.
Several circular buildings of ftones placed upon one
another without any cement are alfo to be feen in dif- . ^
ferent parts of the Highlands of Scotland. A very Extraordi-
extraordinary fpecies of buildings, however, have late- nary me-
ly been difeovered in that country, in which the ftones, thod of vi-
inftead of being cemented together with clay or lime,
are melted together into a kind of half vitrified mafs. a
What hath given occafion to fuch an extraordinary me¬
thod of building, it is difficult to determine. It feems
hard to fuppofe that our anceftors ftiould have known
how to vitrify walls, and at the fame time remained ig¬
norant of the ufe of every kind of cement; aqd if, on
the other hand, they really were acquainted with ce¬
ment, the total want of it in every one of their build¬
ings is equally unaccountable. Be this as it will, the
fa6l is now certainly eftabliftied, and an account has
been publiflied by Mr Williams, mineral engineer, of
feveral ruins in the Highlands, where “ the walls have
been vitrified, or run and compa&ed together, by the
force of fire ; and that fo effediually, that the mod of
the ftones have been melted down ; and any part of
Hiftory.
A R C H I T
the ftones not quite run to glafs has been entirely en¬
veloped by the vitrified matter ; and in fome places the
vitrification has been fo complete, that the ruins now
appear like vaft mafles or fragments of coarfe glafs or
flags.”
In what age this unparallelled method of building
was in ufe, we can by no means determine, as not on¬
ly hiftory, but even fable of every kind, is filent about
it. Nay, fo little has fuch a contrivance been dream¬
ed of by the moderns, that Mr Pennant, and others,
who have obferved thefe vitrified ruins in Scotland,
took them for the lava’s of ancient burning moun¬
tains.
Thefe vitrified walls, notwithftanding the apparent
Conjeflure (]igjcu]ty 0f ere6ling them, feem by no means to have
them.™1"2 been deficient in height: for Mr Williams mentions one,
the remains of which are ftill 12 feet perpendicular,
from which it may be fuppofed to have been originally
much higher ; though even this is a vaft height, con-
fidering the materials. Concerning their conftruftion
Mr Williams has the following conje&ure.
“ I imagine, (fays he), they have raifed two parallel
dykes of earth or fods in the direftion or courfe of
their intended wall or building, and left a fpace be¬
tween them juft wide enough for the wall. I fuppofe
thefe two parallel dykes, the groove, or mould in
which they were to run their wall. This groove be¬
tween the two dykes I fuppofe they packed full of fuel,
on which they would lay a proper quantity of the ma¬
terials to be vitrified. There is no doubt but a hot fire
would melt down the ftones, efpecially if they were of
the plum-pudding kind, and not too large ; and the
frame of earth would keep the materials, when in fu-
fion, from running without the breadth of their in¬
tended wall.
“ This beingthefoundation, Ifuppofe they have add¬
ed new fires, and more materials, and raifed their mould
of earth by degrees, till they brought the whole to the
intended height, and then have removed the earth from
both fides the vitrified wall.
I am confident, from the appearance of the ruifis,
that the materials were run down by the fire in fome
E C T U R E.
fuch method as this. In all the fe&ions of the larger
and fmaller fragments of the vitrified ruins I have feen,
I never faw the leaft appearance of a ftone being laid
in any particular way. I never faw a large ftone in
any fragment of thefe ruins ; nor any ftone, nor piece
of a ftone, that was not affedted by the fire, and fome
part of it vitrified; and all the bits of ftones that ap¬
pear in thefe fragments, appear higgledy piggledy,
juft as we would luppofe they would fall down in the
fire when the materials were in a ftate of fufion.
“ I have often feen lime-ftone for land burnt in turf-
kilns, which were nothing but two parallel dykes rai¬
fed about fix or feven feet high, and the ends built up
as they filled in the ftone and fuel.
“ Thefe anfwer very well in moderate weather; but
in a high wind, I have feen the lime-ftone vitrified to
that degree, that it would coft the farmers much labour
to dig out the vitrified matter, and they would have
but very little lime for their pains; yet the turf-kiln
would ftand it fo well, that they would burn more than
once in the fame kiln.
“ This I give as an example that they might run their
vitrified wall in a groove between two turf-walls.
“ A gentleman in Edinburgh, of great knowledge and
veracity, told me, that his father had a brick-kiln built
on the edge of a pretty fteep bank ; and that, while
the kiln was burning, a high wind one night increafed
the heat to fuch a degree, that in the morning great
part of the kiln was vitrified, which ran in a lava a
confiderable way down the hill.”
Thefe vitrified ruins are generally found on the tops
of fmall hills, and have always the remains of fome
dry ftone inclofures on the fouth fide of them, which
are by our author thought to have been places where
their cattle were confined, and kept out of the reach
of their enemies.—As to any other fpecies of architec¬
ture in Britain, we know of none but what was intro¬
duced by the Romans, and, after being almoft entirely
loft, was confiderably improved by the Normans, and
ftill more, on the revival of the polite arts in the I5tk
and 16th centuries,, as already obferved.
603
PartI. PRINCIPLES of ARCHITECTURE.
MAny ages muft have elapfed before architefture
came to be confidered as a fine art. Utility was
its original deftination, and ftill continues to be its prin¬
cipal end. Experience, however, has taught us, that
architefture is capable of exciting a variety of agree¬
able feelings. Of thefe, utility, grandeur, regularity,
order, and proportion, are the chief.
*8 Architecture being an ufeful as well as a fine art,
Diftinftion leads us to diftinguifh buildings, and parts of buildings,
•f buildings jnto three kinds, viz. what are intended for ufe folely,
what for ornament folely, and what for both. Build¬
ings intended for utility folely, ought in every part to
correfpond precifely to that intention : the leaft devia¬
tion from ufe, though contributing to ornament, will
be difagreeable; for every work of ufe being confider¬
ed as a mean to an end, its perfection as a mean is the
capital circumftance, and every other beauty in oppo-
fition is negleCted as improper. On the other hand, in
fuch things as are intended folely for ornament, as co¬
lumns, obelifks, triumphal arches, &c. beauty alone
ought to be regarded. The principal difficulty in ar¬
chitecture lies in combining ufe and ornament. In or¬
der to accomplifti thefe ends, different and even oppo-
fite means muft be employed; which is the reafon why
they are fo feldom united in perfection; and hence, in
buildings of this kind, the only practicable method is,
to prefer utility to ornament according to the charac¬
ter of the building: in palaces, and fuch buildings as
admit of a variety of ufeful contrivance, regularity
ought to be preferred; but in dwelling-houfes that are
too fmall for variety of contrivance, utility ought to
prevail, neglefting regularity as far as it ftands in op-
pofition to convenience.
In confidering attentively the beauty of vifible ob- Intriniic.
jeCts, we difeover two kinds. The firft may be termed ^utre*at've
intrinfic beauty, becaufe it is difeovered in a Angle ob-
jeft, without relation to any other. The fecond may be
termed relative beauty, being founded on a combina¬
tion
6o4 A R C H I T
Principles, tion of relative obje&s. Architecture admits of both
kinds. We lhall firft. give a few examples of relative
beauty.
The proportions of a door are determined by the ufe
to which it is deftined. The door of a dwelling-houfe,
which ought to correfpond to the human fize, is confi¬
ned to feven or eight feet in height, and three or four
in breadth. The proportions proper for a liable or
coach-houfe are different. The door of a church ought
to be wide, in order to afford an eafy paffage for a
multitude ; and its height muff be regulated by its
widenefs, that the proportion may pleafe the eye. The
fize of the windows ought always to be proportioned
to that of the room they are deftined to illuminate; for
if the apertures be not large enough to convey light to
every corner, the room muft be unequally lighted,
which is a great deformity. Steps of ftairs ftiould like-
wife be accommodated to the human figure, without
regarding any other proportion ; they are accordingly
the fame in large and in fmall buildings, becaufe both
are inhabited by men of the fame fize.
We ftiall next confider intrinfic beauty, blended with
that which is relative. A cube itfelf is more agree¬
able than a parallelopipedon ; this conftantly holds in
fmall figures : but a large building in the form of a cube
is lumpilh and heavy; while a parallelopipedon, fet on
its fmaller bafe, is more agreeable on account of its e-
levation: Hence the beauty of Gothic towers. But if
this figure were to be ufed in a dwelling-houfe, to make
way for relative beauty, we would immediately per¬
ceive that utility ought chiefly to be regarded ; and
this figure, inconvenient by its height, ought to be fet
on its larger bafe: the loftinefs in this cafe would be
loft; but that lofs will be more than fufficiently com-
penfated by the additional convenience. Hence the
form of buildings fpread more upon the ground than
raifed in height, is always preferred for a dwelling-
houfe.
Internal di With regard to the internal divifions, utility re-
vilions of quires that the rooms be rectangular, to avoid ufelefs
henfes. fpaces. An hexagonal figure leaves no void fpaces ;
but it determines the rooms to be all of one fize, which
is both inconvenient and difagreeable for want of va¬
riety. Though a cube be the moft agreeable figure,
and may anfwer for a room of a moderate fize; yet, in
a very large room, utility requires a different figure.
Unconfined motion is the chief convenience of a great
room; to obtain this, the greateft length that can be
had is neceffary. But a fquare room of large fize is
inconvenient. It removes chairs, tables, &c. at too
great a diftance from the hand, which, when unem¬
ployed, muft be ranged along the fides of the room.
Utility therefore requires a large room to be a paral-
lellogram. This figure is likewife belt calculated for
the admifiion of light,; beceufe, to avoid crofs-lights,
all the windows ought to be in one wall; and if the op-
pofite wall be at fuch a diftance as not to be fully light¬
ed, the room muft be obfeure. The height of a room
exceeding nine or ten feet has little relation to utility;
therefore proportion is the only rule for determining
the height, when above that number of feet.
'3, Artifts who deal in the beautiful, love to entertain
■Utility and the eye; palaces and fumptuous buildings, in which in¬
beauty often trinfic beauty may be fully difplayed, give them an op-
tible"1*'4'’ portunity of exerting their tafte. But fuch a propen-
E C T U R E. Parti.
fity is peculiarly unhappy with regard to private dwell- Principles,
ing-houfes; becaufe, in thefe, relative beauty cannot be
displayed to perfection, without hurting intrinfic beau¬
ty. There is no opportunity for great variety of form
in a fmall houfe; and in edifices of this kind, internal
convenience has not hitherto been happily adjufted to
external regularity. Perhaps an accurate coincidence
in this refpeCt is beyond the reach of art. Architects,
however, conftantly fplit upon this rock; for they ne¬
ver can be perfuaded to give over attempting to recon¬
cile thefe two incompatibies : how otherwife ftiould it
happen, that of the endlefs variety of private dwelling-
houfes, there fhould not be one found that is generally
agreed upon as a good pattern? the unwearied propen-
fity to make a houfe regular as well as convenient o-
bliges the architect, in ferae articles, to facrifice con¬
venience to regularity; and, in others, regularity to
convenience; and accordingly the houfe which turns out
neither regular nor convenient, never fails to difpleafe.
Nothing can be more evident, than that the form of
a dwelling-houfe ought to be fuited to the climate; yet
no error is more common than to copy in Britain the
form of Italian houfes, not forgetting even thofe parts
that are purpofely contrived for collecting air, and for
excluding the fun: witnefs our colonnades and logics,
defigned by the Italians to gather cool air, and exclude
the beams of the fun, conveniencies which the climate
of this country does not require.
We ftiall next view architecture as one of the fine Architec-
arts; which wall lead us to the examination of fuch ture confi-
buildings, and parts of buildings, as are calculated foie- j]ere<las 3
ly to pleafe the eye. Variety prevails in the works of hne art"
nature; but art requires to be guided by rule and com-
pafs. Hence it is, that in fuch works of art as imitate
nature, the great art is, to hide every appearance of art;
which is done by avoiding regularity, and indulging
variety. But in works of art that are original and not
imitative, fuch as architecture, ftriCt regularity and u-
niformity ought to be ftudied, fo far as confiftent with
utility. 33
Proportion is not lefs agreeable than regularity and Difference
uniformity ; and therefore, in buildings intended to betwee"
leafe the eye, they are all equally effential. It is ta- olmunbe"5
en for granted by many writers, that in all the parts and quan-
of a building there are certain ftriCt proportions which
pleafe the eye, in the fame manner as in found there
are certain ftriCt proportions which pleafe the ear; and
that, in both, the flighteft deviation is equally difagree¬
able. Others feem to relifh more a comparifon between
proportion in numbers, and proportion in quantity;
and maintain, that the fame proportions are agreeable
in both. The proportions, for example, of the num¬
bers 16, 24, and 36, are agreeable; and fo, fay they,
are the proportions of a room, whofe height is 16 feet,
the breadth 24, and the length 36. But it ought to be
confidered, that there is no refemblance or relation be¬
tween the objeCts of different fenfes. What pleafes the
earin harmony, is not the proportion of the ftrings of the
inftrument, but of the found which thefe ftrings pro¬
duce. In architecture, on the contrary, it is the pro¬
portion of different quantities that pleafes the eye, with¬
out the leaft relation to found. The fame thing may
be faid of numbers. Quantity is a real quality or every
body; number is not a real quality, but merely an idea
that arifes upon viewing a plurality of things in fuccef-
fion.
Part I. A R C H I T
Principles. fIOn. An arithmetical proportion is agreeable in num-
bers ; but have we from this any reafon to conclude,
that it muft alfo be agreeable in quantity? At this rate,
a geometrical proportion, and many others, ought alfo
to be agreeable in both. A certain proportion may
coincide in quantity and number; and amongft an end-
lefs variety of proportions, it would be wonderful if
there never Ih'ould be a coincidence. One example is
iven of this coindence in the numbers 16, 24, and 36;
ut, to be convinced that it is merely accidental, we
need but refledf, that the fame proportions are not ap¬
plicable to the external figure of a houfe, and far lefs
to a column.
It is ludicrous to obferve writers acknowledging the
neoeffity of accurate proportions, and yet differing wide¬
ly about them. Laying afide reafoning and philofophy,
one fait univerfally agreed on ought to have undeceived
them, that the fame proportions which pleafe in a model
are not agreeable in a large building : a room 48 feet
in length, and 24 in breadth and height, is well propor¬
tioned : but a room 12 feet wide and high, and 24 long,
34 approaches to a gallery.
Beauty ari- Perrault, in his comparifon of the ancients and mo¬
ling from dernSj g
oes to the oppofite extreme ; maintaining, that
proportion. different proportions alfigned to each order of co¬
lumns are arbitrary, and that the beauty of thefe pro¬
portions is entirely the effeA of cuftom. But he fhould
have confidered, that if thefe proportions had not origi¬
nally been agreeable, they could never have been efta-
blifhed by cuftom.
For illuftrating this point, we fhall add a few exam¬
ples of the agreeablenefs of different proportions. In a
fumptuous edifice, the capital rooms ought to be large,
btherwife they will not be proportioned to the fize of
the building ; for the fame reafon, a very large room is
improper in a fmall houfe. But in things thus related,
the mind requires not a precife or fingle proportion, re-
je&ing all others ; on the contrary, many different pro¬
portions are equally agreeable. It is only when a pro¬
portion becomes loofe and diftant, that the agreeable¬
nefs abates, and at laft vanifhes. Accordingly, in build¬
ings, rooms of different proportions are found to be
equally agreeable, even where the proportion is not
influenced by utility. With regard to the proportion
the height of a room fhould bear to the length and
breadth, it muft be extremely arbitrary, confidering
the uncertainty of the eye as to the height of a room
when it exceeds 16 or 17 feet. In columns, again, e-
very architeft muft confefs that the proportion of height
and thicknefs varies betwixt 8 diameters and 10, and
that every proportion between thefe two extremes is
agreeable. Befides, there muft certainly be a further
variation of proportion, depending on the fize of the
column. A row of columns 10 feet high, and a row
twice that height, requires different proportions: The
intercolumniations muft alfo differ in proportion accord¬
ing to the height of the row.
Proportion of parts is not only itfelf a beauty, butis
infeparablyconne&ed with a beauty of the higheft relifh,
that of concord and harmony: which will be plain from
what follows : A room, the parts of which are all finely
adjufted to each other, ftrikes us not only with the
beauty of proportion, but with a pleafure far fuperior.
The length, the breadth, the height, the windows,
raife each of them a feparate emotion : Thefe emotions
Vol. I.
E C T U R E. 60s
arefimilar; and, though faint when feparately felt, they Principles.
produce in conjunction the emotion of concord or har-  
mony, which is very pleafant. On the other hand,
where the length of a room far exceeds the breadth,
the mind, comparing together parts fo intimately con¬
nected, immediately perceives a difagreement or dif-
proportion which difgufts. Hence a long gallery,
however convenient for exercife, is not an agreeable
figure of a room.
In buildings deftined chiefly or folely to pleafe the
eye, regularity and proportion are effentially neceffary,
becaufe they are the means of producing intrinfic beau¬
ty. But a fldlful artift will not confine his view to re- 3J
gularity and proportion ; he will alfo ftudy congruity, Form of
which is perceived when the form and ornaments 06 a flruftures to
ftruCture are fuited to the purpofe for which it is ap- b.e fuite<5
pointed. Hence every building ought to have an ex- f0r wUhicheS
preflion fuited to its deftination. A palace ought to they are in-
be fumptuous and grand ; a private dwelling, neat and tended,
modeft; a play-houfe, gay and fplendid ; and a monu¬
ment, gloomy and melancholy. A heathen temple has
a double deftination : It is confidered as a houfe dedi¬
cated to fome divinity ; therefore it ought to be grand,
elevated, and magnificent: It is alfo confidered as a
place of worfliip ; and therefore ought to be fomewhat
dark and gloomy, becaufe dimnefs or obfeurity pro¬
duces that tone of mind which is favourable to humi¬
lity and devotion. Columns, befides their chief defti¬
nation of being fupports, contribute to that peculiar
expreflion which the deftination of a building requires.
Columns of different proportions ferve to exprefs lofti-
nefs, lightnefs, &c. as well as ftrength. Situation may
alfo contribute to expreffion : Conveniency regulates
the fituation of a private dwelling-houfe ; and the filia¬
tion of a palace ought to be lofty. This leads to a
queftion, Whether the fituation, where there happens
to be no choice, ought, in any meafure, to regulate
the form of the edifice ? The connexion between a
great houfe and a neighbouring field, though not ex¬
tremely intimate, demands however fome congruity.
It would, for example, difpleafe us to find an elegant
building thrown away upon a wild uncultivated coun¬
try : congruity requires a poliflied field for fuch a
building. The old Gothic form of building was well
fuited to the rough uncultivated regions where it was
invented; but was very ill adapted to the-fine plains of
France and Italy. ^
The external ftrudfure of a houfe leads naturally to Internal dt-
its internal ftrufture. A large and fpacious room, vifion of
which is the firft that commonly receives us, is a bad h°ufes*
contrivance in feveral refpe&s. In the firft place,
when immediately from the open air we ftep into fuch
a room, its fize in appearance is diminilhed by con¬
trail; ; it looks little, compared with the great canopy
of the Iky. In the next place, when it recovers its
grandeur, as it foon doth, it gives a diminutive appear¬
ance to the reft of the houfe; palling from it, every
apartment looks little. In the third place, by its fi¬
tuation it ferves only for a waiting-room, and a paf-
fage to the principal apartments. Rejefting therefore
this form, a hint may be taken from the climax in wri¬
ting for another that appears more fuitable : A hand-
fome portico, proportioned to the fize and falhion of
the front, leads into a waiting-room of a larger fize*
and this to the great room, all by a progreffion of final!
4 G to
6o6 A R C H I T
Principles, to great.
' Grandeur is the principal emotion that architefture
is capable of raifing in the mind: it might therefore
be the chief ftudy of the artift, in great buildings de-
ftined to pleafe the eye. But as grandeur depends
partly on fize, it is unlucky for archite&ure that it is
governed by regularity and proportion, which never
deceive the eye by making obje&s appear larger than
they are in reality. But though regularity and pro¬
portion contribute nothing to grandeur, fo far as that
emotion depends on fize ; yet they contribute greatly
to it by confinipg the fize within fuch bounds that it
can be taken in and examined at one view ; for when
objects are fo large as not to be comprehended but
imparts, they tend rather to diftraft than fatisfy the
mind.
We ihall next pafs to fuch ornaments as contribute
to give buildings a peculiar expreffion. It has been
doubted, whether a building can regularly admit any
ornament but what is ufeful, or at lead has that ap¬
pearance. But, confide.ring the double aim of archi-
tedture as a fine, as well as an ufeful art, there is no
reafon why ornaments may not be added to pleafe
the eye, without any relation to utility. A private
dwelling-houfe, it is true, and other edifices, where
ufe is the chief aim, admit not regularly any ornament
but what has at leaft the appearance of ufe : but
temples, triumphal arches, and other buildings in¬
tended chiefly or folely fo'r ihow, may be highly orna-
mented.
Different This fuggefts a divifion of ornaments into three
kinds °f or* kinds, viz. i. Ornaments that are beautiful without
raments. re]ati0n to ufe ; fuch as ftatues, vafes, baffo or alto re¬
lievo : 2. Things in themfelves not beautiful, but pof-
feffing the beauty of utility, by impofing on the fpec-
tator, and appearing to be ufeful; fuch as blind win¬
dows : 3. Where things are beautiful in themfelves,
and at the fame time take on the appearance of ufe;
fuch as pilafters.
With regard to the JirJi, we naturally require that a
ftatue be io placed, as to be feen in every dire&ion,
and examined at different diflances. Statues, therefore,
are properly introduced to adorn the great flair that
leads to the principal door of a palace, or to leffen the
void between pillars. But a niche in the external front
is an improper place for a ftatue. There is an addi¬
tional reafon againft placing them upon the roof or top
of the walls : their ticklifh fituation gives pain, as they
have the appearance of being in danger of tumbling
down ; befides, we are inclined to feel from their being
too much expofed to the inclemencies of the weather.
To adorn the top of the wall with a row of vafes, is an
unhappy conceit, by placing a thing, whofe natural
deftination is utility, where it cannot have even the ap¬
pearance of ufe. As to carvings upon the external
furface of a building, termed baffo relievo when flat, and
alto relievo when prominent, all contradictory expref-
fions ought to be avoided. Now, firmnefs and foli-
dity being the proper expreffions of a pedeftal, and,
on the contrary, lightnefs and delicacy of carved
work, the pedeftal, whether of a column or of a tta-
tue, ought to be fparingly ornamented. The ancients
sever ventured any bolder ornament than the bafib re¬
lievo.
With refpedt to ornaments of the fecond kind, it is
E C T U R E. Parti.
a great blunder to contrive them fo as to make them Principles,
appear ufelefs. A blind window, therefore, when ne- "
ceffary for regularity, ought to be fo difguifed as to
appear a real window : when it appears without dif-
guife, it is difguftful, as a vain attempt to fupply the
want of invention; it fhows the irregularity in a ftronger
light, by fignifying that a window ought to be there in
point of regularity, but that the architecft had not Ikill
fufficient to conned! external regularity with internal
convenience.
As to the third, it is an error to fink pilafters fo far
into the wall, as to remove totally, or moftly, the ap¬
pearance of ufe. They ftiould always projedi fo much
from the wall, as to have the appearance of fupporting
the entablature over them. 33
From ornaments in general, we defcend to a pillar, Columns,
the chief ornament in great buildings. The deftination
of a pillar is to fupport, really, or in appearance, an¬
other part termed the entablature. With regard to the
form of a pillar, it muft be obferved, that a circle is a
more agreeable figure than a fquare, a globe than a
cube, and a cylinder than a parallellopipedon. This
laft, in the language of architedlure, is faying, that a
column is a more agreeable figure than a pilafter; and
for that reafon it ought to be preferred, when all other
circumftances are equal. Another reafon concurs, that
a column annexed to a wall, which is a plain furface,
makes a greater variety than a pilafter. Befides, pi¬
lafters at a diftance are apt to be miftaken for pillars ;
and the fpedlator is difappointed, when, on a nearer
approach, he difcovers them to be only pilafters.
As to the parts of a column, a bare uniform cylin¬
der, without a capital, appears naked ; and without
a bafe, appears too tickiflily placed to Hand firm : it
ought therefore to have feme finiftiing at the top and
bottom : Hence the three chief parts of a column, the
lhaft, the bafe, and the capital. Nature undoubtedly
requires proportion among thefe parts, but it admits of
variety of proportion. Vitruvius and fome of the el¬
der writers feern to think, that the proportions of co¬
lumns were derived from the human figure, the capital
reprefenting the head, the bafe the feet, and the fhaft
the body. The Tufcan has been accordingly denomi¬
nated the Gigantic; the Doric, the Herculean; the I-
onic, the Matronal; and the Corinthian, the Virgi¬
nal;—the Compofite is a mixture of the Corinthian
and Ionic. As to the bafe, the principle of utility in-
terpofes to vary it from the human figure, and to pro¬
portion it fo to the whole, as to give the column the
appearance of liability. 39
Among the Greeks, we find only three orders of co- Whether
lumns, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, di-
ftinguiftied from each other by their deftination as well vented.’11"
as by their ornaments. It has been difputed, whether
any new order can be added to thefe : fome hold the
affirmative, and give for inftances the Tufcan and
Compofite j others maintain, that thefe properly are -
not diftimft orders, but only the original orders with
fome flight variation. The Only circumftances that can
ferve to diftinguifh one order from another, are the form
of the column, and its deftination. To make the firft
a diftinguilhing mark, without regard to the other,,
would multiply orders without end. Deftination is
more limited, and it leads us to diftinguilh three kinds
of orders; one plain and ftrong, for the purpofe of
Parti. A R C H I T
Principles, fupporting plain and mafly buildings ; one delicate and
' graceful, for fupporting buildings of that character;
, and between thefe, a third, fupporting buildings of a
mixed nature. So that, if deftination alone is to be re¬
garded, the Tufcan is of the1 fame order with the Do¬
ric, and the Compofite with the Corinthian.
The ornaments of thefe three orders ought to be
fuited to the purpofes for which they are intended.
Plain and ruftic ornaments would not be a little dif-
cordant with the elegance of the Corinthian order, and
fweet and delicate ornaments not lefs with the ftrength
of the Doric.
Rules're- With refpeft to buildings of every kind, one rule,
girding dilated by utility, is, that they be firm and (table,
building it) Another, dictated by beauty, is, that they alfo appear
general. f0 to tjje eye . for every thing that appears tottering,
and in hazard of tumbling down, produceth in the
fpeftator the painful emotion of fear, inftead of the
pleafing emotion of beauty; and accordingly it (hould
be the great care of the artift, that every part of his
edifice appear to be well fupported. Some have intro ¬
duced a kind of conceit in architefture, by giving parts
of buildings the appearance of falling ; of this kind is
the church of St Sophia in Conftantinople ; the round
towers in the uppermoft (lories of Gothic buildings is
in the fame falfe tafte.
The mod confiderable ornaments ufed in architec¬
ture are the five orders of columns, pediments, arches,
ballufters, 'be. of which in the following chapters.
Chap. I. Of the Orders of Architetture.
An Order confills of two principal members, the
Column and the Entablature ; each of which is
compofed of three principal parts. Thofe of the Co¬
lumn are, the Bafe, the Shaft, and the Capital; and
thofe of the Entablature are, the Architrave, the prize,
and the Cornice. All thefe are fubdivided into many
lefier parts, whofe number, form, and dimenfions, cha-
raCterife each order, and exprefs the degree of ftrength,
41 delicacy, richnefs, or fimplicity peculiar to it.
Parts of an The parts that compofe an order may be diftributed
dedintotwo ’nto two different claffes. In the firji may be ranged
dalles. a'd that have any analogy to the primitive huts, and
reprefent fome part that was neceffary in their con-
firuftion. Such are the (haft'of the column, with the
plinth of Its^bafe, and the abacus of its capital; like-
wife the architrave and triglyphs, the mutules, modi-
lions, or dentils, which all of them reprefent the raf¬
ters, or fome other pieces of timber ufed to fupport
the covering ; and the corona,; reprefenting the beds
of materials that compofed the covering. All thefe
may properly be diftinguilhed by the name of ejferitial
members. The fubfervient parts, contrived for the ufe
or ornaments of the former, and commonly called moul¬
dings, may conftitute xht fecond clafs.
There are eight regular mouldings in ornamenting
columns : the fillet, liuel, or fquare; the aftragal, or
bead ; the torus, or tore ; the fcotia, mouth, or cafe-
ment; the echinus, bvdlo, or quarter-round; the in¬
verted cyma, talon, or ogee; the cyma, cyma refila, or
cymatium ; the cavetto, or hollow. The names of thefe
allude to their forms, and their forms are adapted to the
purpofesfor which they are intended. See Plate XXIX.
The ovolo and talon, as they are ftrong at the ex-
E C T U R E. 607
tremities, are fit for fupports; the cyma and cavetto, Principles,
though improper for fupports, ferve for coverings to
(belter other members; the torus and aftragal, being
(haped like ropes, are intended to bind and fortify the
parts with which they are connetted: But the ufe of
the fcotia and fillet is only to feparate and diftinguifh
the other mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the
profile, and to prevent the confufion which would arife
from joining feveral curved members together.
There are various methods of deferibing the con¬
tours of mouldings ; but the fimpleft and bed 1$ to
form them of quadrants of circles.
An affemblage of what are called effential parts and profi|g
mouldings is termed a profile. The moft perfedl pror wfeat. ’
files are fuch as are compoied of few mouldings, varied
in form and fize ; and fo difpofed, that the ftraight and
curved ones fucceed each other alternately. When or¬
naments are employed in mouldings, fome of them
(hould be left plain, in order to give a proper repofe :
For, when all are ornamented, the figure of the profile
is loft. 4;
Columns, in imitation of trees, from which they Diminutio*.
drew their origin, are tapered in their (hafts. In the of columns*
antiques the diminution is varioufly performed; begin¬
ning fometimes from the foot of the (haft, and at o-
thers from one quarter, or one third of its height; the
lower part being perfectly cylindrical. The former of
thefe was moft in ufe amongft the ancients, and, being
the moft natural and graceful, ought to have the prefe¬
rence, though the latter hath been more univerfally
pra6tifed by modern artifts.
The firft archite&s, fays Mr Auzoult, probably
made their columns in ftraight lines, in imitation of
trees; fo that their (haft wTas a fruftum of a cone : but
finding this form abrupt and difagreeable, they made
ufe of fome curve, which, fpringing from the extre¬
mities of the fuperior and inferior diameters of the co¬
lumn, fwelled beyond the fides of the cone, and by
that means gave a more pleafing figure to the contour.
Vitruvius, in the fecond chapter of his third book,
mentions this pra&ice, but in fo obfeure and curfory a
manner, that his meaning hath not been underftood ;
and feveral of the modern architefts, intending to con¬
form themfelves to his doftrine, have made the diame¬
ters of their columns greater in the middle than at the
foot of the (haft. Leon Baptifta, Alberti; and others
of the Florentine and Roman archite&s, have carried
this to a very great excefs ; for which they have been
juftly blamed, as it is neither natural, reafonable, nor
beautiful.
Monfieur Auzoult obferves, that a column, fuppofing
its (hafts to be the fruftum of a cone, may have an ad¬
ditional thicknefs in the middle, without being fwelled
there beyond the bulk of its inferior parts; and fuppo-
fes the addition mentioned by Vitruvius to fignify no¬
thing but the increafe towards the middle of the co¬
lumn, occafiqned by changing the ftraight line, which
at firft was in ufe, for a curve.
This fuppofition is extremely juft, and founded on
what is obferved in the works of antiquity ; where
there is no inftance of columns thicker in the middle
than at the bottom, though all have the fwelling hint¬
ed at by Vitruvius, all of them being terminated by
curves; fome granite columns excepted, which arc
bounded by ftraight lines ; a proof, perhaps, of their
6oB A R C H I T
Principles, antiquity, or of their having been wrought in the quar-
~ ries of Egypt by bungling and unlkilful workmen.
Monfieur Blonde), in his book enX.\t\z&' Refulution des
quatre principaux problcfnes d’ sdrcbiteflure, teaches va¬
rious manners of diminifhing columns ; the bell and
limpleft of which is by means of the inftrument which
Nicomedes invented to defcribe the firft conchoid : for
this, being applied at the bottom of the Ihaft, per¬
forms at one fweep both the fwelling and the diminu¬
tion ; giving fuch a graceful form to the column, that
it is umverfally allowed to be the moft perfedt practice
hitherto difcovered. The columns in the Pantheon,
accounted the moft beautiful among the antiques, are
made in this manner ; as appears by the exadt meafures
of one of them to be found in Defgodct’s antiquities
44 of Rome.
Vignola’s To give an accurate idea of the operation, it will
method. be neceffary firft to defcribe Vignola’s method of di¬
minution, on which it is grounded. “ As to this fecond
method, fays Vignola, it is a difcdvery of my own ;
and although it be lefs known than the former, it will
be eafily comprehended by the figure. Having there¬
fore determined the meafures of your column, (that
is to fay, the height of the (haft, and its inferior and
PlateXXV. fuperior diameters), draw a line indefinitely from C
(B)* through D, perpendicular to the axis of the column :
this done, fet off the diftance C D, which is the infe¬
rior femi-diameter, from A, the extreme point of the
fuperior femi-diameter, to B, a point in the axis; then
from A, through B, draw the line ABE, which will
cut the indefinite line C D in E; and, from this point
of interfedlion E, draw thro’ the axis of the column
any number of rays as E b a, on each of which, from
the axis towards the circumference, fetting off the in¬
terval C D, you may find any number of points, a, a, a,
through which if a curve be drawn, it will defcribe the
45 fwelling and diminution of the column.”
Nice- Though this method be fufficiently accurate for
medes’s in- pra£tice, efpecially if a confiderable number of points
ftrument. foun(j} yet, ftri&ly fpeaking, it is defeftive ; as the
curve muft either be drawn by hand, or by applying
a flexible ruler to all the points; both of which are
liable to variations. Blondcl therefore, to obviate this
objeftion, (after having proved the curye palling from
A to C through the points a a, to be of the fame na¬
ture with the firft conchoid of the ancients), employed
the inftrument of Nicomedes to defcribe it} the con-
ilru&ion of which is as follows :
Having determined, as above, the length of the
fliaft, with the inferior and fuperior diameters of the
column, and having likewife found the length of the
line C D E, take three rulers, either of wood or me¬
tal, as F G, I D, and A H; of which let F G and
I E) be faftened together at right angles in G. Cut
a dove-tail groove in the middle of F G, from top to
bottom; and at the point E on the ruler I D (whofe
diftance, from the middle of the groove in F G, is the
fame as that of the point of interfeftion from the axis
of the column) fix a pin ; then on the ruler A H fet
off the diftance A B, equal to C D the inferior femi-
diameter of the column, and at the point B fix a but¬
ton, whofe head muft be exaftly fitted to the groove
made in F G, in which it is to Hide ; and, at the other
extremity of the ruler A H, cut a flit or canal from
H to K, whofe length muft not be lefs than the diffe-
E C T U R E. Parti.
rence of length between E B and E D, and whofe Principles. ;
breadth muft be fufficient to admit the pin fixed at E,   f
which muft pafs through the flit, that the ruler may
Aide thereon.
The inftrument being thus completed, if the middle
of the groove, in the ruler F G, be placed exaftly over
the axis of the column, it is evident that the ruler
A H, in moving along the groove, will with the extre¬
mity A defcribe the curve A a a C ; which curve is the
fame as that produced by Vignola’s method of dimi¬
nution, fuppofing it done with the utmoft accuracy :
for the interval A B, a b, is always the fame; and the
point E is the origin of an infinity of lines, of which
the parts B A, ba, ba, extending from the axis to the
circumference, are equal to each other and to D C.
And if the rulers be of an indefinite fize, and the pins
at E and B be made to move along their refpeftive
rulers, fo that the intervals A B and D E may be aug¬
mented or diminifhed at pleafure, it is likewife evident
that the fame inftrument may be thus applied to co¬
lumns of any fize. 46
In the remains of antiquity the quantity of the di- Quantity of ;
minution is various; but feldom lefs than one eighth of dim'nution* j
the inferior diameter of the column, nor more than one
fixth of it. The laft of thefe is by Vitruvius efteemed
the moft perfedt.
Of the Tuscan Order. 47
This is the moft folid and Ample of all the orders. Plate XXVi
It is compofed of few parts, devoid of ornaments, and
fo maffy, that it feems capable of fupporting the hea-
vieft burden. There are no remains of a regular Tuf-
can order among the antiques: the doftrine of Vitru¬
vius concerning it is obfeure ; and the profiles of Pal¬
ladio, Scamozzi, Serlio, de 1’Orme, and Vignola, are
all imperfedf.
The height of the Tufcan column is 14 modules, or
femi-diameters, each confifting of 30 minutes ; and
that of the whole entablature 3-5- modules; which be¬
ing divided into 10 equal parts, three of them are for
the height of the architrave, three for the frize, and
the remaining four for the cornice : The capital is one
module ; the bafe, including the lower cinfture of the
fliaft, is likewife one module; and the (haft, with its
upper cindture and aftragal, 12 modules.
Thefe are the general dimenfions of the order; the
particular dimenfions may be learned by infpedtion of
the plates.
In the remains of antiquity, the quantity of dimi¬
nution at the top of the Tufcan column is various; but
feldom lefs than one eighth, nor more than one fixth,
of the inferior diameter of the column. The laft of
thefe is generally preferred ; and Chalmers and others
make the fame diminution in all columns, without re¬
gard to their order.
Of the D o r 1 c. 49
This order is next in ftrength to the Tufcan ; and, PL XXVIL J
being of a grave, robuft, and mafeuline afpedf, is by
Scamozzi called the Herculean. As it is the moft an¬
cient of all the orders, it retains more of the ftrudture
of the primitive huts than any of the reft ; the tri¬
glyphs in its frize reprefenting the ends of the joifts,
and the mutules in its cornice reprefenting the rafters.
The height of the Doric column, including its ca¬
pital
I’liUcXXVI
^£\ 
Tlate^X^TO:
? sit/'. /.
. 2.
' ^ y?. ^r.
• y^rffif •   x>irtr/i>
y^.-4.
’Sav/ra * /6nrf7t ?
C^tee,
5
4=,
Part I.
ARCHITECTURE.
609
Principles, pital and bafe, is 16 modules, and the height of the Then through the points 5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines Principle:
entablature four; the latter of which being divided in- 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 11, 8, 7, parallel to the diameter E D, ~~
to eight parts, two of them are for the architrave, which will cut the diagonals in 6, 7, 10, ix ; and the
three for the frize, and three for the cornice. points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, will be
In moll of the antiques, the Doric column is exe- the centres of the volute. From the firit centre 1,
cuted without a bafe. Vitruvius likewife makes it with the diftance 1 F, defcribe the quadrant F G ;
without one ; the bafe, according to him, having been from the fecond centre 2, with the diftance 2 G, de-
firft employed in the Ionic order, in imitation of the fciibe the quadrant G H ; and, continuing the fame
fandal of a woman’s foot. Scamozzi blames this praftice operation from all the 12 centres, the contour of the
and moft of the modern archite&s are of his opinion. volute will be completed.
Ornaments t^e Pro^e t^e theatre of Marcellus, the frize Fig. 10. The centres for defcribing the fillet are
ef the frize. enriched with hulks and rofes ; the architrave con- found in this manner. Conftruft a triangle, of which
lifts only of one fafcia and a fillet; the drops are coni- the fide A F is equal to the part of the cathetus con-
cal; the metope is enriched with a bull’s Ikull, adorned tained between A F and the fide F V, equal to C 1 ;
with a garland of beads, in imitation of thofe on the place the diftance F S from F towards A, equal to
temple of Jupiter Tonans at the foot of the Capitol. F S the breadth of the fillet, and through the point S
In fome antique fragments, and in a great many mo- draw the line S T, which will be to C 1 in the fame pro-
dern buildings, the metopes are alternately adorned portion as A S is to A F ; place this line on the dia-
with ox-lkulls and pateras. But they may be filled meter of the eye A B; divide it into three equal parts;
with any other ornaments, according to the deftination and, through the points of divifion, draw lines parallel
_r .r ~ - to the diameter E D, which will cut the diagonals C 2,
C 3, and you will have twelve new centres, from
whence the interior contour of the fillet may be de-
fcribed, in the fame manner as the exterior <
from the firft centres.
Of the Corinthian Order. st
The proportions of this order are extremely deli- Pkte XXX.
of the building.
so The Ionic Order
Pl.XXVIII. Is of a more flender make than the Doric or Tuf-
can ; its appearance is fimple, yet graceful and majef-
tic ; its ornaments are few ; fo that it has been com¬
pared to a fedate matron, in decent, rather than mag¬
nificent, attire.
Among the ancients, the form of the Ionic profile cate. It is divided into a great variety of members,
appears to have been more pofitively determined than and enriched with aprofufion of ornaments. Scamoz-
that of any other order ; for, in all the antiques at zi calls it the virginal order ; and indeed it has all the
Rome (the temple of Concord excepted), it is exafily delicacy in its make, and all the delicacy in its drefs, pe-
the fame. culiar to young girls.
The modern artifts have likewife been unanimous in The moft perfeft model of the Corinthian order is
their opinions ; all of them, excepting Palladio and his generally allowed to be in the three columns in the Cam-
imitators, having employed the dentil, cornice, and po Vaccino at Rome, the remains, as it is thought, of
the other parts of the profile, nearly as they are found the temple of Jupiter Stator.
in the Collifeum, the temple of Fortune, and the thea- The Corinthian column ftiould be 20 modules high,
tre of Marcellus. and the entablature 5 ; which proportions are a medium
The height of the Ionic column is 18 modules, and between thofe of the Pantheon and the three columns,
that of the entablature 4J-, or one quarter of the height The bafe of the column may be either Attic or Corin-
of the column, as in the other orders, which is a trifle thian : They are both beautiful. If the entablature be
lefs than in any of the antique Ionics. In all the an- enriched, the fhaft may be fluted. The flutings may
tiques, the bafe is Attic; and the fliaft of the column be filled, to one third of their height, with cabblings,
may either be plain, or fluted with 24 flutings, or 20 as in the infide of the Pantheon ; which will ftrengthen
only, as in the temple of Fortune. The plan of the the lower part of the column, and make it lefs liable
flutings may be a trifle more than a femicircle, as in to injury.
the forum of Nerva, becaufe they then appear more In moft of the antiques at Rome, the capital of this
diftindt. The fillets, or intervals between them, mull order is enriched with olive-leaves ; the acanthus being
not be broader than one third of the breadth of a flu- feldom employed but in the Compofite. De Cordemoy,
ting, nor narrower than one fourth. The ornaments of however, prefers the acanthus.
the capital mull correfpond with the flutings of the The divifions of the entablature bear the fame pro-
fliaft; and there mull be an ove above the middle of portions to each other, as theTufcan, Ionic, and Corn-
each fluting. The volutes ought to be traced accor- pofite orders.
51 ding to Mr Goldman’s method, which is as follows :
Method of Plate XXIX. fig. 9. Draw the cathetus F Cj
The Composite
whofe length muft be 15 minutes, or one fourth of a Is, ftrielly fpeaking, only a fpecies of the Corin-P1- XXXf.
module; and, from the point C, defcribe the eye of thian; and therefore retains, in a great meafure, the
the volute A E B D, of which the diameter is to be fame chara&er. *4
6|- minutes; divide it into four equal fe&ors by the It does not appear that the ancients affedled any par- or.
diameters A B, D E. Bifedt the radii C A, C B, ticular form of entablature to this order. Sometimes nan)eiUS<
in 1 and 4; and on the line 1, 4, conftrudl a fquare the cornice is entirely plain, as in the temple of Bac-
1, 2, 3, 4. From the centre C, to the angles 2, 3, chus; at others, as in the arch of Septimius Severus,
draw the diagonals C 2, C 3, and divide the fide of it is enriched with dentils differing very little from the
the fquare 1, 4, into 6 equal parts, at 5, 9, C, 12, 8. Ionic; and in the arch of Titus, there are both dentils
and
U R E.
Part I.
Principles.
610 A R C H I T
Principles, and modilions; tlie whole form of the profile being the
' fame with the Corinthian, as executed in the antiques
at Rome.
The modern architects have varied more in this than
in any other order, each following the bent of his own
fancy.
The height of the Compofite column, and parts of
the entablature, is the fame with that of the Corinthian.
The foot of the leaves of the capital ought not to pro*
jedt beyond the upper part of the (haft. The different
bunches of leaves (hould be ftrongly marked; the fprigs
which arife between the upper ones (hould be kept flat
upon the vafe; and the ornaments of the volutes muft
not proje& beyond the fillets that inclofe them.
ss Chap. II. PUaJlers.
These differ from columns only in their plan ; which
is a fquare, as that of columns is round. Their bafes,.
capitals, and entablatures, have the fame parts, with
the fame heights and projections, as thofe of columns:
they are alfo diftinguifhed in the fame manner, by the
names of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Com¬
pofite.
The column is undoubtedly more perfeCt than the
pilafter. However, they may be employed with great
propriety on many occafions. Some authors declaim
againft pilaffers, becaufe, according to them, they do
not admit of diminution. But this is a miftake; there
are many inftances, in the remains of antiquity, of their
being diminilhed. Scamozzi always gave his pilafters
the fame diminution as his columns: Palladio and Inigo
Jones have likewife diminilhed them in many of their
56 buildings.
Pilafters Pilafters are employed in churches, galleries, halls,
where ufe- an(j 0ther interior decorations, to fave room ; for, as
they feldom projeCt beyond the folid wall above one
quarter of their diameter, they do not occupy near fo
much fpace as columns. They are likewife ufed in ex¬
terior decorations; fometimes alone, inftead of columns,
on account of their being lefs expenfive; and fome¬
times they accompany columns, being placed behind
them to fupport the architraves, where they enter the
building, as in the Pantheon at Rome; or, in the fame
line with them, to fortify the angles, as in the portico
of Septimius.
When pilafters are ufed alone, they (hould projeft
one quarter of their diameter beyond the walls. When
placed behind columns, efpecially if they be very near
them, they need not projeft above one eighth of their
diameter. But, when placed on a fine with columns,
their proje&ion miift be regulated by that of thexo-
lumns; and confequently, it can never be lefs than a fe-
midiameter, even when the columns are engaged as
much as poflxble.
How orna- The (hafts of pilafters are frequently adorned with
mented. (lutings, in the fame manner as thofe of columns; the
plan of which may be a trifle more than a femicircle:
their number muft be feven on each face, which makes
them nearly of the fame fize with thofe of columns.
The intervals, or fillets, muft either be one third or one
fourth of the fluting in breadth.
PI. XXXII. The capitals of pilafters are profiled nearly in the
fame manner as thofe of columns.
E C T
Chap. III. Of Attics.
Thsse very properly follow the pilafters; being no¬
thing more than fquare pillarswith their cornices. They
had their origin in Athens, where it was for many
ages a rule in building to conceal the roof. For this
purpofe, nothing ferved fo well as a kind of low or
little order ranged in a continued line, fingly, or with
the interruption of ballufters ; which riling above the
reft of the work and before the roof, hid it perfeftly, and
placed fomething agreeable in view. The place of attics,
therefore, is at the uppermoft extremity of a building,
to which they ferve as a crown, or very properly make a
finiftiing for the other orders when they have been ufed
in the (frufture. They muft never Hand under any thing
except fuch ornaments as are placed at the very top.
Thefe Attics (hould never exceed in height one third
of the height of the order on which they are placed,
nor be lefs than one quarter of it. The bafe, dye, and
cornice, of which they are compofed, may bear the
fame proportions to each other as thofe of pedeftals do ;
and the bafe and cornice may be compofed of the fame
mouldings as thofe of pedeftals. Sometimes the Attic
is continued throughout; at others, it projects, and
forms a pilafter over each column of the order. The
breadth of this pilafter is feldom made narrower than
the upper diameter of the column below it, and never
broader. Its projection may be equal to one quarter of
its breadth.
Chap. IV. Of Per fans y Caryatides, and Termini. S9
Besides columns and pilafters, it is fometimes cu-
ftomary to employ reprefentations of the human figure,
to fupport entablatures in buildings. The male figures
are called Perfans; and the female, Carians, or Ca¬
ryatides. .. 60
The Perfians are fo called from a victory gained o- Origin of
ver the Perfians by Paufanias, who having brought Perfians.
home fpoils and trophies to the Athenians, they fixed
upon Perfian figures for thofe which (hould fupport en¬
tablatures, and thus kept in mind that there were once
Perfian (laves in Athens. To reprefent thefe conquer¬
ed people in the lowed (late poffible, they loaded them
with the heavieft entablature, viz. that of the Doric
order. In procefs of time, however, other figures be-
fides thofe of Perfians were introduced, and other enta¬
blatures put over them; but the name was (till retained.
The proper Caryatides are women dreffed in long 0f caryat;_
robes, after the Afiatic manner; and the origin of des.
the device was as follows.—The Carians had been
long at war with the Athenians; but being at length
totally vanquiftied, their wives were led away captives;
and, to perpetuate the memory of this event, trophies
were ereCted, in which figures of women drefled in the
Caryatic manner, were ufed to fupport entablatures like
the Perfians; and though other female figures were af¬
terwards ufed in the fame manner, the name of Cary¬
atides was always retained.
The ancients made frequent ufe of Perfians and Ca¬
ryatides, and delighted in diverfifying them a thoufand
ways. The modern artifts have followed their ex¬
ample ; and there is a great variety of compofitions of
this kind to, be met with in different parts of Europe.
Indecent attitudes, diftorted features, and all mon-
ftrous
I
Parti. A R C H I T
Principles, ftrous produ&ions, ought to be avoided, of which there
'** ' are many examples in Gothic buildings. On the con¬
trary, the attitudes fhould be fimple and graceful, the
countenance always pleafing, though varied and ftrong-
ly marked agreeable to the nature of the objeft repre-
62 fented.
Their pro- The Caryatides, or female figures, fhould never much
portions, excee(j the human fize. But the Perfians, or male fi¬
gures, may be of any fize ; and the larger the better,
as they will ftrike the beholder with the greater awe
and aftonifhment. Perfians may be ufed with propriety
in arfenals, galleries of armour, &c. under the figures
of captives, heroic virtues, &c. Their entablature ought
to be Doric, and bear the fame proportion to them as
to columns of the fame height. The entablature for
Caryatides ought to be either Ionic or Corinthian, ac¬
cording as the charadter of the figures is more or lefs
63 delicate.
Termini. Termini are fometimes employed, inftead of Perfians
or Caryatides, to fupport the entablatures of monu¬
ments, chimney-pieces, and fuch like compofitions.
Thefe figures owe their origin to the ftones ufed by the
ancients to mark the limits of particular poffeffions.
Numa Pompilius, to render thefe inviolable, confecra-
ted the terminus into a deity, and inftituted feftivals
and facrifices to his honour. In a Ihort time, what was
formerly only large upright ftones, were reprefented in
human (hape; and afterwards introduced as ornaments
to temples and other buildings. The termini are now
principally ufed as ornaments for gardens and fields.
64 Chap. V. Of Pedeftals.
Most writers confider the Pedejial as a neceffary
part of the order, without which it is not complete. It
is indeed a matter of little importance whether it be
confidered in that light, or as a diftintt compofition:
we ftiall therefore treat of a pedeftal as a diftinft body,
having no more connexion with the order than an at¬
tic, a bafement, or any other part with which it may
on feme occafions be affociated.
A pedeftal confifts of three principal parts; the bafe,
the dye, and the cornice. The dye is always nearly of
the fame figure; being conftantly either a cube or a pa-
rallelopipedon: but the bafe and cornice are varied and
adorned with more or fewer mouldings, according to
the fimplicity or richnefs of the compofition in which
the pedeftal is employed. Hence pedeftals are, like co¬
lumns, diftinguifhed by the names of Tufcati, Doric,
<5J Ionic, Corinthian, and Compojitc.
where^ro Some authors are averfe to pedeftals, and compare a
per*re pr° column railed on a pedeftal to a man mounted on ftilts;
imagining that they were introduced merely from ne-
ceffity, and for want of columns of a fufficient length.
It is indeed true, that the ancients often made ufe of
artifices to lengthen their columns; as appears by fome
that are in the Baptiftery of Conftantine at Rome; the
fhafts of which, being too fhort for tire building, were
lengthened and joined to their bafes by an undulated
fweep, adorned with acanthus leaves. Neverthelefs,
there are many occafions where pedeftals are evidently
neceftary; and fome in which the order, were it not fo
railed, would lofe much of its beautiful appearance.
Thus, in the infixes of churches, if the columns that
fupport the vault were placed immediately on the
E C T U R E. 611
ground, the feats would hide their bafes and a good Principles,
part of their fhafts; and, in the theatres of the anci-
ents, if the columns of the feene had been placed im¬
mediately on the ftage, the aftors would have hid a part
of them from the audience. In interior decorations, a
pedeftal dimi nifties the parts of the order, which other-
wife might perhaps appear too clumfy, and hath the
advantage of placing the column in a more favourable
view, by raifing its bafe nearer the level of the fpedta-
tor’s eye. In a fecond order of arcades, there is no a-
voiding pedeftals; as without them it is impofiible to
give the arches any tolerable proportion. $<;
With regard to the proportion that pedeftals ought Their pro¬
to bear to that of the columns they fupport, it is by portions,
no means fixed. Both the ancients and moderns vary
greatly on this head. Vignola’s proportions are gene¬
rally reckoned the beft. He makes his pedeftals in all
the orders of the fame height, viz. one third of the co¬
lumn ; and as their breadth of courfe increafes or di-
minifties in the fame degree as the diameters of their
refpedtive columns do, the character of the order is al¬
ways preferved, which, according to any other method,
is impoffible.
As to the divifions of the pedeftal; if the whole
height be divided into nine parts, one of them may be
given to the height of the cornice, two to the bafe, and
the fix remaining to the dye. The breadth of the dye
is always made equal to that of the plinth of the co¬
lumn. The projection of the cornice may be made
equal to its height; and the bafe being divided into
three parts, two of them will be for the height of the
plinth, and one for the mouldings, whofe projection
muft be lefs than that of the cornice. Thefe meafures
are common to all pedeftals. See Plate XXXII.
Chap. VI. 0/ Inter calumniations. ^
Columns are either engaged, or infulated ; and,
when infulated, are either very near the wall, or at a
confiderable diftance from it. Engaged columns, or
fuch as are near the walls of a building, are not limit¬
ed in their intercolumniations, as thefe depend on the
breadths of the arches, windows, niches, or other deco¬
rations placed between the columns. But columns that
are entirely detached, and perform alone the office of
fupporting the entablature, as in periftyles, porches,
and galleries, muft be near each other, for the fake both
of real and apparent folidity. <jg
The intercolumniations among the ancients were va- Different in-
rious. Thofe ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian orders
were the pycnoftyle, of which the interval was equal t‘jle an_
to one diameter and a half of the column ; the fyftyle, dents,
whofe interval was equal to two diameters; theeuftyle,
to two and a quarter; the diaftyle to three, and the
arseoftyle to four. In the Doric order, they ufed other
intercolumniations, regulating them by the triglyphs,
one of which was always placed direftly over the mid¬
dle of each column ; fo that they were either fyftyle,
monotriglyph, of one diameter and a half; diaftyle, of
two diameters and three quarters; or araeoftyle, of four
diameters; and the Tufcan intervals were very wide,
fome of them being above feven diameters, which was
very prafticable, as the architraves were of wood.
Among thefe different intercolumniations, the pyc¬
noftyle and fyftyle are too narrow; for although the
ancienta
6l 2
Principles.
69
Ufed by
Vignola.
Arches
where pro¬
per.
ARCHITECTURE. Parti.
ancients made frequent life of them, that ought rather
to be aferibed to neceffity than choice. For, as the ar¬
chitraves were compofed of Angle ftones, extending
from the middle of one column to the middle of an¬
other, it would have been difficult, efpecially in large
buildings, to find blocks of a fufficientlength fordiaftyle
intervals. With regard to the arseoftyle and Tufcan
intercolumniations, they are by much too wide, and
can only be ufed in ruftic buildings, where the archi¬
traves are of wood; neither is the diaftyle fufficiently
folid in large compofitions. The euftyle is a medium
between the narrow and broad intervals; and, being at
the fame time both fpacious and folid, hath been pre¬
ferred to any of the reft by the ancients as well as the
moderns.
Vignola obferved nearly the fame proportion in all
his intercolumniations ; which practice, though con¬
demned by feveral writers, is certainly preferable to
any other; as it preferves the character of each order,
and maintains in all of them an equal degree of real fo-
lidity. Setting afide therefore the pycnoftyle and fy-
ftyle difpofitions on account of their want of fpace, and
the araeoftyle for its deficiency in point of ftrength, it
may be eftabliihed, that the diaftyle and euftyle inter¬
columniations (the latter of which, on moft occafions,
ought to have the preference) may be employed in all
the orders without diftinftion, excepting the Doric; in
which the moft perfedt interval is ditriglyph; neither
the monotriglyph, nor the araeoftyle, being to be fuf-
fered but in cafes of neceffity.
Sometimes, on account of the windows, doors^
niches, and other decorations, which correfpond with
the intercolumniations of the periftyle, or gallery, it is
not poffible to make the intervals fo narrow as euftyle,
or even as diaftyle: wherefore the moderns, authorifed
by fome few examples of the ancients, where grouped
columns are employed, have invented a manner of dif-
pofing them, called by Perrault araqflyle, which admits
of a larger interval, without any detriment to the appa¬
rent folidity of the building. This kind of difpofition
is compofed of two fyftyle intercolumniations; the co¬
lumn that feparates them being approached towards
one of thofe at the extremities, fufficient room only be¬
ing left between them for the projedtion of the capi¬
tals ; fo that the great fpace is three diameters' and a
half wide, and the little one half a diameter.
In periftyles, galleries, or porticos, all the interco¬
lumniations muft be equal; but in a logio, or porch,
the middle interval may be broader than the others, by
a triglyph or modilion, or three or four dentils; unlefs
the columns at the angles be coupled, or grouped with
pilafters; in which cafe, all the intervals (hould be of
the fame dimenfions.
When buildings are very fmall, as is frequently the
cafe in temples and other inventions ufed for ornament-
ing gardens, the intercolumniations may be broader, in
proportion to the diameter of the columns, than ufual;
becaufe, when they are nearer each other than three
feet, there is hardly room for a bulky perfon to pafs
between them.
Chap. VII. Of Arches.
Arches are not fo magnificent as colonnades; but
they are more folid and lefs expenfive* They are pro¬
per for triumphal entrances, gates of cities, of palaces, Principles.
of gardens, and of parks, and in general for all open-
ings that require an extraordinary breadth. 71
There are various manners of adorning arches. Some- How adorn-
times their piers are rufticated; fometimes they are a- cd'
domed with pilafters, termini, or caryatides; and fome¬
times they are made fufficiently broad to admit niches
or windows. The circular part of the arch is either
furrounded with ruftic key-ftones, or with an archivolt
enriched with motaldings; which, in the middle, is fome¬
times interrupted by a confole, a mafic, ferving at the
fame time as a key to the arch, and as a fupport to the
architrave of the order. The archivolt is fometimes
fupported by an impoft, at the head of the pier; and
at others by columns placed on each fide of it, with a
regular entablature, or architrave and cornice. There are
likewife inftances of areades without piers, the arches
being turned on Angle columns, as in the temple of
Faunus at Rome, &c. This pra&ice, however, ought
to be feldom imitated, as it is neither folid nor hand-
fome.
When arches are large, the key-ftone ffiould never
be omitted, but cut in the form of a confole, and car¬
ried clofe under the foffit of the architrave, which, on
account of its extraordinary length, requires a fupport
in the middle. The impofts of arches ffiould never be
omitted ; at leaft, if they be, a platform ought to fup-
ply their place. If columns are employed without pe-
deftals in arcades, they ffiould always be railed on a
plinth. In all arches, the circular part ought not to
fpring immediately from the impoft, but take its rife
at fuch a diftance above it as is neceflary in order to
have the whole curve feen at the proper point of view. y*.
The void or aperture of arches ffiould never be high- Proportions
er, nor much lower, than double their breadth ; the
breadth of the pier ffiould feldom exceed two thirds,
nor be lefs than one third, of the breadth of the arch;
and the angular pier ought to be broader than the o-
thers, by one half, one third, or one fourth ; the im¬
poft ffiould not be more than one feventh, nor lefs than
one ninth of the aperture ; and the archivolt muft not
be more than one eighth, nor lefs than one tenth of it.
The breadth of the confole muft, at the bottom, be
equal to that of the archivolt; and its fides muft be
drawn from the centre of the arch: the length of it
muft not be lefs than one and a half of its fmalleft
breadth, nor more than double. The thicknefs of the
pier depends on the breadth of the portico ; for it muft
be ftrong enough to refift the preffure of its vault. But
with regard to the beauty of the building, it ffiould
not be lefs than one quarter of the breadth of the arch,
nor more than one third. Thefe are the general di¬
menfions of arches.
Chap. VIII. Of Orders above Orders. 73
When, in a building, two or more orders are em¬
ployed, one above another, the laws of folidity require
the ftrongeft ffiould be placed lowermoft. Hence the
Tufcan muft fupport the Doric, the Doric the Ionic,
the Ionic the Compofite or Corinthian, and the Com-
pofite the Corinthian.
This rule, however, is not always ftriftly adhered
to. Moft authors place the Compofite above the Co¬
rinthian. There are likewife examples where the fame
order
Parti. A R C H I T
Principles, order is repeated, as in the theatre of Statilius Tau-
rus, and the Colifeum ; and others, where an interme¬
diate order is omitted, and the Ionic placed on the
Tufcan, or the Corinthian on the Doric. But none of
thefe practices ought to be imitated.
In placing columns above one another, the axis of
all the columns ought to correfpond, or be in the fame
perpendicular line, at lead in front.
Proportions With regard to the proportions of columns placed
of columns above each other, Scamozzi’s rule, That the lower
clc^odw'0 diameter of the fuperior column fliould conftantly be
equal to the upper diameter of the inferior one, is uni-
verfally efteemed the beft, and gives all the columns the
appearance of one long tapering tree, cut into feveral
pieces. According to this rule, the Doric column will
be to the Tufcan, as ijy to 14; the Ionic to the Do¬
ric, as 15 to 16 ; the Compofite or Corinthian to the
Ionic, as 16^- to 18; and the Corinthian to the Com¬
pofite, as 16-f to 20.
In Britain there are few examples of more than two
ftories of columns in the fame afpeft: and though in
Italy, and other parts of Europe, we frequently meet
with three, and fometimes more ; yet it is a practice
by no means to be imitated ; for there is no poffibility
of avoiding many ftriking inconfiltencies, or of prefer-
ving the chara&er of each order in its intercolumnial
decorations.
75 Chap. IX. Of Bafements.
Instead of employing feveral orders one above the
other in a compofition, the ground-floor is fometimes
made in the form of a bafement^ on which the order
that , decorates the principal dory is placed. The pro¬
portion of thefe bafements is not fixed, but depends
on the nature of the rooms on the ground-floor. In
the palace of the Porti in Vicenza, the height of the
bafement is equal to that of the order. In feme build¬
ings, its height exceeds two thirds of that of the order ;
and, in others, only half the height of the order. It is
not, however, advifeable to make the bafement higher
than the order it fupports; neither fliould it be lower
16 than one half of the order.
Decora- The ufual method of decorating bafements is with
«f ba’fe&C rudics of different kinds. The bed, where neatnefs
mems.~ anc* i® aimed at, are fuch as have a fmooth fur-
face. Their height, including the joint, fliould never
be lefs, nor much more, than half a module of the or¬
der placed on the bafement. Their figure may be from
a fquare to a fefquialtera; and their joints may be ei¬
ther fquare or chamfered. The fquare ones ftiould not
be broader than one eighth of the height of the ruflic,
nor narrower than one tenth ; and their depth mud be
equal to their breadth ; thofe that are chamfered mud
form a re&angle ; and the breadth of the whole joint
may be from one fourth to one third of the height of
the flat furface of the rudic.
J7 Chap. X. Pediments.
Pediments, among the Romans, were ufed only
as coverings to their facred buildings, till Caifar ob¬
tained leave to cover his houfe with a pointed roof,
after the manner of temples. In the remains of antiqui¬
ty we meet with two kinds of pediments, the triangu-
Von. I.
E C T U R E. 613
lar and the circular. The former of thefe aire promifeu- Principles,
oufly applied to caver fmall or large bodies : But the
latter, being of a heavier figure, are never ufed but as
coverings to doors, niches, windows, or gates.
As a pediment reprefents the roof, it fliould never
be employed but as a finifliing to the whole compofi¬
tion.
The ancients introduced but few pediments into their
buildings, ufually contenting themfelves with a Angle
one to adorn the middle or principal part. But fome
of the moderns, and particularly the Italians, have been
fo immoderately fond of them, that their buildings fre¬
quently confift of almoft nothing elfe.
The girder being a neceffary part in the conftruftiou
of a roof, it is an impropriety to intermit the horizon¬
tal entablature of a pediment, by which it is reprefen-
ted, to make room for a niche, an arch, or a window. ?g
In regular archite&ure, no other form of pediments Forms, See.
can be admitted, befides the triangular and circular. of Pedi-
Both of them are beautiful; and when a confiderable ments’
number of pediments are introduced, as when a range
of windows are adorned with them, thefe two figures
may be ufed alternately, as in the niches of the Pan¬
theon, and in thofe of the temple of Diana at Nif-
mes.
The proportion of pediments depends upon their
fize ; for the fame proportions will not do in all cafes..
When the bafe of the pediment is fliort, its height
muft be increafed ; and when the pediment is long, the
height muft be diminifhed. The beft proportion for
the height is from one fifth to one. fourth of the bafe,
according to the extent of the pediment, and the eha-
rafter of the body it covers. The materials of the roof
muft alfo be attended to; for if it be covered with tiles,
it will be neceffary to raife it more than one quarter of
the bafe, as was the cuftom of the ancients in their
Tufcan temples.
The tympan is always on a Ikie with the front of
the frize; and, when large, admits of various orna¬
ments.
Chap. XI. Of Ballujlrades. 19
Ballustrades are fometimes of real ufe in build¬
ings ; and at other times they are only ornamental.
Such as are intended for ufe, as when they are employ¬
ed in ftair-cafes, before windows, or to inclofe terraffes,
&c. muft always be nearly of the fame height; never
exceeding three feet and a half, nor ever lefs than three.
But thofe that are principally defigned for ornament,
as when they finifti a building, ftiould be proportioned
to the archite&ure they accompany: and their height
ought never to exceed four fifths of the height of the
entablature on which they are placed; nor ftiould it
ever be kfs than two thirds thereof, without counting
the zocholo, or plinth, the height of which muft be
fufficient to leave the whole balluftrade expofed to
view. go
The beft proportion for balluftrades is to divide the P|nPor'
whole given height into thirteen equal parts ; eight of t'0,'Js’1&c;of
thefe for the height of the ballufter, three for the bafe, 3 U ers’
and two for the cornice or rail; or into fourteen, (if
it be required to make the ballufter lefs), giving eight
parts to the ballufter, four to the bafe, andtw'oto the
rail. One of thefe parts may be called a module; and
4 H being
614
Principles.
81
Doors and
gates.
Si
Piers.
A R C H I T
being divided into nine minutes, may ferve to deter¬
mine the dimenfions of the particular members.
In balluftrades, the diftance between two ballufters
fhould not exceed half the diameter of the ballufter
meafured in its thickeft part, nor be lefs than one third
of it.
The breadth of the pedeftals, when they are placed
on columns or pilafters, is regulated by them ; the dye
never being made broader than the top of the (haft,
nor much narrower; and when there are neither columns
nor pilafters on the front, the dye fhould not be much
lower than a fquare, and feldom higher. On ftairs, or
any other inclined planes, the fame proportions are to
be obferved as on horizontal ones.
Chap. XII. Of Gates% Doors, and Piers.
There are two kinds of entrances, vh. doors and
gates. The former ferve only for the pafiage of per-
lons on foot; but the latter likewife admit horfemen
and carriages. Doors are ufed as entrances to churches
and other public buildings, to common dwelling hou-
fes, and apartments: And gates ferve for inlets to ci¬
ties, fortrefles, parks, gardens, palaces, &c. The a-
pertures of gates being always wide, they are gene¬
rally made in the form of an arch, that figure being the
ftrongeft. But doors, which are generally of fmall di-
menfions, are commonly parallelograms, and clofed ho¬
rizontally.
The general proportion for the apertures, both of
gates and doors, whether arched or fquare, is, that
the height be about double the breadth.
The moft common, and indeed almoft the only or¬
naments for gates are the piers by which they are fup-
ported, and which were originally no more than bare
polls into which the hinges of the gate were driven.
Though this, however, is the only proper ufe of piers,
it mull be concealed as much as poffible, and they mull
feem as if placed there only for ornament. As they are
to be fixed to the wall before the houfe, fo they mull
alfo be proportioned to it; and as they are to be feen
in the fame view with the front of the houfe, their
correfpondence with it. is equally neceffary. They
are to be placed on a plinth, and fomething muft
be allowed by way of ornament and finilhing at the
top. All the luxuriance of fancy maybe employed in
the decoration of piers : but it will be proper to ob-
ferve this general rule, that the pier being an inferior
building, it muft never be richer than the front of the
houfe. If, for inftance, the front of the houfe is or¬
namented with columns of the Doric order, the Ionic
muft not be ufed in the piers; and it will be found
better to omit columns altogether, than to make ufe of
the Tufean order for piers in any cafe. If the Ionic
or Corinthian orders are employed in the front of the
houfe, the Doric or Ionic may be ufed with proprie¬
ty in the piers. One piece of ornament is almoft uni-
verfal in piers, namely, a niche with its feat, made
as if for the conveniency of weary travellers. On this
account, it will be proper to raife the columns on pe¬
deftals, becaufe the continued moulding from their cap
will be a good ornament under the niche. The bafe of
the columns ought always to be the attic.
Infide-doors, however fmall the building may be,
fhould never be narrower than two feet nine inches;
E C r U R E. Part I.
nor ihould they ever, in private houfes, exceed three Principles.
feet fix inches in breadth, which is more than fufficient  
to admit the bulkieft perfon. Their height fhould at
leaft be fix feet three or four inches; otherwife a tall
perfon cannot pafs without ftooping. In churches,
palaces, <ksc. where there is a conftant ingrefs and
egrefs of people, the apertures muft be larger. The
fmalleft breadth that can be given to a gate is 84- or 9
feet, which is but juft fufficient for the paffage of a
coach.
Plate XXXIII. fig. 1. Is a ruftic door, compo-
fed by the celebrated Vignola, in which the aperture
occupies two thirds of the whole height, and one half
of the whole breadth ; the figure of it being a double
fquare. The ruftics may be either fmooth or hatched ;
their joints muft form a reftangle, and the breadth of
each joint may be one third, or two fevenths, of the
vertical furface of a ruftic. The joints of the claveaux,
or key-ftones, muft be drawn to the fummit of an equi¬
lateral triangle, whofe bafe is the top of the aperture-
The architrave furrounding the aperture may be com-
pofed either of a large ogee and fillet, or of a plat¬
band and fillet. Its whole breadth muft be one tenth
of the breadth of the aperture ; the remaining part of
each pier being for the ruftics. The entablature is
Tufean : the cornice is to be one fifteenth of the whole
height of the door f and what remains below it being
divided into 21 equal parts, the two uppermoft of
them will be for the frize and architrave, and the re¬
maining 19 for the ruftics and plinth at the foot of the
door.
Fig. 2. Is a difpofition of Michael Angelo’s. The
windows of the Capitol at Rome are of this kind; and
Sir Chriftopher Wren hath executed doors of the fame
kind under the femicircular porches in the flanks of St
Paul’s. The figure of the aperture may be a double
fqaare ; the architrave one fixth of the breadth of the
aperture ; and the whole entablature one quarter of its
height. The front of the pilafters or columns, oireach
fide, muft be on a line with the fafeia of the archi¬
trave ; and their breadth muft be a femidiameter.
Fig. 3. Is likewife a defign of Vignola’s. It is of
the Corinthian order, and executed in the Cancellaria
at Rome. The height is equal to double its breadth ;
and the whole ornament at the top is equal to one third
of the height of the aperture. The architrave is in
breadth one fifth of the breadth of the aperture ; and
the pilafters that fupport the confoles are half as broad
as the architrave. The whole is well imagined, but ra¬
ther heavy ; and it will be beft to reduce the architrave
to one fixth of the aperture, diminiftiing the entablature
proportionally.
Fig. 4. Is a defign of Serlio’s. The aperture may
be either twice as high as broad, or a trifle lefs. The
diameter of the columns may be equal to one quarter
of the breadth of the aperture ; and their height may
be from eight diameters to eight and a half. The en¬
tablature muft be fomewhat lefs than one quarter of the
height of the columns; and the height of the pediment
may be one quarter of its bafe.
Fig. 5. Is a door in the falon of the Farnefe at
Rome, defigned by Vignola. The aperture forms a
double fquare. The entablature is equal to three ele¬
venths of its height, the architrave being one of thefe
elevenths; and the whole ornaments on the fides, con-.
filling
Parti. A R C H I T
Principles. Ming of the architrave and pilafters, is equal to two fe-
~ venths of the breadth of the aperture ; the cornice is
Compofite, enriched with mutules and dentils ; and the
frize is adorned with a feftoon of laurel.
Fig. 6. Is copied from a door at Florence, faid to
be a defign of Cigoli’s. The height of the aperture is
a trifle more than twice its breadth. It is arched; and
the impofl: is equal to half a diameter. The columns
are Ionic, fomewhat above nine diameters high; and
their fliafts are garniflied each with five ruftic cinc¬
tures. The entablature is lefs than one quarter of the
column ; and the breadth of the tablet, in which there is
an infcription, is equal to the breadth of the aperture.
5th Plate XXXIX. fig. i. Is a pier invented by Mr
Chambers. Its diameter may be one quarter of its
height, exclufive of the plinth and vafe; and the height
of both thefe may be equal to one diameter of the pier,
or a trifle lefs. The ruftics may either be plain, hatch¬
ed, or vermiculated-: the height of each courfe may be
one eleventh part of the height of the pier, counting to
the top of the entablature; the entablature two ele¬
venths ; and the bafe of the pier one eleventh part.
Fig. 2. Is likewife a compofition of Mr Chambers,
imitated from M. Angelo Buonaroti’s defign for Car¬
dinal Sermonetti. The height of the aperture is fome¬
what more than twice its breadth; which breadth oc¬
cupies one third of the breadth of the whole compofi¬
tion. The order is Compofite ; and the height of the
entablature is equal to one quarter of the height of the
column. He has made a break in it over each column :
but, unlefs the column proje& confiderably, it will be
as well to carry the entablature on in a ftraight line.
The dimenfions of the particular parts may be meafur-
ed on the defign.
Fig. 3. Is alfo a compofition of Mr Chambers, exe¬
cuted at Goodwood, the feat of his grace the duke of
Richmond, in Suflex. The diameter is one quarter of
the height, exclufive of the finifhing, which is equal to
one diameter : and the height of the pier, from the
top of the entablature downwards, being divided into
eleven and a half parts, one of thefe parts is given to
the bafe, one to each ruftic, and one and a half to the
'aftragal, frize, and cornice.
Fig. 4. Is a compofition of the late earl of Burling¬
ton’s, that great architedl and patron of the fine arts,
which is executed at Chifwick, and at Bedford-houfe in
Bloomfbury-fquare with fome little difference.
Fig. 5. Is an invention of Mr Chambers.
Fig. 6. Is one of Inigo Jones’s; of which kind he
hath executed a couple of piers at Aimfbury in Wilt-
Ihirc, the feat of his grace the duke of Queenfberry.
Chap. XIII. Of Windows.
83
Proportions The firft confideration with regard to windows is
«f windows, their fize, which varies according to the climate, the
deftination of the building, &c. In Britain, the win¬
dows of the fmalleft private houfes are commonly from
3 to 3-|- feet broad ; and being generally twice their
breadth in height, or fomewhat more, in the principal
apartments, they generally rife to within a foot or two
of the cielings of the rooms, which are frequently no
higher than 10 feet, and at moft 12 or 13. But, in
more confiderable houfes, the apartments are from 15
to 20 feet high, and fometimes more; and in thefe the
E C T U R E. 615
windows are from 4 to 5 and 5^ feet broad, and high Principles.
in proportion. Thefe dimenfions are fufficient for
dwelling-houfes of any fize in this country ; when they
are larger, they admit too much of the cold air in win¬
ter. But churches, and other buildings of that kind,
may have larger windows, proportioned to the fize of
the ftruftures.
The proportions of the apertures of windows depend
upon their iituation. Their breadth in all the ftories
muft be the fame ; but the different heights of the a-
partments make it neceffary to vary the height of the
windows likewife. In the principal floor, it may be
from 2-g- of the breadth to 2 f, according as the rooms
have more or lefs elevation. In the ground-ftory, where
the apartments are lower, the apertures of the windows
feldom exceed a double fquare ; and, when they are
in a ruftic bafement, they are frequently made much
lower. The height of the windows of the fecond floor
may be from i4- of their breadth to if; and Attics and
Mezzanines may be either a perfett fquare, or fome¬
what lower. ^84
The windows of the principal floor are generally How orna-
moft enriched. The fimpleft method of adorning them mented.
is, with an architrave furrounding the aperture, and
crowned with a frize and cornice. The windows of the
ground-floor are fometimes left entirely plain, without
any ornament; and at others they are furrounded with
ruftics, or a regular architrave with a frize and cor¬
nice. Thofe of the fecond floor have generally an ar¬
chitrave carried entirely round the aperture ; and the
fame is the method of adorning Attic and Mezzanine
windows : but the two laft have feldom either frize or
cornice; whereas the fecond-floor windows are often
crowned with both.
The breafts of all the windows on the fame floor
fliould be on the fame level, and raifed above the floor
from two feet nine inches to three feet fix inches at
the very moft. When the walls are thick, the breafts
ftiould be reduced under the apertures, for the con-
veniency of looking out. In France, the windows are
frequently carried quite down to the floor. When the
building is furrounded with gardens, or other beauti¬
ful objects, this method renders the rooms exceeding
pleafant.
The interval between the apertures of windows de
pends in a great meafure on their enrichments. The
breadth of the aperture is the leaft diftance that can be
between them; and twice that breadth fliould be the
largeft in dwelling-houfes; otherwife the rooms will
not be fufficiently lighted. The windows in all the ftories
of the fame afpeft muft be placed exaftly above one
another.
Plate XXXIV. fig. l. Is a defign of P. Lefcot, ab¬
bot of Clagny, executed in the old Louvre at Paris.
The apertures may be a double fquare, or a trifle more;
the architrave from one fixth to one feventh of the
breadth of the aperture: the pilafter is equal to that
breadth, when the architrave is narrow; or lefs, by one
quarter, or one fifth, when it is broad. The whole en¬
tablature fhould not exceed one quarter of the height
of the aperture, nor be much lower. The confoles may
be equal in length to half the breadth of the aperture
at moft, and to one third of it at leaft.
Fig. 2. Is a defign of Palladio’s, executed at the
Chiericato in Vicenza : its proportions are not much
4 H 2 different
6i6
Principles.
«S
86
Different
kinds of
niches.
87
How deco-
sated.
88
Statues.
ARCHITECTURE.
Part I.
different from the following. The plat-band that fup-
ports the window is equal to the breadth of the archi¬
trave.
Fig. 3. Is likewife a defign of Palladio’s* executed
by him in many of his buildings. The aperture is a
double fquare. The breadth of the architrave is one
fixth of the breadth of the aperture; and the frize and
cornice together are double the height of the archi¬
trave. The breadth of the confoles is two thirds of the
breadth of the architrave.
Fig 4. Is a defign of Ludovico da Cigoli; and ex¬
ecuted in the ground-floor of the Ranunchini palace at
Florence.
Fig. 5. Is a defign of Inigo Jones, executed at the
Banqueting-houfe. The aperture may be a double
fquare; the architrave maybe one fixthof its breadth;
the whole entablature one quarter of its height; and
the breadth of the confoles two thirds of the breadth
of the architrave.
Fig. 6. Is a defign of M. Angelo Buonorati, execu¬
ted at the Farnefe.
Chap. XIV. Of Niches and Statues.
It hath been cuflomary, in all ages, to enrich differ¬
ent parts of buildings with reprefentations of the hu¬
man body. Thus the ancients adorned their temples,
baths, theatres, &c. with ftatues of their deities, he¬
roes, and legiflators. The moderns ftill preferve the
fame cuftom, placing in their churches, palaces, &c.
ftatues of illuftrious perfons, and even groups compofed
of various figures, reprefenting occurrences colledted
from hiftory, fables, &c. Sometimes thefe ftatues or
groups are detached, railed on pedeftals, and placed
contiguous to the walls of a building, or in the middle
of a room, court, or public fquare. But they are moft
frequently placed in cavities made in the walls, called
niches. Of thefe there are two forts; the one formed
like an arch in its elevation, and femicircular or femi-
elliptical in its plan ; the other is a parallelogram both
in its plan and elevation.
The proportion of both thefe niches depends on the
characters of the ftatues, or the general form of the
groups placed in them. The loweft are at leaft a double
fquare in height ; and the higheft never exceed of
their breadth.
With regard to the manner of decorating them, when
they are alone in a compofition, they are generally in-
clofed in a pannel, formed and proportioned like the
aperture of a window, and adorned in the fame manner.
In this cafe, the niche is carried quite down to the bot¬
tom ; but on the fides and at the top, a fmall fpace is
left between the niche and the architrave of the pannel.
And when niches are intermixed with windows, they
may be adorned in the fame manner with the windows,
provided the ornaments be of the fame figure and di-
menfions with thofe of the windows.
The fize of the ftatues depends on the dimenfions of
the niches. They ffould neither be fo large as to have
the appearance of being rammed into the niches, as ifi
Santa Maria Majora at Rome ; nor fo narrow as to
feem loft in them, as in the Pantheon. The diftance
between the outline of the ftatue and fide of the niche
fhould never be lefs than one third of a head, nor more
than one half, whether-the niche be fquare or arched j
and when it is fquare, the diftance from the top of the Principles,
head to the ceiling of the niche (hould not be greater ' ~
than the diftance on the fides. Statues are generally
raifed on a plinth, the height of which may be from one
third to one half of a head; and fometimes, where the
niches are large, the ftatues may be raifed on fmall pe¬
deftals.
The charafter of the ftatue fhould always correfpond
with the character of the architecture with which it is
furrounded. Thus, if the order be Doric, Hercules,
Jupiter, Mars, iEfculapius, and all male ftatues repre¬
fenting beings of a robuft and grave nature, maybe in¬
troduced ; if Ionic, then Apollo, Bacchus, &c.; and
if Corinthian, Venus, Flora, and others of a delicate
nature, fhould be employed.
Chap. XV. Of Chimney-pieces. 8p
Among the ancients, there are very few examples off
chimney-pieces to be met with. Neither the Italians
nor French have excelled in compofitions of this kind.
Britain, by being poffeffed of many able fculptors at
different times, has furpaffed all other nations, both in
tafte of defign, and workmanfhip. 90
The fize of the chimney muft be regulated by the Proportions
dimenfions of the room where it is placed. In the a.nd fitua"
fmalleft apartments, the breadth of the aperture fhould tl0ns•
never be lefs than three feet, or three feet fix inches.
In rooms from 20 to 24 feet fquare, or of equal fuper-
ficial dimenfions, it may be from 4 to 4!- feet broad ;
in thofe of 24 to 27, from 44- to 5; and, in fuch as
exceed thefe dimenfions, the aperture may even be ex¬
tended to 54-or 6 feet*
The chimney fhould always be fituated fo as to be im¬
mediately feen by thofe who enter the room. The
middle of the partition wall is the moft proper place in
halls, falons, and other rooms ofpaffage; but in draw¬
ing-rooms, drefiing-rooms, and the like, the middle of
the back-wall is the beft fituation. In bed-rooms, the
chimney is always in the middle of one of the parti¬
tion-walls: and in clofets, and other very fmall places,
to fave room, it is put in a corner. Where-ever two
chimneys are ufed in the fame room, they fhould be
placed either diredlly facing each other, if in different
walls, or at equal diftances from the centre of the wall
in which they both are.
The proportion of the apertures of chimney-pieces of
a moderate fize is generally a perfect fquare; in fmall
ones, it is a trifle higher; and in large ones, a trifle
lower. Their ornaments confift in architraves, frizes,
cornices, columns, pilafters, termini, caryatides, con¬
foles, and all kinds of ornaments of fculpture, repre¬
fenting animals and vegetables, &c. likewife vafes, cha¬
lices, trophies of arms, &c. In defigning them, regard
muft be had to the nature of the place where they are
to be employed. Such as are intended for halls, fa-
ions, guard-rooms, galleries, and other large places,
muft be compofed of large parts, few in number, of
diftindl and fimple forms, and having a bold relief; but
chimney-pieces for drawing-rooms, dreffing-rooms, &c.
may be of a more delicate and complicated nature.
Chimney-pieces are compofed of wood, ftone, or
marble; the laft of which ought to be preferred, as fi¬
gures or profiles are beft reprefented in a pure white.
Plate XXXV. fig. 1, 2, 3, and 4. are different de-
Parti. A R C H I T
Principles, figns for chimney-picccs by Palladio and Inigo Jones.
Their proportion may be gathered from the defigns,
'which are accurately executed.
P1 Chap. XVI. Of the Proportions of Rooms.
The proportions of rooms depend in a great mea-
fure on their ufe, and actual dimenfions: but, with re-
j.gard to beauty, all figures, from a fquare to a fefqui-
lateral, may be employed for the plan.
The height of rooms depends On their figure. Flat
cieled ones maybe lower than thofe that are coved. If
their plan be a fquare, their height fhould not exceed
five fixths of the fide, nor be lefs than four fifths ; and
when it is oblong, their height may be equal to their
breadth. But coved rooms, if fquare, muft be as high
as broad; and when oblong, they may have their height
equal to their breadth, more one fifth, one quarter, or
even one third of the difference between the length and
breadth : and galleries fhould at leaft be in height one
and one third of their breadth, and at moft one and a
half, or one and three-fifths.
High rooms The coldnefs of the Britifh climate is a ftrong objec-
improper in tjon t0 high rooms ; fo that it is not uncommon to fee
n am. the moft magnificent apartments not above 15, 16, or
at moft 18 feet high; though the extent of the rooms
ivould require a much more confiderable elevation. But,
where beauty is aimed at, this praftice ought not to be
imitated.
When rooms are adorned with an entire order, the
entablature fhould never exceed one fixth of the whole
height in flat-cieled rooms, and one fixth of the upright
part in coved ones; and when there are neither columns
nor pilafters, but only an entablature, its height fhould
not be above one feventh of thefe heights. If the rooms
be finifhed with a fimple cornice, it fhould never exceed
one fourteenth, nor ever be lefs than one fifteenth part
of the above-mentioned height.
53 Chap. XVII. Of Cielings.
Cieljngs are either flat, or coved, in different man¬
ners. The fimpleft of the flat kind are thofe adorned
with large compartments, furrounded with one or feve-
ral mouldings, either let into the cieling, or projefting
beyond its furface : and when the mouldings that form
the compartments are enriched, and fome of the com¬
partments adorned with well-executed ornaments, fuch
cielings have a good effect, and are very proper for
common dwelling-houfes, and all lew apartments. Their
ornaments and mouldings do not require a bold relief;
but, being near the eye, they muft be finifhed with
tafte and neatnefs. For higher rooms, a flat cieling
which has the appearance of being compofed of va¬
rious joifts framed into each other, and forming com¬
partments of various geometrical figures, fhould be em¬
ployed. The fides of the joifts forming the compart¬
ments are generally adorned with mouldings, and repre-
fent either a fimple architrave, or an architrave-cor¬
nice, according to the fize of the compartments and the
height of the room.
Coved cielings are more expenfive; but they are like-
wife more beautiful. They are ufed promifcuoufly in
large and fmall rooms, and occupy from one fifth to
one third of the height of the room. If the room be
E C T U R E. 617
low in proportion to its breadth, the cove muft like- Principles,
wife be low; and when it is high, the cove muft be fo
likewife : by which means theexcefs of the height will
be rendered lefs perceptible. But, where the archi-
teft is at liberty to proportion the height of the room
to its fuperficial dimenfions, the moft eligible propor¬
tion for the cove is one fourth of the whole height. I»
parallellogram-figured rooms, the middle of the ciel¬
ing is generally formed into a large flat pannel. This
pannel, with the border that furrounds it, may occu¬
py from one half to three fifths of the breadth of the
room. The figure of the cove is commonly either a
quadrant of a circle or of an ellipfe, taking its rife a
little above the cornice, and finiOiing at the border
round the great pannel in the centre. The border pro-
jeds fomewhat beyond the coves on the outfide; and,
on the fide towards the pannel, it is generally made of
fufficient depth to admit the ornaments of an architrave,
or architrave and cornice.
In Britain, circular rooms are not much in ufe; but
they are very beautiful. Their height muft be the fame
with that of fquare rooms ; their cielings maybe flat;
but they are handfomer when coved, or of a concave
form.
sires doublaux, or foffits of arches, when narrow,
are ornamented with guillochs, or frets ; but, when
broad, they may be adorned in a different manner.
When the profiles of the room are gilt, the ciel¬
ings ought likewife to be gilt. The ufual method is
to gild all the ornaments, and to leave the grounds
white, pearl colour, light blue, or of any other tint
proper to fet off the gilding to advantage. Painted
cielings, fo common in France and Italy, are but little
ufed in Britain.
Chap. XVIII. Of Stairs and Stair-cafes. s«.
There are many kinds of ftair-cafes : for, in fome,
the fteps are made ftraight; in others, winding; in o-
thers, mixed of both. Of ftraight flairs, fome fly di-
reftly forward, others are fquare, others triangular.
Others are called French flights, or <winding-Jiairs,
(which in general are called J^W/, or cockle flairs) ;
of which fome are fquare, fome circular or round,
and fome elliptical or oval; and thefe again are va¬
rious, fome winding about a folid, others about an
open newel. Stairs mixed of ftraight and winding
fteps are alfo of various kinds; fome are called dog-
legged; fome there are that wind about a folid newel,
and others that fly about a fquare open newel. Q5
Great care ought to be taken in placing of the flair- Stair-cafes
cafe in any building ; and therefore ftair-cafes ought wher= 10
to be deferibed and accounted for juftly when the p ace '
plan of a building is made. For want of this, fome-
times unpardonable errors have been committed: fuch
as having a little blind ftair-cafe to a large houfe, or,
on the other hand, a large fpacious ftair-cafe to a little
one.
Palladio fays, in placing ftair-cafes, the utmpft care
ought to be taken; it being difficult to find a place con¬
venient for them, that will not at the fame time preju¬
dice the reft of the building. But commonly the flairs
are placed in the angle, wing, or middle of the front.
To every ftair-cafe are required three openings.
Firft, the door leading thereto.
Second!,
6i8
Principles.
Secondly, the, window,
to it;
And, thirdly, the landing.
Firft, the door leading to the ftair-cafe fliould be fo
placed, that moft of the building may be feen before
you come at the flairs, and in fuch a manner that it
may be eafy for any perfon to find out.
Secondly, for the windows ; if there be but one, it
muft be placed in the middle of the ftair-cafe, that
thereby the whole may be enlightened.
Thirdly, the landing of flairs fhould be large and
fpacious, for the convenient entering into rooms: in a
word, flair-cafes (hould be fpacious, light, and eafy in
afcent. The height of large fteps muft never be lefs
than fix inches, nor more than feven inches and a half.
The breadth of fteps ftiould never be lefs than 10
inches, nor more than 18 inches; and the length of
them not lefs than three feet, nor more than 12.
96 Plate XXXVI. fig. I. ^ flair-cafe of two flights.—
A fhews the manner of drawing the ramp, which is to
rife equal to the height of the firft ftep of the next
flight, and as much as its kneeling ; as is {hewn by the
ramp interfefting the rail of the fecond flight.
Fig. 2. Shews the ftraight rail interfering a circu¬
lar cap.
Fig. 3; Seftion of two different hand-rails.
- Fig. 4. Shews t^ie manner of dove-tailing the rifer
into the ftep.
97 Plate XXXVII. fig. 1. Reprefents a ftair-cafe, with
flights, and its landing-rail.
Fig. 2. Shews the folid part of the ftep out of
which the fcroll is formed; where a reprefents the 0-
verfail of the ftep ; b, The thicknefs of the bracket,
with its mitring to the rijer; and, c. The firing-board.
Fig. 4. Shews the fcale for drawing the fcroll of
fig. 3.—To perform w'hich, take the diftance from i to
the centre, in fig. 3. and fet it from 1 to the centre in
fig. 4. ; divide that extent into three parts, then fet
four fuch parts on the upper fide of the fcale, and draw
the line from 4 to 1; fet one foot of your compafles at
4, and ftrfke the circular line ; let that be divided in¬
to 12 equal parts, and then draw lines from 4 through
thofe divifions to the upright line.
The fcale being thus made, draw the fcroll of fig. 3.
by it in ths following manner.
Set one foot of your compaffes in 1, and defcribe a
ftroke at c; take the fame diftance, and with one foot
in 2, crofs the ftroke at c; then from c, turn the part
from 1 to 2, and proceed in the fame manner; for if
the diftance were taken in the fcale from 1 to the centre,
it would ftrike the circle too flat; and if taken from 2,
it would ftrike the circle too quick.
When this is well underftood, there will be little dif¬
ficulty in drawing the fcroll below fig. 2.; which throws
itfelf out farther in proportion than that in fig. 3.; for
this will always be the cafe when the upper line of the
fcale, which confifts of four divifions in fig. 4. is made
but with three divifions or lefs; whence it appears, that
the upper line of the fcale may be drawn at what length
you pleafe, according as you would bring in or keep
out the fcroll.
?8 Plate XXXVIII. Shews the manner of fquaring
twift-rails.
Fig. 2. Exhibits the pitch-board, to fhew what
part of the ftep the twifted part of the rail contains ;
Part I.
the three doted lines drawn from the rail to the pitch- Principl;
board reprefent the width of the rail, which is to be
kept level. The doted lines a and b fhew how much
half the width of the rail turns up from its firft begin¬
ning to 3.
Fig. 3. Shews the fame pitch-board, with the man¬
ner of the rail’s turning up. If the fides of the twift¬
ed part of the rail be fnaped by the rail-mould, fo that
they direft down to its ground-plan, that is, the up¬
per fide of the rail being firft ftruck by the mould, then
apply the mould to the under fide, as much back as the
level of the pitch-board fhews, by being ftruck on the
fide of the rail, and then fig. 3. being applied to the
outfide of the rail, from its firft twifting part to 3, will
fhow how much wood is to be taken off.
Fig. 5. Exhibits the fquare of the rail, with the
raking line of the pitch-board drawn through the mid¬
dle on the upper fide ; then draw the depth of the fide
the rail parallel to this, and the doted lines from the
diagonal of the rail; thefe lines fhew what quantity of
wood will be wanting on the upper and lower fides of
the rail. Set your compafles at c, and draw the cir¬
cular ftroke from the raking part of the pitch-board
to b ; take the diftance a b and transfer it from a to
b, in fig 7. The feveral diftances thus found may be
fet at any' number of places, ranging with the ftraight
part of the rail; and it then forms the width of the
mould for the twifting part of the rail.
Fig. 7. Shews the fweep of the rail. The rail can¬
not be fixed lefs than one fourth part from the nofing
or front of the ftep.
The remaining part of the pitch-board may be divid¬
ed into any number of parts, as here into four ; from
thefe divifions draw lines acrofs the pitch-board to the
raking line; then take the diftances from the ground¬
line of the pitch-board to the plan of the rail, and
fet them perpendicular from the raking line of the pitch
board ; and thefe divifions, when the rail is in its pro¬
per pofition, lie direftly over the divifions on the ground
plan.
In this figure /, m, and n, rife as much above 0 as
the dotted line in fig. 5. does above the width of the
rail; and they fink as much below 0 as the other doted
line in fig. 5. falls below the width of the rail; the fame
thickneffes muft be glued upon 0, though the greateft
part will come off in fquaring. The reafon of placing
the letters /, m, and «, where they are, is, that they
might not obftruft the fmall divifions of the rail-mould.
Fig. 4. Shews how to find the rail when it takes
more than one ftep. The remaining part of the pitch-
board is divided into four parts, as before in fig. 7 and
it takes in two fuch parts of the next ftep. Draw lines
from thefe divifions to the diagonal of the pitch-board
as in fig. 7. then take the diftance a b, and fet it from
c to d, and fo proceed with the other divifions.
Another way to find the outfide of the rail-mould
is, to draw all the divifions acrofs the plan of the rail;
then take the diftance from the ground-line of the
pitch-board to 4, transfer it from the diagonal of the
pitch-board to 4 on the rail; and fo proceed with the
other diftances. Now, when the rail is put in its pro¬
per fituation, c will be perpendicular to b, and all the
divifions, as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the rail, will be perpen¬
dicular to 1, 2, 3, 4, <&c. in the ground-plan.
Fig. 6. Shews the plan of a rail of five fteps.
ARCHITECTURE.
or windows that give light
To
Plate XXXIX
'Part II. A R C H I T
Jjt’raftice To find the rail.—Set five divifions, as from e to h,
which is the height of the five fteps ; draw the diagonal
h to the plan of the rail; then take the diftance e f,
and transfer it to g h% and proceed in the fame manner
with the other feven diftances.
To find the width of the rail-mould.—Draw the
lines acrofs the plan of the rail, as at ^ ; fet that di¬
ftance from the diagonal to i; and fo proceed with the
reft, as was (hewn in fig. 4.
Having formed the fides of the rail perpendicular to
its ground-plan, and having fquared the lower end of
the rail, then take a thin lath, and bend it with the rail,
as is reprefented by m fig. 1.
This is the readieft method of fquaring a folid rail;
but if the rail be bent in the thicknefles, the nofing of
the fteps mull be drawn upon a cylinder, or fome other
folid body of a fufficient width to contain the width of
the rail or ftring-board.
r Reprefents the depth of the rail, touching the nofe
of each ftep. Take a fufficient number of thicknefles
of this width, to make the thicknefs of your rail; glue
them all together upon your cylinder or templet, con-
E C T U R E. 619
fine them till they are dry, and the rail taken off is Praftice.
ready fquared. Proceed in the fame manner with the "
architrave, marked a.
Chap. XIX. Of Roofs. 9!)
Plate XXIX. Fig. 1. Shews the form of a truf-
fed roof, with three nng-pofts, that may carry feventy
feet, or upwards.
Fig. 2. Exhibits an M roof, capable of carrying as
great an extent as the former. Indeed both thefe de-
figns are capable of carrying almoft any extent.
Fig. 3. Reprefents two different forts of truffes.
Fig. 4. Shews the manner of piecing timber. Some¬
times the joint may be extended as far as a, with ano¬
ther bolt through it. To the right is fliewn a different
fort of joint.
Fig. 5. Shews the manner of truffing a girder. If
the trufles are full long, with the pieces b and c you
may make them as light as you pleafe.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the manner of truffing partitions.
Part II. PRACTICE of ARCHITECTURE.
HAving thus defcribed and given rules for the moft
generally received proportions of the different
arts of buildings, both of the ufeful and ornamental
ind, we muft next give an account of the method
of erecting different kinds of edifices; and here the
judgment of the architefit mull neceflarily be very much
employed, as no fixed rules have been laid down by
which he can be direfted in all cafes. As a necef-
fary preliminary, however, to the conftrudlion, we muft
firft confider,
xoo Chap. I. The Situations of Houfes.
Though it muft be, in many cafes, impoffible to
chufe fuch a fituation as might be agreeable either to
the architeft or the proprietor, yet, where a choice can
be made, there are certainly a great many circum-
ftances that will determine one fituation to be pre¬
ferable to another. Thefe circumftances depend entirely
on the perfon who is to inhabit the houfe. A farmer,
for inftance, ought to dwell in the moft centrical part
of his farm; an independent gentleman muft regard
the healthinefs, the neighbours with whom he can con-
verfe, the profpecl from his houfe, and alfo the afpe£t
of the ground near it. To anfwer thefe purpofes of
health and pleafure, an open elevated fituation is the
beft, as the air is there pure, and the profpeft extenfive;
but too elevated a fituation is difagreeable, as being
both difficult of accefs, and expofed to cold and bleak
winds. To build in bottoms between hills is both un¬
healthful and unpleafant, the houfe being in a manner
buried, and the ground near it generally marfhy from
the rain-water which runs down from the hills, which
renders the air unwholefome. As a garden alfo is a very
neceflary article to a country habitation, the foil is by
no means a matter of indifference; and therefore it
may be concluded, that an elevated fituation on a gra¬
velly loam, near fome running water, is the beft fitua¬
tion for a country houfe.
Chap. II. Of the ConfruSlion of Edifices in general.
The proper fituation of a houfe, or any other build¬
ing, being chofen, according to its intended nature, the
next thing to be confidered is to lay the foundation in
a proper manner. The only fecurity of a houfe, or any
other building whatever, is in having a good founda¬
tion, and no error is fo dangerous as that which is
committed here; as the ftirinking of the foundation
but the breadth of a ftraw may caufe a rent of five or Qualities of
fix inches wide in the fuperftru6tnre. To guard againft the ground1
errors of this kind, the qualities of the ground for a neceflary to
confiderable depth muft be carefully obferved. be examin-
The beft foundation is that which confifts of gravel e^‘
or ftone; but, in order to know whether the inferior
ftrata are fufficient for the fupport of the building, it
will be advifeable to fink wells at fome little diftance.
By attending to what is thrown up in digging thefe,
the architedl will be acquainted with what lies under
the ftony or gravelly bed which on the furface pro-
mifes fo much fecurity, and will know what meafures
to take. Ioi
But though a ftony or gravelly bottom is undoubt- Rocky
edly the moft fure and firm, where all is found beneath, ground
there is no kind of ground which may prove more fal- foretimes
lacious, or occafion fuch terrible accidents. The reafon danSerous-
of this is, that fuch kind of ground often contains ab-
folute vacuities ; nor is rock itfelf, though a foundation
upon a rock is ftrong even to a proverb, free from dan¬
gers of the fame kind. Caverns are very frequent in
rocky places; and (hould an heavy building be eredled
over one of thefe, it might fuddenly fall down altoge¬
ther. To guard againft accidents of this kind, Palladio
advifes the throwing down great weights forcibly on
the ground, and obferving whether it founds hollow, or
(hakes; and the beating of a drum upon it, by the
found of which an accuftomed ear will know whether
the earth is hollow or not.
Where the foundation is gravel, it will be proper to
examine
620
ARCHITECTURE.
Vrafticfr- examine the thicknefs of the ftratum, and the qualities
of thofe that lie under it, as they have appeared in
digging. If the bed of gravel is thick, and the under
ftrata of a found and firm kind, there needs no affift-
ance ; if otherwife,, we muft have recourfe to various
I0j methods in order to fupply the defeft.
Sandy or The other matters which may occur for a foundation
boggy are clay, fand, common earth, or rptten boggy ground.
8r°“"tlj0W Clay will often both raife and fink a foundation; yet
manage . ^ ^ folidity which, with proper management, is
very ufeful. The marfhy, rotten, or boggy ground is
of all others the worft ; yet even upon this great build¬
ings may be raifed with perfeft fafety, provided pro¬
per care be taken. In cafe of boggy earths, or un¬
firm fand, piling is one of the moft common methods
of fecuring a foundation; and, notwithftanding the na¬
tural difadvantage of the earth, piles, when properly
executed, are one of the firmeft and moft fecure foun-
104 dations.
Founds- in foundations near the edge of waters, we Ihould
water s'1 dan- a^wa7s careful to found to the very bottom, as many
gerous. terrible accidents have happened from the ground be¬
ing undermined by rivers. The fame method is to be
followed when the ground on which we build has been
dug or wrought before. It ought never to be trufted
In the condition in which it is left; but we mull dig
through it into the folid and unmoved ground, and
10J fome way into that, according to the weight and big-
Defefl in St nefs of the intended edifice. The church of St Peter’s
Peter’s at at Rome is an inftance of the importance of this laft
Rome. obfervation. That church is in great part built upon
the old circus of Nero ; and the builders having neg-
lefted to dig through the old foundation, the ftru&ure
is confequently fo much the weaker. The walls were
judged of ftrength enough to bear two fteeples upon
the corners of the frontifpiece; but the foundation was
found too weak when it was impofiible to remedy the
deleft perfeftly.
Before the architeft, however, begins to lay the
foundation of the building, it will be proper to con-
ftruft fuch drains as may be neceffary for carrying off
I0(; the rain, or other refufe water that would otherwife be
Drains how collefted and lodge about the houfe. In making of
made. drains for carrying off this water, it will be neceffary
to make large allowances for the different quantities
that may be collefted at dift’erent times. It mull alfo
be confidered, that water of this kind is always loaded
with a vaft quantity of fediment, which by its continual
falling to the bottom will be very apt to choak up the
drain, efpecially at thofe places where there happen to
be angles or corners in its courfe. The only method of
„ preventing this is by means of certain cavities difpofed
at proper diftances from one another. Into thel'e the
fediment will be collefted, and they are for that reafon
Sefspools. called fefspoqh. With regard to thefe, the only direc¬
tions neceffary are, that they be placed at proper dif¬
tances, be fufficiently large, and placed fo as to be
eafily cleaned. It is a good rule to make a fefspool at
each place where the water enters the drain ; as by this
means a confiderable quantity of fediment v/ill be pre¬
vented from entering the channel at all. Others are
to be made at proper diftances, efpecially where there
are any angles. They muft be made fufficiently large ;
the bigger, in moderation, the better; and they muft
alfo be covered in fuch a manner as to be eafily got at
ip order to be cleaned. But, as putrid water is exceed- Pratfico^j
ingly noxious, it will be neceffary to carry up a brick
funnel over every fefspool, in order to prevent the Col-
leftion of the putrid effluvia, which would otherwife
occafion the death of the perfon who cleaned it.
All drains ought to be arched over at top, and may Proportion*
be moft conveniently built of brick. According to of Dr*ins* |;
their different fizes, the following proportions of height
and thicknefs may be obferved. If the drain is 18 a
inches wide, the height of the walls may be one foot,
and their thicknefs nine inches; the bottom may be
paved with brick laid flatwife, and the arch turned four
inches. If the drain is 2,3 inches wide, the fide walls
are then to be one foot three inches in height, and the
reft conftruftedas before. If it is 14 inches wide, the
height of the walls may be 9 inches, and the fweep of
the arch four. A drain of a yard wide fhould have the
fame height, and the arch turned over it ought to be
9 inches thick. Upon the fame principles and propor¬
tions may other drains of any fize be conftrufted. .
The fewers and drains being conftrufted in a manner Foundation!
proportioned to the fize of the intended building, the
architeft may next proceed to lay the foundation of the * j
walls. Here the firft care muft be, that the floor of the
foundation be perfeftly fmooth and level. The Italians
begin with laying over it an even covering of ftrong oak
plank; and upon that they lay, with the moft exaft
care, the fifft courfe of the materials. Whether we
take this method, or begin upon the naked floor, all
muft be laid with the moft exaft truth by rule and line.
When the board plat is laid, a courfe of ftone is the
beft firft bed, and this is to be laid without mortar;
for lime would make the wood decay, which otherwife,
in a tolerably good foil, will laft for ages. After this,
all the courfes fhould follow with the fame perfeft even-
nefs and regularity. If the materials are brick, they
fhould be laid on with an equal, and not too great,
quantity of mortar ; if ftone, they ought to be placed
regularly, and in the fame fituation in which they lay
in the quarry : for many ftones, which will bear any
weight flatwife, and in their natural pofition, are of
fuch a grain, that they will fplit otherwife. The join¬
ings of the under courfe muft be covered by the folid
of the next courfe all the way up; and the utmoft care
muft be taken that there be no vacuity left in the wall,
for the weight will moft certainly crufh it in. The lefa
mortar there is in a foundation, the better. Its ufe is
to cement the bricks and ftones together; and the even-
er they are, the lefs will be required for that purpofe.
Where mortar is ufed to fill up cavities, it becomes
part of the wall; and not being of equal ftrength with
the folid materials, it takes from the firmnefs of the
building. For the fame reafon, nothing can be more
abfurd than to fill up a foundation with loofe ftones or
bricks thrown in at random; and where this is done,
the ruin of the building is inevitable. Where the
foundation of a principal wall is laid upon piles, it will
be neceffary alfo to pile the foundations of the parti¬
tions, though not fo ftrongly.
The thicknefs of foundation-walls in general ought Thick nefs
to be double that of the walls which they are to fup- anddiminu-
port. The loofer the ground, the thicker the founda- tions of
tion wall ought to be; and it will require the fame ad- 0^wails»5cc'
dition alfo in proportion of what is to be raifed upon it.
The plane of the ground muft be perfeftly level, that
the
Part II.
ARCHITECTURE.
621
^Diminution
Ipf the thick-
inefs of
(walls.
the weight may prefs equally every where : for when
it inclines more to one fide than another, the wall will
fplit. The foundations muft diminilh as they rife, but
the perpendicular is to be exactly kept in the upper
and lower parts of the wall; and this'caution ought to
be obferved all the way up with the fame ftriftnefs. In
fome ground, the foundation may be arched; which will
fave materials and labour, at the fame time that the
fuperftru&ure has an equal fecurity. This practice is
peculiarly ferviceable where the foundation is piled.
As the foundation-walls are to diminilh in thicknefs,
fo are thofe which are built upon them. This is ne-
cefiary in order to fave expence, but is not abfolutely
fo to ftrengthen the wall; for this would be no lefs
ftrong though it was continued all the way to the top
of an equal thicknefs, provided the perpendicular was
exaftly kept. In this the ancients were very expert ;
for we fee, in the remains of their works, walls thus
carried up to an exorbitant height. It is to be obferved,
however, that, .befides perfeft truth in their perpen¬
diculars, they never grudged iron work, which contri¬
buted greatly to the ftrength of their buildings. The
thicknefs and diminution of walls is in a great meafure
arbitrary. In common houfes built of brick, the ge¬
neral diminution from the bottom to the top is one half
the thicknefs at the bottom ; the beginning is two
bricks, then a brick and an half, and laftly one brick,
thicknefs. In larger edifices, the walls muft be made
proportionally thicker; but the diminution is preferved
much in the fame manner. Where ftones are ufed, re¬
gard muft be had to their nature, and the propriety
of their figures for holding one another. Where the
wall is to be compofed of two materials, as ftone and
brick, theheavieft ought always to be placed undermoft.
There is one farther particular regarding the ftrength
of a plain wall, and that is, the fortifying its angles.
This is beft done with good ftone on each fide, which
gives not only a great deal of ftrength, but a great
deal of beauty. Pilafters properly applied are a great
ftrengthening to walls. Their beft diftance is about
every,20 foot, and they ftiould rife five or fix inches
from the naked of the wall. A much flighter wall of
brick with this affiftance, is ftronger than a heavier and
maffier one built plain. In brick walls of every kind,
it is alfo a great addition to their ftrength to lay fome
chief courfes of a larger and harder matter ; for thefe
ferve like finews to keep all the reft firmly together, and
are of great ufe where a wall happens to fink more on
one fide than another. As the openings in a wall are
all weakenings, and as the corners require to be the
ftrongeft parts, there ftiould never be a window very
near a corner. Properly, there fliould always be the
breadth of the opening firm to the corner. In the
moft perfeA way of forming the diminution of walls,
the middle of the thinneft part being direftly over the
middle of the thickeft, the whole is of a pyramidal
form ; but where one fide of the wall muft be perpen¬
dicular and plain, it ought to be the inner, for the fake
of the floors and crofs walls. The diminilhed fide, in
this cafe, may be covered with a fafcia or cornice, which
will at once be a ftrength and ornament.
Shimneys. Along with the conftru&ion of walls, that of the
chimneys muft alfo be confidered ; for errors in the con-
ftrudlion of thefe will render the mqft elegant building
extremely difagreeable. The common caufes of fmoak-
Vol. I.
|Windows
^mproper
ing are either that the wind is too much let in above at Pratfice.
the mouth of the ftiaft, or the fmoke is ftifled below :
and fometimes a higher building, or a great elevation
of the gfound behind, is the fource of the mifchief; or,
laftly, the room in which the chimney is may be fo
fmall or clofe, that there is not a fuflicient current of
air to drive up the fmoke. Almoft all that can be done
while the walls are conftru&ing to prevent fmoke is, to
make the chimney vent narrower atbottom than at top :
yet this muft not be carried to an extreme ; becaufe
the fmoke will then linger in the upper part, and all.
the force of the draught will not be able to fend it up.
—As for the methods of curing fmoky chimneys in
houfes already built, fee the article Chimney. ,,5
After the walls arefinilhed, the roof is the next con- Roofs,
fideration : but concerning it very little can be faid ;
only that its weight muft be proportioned to the ftrength
of the walls. It muft alfo be fo contrived as to prefs
equally upon the building; and the inner walls muft
bear their (hare of the load as well as the outer ones.
A roof ought neither to be too mafly, nor too light; as
being neceflary for keeping the walls together by its
preffure, which it is incapable of doing while too light;
and if too heavy, it is in danger of throwing them
down. Of thefe two extremes, however, the laft is to
be accounted the worft. jjg
With regard to the floors, they are moft commonly Floors,
made of wood ; in which cafe, it will be neceflary that
it ftiould be well feafoned by being kept a confiderable
time before it is ufed. The floors of the fame ftory
fhould be all perfedtly on a level; not even a threftiold
rifing above the reft: and if in any part there is a room
or clofet whofe floor is not perfe&ly level, it ought not
to be left fo, but raifed to an equality with the reft ;
what is wanting of the true floor being fupplied by a
falfe one.
In mean houfes, the floors may be made of clay, ox
blood, and a moderate portion of (harp fand. Thefe
three ingredients, beaten thoroughly together and well
fpread, make a firm good floor, and of a beautiful co¬
lour. In elegant houfes, the floors of this kind are
made of plafter of Paris, beaten and lifted, and mixed
with other ingredients. This may be coloured to any
hue by the addition of proper fubftances; and, when
well worked and laid, makes a very beautiful floor. Be¬
fides thefe, halls, and fome other ground-rooms, are
paved or floored with marble or ftone ; and this either
plain or dotted, or of a variety of colours : but thq
univerfal practice of carpetting has in a great meafure
fet afide the beftowing any ornamental workmanftiip
upon floors. In country buildings, alfo, floors are fre¬
quently made of bricks and tiles. Thefe, according
to their ftiapes, may be laid in a variety of figures; and
they are alfo capable of fome variation in colour, accor¬
ding to the nature of the earth from which they were
made. They may be laid at any time; but for thofe
of earth or plafter, they are beft made in the begin¬
ning of fummer, for the fake of their drying.
Chap. III. Of the Dijlribution of the Apartments
of Houfes, -with other conveniencies.
As houfes are built only for the fake of their inha¬
bitants, the diftribution of the apartments muft of ne-
ceflity be direfted by the way of life in which the in-
4 I habitants
622 A R C H I T
Praflice. habitants are engaged. In the country, this is com-
~ monly farming; and here, befides the houfe for the fa-
Plan of a mily, there is alfo neceffary a barn for the reception of
farm-houfe. the produce of the ground, a ft able for cattle, a cart-
houfe for keeping the utenfils under cover, and {beds
for other ufes.—To accomplifh thefe purpofes, let a
piece of ground be taken of five times the extent of
the front of the houfe, and inclofed in the leaft expen-
five manner. Back in the centre of this let the houfe
be placed, and in the front of the ground the barn and
the ftable, with the adjoining flieds. Thefe are to be
fet, one on each fide, to the extreme meafure of the
inclofed ground : they will thus fill up a part of the
entrance, and will leave all about the houfe fome inclo¬
fed ground by way of yard. From the barn to the
ftable may be extended a fence with a gate in the mid¬
dle, and this gate ought to front the door of the houfe.
This much being fettled, the plan of the houfe and
out-buildings may be made as follows. The door may
open into a plain brick paflage, at the end of which
may be carried up a fmall ftair-cafe. On one fide of
the paflage may be a common kitchen; and on the o-
ther fide a better or larger room, which will ferve the
family by way of parlour. Beyond this may (land on
one fide the pantry, and on the other the dairy room,
the laft being twice the fize of the former. They are
placed on the fame fide with the parlour, on account
of the heat of the kitchen, which renders it improper
to be near them. On the kitchen fide, a brew-houfe
may very conveniently be placed. More rooms may
be added on the ground-floor as occafion requires; and
the upper ftory is to be divided into bed-chambers for
the family, with garrets over them for the fervants.—
A houfe of this kind is reprefented 2d Plate XXXIX.
fig. i.; and (fig. 2.) one of a fomewhat better kind, where
a private gentleman who has a fmall family may find
ir8 conveniency.
Of ancle- 3d Plate XXXIX. fig. r. reprefents a gentleman’s
r-un- country-feat, built on a more elegant plan. Here the
iry eat. front may extend 65 feet in length, the depth in the cen¬
tre being 40 feet, and in each of the wings 45. The
offices may be difpofed in wings; the kitchen in the one,
and the ftables in the other; both of which, however,
may correfpond in their front with the reft of the build¬
ing, which they ought alfo to do with one another.
Thefe wings may have a projeftion of 13 feet from the
dwelling-houfe,to which they ought to be connected, not
by ftraight lines, but by curves, as reprefented fig. 2.
The beft proportion of thefe offices to a houfe ex¬
tending 65 feet in front, is 35 feet. If they are fmal-
ler, the houfe will look gigantic ; if larger, they will
leflen its afpe<ft. To a front of 35 feet, a depth of 48
is a very good proportion. There ought alfo to be
a covered communication between the dwelling-houfe
and offices, which muft not appear only to be a plain
blank wall, but mutt be ornamented with, gates, as in
the figure. The arch by which the offices are joined
to the dwelling-houfe muft be proportioned to the ex¬
tent of the buildings; and there cannot be a better pro¬
portion than five feet within the angles of the buildings.
By this means the wings, which have only a projeftion
of 13 feet, will appear to have one of 18, and the light
will be agreeably broken.
With regard to the internal diftribution of a houfe
sf this kind, the under ftory may be conveniently di-
E C T U R E. Part II.
vided into three rooms. The hall, which is in the cen- Praflice. |
tre, will occupy the whole of the projecting part, ha- j
ving a room on each fide. The length of the hall muft
be 24 feet, and its breadth 12 : the rooms on each fide
of it muft be 16 feet long, and 11 wide. Of thefe two
front rooms, that on the right hand may be convenient¬
ly made a waiting-room for perfons of better rank, and
that on the left hand a dreffing-room for the matter of
the houfe. Behind the hall may run a paflage of four
feet and an half, leading to the apartments in the hin¬
der part of the houfe, and the ftair-cafe. Thefe may
be difpofed as follows. Direftly behind the hall and
this paffage the fpace may be occupied by a faloon,
whofe length is 24 feet, and its breadth 17. On the
left hand of the paflage, behind the hall, is to be pla¬
ced the grand ftair-cafe; and as it will not fill the whole
depth, a pleafant common parlour may terminate on
that fide of the houfe. On the other fide, the paflage
is to lead to the door of the great dining parlour, which
may occupy the whole fpace. II9
A plan of a houfe of the fame kind, but fomewhat Another. |
different in the diftribution, is reprefented fig. 2. The 3d Plate |
front here extends 68 feet, and the wings projeft 28 XXXIX- |
feet; their depth is 48, and their breadth 36. The hall
may be 26 feet long, and 17 broad. On the left hand
of the hall may be a waiting-room 16 feet long, and lo
broad; behind which may be a handfome dining-room.
The paffage into this waiting-room fhouldbeatthelower
end of the hall; and it muft have another opening into
the room behind it. On the right hand of the hall is
the place of the great ftair-cafe, for which a breadth of
16 feet three inches is to be allowed. In the centre of
the building, behind the hall, may be a drawing-room
26 feet long, and 16 broad; and behind the ftair-cafe
will be room for a common parlour of 16 feet fquare.
The paffage of communication between the houfe and
wings mav be formed into colonnades in a cheap man¬
ner behind : a flight of fteps, raifed with a fweep, oc¬
cupying the centre of each, and leading up to a door,
and the covering being no more than a fired fupported
by the plaineft and cheapeft columns.
The two wings now remain to be difpofed of. That
on the right hand may contain the kitchen and offices
belonging to it, and the other the ftables. The front
of the right-hand wing may be occupied by a kitchen
entirely, which will then be 30 feet long, and i6|- wide;
or it may be made fmaller, by fetting off a fmall room to
the right. Twenty-two feet by 16 will then be a good
bignefs. The other room will then have the fame depth
of 16 feet, and the width to the front may be 74-.
Beyond the kitchen may ftand the ftair-cafe, for which
7-4 feet will be a proper allowance ; and to the right
of this may be a fcullery 12 feet 10 inches deep from
the back front by 7 in breadth. To the left of the
ftairs may be a fervants hall 16 feet fquare, and behind
that a larder 12 feet 10 by 14 feet 6. In the centre
of the other wing may be a double coach-houfe: for
which there fliould be allowed the whole breadth of
the wing, with 10 feet 6 inches in the clear; and on
each fide of this may be the ftables. The external de-
.corations of the front and wings will be better under-
ftood from the figure than they can be by any deferip-
tion. i2o
4th Plate XXXlX. ftiewstheplan and elevation of the Of MrChar|
houfe of Francis Charteris, Efq; atNewmills. The pro-tens shoufe*j
portions ;
2? Plate 5XXK.
AA a<re- fot
K\
Jy //<r, *A Ajucte t<l
4-* I’L'itemiX.
Part II. A R C H I T
Prafttce. portions of the rooms are marked in the plan; and the
~ front, being decorated with columns of the Ionic order,
will fufficiently (hew in what manner any of the five or¬
ders may be induced with propriety and elegance.
Chap. IV. Of Aquatic Buildings.
' (xi x. Of Bridges.
These are conftrufted either of wood or ftone ; of
which the laft are evidently the ftrongeft and moft du¬
rable, and therefore in all cafes to be preferred where
the expence of erecting them can be borne. The pro¬
per fituation for them is eafily known, and requires no
explanation ; the only thing to be obferved is, to make
them erofs the ftream at right angles, for the fake of
the boats that pafs through the arches, with the cur¬
rent of the river ; and to prevent the continual ftri-
king of the ftream againft the piers, which in a long
courfe may endanger their being damaged and deftroy-
ed in the end.
Bridges built for a communication of high roads,
ought to be fo ftrong and fubftantial as to be proof
againft all accidents that may happen, to have a free-
entrance for carriages, afford an eafy paffage to the
waters, and be properly adapted for navigation, if the
river admits of it. Therefore the bridge ought to be at
leaft as long as the river is wide in the time of its great-
eft flood : becaufe the Hoping of the water above may
cahfe too great a fall, which would prove dangerous to
the Veffels, and occafion the under graveling the foun¬
dation of the piers and abutments; or, by reducing
the paffage of the water too much in time of a great
flood, it might break through the banks of the river,
and overflow the adjacent country, which'would caufe
very great damages; or, if this fhould not happen, the
water might rife above the arches, and endanger the
bridge to be overfet, as has happened in many places.
When the length of the bridge is equal to the
breadth of the river, which is commonly the cafe, the
current is leffened by the fpace taken up by the piers :
for which reafon, this thicknefs fhould be no more than
is neceffary to fupport the arches; and it depends, as
well as that of the abutments, on the width of the ar¬
ches, their thicknefs, and the height of the piers.
The form of the arch is commonly femicircular; but
when they are of any great width, they are made ellip¬
tical, becaufe they would otherwife become too high.
This has been done at the Pont Royal, at Paris, where
the middle arch is 75 feet, and its height would have
been 37-5 feet, inftead of which it is only 24 by be¬
ing made elliptical.
Another advantage of much more importance arifes
from the oval figure, which is, that the quantity of ma-
fonry of the arches is reduced in the fame proportion
as the radius of the arch is to its height. That is, if
the radius is 36 feet, and the height of the arch ^4, or
three fourths of the radius, the quantity of mafonry of
the arches is likewife reduced to three-fourths; which
muft leffen the expence of the bridge confiderably.
Notwithftanding thefe advantages, however, the lateft
experiments have determined fegments of circles to be
preferable to curves of any other kind; and of thefe the
femicircle is undoubtedly the belt, as preffing moft per-
pendicujarly on the piers.
E C T U R E. 623
When the height of the piers is about fix feet, and praaice-
the arches are circular, experience has (hewn, fays Mr
Belidor, that it is fufficient to make the thicknefs of
the piers the fixth part of the width of the arch, and
two feet more ; that is, the thicknefs of the piers of an
arch of 36 feet, ought to be 8 feet; thofe of an arch
of 48 feet, to be 10. _ 123
When the arches are of a great width, the thicknefs Thicknefs
of the piers may be reduced to the fixth part of that of the Piers*
width; but the depreffion of the two feet is not done
at once; that is, in an arch of above 48 feet, 3 inches
are taken off for every 6 feet of increafe of the width
of the arch. For inftance, the thicknefs of the piers
fupporting an arch of 72 feet wide, ftiould be 14 feet,
according to the preceding rule; but by taking off
3 inches for every 6 feet, above an arch of 48 wide,
the thicknefs of the piers is reduced to 13 feet: confe-
quently, by following the fame rule, the thicknefs of
the piers fupporting an arch of 16 fathoms wide, will
be 16 feet; all the others above that width are the fixth
part of the width.
After this, Mr Belidor gives a rule for finding the
thicknefs of the piers which fupport elliptic arches, and
makes them ftronger than the former: the abutments
he makes one fixth part more than the piers of thelar-
geft arch. Butit is plain,that thefe rules are infufficient,
being merely guefs-work, determined from fome works
that have been executed. 124
The thicknefs of the arch-ftones is not to be deter- Of the arch-
mined by theory, nor do thofe authors who have writ- tones•
ten on the fubjeft agree amongft themfelves. Mr Gau¬
tier, an experienced engineer, in his works, makes the
length of the arch-ftones, of an arch 24 feet wade, two
feet; of an arch 45, 60, 75, 90 wide, to be 3, 4, 5, 6,
feet long refpeftively, when they are hard and dura¬
ble, and fomething longer when they are of a foft na¬
ture: on the contrary, Mr Belidor fays, they ought to
be always one twenty-fourth part of the width of the
arch, whether the ftone be hard or foft; becaufe, if they
are foft, they weigh not fo much.
But that the length of the arch-ftones fnould be but
a foot in an arch of 24 feet wide, 2, 3, 4, in arches of
48, 72, 96, feet, feems incredible ; becaufe the great
weight of the arches would crufh them to pieces, by
the preffure againft one another; and therefore Mr
Gautier's rule appears preferable: as he made the
length of the arch-ftones to increafe in a flower pro¬
portion, from 10 to 45 feet wide, than in thofe above
that width, we imagine that the latter will be fuffici¬
ent for all widths, whether they are great or littlej
therefore we (hall fuppofe the length of the arch-ftones
of 30 feet in width to be two feet, and to increafe one
foot in 15, that is, 3 feet in an arch of 45 feet, 4, 5, 6,
in an arch of 60, 75, and 90 feet; and fo the reft in
the fame proportion.
4 I 2 Table
form of
624
Pfaftice.
i»J
Explana¬
tion of the
table.
ARCHITECTURE. Part II.
Table containing the thicknefs of piers of bridges.
to 100 feet, for every 5 feet.
The other columns exprefs the thicknefs of pifcrs in
feet and decimals, according to the refpe&ive height at
the head of the column, and the width of the arch a-
gainft it in the firft column.
Thus, for example, let the width of the arch be 60
feet, and the height of the piers 12; then the number
12.718, under 12, and again ft 60, expreffes the thick¬
nefs of the piers, that is 12 feet, and 8.6 inches: we muft
obferve again, that the length of the key-ftone is 2 feet
in an arch of 30 feet wide; 3, 4, 5, 6, in an arch of 45,
60, 75, 90; that of 20 feet wide, one foot 4 inches;
and the length of any other width is found by adding
4 inches for every 5 feet in width.
As this table contains the thicknefles of piers in re-
fpeft to arches that are commonly ufed in pra&ice, we
imagined, that to carry it farther would be needlefs ;
becaufe the difference between the thicknefs of the piers
of any contiguous arches being but fmall, thofe between
any two marked here, may be made equal to half the
fum of the next below and above it: thus the thicknefs
of the piers of an arch 5 2 or 53 feet wide is nearly equal
to 10.222, half the fum of the thickneffes 9.805 and
10.64 of the arches 50 and 55 feet wide, when the
height of the piers i* 6 feet.
Reftangular piers are feldom ufed but in bridges o- Pra£tice.
ver fmall rivers. In all others, they projedt the bridge
by a triangular prifm, which prefents an edge to the Form of
ftream, in order to divide the water more eafily, and to piers,
prevent the ice from Iheltering there, as well as veffels
from running foul againft them: that edge is termina¬
ted by the adjacent furfaces at right angles to'each o-
ther at Weftminfter-bridge, and make an acute angle
at the Pont Royal of about 60 degrees; but of late
the French terminate this angle by two cylindric fur-
faces, whofe bafes are arcs of 60 degrees, in all their
new bridges. jiy
When the banks of the rivers are pretty high, the slope of the
bridge is made quite level above, and all the arches of bridge on
an equal width ; but where they are low, or for the each
fake of navigation a large arch is made in the middle of
the ftream, then the bridge is made higher in the middle
than at the ends: in this cafe, the Hope muft be made
eafy and gradual on both fides, fo as to form above
one continued curve line, otherwifc it appears difagree-
able to the eye. Mr Belidor will have the defcent of
that dope to be one twenty-fourth part of the length;
but this is undoubtedly too much, as one fiftieth part
of the length is quite fufficient for the defcent. Il3
The width commonly allowed to fmall bridges is 30 Width, &c.
feet: but in large ones near great towns, thefe 30 feet
are allowed clear for horfes and carriages, befides a
banquet at each fide for foot paffengers of 6 to 9 feet
each, raifed about a foot above the common road; the
parapet-walls on each fide are about 18 inches thick,
and 4 feet high; they generally projeft the bridge with
a corniih underneath ; fometimes balluftrades of ftone
or iron are placed upon the parapet, as at Weftminfter;
but this is only pra&ifed where a bridge of a great
length is made near the capital of a country.
The ends of bridges open from the middle of the two
large arches with two wings, making an angle of 45
degrees with the reft, in order to make their entrance
more free and eafy ; thefe wings are fupported by the
fame arches of the bridge next to them being continued
in the mannet of an arch, of which one pier is much
longer than the other.
Hovj the ’work is to be carried on.
J29
As the laying the foundation of the piers is the moft Methods of
difficult part of the whole work, it is neceffary we fhould Jfymg the
begin with an eafy cafe, that is, when the depth of the foundatIon“
water does not exceed 6 or 8 feet; and then proceed
to thofe which may happen in a greater depth of water. IJ(>
One of the abutments with the adjacent piers is in- By batar*
clofed by a dyke called batardeau by the Frendh, of a deans,
fufficient width for the work, and room for the work¬
men. This batardeau is made by driving a double row
of piles, whofe diftance is equal to the depth of water,
and the piles in each row are 3 feet from each other;
they are faftened together on the outfide by bonds of
6 by inches: this being done, frames of about 9 feet
wide are placed on the in fide to receive the boards
which are to form the inclofure : the two uprights of
thefe frames are two boards of an inch and half thick,
fnarpened below to be driven into the ground, and fa¬
ftened together by double bonds, one below, and the
other above, each feparatedby the thicknefs of the up¬
rights ; thefe bonds ferve to (fide the boards between :
after thefe frames have been driven into the ground as
hard
Part II. A R C H I T
Praftke. hard as can be, then the boards themfelves are likewife
driven in till they reach the firm ground underneath.
Between every two piles tie-beams are faftened to the
bonds of the piles, to fallen the infide wall to the outfide
one; thefe tie-beams are let into the bonds and bolted
to the adjacent piles: this being done, the bottom is
cleared from the loofe fand and gravel, by a machine
like thofe ufed by ballafl-heavers ; and then well pre¬
pared clay is rammed into this coffer very tight and
firm, to prevent the water from oozing through.
Sometimes thefe inclofures are made with piles only
driven clofe to each other; at others, the piles are notch¬
ed or dove-tailed one into the other; but the moft ufual
method is to drive piles with grooves in them, 5 or 6
feet diftant from each, other, and boards are let down
between them.
This being done, pumps and other engines are ufed
to draw the water out of the inclofure, fo as to be
quite dry; then the foundation is dug, and the Hones
are laid with the ufual precautions, obferving to keep
fome of the engines always Handing, in order to draw
out the water that may ooze through the batardeau.
The foundation being cleared, and every thing ready
to begin the work; a courfe of Hones is laid, the outfide
all round with the largeH Hretchers and headers that can
be had, and the infide filled with adders well jointed, the
whole laid in terrafs mortar: the facings are crampt
together, and fet in lead ; and fome cramps are alfo
ufed to faHen the facings with the infide. The fame
manner is to be obferved throughout all the courfes to
the height of low-water mark; after which the facings
alone are laid in terrafs mortar, and the infide with the
befi of the common fort. When the foundation is
carried to the height of low-water mark, or to the
height where the arches begin, then the fhaft or mid¬
dle wall is to be carried up nearly to the height of the
arches, and there left Handing till all the piers are fi-
nidied, in order that the mafonry may be fufficiently
131 dry and fettled before the arches are begun.
Proper As the piers end generally with an arch at each end,
baft1 °f tIie '*■ cuftomary to hiy the foundation in the fame man¬
ner: which is not fo well as to continue the bafe reft-
angular quite to the ends of the piers, and as high as
low-water mark; both becaufe the foundation be¬
comes then fo much broader, and alfo becaufe the
water will not be able to get under it: for when the
current fets againH a flat furface, it drives the fand and
mud againH it, fo as to cover it entirely; whereas if a
{harp edge be prefented to the Hream, it carries every
thing away, and expofes the foundation to the continual
adlion of the water, which in courfe of time muH de-
Hroy it.
After the intervals between the arches are filled up
with Hones laid in a regular manner without mortar,
and the gravel is laid over them; two drains or gutters
are to be made lengthwife over the bridge, one on each
fide next to the foot-path, about 6 feet wide and a foot
deep; which being filled with fmall pebble Hones,
ferve to' carry off the rain-water that falls on the bridge,
and to prevent its filtering through the joints of the
arches, as often happens.
How to build in water with Coffers.
The former method of laying the foundation by
means of batardeaus is very expenfxve, and often meets
E C T U R E. 625
with great difficulties: for when the depth of water is Praftice.
8 feet or more, it is fcarcely poffible to make the ba¬
tardeaus fo tight as to prevent the water from oozing
through them; and in that cafe the number of engines
required, as well as the hands to work them, become
very expenfive; and if part of the batardeau ffiould
break by fome extraordinary wind or tide, the work¬
men would be expofed to very great danger. *3^
The next and beff method therefore is to build with of
coffers, when it is pra&icable, fuch as were ufed at weftmUj_
Weffminffer bridge. Here the height of water was 6 Her bridge,
feet at a medium when loweff, and the tide rofe about
10 feet at a medium alfo: fo that the greateH depth
of water was about 16 feet. At the place where one
of the piers of the middle or great arch was to be,
the workmen began to drive piles of about 13 or 14
inches fquare, and 34 feet long, {hod with iron, fo as
to enter into the gravel with more eafe, and hooped a-
bove to prevent their fplitting in driving them : thefe
piles were driven as deep as could be done, which was
13 or feet below the furface of the bed of the river,
and 7 feet difiant from each other, pvallel to the {hort
ends of the pier, and at about 30 feet diHant from
them : the number of thefe piles was 34, and their in¬
tent to prevent any veffels or barges from approaching
the work, and in order to hinder boats from palling be¬
tween them, booms were placed fo as to rife and fall
with the water.
This being done, the ballaff-men began to dig the
foundation under the water, of about 6 feet deep, and
5 wider all round than the intended coffer was to be,
with an eafy Hope to prevent the ground from falling
in : in order to prevent the current from wafliing the
fand into the pit, fliort grooved piles were driven before
the two ends and part of the fides, not above 4 feet high¬
er than low-water mark, and about 15 feet diHant from
the coffer : between thefe piles, rows of boards were let
into the groves down to the bed of the river and fixed
there.
The bottom of the coffer was made of a Hrong grate,
confiHing of two rows of large timbers, the one long-
wife, and the other crofswife, bolted together with
wooden trunnels, ten feet wider than the intended foun¬
dation. The fides of the coffer were made of fir tim¬
bers laid horizontally clofe one over another, pinned with
oaken trunnels, and framed together at the corners,
excepting at the two faliant angles, where they were
fecured with proper irons, fo that the one half might be
loofened from the other if it fhould be thought necef-
fary ; thefe fides were lined on the infide as well as on
the outfide with three-inch planks placed vertically;
the thicknefs of thofe fides was 18 inches at the bot¬
tom, reduced to 15 above, and they were 16 feet high ;
befides, knee timbers were bolted at the angles, in or¬
der to fecufe them in the Hrongetl manner. The fides
were faHened to the bottom by 28 pieces of timber on.
the outfide, and 18 within, calledy?™//, about 8 inches
broad, and 3 or 4 inches thick, reaching and lap¬
ping over the ends of the fides : the lower part of thefe
Hraps had one fide cut dove-tail fafliion, in order to
fit the mortifes made near the edge of the bottom to re¬
ceive them, and were kept in their places by iron
wedges ; which being drawn out when the fides were
to be taken away, gave liberty to clear the Hraps from
the mortifes.
Before
626
Practice
Materials
employed.
J34
This me¬
thod fome-
times im-
♦prafticable.
ARCHITECTURE.
Before the coffer was launched, the foundation was
— examined, in order to know whether it was level; for
which purpofe feveral gauges were made, each of which
conlifted of a {tone of about 15 inches fquare, and 3
thick, with a wooden pole in the middle of about 18
feet long. The foundation being levelled and the cof¬
fer fixed direclly over the place with cables faftened to
the adjacent piles, the mafons laid the firft courfe of
the ftones for the foundation within it; which being fi-
nifhed, a fluiee made in the fide was opened near the
time of low-water ; on which the coffer funk to the
bottom ; and if it did not fet level, the fluice was fhut,
and the water pumpt out, fo as to make it float till
fuch time as the foundation was levelled : then the ma¬
fons crampt the Hones of the firft courfe, and laid a fe-
eond; which being likewife crampt, a third courfe was
laid: then the fluice being opened again, proper care
was taken that the coffer fhould fettle in its due place.
The ftone-work being thus raifed to within two feet of
the common low-water mark, about two hours before
low-water the fluice was fhut, and the water pumped
out fo far as tha'. the mafons could lay the next courfe
of ftone, which they continued to do till the water was
rifen fo high as to make it unfafe to proceed any far¬
ther : then they left off the work, and opened the fluice
to let in the water. Thus they continued to work night
and day at low-water, till they had carried their work
fome feet higher than the low-water mark: after this,
the fides of the coffer were loofened from the bottom,
which made them float; and then were carried afhore
to be fixed to another bottom, in order to ferve for the
next pier.
It muft be obferved, that the coffer being no higher
than 16 feet, which is equal to the greateft depth of
water, and the foundation being 6 feet under the bed
of the river; the coffer was therefore 6 feet underwa¬
ter when the tide was in; but being loaded with three
courfes of ftones, and well fecured with ropes faftened
to the piles, it could not move from its place. By ma¬
king it no higher, much labour and expence were fa¬
red; yet it anfwered the intent full as well as if it had
been high enough to reach above the higheft flood.
The pier being thus carried on above low-water
mark, the mafons finifhed the reft of it during the in¬
tervals of the tides in the ufual way; and after all the
piers and abutments were finifhed in a like manner, the
arches were begun and completed as mentioned before:
the whole bridge was built in about feven years, with¬
out any accidents happening either in the work or to
the workmen, which is feldom the cafe in works of this
nature.
It may be obferved, that all the piers were built
with folid Portland ftone, fome of which weighed four
tons. The arch-ftones were likewife of the fame fort:
but the reft of the mafonry was finifhed with Kcntifh
rag-Jio»es ; and'the paths for foot paffengers were paved
with purbec, which is the hardeft ftone to be had in
England, excepting Plymouth marble.
This method of building bridges is certainly the ea-
fieft and cheapeft that can be thought of, but cannot
be ufed in many cafes : when the foundation is fo bad
as not to be depended upon without being piled, or the
depth of water is very great, with a ftrong current and
no tide, it cannot then be pradtifed. For, if piles are
to be ufed, it will be next to impoffible to cut them off
Part II.
in the fame level five or fix feet below the bed of the Practice.
river, motwithftanding that faws have beers invented for ’
that purpofe : becaufe if they are cut off feparately, it
will be a hard matter to do it fo.nicely that the one fhall
not exceed the other in height; and if this is not done,
the grating or bottom of the coffer will not be equally
fupported, whereby the foundation becomes precarious :
neither can they be cut off all together; for piles are
to be driven as far as the bottom of the coffer extends,
which at Weftminifter bridge was 27 feet; the faw
muft have three feet play, which makes the total length
of the faw 30 feet; now if either the water is deeper
than it is there, or the arches are wider, the faw muft
ftill be longer; fo that this method is impratfticable in
any fuch cafes.
In a great depth of water that has a ftrong current
and no tide, the coffers muft reach above the water,
which makes them very expenfive, and unweildly to
manage, as well as very difficult to be fecured in their
places, and kept fteady: fo that there is no probabi¬
lity of ufing them in fuch a cafe. t
In fome cafes, when there is a great depth of water, Ruffian me-
and the bed of the river is tolerably level, or where it thod.
can be made fo by any contrivance, a very ftrong frame
of timber about four times as large as the bafe of the
piers may be let down with ftones upon it round the
edges to make it fink: after fixing it level, piles muft
be driven about it to keep it in its place; and then the
foundation may be laid in coffers as before, which are
to be kept fteady by means of ropes tied to the piles.
This method has frequently been ufed in Ruffia;
and though the bed of the river is not very folid, yet
fuch a grate, when once well fettled with the weight of
the pier upon it, will Be as firm as if piles had been
driven under the foundation ; but to prevent the water
from gulling under the foundation, and to fecure it a-
gainft all accidents, a row of dove-tail piles muft be dri¬
ven quite round the grating: this precaution being ta¬
ken, the foundation will be as fecure as any that can be
made. 13<;
The French engineers make ufe of another method French me¬
in raifing the foundations of mafonry under water; t^0^'
which is, to drive a row of piles round the intended
place, nearer to, or farther from each other, according
as the water is more deep or ihallow: thefe piles, being
ftrongly bound together in feveral places with hori¬
zontal tie-beams, ferve to fupport a row of dove-tail
piles driven within them : when this is done, and all
well fecured according to the nature of the fituation and
circumftances, they dig the foundation by means of a
machine with fcoops, invented for that purpofe, until
they come to a folid bed of gravel or clay ; or if the
bed of the river is of a foft confiftence to a great depth,
it is dug only to about 6 feet, and a grate of timber is
laid upon it, which is well fecured with piles driven
into the oppofite corners of each fquare, not minding
whether they exceed the upper furface of the grate
much or little.
When the foundation is thus prepared, they make a
kind of mortar called beton, which confifts of twelve
parts of pozolano or Dutch terrafs, fix of good fand,
nine of unflaked lime the beft that can be had, thir¬
teen of ftone fplinters not exceeding the bignefs of an
egg, and three parts of tile-duft, or cinders, or elfe
feales of iron out of a forge: this being well worked
together
lVL PJafexxXK
' L //> .'
Part II. ARCHITECTURE. 627
j Pratfice. together ttiufl be left Handing for about 24 hours, or
' till it becomes fo hard as not to be feparated without a
pick-ax.
This mortar being thus prepared, they throw into
the coffer a bed of ruble-ftone, not very large, and
fpread them all over the bottom as nearly level as they
can ; then they fink a box full of this hard mortar,
broken into pieces, till it come within a little of the
bottom ; the box is fo contrived as to be overfet or
turned upfide down at any depth ; which being dohe,
the pieces of mortar foften, and fo till up the vacant
fpaces - between the Hones; by thefe means they Jink
as much of it as will form a bed of about twelve inches
deep all over : then they throw in another bed of Hone,
and continue alternately to throw one of mortar and one
of Hone till the work approaches near the furface of the
Water where it is levelled, and then the refl is finithed
with Hones in the ufual manner.
Mr Belidor fays, in the fecond part of his hydrau¬
lics, Vol. ii. p. 188, that Mr Milet de Montville ha¬
ving filled a Coffer, Containing 27 cubic feet, with ma-
fohry made of this mortar, and funk it into the fea, it
was there left Handing for two months, and when it
137 was taken out again it Was harder than Hone itfelf.
fmpoltibi- We have hitherto mentioned firch fituations only
^f!fdwhere the ground is of a foft nature: but where it is
"nSfonieSeS rocky and uneven, all the former methods prove inef‘
?afes. feftual ; nor indeed has there yet been any one propo-
fed which can be always ufed upon fuch occafions, e-
fpecially in a great depth of water. When the Water
is not fo deep but that the unevennefs of the rock can
be perceived by the eye, piles Hrongly Jhod with iron
may be raifed and let fall down, by means of a machine,
upon the higher parts, fo as to break them off piece by
piece, till the foundation is tolerably even, efpecially
when the rock is hot very hard ; which being done ei¬
ther this or any other way that can be thought of, a
coffer is made without any bottom, which is let down and
well fecured, fo as not to move from its place : to make
ft fink, heavy Hones fhould be fixed on the outfide ;
then flrong mortar and Hones mufl be thrown into it;
and if the foundation is once brought to a level, large
hewn Hones may be let down fo as to lie flat and even:
by thefe means the work may be carried on quite up
to the furface of the water. But when the water is fo
deep, or the rock fo hard as not to be levelled, the
foundation muH be founded, f© as to get nearly the ri-
fings and fallings; then the lower part of the coffer
muff be cut nearly in the fame manner, and the reff fi*
nifhed as before. It muff however be obferved, that we
fuppofe a poffibility of finking a coffer; but where
this cannot be done, no method that we know of will
anfwer.
bottom of a foft nature: where the bridge was built, Praftice.
was the narroweff part of the river thereabout, for in 
tnoff others it is double or treble this breadth ; and al¬
though on this account it became fo much the deeper
and the more rapid, yet no other place was fo fuitable
for this undertaking. The arches were afterwards
broken down by Adrian; but the piers are Hill remain¬
ing, which feem as it were to teflify that there is no¬
thing which human ingenuity is not able to effe£t.’>
The whole length then of this bridge was 1590 yards;
fome authors add, that it Was built in one fummer, and
that Apollodorus of Damaicus was the architect, who
left behind him a defcription of this great work.
Where Hone bridges cannot be ere&ed on account Wooden
of the expence, very ffrong and durable ones may be bridges,
conffru&ed of Wood: in which cafe* they ought to be
fo framed, as that all the parts may prefs upon one a-
nother like the arch of a Hone bridge; and thus, in-
flead of being weakened by great weights palling over
them, they will become the Hronger. How this is
to be accomplifhed, will be better underffood from
3d Plate XXXIX. fig. 3. which reprefents a wooden
bridge coiiftnicted after this manner, than it can be
by any dcfcription.
2. Of Ha r b o u r s.
140
In thefe, the firft thing to be confidered is the fitua- Situation
tion; which may be fome large creek or bafon of wa- proper for
ter, in or near the place where the harbour is intended to b^bours*
be made, or at the entrance of a large river, or near the
fea : for a harbour filould never be dug entirely out of
dry land, unlels upon fome extraordinary occafions,
where it is impoffible to do otherwife, and yet a har¬
bour is abfolutely neceffary. When a proper place is
found, before it is fixed upon, it muff be confidered
whether {hips can lie there fafe in fformy weather, e-
fpecially when thofe winds blow which are moft dan¬
gerous upon that coaft ; whether there be any hills, ri-
fing ground, or high buildings, that will cover it; in
thefe cafes, the fituation is very proper: but if there be
nothing already that will cover the fliips, it mu ft be ob-
ferved whether any covering can be made at a moderate
expence, otherwife it would be ufelefs to build a har¬
bour there.
The next thing to be confidered is, whether there be
a fufficient depth of water for large fliips to enter with
fafety, and lie there without touching the ground; and
if not, whether the entrance and infide might not be
made deeper at a moderate expence: or, in cafe a fuffi¬
cient depth of water is not to be had for large fnips,
whether the harbour would not be ufeful for fmall tner-
chantment; for fuch a one is often of great advantage,
when fituated upon a coaft much frequented by fmall
3g Among the aquatic buildings of the ancients none
rajan’s appears to have been more magnificent than Trajr ~ ’~
.lie Danube
leicribed.
Trajan built a bridge over the Danube, which
in truth one cannot fufficiently admire; for though all
the works of Trajan are very magnificent, yet this far
exceeds all the others : the piers were 20 in number, of
fquare Hone; each of them 150 feet high above the
foundation, 60 feet in breadth, and diftant from one
another 170 feet. Though the expence of this work
muft have been exceeding great, yet it becomes more
extraordinary by the river’s being very rapid, and its
coafting veffels.
The form of the harbour muft be determined in fuch
a manner, that the ftiips which come in when it is
ftormy weather may lie fafe, and fo as there may be
fufficient room for as many as pafs that way: the
depths of water where the piers are to be built muft
be taken at' every 10, 15, or 20 feet diftance, and
marked upon piles driven here and there, in order that
the workmen may be dire&ed in laying the foundation. ,41
This being done, it muft be confidered what kind of Materials,
materials ar^ to be ufed, whether Hone, brick, or wood.
When Hones are to be had at a moderate price, they
ought
62,8
Praftice.
14a
French me¬
thod of
building.
H3
A prefe¬
rable one.
144
Another
method
with coffers,
A R C H I T
ought to be preferred, becaufe the work will be much
ftronger, more lafting, and need fewer repairs, than if
made with any other materials: but when Hones are
fcarce, and the expence becomes greater than what is
allowed for building the harbour, the foundation may
be made of Hone as high as low-water mark, and the
reft finilhed with brick. If this manner of building
Ihould ftiil be too expenfive, wood muft be ufed ; that
is, piles are driven as clofe as is thought neceflary,
■which being faftened together by crofs-bars, and cover¬
ed with ftrong oaken planks, form a kind of coffer,
which is filled with all kinds of ftones, chalk, and
Ihingles.
The manner of laying the foundation in different
depths of water, and in various foils, requires particu¬
lar methods to be followed. When the water is very
deep, the French throw in a great quantity of ftones at
random, fo as to form a much larger bafe than would
be required upon dry land; this they continue to with¬
in 3 or 4 feet of the furface of the water, where they lay
the ftones in a regular manner, till the foundation is
raifed above the water: they then lay a great weight
of ftones upon it, and let it ftand during the winter to
fettle; as likewife to fee whether it is firm, and refifts
the force of the waves and winds : after that, they fi-
nifti the fuperftru&ure with large ftones in the ufual
manner.
As this method requires a great quantity of ftones,
it can be pra&ifed only in places where ftones are in
plenty ; and therefore the following one is much pre¬
ferable. A coffer is made with dove-tail piles of about
30 yards long, and as wide as the thicknefs of the
foundation is to be ; then the ground is dug and level¬
led, and the wall is built with the beft mortar.
As foon as the mortar is tolerably dry, thofe piles
at the end of the wall are drawn out, the fide-rows are
continued to about 30 yards farther, and the end in-
clofed ; then the foundation is cleared, and the ftones
laid as before. But it muft be obferved, that the end
of the foundation finifhed is left rough, in order that
the part next to it may incorporate with it in a proper
manner ; but if it is not very dry, it will incline that
way of itfelf, and bind with the mortar that is thrown
in next to it: this method is continued till the whole
pier is entirely finilhed.
It muft likewife be obferved, that the piers are not
made of one continued folid wall; becaufe in deep wa¬
ter it would be too expenfive : for which reafon, two
walls are built parallel to each other, and the interval
between them is filled up with fhingle, chalk, and ftone.
As thefe walls are in danger of being thruft out or over-
fet, by the corps in the middle, together with the great
weight laid at times on the pier, they are tied or bound
together bycrofs-walls at every 30 or 40 yards diftance,
by which they fupport each other in a firm and ftrong
manner.
In a country where there is a great plenty of ftones,
piles may be driven in as deep as they will go, at about
two or three feet diftance; and when the roundation is
funk and levelled, large ftones may be let down, which
will bed themfelves: but care muft be taken to lay them
clofe, and fo as to have no two joints over each other;
and when the wall is come within reach, the ftones muft
be crampt together.
Another method pradfifed, is to build in coffers much
E C T U R E.
Part IT.
after the fame manner as has been done in building the Praftice.
piers of Weftminfter-bridge ; but as in this cafe the
ends of the coffers are left in the wall, and prevent their
joining fo well as to be water-tight, the water that pe¬
netrates through and enters into the corps may occa-
fion the wall to burft and to tumble down. Another
inconveniency arifing from this manner of building is,
that as there are but few places without worms, which
will deftroy wood where-ever they can find it; by their
means the water is let into the pier, and confequently
makes the work liable to the fame accident as has been
mentioned above. 145
To prevent thefe inconveniences, the beft method is, Rufliamm*-
to take the wood away, and joggle the ends of the walls thod'
together with large ftones, pouring terrafs-mortar into
the joints; when this is done, the water between the
two walls may be pumpt out, and the void fpace filled
up with ftone and fhingle as ufual: or if thefe joggles
cannot be made water-tight, feme dove-tail piles muft
be driven at each end as clofe to the wall as can be done,
and a ftrong fail-cloth put on the outfide of them,
which, when the water is pumpt out, will ftick fo clofe
to the piles and wall, that no water can come in. This
method is commonly ufed in Rufiia. ,4g
The thicknefs of a pier depends on two confidera- Thickneis j
tions: it ought to be both fuch as may be able to refift of Piers*
the ftiock of the waves in ftormy weather; and alfo to
be of a fufficient breadth above, that Ihips may be la¬
den or unladen whenever it is thought neceffary. Now,
becaufe the fpecific gravity of fea-water is about one
half that of brick, and as 2 to 5 in comparifon of ftone;
and fince the preffure of ftagnated water againft any
furface is equal to the weight of a prifm of water whofe
altitude is the length of that furface, and whofe bafe is
a right angled ifofceles triangle, each of the equal fides
being equal to the depth of the water; therefore a pier
built with bricks, whofe thicknefs is equal to the depth
of the water, will weigh about four times as much as
the preffure of the water againft it; and one of ftone of
the fame breadth, about 6 times and a quarter as much.
Now this is not the force to be confidered, fince this
preffure is the fame within as without the pier: but it
is that force with which the waves ftrike againft the
piers, and that depends on the weight and velocity of
the waves, which can hardly be determined ; becaufe
they vary according to the different depths of water,
the diftance from the ftiore, and according to the tides,
winds, and other caufes. Confequently the proper thick¬
nefs of the piers cannot be determined by any other
means than by experierite.
Pra&itioners fuppofe, that if the thicknefs of a pier
is equal to the depth of the water, it is fufficient; but
for a greater fecurity they allow 2, 3, or 4 feet more.
This might probably do, if piers were built with folid
ftones crampt together ; but as this is hardly ever the
cafe, and on the contrary, as the infide is filled up with
fhingle, chalk, or other loofe materials, their rule is
not to be depended upon: befides it makes the fpace
above too narrow for lading and unlading the fhips,
unlefs in a great depth of water; fo that it does not ap¬
pear that their method can be followed, excepting in a
very few cafes where the water has but very little mo¬
tion.
When ftone can be had, no other materials fhould be
ufed, becaufe they being of a larger bulk than brick,
will
Partll. A R C H I T
Practice. w;i] better refifl: the waves by their own weight, till
“ fuch time as the mortar is grown hard; for after this
is effe&ed, brick will refift better againft the aftion of
fea-water than foft ftones.
The wall muft: be built with terrafs mortar from the
bottom to the height of low-water mark, and the reft
finilhed with cinder or tile-duft mortar, which has been
found fufnciently good in thofe places where the wall is
wet and dry alternately. The upper part of the pier
fiiould be paved with flat hewn ftones laid in ftrong
mortar, in order to prevent any water from penetra¬
ting into it: iron rings ought alfo to be fixed here and
there at proper diftances, to fallen the (hips, and pre¬
vent them from linking againft the pier when agitated
by the waves.
ARC
Military Architecture, the fame with what is o-
therwife calledSee Fortification.
B ? .Sj.e Naval Architecture, the art of building Ihips *.
| ARCHITALASSUS, or admiral-lhell, a fynoni-
me of a fpecies of voluta. See Voluta.
ARCHITRAVE, in archite&ure, that part of a
I column which lies immediately upon the capital, being
* See drcii- the loweft member of the entablature *.
I «3«rf,n04o. Over a chimney, this member is called the mantle-
PI^xxvt pleceS ancl over doors or windows, the hyperthyron.
, ' ARCHIVAULT, in architecture, implies the in¬
ner contour of an arch, or a band adorned with mould¬
ings, running over the faces of the arch-ftones, and
bearing upon the impofts. It has only a fingle face in
the Tufcan order, two faces crowned in the Doric and
Ionic, and the fame mouldings as the architrave in the
Corinthian and Compolite.
ARCHIVE, or Archives, an apartment in which
are depofited the records, charters, and other papers of
a Hate or community.
ARCHMARSHAL, the grand marflial of the em¬
pire, a dignity belonging to the eleCtor of Saxony.
ARCHONS, in Grecian antiquity, were magiftrates
1 " *See the ar. appointed after the death of Codrus *. They were cho-
j tide Attica. fen from the moll illuftrious families, till the time of
Ariftides, who got a law pafied, by which it was en-
aCted, that, in electing thefe magiftrates, lefs regard
ftiould be paid to birth than to merit.
The tribunal of the archons was compofed of nine
officers. The firft was properly the archon ; by whofe
name the year of his adminiftration was diftinguilhed.
The title of the fecond was king ; that of the third,
polsmarchus : to thefe were added fix thefmothetce.
Thefe magiftrates, eleCled by the fcrutiny of beans,
were obliged to prove, before their refpe&ive tribes,
that they bad fprung, both in their father’s and their
mother’s fide, for three defcents, from citizens of A-
thens. They were likewife to prove that they were at¬
tached to the worlhip of Apollo, the tutelary god of
their country; that they had in their houfe an altar
confecrated to Apollo; and that they had been refpeft-
fully obedient to their parents ; an important and fa-
cred part of their charaCler, which promifed that they
would be faithful fervants to their country. They
were likewife to prove, that they had ferved in a mili¬
tary capacity the number of years which the republic
required of every citizen : and this qualification gave
Vol. I.
E C T U R E. 629
Wooden fenders or piles ftiould be driven at the in- Pl'aaice-
fide clofe to the wall, and crampt to it with iron, to
prevent the ftiips from touching them, and from being
worn by the continual motion. Where the fea breaks
againft the piers with great violence, breakers ftiould
be made at proper diftances; that is, two rows of piles
are driven nearly at right angles to the piers for the
length of about 12 or 15 feet, and at about 8 or 10
feet diftant from each other; and then another to join
the two former: thefe piles being covered with planks,
and the infide being filled with fliingle and ruble-ftones,
then the top is paved with ftones of about a foot in
length, fet long-wife to prevent the waves from tear¬
ing them up. This precaution is abfolutely neceflary
where the water ruflies in very ftrongly.
ARC
the ftate experienced officers; for they were not al¬
lowed to quit the army till they were forty years old.
Their fortune too, of which they were to inform thofe
before whom they were examined, was a warrant for
their fidelity.
After the commiffioners, who were appointed to in¬
quire into their charadler and other requifites, had
made a report of them, they were then to fwear that
they would maintain the laws; which obligation if they
neglefted, they engaged to fend to Delphi a ftatue of
the weight of their bodies. According to a law of So¬
lon, if an archon got drunk, he was condemned to pay
a heavy fine, and fometimes even puniflred with death.
Such magiftrates as the Athenian archons were well
entitled to refpedl. Hence it was eternal infamy to in-
fult them; and hence Demofthenes obferved, that to
treat the thefmothetse with difrefpeft, was to fhow dif-
refpeft to the republic.
Another qualification indifpenfably required of the
fecond officer of this tribunal, who was called the
was, that he had married the daughter of an Athenian
citizen, and that he had efpoufed her a virgin. This
was exa&ed of him, fays Demofthenes, becaufe part of
his duty was to facrifice to the gods, jointly with his
wife, who, inftead of appeafing, would have irritated
them, if ftie had not poflefied both thofe honours.
The inquiry into the private title of the nine archons
was very fevere ; and this attention was the more ne¬
ceflary, as they had a right to take a feat in the Are¬
opagus, after they had quitted their office, and given
an account of their adminiftration.
When any obfcurity occurred yi the laws, relative to
religion and the worftiip of the gods, the interpretation
was fubmitted to the tribunal of the archons.
Ariftotle obferves, that Solon, whofe aim was to make
his people happy, and who found their government in
his time ariftocratical, by the ele&ion of the nine ar¬
chons, who were annual magiftrates, tempered their
power, by eftabliftiing the privilege of appealing from
them to the people, called by lot to give their fuffrage,
aft»r having taken the oath of the Heliaftae, in a place
near the panathenasum, where Hiflus had formerly
calmed a fedition of the people, and bound them to
peace by an oath.
The archons were the principal officers, not only in
civil, but likewife in facred matters, and efpecially in
the myfteries of Bacchus. The archons, however,
4 K wh*
ARC [ 630 ] ARC
Archomki who were furnamed epony mi, were chiefly employed in
Arftium civil affairs; yet they prefided at the great feafts, and
1 L held the firft rank there. Hence they are fometimes
[tiled prlefts.
ARCHONTICI, in church-hiftory, a branch of
Valentinians, who maintained that the world was not
created by God, but by angels called Archontes.
ARCHTREASURER, the great treafurer of the
German empire, a dignity belonging to the duke of
Brunfwick, king of Great Britain.
ARCHYTAS of Tarentum, a philofopher of the
Pythagorean fe£t, and famous for being the mafter of
Plato, Eudoxas, and Philolaus, lived about 408 years
before Chrift. He was an excellent mathematician,
particularly in that part of the fcience which regards me¬
chanics ^ he isfaid to have made a wooden pigeon that
could fly, and to be the firft that brought down ma¬
thematics to common ufes. He is faid to be the in¬
ventor of the ten categories. He afferted, that God
was the beginning, the fupporter, and the end, of all
things. There are two epiftles preferved in Diogenes
Laertius, one from Archytas to Plato, and another
from Plato to Archytas. He acquired great reputa¬
tion in his legiflative capacity. He likewife command¬
ed the army feven times, and was never defeated ; but
was at laft caft away in the Adriatic Sea, and thrown
upon the coaft of Apulia.
ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a fmall handfome town of
France, in Champagne, feated on the river Aube. E.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 48.40.
ARCO, a ftrong town and caftle in the Trentin,
belonging to the houfe of Auftria. It was taken by
the French in 1703, and abandoned foon after. It
ftands on the river Sarca, near the north extremity of
the lake Garda. E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat. 45. 52.
ARCONA, a ftrong town fituated on the ifland of
Rugen in the Baltic. It flood on a high promontory,
with the eaft, north, and fouth fides defended by fteep
and lofty precipices, and the weft by a wall fifty feet
high, proportionably thick, and fecured by a deep and
broad ditch. It was, however, taken and ruined, in
1168, by Valdemar king of Denmark. One of the
conditions impofed by the conqueror was, that the in¬
habitants fhould deftroy a temple they had erected to
St Vitis, and deliver up the vaft treafure belonging to
this tutelary faint. Another was, that they fhould pay
40 filver yokes for oxen, by way of tribute, and enter
as foldiers in the Danifh fervice when called upon.
ARCOS, a ftrong city of Andalufia, in Spain,
feated on a high craggy rock, at the bottom of which
runs the Guadeleto. Its ftrength lies not only in its
fituation, but in the works erefted for its defence,
and it is inacceffible on every fide but one. The go¬
vernor refides in an old caftle, from whence there is a
delightful profpeft, which extends very far into the
neighbouring country. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat.
3(5. 40..
ARCTIC, in aftronomy, an epithet given to the
north pole ; and likewife to a circle of the fphere, pa¬
rallel to the equator, and twenty-three degrees thirty
minutes diftant from the north pole.
ARCTICA, in ornithology, a fynonime of a fpecies
of larus. See Larus.
ARCTIUM, Burdock ; a genus of the polygamia
aequalis order,belonging to thefyngenefia clafsof plants..
Species, See. Of this genus there are three fpecies,
the lappa or common burdock, the tomentofum, and
the peribnata. All thefe are troublefome weeds, fo re¬
quire no dire&ion for their culture. The roots, how¬
ever, laft but two years ; and therefore they are more
eafily deftroyed than fuch weeds as have perennial
roots. The tender ftems of the common kind, depri¬
ved of the bark, may be boiled and eat like ’fparagus.
When raw, they are good with oil and vinegar. Boys
catch bats by throwing the prickly heads of this fpecies
up into the air. Cows and goats eat this herb; fheep
and horfes refufe it; fwine are not fond of it. —This
fpecies is alfo ufed medicinally. The feeds have a Bit-
terifh fubacrid tafte: they are recommended as very ef¬
ficacious diuretics, given either in the form of emullion,
or in powder to the quantity of a dram. The roots tafte
fweetifti, with a flight aufterity and bitteriflinefs; they
are efteemed aperient, diuretic, and fudorific; and faid
to adl without irritation, fo as to be fafely ventured up¬
on in acute diforders *.
ARCTOTIS, a genus of the polygamia neceffaria
order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of plants. It
is commonly called aneviofpermos, from the refemblance
of its feeds to thofe of the anemone.
. Species. Of this genus there are it fpecies, all of
them natives of Ethiopia, or the Cape of Good Hope,
Of thefe the anguftifolia, with fpear-fhaped leaves, and
the afpera, with wing-fliaped woolly leaves, are moft
remarkable for their beauty, having rays of a fine yel
low or deep gold colour. They flower in May and
June.
Culture. All the fpecies of ardlotis may be propa¬
gated by cuttings ; which ftiould be frequently renew¬
ed, as the old plants are fubjedl to decay in winter.
They may be planted in any of the fummer months,
in a bed of light frefli earth; obferving to lhade them
from the fun, until they have taken root. They may
then be planted in pots filled with earth of the fame
kind, fetting them in a fhady place until the plants are
fettled in their new earth; after which, they fhould be
expofed to the open air until the latter end of Odlober,
or longer, if the weather is favourable, when they muft
be removed into the green houfe. They will require to
be fhifted into other pots, at leaft two or three times
every fummer; and the pots fhould be frequently remo¬
ved, to prevent the plants from ftriking their roots
through the holes.
ARCTURUS, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the
firft magnitude in the conftellation Ardlophylax, or
Bootes. See Bootes.
Ardturus rifes on the firft day of September, and
fets on the thirteenth day of May ; and has been fup-
pofed rarely to appear without bringing fome ftorm.
ARCUATION, in gardening, the method of rai-
fing trees by layers, which is done in the following
manner:
Strong mother-plants or ftools muft be planted in a
clear border, and in a ftraight line, about fix feet a-
funder. When thefe have fliot five or fix main branch¬
es from the root, and as many collateral branches, the
former muft be bent to the ground, and there faftened..
The fmall branches muft be covered three inches deep
upon the joints, and have a large bafon of earth made
round them to hold the water.
About the middle of September, they may be open-
ed„
ArdVotis.
' I!
Aicuaticni
* See Matt4
ria Medica,
n° lot.
ARC [ 63i ] A R D
Arcutio edj and, if they have taken root, may be immediately
Ardea removed into the nurfery; but if they have not fuffi-
 ciently extended their roots, they muft be fuffered to
remain till the fpring, and then tranfplanted.
ARCUTIO, a machine confifting of hoops, ufed
in Florence by nurfes, in order to prevent the child
from being overlaid. Every nurfe is obliged to lay
her child in an arcutio, under the pain of excommuni¬
cation.
ARDAMON, or Ardama, in antiquity, a veflel
of water placed at the door of a perfon deceafed, till
the time of burial, as a token that the family was in
mourning, and to ferve to fprinkle and purify perfons
as they came out of the houfe.
ARDASSES, the coarfeftof all the filks in Perfia.
ARDEA, in ornithology, a genus of the order of
grallae. The general charafters of this order are thefe:
The bill is ftraight, ftiarp, long, and fomewhat com-
prdfed, with a furrow that runs from the noftrils to¬
wards the point; the noftrils are linear ; and the feet
have four toes. Under this genus Linnaeus compre¬
hends the grus or crane, the ciconia or ftork, and the
ardea or heron, of other authors.
Plate XL. The firft fpecies is the pavonia, or crowned crane,
fig. i. which has an erett brifHy creft, with the temples and
two wattles naked. The head is black; the creft is
yellowifti, and tipped with black at the top ; the wings
are white ; and the feathers of the tail black, and of
an equal length. It is a native of Africa.
2. The grus, or common crane of Englifh authors,
has a naked papillous crown ; the prime feathers of the
wings are black; the body is alh-coloured*; the prime
feathers of the tall are ragged. It is a native of Eu¬
rope and Africa. It winters in Lithuania and Podo-
lia : Trans Pontum fugat, et terris immittit apricis.
Virg. This bird commonly refts upon one foot.—This
fpecies feems to have been formerly a native of Bri¬
tain ; as we find in Willoughby, page 53. that there
was a penalty of twenty pence for deftroying an egg
of this bird ; and Mr Ray informs us, that in his time
they were found during the winter in large flocks in
Lincolnfhire and Caihbndgeftiire : but at prefent the
inhabitants of thofe counties are fcarcely acquainted with
them ; fo that thefe birds feem now to have forfaken
our ifland.
Fig. 3. 3. The Americana, or hooping crane of Edwards,
is a native of America : The crown of the head and
temples are naked and papillous; the forehead, nape
of the neck, and prime wing-feathers, are black;
but the body is white : The under part of the head,
as far as the lower chap, is red ; the beak is yellowifti,
and jagged at the point; the feet are red, and the
prime tail-feathers white. Early in the fpring great
multitudes of them frequent the lower parts of the ri¬
vers near the fea, and return to the mountains in the
fummer. They make a remarkable hooping noife.
4. The ciconia, or white ftork of Ray, has naked
eye-balls, and black prime wing-feathers. The Ikin be¬
low the feathers, as alfo the beak, feet, and claws, are
of a blood-colour. It is a native of Europe, Afia,
and Africa ; but is feldom or never to be met with in
Italy. The ciconia feeds upon amphibious animals.
It is fuch an enemy to ferpents, that it is reckoned almoft
a crime to kill a ftork. From this favourable treatment,
they are feen in Holland and the Low Countries walk¬
ing unconcerned in the middle of the ftreets. Storks -ArJea.
are birds of pafiage ; they fpend the fummer in Eu-
rope, and difappear all at once, and go off to Egypt,
Ethiopia, &c. before winter, and do not return till
about the middle of March.
5. The major, or common heron, has a black creft;
depending from the back part of the head, an alli-co-
loured body, and a black line and belt on the neck and
breaft. It is a native of Europe. This bird is re¬
markably light in proportion to its bulk, fcarce weigh¬
ing three pounds and a half: the length is three feet
two inches; the breadth five feet four inches. The
body is very fmall, and always lean ; and thefldn fcarce
thicker than what is called gold-beater’s jkin. It muft
be capable of bearing a long abftinence, as its food,
which is filh and frogs, cannot be readily got at all
times. It commits great devaftation in our ponds ;
but being unprovided with webs to fwim, nature has
furniftied it with very long legs to wade after its prey.
It perches and builds in trees, and fometimes in high
cliffs over the fea, commonly in company with others,
like rooks. Itmakes its neft of fticks, lines it with wool;
and lays five or fix large eggs of a pale green colour.
During incubation, the male paffes much of its time
perched by the femal e. They defert their nefts during the
winter, exceptingin February, when they refort torepair
them. It was formerly in this ifland a bird of game,
heron-hawking being fo favourite a diverfion of our an-
ceftors, that laws were enafted for the prefervation of
the fpecies, and the perfon who deftroyed their eggs
was liable to a penalty of twenty {hillings for each
offence. Not to know the hawk from the heron-lhaw
was an old proverb *, taken originally from this diver- * In after
fion ; but in courfe of time ferved to exprefs great ig- t'mes
norance in any fcience. This bird was formerly much abfuully"
efteemed as a food; made a favourite difti at great ta- corrupted
bles, and was valued at the fame rate as a pheafant. It to, He does
is faid to be very long-lived : by Mr Keyfler’s account "ot j
it may exceed 60 years f ; and by a recent inftance of ijMd-f™™*
one that was taken in Holland by a hawk belonging to ^ Keyjler’s
the Stadtholder, its longevity is again confirmed, the Travels,
bird having a filver plate faftened to one leg, with an vol.I. p. 70.
infeription, importing it had been before ftruck by the
ele&or of Cologne’s hawks in 1735.—The cinerea of
Linnaeus is the female of this fpecies.
6. The garzetta, or egret, is crefted behind; the body
is white, the beak black, and the feet greenifti. It is a
moft elegant bird. It weighs about one pound; and the
length is 24 inches, to the end of the legs 32. It is a na¬
tive of the eaft. But that formerly it was very frequent in
Britain, appears by fome of the old bills of fare; in
the famous feaft of Archbiftiop Neville, we find no lefs
than a thoufand afterides f, egrets or egrittes, as it is £ Godwin de
differently fpelt. Perhaps the efteem they were in as a Przfu!.
delicacy during thofe days occalioned their extirpation
in our iflands ; abroad they are ftill common, efpecial- *
ly in the fouthern parts of Europe, where they appear
in flocks. The fcapulars and the creft were formerly
much efteemed as ornaments for caps and head-pieces ;
fo that aigrette and egret came to lignify any ornament
to a cap, though originally the word was derived from
aigre, a caufe de /’ aigreur de fa voix *.
6. The herodias, or criftata maxima of Catefby, is Ips‘
crefted behind, has a dulky-coloured back, reddifti
thighs, and the breaft fpeckled with oblong black fpots. 1‘
4 K 2 It
A R D [ 632 ] A R D
Anka It Is four feet and a half when ereft ; the bill is about
Ardebif inc^es from the angle of the mouth to the end of
, it; and the creft is made up of long, narrow, brown
feathers, the longeft being five inches in length, which
it can ereft and let fall at pleafure. It is a native
of Virginia, and feeds not only upon filh and frogs,
but on lizards, efts, &c.
7. The ftellaris, or bittern, has a fmooth head ; it
is variegated through the whole body with dark-colour¬
ed fpots of different figures andfizes. It is a native of
Europe, and inhabits chiefly the fen-countries. It is
met with fkulking among the reeds and fedge ; and its
ufual pofture is with the head and neck ereft, and the
beak pointed direftly upwards. It will fuffer perfons
to come very near it without rifing; and has been known
to ftrike at boys and at fportfmen, when wounded and
unable to make its efcape. It flies principally about
the dufk of the evening, and then rifes in a very Angu¬
lar manner, by a fpiral afcent, till it is quite out of
fight. It makes a very ftrange noife when it is among
the reeds, and a different and very Angular one as it ri¬
fes on the wing in the night. It builds its neft: with the
leaves of water-plants on fome dry clump among the
reeds, and lays five or fix eggs of a cinerous green co¬
lour. This bird and the heron are very apt to ftrike
at the fowler’s eyes, when only maimed. The food of
the bittern is chiefly frogs ; not that it rejects fifh, for
fmall trouts have been met with in their ftomachs. In
the reign of Henry VIII. it was held in much efteem
at our tables ; and valued at one fhilling. Its fleflt has
much the flavour of a hare, and nothing of the fifhi-
nefs of that of the heron.
8. The violacea, or crefted bittern of Catefby, has
a white creft; the body is variegated with black and
white, and bluifh below. Thefe birds are feen in
Corolina in the rainy feafons: but in the Bahama
Iflands, they breed in bufhes growing among the
rocks in prodigious numbers, and are of great ufe
to the inhabitants there ; who, while thefe birds
are young and unable to fly, employ themfelves in
taking them for the delicacy of their food. They
are, in fome of thefe rocky iflands, fo numerous, that
in a few hours two men will load one of their calapatch-
esy or little boats, taking them perching from off the
rocks and bufties, they making no attempt to efcape,
tho’ almoft full grown. They are called by the Baha¬
mians crab-catchers, crabs being what they moftly fub-
fift on; yet they are well-tafted, and free from any
rank or fifhy favour.
Linnasus enumerates 19 other fpecies.
Ardea, a town of Latium, the royal refidence of
Turnus, king of the Rutuli, (Livy) ; fo called, either
from the augury of the heron, (Hyginus) ; or from
the exceffive heat of the country, (Martial). It was
a marfhy, fickly fituation, (Strabo, Seneca). It was
built by Danae, the mother of Perfeus, (Virgil) ; a-
bout five miles diftant from the fea, and 20 from
Rome: now a hamlet. It was a Roman colony, (Li¬
vy). The inhabitants are called Ardeates* E. Long.
17. 49. Lat. 41. 30.
ARDEBlL, or Ardevil, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Aderbijan. It was taken and burnt by
Jenghiz Khan in 1222, when moft of the inhabitants
were deftroyed : but it has been fince re-built ; and is
ftill ranked for dignity among the beft cities of the
kingdom, on account of its having been the refidence Ardebil,
and burying-place of fome of the Perfian kings ; par- Arden‘
ticularly, the fepulchre of Sheik Sell is at this place,
to which the people refort in pilgrimage. He founded
a place, which they call his kitchen, with a revenue v
fufficient to maintain a thoufand poor people, and to
feed them three times a day. Three or four of the
larged principal ftreets have {hops, and are planted on
each fide with elms and linden trees, to keep off the
exceffive heat of the fun ; but the houfes are poorly
built, with bricks dried in the fun : yet moft of them,
that are not in the bazars or market-places, have
the pleafure and conveniency of a garden full of trees
bearing fruit; and there are large fpots in the out-
parts of the town, where the houfes are at a diftance
from each other, and the fpaces between planted with
trees, which render the city of a large extent. The
meidan, or great fquare, is 300 paces long, and 150
broad, having {hops all round, which, when this place
was in a flouriftiing condition, were ftored with all
manner of valuable commodities.
Through the city there pafs two branches of a rivu-
let^ which have been fometimes fo enlarged by the melt¬
ing of the fnow on the mountains, that they have
been forced to make canals to divert the dream. In
the reign of Sha Abbas, it broke down the dykes, and
carried away a great number of houfes. The city is
without walls, and is feated in the midft of a large
plain encompaffed with mountains, the higheft of which
lies weftward, and is always covered with fnow. Thefe
render the air fometimes extremely hot, and at others
intolerably cold, which occafion epidemical diftempers,
that carry off great numbers of people. The foil pro¬
duces no fruit near the city but apples, pears, and peach¬
es ; and yet is good both for corn and pafture. The
ftieep are fo numerous, that 100,000 have paffed over
the city-bridge in a day. There are here feveral forts
of mineral waters, which ferve both for common bath¬
ing, and for the cure of various difeafes ; one of thefe
is a fulphureous fpring, whofe exhalations render the
circumambient air extremely difagreeable. There are
three fprings, which produce as hot water as if it was
boiling, and from which waters are conveyed to the
public baths in the city. About half a league from
the city, on the right hand of the public road, there
is a pool of Handing water, which is covered all over
with fait like ice. E. Long. 47. 30. N. Lat. 37. 55.
ARDEN, the common name of forefts among the
Celtas, from the wildly extenfive one which ranged for
500 miles in length acrofs the country of Gaul; or
covered more than half the county of Warwick in Bri¬
tain, and the files of which ftill retain the appellation
of Arden, to the much fmaller one of the ancient Man-
cenion, that covered and furrounded the file of the
prefent Manchefter. Written Arduen by Caefar and
Tacitus in fpeaking of the foreft in Gaul, and Ardven
by Offian in mentioning the woods of Caledonia, it
cannot be compounded of ar the prepofitive article in
Celtic, and the fubftantive den, as Baxter and Camb-
den affert it to be ; but is formed of ard an adjective,
and ven the fame as den. The meaning of the name
therefore is not, as Mr Baxter renders it, {imply the
hills, or even, as the ingenious tranflator of Offian in¬
terprets it, the high hill. Ard fignifies either high or
great, and ven or den either an hill or ’wood. Arduen,
Ardven y
A R D [ 633 ] ARE
, Ardenburg Ardven, or Arden, then, means a confiderable wood.
Hence, only, the name became applicable to fuch very
r s' different fites, as the plains of Warwickihire and the
bills of Scotland: and it was given, not only to the
moft extenfive forefts, to that which was the greateft
' * See Ar- in Gaul *, or fo confiderable in Britain ; but to many
>1 °enne- that were important only within their own contracted
diftrifts, as the wood of Mancenion abovementioned,
and others. See Manchester.
ARDENBURG, a town of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Flanders, and formerly the moft confiderable in
that country ; but has been difmantled by the Dutch.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 51. 16.
ARDENNE, a foreft in France, formerly of vaft
extent; but the trees are in many places grubbed up,
and where they flood are built cities, towns, and ab¬
beys. At prefent it extends from Thionville, near the
country of Liege, to Donchery and Sedan, on the con¬
fines of Champagne. The roads are fo narrow in fome
places, that two waggons cannotpafs each other; and
therefore the waggoners are obliged to provide them-
felves with bells or horns to give one another notice to
flop in time.
ARDENTES, in middle age writers, an appella¬
tion given to thofe affli&ed with the Ignis Sacer, or
JEryfipelas. They were thus called, as feeming to be
fcorehed or burnt with the difeafe. Hence alfo the ab¬
bey of St Genevieve at Paris is called Domus Arden-
tium, by reafon, as it is faid, that great numbers were
cured of that diftemper at the fhrine of this faint, in the
reign of Lewis VI.
ARDES, a town of France, in Lower Auvergne,
and the principal place of the duchy of Mercoeur. It
ferves as a mart for the commodities and trade between
Upper and Lower Auvergne. E. Long. 3. 10. N.
Lat. 45. 22.
ARDRAH, afmall territory or kingdom of Africa,
in Guinea properly fo called. It lies at the bottom
of the gulph of St Thomas, and has a town called Ar-
dres, fuppofed to be the capital. The inhabitants are
very licentious, and have neither temple, nor any place
for religious worfhip. However, they are very courage¬
ous; and their king was abfolute till lately that the king
of Dahomay made war upon this and the neighbouring
territories, brought them under fubje&ion, and burnt
the towns, particularly Ardres. The air is very un-
wholefome to Europeans ; yet the natives live to a great
age ; but the fmall-pox makes great deftru&ion among
them. This country is fertile in Indian corn, palm-
wine, plants, and fruits, which lafl all the year; and
they make a great deal of fait.
ARDRES, a fmall but ftrong town of France, in
Lower Picardy. Here was an interview between Fran¬
cis I. and Henry VIII. king of England in 1520. It
is feated in the midft of a morafs. E. Long. 2. o.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
ARDS, barony of, in the county of Down in Ire¬
land: it is a narrow flip of land, in fome places three,
and in none above fix miles broad; but the foil is for
, the moft part tolerably good. It lies between the lake
of Strangford and the fea, and in the fouth part it is
oppofite to Lecale. Sir Thomas Smith obtained a pa¬
tent for this barony from Queen Elizabeth, and fent
his natural fon with a colony to poffefs it; but he was
intercepted and llain by an Irilhman. After Sir Tho¬
mas’s death, Ards was granted by James I. to fome of Arduba.
the Scots nobility. Areca
ARDUBA, an ancient city of the Pannonians. It  1—
was taken by Germanicus about the 7th year of the
Chriftian asra ; but its reduction was more owing to the
difagreement that reigned among the inhabitants, than
to the valour of the Romans. The greater part of the
citizens were for fubmitting; but the women, more fond
of their ancient laws and liberties than the men, join¬
ed fome Roman deferters, and, falling ftpon their huf-
bands, killed a great number of them: but being at laft
overcome by the men, who then fubmitted to the Ro¬
mans, the women either threw themfelves headlong
from the tops of the walls, or, fetting fire to their
houfes, burnt themfelves and their children to death.
AREA, in geometry, denotes the fuperficial con¬
tent of any figure. See Geometry.
AREBO, or Arebon, a town on the flave-coaft
of Guinea, in Africa, feated at the mouth of the river
Formofo. The Englifli had once a fadlory there, as
the Dutch have ftill. It is a large oblong place, in¬
differently well peopled, and furnilhed with houfes built
of reeds and leaves. E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 5. o.
ARECA, in botany, a genus of the order of pal-
mse pennatifoliae. The male has no calix, but three
petals, and nine ftamina ; the female has no calix ; the
corolla has three petals, and the calix is imbricated.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the cathecu, a native
of India. This has no branches, but its leaves are very
beautiful: they form a round tuft at the top of the
trunk, which is as ftraight as an arrow. It grows to
the height of 25 or 35 feet, and is a great ornament
in gardens. The (hell, which contains the fruit, is
fmooth without, but rough and hairy within, in which
it pretty much refembles the (hell of the cocoa-nut. Its
fize is equal to that of a pretty large walnut. Its ker¬
nel is as big as a nutmeg, to which it bears a great
refemblance without, and has alfo the fame whitifli veins
within when cut in two. In the centre of the fruit,
when it is foft, is contained a greyilh and almoft liquid
fubftance, which grows hard in proportion as it ripens.
The fruit when ripe is aftringent, but not unpalatable,
and the ihell is yellowilh. Of this fruit there is a pro¬
digious confumption in the Eaft Indies, there being
fcarce any perfon, from the richeft to the pooreft, who
does not make ufe of it; and the trade they drive in it
is incredible. The chief ufe that is made of areca is to
chew it with the leaves of betel, mixing with it lime
made of fea-(hells *. In order to chew it, they cut the * Cornelius
areca into four quarters, and take one quarter of it, le Brun af-
which they wrap up in a leaf of betel, over which they ^erts t,1at
lay a little of the lime; afterwards they tie it, by twift- fhey ru^ 'he
ing it round. I his bit prepared tor maftication, is te| w;th a
called pinang; which is a Malayan word, ufed all over red drug of
the Eaft Indies. The pinang provokes fpitting very Siam or with
much, whether it be made with dried or frefti areca; whlte ehallt*
the fpittle is red, which colour the areca gives it. This
maftication cools the mouth, and faftens the teeth and
gums. When they have done chewing the pinang, they
fpit out the grofs fubftance that remains in the mouth.
They are under a miftake who imagine that frelh areca
melts entirely in the mouth. Nor is it a lefs miftake to
think that the teeth which are tinged red during the time
of chewing, always retain that colour. As foon as they
have done chewing the pinang, they wa(h their mouth
with
ARE [ 634 ] ARE
A relate with frefh water, and then their teeth are white again.
Arcntbour r^^ie Europeans who live at Batavia, or Malaca, and in
   . the Sunda and Molucca iflands, ufe pinang as much as
the Indians do; and by waihing their teeth they preferve
them white. Some pretend that arcca ftrengthens the
ftomach, when the juice of it is fwallowed, as moft of
the Indians do. Another property aferibed to it is,
its curing or carrying off all that might be unwhole-
fome or corrupt in the gums. When eaten by itfelf,
as is fometimes done by the Indians, it impoverifhes
the blood, and caufes the jaundice; but is not attend¬
ed with thefe inconveniences when mixed in the ufual
way with betel.
The Samefe call it plou in their language. Thebeft
areca of the Indies comes from the ifland of Ceylon.
The Dutch Eaft-India company fend a great deal of
it in their (hips into the kingdom of Bengal. There
grows in Malabar a fort of red areca, which is very
proper for dying in that colour. The fame company
fend fome of it from time to time to Surat and Ama-
dabat, for the ufe of the dyers in the dominions of the
Grand Mogul.
ARELATE, or Arelatum, is a town of Gal¬
lia Narbonenfis, Ctuated on the Rhone, denoting a
town on, or beyond, a marrti, according to the
particular fituation of the fpeaker; called Prelate
Sextanorum, (Pliny, Mela, Coin), becaufe it had a
colony of the iixth legion. Writers of the lower age
call \\.Arelas, at is, (Prudentius, Aufonius). There was
a double Arelas, one on each fide of the river and join¬
ed by a bridge, (Aufonius) ; that on the left fide is
thought to have been built by Conftantine. Tiberius’s
father was fent by Julius Csefar at the head of the co¬
lony, (Suetonius) ; and hence the appellation Julia
Paterna, as appears from an infeription. It was the
favourite place of the Romans, and greatly ornament¬
ed ; and hence called Gallula Roma, (Aufonius). It
* See ArUs. is now called Arles *. E. Long. 5. 5. Lat. 43. 40.
AREMBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, defended by a caftle. It is the
capital of a county of the fame name, and was erefted
into a principality by the emperor Maximilian II. in
favour of John de Ligne, lord of Barbazon, who took
the name of Aremberg. It is feated on the river Ayr.
E. Long. 7. 3. N. Lat. 50. 27.
ARENA, in Roman antiquity, a place where the
gladiators fought; fo called from its being always ftrew-
cd with fand, to conceal from the view of the people
the blood fpilt in the combat.
ARENARII, in antiquity, gladiators who combat¬
ed with beads in the arena, or amphitheatre. The a-
renarii were flaves of the lowed rank; fo that, though
manumitted, they were not capable of being Roman
citizens. They were the fame with what were other-
wife called Bejliarii.
ARENARIUM, in ecclefiadical writers, denotes a
cemetery or burying-ground. The arenaria were pro¬
perly a kind of pits, or holes, underground, wherein
the ancient Chridians not only buried their dead, but
held their religious ademblies in times of perfecution.
ARENSBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Wedphalia, upon the river Roer. E. Long.
8. 20. N. Lat. 51. 25.
ARENSBOURG, an epifcopal and maritime town
of Livonia in Sweden, feated in the ifle of Oiel, in the
Baltic Sea. E. Long. 22. 40. N. Lat. 58. 15. Areola,
AREOLA, among anatomids, the coloured circle Areopagus.
furrounding the nipple of the bread.
AREOPAGUS, a fovereign tribunal at Athens, fa¬
mous for the judice and impartiality of its decrees, to
which the gods themfelves are faid to have fubmitted
their differences. It was in the town, on a rock or J
hill oppofite to the citadel*. The word fignifies drift- ■I
ly, rock of Mars.
Plutarch attributes the edablidimeut of the Areopa¬
gus to Solon. Other authors think differently: and
with good reafon; for it appears undeniable, that this
tribunal was indituted before Solon. But the bed au¬
thorities allow him the honour of its redoration. The
city of Athens, governed till this time by tribunals of
a circumfcribed jurifdiftion, which were multiplied by
the mod trifling accidents and circumdances, took no
fixed political or civil form, however clofely united the
members of thofe tribunals were by their general view*
towards the public good and by the common love of
their country. As each of thofe tribunals could only aft
in proportion to the power delegated to it, it was im-
poflible that fo many different and unequal impreflions
ffiould give to the great machine of the date that uni¬
form and regular movement which, by an impulfe al¬
ways the fame, would keep each part in the fituation
it ihould maintain with relation to the whole.
To effeft this univerfal and harmonious power, it
was neceffary to unite the different channels of public
authority, which, by being too much didributed, lod
its force. This authority Solon collefted, and placed
it all in the court of Areopagus, which confequently
became the main fpring of the government. The jud¬
ges of this court, who, under Draco, decided only in
cafes of murder, now took cognizance of crimes of e-
very kind ; and the fame tribunal which inflifted ca¬
pital puniihment on murder, poifoning, burning ofhou-
fes, theft, &c. druck at the roots of thofe crimes, by
arraigning idlenefs, luxury, and debauchery. Equally
attentive to dimulate the indolence of the young, and
the languor of the old, thefe fage judges roufed in the
one the laudable ambition to ferve the date, and redo-
red to the others their former aftivity. Satisfied that
extremes produce the fame effefts, they thought the re¬
public had as much to fear from the excefs of wealth as
from the gripe of poverty. Hence they exafted a mi¬
nute account of the effefts of every individual. Hence
their great feverity to thofe idle citizens who, indead of
being ufeful members in a date, are its bane and its dif-
honour. Ifocrates draws a mod beautiful and driking
pifture of thofe venerable and adonifhing men, and of
the order and harmony which flourifhed in Athens by
their wife adminidration.
The judges of the Areopagus, fays that author, were
more indudrious to prevent crimes,by reprefentingthem
in an odious light, than to edablidi modes of punidt-
ment. It was their opinion, that the enemies of the
date were the indruments dedined by the gods to pu-
nilh the wicked ; but that it was their province to cor-
reft and reform public and private manners. They were
vigilantly attentive to the conduft of all the citizens,
but particularly to that of the youth. They well knew
that the impetuofity of juvenile pafiion gave the mod
violent {hocks to health and growing virtue ; that it
was the duty of infpeftors of education to foften the
aufferity
ARE [ 635 ] ARE
Areopagus, aufterity of moral difcipline with innocent plea fa re ;
and that no recreations were more eligible than bodily
exercifes, which enable a young man to give a good
education its full play, which improve health, give a
pleafurable and agreeable vivacity, and even fortify the
mind. The fortunes of the Athenians were too unequal
to admit the fame mode of education ; and therefore
the youth were trained in a manner fuitable to the rank
and circumftances of their refpedtive families. Thofe
of the inferior claffes were taught agriculture and com¬
merce ; from this principle, that idlenefs is followed by
indigence, and that indigence excites to the moft da¬
ring and atrocious crimes. Having thus endeavoured,
by wife precautions, to preclude the entrance of moral
evil, they thought they had little to fear.
Exercifes of the body, fuch as horfemanfliip and hunt¬
ing, were objects of education to the youth of liberal
fortune. In this fage diftribution, their great aim was
to prevent the poor from committing crimes, and to
facilitate to the rich the acquifition of virtue. Not fa-
tisfied with having eftablifKed good laws, they were
extremely careful to lee that they were obferved. With
this view, they had divided the city into quarters, and
the country into cantons. Thus every thing pafied
under their eyes 5 nothing efcaped them ; they were
acquainted with the private conduct of every citizen.
Thofe who had been guilty of any irregularity were
cited before the magiftrates, and were reprehended, or
punirtied in proportion to their mifdemeanour.
Thefe fame Areopagites obliged tj»e rich to relieve the
poor. They reprelfed the in temperance of the youth by
a fevere difcipline. Corruption in magiftrates was fup-
preffed by th6 punilhments denounced againft it ; and
the old men, at the fight of the employments of the
young, felt themfelves animated with a degree of juve¬
nile vigour and activity.
Religion came likewife under the cognizance of the
Areopagites. Plato durit never, as we are told by
Juftin Martyr, divulge his private opinion concerning
the Deity. He had learned from the Egyptians the
doftrine of Mofes. It appeared to him the beft, and
he embraced it with ardour. But his dread of the
Areopagites, who were attached to the prevailing fy-
ftem, would not permit him even to name the author of
fentiments which oppofed the common tradition.
The public edifices, the cleannefs of the ftreets, the
pay of the foldiers, the dillribution of the public mo¬
ney ; in a word, whatever interefted the republic, was
under the direction of the Areopagus. The people
themfelves, jealous as they were of their power, did no¬
thing without confulting this affembly, and fuffered it,
without a murmur, to amend their precipitate decrees.
Yet this authority, however great it may feem, was
fubjedl to the laws ; by them rewards and punilhments
were determined; and thofe refpe&able judges gave an
account of the exercife of their truft to public cenfors,
who were placed betwixt them and the people, to pre¬
vent the ariftocracy from growing too powerful.
The moft important qualifications were required in
thofe who entered into the Areopagus. Solon made
a law, by which they who had not been archons for
a year Ihould not be admitted members of the Areopa¬
gus. To give more force to his law, he fubjefted him-
fielf to it, and was only admitted on that title. This
was but the firft ftep ; thofe annual magiftrates, after
having given law to the republic, were interrogated on Areopagus.
their adminiftration. If their condudt was-found ir¬
reproachable, they were admitted Areopagites with
eulogium ; but the fmalleft mifconduft excluded them
from that honour for ever. What adminiftration was
not to be expected from a tribunal fo well compofed ?
what veneration was not due to men of fuch rare talents
and virtue ? Such refpeft was paid them, that people
prefumed not to laugh in their prefence ; and fo well
cftablifiied was their reputation for equity, that thofe
whom they condemned, or difmiffed without granting
their petition, never complained that they had been un-
juftly treated.
The edifice of the Areopagus was extremely fimple;
and its roof, which was at firft of the moft common
materials, remained in that ftate till the time of Au-
guftus. This we learn from Vitruvius. Oreftes was
the firft who thought of embelliftiing it. He raifed in it
an altar to Minerva. He likewife adorned it with two .
feats of folid filver; on one of which the accuftr fat,
and the accujed on the other. The one feat was confe- !
crated to Injury, and the other to Impudence. This
religious /ketch was brought to perfection by Epime-
nides, who ercCted altars to thofe allegorical deities,
and foon after a temple, which Cicero mentions in his ■
fecond book of laws. This temple correfponded with
that which Oreftes had built to the Furies, who bi-ought i
him to Athens, and procured him the protection of
Minerva. Epimenides dedicated it a fecond time to the
Furies, or fevere Godejfes, as they were termed by the
Athenians. A man was thought loft without refource,
and a victim to every human ill, if he enforced a per¬
jury by invoking the facred name of thofe tremendous
divinities.
Thofe who employed their thoughts in folving the
mtyfteries of Paganifm, imagined that the Eumenides-
had their temple fo near the court Areopagus, that they
might enlighten the judges by their infpiration, and, by
their continual affiftance, prevent them from committing
thofe errors to which human jveaknefs is liable.. To
propitiate thofe terrible deities, and to procure their fa¬
vour for the Areopagus, they were worfhipped with
great punctuality and devotion ; and the fenate itfelf
appointed their priefts. Demofthenes had been nomi¬
nated to prefide over their facrifices; and he thought
it very extraordinary, that he, to whom the republic
had confided fo important an office, ffiould be publicly
impeached.
It was natural to afibciate with the Eumenides
the other deities who /hared with them the fovereigs
empire over the dead. Epimenides placed in their
temples the ftatues of Pluto, of Mercury, and of Tel-
lus. They were all, according to Paufanias, of an a-
greeable form. Each of them was placed upon an al¬
tar, on which the citizens, or ftrarrgers, who had been
acquitted by the Areopagus, made their grateful of¬
ferings.
But it was not to gratitude alone that thefe feveral
deities owed all the incenfe that fmoked upon their al¬
tars. They who had been accufed before the fenate,
haraffed witli fuperftition, and uncertain how thefe dei¬
ties would be affeCted towards them, were lavi/h of fa¬
crifices to obtain their clemency, by which they hoped
their judges would likewife be influenced.
The tomb of Oedipus was another of the ornaments
of
ARE
Areopagus.
ARE [ 636 ]
of the Areopagus. It was in the outward court of the
Areopagus, where a barge was likewife placed, which
made a part of the pomp at the public games.
Whatever homage and implicit obedience the court
of Areopagus might derive from all this religious pa¬
rade, the public good was always dearer to them
than any lower advantages they might have drawn
from the altars and temples with which they were fur-
rounded.
The fenate affembled in a hall built on the fummit
of a hill, which was afcended with difficulty by the old
men bent with age. However, as for fome time they
only afiembled on the three laft days of each month,
they bore with patience this inconvenient fituation.
But public affairs multiplied to fuch a degree, that they
were obliged to add to the three former fittings, a
fourth, which was held on the feventh day of the month,
and which was foon fucceeded by an affembly every
day. Their meetings were fo regular, that they were
not interrupted by the moft folemn feltivals, till Cephi-
fodorus was archon, who, in the third year of the 105th
Olympiad, made a decree, which obliged the Areopa-
gites to celebrate, after the example of the other courts,
the Apaturian feafts, which lafted five days.
This affiduousand painful exercife of their office made
the Areopagites feel all the inconvenience of the fitua¬
tion of their tribunal, and determined them to remove
it to a part of the city, called the Royal Portico. It
was a fquare, expofed to all the inclemencies of the
weather. When the judges, who affembled there in
profound filerice, had taken their places, they Were in-
elofed by a thread, or rather a cord, drawn around
them.
They held their affemblies in the night, that their
attention to public affairs might not be diverted by ex¬
ternal obje&s,—and (adds Lucian) that they might
only be influenced by the arguments, and not by the
prefence and a&ion, of the fpeakers. This circumftance
explains a paffage in Athenseus, who tells us, that none
knew the numbers nor faces of the Areopagites. The
Cuftom of adminiftring jiiftice in the open air was not
peculiar to them. It was followed by all the other tri¬
bunals, when they tried for murder ; for two reafons :
— iff, That the judges, the fworn proteftors of inno¬
cence, might not be hurt by being under cover with cri¬
minals, whofe hands were polluted with blood. 2dly,
That the accufer and the accufed might not be under
the fame roof.
When all the members of the fenate were convened,
a herald enjoined filence, and ordered the people to re¬
tire. As foon as they had departed, the affembly pro¬
ceeded to bufinefs ; and as they deemed the leaft pre¬
ference a flagrant injuftice, the caufes which they were
to determine were drawn by a kind of lottery; and
the fame chance which brought them up, diftributed
them to different numbers of judges, final! or great, ac¬
cording to the importance of the feveral caufes.
In early times, the parties themfelves ftated their
caufe in a Ample manner. The eloquence of advocates
was thought a dangerous talent, fit only to varnifh
crimes. But afterwards the Areopagus, on this point,
relaxed from their feverity;—at firft the accufed, and
foon after the accufers, were permitted to engage thofe
to make the attack and the defence, whofe profeffion it
was to exert the art of fpeaking, for others, with ac¬
curacy and elegance.
Sextus Empericus feems not to have fufficiently di- '
ftinguilhed times, where he fays, that the court of A-
reopagus did not fuffer thofe who were to be tried at
their bar to avail themfelves of the abilities of others.
What undoubtedly led him into that miftake, was, an
inviolable cuftom of that tribunal, v/hich prohibited, in
pleadings, all that warm and pidturefque oratory which
feduces the judgment and inflames the paflions. When
the fuffrages were coll eft ed, each perfon gave his in fi¬
lence. They voted with a fmall flint, which they held
betwixt the thumb and the two next fingers, and which
they put into one of the two urns that flood in a cor¬
ner of the hall. One flood before the other. The firft
was called the urn of death; the fecond, the urn of
companion. That of death was of brafs, and was term¬
ed proper; that of compaffion was of wood, and was
termed improper. The judges commonly brought their
flint to the affembly, and put it into the urn ; but, that
all the fuffrages might be collefted, the herald took
the two urns, and prefented them, one after another, to
every fenator, commanding him, in the name of the re¬
public, no longer to defer his acquittal, or condemna¬
tion.
For this method of giving fentence, which was call¬
ed *?uW>iv becaufe it kept the vote of each perfon
undifcovered, the Thirty Tyrants, to make themfelves
matters of the decifions of the Areopagus, fubftituted
another, by means of which they knew exaftly the o-
pinion of each of the judges : for they obliged them to
bring their flints publicly, and lay them upon two
tables placed before them, the fituation of which was
quite oppofite to that of the urns ; for the firft of
thofe tables was that of life, and the fecond that of
death.
The firft fubftances with which they gave their fuf¬
frages were not fmall pieces of the bones of a hog, as
fome authors affert, but fea-fhells, for which pieces of
brafs of the fame form, termed fpondyla, were after¬
wards fubftituted. The fubftances with which they vo¬
ted were diftinguifhed by their form and colour. Thofe
which condemned were black, and perforated in the
middle ; the others were white, and not perforated.
The precaution of piercing the black ones tends to
prove, what we have already obferved, that the court
of Areopagus fat in the night: for what end did it
ferve to pierce the black ftiells, or flints, if the judges
could have feen them and the white ones, and confe-
quently have diftinguilhed their colours by the affift-
ance of the light ? But as they paffed fentence in the
dark, it is evident that a difference befides that of colour
was neceffary, to know the black ones from the white.
The judges were likewdfe permitted to multiply at plea-
fure the diftinftions between figns, which effentially di¬
ftinguifhed the fates of men.
After the fuffrages were collefted, they were taken
out of the two urns, and put into a third vafe of
brafs. They were then counted; and as the number
of white or of black flints was higher or inferior, one
of the judges .di ew with his nail a fhorter or a longer
line, on a tablet, w’ith a waxen furface, on which the
refult of each caufe was marked. The fhort line ex-
preffed acquittal; the long, condemnation.
With regard to the emoluments of the judges, they
were as moderate as thofe of the advocates. The length
ARE
Areftpagus. 0f the procefs did not enhance its expence ; and when
the decifion of a caufe was poftponed till the next day,
the committee were only paid an obolus on that day.
Hence Mercury, in Lucian, is furprifed that fuch
fenfible old men as the fenators of Areopagus were,
fhould fell at fo low a price the trouble of afcending
fo high.
As to the number of the judges which compofed
the Areopagus, fome authors, attentive only to a part
of Solon’s regulations, by which he enadled, that for
the future, none but the nine archons Ihould be ad¬
mitted members of the Areopagus, have imagined
that this tribunal was filled anew every year, and that
it never confifted of more than nine magiftrates. This
opinion, and fome others, are refuted by the circum-
ftantial account which Diogenes Laertius gives us of
the condemnation of Socrates. This great man had
wilhed to fubftitute a rational hypothefis for the fa¬
bulous and extravagant fyftem of religion which pre¬
vailed in his time. His projeft, however laudable, ap¬
peared impious in the eye of fuperftition. Information
was laid againft him before the Areopagus, and he
had as many accufers as fellow-citizens. After the
charges and the anfwets were heard, they proceeded
to fuffrages; the opinions were divided, but not equal¬
ly, for the number of thofe who condemned him ex¬
ceeded by 281 the number of thofe who declared him
innocent. He made an ironical reply to this iniqui¬
tous fentence, by telling hjs judges, that he took it
for granted, they would admit him to a maintenance
in the Prytanasum. On this farcafm, 80 of thofe who
had voted in his favour forfook him, went over to the
oppofite party, and condemned him to die. Here then
we have 361 judges who condemn ; to whom if we add
thofe who perfift in acquitting him, the number mull
be very confiderable.
Of all the judgments of the Areopagus, the moft
famous one, excepting that of Mars, was the fentence
which they palled on Oreftes. His trial, which hap¬
pened under Demophon the 12th king of Athens, in
375 of the Attic sera, owed all its fame to a remark¬
able circumltance, that gave rife to a cuftom which
was obferved ever afterwards. Oreftes had killed his
mother; he was accufed before the Areopagus, and
cited to appear in that court. He would have loft his
life in confequence of the equal divifion of the votes,
had not Minerva, moved with his misfortunes, declared
herfelf for thofe who had abfolved him, and joined her
fuffrage to theirs. Thus Oreftes was faved. In ve¬
neration to this miracle, the Areopagites, whenever
the fuffrages were equally divided, decided in favour of
the accufed, by granting him what they termed the
Jhell of Minerva. Cephalus and Daedalus were con¬
demned by the Areopagus long before the time of
Oreftes.
We find in ancient authors fome decifions of this
tribunal, which bear the ftrongeft marks of juftice,
though their objefts are not interefting. We lhall
here quote an anecdote from Aulus Gellius, and Va¬
lerius Maximus, of a woman who was accufed of ha¬
ving poifoned her hulband and her fon. She was ta¬
ken, and brought before Dolabella, who was then
proconful of Afia. She was no fooner in his prefence,
than fhe owned the fa& ; and added, that Ihe had very
good reafons for putting her hufband and her fon to
Vol. I.
A R. E
death.—“ I had, (faid Ihej, to my firft hufband, a Areopagus,
fon whom I tenderly loved, and whofe virtues render- Arequiba.
ed him worthy of my affedtion. My fecond hufband,
and the fon whom I bare to him, murdered my favou¬
rite child. I thought it would have been unjuft to
have fuffered thofe two monfters of barbarity to live.
If you think, Sir, that 1 have committed a crime, it
is your province to punilh it; I certainly lhall never
repent of it.” This affair embarraffed Dolabella. She
was afterwards fent to the Areopagus; and that court,
when they had examined her a long time, ordered her
and her accufer to appear before them again a hundred
years after, from the firft day of her trial.
We mull not, however, fuppofe that the Areopagus
always preferred its old reputation; for fuch is the con-
ftitution of human affairs, that perfedfipn, with regard
to them, is a violent, and confequently a tranfitory,
ftate. Pericles, who lived about too years after So¬
lon, to flatter the people and win them to his party,
ufed his utmoft efforts to weaken the authority of the
Areopagus, which was then difliked by the multitude.
He took from it the cognizance of many affairs which
had before come under its jurifdiftion; and, to forward
his defign of humbling it, employed the eloquence of
Ephialtes, whofe talents were formidable, and who was
an avowed enemy to the great men of Athens.
The Areopagus itfelf feemed to fecond the endea¬
vours of a man who proje6led its ruin, and by its mil-
condufl haftened its fall. The old rules of the court,
by which none were admitted its members but thofe
whofe unexceptionable conduA would fuppprt its ma-
jefty, feemed too fevere. They grew lefs delicate in
their choice ; and prefuming that the faults with which
they difpenfed, would foon be reformed in the fociety
of fo many good examples, vice imperceptibly crept
among them : corruption, at firft fecret and timid,
grew infenfibly open and daring, and made fuch pro-
grefs, that the moft fhameful crimes were foon exhibi¬
ted on the ftage ; and they were not copied from the
low and abandoned multitude, but from thofe fenators,
once the venerable and auftere cenfors of idlenefs and of
vice. Demetrius, the comic poet, wrote a piece,
which he entitled The Areopagite, where he ftrips the
malic off thofe hypocritical legiflators, who were now
equally apt to be feduced by wealth and by beauty. So
much had the Athenian fenate degenerated in the days
of Ifocrates,. cir. 340 years before the Chriftian sera.
Before this tribunal St Paul was called to give an
account of his doArine, and converted Dionyfius one of
their number.
The end of this court of judicature is as obfeure as
its origin, which was derived from very remote anti¬
quity. It exifted^ with the other magiftracies, in the
time of Paufanias, i. e. in the 2d century. The term
of its fubfequent duration is not afeertained; but a wri¬
ter, who lived under the emperors Theodofius the el¬
der and younger, in the 5th century, mentions it as ex-
tinA.
AREQUIBA, a city of Peru in South America,
fituated in W. Long. 730. S. Lat. 170. Tt is one of
the moft beautiful cities in all Peru, being delightfully
fituated in the valley of Quilca, 100 leagues from Li¬
ma, and 20 from the fea, with which it communicates
by a fine river. The entrance into the harbour is ra¬
ther (hallow for (hips of great burden ; but when once
4 ^ they
[ 637 ]
Arcs
Arethufe.
[ 638 ] ARE
8 fathoms ARETOLOGI, in antiquity, a fort .of philofo- ArctoJogi,
water. This city was founded in 1539, hy order of phers, chiefly of the Cynic or Stoic tribe, who, having Arenn.
ARE
they are entered, they may ride fecurely
Don Francifco Pizarro, in a place known likewife by no fchool or difciples of their own, haunted the tables
the name of Arequiba; but its fituation being found
difadvantageous, the inhabitants obtained leave to re¬
move to the place where the city now ftands. The
houfes are built with ftone, and vaulted; and, contrary
to what is ufual in warm countries, they are lofty, neat¬
ly furnifhed within, and finely decorated on the outfide.
of great men, and entertained them in their banquets
with difputations on virtue, vice, and other popular to¬
pics. Thefe are fometitnes alfo denominated Circula-
tores Philofophi. In this fenfe, the word is derived from
the Greek virtue, and A-oy®-, difcourfe. Some
authors chufe to derive the word from grains, a-
The inhabitants alfo are exempt from many difeafes greeable; and define Aretologi, by perfons who drive
common in other parts of Peru; which perhaps is owing to divert and entertain their audience with jokes and
to their keeping the ftreets clean by means of canals
which extend to the river. The temperature of the air
is extremely good; and though fometimes a flight froft
is perceivable, the cold is never exceflive, nor the heat
troublefome, fo that the furrounding fields are clothed
with perpetual verdure. Thefe natural advantages,
pleafant tales; which latter feems the more natural ex¬
plication.
A RETIN (Guido), famous for his mufical improve¬
ments, lived in the 11th century. He was a native of
Arezzo, a city in Tufcany; and having been taught
the practice of mufic in his youth, and probably re-
however, are confiderably allayed by its being very tained as a chorifter in the fervice of the Benedi&ine
fubjeft to earthquakes, by which it has already been
five times laid in ruins; notwithftanding which, it is po¬
pulous, and has amongft its inhabitants fome of the uo-
bleft families in America.
ARES, a word of Paracelfus’s, bjrwhich he would
exprefs that power of nature in the whole material
world, by which fpecies are divided into individuals.
monaftery founded in that city, he became a monk pro-
fefled, and a brother of the order of St Benedict.
In this retirement he feems to have devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of mufic, particularly the fyftem of the an¬
cients, and, above all, to reform their method of nota¬
tion. The difficulties that attended the inftrudtion of
youth in the church-offices were fo great, that, as he
ARETiEUS of Cappadocia, a Greek phyfician, of himfelf fays, ten years were generally confumed barely
the feft of the Pneumatifts, lived in the reign of Au-
guftus, according to fome; according to others, under
Trajan or Adrian. He wrote feveral treatifes in the
Ionian dialeft, on acute difeafes, and other medicinal
fubjefts; fome of which are ftill extant. The beft edi¬
tion of his works is that of Boerhaave, in Greek and
Latin, with notes, printed in 1731; that of Wigan,
in acquiring the knowledge of the plain-fong ; and this
confideration induced him to labour after fome amend¬
ment, fome method that might facilitate inftrudtion,
and enable thofe employed in the choral office to per¬
form the duties of it in a correft and decent manner.
If we may credit thofe legendary accounts that are ex¬
tant in old monkifh manufcripts, we fhould believe he
printed at Oxford in 1723, in folio, is alfo much e- was affifted in his pious intention by immediate com-
fteemed. mnnications from heaven : fome fpeak of the invention
ARETHUSA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of of the fyllables as the effe& of infpiration ; and Guido
Nereus and Coris, and the companion of Diana, who himfelf feems to have been of the fame opinion, by his.
chahged her into a fountain to deliver her from the pur- faying it was revealed to him by the Lord; or, as
fuit of her lover Alpheus. fome interpret his words, in a dream : but graver hi-
Arethusa, a celebrated fountain near the city of ftorians fay, that being at vefpers in the chapel of his
Syracufe in Sicily, famous for the quantity of its wa- monaftery, it happened that one of the offices appoint-
ters, and the number of fifties it contained. Many fa¬
bles were invented by the ancients concerning this foun¬
tain. They had alfo a notion that the river Alpheus
run under or through the waters of the fea, without
mixing with them, from Peloponnefus to Sicily. Mr
Brydone informs us, that it ftill continues to fend forth
an immenfe quantity of water, rifing at once to the fize
of a river, but is entirely abandoned by the fifties it for¬
merly contained in fuch plenty. At fome diftance from
Arethufa is a fountain of frefti water which boils up very
ftrongly in the fea, infomuch that, after piercing the
fait water, it maybe fometimes taken up very little af-
fe&ed by it. This fountain Mr Brydone thinks the an-
ed for that day was the hymn * to St John, • Compo/ei
VT qucant Inxis REfonnre fibris y Paul, a
M Jr a geftorum FAmuh tuorum deacon „f
SOLve pollutii LAbrn reatum, oiA uileia
SanRc Joannes. °boo? the'3’
During the performance of the hymn, he remarked year 770.
the iteration of the words, and the frequent returns of
ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la: he obferved likewife a dif-
fimilarity between the clofenefs of the fyllable mi, and
the broad open found of fa, which he thought could
not fail to imprefs upon the naind a lafting idea of their
congruity; and immediately conceived a thought of
applying thefe fix fyllables to perfect an improvement
cients were ignorant of, or they would not have failed either then a&ually made by him, or under eonfidera-
to ufe it as an argument for the fubmarine journey of tion, viz. that of converting the ancient tetrachords
Alpheus. It is much more probable, however, that thefe into hexachords.
large fountains owe their exiftence to Mount f£tna.
Arethusa, in botany, a genus of the gynandria
diandria clafs. The generic chara&er is taken from
the neftarium, which is tubular, fituated at the bottom
of the corolla; and the inferior labium of it is fixed to
the ftylus. There are four fpecies of the arethufa, all
natives of America, except the capenfis, which is only
fownd at the Cape of Good Hope.,
Struck with the difcovery, he retired to his ftudy
and having perfe&ed his fyftem, began to introduce it
into practice: the perfons to whom he communicated
it were the brethren of his own monaftery, from whom
it met with but a cold reception, which, in the epi-
ftle to his friend, he afcribes undoubtedly to its true
caufe, envy: however, his intereft with the abbot, and
his employment in the chapel, gave him an opportu-
nity
Aretin.
ARE
[ 639 ]
ARE
nity of trying the efficacy of his method on the boys mutations, and in fhort his whole doctrine of folmi- Arct
fation, is. to be found. This tra£t makes part of an '
epiftle to a very dear and intimate friend of Guido,
whom he addreffes thus, “ Beatiffimo atque dulciffimo
fratri Michaeli;” at whofe requeft the traft itfelf feems
to have been compofed.
Whether Guido was the author of any other tradls,
is not eafy to determine. It nowhere appears that any
of his works were ever printed, except that Baronius,
in his Annales Ecclejtajlici, tom. XL p. 73, has given
at length the epiftle from him to his friend Michael of
Pompofa, and that to Theodald bifnop of Arezzo, pre¬
fixed to the Micrologus; and yet the writers on mufic
fpeak of the Micrologus as of a book in the hands of
every one. Martini cites feveral manufcripts of Guido;
namely, two in the Ambrofian library at Milan, the
one written about the twelfth century, the other lefs
ancient j another among the archives of the chapter of
Piftoja, a city in Tufcany; and a third in the Mediceo-
who were training up for the choral fervice, and it ex¬
ceeded the moft fanguine expe&ation. “To the ad¬
miration of all (fays cardinal Baronius), a boy thereby
learnt, in a few months, what no man, though of great
ingenuity, could before that attain in feveral years.”
The fame of Guido’s invention foon fpread abroad,
and his method of inftrudtion was adopted by the clergy
of other countries: we are told by Kircher, that Her-
mannus bilhop of Hamburg, and Elviricus bilhop of
Ofnaburg, made ufe of it; and by the authors of the
Hiftoire Litteraire de la France, that it was received
in that country, and taught in all the monafteries in
the kingdom. It is certain that the reputation of his
great (kill in mufic had excited in the pope a defire to
fee and converfe with him; of which, and of his going
to Rome for that purpofe, and the reception he met
with from the pontiff, he himfelf has given a circum-
ftantial account of in the epiftle hereafter mentioned.
The particulars of this relation are very curious; Laurenziano library at Florence, of the 15th century:
and as we have his own authority, there is no room to thefe are clearly the Micrologus. Of the epiftle to
doubt the truth of it. It feems that John XX. or, as Michael of Pompofa, together with the Argumentum
fome writers compute, the 19th pope of that name, ha- novi Cantus inveniendi, he mentions only one, which
ving heard of the fame of Guido’s fchool, and concei- he fays is fomewhere at Ratilbon. Of the feveral tracts
ving a defire to fee him, fent three meffengers to invite abovementioned, the laft excepted, a manufcript is ex-
him to Rome; upon their arrival, it was refolved by the tant in the library of Baliol-college in Oxford. Several
brethren of the monaftery that he fhould go thither at- fragments of the two firft, in one volume, are alfo a-
tended by Grimaldo the abbot, and Peter the chief of mong the Harleian manufcripts now in the Britilh Mu-
the canons of the church of Arezzo. Arriving at Rome, feum, N° 3199; but fo very much mutilated, that they
he was prefented to the holy father, and by him recei- afford but fmall fatisfa&ion to a curious inquirer,
ved with great kindnefs. The pope had feveral con- Aretin (Leonard), one of the moft learned men of
verfations with him, in all which he interrogated him the 15th century, was fecretary to the republic of
as to his knowledge in mufic; and upon fight of an an- Florence, and tranflated from the Greek into Latin
tiphonary which Guido had brought with him, mark- fome of the Lives of Plutarch, and Ariftotle’s Ethics:
ed with the fyllables agreeable to his new invention, he alfo compofed three books pf the Punic war, that
the pope looked on it as a kind of prodigy; and rumi- may ferve as a fupplement to thofe wanting in Livy;
nating on the doctrines delivered by Guido, would not the hiftory of the tranfadlions in Italy during his time;
ftir from his feat till he had learned perfectly to fing off that of ancient Greece; that of the Goths ; that of the
averfe: upon which he declared, that he could not republic of Florence; and many other books. He died
have believed the efficacy of the method, if he had not
been convinced by the experiment he had himfelf made
of it. The pope would have detained him at Rome;
but labouring under a bodily diforder, and fearing an
injury to his health from the air of the place, and the
in 1443, aged 74.
Aretin (Francis), a man of great reading, and
well acquainted with the Greek language. He tranf¬
lated into Latin the Commentaries of St Chryfoftom
upon St John, and about 20 Homilies of the fame fa-
heats of the fummer, which was then approaching, ther: he alfo tranflated the Letters of Phalaris into La-
Guido left that city upon a promife to revifit it, and
explain to his holinefs the principles of his new fyftem.
On his return homewards, he made a vifit to the abbot
of Pompofa, a town in the duchy of Ferrara, who was
tin, and wrote a treatife De balneis Puteolanis. He
ftudied at Sienna, about the year 1443 ; and afterwards
taught law there with fuch reputation, that they called
him the Prince of Subtleties, and his wit became a pro-
very earneft to have Guido fettle in the monaftery of verb. He difplayed his talents chiefly in difputes, in
that place; to w.hich invitation it feems he yielded, be¬
ing, as he fays, defirous of rendering fo great a mona¬
ftery (till more famous by his ftudies there.
Here it was that he compofed a traft on mufic, inti-
tled Micrologus, i. e. “ a fhort difcourfe;’’ which he
dedicated to Theodald bifhop of Arezzo; and finifhed,
as he himfelf at the end of it tells us, under the pontifi¬
cate of John XX. and in the 34th year of his age. Vof-
fius fpeaks alfo of another mufical treatife written by
him, and dedicated to the fame perfon.
Moft of the authors who have taken occafion to
mention Guido, fpeak of the Micrologus as containing
the fum of his dodlrine: but it is in a fmall traSI, in-
titled Argumentum novi Cantus inveniendi, that his de¬
claration of his afe of the fyllables, with their feveral
which nobody could withftand him. He gave his o-
pinions in law with fo much confidence, as to affure
thofe who confulted him, that they fhould carry their
caufe: nor did experience contradift him; for it was a
common faying at the bar, fuch a caufe has been con¬
demned by Aretin, it muft therefore be loft. He
taught alfo in the univerfity of Pifa, and in that of Fer¬
rara. He was at Rome under the pontificate of Six¬
tus IV. but did not ftay here long ; for he foon per¬
ceived that the great hopes which he had built upon
his reputation would come to nothing. This pope,
however, declared he would have given him a cardinal’s
hat, had he not thought he fhould have done a public
injury by depriving the youth of fuch an excellent pro-
feflbr. When old age would not permit him to go
4 L 2 through
ARE [ 640 ] A R G
Amin, through the duties of his office, they difpenfed with his
Arezzo. reac[;ng 0f leftures, and his falary was continued. He
continued, however, fometimes to mount the chair ;
and although his le&ures had now but little fpirit in
them, yet he had ftill many hearers on account of his
reputation. One day when the Undents were gone to
fome public ffiews, there were but 40 perfons in his au¬
ditory : which fo mortified him, that he threw away
his book; and crying out, “ Aretin ffiall never ex¬
plain law to a few perfons,” retired in a paffion, and
would teach no more. He was fevere in his temper,
and never kept a fervant longer than a month or two;
for it was a maxim of his, “ That new-hired fervants
always ferve beft.” He was honoured with the title of
knight, and fpent all his life in celibacy; and his way
of living was fo parfimonious, that he was thereby en¬
abled to amafs a great deal of wealth. He had defign-
ed this wealth for the maintenance of a college; but he
altered his refolution, and left it to his relations.
Aretin (Peter), a native of Arezzo, who lived in
the 16th century. He was famous for his fatirical wri¬
tings ; and was fo bold as to carry his inve&ives even
againfl fovereigns, and from thence got the title of the
Scourge of Princes. Francis I. the emperor Charles V.
mofi: of the princes of Italy, feveral cardinals, and many
noblemen, courted his friendfhip by prefents, either be-
caufe they liked his compofitions, or perhaps from an
apprehenfion of falling under the lafh of his fatire. A-
retin became thereupon fo infolent, that he is faid to
have got a medal ftruck, on one fide of which he is re-
prefented with thefe words il divino aretino ; and
on the reverfe, fitting upon a throne, receiving the pre¬
fents of princes, with thefe words, 1 principi tribu-
T ATI DA POPOLI, TRIBUTANO IL SERVIDOR LORO.
Some imagine that he gave himfelf the title of Divine,
fignifying thereby that he performed the funftions of
a god upon earth, by the thunderbolts with which he
ftruck the heads of the higheft perfonages. He ufed to
boaft, that his lampoons did more fervice to the world
than fermons; and it was faid of him, that he had fub-
je&ed more princes by his pen, than the greateft had ever
done by their arms. Aretin wrote many irreligious and
obfcene pieces; fuch are his dialogues, which were called
Ragiouamenti. There is likewife imputed to him another
very obfcene performance, De omnibus Veneris fchema-
tibus. “ It was about the year 1525 (fays Mr Chevil-
* Origin ie Her*) that Julio Romano, the moft famous painter of
^dTparis'™ Ita,y> inftigated by the enemy of the falvation of man-
f . 114. ’ kind, invented drawings to engrave 20 plates : the fub-
jefts are fo immodeft, that I dare only name them. Pe¬
ter Aretin compofed fonnets for each figure. George
Vafari, who relates this in his. Lives of the Painters,
fays, Ire does not know which would be the greateft im¬
purity, to caft one’s eyes upon the drawings of Julio,
or to dip into- the verfes of Aretin.” Some fay that
Aretin changed his libertine principles; but however
this may be, it is certain that he compofed feveral
pieces of devotion. He wrote a Paraphrafe on the pe-
‘ nitential Pfalms, and another on Genefis; he wrote
alfo the Life of the Virgin Mary, and that of St Ca¬
therine of Sienna, and of St Thomas Aquinas. He was
author likewife of lome comedies. He died in the year
1556, being about 65 years old.
AREZZO, a city of Italy, in Tufcany, feated in
the territory of Florence, on the declivity of a hill that
overlooks the neighbouring plain, between the Citta di Arge*
Caftelli and Florence. It is an ancient city, and a bi- II
{hop’s fee; and was famous for a kind of earthen ware Argenteuil,_
much efteemed by the Romans. It was greatly fallen
to decay when Cofmo de Medicis took it under his
prote&ion, fince which it has been recovering gradual ¬
ly. It is famed for being the birth-place of Mecamas.
E. Long. 12. 2. N. Lat. 43. 27.
ARGEA, or Argei, in Roman antiquity, thirty
human figures, made of rufhes, thrown annually by the
priefts or veftals into the Tiber, on the day of the ides
of May.
ARGEIA, or Argolis, a diftrift of Peloponnefus,
fituated between Arcadia to the weft, the Egean Sea
to the eaft, Laconica and the Sinus Argolicus to the
fouth, and to the north the territory of Corinth and the
Sinus Saronicus, (Livy, Ptolemy) ; fo called from Ar¬
gos the capital: now Romania di Morea.
ARGEII, a people of Greece, fo called by the
Greeks, from Argi, or Argos; Argivi, by the Romans;
Homer feems to call the Greeks in general Argeii, as
alfo Achxi.
ARGEMONE, prickly poppy ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants. Of this genus there are three fpecies, which are
common in many parts of the Weft Indies, and called
by the Spaniards the devil’s fig; but they are of no
ufe, and have very little beauty.
ARGENCES, a town of France, in Lower Nor¬
mandy, on the river Meance. W. Long. o. xo. N. Lat.
49. 15. ’
ARGENT, the common French word for fiver, of
which metal all white fields or charges are fuppofed
to confift. Argent of itfelf is ufed in heraldry to fig-
nify purity, innocence,' beauty, and gentlenefs; and?
according to G. Leigh, if it is compounded with
Gul. \ „ f boldnefs;
Azu. | ic | courtefy ;
Ver. ^ virtue ;
Pur. j ^ | favour;
Sab. J •" L religion.
ARGENT AC, a town of France, in the Limofin,
on the river Dordogne. E. Long. 2. 3. N. Lat. 45. 5.
ARGENTAN, a town of France, in Lower Nor¬
mandy, and in the diocefe of the Seez, with the title
of a marquifate. It is feated on an eminence, in the
middle of a fertile plain, on the banks of the river
Orne, and carries on a coniiderable trade. E. Long,
o. 5. N. Lat. 48. 54.
ARGENTARIA, a town of ancient Gaul, thought
to ftand in the place where the city Colmar now ftands.
It is remarkable for a great vidtory gained by the em¬
peror Gratian over the Lentienfes, in the month of
May, A. D. 378. The Romans, being but few in num¬
ber, were at firft overpowered, and obliged to give
ground ; but foon returning to the charge, they gain¬
ed in the end a complete victory. Thirty thoufand of
the barbarians, and among the reft their king Triarius,
were killed on the fpot; and all the reft, except 500a,
taken prifoners.
Argentaria creta, pure white earth, found in
Pruffia, and much efteemed for cleaning plate.
ARGENTEUIL, a town of the ifle of France, feat¬
ed on the river Seine, five miles north-weft of Paris. It
is a very beautiful place, with fine vineyards. On the
environs
A R G [ 641 ] ARC
* 11rgentiere environs are quarries of the plafter of Paris. In the Be-
A II nediftine priory they pretend to have the feamlefs coat
ijter of Chill. E. Long. 2. 28. N. 48. 5*.
 ARGENTIERE, a fmall ifland in the Archipela¬
go, near Milo. It is about 18 miles in compafs; and is
full of barren mountains, producing nothing but bar¬
ley, cotton, and a few grapes fit only for eating. The
barley and cotton are fown round the only village there
is in the ifland. The ladies are handfome enough, have
no other employment but making cotton ftockings, and
take up with the failors who put into the port. The
men all ufe the fea, and in time become good pilots.
They have very little religion, are very ignorant, and
of very bad morals. Juftice is adminiftered by an itine¬
rant cadi, who is fometimes the only muflulman in the
whole ifland. The only article relating to natural hi-
ftory is the Terra Cimolia fo highly efteemed by the
ancients; it is a kind of white chalk, which is very
heavy, without tafte, and crumbles eafily : they ufe it
in wafhing linen. E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat. 36. 50.
ARGENTINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties
belonging to the order of abdominales. The generic
characters are thefe : The teeth are in the tongue as
well as the jaws ; the branchioftege membrane has
eight radii or rays ; the anus is near the tail; and the
belly-fins confift of many rays. There are two fpecies
of argentina, viz. 1. The fphyrasna has 15 rays in the
fin at the anus; the air-bladder of this fpecies is coni¬
cal on both fides, and ftiines like filver: according to Mr
Ray, falfe pearls are fometimes made of it. 2. The
Carolina has likewife 15 rays in the fin near the anus ;
the tail Is forked, and the lateral lines are ftraight. It
inhabits the frefli waters of Carolina.
ARGENTINUS, a deity worftiipped by the an¬
cients, as the god of filver coin ; as iEfculanus, whom
they made his father, was the god of brafs money, which
was in ufe before filver.
ARGENTON, a town and county of France, in the
duchy of Berry, divided into two by the river Creufe.
Here was formerly a caftle; but it was demoliflied by
Lewis XIV. E. Long. t. 38. N. Lat. 40. 30.
ARGENTORA, Argentina, (Notitias) ; Argento-
ratum, (Ptolemy) ; Argenteraiuj, (Ammian) ; a city
of the Tribocci; one of the fifty forts built by Dru-
fus on the Rhine, (Florus) : an appellation formed by
the Romans from the German, Argen StraJJ'eny or Stra-
ten, “ unfafe roads for travellers,” from the maroding
parties of the garrifons that infeiled the roads. Now
See Straf- Strajburg*, in the lower Alface, on the rivulet 111, near
r<r' the Rhine. E. Long. 7. 35. Lat. 48. 38.
ARGENTUM. See Silver.
Argentum album, in pur old cuftoms, filver coin,
or pieces of bullion that anciently pafied for money.
By Doomfday tenure, fome rents to the king were paid
in argento albo, common filver pieces of money ; other
rents in libris urjis et penfatis, in metal of full weight
and purity : in the next age, that rent which was paid
in money, was called blanch fearm, and afterwards
•white-rent; and what was paid in provifions, was term¬
ed black mail.
Argentum mUsivum is a mafs confifting of filver-
like flakes, ufed for the colouring of plaiter-figures,
and for other purpofes, as pigment. It confifts of an
amalgam of equal parts of tin, bifmuth, and mercury.
It is to be mixed with white of eggs, or fpirit varnilh,
^burg.
and then applied to the intended work, which is after- Argentum
wards to be burnifhed. Vivum
Argentum vivum, Mercury, or Quick/ilver. See Argonauts.
Mercury; Chemistry, n° 153, 205, 250, 414; and  —
the references at Materia Medica, n® 121.
ARGILLA, clay, in natural hiftory. See Clay.
ARGIPPEANS, a part of the ancient Scythain
nation. The men and the women were bald, hump¬
backed, and had great chins. Their language was totally
peculiar to themfelves. Their drefs was the fame with
that of the other ^cythians. Their food was the fruit
of a tree called Pontica, about as high as a fig-tree :
it bore a kind of filbert; the kernel of which in form
refembled a bean. They fucked from it a thick black
liquor; and this liquor they fometimes drank with milk.
The grofler part of this fruit, after it had been pref-
fed, ferved them inftead of animal food ; for they had
but few cattle, and were therefore unlkilled in the care
of flocks and herds. They lay in winter under trees,
over which they fpread a white covering ; this covering
they ufed not in the fummer. None dared to offer them
any injury ; for they were deemed facred. Therefore
they had no arms; and were unacquainted with the art
of war. They determined the differences and difputes
of their neighbours ; and whoever fled to them from
perfecution, found a fafe afylum ; it would have been
faprilege to hurt, to infult him in their country.
ARGIVI. See Argeii.
ARGO, in antiquity, a fhip or veffel celebrated a-
mong the poets, as being that wherein the Argonauts
made their expedition.
Argo Navis, or the fhip, in aftronomy, is the name
of a conftellation of fixed flars in the fouthern hemi-
fphere. The number of ftars is 8, in Ptolemy’s cata¬
logue ; in Tycho’s, 11 ; and in Mr flamilead’s, 25.
ARGONAUTA, the name of a genua of fhell-fifh.
belonging to the order of vermes teftacea. The fhell con¬
fifts of one fplral involuted valve. There are two fpe¬
cies of argonauta, viz. The argo, with a fubdented Ca¬
rina, which is found in the Mediterranean and Indian
oceans. This is the famous nautilus of other authors.
The fhell feems no thicker nor ftronger than a piece of
paper ; and the fifh that inhabits it is a fepia. It has
been imagined that men firft learned the method of
failing in vefiels from what they faw praftifed by this
creature. When it is to fail, it extends two of its arms
on high; and between thefe fupports a membrane,
which it throws out on this occafion : this ferves for its
fail; and the two other arms it hangs out of the fhell,
to ferve occafionally either as oars, or as a fteerage; but
this laft office is generally ferved by the tail. When the
fea is calm, it is frequent to fee numbers of thefe crea¬
tures diverting themfelves with failing about in this
manner; but as foon as a ftorm rifes, or any thing
gives them difturbance, they draw in their legs, and
take in as much water as makes them fomewhat heavier
than the fea-water in which they fwim, and they then
fink to the bottom. The manner of their voiding this
abundant water, when they would rife again, is by a
number of holes, of which their legs are full. 2. The
cymbium, with a blunt plaited carina. This fpecies is
very fmall, and is found in the Mediterranean.
ARGONAUTS, in Grecian antiquity, a company
of illuftrious Greeks, who embarked along with Jafon,
in the ihip Argo, on an expedition to Colchis, with -
A R G
Argiiim.
] A R
in 1701 put an end to them. In 1717, however, the Argument, j
from French company having found all their remonftrances | ^
* See the ar
tide Theffa-
1}.
[ 642
defign to obtain the golden fleece *. in
ARGOS, an ancient name of Peloponnefus , ..— ^ ..
Argos, one of the kings, (Homer, Strabo). ineffectual, fitted out a new fquadron ; but this arma- r^Y e irt‘
Argos, the capital, and an inland town, of Argo- ment did not arrive at Arguim before Feb. 26th 1721.
lis. It had different furnames ; as Achaicum, from The Dutch defended themfelves with fuch intrepidity
the country, or an ancient people, (Homer); Ina- and conduft as had almoft baffled the utmoft efforts of
chium, from the river Inachus, which runs by, (Pli- the French; but the latter having found means to draw
ny); &C. It had two citadels, (Livy) ; the one call- off a Moorifli chief from his allegiance, the Dutch were
ed Larijfa, (Strabo) ; the other unnamed. At the obliged to evacuate Arguim, and retire to Portendic,
fiege of this city, Pyrrhus king of Epirus was killed where they fortified themfelves, determining to watch
by a tile thrown by an old woman. Argos was 26 fta- a favourable opportunity for recovering their fettlement
dia diftant from Temenium, a maritime town, and 50 at Arguim. This was not long wanting, by means of
to the fouth of Mycenae : Now Argo. E. Long. 23. the weaknefs of the garrifon, and the imprudence of
5. Lat. 37. 30. Duval the French direftor ; who, having quarrelled
Argos Hippium, the ancient name of Arpi ; but with the Moors, was furprized, defeated, and killed by
Lamps is a ftill more ancient; afterwards called Argy- them: in confequence of which, the fettlement fellagain
rippa, and Argippa ; built by, and the refidence of, into the hands of the Dutch on the 11th of Jan. 1722.
Diomedes, on the Cerbalus, (Virgil); afterwards a In 1723, the Dutch were attacked by another French
large and populous city, (Livy): A town of Apulia; fquadron under the command of the Sieur Riguadiere.
now in ruins, and the place called Arpe. This gentleman boafted that the fort could not hold
ARGUIM, an illand on the coaft of Africa, about out one day ; but though he prevailed fo far as to get
fixteen miles dittant from Cape Blanco, fituated in W. poffeffion of the cifterns which contained the water of
Long. 16. 30. N. Lat. 20. 20. It is fcarcetwo miles the befieged, he was at laft fhamefully repulfed, and
in length; notwithftanding which, it was a bone of con- forced to raife the fiege with precipitation. The Dutch,
tention for 87 years between the Portuguefe, Dutch, however, did not long enjoy the poffeffion which they
Englilh, and French ; and, after a variety of fortune, had fo bravely defended; for, in 1725, their fort was
has at laft been totally abandoned. entirely demoliihed by the French under Du Caffe, and
This iiland was firft difcovered by the Portuguefe in has never fince been re-built by any European nation.
1444, when a fleet bound to the eaft touched at Arguim, ARGUMENT, in rhetoric and logic, an inference
and from fome little trade carried on with the natives, it drawn from premifes, the truth of which is indifputa-
was imagined that a fettlement there might be of fome ble, or at leaft highly probable. See Logic.
advantage to Portugal. In confequence of this opi- Argument, in matters of literature, denotes alfo
nion, a fort was eretlcd on the ifland, and the Portu- the abridgment or heads of a book, hiftory, comedy,
guefe enjoyed the peaceable poffeffion of it till 1638. chapter, &c. See Syllabus.
At this time, the Dutch having received a minute ac- ARGUS, in fabulous hiftory, was the fon of Ari-
count of the condition of the ifland, refolved to attack ftor, and had 100 eyes, 50 of which were always o-
it; and accordingly landed without moleftation from the pen. Juno made choice of him to guard lo, whom
garrifon, which was too weak to oppofe them. The Jupiter had transformed into a white heifer; butjupi-
Portuguefe, however, defended themfelves with great ter, pitying lo for being fo clofely confined, fent Mer-
intrepidity, and at laft furrendered upon honourable cury, who, with his flute, charmed Argus to fleep,
terms. The Dutch immediately fet about repairing the fealed up his eyes with his caduceus, and then cut off
fortifications, and fecuring it in the beft manner they his head; when Juno, to reward his fidelity, turned
could: however, in 1665, the fort was reduced almoft to him into a peacock, and placed his eyes in his tail,
an heap of rubbifh by an Englilh fquadron ; but as the Argus-Shell, a fpecies of porcellain-ftiell, beauti-
fortifications were totally deftroyed, and only a fmall fully variegated with fpots, refembling in fome mea-
garrifon left there, it was eafily retaken by the Dutch fure thofe in a peacock’s tail,
the next year. They now redoubled their diligence in ARGYLL (dukes of). See Campbell.
ftreiigthening the ifland, entering into alliance with Argyle-shire, or Argathilia, in Scotland, which,
Moorifli chiefs, procuring a number of families to fettle together with Perthftiire and the Weftern Iflands, is
under prote&ion of the fort, and giving extravagant faid to have conftituted the ancient kingdom of the
prices for gums, in order to monopolize the gum-trade. Scots, while the reft of Caledonia was fubjeft to the
By this means the gum-trade of the French Senegal Piets and Romans, comprehends Kintyre, Knap-
company was almoft entirely deftroyed; upon which dale, Argyle Proper, Cowal, Lorn, with the iflands
they fitted out a fquadron, difpoffeffed the Dutch, and of Bute and Arran. It is bounded on the fouth by
had the ifland finally ceded to them by the treaty of the Irifti fea, and the Frith of Clyde; on the eaft, by
Nimeguen. Perthftiire; on the north-eaft, by Lochaber; and on
Though the Dutch now feemed to be finally expel- the north-weft, by feveral iflands. The extent of it
led, they refolved not to part fo eafily with fuch a va- from fouth to north, between the Mull of Kintyre and
luable fettlement. Under pretence of being fubje&s Lochaber, amounts to 90 miles; and the breadth, in
of the Elector of Brandenburg, therefore, they erec- fome places, including the ifles, to 70. This country,
ted one of the forts which had been demolilhed, and like all other parts of the Highlands, affords a very
there maintained themfelves in fpite of the utmoft en- wild and horrid profpeift of hills, rocks, and huge
deavours of the French company to difpoffefs them, mountains, piled upon each other in a ftupendous and
Numberlefs were the memorials, protefts, refcripts, &c. dreadful diforder ; bare, bleak, and barren to the view;
which were publiftied on this occafion, till a new war or at beft covered with ftiagged heath, which appears
black
A R I [ 643 ] A R I
jrgylefhire black and difmal to the eye, except in the fummer,
| . II when it is variegated with an agreeable bloom of a
|Tiadnea. pUrp]e co]our. The coaft of Argyle is rocky; yet
indented with bays and inlets, that afford good har¬
bours for fhipping. The country is well watered by
rivers, brooks, and lakes, abounding with fifh ; the
' vales and flat parts of it are cultivated for corn ; the
mountains feed an innumerable quantity of black cat¬
tle, which run wild among the hills in winter as well as
fummer; the heath and woods, of which there- is a
confiderable number, afford flicker to deer, roebucks,
and all forts of game in great plenty : the circumam¬
bient fea, with its locks, bays, and harbours, pours
forth myriads of fifh ; but the innate wealth of the
country is dug from the bowels of the mountains in
iron, copper, lead, and other metals and minerals.
Argyle is the feat of a provincial fynod, confifting
of five prefbyteries and 49 parifhes; and gives the titles
of duke and earlto the noble family of Campbell, the
moft powerful of all the Scottifh nobility. The duke
of Argyle is, by hereditary right, great mafter of the
king’s houfefhold in Scotland, admiral of the Weftern
ifles, general of Denoon caftle, and, before the jurif-
diftionswere aboliflied, enjoyed other hereditary offices,
which rendered him too powerful as the fubjedf of a
limited monarchy. He ftill pofFeffes many royalties ;
his vafials, even of the name of Campbell, are fo nu¬
merous, and his influence extends fo far, that he could,
on occafion, bring 3 or 4000 fighting men into the
field. Argylefhire is in general peopled by this clan;
and affords a great number of cattles and feats belong-
ing to gentlemen who hold of the duke, and boaft
themfelves defcended from his family.
Argyle Proper is bounded by Knapdale and Cowal
on the fouth ; Lochaber on the north ; Lennox and
the Grampian hills on the eaft; and Lome on the weft.
It lies between Lochfyn and Lochow ; which laft is a
freih-water lake, about a mile broad, but extending 24
in length, including 12 iflands, on two of which there
are the caftles of Enconel and Glenurquhart. This
lake, which gives the title of vifcount to the duke of
Argyle, iffues in the river Aw, which, after a courfe
of fix or feven miles, enters Loch Ettiff, and this falls
into the weft fea, oppofite to the ifle of Mull: all thefe
abound with excellent trout and falmon. For a.de-
fcription of the other divifions of Argylefhire, fee
Kintyre, &c.
ARGYROPOEIA, among alchemifts, a pretended
art of tranfmuting or changing other metals into filver.
ARGYRUNTUM, a maritime town of Illyria,
(Ptolemy, Pliny). Now Novigrad, a town of Dalma¬
tia. E. Long. 17. 30. Lat. 44. 30.
ARHUSEN, a diocefe of North Jutland in Den¬
mark, to the fouth of Wiburg, about 60 miles in
length, and 30 in breadth. It contains two capital
cities, called /irhufen and Rcmder; belides feveral mar¬
ket-towns of lefs note, and upwards of 300 villages.
Arhufen, one of the capitals, is advantageoufly fitua-
ted on the coaft of the Baltic Sea, at the mouth of the
river Guda, which runs through it; and it is furround-
ed with forefts full of game. E. Long. 10. o. W. Lat.
56. 10.
ARIADNiEA, in Grecian antiquity, two feftivals
at Naxos, in honour of two women named Ariadne.
One of them being the daughter of king Minos, they
had, in the folemnity dedicated to her, a ftiew of forrow Ariadne
and mourning ; and, in memory of her being left by Arica
Thefeus near the time of child-birth, it was ufual for —  1—
a young man to lie down and counterfeit all the ago¬
nies of a woman in labour. This feftival is faid to be
firft inftituted by Thefeus, to atone for his ingratitude
to that princefs.—The other Ariadne was thought to
be of a gay and fprightly temper; and therefore her
feftival was obferved with mufic and other expreffions
of mirth and joy.
ARIADNE, daughter of Minos king of Crete.
Thefeus being fent todeftroy the Minotaur *, Ariadne * See the ar-
was fo taken with him, that, as a teftimony of her ticle
love, ftie gave Thefeus a clue of thread to guide him
out of the labyrinth. Thefeus, having killed the Mi¬
notaur, carried off the Athenians he had relieved, toge¬
ther with Ariadne ; whom, however, he afterward fbr-
fook.
ARIANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in the Ulterior Principality, with a biihop’s
fee. E. Long. 15. 19. N. Lat. 41. cS.
A RIANS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian feci, fol¬
lowers of Arius *. Their principles, according to * gec jinu!.
Spanheim, were, That Chrift is only called God by way
of title; that he is lefs than the Father, who alone is
eternal, and without beginning ; that he is a creature,
having had a beginning of exiftence, and having no
being before the beginning of all things : hence he
was made God, and the Son of God by adoption,
not by nature : that the Word was alfo fubjeft to
change ; that the Father created all things by him as
an inftrument; and that he was the moft excellent of
all creatures : that the e fie nee of the Father was dif¬
ferent from the effence of the Son, neither was he co¬
equal, nor con-fubftantial, with the Father : that the
Holy Ghoft was not God, but the creature of the
Son, inferior in dignity to the Father and Son, and co-
worker in the creation.—In their doxology, the. Arians
aferibed Glory to the Father, through the Son, in the
Holy Ghojl.
ARIAS MONT ANUS, a learned Spanifh divine*
employed by Philip II. of Spain to publifh another
edition of the Bible, after that of cardinal Ximenes;
which he finifhed with applaufe, and died at Seville
in 1598.
ARICA, a port-town of South America, in the
province of Los Charaes, in Peru. It was formerly a
eonfiderable place: but the earthquakes, which are fre¬
quent here, have almoft entirely ruined it; for there
are no more than 150 families, which are moft of them
blacks, mulattoes, and Indians. Moft of the houfes
are made with canes or reeds, fet upright, and bound
together with cords or thongs; and as it never rains
here, they are covered only with mats, which makes
the place look at a diftance like a heap of ruins.
The vale of Arica is about a league wide, and fix
leagues long, next the fea, and is all a barren country,
except the fpot where the old town flood, which is di¬
vided into little meadows of clover grafs, and plots for
fugar-canes, with a few olive and cotton trees inter-
mixt. This vale grows narrower as it runs eaftward;.
and a league up there is a village, where they begin to
cultivate pimento or Jamaica pepper, which is planted
throughout all the reft of the vale; and there are fe¬
veral farms, which produce nothing elfe, that bring in
A H I [ ^44 1 ART
Adcomum the value of 80,000 crowns yearly. The Spaniards of
, II . Peru are fo ufed to this pepper, that they drefs no
Arinriarp1’ provifions without it. W. Long. 70. 15. S. Lat. 18.
26.
ARICONIUM, a town of the Silures, (Antonine);
now Hereford, (Camden). W. Long. 2.42. Lat. 52. 6.
ARIDAS, a kind of taffety, manufaftured in the
Eaft Indies froxh a fhining thread which is got from
certain herbs, whence they are ftyled aridas of herbs.
ARIDULLAM, in natural hiftory, a kind of zar-
nich found in the Eaft Indies. See Zarnich.
ARIES, in zoology. See Oyis.
Aries, in aftronomy, a conftellation of fixed ftars,
drawn on the globe, in the figure of a ram. It is the
firft of the twelve figns of the zodiac, from which a
twelfth part of the ecliptic takes its denomination.
ARIMANIUS, the evil god of the ancient Per-
fians. The Perfian Magi held two principles ; a good
dsemon or god, and an evil one ; the firft the author of
all good, and the other of all evil: the former they
fuppofed to be reprefented by light, and the latter by
darknefs, as their trueft fymbols. The good principle
they named Tezad or Tezdan, and Onnozd or Hormiz-
da, which the Greeks wrote Oromafdes; and the evil
daemon they called Ahriman, and the Greeks Arima-
nius. Some of the Magians held both thefe princi¬
ples to have been from all eternity : but this fetl was
reputed heterodox ; the original do&rine being, that
the good principle only was 'eternal, and the other
*DeIfideet created.— Plutarch * gives the following account of
Ofiride, the Magian traditions in relation to thefe gods and
P* 3fi9' the introdu&ion of evil into the world, viz. That
Oromazes confifted of moft pure light, and Arima-
nius of darknefs ; and that they were at war with each
other : that Oromazes created fix gods; the firft, the
author of benevolence; the fecond, of truth; the third,
of juftice, riches, and the pleafure which attends good
adlions ; and that Arimanius made as many, who were
the authors of the oppofite evils, or vices : that then
Oromazes, triplicating himfelf, removed as far from
the fun as the fun is from the earth, and adorned the
heaven with ftars, appointing the dpg-ftar for their
guardian and leader : that he alfo created 24 other
gods, and inclofed them in an egg ; but Arimanius
having alfo made unequal number, thefe laft perforated
the egg, by which means evil and good became mix¬
ed together. However, the fatal time will come, when
Arimanius, the introducer of plagues and famine, mull
be of necefiity utterly deftroyed by the former, and
annihilated; then the earth being made plain and even,
mankind lhall live in a happy ftate, in the fame man¬
ner, in the fame political fociety, and ufing one and
the fame language. Theopompus writes, that, accor¬
ding to the Magians, the faid two gods, during the
fpace of 3O00 years, alternately conquer, and are con¬
quered ; that for other 3000 years, they will wage
mutual war, fight, and deftroy the works of each o-
ther, till at laft Hades (or the evil fpirit) fhall perifh,
and men become perfedlly happy, their bodies needing
no food, nor calling any lhadovv, i. e. being perfedlly
tranfparent.
ARIMASPI, (Pliny), a people of Sarmatia Eu¬
ropea, to the fouth of the Montes Riphaei, faid by
Mela to have but one eye; a fable broached by Arif-
teas Proconnefius, according to Herodotus.
ARIMINUM, a town of Umbria* or Romagna, Ariminum .il
at the mouth of the Ariminus, on the Gulf of Venice. Al|0ft0 Jff
The feizing on it by Caefar gave rife to the civil war. —  —L..||t
Now called Rimini. E. Long. 13. 30. Lat. 44. 8.
ARION, an excellent muiician and poet, inventor
of dithyrambics. Periander entertained him at his
court, where getting an eftate, and returning to Co¬
rinth, the failors, for lucre of his money, threw him
into the fea ; when, according to the poets, a dolphin,
charmed'with his mufic, took him on her back and car¬
ried him fafe to Ihore.
Arion, an admirable horfe, much more famous in
poetic hiftory than Bucephalus in that of Alexander.
Authors fpeak varioufly of his origin, tho’ they agree
in giving him a divine one. His produdlion is moft
commonly afcribed to Neptune. This god, according
to fome, raifed him out of the ground by a ftroke of
his trident; according to others, he begot him upon
the body of the fury Erynnys ; according to others,
upon that of Ceres, whom he ravilhed in the form of a
horfe, fhe having previoully affumed the form of a mare
to elude his purfuit. This horfe was nurfed by the Ne¬
reids ; and being fometimes yoked with the fea-horfes
of Neptune to the chariot of this god, he drew him
with incredible^ fwiftnefs through the fea. He had
this Angularity in him, that his right feet refembled
thofe of a man. Neptune gave him to Capreus king
of Haliartus. Capreus made a prefent of him to
Hercules ; who mounted him when he took the city
of Elis, gained the prize with him in the race a-
gainft Cygnus the fon of Mars near Traecena, and at
laft made a prefent of him to Adraftus. It is under
this laft mafter that Arion has fignalized himfelf the
moft : he won the prize for racing at the Nemean
games, which the princes who went to befiege Thebes
inftituted in the honour of Archemorus; and was the
caufe that Adraftus did not perilh in this famous expe¬
dition, as all the other chiefs did.
ARIOSTO (Lodovico), the famous Italian poet,
and author of Orlando Furiofo, was born at the caftle
of Reggio in Lombardy in 1474. His father, who
was major-domo to duke Hercules, lived to the extent
of his fortune, fo left but little at his death. Ariofto,
from his childhood, (hewed great marks of genius, e-
fpecially in poetry ; and wrote a comedy in verfe.onthe
ftory of Pyramus and Thilhe, which his brothers and
fifters played. His father being utterly unlearned, and
rather regarding profit than his fon’s inclination, com¬
pelled him to ftudy the civil law, in which having
plodded fome years to no purpofe, he quitted it for
more pleafing ftudies ; yet often lamented, as Ovid and
Petrarch did before him, and our own Milton fince *, * SeehisLa»ij
that his father banilhed him from the mufes. At the Vft
age of 24, Ariofto loft his father, and found himfelf a rtm
perplexed with family-affairs. However, in about fix
years he was, for his good parts, taken into the fervice
of Don Hippolito, cardinal of Efte. At this time he
had written nothing but a few fonnets ; but now he re-
folved to make a poem, and chofe Bayardo’s Orlando
Inamorato for a ground-work. However, he was
prevented writing for a great many years, &nd was cho-r
fen as a fit perfon to go on an embaffy to Pope Julio II.
where he gave fuch fatisfa&ion, that he was fent
again, underwent many dangers and difficulties, and
at his return was highly favoured. Then, at his Idfure,
he
A R I [ 645 ] A R I
Arioflo. he again applied himfelf to his poem : but, foon after,
he incurred the cardinal’s difpleafure for refufing to
accompany him into Hungary; by which he was fo dif-
couraged, that he deferred writing for 14 years, even
till the cardinal’s death. After that, he finilhed by
degrees, in great perfeftion, that which he began
with'great expectation. Duke Aftolfo offered him
« great promotions if he would ferve him; but, preferring
liberty to grandeur, he refufed this and other great
offers from princes and cardinals, particularly from
LeoX. from all whom he received notwithftandinggreat
prefents. The duke of Ferrara delighted fo much in
his comedies, of which he wrote five, that he built a
ftage on pirrpofe to have them played in his court, and
enabled our poet to build himfelf a houfe in Ferrara,
with a pleafant garden, where he ufed to compofe his
poems, which were highly efteemed by all the princes
in Italy, who fent him many prefents; but he faid,
“ he would not fell his liberty for the belt cardinal’s
hat in Rome.” It was but a fmall, though convenient
1 houfe : being alked, why he had not built it in a more
magnificent manner, fince he had given fuch noble de-
fcriptions of fumptuous palaces, beautiful porticos, and
pleafant fountains, in his Orlando Furiofo ? He re¬
plied, that words were cheaper laid together than
Hones. Upon the door was the following infcrip-
tion :
Parva, fed apta mihi,fed nulli obnox\a,fed rum
Sordida, parta meo fed tamen are, domus.
Which Mr Harrington thus tranllates :
This houfe is fmall, but fit for me, but hurtful unto none;
But yet not lluttilh, as you fee, yet paid for with mine own.
In his diet he was temperate, and fo carelefs of dain¬
ties, that he was fit to have lived in the world when
they fed upon acorns. Whether he was ever married,
is uncertain. He kept company with one Alexandria,
to whom, it was reported, he was married privately,
and a lady Genevera, whom he flily mentions in the 24th
book of his Orlando, as poets are apt to intermix with
their fictions fome real amours of their own. He was
urged to go ambaffador to pope Clement, but would
by no means accept this embaffy. He tranflated the
Menecmi of Plautus: and all his own comedies were
fo efteemed, that they were frequently a&ed by per-
fons of the firft quality ; and when his Lena was firft
reprefented, Ferdinand of Efte, afterwards Marquis of
Maffa, fo far honoured the piece as to fpeak the pro¬
logue. He began one of his comedies in his father’s
lifetime, when the following incident fhews the re¬
markable talent he had for poetry. His father one day
rebuked him Iharply, charging him with fome great
fault ; but all the while he returned him no anfwer.
Soon after, his brother began on the fame fubjeft; but
he eafily refuted him, and, with ftrong arguments,
juftified his own behaviour. “ Why then, faid his bro¬
ther, did you not fatisfy my father ?” “ In truth, faid
Lodovico, I was thinking of a part in my comedy,
and methought my father’s fpeech to me was fo fuit-
ed to the part of an old man chiding his fon, that I
forgot I was concerned in it myfelf, and confidered it
only to make it part of my play.” It is alfo reported
of Ariofto, that, coming by a potter’s (hop, he heard
him fmging a Have out of his Orlando, with fo bad a
race, that, out of all patience, he broke with his
ick feveral of his pots. The potter, in a pitiful tone,
VOL. I.
alking what he meant by wronging a poor man that Al'° ^
had never injured him. “ You rafcal, (he replied), Ihave Ariftander.
not done thee half the wrong thou haft done me: for I  
have broken but two or three pots of thine, not worth
fo many halfpence ; whereas thou haft broken and
mangled a ftanza of mine worth a mark of gold.”
Ariofto was tall, of a melancholy complexion, and
fo abforbed in ftudy and meditation, that he often for¬
got himfelf. His pifture was drawn by Titian in a
mafterly manner. He was honoured with the laurel
by the hands of the emperor Charles V. He was na¬
turally affable, always affuming lefs than was his due,
yet never putting up a known injury even from his fu-
periors. He was fo fearful on the water, that, when¬
ever he went out of a ftiip, he would fee others go be¬
fore him ; and, on land, he would alight from his
horfe on the leaft apprehenfion of danger. He was of
an amorous difpofition, and left two natural fons. He
enjoyed the friendlhip of the moft eminent men of lear¬
ning of his time, moft of whom he mentions with
great refpeft in the laft canto of his Orlando Furiofo.
His conftitution was but weakly, fo that he was obli¬
ged to have recourfe to phyficians the greateft part of
his life. He bore his laft ficknefs with great refolution
and ferenity; and died at Ferrara the 8th of July, 1533,
according to Sir John Harrington, being then fifty-nine
years of age. He was interred in the church of the
Benediftine monks, who, contrary to their cuftom, at¬
tended his funeral. He had a buft ere&ed to him, and
the following epitaph, written by himfelf, infcribed
upon his tomb :
Ludovici Ariofti humantur ofTa
Sub hoc marmore, feu fub hac humo, feu
Sub quidquid voluit benignns hasres,
Sive hsrede benignior comes, feu
Opportunius incidens viator :
Nam fcire baud potuit futura : fed nec
Tanti erat, vacuam fibi cadaver
Ut urnam cuperet parare.
Vivens ifta tamen fibi paravit,
Quas fcribi voluit fuo fepulchro,
Olim fi quod haberet id fepulchrum :
Ne cum fpiritus hoc brevi perafto
Prsefcripto fpatio mifellos artus,
Quos tegre ante reliquerat, repofcet,
Hac et hac cinerem hue et hue revellen*
Dum nofeat proprium, diu vagetur.
ARIPO, a ftrong town of Afia, on the weftern
coaft of the ifland of Ceylon, at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Sarunda. It belongs to the Dutch ; and to the eaft
of it is a bank, where they fifh for pearls. E. Long.
80. 25. N. Lat. 8. 42.
ARISH, a Perfian long meafure, containing about
38 Englilh inches.
ARISI, the Indian name for the plant which pro¬
duces the rice. See Orysa.
ARISTA, or awn, among botanifts, a long needle¬
like beard, which ftands out from the hulk of a grain
of corn, grafs, 8tc.
ARISTiEUS, fon of Apollo and Cyrene, whom,
for the many fervices he had rendered to mankind by %
his knowledge of all profitable arts, the gods placed
amengft the ftars; fo that he is the Aquarius in the
zodiac. The refemblance of his hiftory to that of
Mofes has been curioufly difeuffed by Huetius.
AR1STANDER, a famous foothfayer under A-
lexander thg Great, over whom he gained a wonder-
4 M ful
Ariftarchus
Ariftippus.
* See Ojlra-
ci/m.
A R I [ 64
ful influence by the good fuccefs of his art. He had
already had the fame employment at the court of king
Philip; and it was he who explained better than his
brethren the dream that this prince had after having
married Olympias.
ARISTARCHUS, a Grecian philofopher of Sa¬
mos, one of the firft 'that maintained that the earth
turns upon its own centre. We are not fure of the age
in which he lived ; and have none of his works but a
Treatife of the greatnefs and diftance of the Sun and
Moon, tranflated into Latin by Frederic Commandine,
and publiihed with Pappus’s explanations in 1572.
Aristarchus, a celebrated grammarian, much e-
fteemed by Ptolemy Philometor, who committed to
him the education of his fon. He applied himfelf
chiefly to criticifm, and made a revifal of Homer’s
poems, but in tfto magifterial a way ; for fuch verfes
as he did not like he treated as fpurious. He com¬
mented on other poets; Cicero and Horace made ufe
of his name to exprefs a very rigid critic.
ARISTIDES, furnamed the Jty?, flourifhedat A-
thens at the fame time with Themiftocles, who trium¬
phed over him by his boifterous eloquence, and got
' him baniftied, 483 years before Chrift * : but Aridities
being recalled a fhort time after, would never join with
the enemies of Themiftoclcs, to get him baniihed ; for
nothing could make him deviate from the ftri&eft rules
of moderation and juftice. Ariftides brought the Greeks
to unite againftthe Perfians; diftinguiihed himfelf at the
famous battle of Marathon, and that of Salamine and
Platea ; and eftablilhed an annual income of 460 ta¬
lents for a fund to fupply the expences of war. This
great man died fo poor, though he had the manage¬
ment of the revenues of Greece, that the Hate was o-
bliged to pay his funeral expences, to give fortunes to
his daughters in marriage, and a maintenance to his fon
Lyfimachus.
Aristides of Miletus, a famous Greek author,
often cited by the ancients.
Aristides, a very eloquent Athenian orator, who
became a convert to the Chriftian religion, and about
the year 124 prefented to the emperor Adrian an apo¬
logy for the Chriftians.
Aristides (.ZElius), a celebrated orator, born in
Myfia, about 129 years before the Chriftian asra. The
belt edition of his works is that of Oxford, printed in
Greek and Latin, in two volumes quarto.
Aristides, a painter cotemporary with Apelles,
flourifhed at Thebes about the I22d Olympiad. He is
faid to have been the firft who attempted to delineate
the paffions of the mind in colours. His Bacchus was
fo excellent a piece, as to become proverbial.
ARISTIPPUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic fe& of
philofophy, was the fon of Aretades, and born at Gy¬
rene in Libya. He fiourilhed about the 96th Olym¬
piad. The great reputation of Socrates induced him to
leave his own country, and remove to Athens, that he
might have the fatisfadlion of hearing his difcourfes.
He was chiefly delighted with thofe dixcourfes of Socra¬
tes that related the moft to plcafure ; which he aflerted
to be the ultimate end in which all happinefs confifts.
His manner of life was agreeable to his opinion ; for
he indulged himfelf extremely in all the luxuries of
drefs, wine, and women. Though he had a good eftate,
and three country-feats, yet he was the only one of the
.5 ]
A R I
difciples of Socrates who took money for teaching; ArifHppas.
which being obferved by the philofopher, he alked A-
riftippus, How he came to have fo much ? Who in re¬
ply allied him, How he came to have fo little ? Upon
his leaving Socrates, he went to JEgina, as Athenseus
informs us, where he lived with more freedomand luxury
than before. Socrates fent frequent exhortations to him,
in order to reclaim him ; but all in vain : and with the
fame view he publilhed that difcourfe which we find in
Xenophon. Here Ariftippus became acquainted with
Lais, the famous courtezan of Corinth; for whofe fake
he took a voyage to that city. He continued at Algi-
na till the death of Socrates, as appears from Plato’s
Phtedo, and the epiftle which he wrote upon that occa-
fion. He returned at laft into his owm country Cyrene,
where he profeffed philofophy, and inftituted a fed!
which, as we obferved above, was called the Cyrenaicy
from the place, and by fome WTiters the Hedonic or vo¬
luptuous, from its dodlrines. During the height of the
grandeur of Dionyfius the Sicilian tyrant, a great many
philofophers reforted to him; and among the reft Ari¬
ftippus, who was tempted thither by the magnificence
of that couit. Dionyfius afking him the reafon of his
coming, he replied, “ That it was in ordjr to give
what he had, and to receive what he had not or, as
others reprefent it, “ That when he wanted wifdom, he
went to Socrates; but now as he wanted money, he
was come to him.” He very foon infinuated himfelf
into the favour of Dionyfius ; for, being a man of a
foft eafy temper, he conformed himfelf exadtly to every
place, time, and perfon, and was a complete mafter of
the moft refined complaifance.
We have feveral remarkable pafiages concerning him
during his refidence at that court mentioned by Dio¬
genes Laertius. Dionyfius, at a feaft, commanded that
all fhould put on womens purple habits, and dance in
them. But Plato refufed, repeating thefe lines:
I cannot in this gay effeminate drefs
Difgrace my manhood, or my fex betray.
But Ariftippus readily fubmitted to the command, and
made this reply immediately :
 At feafts, where mirth is free,
A fober mind can never he corrupted.
At another time, interceding with Dionyfius in behalf
of a friend, but not prevailing, he caft himfelf at his
feet: being reproved by one for that excefs of humility,
he replied, “ That it was not he who was the caufe of
that fubmiflion; but Dionyfius, whofe ears were in his
feet.” Dionyfius (hewed him three beautiful courte¬
zans, and ordered him to take his choice. Upon which,
he took them all three away with him, alleging that
Paris was puniftied for preferring one to the other two
but when he had brought them to his door, he difmif-
fed them, in order to (hew that he could either enjoy
or reject with the fame indifference. Having defired
money of Dionyfius, the latter obferved to him, that
he had affured him a wife man wanted nothing. “ Give
me (fays he) what I alk, and we will talk of that af¬
terwards.” When Dionyfius had given it him, “ Now
(fays he), you fee I do not want.” By this complai¬
fance he gained fo much upon Dionyfius, that he had a
greater regard for him than for all the reft of the philo-
fophers, though he fometimes fpoke with fuch freedom
to that king, that he incurred his difpleafure. When
Dionyfius allied, Why philofophers haunted the gates
of
A R I [ 647 J A R I
■Ariflippn?, 0f nch men, but not rich men thofe of philofophers ?
he replied, “ Becaufe the latter know what they want,
and the others not.” Another time, Dionyfius repeat¬
ing (out of Sophocles, as Plutarch affirms, who afcribes
this to Zeno) thefe verfes.
He, that with tyrants feeks for bare fupport,
Enflaves himfclf, though free he came to court;
he immediately anfwered,
He is no (lave, if he be free to come.
Diodes, as Laertius informs us, related this in his Lives
of the Pkilofophers; though others afcribe this faying
to Plato. Ariftippus had a conteft with Antifthe-
nes the Cynic philofopher; notwithflanding which,
he was very ready to employ his intereft at court for
fome friends of Antitthenes, to preferve them from
death, as we find by a letter of his to that philofopher.
Diogenes followed the example of his mafter An-
tifthenes in ridiculing Ariftippus, and called him the
court-fpaniel.
We have many apophthegms of his preferved. Suidas
obferves, that he furpafled all the philofophers in the
the acutenefs of his apopthegms. Being once railed at,
he left the room ; and the perfon who abufed him, fol¬
lowing him, and alking him why he went away, he an¬
fwered, “ Becaufe it is in your power to rail, but it is
not in my power not to hear you.” A perfon obferving,
that the philofophers frequented the houfes of rich
men; “Why (fays he), the phyficians frequent the
chambers of the fick, yet that is no reafon why a man
ffiould rather chufe to lie fick than be cured.” To one
who boafted of his great reading, he faid, “ That as
they who feed and exereife moft are not always more
healthy than they who only eat and exercife to fatisfy
nature ; fo neither they who read much, but they who
read no more than is lifeful, are truly learned.” Among
other inftruftions which he gave to his daughter Are¬
te, he advifed her particularly to defpife fuperfluity.
To one who allied him what his fon would be the bet¬
ter for being a fcholar ? “ If for nothing elfe (faid he),
yet for this alone, that when he comes into the theatre,
one ftone will not fit upon another.” When a certain
perfon recommended his fon to him, he demanded 500
drachmas; and upon the father’s replying, that he
could buy a flave for that fum, “ Do fo (faid he), and
then you’ll be mafter of a couple.” Being reproach¬
ed, becaufe, having a fuit of law depending, he fee’d a
lawyer to plead for him, “ Juft fo (faid he), when I
have a great fupper to make, I always hire a cook.”
Being allied what was the difference between a wife
man and a fool, he replied, “ Send both of them toge¬
ther naked to thofe who are acquainted with neither of
them, and then you’ll know.” Being reproved by a cer¬
tain perfon (who, according to Mr Stanley, was Plato)
for his coftly and voluptuous feafts, “ I warrant you
(faid he), that you would not have bellowed three far¬
things upon fuch a dinner;” which the other con-
feffing, “ Why, then (faid he) I find myfelf lefs indul¬
gent to my palate, than you are to your covetous hu¬
mour;” or, as it is otherwife reprefented, “ I find, that
I love my belly, and you love your money.” When
Simus, treafurer to Dionyfius, (hewed him his houfe
magnificently furnilhed, and paved with coftly marble,
(for he was a Phrygian, and confequently profufe); A-
riftippus fpit in his face : upon which the other grow-
ing angry, “ Why, truly (laid he), I could not find a
fitter place.” His fervant carrying after him a great Ariftippus.
weight of money, and being ready to fink upon the
road under his burden, he bid him throw away all what
was too much for him to carry. Horace mentions this
faft in his third fatire of the fecond book :
Quid fimile ifti
Grascus Ariftippus ? qui lervos projicere aurum
In media juffit Libya, quia tardius irent
Propter onus fegnes.
Being alked, what things were moft proper for children
to be inftrutfted in? he anfwered, “ Thofe which might
prove of the greateft advantage to them when they
came to be men.” Being reproached for going from
Socrates to Dionyfius, he replied, “ That he went to
Socrates when he wanted ferious inftrutftion, and to
Dionyfius for diverfion.” Having received money of
Dionyfius at the fame time that Plato accepted a book
only, and being reproached for it, “ The reafon is
plain (fays he), I want money,and Plato wants books.”
Having loft a confiderable farm, he faid to one who
feemed exceffively to compaffionate his lofs, “ You
have but one field ; I have three left: why Ihould not
I rather grieve for you?” Plutarch, who relates this in
his book De Tranjuillitate Animi, obferves upon it,
that it is very abfurd to lament for what is loft, and
not to rejoice for what is left. When a perfon told
him, “ That the land for his fake was loft,” he replied,
“ That it was better fo, than that he Ihould be loft for
the land.” Being call by Ihipwreck alhore on the illand
of Rhodes, and perceiving mathematical fchemes and
diagrams drawn upon the ground, he faid, “ Courage,
friends ; for I fee the footfteps of men.”
After he had lived a long time with Dionyfius, his
daughter Arete fent to him, to defire his prefence at
Cyrene, in order to take care of her affairs, fince (he
was in danger of being oppreffed by the magiftrates.
But he fell fick in his return home, and died at Lipa-
ra, an iEolian illand. With regard to his principal opi¬
nions ; like Socrates, he reje&ed the fciences as they
were then taught, and pretended that logic alone was
fufficient to teach truth and fix its bounds. He affert-
ed, that pleafure and pain were the criterions by which
we were to be determined ; that thefe alone made up
all our paffions; that the firft produced all the foft
emotions, and the latter all the violent ones. The af-
femblage of all pleafure, he afferted, made true happi-
nefs, and that the bell way to attain this was to enjoy
the prefent moments. He wrote a great many books:
particularly the Hiftory of Libya, dedicated to Dio¬
nyfius ; feveral Dialogues; and four books Of the Lux¬
ury of the Ancients. There are four epiftles of his ex¬
tant in the Socratic Colledtion publilhed by Leo Al-
latius.
Befides Arete his daughter, whom he educated in
philofophy, Ariftippus had alfo a fon, whom he dif-
inherited for his ftupidity. Arete had a fon, who
was named Arifippus from his grandfather, and had
the furname of fr0m his mother’s in-
ftrucling him in philofophy. Among his auditors,
befides his daughter Arete, we have an account of
iEthiops of Ptolemais, and Antipater of Cyrene. A-
rete communicated the philofophy, which Ihe recei¬
ved from her father, to her fon Ariftippus, who tranf-
mitted it to Theodorus the Atheijl, who inftituted the
fed called Tkcodorean. Antipater communicated the
4 M 2 philofophy
A R I [ 648 ] A R I
Arifto philofophy of Ariftippus to Epitimedes his difciple;
Arirtolo Epdimedca to Paraebates ; Parxbates to Hegcfias and
cl1jai Annlceris ; and thefe two laft, improving it by fome
 — additions of their own, obtained the honour each of
them of giving a name to the Hegeftac and Annice-
rian feft.
Laertius mentions two other perfons of the name of
Ariftippus ; one, who wrote the Hiftory of Arcadia ;
the other, a philofopher of the New Academy.
ARISTO, a Stoic philofopher, the difciple of Zeno
the chief of the Stoics, flourifhed about 290 years be¬
fore the Chriftian sera. He differed but little from his
maftef Zeno. He rejefted logic as of no ufe, and natu¬
ral philofophy as being above the reach of the human
underftanding. It is faid, that being bald, the fun burnt
his head; and that this caufed his death.—There is a
faying of his recorded, which might render the dodtrine
of Ariftippus lefs odious than it ordinarily is; (fee
Aristippus). He ufed to fay, “ That a philofopher
might do thofe of his hearers a prejudice who put a
wrong interpretation upon good meanings ; as for ex¬
ample, that the fchool of Ariftippus might fend out de¬
bauchees, and that of Zeno Cynicswhich feems to
imply, that the dodtrine of this philofopher never pro¬
duced this effeft but when it was mifunderftood. He
fhould alfo have added, that every teacher is therefore
obliged to forbear laying down ambiguous maxims, or
to prevent falfe gloffes being put upon them.
Aristo (Titus), a Roman lawyer, perfeft mafter of
the public and civil law, of hiftory and antiquity. The
Pandedls mention forme books of his, as does Aulus
Gellius.—He was cotemporary with Pliny the younger,
who gives him a noble charaifter, and had a moft ten¬
der friendftiip for him. See Plinii Epiji. lib. i. ep. 22.
ARISTOCRACY, a form of government where
the fupreme power is veiled in the principal perfons of
the ftate. See Government.
ARISTOGITON, a famous Athenian, who, with
Armodius, killed Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, about
513 years before the Chriftian asra. The Athenians
eredled a ftatue to him.
ARISTOLOCHIA, birthwort ; a genus of the
hexandria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of
plants.
Species, Of this genus there are 21 different fpecies;
but only the four following merit defeription. 1. The
rotunda, is a native of the fouth of France, of Spain,
and Italy, from whence the roots are brought for me¬
dicinal ufe. The roots are roundiih, grow to the fize
of fmall turnips, being in fhape and colour like the
roots of cyclamens, which are frequently fold inftead
of them. This fort hath three or four weak trailing
branches, which lie on the ground when they are not
fupported, and extend two feet in length; the leaves
are heart-ftiaped and rounded at their extremity ; the
flowers come out fingly at every leaf, toward the upper
part of the ftalk. They are of a purplifh black colour;
and are frequently fucceeded by oval feed-veffels, ha¬
ving fix cells, full of flat feeds. 2. The longa, is a na¬
tive of the fame countries. This fpecies hath long tap¬
roots like carrots ; the branches are weak and trailing,
extending little more than a foot; the flowers come out
from the wings of the leaves like the other, are of a
pale purple colour, and are frequently fucceeded by
feed-veffels like the other. 3. The ferpentaria, is a na¬
tive of Virginia and Carolina, from whence radix Ariftolo-
Jerpentarise, fo much ufed in medicine, is brought over. chia-
The plant rifes out of the ground in one, two, and
fometimes three pliant ftalks, which at every little di-
ftance are crooked or undulated. The leaves ftand al¬
ternately, and are about three inches long, in form
fomewhat like the fmilax afpera. The leaves grow
clofe to the ground on footftalks an inch long, of a
Angular fhape, and of a dark purple colour. A round
canulated capfule fucceeds the flower. It is filled with
feeds, which are ripe in May. The ufual price of the
root when dried is 6 d. per ;pound, both in Virginia
and Carolina, which is money hardly earned; yet the
negro flaves employ great part of the time allowed them
by their mafters in fearch of it, which is the reafon
that there are feldom found any but very fmall plants
of this fpecies. When they are planted in gardens in
thofe countries where they are natives, the plants in-
creafe fo much in two years time, that the hand can
fcarce grafp the ftalks of a fingle one. This fpecies
delights in woods, and is ufually found near the roots
of great trees, 4. The indica, or contrayerva of Ja¬
maica, is a native of that ifiand, where its roots are ufed
inftead of the true contrayerva. It hath long trailing
branches, which climb upon the neighbouring plants,
and fometimes rife to a confiderable height. The
flowers are produced in fmall clufters towards the up¬
per part of the ftalks, which are of a dark purple co¬
lour.
Culture. The firft, fecond, and third forts are pro¬
pagated from feeds, which ftiould be fown in the au¬
tumn, in pots filled with light frefh earth, and placed
under a frame to preferve them from the froft. If they
are plunged into a gentle hot-bed in the month of
March, the plants will come up the fooner. In fum-
mer, and in autumn when the ftalks begin to decay,
they muft be watered. In winter they muft be again
flickered; and in March, before the roots begin to
flioot, they muft be tranfplanted into fmall feparate pots
filled with light earth, when they may be removed in¬
to the open air, and treated as before. The next fpring,
they may be planted in the open air in a warm border;
where, in the autumn, when their ftalks decay, if the
border is covered with old tanners bark to keep out
the froft, the roots will be fecured; but where this care
is not taken, they will frequently be killed by the froft.
The fourth is tender; and therefore muft be kept in a
ftove during the winter, or it will not live in England.
Medicinal Ufes. The roots of the long and round
forts, on being firft chewed, fcarce difeover any tafte,
but in a little time prove naufeoufly bitterifti; the long
fomewhat the leaft fo. The other fort inftantly fills the
mouth with an aromatic bitternefs, which is not un¬
grateful. Their medical virtues are, to heat, ftimulate,
attenuate vifeid phlegm, and promote the fluid fecre-
tions in general; they are principally celebrated in fup-
prefiions of female evacuations. The dofe in fubftance
is from a fcruple to two drams. The long fort is re¬
commended externally for cleaniing and drying wounds
and ulcers, and in cutaneous difeafes.
The root of the ferpentaria is fmall, light, buftiy, and
confifts of a number of firings or fibres, matted toge¬
ther, iffuing from one common head; of a brownifh
colour on the outfide, and paler or yellowifti within.
It has an aromatic fmell, like that of valerian, but
more.-
Ariftoi
Ariflo-
phanei.
* Seethe ar
tide Mef-
fenia.
* See the ar
tide
Socrates.
A R I [ 649 ] A R I
more agreeable; and a warm, bitterifli, pungent tafte.
This root is a warm diaphoretic and diuretic; it has
been greatly celebrated as an alexipharmac, and efteem-
ed one of the principal remedies in malignant fevers and
epidemic difeafes. In thefe intentions, it is given in
fubftance from 10 to 3Q grains ; and in infufion, to a
dram or two. Both watery and fpirituous menftrua ex¬
tract its virtue by infufion, and elevate fome lhare of its
flavour in diftillation; along with the water a fmall por¬
tion of eflential oil arifes.
ARISTOMENES, a general of the Meflenians, re¬
nowned for his valour and virtue *.
ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated comic poet of
Athens. He was cotemporary with Plato, Socrates,
and Euripides ; and moil of his plays were written
during the Peloponnefian war. His imagination,was
warm and lively, and his genius particularly turned to
raillery: he had alfo great- fpirit and refolution ; and
was a declared enemy to flavery, and to all thofe who
wanted to opprefs their country. The Athenians fuf-
fered themfelves in his time to be governed by men
who had no other views than to make themfelves ma¬
tters of the commonwealth. Ariftophanes expcfed the
defigns of thefe men, with great wit and feverity, upon
the ftage. Cleo was the firft whom he attacked, in
his- comedy of the Equites ; and as there was not one
of the comedians who would venture to perfonate a
man of his great authority, Ariftophanes played the
character himfelf, and with fo much fuccefs, that the
Athenians obliged Cleo to pay a fine of five talents,
which were given to the poet. He defcribed the af¬
fairs of the Athenians in fo exa<tt a manner, that his
comedies are a faithful hiftory of that people. For
this reafon, when Dionyfius king of Syracufe deisred
to learn the ftate and language of Athens, Plato fent
him the comedies of Ariftophanes, telling him, thefe
were the bett reprefentation thereof. He wrote above
50 comedies; but there are only 11 extant which are
perfedt: thefe are, Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, E-
quites, the Acharnenfes, the Wafps, Peace, the Birds,
the Ecclefiazufae or Female Orators, the Thefmopho-
fiazufe or Prieftefles of Ceres, and Lyfiftrata. The
' Clouds, which he wrote in ridicule of Socrates *, is
the moft celebrated of all his comedies : Madam Dacier
tells us, (he was fo much charmed with this perform¬
ance, that after (lie had tranflated it, and read it over
200 times, it did not become the lead tedious to her,
which (he could not fay of any other piece; and that
the pleafure which (he received from it was fo exqui-
fite, that (he forgot all the contempt and indignation
which Ariftophanes deferved for employing his wit to
ruin a man, who was wifdom itfelf, and the greateft
ornament of the city of Athens. Ariftophanes, having
conceived fome averlion to the poet Euripides, fatirizes
him in feveral of his plays, particularly in his Frogs
and his T'hefmopbojiazufie. , He wrote his Peace in the
10th year of the Peloponnefian war, when a treaty for
50 years was concluded between the Athenians and the
Lacedaemonians, though it continued but feven years.
The Acharnenfes was written after the death of Pericles,
and the lofs of the battle in Sicily, in order to diffuade
the people from intruding the fafety of the common¬
wealth to fuch imprudent generals as Lamachus. Soon
after, he reprefented his Aves, or Birds; by which he
admoniftied the Athenians to fortify Decelsea, which
he calls by a fictitious name Nephelococcygia. The Arifto-
Vefpse, or Wafps, was written after another lofs in
Sicily, which the Athenians fuffered from the mifeon- ■, ,
duct of Chares. He wrote the Lyjijlrata when all
Greece was involved in a war ; in which comedy the
women are introduced debating upon the affairs of the
commonwealth, when they come to a refolution, not
to go to bed with their hulbands till a peace (hould be
concluded. His Plutus, and other comedies of that
kind, were written after the magiftrates had given or¬
ders that no perfon (hould be expofed by name upon
the ftage. He invented a peculiar kind of verfe,
which w'as called by his name, and is mentioned by
Cicero in his Brutus; and Suidas fays, that he alfo
was the inventor of the tetrameter and oftameter verfe.
Ariftophanes was greatly admired among the an¬
cients, efpecially for the true Attic elegance of his
ftyle. The time of his death is unknown ; but it is
certain he was living after the expulfion of the tyrants
by Thrafybulus, whom he mentions in his Plutus and
other comedies. There have been feveral editions and
tranflations of this poet. Nicodemus Frifchin, a Ger¬
man, famous for his claflical knowledge, in the i6til
century, tranflated Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, the
Equites, and the Acharnenfes, into Latin verfe. Quin¬
tus Septimus Florens rendered into Latin verfe the
Wafps, the Peace, and Lyfiftrata ; but his tranflatiou
is full of obfolete words and phrafes. Madam Dacier
publifhed at Paris, in 1692, a French verfion of Plu¬
tus, and the Clouds, with critical notes, and an ex¬
amination of them according to the rules of the theatre.
Mr Lewis Theobald likewife tranflated thefe two co¬
medies into Englifti, and publifhed them with remarks.
The moft noble edition of this author is that publiftied
by Ludoiphus Kufter, at Amlterdam, in folio, in
17x0, and dedicated to Charles Montague earl of Ha¬
lifax.
ARISTOTLE, the chief of the Peripatetic philo-
fophers, born at Stagyra, a fmall city in Macedon, in
the 99th Olympiad, about 384 years before the birth
of Chrift. Fie was the fon of Nicomachus, phyfi-
cian to Amyntas the grandfather of Alexander the
Great. He loft his parents in his infancy; andProxe-
nes, a friend of his father’s, who had the care of his
education, taking but little notice of him, he quitted
his ftudies, and gave himfelf up to the follies of youth.
After he had fpent moft of his patrimony, he entered
into the army: but not fucceeding in this profeflion,
he went to Delphos to confult the oracle what courfe
of life he (hould follow ; when he was advifed to go to
Athens, and ftudy philofophy. He accordingly went
thither about 18 years of age, and ftudied under Plato
till he was 37. By this time he had fpent his whole
fortune ; and we are told that he got his living by fell ¬
ing powders, and fume receipts in pharmacy. He fol¬
lowed his ftudies with moft extraordinary diligence, fo
that he foon furpaffed all in Plato’s fchool. He eat
little, and dept lefs ; and, that he might not over-deep
himfelf, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always
with one hand out of the bed, having a ball of brafs in
it, which, by its falling into a bafon of the fame me¬
tal, awaked him. We are told, that Ariftotle had fe¬
veral conferences with a learned Jew at Athens, and
that by this means he inftru<fted himfelf in the fciences
and religion of the Egyptians, and thereby faved
A R I [ 65° J A R I
Ariftot'e. himfelf the trouble of travelling into Egypt. When
' he had ftudied about 15 years under Plato, he began
to form different tenets from thofe of his mailer, who
became highly piqued at his behaviour. Upon the
death of Plato, he quitted Athens 5 and retired to A-
tarnya, a little city of Myfia, where his old friend Her-
mias reigned. Here he married Pythias, the filler of
this prince, whom he is faid to have loved fo paffionate-
ly, that he offered facrifice to her. Some time after,
Hermias having been taken prifoner by Meranon the
king of Perfia’s general, Ariflotle went to Mitylene
the capital of Lefhos, where he remained till Philip
king of Macedon, having heard of his great reputation,
fent for him to be tutor to his fon Alexander, then a-
bout 14 years of age: Ariflotle accepted the offer ; and
in eight years taught him rhetoric, natural philofophy,
ethics, politics, and a certain fort of philofophy, ac¬
cording to Plutarch, which he taught nobody elfe.
Philip erefted flatues in honour of Ariflotle; and for his
fake rebuilt Stagyra, which had been almofl ruined by
the wars.
Ariflotle having loft the favour of Alexander by ad¬
hering to Califthenes his kinfman, who was accufed
of a confpiracy againft Alexander’s life, he removed to
Athens, where he fet up his new fchool. The magi-
llrates received him very kindly; and gave him the Ly-
cseum, fo famous afterwards for the concourfe of his
difciples : here he taught, according to the cuftom
long eftablifhed, a public and a fecret do&rine; and as
he gave his lectures walking along among his auditors,
his fe£t affumed the name of Peripatetic. Here alfo it
was, according to fome authors, that he compofed his
principal works. Plutarch, however, tells us, that be
had already wrote his books of phyfic, morals, meta-
phyfics, and rhetoric. The fame author fays, that
Ariftotle being piqued at Alexander, becaufe of the
prefents he had fent to Xenocrates, was moved with fo
much refentment, that he entered into Antipator’s con¬
fpiracy againft this prince. The advocates for Ari¬
ftotle, however, maintain this charge to have been
without foundation ; that at leaft it made no impreffion
on Alexander, fince about the fame time he ordered
him to apply himfelf to the ftudy of animals; and fent
him, in order to defray his expences, eight hundred ta*
lents, which amounts to four hundred and eighty
thoufand crowns, befides a great number of fiftiers and
huntfmen to bring him all forts of animals. — When
Ariftotle was accufed of impiety by one Eurymedon, a
prieft of Ceres, he wrote a large apology for himfelf,
addreffed to the magiftrates : but knowing the Athe¬
nians to be extremely jealous in regard to their reli¬
gion, and remembering the fate of Socrates, he was fo
much alarmed, that he retired to Chalets, a city of
Eubcea, where he ended his days. Some fay he poi-
foned himfelf, to avoid falling into the hands of his e-
nemies ; others affirm, that he threw himfelf into the
Euripus, becaufe he could not comprehend the reafon
of its ebbing and flowing ; and there are fome who tell
us he died of a colic, in the 63d year of his age, being
the third of the 114th Olympiad, two years after Alex¬
ander. The Stagyrites carried away his body, and
ere£led altars to his memory.
Befides his treatifes on philofophy, he wrote alfo on
poetry, rhetoric, law, &c. to the number of 400 trea¬
tifes, according to Diogenes Laertius; or more, ac¬
cording to Francis Patricius of Venice. An account Ariftotle.
of fuch as are extant, and of thofe faid to be loft, may ——-
be feen in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Grxca. He left his
writings with Theophraftus, his beloved difciple and
fucceffor in the Lycteum ; and forbad that they ftiould
ever be publilhed. Theophraftus, at his death, trufted
them to Neleus, his good friend and difciple; whofe
heirs buried them in the ground at Scepfis, a town of
Troas, to fecure them from the king of Pergamus,
who made great fearch every where for books to adorn
his library. Here they lay concealed 160 years, until,
being almoft fpoiled, they were fold to one Apellicon,
a rich citizen of Athens. Sylla found them at this
man’s houfe, and ordered them to be carried to Rome.
They were fome time after purchafed by Tyrannion a
grammarian : and Andronicus of Rhodes having
bought them of his heirs, was in a manner the firft re-
ftorer of the works of this great philofopher; for he
not only repaired what had been decayed by time and
ill-keeping, but alfo put them in a better order, and
got them copied. There were many who followed
the doctrine of Ariftotle in the reigns of the twelve Cae-
fars, and their numbers increafed much under Adrian
and Antoninus : Alexander Aphrodinus was the firft
profeffor of the Peripatetic philofophy at Rome, being
appointed by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lu¬
cius Verus; and infucceeding ages the dodtrine of A-
riftotle prevailed among almoft all men of letters, and
many commentaries were written upon his works.
The firft doctors of the“ church difapproved of the
doftrine of Ariftotle, as allowing too much to reafon
and fenfe ; but Anatolius biffiop of Loadicea, Didy-
mus of Alexandria, St Jerome, St Auguftin, and feve-
ral others, at length wrote and fpoke in favour of it.
In the fixth age, Boethius made him known in the
weft, andtranflatedfomeof his pieces into Latin. But
from the time of Boethius to the eighth age, Joannes
Damafcenus was the only man who made an abridge¬
ment of his philofophy, or wrote any thing concerning
him. The Grecians, who took great pains to reftore
learning in the 11th and following ages, applied much
to the works of this philofopher, and many learned
men wrote commentaries on his writings: amongft
thefe were Alfarabius, Algazel, Avicenna, and Aver-
roes. They taught his doftrine in Africa, and after¬
wards at Cordova in Spain. The Spaniards introduced
his do&rine into France, with the commentaries of A-
verroes and Avicenna ; and it was taught in the uni-
verfity of Paris, until Amauri, having fupported fome
particular tenets on the principles of this philofopher,
was condemned of herefy, in a council held there in
1210, when all the works of Ariftotle that could be
found were burnt, and the reading of them forbidden
under pain of excommunication. This prohibition was
confirmed, as to the phyfics and metaphyfics, in 1215,
by the Pope’s legate; though at the fame time he gave
leave for his logic to be read, inftead of St Auguftin’s
ufed at that time in the univerfity. In the year 1265,
Simon, cardinal of St Cecil, and legate from the holy
fee, prohibited the reading of the phyfics and meta¬
phyfics of Ariftotle. All thefe prohibitions, however,
were taken off in 1366 ; for the cardinals of St Mark
and St Martin, who were deputed by Pope Urban V.
to reform the univerfity of Paris, permitted the reading
of thofe books, which had been prohibited : and in the
year
A R I [ 651 ] A R I
Ariftotle, year 1448, Pope Stephen approved of all his works,
I ■Ariltax' and took care to have a new tranflation of them into
enl Latin.
Pafiing from hand to hand, in the manner above-
mentioned, the works of Ariftotle have greatly fuft'ered
from the ignorance or the inaccuracy of tranfcribers.
t^ This has given birth to much obfcurity, and to omif-
fions that are now irreparable : it is this which has ren¬
dered the fenfe of Ariftotle fo doubtful, and opened
fuch a wide field for the combats of fcholaftic philofo-
phy. Befides, our philofopher was not himfelf very
much inclined to be perfe&ly plain and familiar. His
ftyle was difficult and concife. He has employed a ma¬
thematical manner of communication ; often ufes terms
which have no determinate meaning; and, with many
of his do&rines, he mixes ancient opinions as taken for
granted, which are altogether falfe or uncertain. In a
word, the Peripatetic philofophy is very obfcure in it-
felf, and commentators have rather contributed to in-
creafe the obfcurity.
ARISTOXENUS, the moft ancient mufical wri¬
ter, of whofe works any trails are come down to us.
He was born at Tarentum, a city in that part of Italy
called Magna Gracia, now Calabria. He was the fon
of a mufician, whom fome call Mnefias, others Spin-
tharus- He had his firft education at Mantinaea, a city
of Arcadia, under his father, and Lamprus of Ery-
thrae; he next ftudied under Xenophilus, the Pythago¬
rean ; and laftly under Ariftotle, in company with Theo-
phraftus. Suidas, from whom thefe particulars are
tranfcribed, adds, that Ariftoxenus, enraged at Ari¬
ftotle having bequeathed his fchool to Theophraftus,
A Pv I T PI
S a fcience which explains the properties of numbers,
and Ihews the method or art of computing by them.
Hiflory of Arithmetic.
g r At what time this fcience was firft introduced into
[Knowledge the world, we can by no means determine. That fome
at'numbers part of it, however, was coeval with the human race is
Ithe'huni'1^ ahf°lute^y certain. We cannot conceive how any man
[race. endowed with reafon can be without fome knowledge
of numbers. We are indeed told of nations in Ameri¬
ca who have no word in their language to exprefs a
greater number than three ; and this they call poetar-
rarorincouroac: but that fuch nations ffiould have no
idea of a greater number than this, is abfolutely in¬
credible. Perhaps they may compute by threes, as we
compute by tens; and this may have occafioned the no¬
tion that they have no greater number than three.
But though we cannot fuppofe any nation, or indeed
any fingle perfon, ever to have been without fome
knowledge of the difference between greater and fmaller
numbers, it is poffible that mankind may have fubfifted
for a confiderable time without bringing this fcience to
to any perfection, or computing by any regular fcale,
j? as 10, 60, &c. That this, however, was very early
introduced into the world, even before the flood, we
may gather from the following expreffion in Enoch’s
prophecy, as mentioned by the Apoftle Jude : “ Be¬
hold, the Lord cometh with ten thoufands of his faints.”
This ffiews, that even at that time men had ideas of
traduced him ever after. But Ariftocles the Peripate- Aviftox-
tic, in Eufebius, exculpates Ariftoxenus in this parti- enus' >
cular, and affures us that he always fpoke with great
refpedl of his matter Ariftotle. From the preceding
account it appears that Ariftoxenus lived under Alex¬
ander the Great and his firft fucceffors. His Harmo¬
nics in three books, all that are come down to us, to-
ether with Ptolemy’s Harmonics, were firft publiftied
y Gogavinus, but not very correftly, at Venice, 1562,
in 4to, with a Latin verfion. John Meurfius next tranf-
lated the three books of Ariftoxenus into Latin, from
the MS. of Jof. Scaliger; but, according to Meibo-
mius, very negligently. With thefe he printed at Ley¬
den, 1616, 410, Nicomachus and Alypius, two other
Greek writers on mufic. After this, Meibomius col-
lefted thefe mufical writers together; to which he ad¬
ded Euclid, Bacchius fenior, Ariftides Quintilianus;
and publiftied the whole, with a Latin verfion and
notes, from the elegant prefs of Elzevir, Amft. 1652.
The learned editor dedicates thefe ancient mufical trea-
tifes to Chriftina queen of Sweden. Ariftoxenus is
faid by Suidas to have written 452 different works, a-
mong which thofe on mufic were the moft efteemed ;
yet his writings on other fubje&s are very frequently
quoted by ancient authors, notwithftanding Cicero and
fome others fay that he was a bad philofopher, and
had nothing in his bead but mufic. The titles of feveral
of the loft works of Ariftoxenus, quoted by Athenaeus.
and others, have been colledled by Meurfius in his notes
upon this author, by Tonfius and Menage, all which
Fabricius has digefted into alphabetical order.
M E T I C
numbers as high as we have at this day, and compu¬
ted them alfo in the fame manner, namely by tens.
The dire&ions alfo given to Noah concerning the di-
menfions of the ark, leave us no room to doubt that
he had a knowledge of numbers, and of meafures like-
wife. When Rebekah was fent away to Ifaac, Abra¬
ham’s fon, her relations wifhed fhe might be the mo¬
ther of thoufands of millions; and if they were totally
unacquainted with the rule of multiplication, it is diffi¬
cult to fee how fuch a wifti could have been formed.
It is probable, therefore, that the four fundamental
rules of Arithmetic have always been known to fome
nation or other. No doubt, as fome nations, like the
Europeans formerly, and the Africans and Ameri¬
cans now, have been immerfed in the moft abjedl and
deplorable ftate of ignorance, they might remain for
fome time unacquainted with numbers, except fuch as
they had immediate occafion for; and, when they came
afterwards to improve, either from their own induftry,
or hints given by others, might fancy that they them-
felves, or thofe from whom they got the hints, had in¬
vented what was known long before. The Greeks
were the firft European nation among whom arithme¬
tic arrived at any degree of perfe&ion. M. Goguet is
of opinion, that they firft ufed pebbles in their calcula¬
tions: a proof of which, he imagines, is, that the word
which comes from a little ftone or flint,
among other things, fignifies to calculate. The fame, he
thinks, is probable of the Romans; and derives the word
calculation
6c 2
A R I T H
calculation from the ufe of little Hones {calculi') in their
A firft arithmetical operations.
Grecian me- If this method, however, was at all made ufe of, it
thod of mu[j; hgve been but for a Ihort time, fince we find the
tionPUta" Greeks very early made ufe of the letters of the alpha-
lpn' bet to reprefent their numbers. The 24 letters of their
alphabet, taken according to their order, at firft de¬
noted the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,
600, 700, and 800 ; to which they added the three,
following v, 7,'?), to reprefent 6, 90, and 900. The
difficulty of performing arithmetical operations by fuch
marks as thefe may eafily be imagined, and is very con-
fpicuous from Archimedes’s treatife concerning the di-
3 menfions of a circle.
RomanNc- The Romans followed a like method; and befides
tation. chara&ers for each rank of clafies, they introduced o-
thers for five, fifty, and five hundred. Their method
is ftill ufed for diftinguiffiin^ the chapters of books,
and fome other purpofes. Their numeral letters and
values are the following.
I V X L C D M
One, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thoufand
Any number, however great, may be reprefented
by repeating and combining thefe according to the fol¬
lowing rules.
1st, When the fame letter is repeated twice, or of-
tener, its value is reprefented as often. Thus II fig-
nifies two ; XXX thirty, CC two hundred.
2J, When a numeral letter of leffer value is placed
after one of greater, their values are added : thus XI
fignifies eleven, LXV fixty-five, MDCXXVIII one
thoufand fix hundred and twenty-eight.
3d, When a numeral letter of leffer value is placed
before one of greater, the value of the leffer is taken
from that of the greater : thus IV fignifies four, XL
forty, XC ninety, CD four hundred.
Sometimes 13 is ufed inftead of D for 500, and the
value is increafed ten times by annexing 3 to the right
hand.
Thus J3 fignifies 500. Alfo Ci3is ufed for 1000
130 5000 CCj33 for 10000
1333 SO000 CCC1333 for 100000
Sometimes thoufands are reprefented by drawing a
line over the top of the numeral, V being ufed for five
thoufand, L for fifty thoufand, CC two hundred thou¬
fand.
Sexagefimal About the year of Chrift 200, a new kind of arith.-
Arithmetic. metic, called fexagefimal, was invented, as is fuppofed,
by Claudius Ptolomasus. The defign of it was to re¬
medy the difficulties of the common method, efpecially
with regard to fra&ions. In this kind of arithmetic,
every unit was fuppofed to be divided into 60 parts,
and each of thefe into 60 others, and fo on : hence any
number of ftich parts were called fexagefimal fractions ;
and to make the computation in whole numbers more
cafy, he made the progreffion in thefe alfo fexagefimal.
Thus from one to 59 were marked in the common way :
then 60 was called a fexagefma prlma, or firft fexage¬
fimal integer, and had one fingle daffi over it; fo 60
was expreffed thus I' ; and fo on to 59 times 60, or
3540, which was'thus expreffed LIX'. He now pro¬
ceeded to 60 times 60, which he called a fexageftma
fecunda, and was thus expreffed I". In like manner,
twice 60 times 60, or 7200, was expreffed by 11"; and
METIC. Hiflory.
fo 4m till he came to 60 times 3600, which was a third
fexagefimal, and expreffed thus, I"'. If any number
lefs than 60 was joined with thefe fexagefimals, it was
added in its proper characters without any daffi : thus
I XV reprefented 60 and 15, or 75; IVXXV is four
times 60 and 25, or 265; X'H'XV, is 10 times 3600,
twice 60 and 15, or 36,135, &c. Sexagefimal frac¬
tions were marked by putting the daffi at the foot, or
on the left hand of the letter: thus I,, or I, denoted 5^;
or I) 160S &c* _ _ y
The moft perfect method of notation, which we Indian Cha-
now ufe, came into Europe from the Arabians, by the rafterswhen
way of Spain. The Arabs, however, do not pretend in"
to be the inventors of them, but acknowledge that they
received them from the Indians. Some there are in¬
deed, who contend that neither the Arabs nor the In¬
dians were the inventors, but that they were found out
by the Greeks. But this is by no means probable ; as
Maximus Planudes, who lived towards the clofe of the
13th century, is the firft Greek who makes ufe of them':
and he is plainly not the inventor ; for Dr Wallis men¬
tions an infcviption on a chimney in theparfonage-houfe
of Helendon in Northamptonffiire, where the date is
expreffed by M°X33, inftead of 1x33. Mr Luffkin
furniffies a ftill earlier inftance of their ufe, in the win¬
dow of a houfe, part of which is a Roman wall, near
the market-place in Colchefter ; where between two
carved lions Hands an efcutcheon with the figures 1090.
Dr Wallis is of opinion that thefe characters mull have
been ufed in England at leaft as long ago as the year
1050, if not in ordinary affairs, at leaft in mathema¬
tical ones, and in aftronomical tables. How thefe cha¬
racters came to be originally invented by the Indians
we are entirely ignorant.
The introduction of the Arabian characters in no¬
tation did not immediately put an, end to “the fexage¬
fimal arithmetic. As this had been ufed in all the a-
ftronomical tables, it was for their fakes retained for
a confiderable time. The fexagefimal integers went
firft out, but the fractions continued till the invention
of decimals. 6
The oldeft treatifes extant upon the theory of arith- Treatifes 0*
metic are thefeventh, eight, and ninth books of Euclid’s Arithmetic,
elements, where he treats of proportion and of prime
and compofite numbers ; both of which have received
improvements fince his time, efpecially the former.
The next of whom we know any thing is Nicomachus
the Pythagorean, who wrote a treatife of the theory
of arithmetic, confifting chiefly of the diftin&ions and
divifions of numbers into claffes, as plain, folid, trian¬
gular, quadrangular, and the reft of the figurate num¬
bers as they are called, numbers odd and even, &c. with
fome of the more general properties of the feveral kinds.
This author is,- by fome, faid to have lived before the
time of Euclid ; by others, not long after. His arith¬
metic was publiffied at Paris in 1538. The nextremark-
able writer on this fubjeft is Boethius, who lived at
Rome in the time of Theodoric the Goth. He is fup¬
pofed to have copied moft of his work from Nico¬
machus.
From this time no remarkable writer on arithmetic
appeared till about the year 1200, when Jordanus of
Namur wrote a treatife on this fubjeft, which was pub¬
liffied and demonftrated by Joartnes Faber Stapulenfis
in the 15th century, foon after the invention of print-
ing.
Chap. I. A R I T H
Notation ing.' The fame author alfo wrote upon the new art of
and computation by the Arabic figures, and called this
^umeration b00£ Algorifmus Demonjlratus. Dr Wallis fays this
manufcript is in the Savillian library at Oxford, but
it hath never yet been printed. As learning advanced
in Europe, fo did the knowledge of numbers; and the
writers on arithmetic foon: became innumerable. A-
bout the year 1464, Regiomentanus, in his triangu¬
lar tables, divided the Radius into 10,000 parts inftead
of 60,000 ; and thus tacitly expelled the fexagefimal
arithmetic. Part of it, however, ftill remains in the
divifion of time, as of an hour into 60 minutes, a mi¬
nute into 60 feconds, &c. Ramus in his arithmetic,
written about the year 1550, and publilhed by Laza¬
rus Schonerus in 1586, ufes decimal periods in carry¬
ing on the fquare and cube roots to fraftions. The
fame had been done before by our countrymen Buck-
lej and Record; but the firft who publifhed an exprefs
treatife on decimals was Simon Stevinius, about the
year 1582. As to the circulating decimals. Dr Wallis is
the firft who took much notice of them. He is alfo the
author of the arithmetic of infinites, which has been very
ufefully applied to geometry. The greateft improve¬
ment, however, which the art of computation ever re¬
ceived, is the invention of logarithms. The honour
of this invention is unqueftionably due to Lord Napier
baron of Merchifton in Scotland, about the end of the
16th or beginning of the 17th century. By thefe means
arithmetic has advanced to a degree of perfection
which the ancients could never have imagined polfible,
much lefs hoped to attain; and we believe it may now
be reckoned one of thofe few fciences which have ar¬
rived at their utmoft height, and which is in its nature
capable of little further improvement.
, Chap. I. NOTATION and NUMERATION.
The firft elements of arithmetic are acquired during
our infancy. The idea of one, though the fimpleft of
any, and fuggefted by every Angle object, is perhaps
rather of the negative kind, and confifts partly in the
exclufion of plurality, and is not attended to till that of
number be acquired. Two is formed by placing one
objeft near another; three, four, and every higher
number, by adding one continually to the former col¬
lection. As we thus advance from lower numbers to
higher, we foon perceive that there is no limit to this in-
creafing operation; and that, whatever number of ob¬
jects be collected together, more may be added, at
leaft, in imagination ; fo that we can never reach the
higheft poffible number, nor approach near it. As we
are led to underftand and add numbers by collecting
objeCts, fo we learn to diminifh them by removing the
objeCts collected ; and, if we remove them one by one,
the number decreafes through all the fteps by which it
advanced, till only one remain, or none at all. When
a child gathers as many ftones together as fuits his fan¬
cy, and then throws them away, he acquires the firft
elements of the two capital operations in arithmetic.
The idea of numbers, which is firft acquired by the ob-
fervation of fenfible objeCts, is afterwards extended to
meafures of fpace and time, affeCtions of the mind,
and other immaterial qualities.
Small numbers are moft eafily apprehended : a child
foon knows what two and what three is: but has not
Vol. I.
M E T I C. 653
any diftinCt notion of feventeen. Experience removesthis Notation
difficulty in fome degree ; as we become accuftomed to .. anci .
in/ 11 p 1 1 1 1 1 Niiiveratioi
handle larger collections, we apprehend clearly the nurn-   
ber of a dozen or a fcore ; but, perhaps could hardly
advance to an hundred without the aid of claffical ar¬
rangement, which is the art of forming fo many units
into a clafs, and fo many of thefe claffes into one of a
higher kind, and thus advancing through as many ranks
of claffes as occafion requires. If a boy arrange an
hundred ftones in one row, he would be tired before
he could reckon them ; but if he place them in ten
rows of ten ftones each, he will reckon an hundred
with eafe ; and if he colleCt ten fuch parcels, he will
reckon a thoufand. In this cafe, ten is the loweft clafs,
an hundred is a clafs of the fecond rank, and a thou¬
fand is a clafs of the third rank.
There does not feem to be any number naturally
adapted for conftituting a clafs of the loweft, or any
higher rank, to the exclufion of others. However, as
ten has been univerfally ufed for this purpofe by the
Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, and by all
nations who have cultivated this fcience, it is probably
the moft convenient for general ufe. Other fcales, how¬
ever, may be affumed, perhaps on fome occafions,
with fuperior advantage; and the principles of arith¬
metic will appear in their full extent, if the ftudent
can adapt them to any fcale whatever: thus, if eight were
the fcale, 6 times 3 would be two claffes and two units,
and the number 18 would then be reprefented by 22.
If 12 were the fcale, 5 times 9 would be three claffes
and nine units, and 45 would be reprefented by 39, &c.
It is proper, whatever number of units conftitutes
a clafs of 'the lower rank, that the fame number of
each clafs fhould make one of the next higher. This
is obferved in our arithmetic, ten being the univerfal
fcale : but is not regarded in the various kinds of mo¬
nies, weights, and the like, which do not advance by
any univerfal meafure ; and much of the difficulty in
the praftice of arithmetic arifes from that irregularity.
As higher numbers are fomewhat difficult to appre¬
hend, we naturally fall on contrivances to fix them in
our minds, and render them familiar: but notwithftand-
ing all the expedients we can fall upon, our ideas of
high numbers are ftill imperfeft, and generally far fhort
of the reality ; and though we can perform any com¬
putation with exaftnefs, the anfwer we obtain is often
incompletely apprehended.
It may not be amifs to illuftrate, by a few ex¬
amples, the extent of numbers which are frequently
named without being attended to. If a perfon em¬
ployed in telling money reckon an hundred pieces
in a minnte, and continue at work ten hours each
day, he will take feventeen days to reckon a million ;
a thoufand men would take 45 years to reckon a
billion. If we fuppofe the whole earth to be as well
peopled as Britain, and to have been fo from the crea¬
tion, and that the whole race of mankind had con-
ftantly fpent their time in telling from a heap confift-
ing of a quadrillion of pieces, they would hardly have
yet reckoned the thoufandth part of that quantity.
All numbers are reprefented by the ten following cha-
raffiers.
12 34567 8 9 0
One, two, thrpe, four, five, fix, feven, eight, nine, cypher.
The nine firft are cnWt&ftgnificant figures, or digits’i
4 N and
654 A R I T H
Numeration and foraetimes reprefcnt units, fometimes tens, hund-
‘   reds, or higher claffes. When placed fingly, they de¬
note the fimple numbers fubjoined to the chara&ers.
When feveral are placed together, the firft or right-
hand figure only is to be taken for its fimple value :
the fecond fignifies fo many tens, the third fo many
hundreds, and the others fo many higher claffes, ac¬
cording to the order they Hand in. And as it may
fometimes be required to exprefs a number confifting
of tens, hundreds, or higher claffes, without any units
or claffes of a lower rank annexed ; and as this can only
be done by figures Handing in the fecond, third, or
higher place, while there are none to fill up the lower
ones ; therefore an additional chara&er or cypher (o)
is neceffary, which has no fignification when placed
by itfelf, but ferves to fupply the vacant places, and
bring the figures to their proper ftation.
The following table fhews the names and divifions of
the claffes.
8.4 5 7,9 8 2. 5 6 4, 7 3 8.9 7 2, 6 4 5
The firft fix figures from the right hand are called
the unit period, the next fix the million period, after
which the trillion, quadrillion, quintillion, fextillion,
feptillion, ottillion and nonillian periods follow in their
order.
It is proper to divide any number, before we reckon
it, into periods and half periods, by different marks.
We then begin at the left hand, and read the figures in
their order, with the names of their places, from the
table. In writing any number, we muft be careful to
mark the figures in their proper places, and fupply the
vacant places with cyphers.
As there are no poffible ways of changing numbers,
except by enlarging or diminiftiing them according to
fome given rule, it follows, that the whole art of arith¬
metic is comprehended in two operations, Addition and
Subtrafiion. However, as it is frequently required to
add feveral equal numbers together, or to fubtraft fe¬
veral equal ones from a greater, till it be exhaufted,
proper methods have been invented for facilitating the
operation in thefe cafes, and diftinguifhed by the names
®f Multiplication and Divijwn; and thefe four miles
are the foundation of all arithmetical Operations what¬
ever.
As the idea of number is acquired by obferving fe-
-veral objtedks colle&ed, fo is that of fraftions by ob¬
ferving an objedt divided into feveral parts. As we
fbmetimes meet with objefts broken into two, three, or
more parts, we may confider any or all of thefe divi¬
fions promifcuoufiy, which is done in the dodtrine of
vulgar fra&ions, for which a chapter will be allotted.
However, fince the pra&ice of colle&ing units into
parcels of tens has prevailed univerfally, it lias been
M E T I C. Chap. I
found convenient to follow a like method in the confide- Addit
ration of fradtions, by dividing each unit into ten equal “
parts, and each of thefe into ten fmaller parts ; and fo
on. Numbers divided in this manner are called Deci¬
mal Fractions.
Chap. II. ADDITION. 8
Addition is that operation by which we find the
amount of two or more numbers. The method of do¬
ing this in fimple cafes is obvious, as foon as the mean¬
ing of number is known, and admits of no illuftration.
A young learner will begin at one of the numbers and
reckon up as many units feparately as there are in the
other, and pradlice will enable him to do it at once.
It is impofiible, .ftridtly fpeaking, to add more than two
numbers at a time. We muft firft find the fum of the
firft and fecond; then we add the third to that num¬
ber; and fo on. However, as the feveral fums obtain¬
ed are eafily retained in the memory, it is neither ne¬
ceffary nor ufual to mark them down. When the num¬
bers confift of more figures than one, we add the units
together, the tens together ; and fo on. But, if the
fum of the units exceed ten, or contain ten feveral times,
we add the number of tens it contains to the next co¬
lumn, and only fet down the number of units that are
over. In like manner, we carry the tens of every co¬
lumn to the next higher. And the reafon of this is
obvious from the value of the places; fince an unit, in
any higher place, fignifies the fame thing as ten in the
place immediately lower. r. ,
Rule. “ Write the numbers diftindtly,
“ units under units, tens under tens ; and , *
“ fo on. Then reckon the amount of the ' id,
“ right-hand column. If it be under ten, 121?
“ mark it down. If it exceed ten, mark
“ the units only, and carry the tens to the ^o^o-
“ next place. In like manner, carry the 26
“ tens of each column to the next, and ^
“ mark down the full fum of the left-hand
“ column.” _ 3092234
As it is of great confequence in bufinefs to perform
addition readily and exaftly, the learner ought to prac-
tife it till it become quite familiar. If the learner can
readily add any two digits, he will foon add a digit to
a higher number with equal eafe. It is only to add the
unit place of that number to the digit; and, if it ex¬
ceed ten, it raifes the amount accordingly. Thus, be-
caufe 8 and 6 is 14, 48 and 6 is 54. It will be pro¬
per to mark down under the fums of each column, in
a fmall hand, the figure that is carried to the next co¬
lumn. This prevents the trouble of going over the
whole operation again, in cafe of interruption or mi-
ftake. If you want to keep the account clean, mark
down the fum and figure you carry, on a feparate pa¬
per, and, after reviling them, tranfcribe the fum only.
After fome praftice, we ought to acquire the habit of
adding two or more figures at one glance. This is par¬
ticularly ufeful when two figures which amount to 10,
as 6 and 4, or 7 and 3, Hand together in the column.
Every operation in arithmetic ought to be revifed,
to prevent miftakes; and, as one is apt to fall into the
fame miftake if he revife it in the fame manner he per¬
formed it, it is proper either to alter the order, or elfe
to trace back the fteps by which the operation advan¬
ced*
Chap. II. A R I T H
Addition, ced, which wili lead us at laft to the number we began
’ with. . Every method of proving accounts may be re¬
ferred to one or other of thefe heads.
i *r, Addition may be proven by any of the following
methods : repeat the operation, beginning at the top
of the column, if you began at the foot when you
wrought it.
2d, Divide the account into feveral parts; add thefe
feparately, and then add the fuins together. If their
amount correfpond with the fum of the account, when
added at once, it may be prefumed right. This method
is particularly proper when you want to know the fums
of the parts, as well as that of the whole.
3d, Subtract the numbers fucceffively from the fum
M E T I C.
tains more columns than one, and from which you carry
to the higher by 20, 30, or any even number of tens,
firft add the units of that column, and mark down their
fum, carrying the tens to the next column ; then add
the tens, and carry to the higher denomination, by the
number of tens that it contains of the lower. For ex¬
ample, in adding (hillings, carry by 1 o from the units
to the tens, and by 2 from the tens to the pounds.
Note 2. If you do not carry by an even number of
tens, firft find the complete fum of the lower denomi¬
nation, then inquire how many of the higher that fum
contains, and carry accordingly, and mark the remain¬
der, if any, under the column. For example, if the
fum of a column of pence be 43, which is three (hil-
if the account be right, you will exhauft it exadtly, and lings and feven pence, mark 7 under the pence-column
find no remainder.
When the given number confifts of articles of differ¬
ent value, as pounds, (hillings, and pence, or the like,
which are called different denominationsthe operations
in arithmetic muft be regulated by the value of the ar¬
ticles. We (hall give here a few of the mod ufeful
tables for the learners information.
I. Sterling Money. 11. Averdupois 'weight.
4 Farthings:=i penny, 16 Drams=i ounce, oz.
16 Ounces—1 pound, lb.
28 Pounds: 1 quarter, qr.
4 Quart.zrihun.wglftjC.
20 Hun.weiel
eight=:i ton,T.
marked d.
12 Pences 1 (hilling, s.
20 Shillings=i pound, L.
Alfo, 6s. 8d.=i noble
ios.=i angel
13s. 4d. or two thirds of
a poundzn merk.
Scots money is divided in the fame manner as Ster¬
ling, and has one twelfth of its value. A pound Scots
is equal to is. 8d. Sterling, a (hilling Scots to a penny
Sterling, and a penny Scots to a twelfth part of a pen¬
ny Sterling; a mark Scots is two thirds of a pound
Scots, or 13-fd. Sterling.
and carry 3 to that of the (hillings.
Note 3. Some add the lower denominations after the
following method: when they have reckoned as many
as amounts to one of the higher denomination, or up¬
wards, they mark a dot, and begin again with the ex-
cefs of the number reckoned above the value of the de¬
nomination. The number of dots (hows how many are
carried, and the laft reckoned number is placed under
the column.
Sterling Money.
Examples
145 6 8
2^5 3
III. Troy Weight.
20 Mites=i grain, gr.
24 Grains=i pen. wr, dwt.
20 Pennywts=i ounce,oz.
12 Ounces=i pound, lb.
V. Englijh Dry Meafure.
2 Pints=i quart
4 Quarts=i gallon
2 Gallons=:i peck
4 Pecks=i bufliel
8 Bufliels=i quarter
VII. EngUJh Land Mea¬
fure.
30y Square yards=i
or perch
40 Poles=i rood
4 Roods = 1 acre
IX. Long Meajur
12 Inches=i foot
3 Feet—1 yard
54 Yardsm pole
40 Poles=i furlong
8 Furlongs=i mile
3 Milesaei leagu
1 pole
IV. Apothecaries Weight.
20 Grainsari fcruple, £
3 Scruples = 1 dram, 3
8 Dramsari ounce, §
12 Ounces=i pound, lb
VI. Scots Dry Meafure.
4 Lippies=i peck
4 Pecks=i firlot
4 Firlots=i boll
16 Bolls=i chalder
VIII. Scots Land Mea¬
fure.
36 Square ell's=i fall
40 Falls=:i rood
4 Roods=i acre
X. Time.
60 Seconds=i minute
60 Minutest 1 hour
24 Hoursaci day
7 Daysm week
365 Days—1 year
52 Weeks & iday=iyear
645
737
35
9
1764
780
99
150
844
16
169
36
54
30
7
707
J4
84
125
16
62
C.
19
H
18
9
17
!5
6
6
4
5
In Averdupois Weight,
qr. lb.
3 a6
1 16
1 16
2 27
- 10
2 24
3 *8
- 5
3 9
- 4
- 5
C.
'5
3
7
3
J 8
1
3
4
6
Rule for compound Addition. “ Arrange like
* quantities under like, and carry according to the
* value of the higher place.”
Note t. When you add a denomination, which con-
When one page will not contain the whole account,
we add the articles it contains, and write againft their
fum, Carried forward; and we begin the next page with
the fum of the foregoing, writing againft it, Brought
forward.
When the articles fill feveral pages, and their whole
fum is known, which is the cafe in tranferibing accounts,
it is beft to proceed in the following manner : Add the
pages, placing the fums on a feparate paper ; then add
the fums, and if the amount of the whole be right, it
only remains to find what numbers (hould be placed at
4 N 2 the
256
ARITHMETIC. Chap. III.
Subtrattion. the foot and top of the pages. For this purpofe, re-
peat the fum of the firft page on the fame line; add
the fums of the firfi: and fecond, placing the amount
in a line with the fecond ; to this add the fum of the
third, placing the amount in a line with the third. Pro¬
ceed in like manner with the others; and if the laft fum
correfponds with the amount of the pages, it is right.
Thefe fums are tranfcribed at the foot of the refpedtive
pages, and tops of the following ones.
170
66
73
45
78
L134 6 8
42 3 9
175 4 9
42 5 7
163 7 4
148 5 8 .
73 2 3 12  
L L
Ist Page, L 778 16
2d, 445 J4
3d, 151 19
4rh> 43 6
Examples.
5 4 70
98 18
13 2
3 9
5 4
6 8
— 9
— 5 :
L 778 16 —
1224 10 5
1276 10 2
I4I9 I7 I
L1419 17 1
Then we tranfcribe L 778 :16s. at the foot of the
firfi and top of the fecond pages, L 1224 : 10:5 at the
foot of the fecond and top of the third; and fo on.
Chap. III. SUBTRACTION.
Subtraction is the operation by which we take a
leffer number from a greater, and find their differences.
It is exactly oppofite to addition, and is performed by
learners in a like manner, beginning at the greater and
reckoning downwards the units of the leffer. The great¬
er is called the minuend, and the leffer the fubtrahend.
If any figure of the fubtrahend be greater than the
correfponding figure of the minuend, we add ten to
that of the minuend; and, having found and marked the
difference, we add one to the next place of the fubtra¬
hend. This is called borro’wing ten. The reafon will
appear, if we confider that, when two numbers are e-
qually increafed by adding the fame to both, their dif¬
ference will not be altered. When we proceed as di-
re£ted above, we add ten to the minuend, and we like-
wife add one to the higher place of the fubtrahend,
which is equal to ten of the lower place.
Rule. “ Subtraft units from units, tens from tens,
“ and fo on. If any figure of the fubtrahend be greater
than the correfpondmg one of the minuend, borrow
“ ten.”
Example. Minuend 173694 738641
Subtrahend 21453 379235
Remainder 152241 359406
To prove fubtra&ion, add the fubtrahend and re¬
mainder together ? if their fum be equal to the minuend,
the account is right.
Or fubtradl the remainder from the minuend. If
the difference be equal to the fubtrahend, the account
is fight.
for compound fubtraCtion. “ Place like deno- Subtraction
“ minations under like, and borrow, when neceffary,
“ according to the value of the higher place.”
Examples.
C. qr. lb. A. R. F. E.
L146 3 3 12 3 19 15 2 24 18
58 7 6 4 3 24 12 2 36 7
L 87 15 9 73 23 2 3 28 11
Note 1. The reafon for borrowing is the fame as
in Ample fubtraftion. Thus, in fubtradling pence, we
add 12 pence when neceffary to the minuend, and at
the next ftep, we add one fhilling to the fubtrahend.
Note 2. When there are two places in the fame
denomination, if the next higher contain exactly fo
many tens, it is belt to fubtraft the units firft, borrow¬
ing ten when neceffary; and then fubtraft the tens,
borrowing, if there is occafion, according to the num¬
ber of tens in the higher denomination.
Note 3. If the value of the higher denomination be
not an even number of tens, fubtraft the units and tens
at once, borrowing according to the value of the higher
denomination.
Note 4. Some chufe to fubtraft the place in the
fubtrahend, when it exceeds that of the minuend, from
the value of the higher denomination, and add the mi¬
nuend to the difference. This is only a different or¬
der of proceeding, and gives the fame anfwer.
Note 5. As cuftom has eftablifhed the method of
placing the fubtrahend under the minuend, we follow
it when there is no reafon for doing otherwife ; but the
minuend may be placed under the fubtrahend with equal
propriety ; and the learner fhould be able to work it
either way, with equal readinefs, as this laft is fome-
times more convenient; of which inftances will occur
afterwards.
Note 6. The learner fhould alfo acquire the habit,
when two numbers are marked down, of placing fuch
a number under the leffer, that, when added together,
the fum may be equal to the greater. The operation
is the fame as fubtraftion, though conceived in a dif¬
ferent manner, and is ufeful in balancing accounts, and
on other occafions.
It is often neceffary to place the fums in different co¬
lumns, in order to exhibit a dear view of what js re¬
quired. For inftance, if the values of feveral parcels
of goods are to be added, and each parcel confifls of
feveral articles, the particular articles fhould be placed
in an inner column, and the fum of each parcel extend¬
ed to the outer column, and the total added there.
If any perfon be owing an account, and has made
fome partial payments, the payments muft be placed in
an inner column, and their fum extended under that of
the account in the outer column, and fubtradted there.
An example or two will make this plain.
it£.] 30 yards linen at 2 s. L. 3
45 ditto at 1 s. 6 d. 3 7 6
 L. 676
120 fc thread at 4 s. L. 24
40 ditto at 3 s. 6
30 ditto at 2 s. 6 d. 315
   33 *5
L. 40 2 6
Z4.J
Chap. IV. A R I T H
Multipli- 2^.3 I773-
catlon• Jan. 15. Lent James Smith L. 50
22. Lent him further 70
— L. 120
Feb. 3. Received in part L. 62
5. Received further
In gold L. 10 10
In iilver 12
 23 10
 85 10
Balance due me L. 34 10
10
Chap. IV. MULTIPLICATION.
In Multiplication, two numbers are given, and it is
required to find how much the firft amounts to, when
reckoned as many times as there are units in the
fecond. Thus, 8 multiplied by 5, or 5 times 8, is
40. The given numbers (8 and 5) are called fatlors ;
the firft (8) the multiplicand; the fecond (5) the mul¬
tiplier ; and the amount (40) the product.
This operation is nothing elfe than addition of the
fame number feveral times repeated. If we mark 8
five times under each other, and add them, the fum is
40 : But, as this kind of addition is of frequent and
Cxtenfive ufe, in order to ftiorten the operation, we
mark down the number only once, and conceive it to
be repeated as often as there are units in the multiplier.
For this purpofe, the learner muft be thoroughly ac¬
quainted with the following multiplication-table, which
is compofed by adding each digit twelve times.
Four times
1 is 4
2
3 1
4 1
5 2
6 2
9
10 20
11 22
12 24
Eight times
1 is 8
2 l6
3 24
4 S2
Ten times E
I is TO,
Seven times
* 7
14
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
70
77
84
3°
40
5°
60
70
80
90
100
1 ic
120
7 42
8 48
9 54
10 60
66
72
n timesITsvelve times
I is 12
24
99
110
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
132
M4
If both fa&ors be under 12, the table exhibits the
produft at once. If the multiplier only be under 12,
we begin at the unit-place, and multiply the figures
in their order, carrying the tens to the higher place,
as in addition.
M E T I C. 657
Ex. 76859 multiplied by 4, or 76859 added 4 times. Multipli-
4 768.59
  76859
307436 76859
If the multiplier be 10, we annex a cypher to the
multiplicand. If the multiplier be 100, we annex two
cyphers ; arid fo on. The reafon is obvious, from the
ufe of cyphers in notation.
If the multiplier be any digit, with one or more
cyphers on the right hand, we multiply by the figure,
and annex an equal number of cyphers to the produdt.
Thus, if it be required to multiply by 50, we firft
multiply by 5, and then annex a cypher. It is the
fame thing as to add the multiplicand fifty times ; and
this might be done by writing the account at large, di¬
viding the column into 10 parts of 5 lines, finding the
fum of each part, and adding thefe ten fums together.
If the multiplier confift of feveral fignificant figures,
we multiply feparately by each, and add the produfts.
It is the fame as if we divided a long account of ad¬
dition into parts correfponding to the figures of the
multiplier.
Example. To multiply 7329 by 365.
7329 7329 7329 36645 - 5 times.
5 60 309 439740 = 60 times.
  2198700 =r 300 times.
36645 43974° 2198700    
2675085 = 365 times.
It is obvious that 5 times the multiplicand added to
60 times, and to 300 times, the fame muft amount to
the produdt required. In practice, we place the pro-
du£ts at once under each other; and, as the cyphers
arifing from the higher places of the multiplier are
loft in the addition, we omit them. Hence may be
inferred the following
Rule. “ Place the multiplier under the multipli-
“ cand, and multiply the latter fucceffively by the lig-
“ nificant figures of the former ; placing the right-
“ hand figure of each produd under the figure of the
“ multiplier from which it arifes ; then add the pro-
“ duft.”
Ex. 7329 42785
365 91
36645 42785
43974 385065
21987  
  3893431
2675085
37846 93956
235 '8704
189230 375824
ii3538 657692
75692 751648
8893810 817793024
A number which cannot be produced by the mul¬
tiplication of two others is called a prime number; as 3,
5, 7, 11, and many others.
A number which may be produced by the multipli¬
cation of two or more fmaller ones, is called a compojite
number. For example, 27, which arifes from the mul¬
tiplication of 9 by 3 ; and thefe numbers (9 and 3)
are called the component parts of 27.
Contractions and Varieties in Multiplication.
Firft, If the multiplier be a compofite number, we<
may multiply fucceffively by the component parts.
658
MuttlpH-
A R I T H
7638by45 or5 times 9 7638 is
43 9 2'
38190 68742 4'
3°552 55
5492 by 72
*3759by 56
56417 by 144
73048 by 84
166549 by 125
6th, 378914 by 54
343710 7th, 520813 by 63
Becaufe the fecond produft is equal to five times the
firft, and the firft is equal to nine times the multi¬
plicand, it is obvious that the fecond product muft be
five times nine, or forty-five times as great as the mul¬
tiplicand.
Secondly, If the multiplier be 5, which is the half
of 10, we may annex a cypher and divide by 2. If it
be 25, which is the fourth part of an 100, we may
annex two cyphers, and divide by 4. Other contrac¬
tions of the like kind will readily occur to the learner.
Thirdly, To multiply by 9, which is one lefs than
10, we may annex a cypher ; and fubtraft the multi¬
plicand from the number it compofes. To multiply by
99, 999, or any number of 9*3, annex as many cyphers,
and fubtradt the multiplicand. The reafon is obvious;
and a like rule may be found, though the unit place
be different from 9.
Fourthly, Sometimes a line of the produdt is more
eafily obtained from a former line of the fame than
from the multiplicand.
Ex. Ist.] 1372
84
2 k] 1348
36
5488
10976
8088
4044
115248
48528
In the firft example, inftead of multiplying by 5,
we may multiply 5488 by 2 : and, in the fecond, in¬
ftead of multiplying by 3, we may divide 8088 by 2.
Fifthly, Sometimes the produdt of two or more fi¬
gures may be obtained at once, from the produdt of a
figure already found.
Ex. Ist.] 14356
648
114848
918784
9302688
2k] 346232I
96484
13849284
166191408
$32382816
334058579364
In the fecond example, we multiply firft by 4;
then, becaufe 12 times 4 is 48, we multiply the firft
line of the produdt by 12, inftead of multiplying fepa-
rately by 8 and 4 ; laftly, becaufe twice 48 is 96, we
multiply the fecond line of the produdt by 2, inftead
of multiplying feparately by 6 and 9.
When we follow this method, we muft be careful to
place the right-hand figure of each produdt under the
right-hand figure of that part of the multiplier which
it is derived from.
It would anfwer equally well in all cafes, to begin
the work at the higheft place of the multiplier ; and
contradtions are fometimes obtained by following that
order.
M E T I C.
£x. i‘k] 3125 or 7125
642 642
2k]
Chap. IV.
32452
52575
Multipli¬
cation.
18750 18750
12500 131250
6250 —
   2006250
162260
811300
2433900
2006250 1706163900
It is a matter of indifference which of the fadtors be
ufed as rhe multiplier ; for 4 multiplied by 3 gives
the fame produdl as 3 multiplied by 4; and the like
holds univerfally true. To illuftrate this, we may
mark three rows of points, four in each ....
row, placing the rows under each other; ....
and we (hall alfo have four rows, con- ....
taining three points each, if we reckon the rows down¬
wards.
Multiplication is proven by repeating the operation,
ufing the multiplier for the multiplicand, and the mul¬
tiplicand for the multiplier. It may alfo be proven by
divifion, or by calling out the 9’s; of which after¬
wards ; and an account, wrought by any contradlion,
may be proven by performing the operation at large,
or by a different contradlion.
Compound Multiplication.
Rule I. “ If the multiplier do not exceed 12, the
“ operation is performed at once, beginning at the
“ lowed place, and carrying according to the value of
“ the higher place.”
[Examples.] Cnut.qr.lb. A. R. P. Ib.oz.divt.
L. 13 6 7 12 2 8 13 3 18 75 9
9 5 6 12
L. 119 19 3 62 3 12 83 — 28 89 5 8
Rule II. “ If the multiplier be a compofite num-
“ ber, whofe component parts do not exceed 12, mul-
“ tiply firft by one of thefe parts, then multiply the
“ produdl by the other. Proceed in the fame manner
“ if there be more than two.”
Ex. I'k] L. 15 3 8 by 32=8X4
L. 121 9 4 = 8 times
4
L. 485 17 4 = 32 times.
2k] L. 17 3 8 by 75=5X5X3
3
L. 51 11 — = 3 times
5
L. 257 15 — =15 times
5
L. 1288 15 — — 7S times
Note 1. Although the component parts will an¬
fwer in any order, it is bell, when it can be done, to
take them in fuch order as may clear off fome of the
lower places at the firft multiplication, as is done in
Ex. zk
Note
Chap. IV. A R I T H
Multipli- Note '2. The operation may be proved, by taking
catl0n' the component parts in a different order, or dividing
the multiplier in a different manner.
Rule III. “ If the multiplier be a prime number,
“ multiply firft by the compofite number next lower,
“ then by the difference, and add the produ&s.”
L. 35 17 9 by 67=64X3 Here, becaufe 8 times 8
8 64= 8X8 is 64, we multiply twice
  by 8, which gives L. 2296
L. 287 2 —= 8 times. 16s. equal to 64 times the
8 multiplicand; then we find
  the amount of 3 times the
L. 2296 16— = 64 times, multiplicand, which is
107 13 3 = 3 times. L. 107 : 13 : 3 ; and it is
 — evident that thefe added,
L. 2404 9 3 = 67 times, amount to 67, the multi¬
plicand.
Rule IV. “ If there be a compofite number a lit-
“ tie above the multiplier, we may multiply by that
“ number, and by the difference, and fubtradt the fe-
“ cond produdt from the firft.”
L. 17 4 5 by 106=108—2 Here we multiply
12 108= 9X12 by 12 and 9, the com¬
ponent parts of 108,
and obtain a produdt
of L. i860 : 6s. equal
to 108 times the mul¬
tiplicand; and, as this
is twice oftener than
was required, we fub-
tra& the multiplicand
doubled, and the re¬
mainder is the number
fought.
Example. L. 34 8 2\ by 3465
Rule V. “ If the multiplier be large, multiply by
“ 10, and multiply the produft again by ro; by which
“ means you obtain anhundred times the given number.
“ If the multiplier exceed 1000, multiply by 10 again;
“ and continue it farther if the multiplier require it;
“ then multiply the given number by the unit-place of
' “ the multiplier; the firft produdf by the ten-place, the
“ fecond product by the hundred-place; and fo on.
“ Add the products thus obtained together.”
L. 34 8 aJLby 5 = .L. 171 1 Jtimes
10 times L. 344 2 1 by<J= 2o<f4 xi 6= (Sotimes
xootimesL,. 344X — 10 by 4= X37<S4 3 4 = 4°° times
xooo timesL. 34410 8 4by3= xe323i j 3oootimes
L. 11913a 1 10^.—34155 times
The ufe of multiplication is to compute the amount
of any number of equal articles, either in refpeft of
meafure, weight, value, or any other confideration.
The multiplicand expreffes how much is to be reckoned
for each article ; and the multiplier expreffes how many
times that is to be reckoned. As the multiplier points
out the number of articles to be added, it is always an
abftract number, and has no reference to any value or
meafure whatever. It is therefore quite improper to
attempt the multiplication of ftiillings by ftiillings, or
to confider the multiplier as expreffive of any denomi-
L. 20613 —
9
L. 1859 17 — = 108 times.
34 810= 2 times.
L. 1825 8 2 = 106 times.
M E T I C. 659
nation. The moft common inftances in which the prac- Divifion.
tice of this operation is required, are, to find the a-
mount of any number of parcels, to find the value of
any number of articles, to find the weight or meafure
of a number of articles, &c.
This computation, for changing any fum of money,
weight, or meafure, into a different kind, is called
Reduction. When the given quantity is expreffed
in different denominations, we reduce the higheft to
the next lower, and add thereto the given number of
that denomination ; and proceed in like manner till we
have reduced it to the loweft denomination.
Example. To reduce L. 46 : 13 : 8^ to farthings.
L. 46
20
920 fhillings in L. 46
I3
933 fhillings in L. 46 13
12
11196 pence in L. 46 13
11204 pence in L. 46 13 8
4
44816 farthings in L. 46 13 8
3
44819 farthings in L. 46 13 8|-
It is eaiy to take in or add the higher denomination
at the fame time we multiply the lower.
Or thus :
L. 46 13 8|
20
933
12
11204
4
44819
Chap. V. DIVISION.
In divifion, two numbers are given ; and it is re¬
quired to find how often the former contains the latter.
Thus, it may be aflced how often 21 contains 7, and
the anfwer is exactly 3 times-. The former given num¬
ber (21) is called the Dividend •, the latter (7) the
Divifor; and the number required (3) the Quotient.
It frequently happens that the divifion cannot be com¬
pleted exaftly without fraftions. Thus it may be alked.
Low often 8 is contained in 19 ? the anfwer is twice,
and a remainder of 3.
This operation confifts in fubtra&ing the divifor
from the dividend, and again from the remainder, as
often as it can be done, and reckoning the number of
fubtra&ions ; as,
21 19
7 firft fubtra£lion 8 firft fubtra&ion
14 11
7 fecond fubt raft ion 8 fecond fubtraftion
7 3 remainder.
7 third fubtraftion.
o
As this operation, performed at large, would be
very tedious, when the quotient is a high number, it
is proper to fliorten it by every convenient method ;
and, for this purpofe, we may multiply the divifor by
any
66o
Divifion,
A R I T H
any number whofe produft is not greater than the di-
- -vidend, and fo fubtracl it twice or thrice, or oftener,
at the fame time. The beft way is to multiply it by
•the greateft number, that does not raife the produft
too high, and that number is alfo the quotient. For
example, to divide 45 by 7, we inquire what is the
greateft multiplier for 7, that does not give a produft
above 45 ; and we {hall find that it is 6 ; and 6 times 7
is 42, which, fubtra&ed from 45', leaves a remainder
of 3. Therefore 7 may be fubtra&ed 6 times from 45;
or, which is the fame thing, 45, divided by 7, gives
a quotient of 6, and a remainder of 3.
If the divifor do not exceed 12, we readily find the
higheft multiplier that can be ufed from the multipli¬
cation table. If it exceed 12, we may try any multi¬
plier that we think will anfwer. If the product be
greater than the divid&nd, the multiplier is too great;
and, if the remainder, after the produdl is fubtrafted
from the dividend, be greater than the divifor, the
multiplier is too fmall. In either of thefe cafes, we
muft try another. But the attentive learner, after
fome practice, will generally hit on the right multi¬
plier at firft.
If the divifor be contained oftener than ten times in
the dividend, the operation requires as many fteps as
there are figures in the quotient. For inftance, if the
quotient be greater than 100, but lefs than 1000, it
requires 3 fteps. We firft inquire how many hundred
times the divifor is Contained in the dividend, and fub-
tradl the amount of thefe hundreds. Then we inquire
how often it is contained ten times in the remainder,
and fubtraft the amount of thefe tens. Laftly, we in¬
quire how many fingle times it is contained in the re¬
mainder. The method of proceeding will appear from
the following example:
To divide 5936 by 8.
From 5936 ’
Take 5600 = 700 times 8
Rem.
From which take
336
320 = 40 times 8
Rem. 16
From which take 16 = 2 times 8
o 742 times 8 in all.
It is obvious, that as often as 8 is contained in 59, fo
many hundred times it will be contained in 5900, or in
5936; and, as often as it is contained in 33, fo many
ten times it will be contained in 330, or in 336; and
thus the higher places of the quotient will be obtained
with equal eafe as the lower. The operation might be
performed by fubtrafting 8 continually from the divi¬
dend, which will lead to the fame conclufion by a very
tedious procefs. After 700 fubtra&ions, the remainder
would be 336; after 40 more, it would be 16; and after
2 more, the dividend would be entirely exhaufted. In
practice, we omit the cyphers, and proceed by the fol¬
lowing
Rule. xst, “ Aflume as many figures on the left
hand of the multiplier as contain the divifor once or
“ oftener : find how many times they contain it, and
“ place the anfwer as the higheft figure of the quotient.
2d, “ Multiply the divifor by the figure you have
M E T I C. Chap. V.
“ found, and place the produft under the part of the Divifioa.
“ dividend from which it is obtained.
^d, “ Subtract the produft from the figures above
“ it.”
4th, “ Bring dowm the next figure of the dividend
“ to the remainder, and divide the number it makes
up, as before.”
Examples.'] Ist. 8)5936(742
56 ‘ *
33
32
16
16
zd. 63)30114(478
252 ■ •
491
5°+
504
3d- 365)974932(267 ItVt
73°...
2449
2190
2593
*555
~ 382
365
Remainder 17
The numbers which we divide, as 59, 33, and 16,
in the firft example, are called dividuals.
It is ufual to mark a point under the figures of the
dividend, as they are brought down, to prevent mif-
takes.
If there be a remainder, the divifion is completed by
a vulgar fra&ion, whofe numerator is the remainder,
and its denominator the divifor. Thus, in Ex. 3. the
quotient is 2671, and remainder 17 ; and the quotient
completed is 2671
A number which divides another without a remain¬
der is faid to meafure it; and the feveral numbers which
meafure another, are called its aliquot parts. Thus,
2, 4, 6, 8; and 12, are aliquot parts of 24. As it
is often ufeful to difcover numbers which meafure others,
we may obferve,
1st, Every number ending with an even figure, that
is, with 2, 4, 6, 8, or, o, is meafured by 2.
2d, Every number ending with 5, or o, is meafured
by 5.
3d, Every number, whofe figures, when added, a-
mount to an even number of 3’s or 9’s, is meafufed by
3 or 9, refpeftively.
Contrattions and Varieties in Divifion.
Firft, When the divifor does not exceed 12, the whole
computation may be performed without fetting down
any figures except the quotient.
Ex. 7)35868(5124 or 7)35868
*I24
Secondly, When the divifor is a compofite number,
and one of the component parts alfo meafures the divi¬
dend, we may divide fuceffively by the component
parts.
Ex.
Chap. V.
Bivifion. JJ*. Ist.] 30114 by 63.
9)3OII4
7) 3346
Quotient 478
A R I T H
2d.] 975 by 105=5X7X3
5)975
9t
.ri
Quotient
This method might be alfo ufed, although the com¬
ponent parts of the divifor do not meafure the dividend;
but the learner will not underftand how to manage the
remainder till he be acquainted with the doftnne of
vulgar fraftions.
Thirdly, When there are cyphers annexed to the di¬
vifor, cut them off, and cut off an equal number of fi¬
gures from the dividend; annex thefe figures to the
remainder. Ex. To divide 378643 by 5200.
52|oo)3 786(43 (72-j44!
364-
M E T I C. 661
of q’s, tranfcribe under the dividend part of tire fame, Divifion. 1
fliifting the higheft figure as many places to the right
hand as there are g’s in the divifor. Tranfcribe it a-
gain, with the like change of place, as often as the
length of the dividend admits ; add thefe together, and
cut off as many figures from the right hand of the fum
as there are 9’s in the divifor. The figures which re¬
main on the left hand compofe the quotient, and thofe
cut off the remainder.
If there be any carriage to.the unit-place of the quo¬
tient, add the number carried likewife to the remain¬
der, as in Ex. 2. ; and if the figures cut off be all 9’s,
add 1 to the quotient, and there is no remainder.
Examples. Ist.] 99)324123 2d.] 99)547825
324T 5478
S2 54
146
104
3273l96 5533157
Quotient 3273 and rem. 96. 1
4243.
The reafon will appear, by performing the operation
at large, and comparing the fteps.
To divide by 10, 100, 1000, or the like. Cut off
as many figures on the right hand of the dividend as
there are cyphers in the divifor. The figures which
remain on the left hand compofe the quotient, and the
figures cut off compofe the remainder.
Fourthly, When the divifor confifts of feveral figures
we may try them feparately, by inquiring how often
the firft figure of the divifor is contained in the firft fi¬
gure of the dividend, and then confidering whether the
fecond and following figures of the divifor be contained
as often in the correfponding ones of the dividend with
the remainder (if any) prefixed. If not, we muff be¬
gin again, and make trial of a lower number. When
the remainder is nine, or upwards, we may be fure the
divifion will hold through the lower places ; and it is
unneceffary.to continue the trial farther.
Fifthly, We may make a table of the produfts of
the divifor, multiplied by the nine digits, in order to
difcover more readily how often it is contained in each
dividual. This is convenient when the dividend is very
long, or when it is required to divide frequently by the
fame divifor.
73 by 2 =146 73)53872694(737982
3 = 219 511 
4 = 292  
5 = 365 277
6 = 438 219
7 = 5”  
8 = 584 582
9 = 657 5”
716
•657
599
584
Rem. 8
Sixthly, To divide by 9, 99> 999, or any number
Vox.. I.
Quotient 5333.58 rem.
3d-] 999)476523
476
476(999
Quotient 477
To explain the reafon of this, we muff recoiled, that
whatever number of hundreds any dividend contains,
it contains an equal number of 99’s, together with an
equal number of units. In Ex. 1. the dividend con¬
tains 3241 hundreds, and a remainder of 23. It there¬
fore contains 3241 times 99, and alfo 3241 befides
the remainder already mentioned. Again, 3241 con¬
tains 32 hundreds, and a remainder of 51 : it therefore
contains 32 99’s, and alfo 32, befides the remainder
of 41. Confequently the dividend contains 99, alto¬
gether, 3241 times, and 32 times, that is 3273 times,
and the remainder confifts of 23, 41, and 32, added,
which makes 96.
As multiplication fupplies the place of frequent ad¬
ditions, and divifion of frequent fubtraftions, they are
only repetitions and contra&ions of the fimple rules,
and when compared together, their tendency is exactly
oppofite. As numbers, increafed by addition, are dimi-
nifhed and brought back to their original quantity by
fubtra&ion ; in like manner, numbers compounded by
multiplication are reduced by divifion to the parts from
which they were compounded. The multiplier ftiow*
how many additions are neceffaryto produce the number;
and the quotient (hows how many fubtradlions arenecef-
fary to exhauft it. It follows that the produft, divided
by the multiplicand, will quote the multiplier 5 and, be-
caufe either faftor may be affumed for the multiplicand,
therefore the produft, divided by either faftor, quotes the
other. It follows, alfo, that the dividend is equal to the
pi-oduft of the divifor and quotient multiplied together;
and hence thefe operations mutually prove each other.
To prove multiplication. Divide the produft by
either faftor. If the operation be right, the quotient
is the other faftor, and there is no remainder.
To prove divifion. Multiply the divifor and quo¬
tient together; to the produdt add the remainder, if
any ; and, if the operation be right, it makes up the
4 O dividend.
662
Divifion.
xz
A R I T H
dividend. Otherwife divide the dividend (after fub-
"" tracing the remainder, if any) by the quotient. If
the operation be tight, it will quote the divifor. The
reafon of all thefe rules may be colle&ed from the laft
paragraph.
Compound Divijion.
Rule L “ When the dividend only confifts of dif-
*l ferent denominations, divide the higher denomina-
“ tion, and reduce the remainder to the next lower,
“ taking in (p. 659. Rule V.) the given number of that
“ denomination, and continue the divifion.”
Examples.
Divide L.465 : 12 : 8 Divide 345 cwt. 1 q. 8 lb.
by 72. by 22.
L. s. d. L. s. d. C’wt. q. lb. Cnut. q. lb.
72)465 12 8 (694 22) 345 1 8 (15 2 21
432 •• • 22- • •
125
110
l5
4
22)61
M E T I C.
Chap. V.
Or we might divide by
the component parts of
72, (as explained under
‘Thirdly, p. 661).
H4
34
22)484
44
44
44
Rule II. “ When the divifor is in different deno-
“ minations, reduce both divifor and dividend to the
“ loweft denomination, and proceed as in Ample divi-
“ fion. The quotient is an abflraft number.”
To divide L. 38 : 13 s. To divide 96 Cwt. 1 q. 20 lb.
by L.3 : 4 : 5. by 3 cwt. 2 q. 8 lb.
CW. q. lb. Glut. q. lb.
3 4 5 L- 38 13 3 2 8 ) 96 1 20
20 20 4 4
64
773
28
)9276(i2 quote. 120
773 28
4(00) 108100(27 quote.
fourpences, but not to pence. Diviiioh.
The ufe of divifion is to find either of the faftors by
whofe multiplication a given number is produced, when
the other fadkor is given; and therefore is of two kinds,
fince either the multiplier or the multiplicand may be
given. If the former be given, it difcovers what that
number is which is contained fo many times in another.
If the latter be given, it difcovers how many times one
number is contained in another. Thus, it anfwers the
quellions of an oppofite kind to thofe mentioned under
Rule IV. p. 659. as, To find the quantity of a Angle
parcel or fhare; to find the value weight, or meafure,
of a Angle article 5 to find how much work is done,
provifions confumed, interefl: incurred, or the like, in
a fingle day, &c.
The laft ufe of divifion is a kind of redu&ion exadkly
oppofite to that defcribed under Rule V. p. 659. The
manner of conducing and arranging it, when there are
feveral denominations in the queftion, will appear from
the following examples.
1. To reduce 15783 pence 2.To reduce 174865 grs.to
to pounds, fh. and pence. lbs. oz. and dwt. Trov,
12 ) 15783(1315 ( 65
12 * * ‘ 120'
37 ll5
36 100
63
60
24)174865 (7286(364(30
j68'-- 60“ 36’
128
120
86
80
Anfwer, L. 65:15:3. Anfwer, 30^.402. 6dwt. 1 gr.
In the firft example, we reduce 15783 pence to mil¬
lings, by dividing by 12, and obtain 1315 fhillings,
and a remainder of 3 pence. Then we reduce 1315
fhillings to pounds, by dividing by 20, and obtain 65
pounds, and a remainder of 15 fhillings. The divifions
might have been contracted.
In the practice of arithmetic, queftions often occur
which require both multiplication and divifion to refolve.
This happens in redu&ion, when the higher denomina¬
tion does not contain an exaft number of the lower.
Rule_/cr mixed reduction. “ Reduce the given deno-
“ mination by multiplication to fome lower one, which
“ is an aliquot part of both; then reduce that by di-
“ vifion to the denomination required.”
Ex. Reduce L.31742 to guineas.
31742 Here we multiply by 20,
20 which reduces the pounds to
fhillings; and divide the pro-
du6t by 21, which reduces
the fhillings to guineas.
It is beft not to reduce the terms lower than is ne-
cefiary to render them equal. For inftance, if each of
them confifts of an even number of fixpences, four¬
pences, or the like, we reduce them to fixpences, or
10 Anfwer, 30230 guineas and 10 fhilL
As
Chap. V. A R I T H
Divifion. As Portugueze money frequently pafies here in pay-
ments, we fhall give a table of the pieces, and their
value. A moidore =L.i 7 —
A half moidore — — 13 6
A quarter moidore — — 69
A double Joannes = 3 12 —
A Joannes = 1 16 —
A half ditto = — 18 —?
A quarter ditto = — 9 —
An eighth ditto = — 46
Note 1. Guineas may be reduced to pounds, by
adding one twentieth part of the number.
2. Pounds may be reduced to merks by adding one
half.
3. Merks may be reduced to pounds by fubtrafting
one third.
4. Four moidores are equal to three Joannes: where¬
fore moidores may be reduced to Joannes, by fubtraft-
ing one fourth; and Joannes to moidores, by adding
one third.
5. Five Joannes are equal to L. 9. Hence it is eafy
to reduce Portugueze money to Sterling.
Another cafe, which requires both multiplication
and divifion, is, when the value, weight, meafure, or
duration of any quantity is.given, and the value, &c.
of a different quantity required, we firft find the value,
&c. of a fingle article by divifion, and then the value,
&c. of the quantity required, by multiplication.
Ex. If 3 yards coft 15 s. 9 d. what will 7 yards
coft, at the fame rate ?
s. d.
3)15 9 Price of 3 yards.
5 3 Price of 1 yard by Rule IV. p. 659.
7
L. 1 16 9 Price of 7 yards (by par. 1. p. 662.
col. 2.)
Many other inftances might be adduced, where the
operation and the reafon of it are equally obvious.
Thefe are generally, though unneceffarily, referred to
the rule of proportion.
We fhall now' offer a general obfervation on all the
operations in arithmetic. When a computation re¬
quires feveral fteps, we obtain a juftanfwer, whatever
order we follow. Some arrangements may be prefera¬
ble to others in point of eafe, but all of them lead to
the fame conclufion. lu addition, or fubtraction, we
may take the articles in any order, as is evident from
the idea of number ; or, we may colleff them into fe¬
veral fums, and add or fubtraft thefe, either feparately
or together. When both the fimple operations are re¬
quired to be repeated, we may either complete one of
them firll, or may introduce them promifcuoufly ; and
the compound operations admit of the fame variety.
When feveral numbers are to be multiplied together,
we may take the fattors in any order, or we may ar¬
range them into feveral claffes, find the produdt of each
clafs, and then multiply the products together. When
a number is to be divided by feveral others, we may
take the diviforsin any order, or we may multiply them
into each other, and divide by the produdt; or we may
multiply them into feveral parcels, and divide by the
produdts fucceffively. -Xaftly, when multiplication and
divifion are both required, we may begin with either ;
and, when both are repeatedly neceffary, we may colledl
M E T I C.
the multipliers into oneprodudf, and the divifors into one
another ; or, we colledt them into parcels, or ufe them
fingly, and that in any order. Still, we fhall obtain
the proper anfwer, if none of the terms be negledled.
When both multiplication and divifion areneceffary to
obtain the anfwer of a queftion, it is generally bed to be¬
gin with the multiplication, as this order keeps the ac¬
count as clear as poffible from fradlion. The example
laft given may be wrought accordingly as follows:
s. d.
9
7
3)5 ^
16
Some accountants prove the operations of arithme¬
tic by a method which they call cafting out the 9’s,
depending on the following principles :
Firft, if feveral numbers be divided by any divifor,
(the remainders being always added to the next num¬
ber), the fum of the quotients, and the laft remainder,
will be the fame as thofe obtained when the fum of the
numbers is divided by the fame divifor. Thus, 19,
15, and 23, contain, together, as many 5’s, as many
7’s, Sec. as their fum 57 does, and the remainders are
the fame; and, in this way, addition may be proven
by divifion. It is from the correfpondence of the re¬
mainders, that the proof, by cafting out the 9’s, is de¬
duced.
Secondly, If any figure, with cyphers annexed, be
divided by 9, the quotient confifts entirely of that
figure ; and the remainder is alfo the fame. Thus, 40,
divided by 9, quotes 4, remainder 4; and 400, divi-
vided by 9, quotes 4, remainder 44. The fame holds
with all the digits; and the. reafon will be ealily under-
ftood; every digit, with a cypher annexed, contains
exadtly fo many ten’s; it mult therefore contain an e-
qual number of 9’s, befides a remainder of an equal
number of units.
Thirdly, If any number be divided by 9, the re¬
mainder is equal to the fum of the figures of the num¬
ber, or to the remainder obtained, when that fum is di¬
vided by 9. For inftance, 3765, divided by 9, leave
a remainder of 3, and the fum of 3, 7, 6, and 5, is
21; which, divided by 9, leaves a remainder of 3.
The reafon of this wall appear from the following il-
luftration:
3000 divided by 9 quotes 333 ^
700 quotes 77 ;
60 quotes 6;
5 quotes o;
3765
remainder 3
remainder 7
remainder 6
remainder 5
416 Sumofrem. 21
Again; 2i divided by9quotes 2; remainder 3
Wherefore,3765divid.by9quotes4i8; remainder; for
the reafon given. Hence we may colledt the follow¬
ing rules for pradtice :
To caft the 9’s out of any number, or to find what
remainder will be left when any number is divided by
9 : Add the figures ; and, when the fum exceeds 9,
add the figures which would exprefs it. Pafs by the
9’s ; and, when the fum comes exadtly to 9, negledl
it, and begin anew. For example, if it be required
to caft the 9’s out of 3573294, we reckon thus: 3 and
462 5 is
663
Divifidn.
664
Divifion!
A R I T H
5 is 8, and 7 is 15 ; 1 and 5 is 6, and 3 is 9, which
we negle& ; 2 and (paffing by 9), 4 is 6 ; which is the
remainder or Result. If the article out of which the
9’s are to be call contains more denominations than
one, we call the 9’s out of the higher, and multiply
the refult by the value of the lower, and carry on the
produdl (calling out the 9’s, if neceffary), to the
lower.
To prove addition, call the 9’s out of the feveral ar¬
ticles, carrying the refults to the following articles ;
call them alfo out of the fum. If the operation be
right, the refults will agree.
To prove fubtradlion, call the 9’s out of the minu¬
end ; call, them alfo out of the fubtrahend and remain¬
der together ; and if you obtaim the fame refult, the
operation is prefumed right.
To prove multiplication, call the p’s out of the mul¬
tiplicand, and alfo out of the multiplier, if above 9.
Multiply the refults together, and call the 9’s, if ne¬
ceffary, out of their produft. Then call the 9’s out of
the produ6l, and obferve if this refult correfpond with
the former.
2?x. Ist.] 9276 ref. 6X8=48 ref. 3.
8
74208 ref. 3.
2d.] 7898 ref. 5X3=15 ref. 6.
48 ref. 3
63184
3*592
379104 ref. 6.
The reafon of this will be evident, if we confider
multiplication under the view of repeated addition. In
the firfl example it is obvio'ully the fame. In the fe-
cond, we may fuppofe the multiplicand repeated 48
times. If this be done, and the 9’s call out, the re¬
fult, at the end of the 9th line, will be o ; for any
number, repeated 9 times, and divided by 9, leaves
no remainder. The fame mull happen at the end of
the 18th, 27th, 36th, and 45th lines; and the lall re¬
fult will be the fame as if the multiplicand had only
been repeated 3 times. This is the reafon for calling
out the 9’s from the multiplier as well as the multipli¬
cand.
To prove divifion, call the 9’s out of the divifor,
and alfo out of the quotient; multiply the refults, and
call the 9’s out of the produdl. If there be any re¬
mainder, add to it the refult, calling out the 9’s, if
neceflary. If the account be right, the lall refult will
agree with that obtained from the dividend.
Ex. 42 ) 2490 ( 59 ref. 5X6=30 ref. 3.
ref. 6 210
Rem. 12 - - ref.
And the refult of the dividend is 6
This depends on the fame reafon as the lall ; for the
dividend is equal to the product of the divifor and
M E T I C. Chap. VI.
quotient added to the remainder. Proportion.
We cannot recommend this method, as it lies under
the following difadvantages:
Firll, If an error of 9, or any of its multiples, be
committed, the refults will neverthelefs agree ; and fo
the error will remain undifcovered. And this will al¬
ways be the cafe, when a figure is placed or reckoned in
a wrong column ; which is one of the moll frequent
caufes of error.
Secondly, When it appears by the difagreement of
the refults, that an error has been committed, the par¬
ticular figure or figures in which the error lies are not
pointed out; and, confequently, it is not eafily cor-
refted.
Chap. VI. RULE of PROPORTION.
Sedl. i. Simple Proportion. *3
Quantities are reckoned proportional to each o-
ther, when they are connedted in fuch a manner, that,
if one of them be increafed or diminilhed, the other in-
creafes or diminilhes at the fame time; and the de¬
gree of the alteration on each is a like part of its origi¬
nal meafure; thus four numbers are in the fume pro¬
portion, the firll to the fecond as the third to the
fourth, when the firll contains the fecond, or any part
of it, as often as the third contains the fourth, or the
like part of it. In either of thefe cafes, the quotient
of the firll, divided by the fecond, is equal to that of
the third divided by the fourth ; and this quotient may
be called the meafure of the proportion.
Proportionals are marked down in the following
manner: 6 : 3 :: 8 : 4
12 : 36 :: 9 : 27
9 : 6 :: 24 : 18
16 : 24 :: 10 : 15
The rule of proportion diredts us, when three num¬
bers are given, how to find a fourth, to which the third
may have the fame proportion that the firll has to the
fecond. It is fometimes called the Rule of Three, from
the three numbers given; and fometimes the Golden
Rule, from its various and extenfive utility.
Rule. “ Multiply the fecond andthird terms toge-
« ther, and divide the produdl by the firll.”
Ex. To find a fourth proportional to 18, 27, and 34.
18 : 27 :: 34 .- 51
3+
108
81
18)918(51
90
18
18
o
To explain the reafon of this, we mull obferve,
that, if two or more numbers be multiplied or divided
alike, the produdls or quotients will have the fame pro¬
portion. 18 : 27
Multiplied by 34, 612 : 918
Divided by 18, 34 : 51
The
I c.
p665
Chap. VI. A R I T H
Proportion. The produ&s 612, 918, and the quotients 34, 51,
have therefore the fame proportion to each other that
18 has to 27. In the courfe of this operation, the
produ&s of the firft and third term is divided by the
firft ; therefore the quotient is equal to the third.
The firft and fecond terms muft always be of the
fame kind ; that is, either both monies, weights, mea-
fures, both abftradl numbers, or the like. The fourth,
or number fought, is of the fame kind as the third.
When any of the terms is in more denominations
than one, we may reduce them all to the loweft. But
this- is not always neceflary. The firft and fecond
ftiould not be reduced lower than directed p. 662. col. 1.
par. ult.\ and, when either the fecond or third is a
fimple number, the other, though in different denomi¬
nations, may be multiplied without reduction.
L s. d.
Ex. S : 1 2S ” 3
7
 — L. s. d.
5)178 18 9(35 19 9
The accountant muft confider the nature of every
queftion, and obferve the circumftance which the pro¬
portion depends on ; and common fenfe will direft him
to this, if the terms of the queftion be underftood. It
is evident that the value, weight, and meafure of any
commodity is proportioned to its quantity; that the
amount of work or confumption is proportioned to the
time ; that gain, lofs, or intereft, when the rate and
time are fixed, is proportioned to the capital fum from
■which it arifes; and that the effedt produced by any
caufe is proportioned to the extent of the caufe. In
thefe, and many other cafes, the proportion is diredl,
and the number fought increafes or diminifhes along
with the term from which it is derived.
In fome queftions, the number fought becomes lefs,
when the circumftances from which it is derived be¬
come greater. Thus, when the price of goods in¬
creafes, the quantity which may be bought for a given
fum is fmaller. When the number of men employed
at work is increafed, the time in which they may com¬
plete it becomes fhorter; and, when the aftivity of any
caufe is increafed, the quantity neceffary to produce a
given effedt is diminifhed. In thefe, and the like, the
proportion is faid to be inverfe.
General Rule for Jiating all quejiions, whether di-
red or inverfe. “ Place that number for the third
“ term which fignifies the fame kind of thing with
“ what is fought, and confider whether the number
“ fought will be greater or lefs. If greater, place the
“ leaft of the other terms for the firft; but, if lefs,
“ place the greateft for the firft.”
Ex. Ist.] If 30 horfes plough 12 acres, how many
will 42 plough in the fame time ?
H. H. A.
3.0 42 :: 12
Here, becaufe the thing fought is a number of acres,
we place 12, the given number of acres, for the third
term ; and, becaufe 42 horfes will plough more than 12,
we make the lefler number 30, the firft term, and the
greater number, 42, the fecond term.
2d.] If 40 horfes be maintained for a certain
fum on hay, at 5 d. per ftone, how many will * be
maintained on the fame fum when the price of hay ri-
M E T
fes to 8 d.
d. d. H.
8 : 5 :: 40
Here, becaufe a number of horfes is fought, we make
the given number of horfes, 40, the third term ; and,
becaufe fewer will be maintained for the fame money,
when the price of hay is dearer, we make the greater
price, 8 d. the firft term; and the leffer price, 5 d. the
fecond term.
The firft of thefe exaftiples is diredVthe fecond in¬
verfe. Every queftion confifts of a fuppofition and de¬
mand. In the firft, the fuppofition is, that $0 horfes
plough 12 acres, and the demand, hom many 42 ‘will
plough ? and the firft term of the proportion, 30, is
found in the fupppfition, in this, and every other di-
reft queftion. In the fecond, the fuppofition is, that
40 horfes are maintained on hay at 5 d. and the demand,
ho<w many ‘will he maintained on hay at 8 d ? and the
firft term of the proportion, 8, is found in the demand,
in this and every other inverfe queftion.
When an account is ftated, if the firft and fecond
term, or firft and third, be meafured by the fame numr
ber, we may divide them by that meafure, and ufe the
quotients in their ftead.
Ex. If 36 yards coft 42 ftiillings, what will 27 coft l
Y. Y. Ih.
36 : 27 :: 42 Here 36 and 27 are both
4 : 3 :: 42 meafured by 9, and we work
3 with the quotients 4 and 3.
—  s. d.
4) 126(31 6
Se<ft.'ii. Compound Proportion.
Sometimes the proportion depends upon feveral cir¬
cumftances. Thus, it may be aflced, if 18 men con-
fume 6 bolls corn in 40 days, how much will 24 me*
confume in 56 days? Here the quantity required de¬
pends partly on the number of men, partly on the time,
and the queftion may be refolved into the two follow¬
ing ones:
iil:, If 18 men confume 6 bolls in a certain time,
how many will 24men confume in the fame time?
M. M. B. B.
18 : 24 :: 6 : 8 Anfwer. 24 men will confume 8
6 bolls in the fame time.
18)144(8 '
2d, If a certain number of men confume 8 bolls ia
28 days, how many will they confume in 56 days?
D. D. B. B.
28 : 56 :: 8 : 16 Anf. The fame number of mea
8 will confume 16 bolls in 56 days ?
28)448(16
In the courfe of this operation, the original number
of bolls, 6, is firft multiplied into 24, then divided by
18, then multiplied into 8, then divided by 28. It
would anfwer the fame purpofe to colled! the multipli¬
ers into one product, and the divifors into another;
and then to multiply the given number of bolls by the
former, and divide the product by the latter, p. 663.
col. 1. par. ult.
The above queftion may therefore be ftated and
wrought as follows:
Men
666
Proportion. Men 13 : 24 :: 6 bolls
' ~ Days 28 : 56
144 144
36 120
A R I T H
Here we multiply i3 into
40 for a divifor, and 6 into
the produft of 24 by 56, for
a dividend.
5o4)3°64(i6
“ In general, ftate the feveral particulars on which
“ the queftion depends, as fo many Ample proportions,
“ attending to the fenfe of the queftion to difcover
“ whether the proportions Ihould be ftated dire&ly or
“ inverfely; then multiply all the terms in the firft rank
“ together, and all thofe in the fecond rank together;
“ and work with the produ&s as dire&ed in the Ample
“ rule (Se&. i. p. 664.)”
Example. If too men make 3 miles of road in 27
days, in how many days will 150 men make 5 miles?
Men 150 : 100 :: 27 days .Here the firft fta-
Miles 3 5 ting is inverfe, becaufe
    more men will do it in
450 500 fewer days; but the fe-
27 cond is direct, becaufe
  more miles will re-
450) 1350°(3odaysanfwer. quire more days.
The following contradlion is often ufeful. After fta-
ting the proportion, if the fame number occurs in both
ranks, dafti it out from both; or, if any term in the
firft rank, and another in the fecond rank, are meafu-
red by the fame numbers, dafti out the original terms,
and ufe the quotients in their ftead.
Ex. If 18 men confume L. 30 value of corn in 9
months, when the price is 16s. per boll, how many will
confume L. 54 value in 6 months, when the price is
12s. per boll? In this queftion, the proportion depends
upon three particulars, the value of corn, the time, and
the price. The firft of which is diredt, becaufe the
more the value of prcvifions is, the more time is requi¬
red to confume them; but the fecond and third are in¬
verfe, for the greater the time and price is, fewer men
will confume an equal value.
Value 30 : ^4 :: 18 men
Here we obferve that 6 in the
firft rank meafures 54 in the fe¬
cond: fo we dafti tham out, and
place the quotient 9 in the fecond
rank. Next, becaufe 30 and 9 are
both meafured by 3, we dafti them
out, and place down the quotients
10 and 3; then,becaufe 12 and 16
are both meafured by 4, we dafti
them out, and place down the quo¬
tients 3 and 4. Daftly, becaufe
  there is now 3 in both columns,
10)648(64A .we dafti them out, and work with
the remaining terms, according to
the rule.
The monies, weights, and meafures, of different
countries, may be reduced from the proportion which
they bear to each other.
Ex. If 112 lb. averdupois make 1041b. of Holland,
and 100lb. of Holland make 89 of Geneva, and no
ef Geneva make 117. of Seville, how many lbs. of Se-
Months 0 #
Price Xt •.
10 9
3 3
4
18
36
M E T I a Chap. VT.
ville will make too lb. averdupois. Proportion.
XI2 : 104 :: 100   
IOO : 89
110 : 117
If it be required, how many lb. averdupois will make
100 of Seville, the terms would have been placed in
the different columns thus :
104 : 11*2 :: 100
89 : 100
117 : 110
Se&. iii. Distributive Proportion.
If it be required to divide a number into parts, which
have the fame proportion to each other that feveral o-
ther given numbers have, we add thefe numbers toge¬
ther, and ftate the following proportion: As the fum
is to the particular numbers, fo is the number required
to be divided to the feveral parts fought.
Ex. 1st.] Four partners engage to trade in company;
A’s ftockis L.150, B’sL.320, C’sL.35o,D’s L.500,
and they gain L. 730; Required how much belongs to
each, if the gain be divided among them in proportion
to their flocks ?
Rem.
A’s flock JL.ijo . 1310 : ijo :: 730 : L. 8» 19 1 — 1*0
B’s 32.P 1310 : 310 :: 730 : 171s 19 4 _ 9<So
C’s 330 13x0 : 3Jo :: 730 : 193 n x — lxo
D’s joo 13x0 : 500 :: 730 : X7S 10 3 _ 840
Whole flock 1310 Proof L.730
This account is proved by adding the gains of the
partners; the fum of which will be equal to the whole
gain, if the operation be right; but, if there be re¬
mainders, they muft be added, their fum divided by the
common divifor, and the quotient carried to the loweft
place.
Ex. 2<b] A bankrupt owes A L. 146, B L. 170,
C L.45, D -L. 480, and E L. 72 ; his whole effedfs are
only L. 342 : 7 : 6. How much fliould each have ?
A’s debt L.i4fi 913 : 14a :: L.34X 7 <5 :1,. 54 15 a’s (hare.
B’s 170 913 : 170:: 341 76 63 is B’s
C’s 4S 913 : 45 :: 34i 76 16 17 fiC’s
D’s 480 913 : 480 :: 341 7 6 180 D’s
E’s 7x 913 : 7i :: 34a 76 47 £’s
_9i3 D 34x 7 6
This might alfo be calculated, by finding what com-
pofition the bankrupt was able to pay per pound; which
is obtained by dividing the amount of his effefts by the
amount of his debts ; and comes to 7 s. 6d. and then
finding by the rules of practice, how much each debt
came to at that rate.
ij
Chap. VII. RULES for PRACTICE.
The operations explained in the foregoing chapters
comprehend the whole fyftem of arithmetic, and are
fufficient for every computation. In many cafes, how¬
ever, the work may be contraded, by adverting to the
particular circumftances of the queftion. We fhall ex¬
plain, in this chapter, the moft ufeful methods which
praftice has fuggefted for rendering mercantile com¬
putations eafy; in which, the four elementary rtiles of
arithmetic are fometimes jointly, fometimes feparately
employed.
Sed. i. Computation a/" Prices.
The value of any number of articles, at a pound, a
fhilling,
Chap. VII. A R I T
Praflice. {hilling, or a penny, is an equal number of pounds,
{hillings, or pence ; and thefe two laft are eafily redu¬
ced to pounds. The value, at any other rate, may be
calculated by eafy methods, depending on fome con-
traftion already explained, or on one or more of the
following principles.
Ist, If the rate be an aliquot part of a pound, a
{hilling, or a penny, then an exa£t number of articles
may be bought for a pound, a fhilling, or a penny;
and the value is found by dividing the given number
accordingly. Thus, to find the price of fo many yards
at 2 s. 6 d. which is the eighth part of a pound, we
divide the quantity by eight, becaufe every eight yards
coft L. i.
2d, If the rate be equal to the fum of two other rates
which are eafily calculated, the value may be found by
computing thefe feparately, and adding the fums ob¬
tained. Thus, the price of fo many yards, at gd. is
found, by adding their prices, at 6d. and 3d. toge¬
ther.
3d, If the rate be equal to the difference qf two ea¬
fy rates, they may be calculated feparately, and the
leffer fubtracied from the greater. Thus, the value of
fo many articles at 1 id. is found, by fubtra&ing their
value at a penny from their value at a fhilling. We
may fuppofe that a fhilling was paid for each article,
and then a penny returned on each.
4th, If the rate be a compolite number, the value
may be found by calculating what it comes to at one
of the component parts, and multiplying the fame by
the other.
Case I. “ When the rate is an aliquot part of a
“ pound, divide the quantity by the number which
“ may be bought for a pound.”
Table of the-aliquot parts of L. I.
10 fhillings = 4-of L-t • 1 fhilling qd. =-jV °f L*
s. 8 d. = -j- is. 3 d. =
5 s. =4 is. =
4 s. = f 8 d. =
3 s. 4d. = f 6 d. =
2 s. 6 d. = 4- 4 d. =
2 s- , 3 d- =
1 s. 8 d. — tV 2d. — tvs
Ex. 1st.] What is the value 2d.] What is the value of
of 7463 yards, at 4s ? 1773 yards at 3 d.
5)7463 8|o)i77|3
L. 1492 12 s. L. 22 3 3
In the firft example we divide by 5, becaufe 4 s. is
■f of a pound; the quotient 1492 fhows how many
pounds they amount to ; befides which there remains
three yards at 4 s. and thefe come to 12 s. In the fe-
cond example, we divide by 80, as dire&ed, and the
quotient gives L. 22, and the remainder 13 yards,
which at 3 d. comes to 3 s. and 3 d.
This method can only be ufed in calculating for the
particular prices fpecified in the table. The following
6 cafes comprehend all poffible rates, and will there¬
fore exhibit different methods of folving the foregoing
queftions.
Case II. “ When the rate confifts of {hillings only,
“ multiply the quantity by the number of {hillings,
“ and divide the produft by 20 : Or, if the number
“ of {hillings be even, multiply by half the number,
“ and divide the produft by 10.
2d-] 7543 at 14 s.
7
10)52801
L. 5280 2 s.
20)59449
L. 2972 9 s.
The learner will eafily perceive, that the method in
which the fecond example is wrought, muft give the
fame anfwer as if the quantity had been multiplied by
14, and divided by 20 ; and, as the divifion by 10
doubles the lafl figure for {hillings, and continues all
the reft unchanged for pounds, we may obtain the an¬
fwer at once, by doubling the right-hand figure of the
produdl before we fet it down.
If the rate be the fum of two or more aliquot parts-
of a pound, we may calculate thefe as dire&ed in Cafe I.
and add them. If it be any odd number of fhillings,
we may calculate .for the even number next lower, and
add thereto the value at a {hilling. If it be 19 s. we
may fubtradl the value at a {hilling, from the value at
pound.
Case LII. “ When the rate confifts of pence only.”
Method 1. If the rate be an aliquot part of a fhil¬
ling, divide the quantity accordingly, which gives the
anfwer in (hillings ; if not, it may be divided into two
or mare aliquot parts : calculate thefe feparately, and
add the values; reduce the anfwer to pounds.
1 penny is -jV of a {hilling.
2d. 4 °f ditto.
3d. 4 of ditto.
4 ft. 4 of ditto.
6 d. 4 of ditto.
5 d. is the fum of 4 d. and 1 d. or of 2 d. and 3 d.
7 d. is the fum of 4 d. and 3 d. or of 6 d. and 1 d.
8 d. is the fum of 6 d. and 2 d. or the double of 4d.
9 d. is the fum of 6 d. and 3 d.
10 d. is the fum of 6 d. and 4 d.
11 d. is the fum of 6 d. 3 d. and 2 d.
Ex. Ist.] 7423 at 4 d. Here, becaufe 4 d. is one
  third of a {hilling, we di-
3)7423 vide by 3, which gives the
20)2474 4 price in (hills. and reduce
L. 123 14 4 thefe bydivifion to pounds.
2d.39786 at 9 d. Here we fuppofe, that
  firft 6 d. and then 3 d. is
At 6d.=4of 1 s.4893 paid for each article; half
At 3 d.=4°f6d. 2446 6 the quantity is the number
—  of fhillings which they
At9d- 7339 <5 would coft at 6d. each.
L. 366 196 Half of that is the coft at
3d.] 4856311 id. 3d. and thefe added and re-
  duced give the anfwer.
At6d. =|-of is. 2428 Here we calculate what
At3d.=r4°f 6d. 1214 the articles would coft at
At2d.=yof6d. 809 4 6d. at 3d. and at 2d. and
—    add the values.
1 id. 4451 4
L. 222 11 4
It is fometimes eafier to calculate at two rates, whofe
difference is the rate required, and fubtraft the leffer
value from the greater. Thus, the laft example may
be wrought by fubtra&ing the value at a penny from
the value at a {hilling; The remainder muft be the va-
lue
667
Pratfice.
668
Practice.
lue at i id.
'At is.
At i d.=Ti
At i id.
4856 s.
- 404 8
A R I T H
10 d. may be wrought as
the difference of i s. and
2 d.; and feveralother rates
in like manner.
4451 4
L. 222 11 4
Meth. 2. Multiply the quantity by the number of pence,
the produtt is the anfwer in pence. Reduce it to pounds.
Method 3. Find the value at a penny by divifion, and
multiply the fame by the number of pence.
Case IV. “ When the rate confifts of farthings on-
“ ly, find the value in pence, and reduce it by divi-
“ fion to pounds.”
Ist. 37843 at 1 farthing.
4)37843 farth.
M E T I C. Chap. VII
the value at 6d. and at 3 halfpence which makes 7-|-d. Praflke
If the rate be i^d. which is an eighth part of a fhil- "
ling, the value is found in {hillings, by dividing the
quantity by 8.
Cafe VI. “ When the rate confifts of fhillings and
“ lower denominations.”
Method 1. Multiply the quantity by the fhillings, and
find the value of the pence andfarthings, if any, from the
proportion which they bear to the Jhillings. Add and reduce*
Ex. Ist.] 4258 at 17 s. 3d.
r7
12) 9460^ pence
788
L. 39 8 4!
3d. 72564 at l d.
3
4)217692 farth.
0 54423 Pence
4535 3
L. 226 15 3
2d. 2375431-I-d.
2)23754 halfpence
12)11877 pence
989 9
L. 49 9 9
Or, 72564
29806
4258
17 s. 72386
3d.=£ of 1 s. 1064 6
17s. 3d.
At i d. 3682
At d. 18141
73450 6
L. 3672 10 6
372 10 6
2d.J 5482 at 12 s. 44-d.
12
d.
12)54423
_ 4535 3
L. 220 15 3
We may alfo find the amount in twopences, three¬
pences, fourpences, or fixpences, by one divifion, and
reduce thefe as dire&ed in Cafe I.
Case V. “ When the rate confifts of pence and
“ farthings, find the value of the pence, as dire&ed
“ in Cafe III. and that of the farthings from the pro-
“ portion which they bear to the pounds. Add thefe
“ together, and reduce.”
Ex. Ist.] 3287 at 5|d.
12 s. 41-d. 67839 9
L- 3391 19 9
Method 2. Divide the rate_ into aliquot parts of a
pound ; calculate the values correfponding to thefe, as di~
relied in Cafe 1. and add them.
s. d. s. d.
isx. Ist.] 389431176 2d.] 17653192
At 4<I.=f of 1 s. 1095 8
At 1 d.=:£ of 4d. 273 11
At 1 f.rrj of 1 d. 68 5!
■At 5a: 1438 i
L. 71 18 i
2d0 4573 at 2|d.
At 2 d.=3- of 1 s. 762 2
.^^.t ar d. y of 2 d. 190 6-j-
At a: d.=x °f t d. 85 si
At 2! 1037 1 iar
L. 5* 17
3d.] 2842 at 3|d.
1 os. =-|-L. 1947
5 973 10
2 6d.=-5- 486 15 
17 s. 6 d. L. 3407 5
6s. 8d.=r^-L. 588 6 8
26=-!- 220 12 6
808 19 2
Sometimes part of the value is more readily obtained
from a part already found ; and fometimes it is eafieft
to calculate at a higher rate, and fubtradt the value at
the difference. s. d. s. d.
3d.] 63790 at 5 4 4th.] 3664 at 14 9
4s r=f L. 12758 10s. =tL. 1832
is. 4d.=-j-of 4s. 4252 134 5s. =yofios. 916
5s. 4d.
L. 17010 13 4 15s. 2748
3d.=a%of53. 45
16
At 3d.=|- of 1 s. 710
At 3f.=a: of 3 d. 177
At 3^.
887 i-r
L. 44 8 1^
4th.] 3572 at qid.
At 6d. =4-of is. 1386
At 14d.=i" 6d. 346
At 74d.
1732 6
L. 87 12 6
It is fometimes beft to join fome of the pence with the
farthings in the calculation. Thus, in Ex. 4. we reckon
14s. gd. L. 2702 4
Method 3. If the price contain a compoftte number
of pence, we may multiply the value at a penny by the
component parts.
Ex. 5628 at 2 s. nd. or 35 d.
12)5628
20) 469
L.' 23 9
5
L. 117
L- 820 15
Chap. VII. ARITHMETIC.
Praflice. Case VII. “ When the rate confxfts of pounds and
"" “ lower denominations,”
Method i. Multiply by the pounds, and find the va¬
lue of the other denominations from the proportion ’which
they bear to the pounds.
Ex. Ist.] 3592 at L. 3 : 12 : 8.
3
L. 3 10776
12s of L. 3 2155 4
8d=T^ofi2s. 119 14 8
L. 3 12 8 L. 13050 18 8
2d*] 543 at L. 2 : 5 : io^-.
L. 2 1086
5s — of L. 1. 135 15
xod =:£ of 5 s. 22 12 6
4-d =^of 10 d. 1 2 7i
L. 1245 10 Ii
Method 2. Reduce the pounds to Jhillings, and pro¬
ceed as in Cafe VI.
£x. Ist.] 3592atL.3:12:8 2d.] 3683 at L.2 :4: 1 r
72 20 45
7184 72 18415
25144 14732
258624 At45s. 165735
4d.=yS. 1197 4 At id.rr-jJyS. 307 11
4d‘—yS. 1197 4  
— 44s. 1 id. 165427 1
8d. 261018 8 L. 8271 7 1
L. 13050 188
The learner ftiould at firft try every calculation more
■ways than one ; which will not only ferve the purpofe
of proving the operation, but will render him expert
at difcovering the bell method for folving each quellion,
and will lead him to invent other methods ; for we
have not-exhaufted the fubjeft.
Thus, if the number of articles be 20, each Hulling
of the rate makes a pound of the amount. If it be
12, each penny of the rate makes a {hilling of the a-
mount. If 2'40, each penny of the rate makes a pound
of the amount. If 480, each half-penny makes a
pound. If 960, each farthing makes a pound. If
the number of articles be a multiple, or an aliquot part
of any of thefe, the amount is eafily calculated. And
if it be near to any fuch number, we may calculate for
that number, and add or fubtrail for the difference.
We have hitherto explained the various methods of
computation, when the quantity is a whole number,
and in one denomination. It remains to give the pro¬
per dire&ions when the quantity contains a fraction,
or is expreffed in feveral denominations.
When the quantity contains a fratlion, ’work for the
integers by the preceding rules, and for the fraftion take
proportional parts.
When the quantity is exprejfed in feveral denominations
and the rate givenfor the higher ; calculate the higher, con-
fider the lo’wer ones as fractions, and ’work by the lafi rule.
When the rate is given for the lo’wer denomination,
reduce the higher denomination to the lo’wer, and calcu¬
late accordingly.
Vol. I.
Note Ist. 7 lb. 14 lb. and 21 lb. are aliquot parts
of 1 qr. : and 16 lb. is 4 of 1 cwt.; and are therefore
eafily calculated.
2d. If the price of a dozen be fo many {hillings,
that of an article is as many pence; and if the price
of a grofs be fo many {hillings, that of a dozen is as
many pence.
3d. If the price of a ton or fcore be fo many pounds,
that of 1 cwt. or a fingle article, is as many (hillings.
4th. Though a fraction lefs than a farthing is of no
confequence, and may be rejefted, the learner mull be
careful left he lofe more than a farthing, by rejecting
feveral remainders in the fame calculation.
Se£t. ii. Deductions on Weights, &c.
The full weight of any merchandife, together with
that of the ca(k, box, or other package, in which it is
contained, is called the grofs -weight. From this we
muft make proper deductions, in order to difcover the
quantity, for which price or duty ftiould be charged,
which is called the nett <weight.
Tare is the allowance for the weight of the package;
and this ftiould be afcertained by weighing it before
the goods are packed. Sometimes, however, particu¬
larly in payment of duty, it is cuftomary to allow fo
much per C. or fo much per 100 lb. in place of tare.
Tret is an allowance of 4 lb. on 104 granted on cur¬
rants, and other goods on which there is wafte, in order
that the weight may anfwer when the goods are retailed.
Cloff, or Draught, is a further allowance granted
on fome goods in London, of 2 lb. on every 3 C. to
turn the foale in favour of the purchafer. The me¬
thod of calculating thefe and the like will appear from
the following examples.
Ex. Ist. What is the nett weight of 17 C. 2 q. 14 lb.
tare 18 lb. per cwt.
C. q. lb. C, q. lb.
17 2 i4grofs. or,17 2 14
  6
i61b.=4C. 22 2 
2lb.=-g-of i61b. 1 7 105 3 —
18 lb. 2 3 94 tare.
14 3 4|rnett. 2S
4
In the firft method, we add the
4 of the grofs weight to the tare, at 2 lb. which is 4 of
the former. In the fecond, we multiply the grofs weight
by 18 ; the tare is 1 lb. for each cwt. of the produCt,
and is reduced by divifion to higher denominations.
2d.] What is Tret of 158 C. 2 q. 241b. ?
C. q. lb. C. q. lb.
26) 158 2 26 ( 6 — 11 Tret.
156
3i7 1
1131741b. C. q. lb.
) 11 9ar( 2 3 9l:tare
tare at 16 lb. which is
4 Becaufe tret is always 41b. in IC34, or
—- 1 lb. in 26, it is obtained by dividing
10 by 26.
28
286
280
669
Practice.
670
ARITHMETIC.
3d.] What is the-doff on 28 C. 2 q. ?
C. q.
28 2
3) 57 ^ t
This allowance being 2 lb. on every 3 C. might be
found by taking y of the number of Cs and multiply¬
ing it by 2. It is better to begin with multiplication,
for the reafon given p. 663. col. 2 par. 1.
Se& iii. Commission,
It is frequently required to calculate allowances on
Aims of money, at the rate of fo many per JL. too.
Of this kind is Commission, or the allowance due to
a faftor for buying or felling goods, or tranfa&ing any
ether bufinefs ; Premium of Insurance, or allowance
given for engaging to repay one’s Ioffes at fea, or other-
wife; Exchange, or the allowance neceffary to be
added or fubtra&ed for reducing the money of one place
to that of another ; Premiums on Stocks, or the al¬
lowance given for any {hare of a public ftock above the
original value. All thefe and others of a like kind are
calculated by the following
Rule. “ Multiply the fum by the rate, and divide
“ the produft by 100. If the rate contain a fraftion,
“ take proportional parts.
Ex. What is the commiflion on L. 728, at per
cent. 728
2 per cent. 1456
i 364
£ 182
l]00)20|02
Chap. VII.
The intereft of any fum for a year, at any rate, is
found by the method explained in the laft feftion. “
The intereft of any number of pounds for a year,
at 5 per cent, is one twentieth part, or an equal num¬
ber of {hillings. Thus, the intereft of L. 34675 for
a year is 34675 {hillings.
The intereft for a day is obtained by dividing the in¬
tereft for a year, by the number of days in a year. Thus,
the intereft of L. 34675 for a day is found by dividing
34675 {hillings by 365, and comes to 95 {hillings.
The intereft for any number of days is obtained by
multiplying the daily intereft by the number of days.
Thus, the intereft of L. 34675 for 17 days, is 17 times
95 fiiillings, or 1615 {hillings; and this divided by
20, in order to reduce it, comes to L. 80 : 15 s.
It would have ferved the fame purpofe, and been
caller to multiply at firft by 17, the number of days ;
and, inftead of dividing feparately by 365, and by 20,
to divide at once by 7300, the produft of 365 multi¬
plied by 320 ; and this divifion may be facilitated by
the table inferted p. 661. col. 1.
The following practical rules may be inferred from
the foregoing obfervations.
I. To calculate interejl at 5 per cent. “ Multiply
“ the principal by the number of days, and divide the
“ prodmft by 7300.”
II. To calculate interejl at any other rate. “ Find
“ what it comes to at 5 per cent, and take a proper
“ proportion of the fame for the rate required.”
Ex. ist. Intereft on L. 34675 for 17 days, at 5 per
73l°0(5894|75(8° I5*
584
4|8°
4 Anfw. L. 20 4-J:
3I20.
When the rate is given in guineas, which is com¬
mon in cafes of infurance, you may add a twentieth part
to the fum before you calculate. Or you may calculate
at an equal number of pounds, and add a twentieth part
to the anfwer.
When the given fum is an exaflnumber of 10 pounds,
the calculation may be done without fetting down any
figures. Every L. to, at i per cent, is a {hilling; and
at other rates in proportion. Thus, L. 170, at x pet
cent, is 17s.; and, at £ per cent. 8 s. 6 d.
Se&. iv. Interest.
Intereft is the allowance given for the ufe of money
by the borrower to the lender. This is computed at fo
many pounds for each hundred lent for a year, and a-
like proportion for a greater or a lefs time. The higheft
rate is limited by our laws to 5 per cent, which is call¬
ed the legal intereft; and is due on all debts conftitu-
ted by bond or bill, which are not paid at the proper
term, and is always underftood when no other rate is
mentioned.
1095I00
73
365
365
Ex. 2d. Intereft on 304 : 3 : 4 for 8 days, at 4 percent.
L. 304 3 4
8
 s. d.
73l°o)2433 6 8 (6 8
486166
438
4866
584100
584
Chap. VII. A R
Praftke. jnt. at 5 per cent. L. — 6 8
“ Deduce f — 1 4
I T H M E T I C.
Int. at 4 per cent. L — 5 4
When partial payments are made, we proceed in the
following manner: Let us fuppofe a bill of L. 170
was due 12th Auguft, thatL. 54 was paid on the 18th
September, L. 56 on the I7tb Odtober, and the ba¬
lance on the 14th November ; and let it be required to
find how much intereft is due.
Days.
Aug. 12. L. 170 37 1190
Sept. 18. pd. 54 510
Nov. 14. pd
116
56
60
60
29
1044
232
6299
33^4
1680
73°°) 11334( L- 1 : 11 :
Here we fubtraft the feveral payments from the ori¬
ginal fum in their order, placing the dates in the mar¬
gin; and from this it appears that there is intereft due on
L. 170 from 12th Auguft to iS111 September, or L. no
from 18th September to 17th Odtober, and on L. 60
from 17 th OAober to 14th November. We next compute
the number of days in each of thefe periods, and mark
itagainft the refpe&ive fum. Then we multiply each fum
by the number of days; referring a column, when
necefiary, for the products of the feveral figures in the
multiplier. Laftly, we add thefe produdts, and divide
their fum by 7300.
Intereft on current accounts is calculated nearly in
the fame manner. For example, let the intereft due
on the following account be required to 31st July, at
4 per cent ?
D1. Mr A. Baird, his account current with W. Neil, Cr.
ins-
Jan. ij. To ca(h L. ifio
Mar. n. To ditto 36
June 13. To ditto 13
July 19. To ditto afi 1
May id.
Mar. n. By caih L. jd
May 16.. By ditto 37
June 15. By ditto is 1
28. By ditto 32
Mar. 31
May 31
June 30
July 31
317°  
7300
Deduce-i- part
.s8i3(L. 3 10 8*. at
Intereft at 4 per cent. L. 2 16 7
Here the fums on either fide of the account are in¬
troduced according to the order of the dates. Thofe
on the Dr fide are added to the former balance, and
thofe on the Cr fide fubtrafted. Before we calculate
the days, we try if the laft fum L. 91, be equal to
the balance of the account, which proves the additions
and fubtra&ions ; and, before multiplying, we try if
the fum of the column of days be equal to the num¬
ber of days, from 15th January to 31st of July.
In the 5th and 6th multiplications, we begin at the
pence-column, and take in the carriage. In the 7th,
inftead of multiplying the 6 s. 8 d. by 21, we add the
third part 21 to the produft, becaufe 6 s. 8 d. is the
third of a pound. This is done by marking down the
fecond line 1287, inftead of 1280. As the computa¬
tion on the odd ftiillings and pence is troublefome, and
makes a very fraall increafe of the intereft, fome negleft
them altogether; others add one to the pound, when the
ftiiilings exceed 10, and negleft them when below in
2d.J Required intereft on the following account
to 31st December, allowing 5 per cent, wdten the ba¬
lance is due to J. T. and 4 per cent, when due to N. W.
Dr Mr J. T. his account current with N. W. Cr.
Dec. 31. To balance L.150 April g.Bycafh.L. 70
Mar. 12. To caih
June 17. To caih
Sept. 24. To caih
Oft. 9. To caih
775- '
Dec. 31.
1776.
Mar. 12.
April. 9.
May 12.
June 3.
*7-
Aug. 2.
Sept.24.
Oft. 9.
Dec. 31.
L150
20 May 12. By caih
165 June 3. By caih
242 Aug. 2. By caih
178
Days
150
1050
71
2160
540
1360
340
1050
700
555
925
285
57
705
[880
10650
7560
855
19505
4760
8050
9805
7300 4517024815
Intereft due to N. W. at 5 per cent. L. 6 8 9
Deduce 4 - - ice
Due to N. W. at 4 per cent.
Due to J. T. at 5 per cent.
Balance due to N. W.
4 P 2
L* 5
3
3 4
7 “t
67i
Praflice.
300
240
672
PraOice.
ARITHMETIC. Chap. VIII.
In this account, the balance is fometimes due to the
one party, fometimes to the other. At the beginning,
there is a balance due to N. W.; and, on the 9th of
April, there is L. 200 due him.- On the 12th of May,
J. T. pays him L. 300, which difcharges what he
owed, and leaves a balance of L. 100 due him. The
balance continues in J. T.’s favour till the 24th of Sep¬
tember, when N. W. pays L. 242. Thefe changes
are diftinguilhed by the marks Dr. and Cr. The pro¬
ducts are extended in different columns, and divided fe-
parately.
When payments are made on conflituted debts, at
confiderable diftances of time, it is ufual to calculate
the intereft to the date of each payment, and add it to
the principal, and then fubtraft the payment from the
amount.
A bond for L. 540 was due the 18th Aug. 1772 ;
and there was paid 19th March 1773 L. 50; and
19th December 1773 L. 25; and 23d September 1774
L. 25; and 18th Auguft 1775 L. no. Required the
intereft and balance due on the 11th November 1775 ?
A bond due isth Auguft 1772 L. 54°
Intereft to ip1*1 March 1773, 218 daysL. 16 1 6 16 i 6
L.$66 z 6
Paid iptl1 March 1773 S°
both by any number whatever, or divide them by any Vulgar
number which meafures both, we fhall obtain other r'‘^tl(J1'-c.
fractions of equal value. Thus, every fraCtion may be
expreffed in a variety of forms, which have all the fame
fignification.
A fraCtion annexed to an integer, or whole number,
makes a mixed number. For example, five and two
third-parts, or 5y. A fraCtion whofe numerator is
greater than its denominator is called an improper frac¬
tion. For example, feventeen third-parts, or'T7. Frac¬
tions of this kind are greater than unity. Mixed num¬
bers may be reprefented in the form of improper frac¬
tions, and improper fractions may be reduced to mix¬
ed numbers, and fometimes to integers. As fractions,
whether proper or improper, maybe reprefented in dif¬
ferent forms, we muft explain the method of reducing
them from one form to another, before we confider the
other operations.
Problem I. “ To reduce mixed numbers to impro-
<{ per fractions ; Multiply the integer by the denomi-
“ nator of the fraCtion, and to the produCt add the
“ numerator. The fum is the numerator of the im-
« proper fraCtion fought, and'is placed above the given
“ denominator- Ex. 5y=xT7
5 integer.
3 denominator.
Balance due 19th March 1773
Intereft to 19th December 1773, 275 days *9
Paid 19th December 1773
Balance due ipt* December 1773
Intereft to 23d September 1774, i?8 days *9
Paid » 3d September 1774
Balance due 23d September 1774 L
Intereft to iSth Auguft 1775, 329 days 22 5 3
Paid 18'h Auguft 177s
Balance due 18th Auguft 1775 L
Intereft tonth November 1775, 85 days 4 14 6
Chap. VIII. VULGAR FRACTIONS.
In order to underftand the nature of vulgar fractions,
we muft fuppofe unity (or the number 1) divided into
feveral equal parts. One or more of thefe parts is call¬
ed a fraction, and is reprefented by placing one num¬
ber in a fmall character above a line, and another un¬
der it: For example, two fifth parts is written thus,
The number under the line (5) (hows how many parts
■unity is divided into, and is called the denominator. The
number above the line (2) (hows how many of thefe
parts are reprefented, and is called the numerator.
It follows from the manner of reprefenting fractions,
that, when the numerator is increafed, the value of the
fraCtion becomes greater; but, when the denominator
is increafed, the value becomes lefs. Hence we may
infer, that, if the numerator and denominator be both
increafed, or both diminilhed, in the fame proportion,
the value is not altered ; and therefore, if we multiply
15 produCt.
2 numerator given.
17 numerator fought.
Becaufe one is equal to two halves, or 3 third parts,
or 4 quarters, and every integer is equal to twice as
many halves, or four times as many quarters, and fo on 5
therefore, every integer may be expreffed in the form
of an improper fraCtion, having any affigned denomina¬
tor : The numerator is obtained by multiplying the in¬
teger into the denominator. Hence the reafon of the
foregoing rule is evident. 5, reduced to an improper
fraCtion, whofe denominator is 3, makes f, and this
added to y, amounts to y.
Problem II. “ To reduce improper fractions to
“ whole or mixed numbers : Divide the numerator by
“ the denominator.”
Ex. V'T=^iT
17)1i2(6|y 1. s44* S' W
102 2. ’A* 6.
  3- 7- 8If1
ICJ 4. 'fry4 8. -vsy
This problem is the converfe of the former, and the
reafon may be illuftrated in the fame manner.
Problem III. “ To reduce fractions to lower terms.
“ Divide both numerator and denominator by any num-
“ ber which meafures both, and place the quotients in
“ the form of a fraCtion.”
Example, yg-y := tt = t
Here we obferve that 135 and 360 are both mea-
fured by 5, and the quotients form yy, which is a frac¬
tion of the fame value as y|4 *n lower terms. Again,
27 and 72 are both meafured by 9, and the quotients
form which is (till of equal value, and in lower terms.
It is generally fufficient, in praCtice, to divide by fuch
meafures as are found to anfwer on infpeCtion, or by the
rules given p. 659. col. 2. But, if it be required to re¬
duce a fraCtion to the lowed poffible terms, we muft di¬
vide
Chap. VIII. ARITHMETIC.
-673
Vulgar vide the nominator and denominator by the greateft
Fractions, number which meafures both. What number this is
may not be obvious, but will always be found by the
following rule.
To find the greateft common meafure of two num¬
bers, divide the greater by the lefler, and thd divifor
by the remainder continually, till nothing remain; the
laft divifor is the greateft common meafure.
Example. Required the greateft number which mea-
Here we divide 589 by 475,
and the remainder is 114 ;
then we divide 475 by 114, and
the remainder is 19; then we
divide 114 by 19, and there is
no remainder : from which we
infer, that 19, the laft divifor,
is the greateft common mea¬
fure.
To explain the reafon of this, we muft obferve, that
any number which meafures two others, will alfo mea¬
fure their fum, and their difference, and will meafure
any multiple of either. In the foregoing example, any
number which meafures 589, and 475, will meafure
their difference 114, and will meafure 456, which is a
multiple of 114; and any number which meafures 475,
and 456, will alfo meafure their difference 19. Con-
fequently, no number greater than 19 can meafure 589
and 475. Again, 19 will meafure them both, for it
meafures 114, and therefore meafures 456, which is a
multiple of 114, and 475, which is juft 19 more than
456 ; and, becaufe it meafures 475 and 114, it will
meafure their fum 589. To reduce to the loweft
poffible terms, we divide both by numbers 19, and it
comes to -f-r*
If there be no common meafure greater, than 1, the
fra&ion is already in the loweft terms.
If the greateft common meafure of 3 numbers be re¬
quired, we find the greateft meafure of the two firft,
and then the greateft meafure of that number, and the
third. If there be more numbers, we proceed in the
fame manner.
Problem IV. “ To reduce fra&ions to others of
“ equal value that have the fame denominator: Ist,
“ Multiply the numerator of each fra&ion by all the
“ denominators except its own. The products are nu-
“ merators to the refpeftive fradlions fought.’’ 2d,
“ Multiply all the denominators into each other ; the
“ produdt is the common denominator.”
Ex. 7 and 9- and •§• and and
4X9X8 = 288 firft numerator.
7X5X8 = 280 fecond numerator.
3X5X9 = 135 third numerator.
5X9X8 = 360 common denominator.
Here we multiply 4, the numerator of the firft frac¬
tion, by 9 and 3 the denominators of the two others ;
and the produft 288 is the numerator of the fra&ion
fought, equivalent to the firft. The other numerators
are found in like manner, and the common denomina¬
tor 360, is obtained by multiplying the given denomi¬
nators 5, 9, 8, into each other. In the Courfe of the
whole operation, the numerators and denominators of
each fradtion are multiplied by the fame number, and
therefore their value is not altered.
lures 475 and 589?
475)589(i
475
“4)475(4
45 6
i9)'ii4(6
114
o
The fractions thus obtained may be reduced to lower Vulgar
terms, if the feveral numerators and denominators have ri 10115
a common meafure greater than unity. Or, after ar¬
ranging the number for multiplication, as is done a-
bove, if the fame number occur in each rank, we may
daih them out and negledl them ; and, if numbers
which have a common meafure occur in each, we may.
dafh them out and ufe the quotients in their ftead ; or
any number, which is a multiple of all the given deno¬
minators, may be ufed as a common denominator.
Sometimes a number of this kind will occur on infpec-
tion, and the new numerators are found by multiply¬
ing the given ones I>y the common denominator, and
dividing the produdfs by the refpeiftive given denomi¬
nators-
If the articles given for any operation be mixed num¬
bers, they are reduced to improper fradfions by pro¬
blem I. If the anfwer obtained be an improper frac¬
tion, it is reduced to a mixed number by problem II.
And, it is convenient to reduce fraftions to lower
terms, when it can be done, by problem III. which
makes their value better apprehended, and facilitates
any following operation. The redu&ion of fractions to
the fame denominator by problem IV. is neceffary to
prepare them for addition or fubtradfion, but not for
multiplication or divifion.
1. Addition ^Vulgar Fractions. a2
Rule. “ Reduce them, if neceffary, to a common
“ denominator; add the numerators, and place the
“ fum above the denominator.”
Ex. Ist.] ■f-i-|=|f+||-byp^roblem IV. = |f^ ^
2d.] T+!--K%- ~ 6 3 o 4" 6T0 "t” S I o <TT o 560
by problem II. = 3 tttt
The numerators of fradlions that have the fame de¬
nominator fignify like parts ; and the reafon for adding
them is equally obvious, as that for adding {hillings or
any other inferior denomination.
Mixed numbers may be added, by annexing the fum
of the fradfions to the fum of the integers. If the
former be a mixed number, its integer is added to the
other integers.
2. Subtraction ^Vulgar Fractions. jj
Rule. “ Reduce the fradtions to a common deno-
“ minator ; fubtradf the numerator of the fubtrahend
“ from the numerator of the minuend, and place the
“ remainder above the denominator.”
Ex. Subtradt ^ from ^ remainder
5  1 s ~) from 35
C by Prob. IV. take 24
t — A  
rem. 11
To fubtradf a fradlion from an integer: fubtradl the
numerator from the denominator, and place the re¬
mainder above the denominator ; prefix to this the in¬
teger diminiftied by unity.
Ex. Subtradl f from 12 remainder 1 i|s
To fubtradl mixed numbers, proceed with the frac¬
tions by the foregoing rule, and with the integers in
the common method. If the numerator of the frac¬
tion in the fubtrahend exceed that in the minuend, bor¬
row the value of the denominator, and repay it by ad¬
ding x to the unit-place of the fubtrahend.
674 A R I T H
Vulgar Ex. Subtract 1459- from 24.8^
Fraflinns. , _ », ^ \]
TZTT V Prob. iv. 14544- IT
■ST —\  TT
I02lf
Here, becaufe 27 the numerator of the fraction in
the minuend is lefs than 35, the numerator of the fub-
trahend, we borrow 45 the denominator ; 27 and 45
make 72, from which we fubtraft 35, and obtain 37
for the numerator of the fraftion in the remainder, and
we repay what was borrowed, by adding 1 to 5 in the
unit-place of the fubtrahend.
The reafon of the operations in adding or fubtraft-
ing fra&ions will be fully underftood, if we place the
numerators of the fra&ions in a column like a lower
denomination, and add or fubtradt them as integers,
carrying or borrowing according to the value of the
higher denomination.
84 3. Multiplication a?/-Vulgar Fractions.
Rule. “ Multiplythe nnmeratorsof the fadtorstoge-
“ ther for the numerator of the produdt, and the deno-
“ minators together forthe denominator of the produdt.”
Ex. ist.] tX-t = 44
2 X 5 =10 num. 8|- = V by prob. I.
2X7=21 den. 74 = V by ditto
42 X 31 =1302
5X4= 20
To multiply 4 by 4 is the fame, as to find what two
third parts of 4 comes to ; if one third part only had
been required, it would have been obtained by multi¬
plying the denominator 7 by 3, becaufe the value of
fradtions is leffened when their denominators are in-
creafed ; and this comes to -^5 and, becaufe two
thirds were required, we muft double that fradtion,
which is done by multiplying the numerator by 2, and
comes to 44- Hence we infer, that fradtions of frac¬
tions, or compound fradtions, fuch as 4 of 4 are re'
duced to fimple ones by multiplication. The fame me¬
thod is followed when the compound fradtion is ex-
preffed in three parts or more.
If a number be multiplied by any integer, its value
is increafed : if it be multiplied by 1, or taken one
time, it undergoes no alteration. If it be multiplied
by a proper fradtion, or taken for one half, two thirds,
or the like, its value is diminifhed, and the produft is
lefs than the number multiplied.
The foregoing rule extends to every eafe, when there
are fradtions in either fadtor. For mixed numbers may
be reduced to improper fradtions, as is done in Ex. 2d.;
and integers maybe written, or underftood to be writ¬
ten, in the form of fradtions whofe numerator is 1. It
will be convenient, however, to give fome further di-
redtions for proceeding, when one of the fadtors is an
integer, or when one or both are mixed numbers.
ist. To multiply an integer by a fradtion, multiply
it by the numerator, and divide the produdt by the de¬
nominator. Ex. 3756 X f = 22534
3
5)11268(22534
2d. To multiply an integer by a mixed number, we
multiply it firft by the integer, and then by the frac¬
tion, and add the produdts.
M E T I C. Chap. VIII.
Ex. 138X54 = 7934 138X5 = 690 Vulgar
138 X 4 FraftlQnl-
3
4)4i4( 1034
3d. To multiply a mixed number by a fradtion, we
may multiply the integer by the fradtion, and the tw®
fradtions together, and add the produdts.
Ex. i54X4- = 3A
15 X — 34 — 3tt
T ^ — TT — TT
4th. When both fadtors are mixed numbers, we may
multiply each part of the multiplicand firft by the in¬
teger of the multiplier, and then by the fradtion, and
add the four produdts.
Ex. 84 by 74
8X7= 56
8 X 4=: V :=: ^ by prob. II.
f x 7 = y = 24:= 24t
4 x 4=: A
produdt 65^ as before.
4. Division ©/"Vulgar Fractions.
Rule I. “ Multiplythe numerator of the dividend by
“ the denominator of the divifor. The produdt is the
“ numerator of the quotient.”
II. “ Multiply the denominator of the dividend by
“ the numerator of the divifor. The produdt is the
“ denominator of the quotient.”
Ex. Divide 4 by 4 Quotient -ff
2X9 = 18
. 5 X 1 - 35 ,
To explain the reafon of this operation, let us fup-
pofe it required to divide 4 by 7, or to take one fe-
venth part of that fradtion. This is obtained by mul¬
tiplying the denominator by 7 ; for the value of frac¬
tions is diminiftied by increafing their denominators,
and comes to -fr. Again, becaufe 4 is nine times lefs
than 7, the quotient of any number divided by 4 will
be nine times greater than the quotient of the fame
number divided by 7. Therefore we multiply by 9,
and obtain 4t*
If the divifor and dividend have the fame denomina¬
tor, it is fufficieut to divide the numerators.
Ex. 44 divided by T3T quotes 4.
The quotient of any number divided by a proper
fradtion is greater than the dividend. It is obvious,
that any integer contains more halves, more third parts,
and the like, than it contains units ; and, if an integer
and fradtion be divided alike, the quotients will have
the fame proportion to the numbers divided ; but the
value of an integer is increafed when the divifor is a
proper fradtion ; therefore, the value of a fradtion in
the like cafe is increafed alfo.
The foregoing rule may be extended to every cafe,
by reducing integers and mixed numbers to the form of
improper fradtions. We ftiall add fome diredtions for
ftioftening the operation when integers and mixed num¬
bers are concerned.
ist. When the dividend is an integer, multiply it
by
Chap. VIII. ARITHMETIC.
Vulgar by the denominator of the divifor, and divide the pro-
Fradtions. dudt by the numerator.
Ex. Divide 368 by 4-
7
67.
J5
5) 2576 (;}St quotient.
2d. When the divifor is an integer, and the dividend
a fraction, multiply the denominator by the divifor,
and place the produtt under the numerator.
Ex. Divide 4-by 5 quotient ^-
8 X 5 = 40
3d. When the divifor is an integer, and the dividend
a mixed number, divide the integer, and annex the
fraftion to the remainder; then reduce the mixed num¬
ber, thus formed, to an improper fraction, and mul¬
tiply its denominator by the divifor.
Ex. To divide 576^ by 7 quotient 82
7) 576 (^2 Here vve divide 576 by 7,
56 the quotient is 82, and the
  remainder 2, to which we an-
16 nex the fra£tion Jj-j and re-
14 duce to an improper
  fraftion -Jt> and multiply its
2tt- = denominator by 7, which
11 X 7 = 77 gives tt-
Hitherto we ha ve confidered the fractions as abftraift
numbers, and laid down the neceffary rules accordingly.
We now proceed to apply thefe to practice. Shillings
and pence may be confidered as fra&ions of pounds,
and lower denominations of any kind as fra&ions of
higher; and any operation, where different denomina¬
tions occur, may be wrought by exprefling the lower
ones in the form of vulgar fractions, and proceeding by
the foregoing rules. For this purpofe, the two follow¬
ing problems are neceffary.
Problem V. “ To reduce lower denominations to
“ fra&ions of higher, place the given number for the
“ numerator, and the value of the higher for the de-
«* nominator.” Examples.
1. Reduce 7 d. to the fraction of a {hilling. Anf.^x
2. Reduce yd. to a fraction of a pound. Anf-yjs-
3. Reduce 15 s. yd. to a fraftion of a pound. Anf.
Problem VI. “ To value fractions of higher deno-
“ minations, multiply the numerator by the value of
“ the given denomination, and divide the product by
“ the denominator; if there be a remainder, multi-
“ ply it by the value of the next denomination, and
“ continue the divifion.”
Ex. 1s,t.] Required the value ad.] Required the value
1.
17
20
6o)34°( 5
300
60)480
480
In the firft example, we multiply the numerator 17 Decimal
by 20, the number of {hillings in a pound, and divide Fractions.
the produft 340 by 60, the denominator of the fra&ion,
and obtain a quotient of 5 {hillings; then we multiply
the remainder 40 by 12, the number of pence in a
{hilling, which produces 480, which divided by 60
quotes 8 d. without a remainder. In the fecond ex¬
ample we proceed in the fame manner; but as there
is a remainder, the quotient is completed by a frac¬
tion.
Sometimes the value of the fra&ion does not amount
to a unit of thelloweft denomination; but it may be
reduced to a fradtion of that or any other denomination,
by multiplying the numerator according to the value
of the places. Thus of a pound is equal to
t-44-5- of a {hilling, or of a penny, ■j-^nnr a *"ar'
thing.
Chap. IX. DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
Sedf. i. Notation and Reduction. *§
The arithmetic of vulgar fradtions is tedious, and
even intricate to beginners. The difficulty arifes chiefly
from the variety of denominators ; for when numbers
are divided into different kinds of parts, they cannot
be eafily compared. This confideration gave rife to
the invention of decimal fradtions, where the units are
divided into like parts, and the divifions and fubdivi-
fions are regulated by the fame fcale which is ufed in
the Arithmetic of Integers. The firft figure of a de¬
cimal fradtion lignifies tenth parts, the next hundredth
parts, the next thoufandth parts, and fo on : and the
columns may be titled accordingly. Decimals aredif-
tinguifhed by a point, which feparates them from inte¬
gers, if any be prefixed.
The ufe of cyphers in decimals, as well as in inte¬
gers, is to bring the fignificant figures to their proper
places, on which their value depends. As cyphers, whea
placed on the left hand of an integer, have no fignifi-
cation, but when placed on the right hand, increafe
the value ten times each ; fo cyphers, when placed on
the right hand of a decimal, have no fignification ; but
when placed on the left hand, diminifh the value ten
times each.
The notation and numeration of decimals will be ob¬
vious from the following examples:
4.7 fignifiesFour, and feven tenth-parts.
•47
Four tenth-parts, and feven hundredth-
parts, or 47 hundredth-parts.
.047 Four hundredth-parts, and feven thou-
fandth-parts, or 47 thoufandth*
parts.
.407 Four tenth-parts, and feven thoufandth-
parts, or 407 thoufandth-parts.
4.07 Four, and feven hundredth-parts.
4.007 Four, and feven thoufandth-parts.
The column next the decimal point is fometimes
called decimal primes, the next decimal feconds; and fo>
To reduce vulgar fractions to decimal ones: u Annex
“ a cypher to the numerator, and divide it by the de-
“ nominator, annexing a cypher continually to the re-
“ mainder.”
Ex.
676
Decimal
Fiaftions.
-E^ist-]Tf=-16
75)i2°(i6
75
450
450
o
A R I
2d-] A='°7^I25
64)500(078125
448
520
5x2
80
6+
160
128
220
320
T H M E T I C. Chap. IX.
|-=.666. as Ex. 3d. and 5th. If otherwife, as Ex. 4th and Decimal
3)20(666 6th, they are mixed repeaters or ciroulates, and the fi- Fraftions-
18 gures prefixed to thofe in regular fiicceffioo are called
  the finite part. Repeating figures are generally diftin-
* 20 guilhed by a dafh, and circulates by a comma, or other
18 mark, at the beginning and end of the circle ; and the
   beginning of a repeater or circulate is pointed out in
20 the divifion by an afterilk.
18 Lower denominations maybe confidered asfra&ions
  of higher ones, and reduced to decimals accordingly.
20 We may proceed by the following rule, which is the
fame, in effeft, as the former.
To reduce lower denominations to decimals of higher:
“ Annex a cypher to the lower denomination, and di-
“ vide it by the value of the higher. When there are
“ feveral denominations, begin at the loweft, and re-
4th-] !-“832 5th-] tt:=-259 6th.] ^ = .3,18,18,
6)50(83 27)70(259 22)70(31818
48 54 66
*20 160 * 40
18 135 22
250
243
180
170
“ duce them in their order.”
Ex. To reduce 5cwt. 2 qr. 21 lb. to a decimal of a
ton ?
28)2io(.75 4)2.75).6875 2o)5.6874(.284375
196 24 40
140 35 168
140 32 160
o
3°
28
87
80
180
The reafon of this operation will be evident, if we
confider that the numerator of a vulgar fraftion is un-
derftood to be divided by the denominator; and this
divifion is adtually performed when it is reduced to a
20 75
20 60
o 150
140
decimal.
In like manner, when there is a remainder left in di¬
vifion, we may extend the quotient to a decimal, in-
ftead of completing it by a vulgar fra&ion, as in the
following example.
25)646(25^ or 25.84.
5°
146
125
Rem. 21.0
200
100
too
o
From the foregoing examples, we may diftinguilh
the feveral kinds of decimals. Some vulgar fraftions
may be reduced exaftly to decimals, as Ex. Ist. and
2d, and are called terminate or finite decimals. O-
thers cannot be exa&ly reduced, becaufe the divifion
always leaves a remainder; but, by continuing the di¬
vifion, we will perceive how the decimal may be ex¬
tended to any length whatever. Thefe are called infi¬
nite decimals. If the fame figure continually returns,
as in Ex. 3 d. and 4th. they are called repeaters. If two
or more figures return in their order, they are called
circulates. If this regular fucceffion go on from the
beginning, they are called pure repeaters, or circulates,
100
100
o
Here, in order to reduce 21 lb. to a decimal of x qr. wc
annex a cypher, and divide by 28, the value of 1 qr.
This gives .75. Then we reduce 2.75 qrs. to a decimal
of 1 cwt. by dividing by 4, the value of 1 cwt. and it
comes to .6875. Laftly, 5.6875 cwt. is reduced to a
decimal of a ton by dividing by 20, and comes to
.284375.
To value a decimal frattion : “ Multiply it by the
“ value of the denomination, and cut off as many de-
“ cimal places from the produft as there are in the
“ multiplicand. The reft are integers of the lower de-
“ nomination.”
Example. What is the value of .425 of L. 1.
.425
20
fix. 8.500
6
d. 3.000
Se&. ii. Arithmetic c/'Terminate Decimals.
The value of decimal places decreafe like that of in¬
tegers, ten of the lower place in either being equal to
one of the next higher; and the fame holds in palling
from decimals to integers. Therefore, all the opera¬
tions are performed in the fame way with decimals,
whether
Chap. IX.
Decimal whether placed by themfelves, or annexed to integers.
Fractions. as wJth pure integers. The only peculiarity lies in the
arrangement and pointing of the decimals.
In addition and fubtraciion, “ Arrange units under
“ units, tenth-parts under tenth-parts, and proceed as
“ in integers.”
32.035 from 13.348 and 12.248
116.374 take 9.2993 10.6752
160.63  
12.3645 4.0487 1.5728
677
fwer as when we divide by 2, and every integer has a Decimal
correfpondent decimal, which may be called its recipfo- Fra^'ons.
cal. Multiplication by that decimal fupplies the place
of divifion by the integer, and divifion fupplies the
place of multiplication.
To find the reciprocal of any number, divide x with
cyphers annexed by that number.
Ex. Required the reciprocal of 625.
625) x.ooo(.0016
625
ARITHMETIC.
32I-+°35
In multiplication, “ Allow as many decimal places
in the produft as there are in both factors. If the
produft has not fo many places, fupply them by
prefixing cyphers on the left hand.’’
Ex. Ist.] 1.37 2d.] 43.75 3d.] .1572
1.8 .48 .12
1096 35000 .01864
137 17500
2.466 21.0000
The reafon of this rule may be explained, by obfer-
ving, that the value of the produft depends on the va¬
lue of the factors; and fince each decimal place in ei¬
ther faftor diminiihes its value ten times, it muft equally
diminifh the value of the produft.
To multiply decimals by 10, move the decimal point
one place to the right; to multiply by 100, 1000, or
the like, move it as many places to the right as there
are cyphers in the multiplier.
In divifion, “ Point the quotient fo, that there may
“ be an equal number of decimal places in the divi-
“ dend as in the divifor and quotient together.”
Therefore, if there be the fame of decimal places in
the divifor and dividend, there will be as many in the
quotient.
If there be more in the. dividend, the quotient will
have as many as the dividend has more than the divi¬
for.
If there be more in the divifor, we muft annex (or
fuppofe annexed) as many cyphers to the dividend, as
may complete the number in the divifor, and all the fi¬
gures of the quotient are integers.
If the divifion leave a remainder, the quotient may
be extended to more decimal places; but thefe are not
regarded in fixing the decimal point.
The reafon for fixing the decimal point, as dire&ed,
may be inferred from the rule followed in multiplication.
The quotient multiplied by the divifor produces the
dividend; and therefore the number of decimal places
in the dividend is equal to thofe in the divifor and quo¬
tient together.
The firft figure of the quotient is always at the fame
diftance from the decimal point, and on the fame fide
as the figure of the dividend, which Hands above the
unit place of the firft produft. This alfo takes place
in integers ; and the reafon is the fame in both.
It was formerly obferved, that numbers were dimi-
nilhed when multiplied by proper fradlions, and increaf-
ed when divided by the fame. Thus, multiplication by
fractions correfponds with divifion by integers ; and
divifion by fractions with multiplication by integers;
when we multiply by 4- or .5, we obtain the fame an-
Vol. I.
375°
375°
The produft of any number multiplied by.0016 is
the fame as the quotient divided by 625. Example.
635)9375(15 9375
625 .0016
3I25
3I25
o 15.0000
Becaufe .0016 is of unity, any number multi¬
plied by that fraftion will be diminifhed 625 times.
For a like reafon, the quotient of any number divided
by 0016, will be equal to the producft of the fame
multiplied by 625. Example.
.0016)516.0000(322500 516
48 .... 625
36
32
40
32
2580
1032
3096
322500
80
80
o
Se&. iii. Approximate Decimals.
It has been fhown, that fome decimals, though ex¬
tended to any length, are never complete: and others,
which terminate at laft, fometimes confift of fo many
places, that it would be difficult in practice to extend
them fully. In thefe cafes, we may extend the decimal
to three, four, or more places, according to the nature
of the articles, and the degree of accuracy required,
and rejedl the reft of it as inconfiderable. In this man¬
ner we may perform any operation with eafe by the
common rules, and the anfwers we obtain are fufficient-
ly exaft for any purpofe in bufinefs. Decimals thus
reftri&ed are called approximates.
Shillings, pence, and farthings, may be eafily re¬
duced to decimals of three places, by the following
rule. Take half the {hillings for the firft decimal place,
and the number of farthings increafed by 1, if it amount
to 24, or upwards; by two, if it amount to 48 or up¬
wards ; and by three, if it amount to 72, or upwards,
for the two next places.
The reafon of this is, that 20 {hillings make a pound,
two {hillings is the tenth part of a pound ; and there-
4 C> fore
678
A R I T H
Decimal fore half the number of fhillings makes the firft de-
Fraitions. c;mal place. If there were 50 farthings in a (hilling,
~ or 1000 in a pound, the units of the farthings in the re¬
mainder would be thoufandth-parts, and the tens would
be hundredth-parts, and fo would give the two next
decimal places; but becaufe there are only 48 farthings
in a (hilling, or 960 in a pound, every farthing is a
little more than the thoufandth-part of a pound ; and
and fince 24 farthings make 25 thoufandth-parts, al¬
lowance is made for that excefs by adding 1 for every
24 farthings, as dire&ed.
If the number of farthings be 24, 48, or 72, and
confequently the fecond and third decimal places 25,
50, and 75, they are exactly right; otherwife they
are not quite complete, fince there (hould be an allow¬
ance of not only for 24, 48, and 72 farthings, but
for every other (ingle farthing. They may be com¬
pleted by the following rule : Multiply the fecond
and third decimal places, or their excefs above 25,
50, 75, by 4. If the product amount to 24 or up¬
wards, add 1 ; if 48, add 2; if 72, add 35. By this 'o-
peration we obtain two decimal places more ; and by
continuing the fame operation, we may extend the
decimal till it terminate in 25, 50, 75, or in a re¬
peater.
Decimals of fterling money of three places may ea-
fily be reduced to (hillings, pence, and farthings, by
the following rule. Double the firft decimal place, and
if the fecond be 5 or upwards, add 1 thereto for (hil¬
lings. Then divide the fecond and third decimal pla¬
ces, or their excefs above 50, by 4, firft deducing 1,
if it amount to 25, or upwards; the quotient is pence,
and the remainder farthings.
As this rule is the converfe of the former one, the
reafon of the one may be inferred from that of the o-
ther. The value obtained by it, unlefs the decimal
terminate in 25, 50, or 75, is a little more than the
true value ; for there (hould be a deduftion not only
of 1 for 25, but a like dedu&ion of on the remain¬
ing figures of thefe places.
We proceed to give fome examples of the arithmetic
of approximates, and fubjoin any neceffary obferva-
tions.
Addition.
Cnut. qrs. lb.
3 2 14 = 3.625
2 3 22 = 2.94642
3 3 i9 = 3-91964-
4 1 25=4.47321
Subtraction.
£W. qrs. lb.
3 2 2 = 3-51785
1 1 19=1.41964
2 — 9 2.09821
14 3 24 14.96427
If we value the fum of the approximates, it will fall
a little (hort of the fum of the articles, becaufe the de¬
cimals are not complete.
Some add 1 to the laft decimal place of the approxi¬
mate, when the following figure would have been 5,
or upwards. Thus the full decimal of 3 qrs. 22lb. is
.946,428571, and therefore .94643 is nearer to it than
.94642. Approximates, thus regulated, will in gene¬
ral give exafter anfwers, and fometimes above the true
one, fometimes below it.
The mark + fignifies that the approximate is lefs
than the exa6t decimal, or requires fomething to be
added. The mark — fignifies that it is greater, or
requires fomething to be fubtradted.
M E T I C. Chap. IX.
Multiplication. Decimal
8278+ Meth.ii.'\ 8278 Meth. 3d.3 8278 Fractions.
2153+ 2153 3512 '
24834 165561 l6556
41390 8278 827
8278 413190 413
16556 24I834 24
178212534 1782)2534 1782
Here the four laft places are quite uncertain. The
right-hand figure of each particular produdl is obtained
by multiplying 8 into the figures of the multiplier;
but if the multiplicand had been extended, the carriage
from the right-hand place would have been taken in;
confequently the right-hand placeof each particular pro-
dudt, and the four places of the total produdt, which
depend on thefe, are quite uncertain. Since part of the
operation, therefore, is ufelefs, we may omit it; and, for
this purpofe, it will be convenient to begin (asin p.658.
col. 1. fifth variety ) at the higheft place of the multiplier.
We may perceive that all the figures on the right hand
of the line in Method 2. ferve no purpofe, and may be
left out, if we only multiply the figures of the multi¬
plicand, whofe produdls are placed on the right-hand
of the line. This is readily done by inverting the mul¬
tiplier in Method 3. and beginning each produdt with
the multiplication of that figure which (lands above
the figure of the multiplier that produces it, and inclu¬
ding the carriage from the right-hand place.
If both faftors be approximates, there are as many
uncertain places, at leaft in the produft, as in the long-
eft faftor. If only one be an approximate, there are
as many uncertain places as there are figures in that
faftor, and fometimes a place or two more, which might
be affefted by the carriage. Hence we may infer, how
far it is neceffary to extend the approximates, in or¬
der to obtain the requifite number of certain places in
the produtt.
Division.
•3724—)798!64327-{-(2i44 or 3^)79864327(2144
744|8 7448
53[84 538
37|24 372
16I602 166
14)896 148
1I7063: 18
1)4892 14
Here all the figures on the right hand of the line-
are uncertain ; for the right-hand figure of the firft pro-
du& 7448 might be altered by the carriage, if thedi-
vifor were extended; and all the remainders and divi-
duals that follow are thereby rendered uncertain. We
may omit thefe ufelefs figures; for which purpofe, we
dafh a figure on the right hand of the divifor at each
ftep, and negleft it when we multiply by the figure
of the quotient next obtained: but we include the car¬
riage.. The operation, and the reafon of it, will ap¬
pear clear, by comparing the operation at large, and
contracted, in the above example.
Chap.
Chap. X. A R I T H
Interminate
Decimals.
  Chap. X. INTERMINATE DECIMALS.
i9 Sc<9:. i. Reduction of Interminate Decimals.
As the arithmetic of interminate decimals, other-
wife called the arithmetic of infinites, is facilitated by
comparing them with vulgar fraftions, it will be pro¬
per to inquire what vulgar fra&ions produce the feveral
kinds of decimals, terminate or interminate, repeaters
or circulates, pure or mixed. And, firft, we may ob-
ferve, that vulgar fra&ions, which have the fame deno¬
minator, produce decimals of the fame kind. If the
decimals correfponding to the numerator x be known,
all others are obtained by multiplying thefe into any
given numerator, and always retain the fame form, pro¬
viding the'vulgar fradlion be in its loweft terms.
Thus, the decimal equal to 4 is .142857,
which multiplied by 3
produces the decimal equal to 4* ‘428571,
Secondly, If there be cyphers annexed to the figni-
ficant figures of the denominator, there will be an e-
qUal number of additional cyphers prefixed to the deci¬
mal. The reafon of this will be evident, if we reduce
thefe vulgar fradlions to decimals, or if we confider that
each cypher annexed to the denominator diminilhes the
value of the vulgar fra&ion ten times, and each cypher
prefixed has a like effeft on the value of the decimal.
Thus, 4=.i42857, tV—28 ^=-0,45,
W =.0,142857, tt4^=.oo28 i »W=.ooo,45,
We may therefore confine our attention to vulgar frac¬
tions, whofe numerator is 1, and which have no cy¬
phers annexed to the fignificant figures of the denomi¬
nator.
Thirdly, Vulgar fra&ions, whofe denominators are
2 or 5, or any of their powers, produce terminate de¬
cimals ; for, if any power of 2 be multiplied by the
fame power of 5, the produ6l is an equal power of 10,
as appears from the following table:
2 X 5 =10
22 or 4 X y2 or 25 = 100 or to*.
23 or 8 X 53 or 125 = iooo or ioJ
24 or 16 X 54 or 625 = 10000 or 104
25 or 32 X 51 or 3125 = 100000 or 10s
And the reafon is eafily pointed out; for 23X53=2X2
X2X5X5X5 ; or, becaufe the faftors may be taken in
any order, =2X5 X2X5X2X5 ; and this, if we mul¬
tiply the faftors by pairs, becomes 10X10X10, or 103.
The like may ,be (hown of any other power. And we
may infer, that, if any power of 1 o be divided by a
like power of 2 or 5, the quotient will be an equal
power of 5 or 2 refpedlively, and will come out exaft,
without a remainder; and, fince the vulgar fractions
above mentioned are reduced to decimals by fome fuch
divifion, it follows that the equivalent decimals are ter¬
minate.
The number of places in the decimal is pointed out
by the exponent of the power; for the dividend muft be
a like power of 10, or muft have an equal number of
cyphers annexed to 1, and each cypher of the dividend
gives a place of the quotient.
M E T I C. 679
Ex. ^ = .03125, a decimal of 5 places, and 32 =r 2J. Interminate
32)l.OOOOO(.C>3I25 Decimals.
96 * • *
4°
32
80
64
160
160
Again, no denominators except 2, 5, or their powers,
produce terminate decimals. It is obvious from p. 661.
col. 2. par. 4. that, if any denominator which produces a
terminate decimal be multiplied thereby, theproduft will
confift of 1, with cyphers annexed; and confequently the
loweft places of the fa&ors, multiplied into each other,
muft amount to 10, 20, or the like, in order to fupply
a cypher for the loweft place of the produft; but none
of the digits give a product of thfs kind, except 5 mul¬
tiplied by the even numbers: therefore one of the fac¬
tors muft terminate in 5, and the other in an even num¬
ber. The former is meafured by 5, and the latter by 2,
as was obferved p. 660. col. 2. par. 7. Let them be divi¬
ded accordingly, and let the quotients bemultiplied. This
laft product will be exadlly one tenth-part of the for¬
mer; and therefore will confift of 1, with cyphers an¬
nexed, and the factors which produce it are meafured
by 5 and 2, as was fhewn before. This operation may
be repeated; and one of the fadtors may be divided by
5, and the other by 2, till they be exhaufted ; confe¬
quently they are powers of 5 and 2.
Fourthly, Vulgar fra&ions, whofe denominators are
3 or 9, produce pure repeating decimals.
Thus, f = .11/ f = '55#
4 — .222 4 or 4
r or £ = ‘338 £ = 'Tlfi
4 — ‘444 4 — .888
The repeating figure is always the fame as the nu¬
merator. Hence we infer, that repeating figures fig-
nify ninth-parts; a repeating 3 fignifies j-; a repeat¬
ing 6 fignifies -f; and a repeating 9 fignifies 4* or I-
The value of repeating decimals may alfo be illu-
ftrated by colledting the values of the different places:
for example, let the value of 11/ be required; the firft
decimal place fignifies Ay, the nextx^, the nextxArs-.
The fum of the two firft places is of the three
places -r44£ 5 an(I on‘ If we fubtradl thefe values
fucceffively from 4, the firft remainder is the fecond
the third piruo* Thus, when the value of the
fucceffive figures is reckoned, the amount of them ap ¬
proaches nearer and nearer to 4, and the difference be¬
comes 1 o times lefs for each figure affumed; and, fince
the decimal may be extended to any length, the differ¬
ence will at laft become fo fmall, that it need not be re¬
garded. This may give a notion of a decreaiing feries,
whofe fum may be exaftly afcertained, though the num¬
ber of terms be unlimited.
Fifthly, Vulgar fractions, whofe denominators are a
product of 3 or 9 multiplied by 2, 5, or any of their
powers, produce mixed repeaters. The reafon of this
will be evident, if, in forming the decimal, we divide
the numerator fucceffively by the component parts of
the denominator, as dire&ed p. 660. col. 1. par. u/t.
4 Q, 2 &c.
68o
A R I T H
Jnterminate
Decimals.
&c. The firfl; divifor is 2, 5, or fome of their powers,
and confequently gives a finite quotient by p. 679* col.
I, par. 3. &c. The fecond divifor is 3 or 9 ;.and there¬
fore, when the figures of the dividend are exhaufted, and
figures annexed to the remainder, the quotient will re¬
peat, by p. 679. col. 2. par. 2.
■Ex- 144=16X9.
9
i44)i.ooo(.oo694 or i6)t.oo(.o625
864 96.00694
1360
1296
40
32
* 640
576
80
80
640 o
In order to illuftrate this fubjeft further, we fliall ex¬
plain the operation of calling out the threes, which re-
fembles that for calling out the nines, formerly laiddown,
p. 663. col. 2. par.4.—p. 664. col. 2.par.3. and depends
on the fame principles, being a method of finding the re¬
mainder of a number divided by 3. If the fame number
be divided by 3 and by 9, the remainders will either a-
gree, or the fecond remainder will exceed the firft by 3 or
by 6. The reafon of this will be obvious, if we fuppofe
a colle&ion of articles afforted into parcels of 3, and
afterwards into parcels of 9, by joining three of the
former together. If the leffer parcels be all taken up
in compofing the greater ones, the remainder will be
the fame at the end of the fecond affortment as before ;
but, if one of thefe leffer parcels be left over, the re¬
mainder will be more, and if two of them be left o-
ver, the remainder will be 6 more. Therefore, when
the nines are call out from any number, and the refult
divided by 3, the remainder is the fame as when the
number is divided by 3 : Thus, the refults on calling
out the 3’s may be derived from thofe obtained by call¬
ing out the 9’s; and the fame correfpondence which was
pointed out with refpedt to the latter, for proving the
operations of arithmetic, applies alfo to the former.
To call out the 3>s from any number, add the fi¬
gures, negledting 3, 6, and 9 ; and when the fum a-
mounts to 3, 6, or 9, reject them, and carry on the
computation with the excefs only. For example, take
286754: in calling out the 3’s, we compute thus, 2
and 8 is 10, which is three times 3, and 1 over; 1 and
(palling by 6) 7 is 8, which is twice 3, and 2 over; 2 and
5 is 7, which is twice 3, and 1 over ; laft/j, 1 and 4 is
5, which contains 3 once, and 2 over, fo the refult is 2.
If the 3’s be call out from 21 or 4, the refult is 1 ;
from 23 or 8, the refult is 2 ; from 24 or 16, the refult
is 1 ; and univerfally the odd powers of 2 give a refult
of 2, and the even powers give a refult of 1. As e-
very higher power is produced by multiplying the
next lower by 2, the refult of the produdl may be
found by multiplying the refult of the lower power
by 2, and calling out the 3’s, if necelfary. There¬
fore, if the refult of any power be 1, that of the
next higher is 2, and that of the next higher (4 with
the 3’scall out or) 1. Thus the refults of the powers
of 2 are 1 and 2 by turns; alfo, becaufe the refult of 5,
■when the 3’s are call out, is 2, its powers will have the
fame refults as the correfponding powers of 2.
M E T I C, Chap. X.
If the denominator be a prodwH: of an even power artrm'mate
of 2 or 5, multiplied by 3, the repeating figure of the
correfponding decimal is % ; but’, if it be the product
of an odd power, the repeating figure is 6. For, in
forming the decimal, we may divide by the component
parts of the denominator, and the firll divifor is a
power of 2 or 5 ; therefore the firft quotient is a like
power of 4 or 2, (p. 679. col. 1. par. 3. &e). and this
power is again divided by 3. If it be an even power, the
remainder or refult is 1, as was demonftrated above ; and
if cyphers be annexed to the remainder, and the divifion
continued, it quotes a repeating 3 ; but if it be an odd
power, the remainder is 2, and the quotient continued
by annexing cyphers is a repeating 6.
If the denominator be 9, multiplied by 2, or any of
its powers, the repeating figure may be found by call¬
ing out the 9's from the correfponding power of 5 ;
and, if it be multiplied by 5 or any of its powers, by
calling out the 9’s from the eorrefponding power of 2.
For if the decimal be formed by two divilions, the firft
quotes the correfponding power; and the fecond, be¬
caufe the divifor is 9, repeats the refulting figure after
the dividend is exhaufted.
If any mixed repeater be multiplied by 9, the produdl
is a terminate decimal, and may be reduced (p. 679.
col. 1. par. 3. &c). to a vulgar fradlion, whofe deno¬
minator is 2, 5, or fome of their powers; therefore all
mixed repeaters are derived from vulgar fractions, whofe
denominators are produdls of 2, 5, or their powers,
multiplied by 3 or 9.
Sixthly, All denominators, except 2, 5, 3, 9, the
powers of 2 and 5, and the produ<fts of thefe powers,
multiplied by 3 or 9, produce circulating decimals.
We have already (hewn, that all terminate decimals are
derived from 2, 5, or their powers ; all pure repeaters,
from 3 or 9; and all mixed repeaters, from the produ&s
of the former multiplied by the latter. The number
of places in the circle is never greater than the de¬
nominator diminifhed by unity. Thus 4- produces
.142857, a decimal of 6 places; and ^ produces
.0588235294117647, a decimal of r6 places. The
reafon of this limit may be inferred from the divifion ;
for whenever a remainder which has recurred before re¬
turns again, the decimal muft circulate, and the great-
eft number of pofiible remainders is onelefs than the di¬
vifor: But frequently the circle is much fhorter. Thus
•j-1,- = .09, a circle of 2 places.
When a vulgar fraftion, whofe numerator is r, pro¬
duces a pure circulate, the produdl of the circle multi¬
plied by the denominator will eonfift of as many 9*5
as there are places in the circle. Thus 4- =: .142857,
which multiplied by 7 produces 999999. The like
holds in every decimal of the fame kind; for they are
formed by dividing 10, or 100, or 1000, or fome like
number, by the denominator, and the remainder is 1,
when the decimal begins to circulate ; for the divifion
muft be then exadlly in the fame ftate as at the begin¬
ning : Therefore if the dividend had been lefs by r,
or had confifted entirely of 9’s, the divifioa would
have come out without a remainder ; and, fince the
quotient, multiplied by the divifor, produces the divi¬
dend, as was ftiown p. 661. col. 2. par. 3. it follows,
that the circulating figures, multiplied by the denomi¬
nator, produce an equal number of 9’s.
Every vulgar fraction, which produces a pure circu¬
late.
Chap. X. A R I T H
Interminate late, is equal to one whofe numerator is the circulating
Decimals. flgures> anc] its denominator a like number of g’s. If
the numerator be i, the vulgar fraction is reduced to
that form by multiplying both terms into the circle of
the decimal ; and, if the numerator be more than i,
the equivalent decimal is found by multiplying that
which correfponds to the numerator x into any other
numerator.
Thus j = •H2^57> — vTvjjj and tt~ ,027* ~ sVa-
= .285714, tV ~ ‘054 = r<ry
-r = •42S571 > — tt — ■216 =
Hence we may infer, that pure circulates are equal in
value to vulgar fraftions whofe numerators coniiil of
the circulating figures, and denominators of as many
9’s as there are places in the circle. To place this in
another point of view, we (hall reduce a vulgar fradlion,
whofe numerator confifts entirely of g's, to a decimal.
tH' 999)375°°°(’375>
2997..
753°
6993
5370
4995
* 375
The remainder is now the fame as the dividend, and
therefore the quotient muft circulate ; and, in general,
fince any number with 3 cyphers annexed, may be di¬
vided by 1000, without a remainder, and quotes the
fignificant figures ; therefore, when divided by 999,
it muft quote the fame figures, and leave an equal re¬
mainder. This alfo applies to every divifor which con¬
fifts entirely of 9’s. Circles of two places, therefore,
fignify ninety ninth-parts ; circles of 3 places fignify
nine hundred and ninety ninth-parts ; and fo on.
The value of circulating decimals may alfo be illuf-
trated by adding the values of the places. Thus, if
two figures circulate, the firft circle fignifieth hun¬
dredth-parts, and every following circle fignifies one
hundred times lefs than the preceding; and their va¬
lues added, as in p. 679. col. 2. par. 3. will approach
nearer to ninety ninth-parts than any affigned difference,
but will never exafUy complete it.
All denominators which are powers of 3, except 9,
produce pure circulates ; and the number of places in
the circle is equal to the quotient of the denominator
divided by 9.
Thus, T,Trr.o37, a circle of 3 places, and 27 divided
by 9=3.
-g-V—*012 345679, a circle of 9 places, and 81
divided by 9=9.
Thefe decimals may be formed, by dividing the nu¬
merator by the component parts of the denominator.
In the firft example, the component parts of the nume¬
rator are 9 and 3. The divifion by 9 quotes a pure
•circulate, and the circulating figure is not 3,6, or 9,
if the vulgar fra&ion be in its loweft terms. And any
other repeating figure divided by 3, quotes a pure cir--
culate of 3 places; for the firft dividual muft leave a
M E T I C.
681
remainder of 1 or 2. If the firft remainder be 1, the Interminat
fecond remainder is 2, (becaufe, if 1 be prefixed to Decinia!s'
the repeating figure, and the 3’s be call out, the re-
fult is 2); and, for a like reafon, the third dividual
clears off without a remainder. If the firft remain¬
der be 2, the fecond is (twice 2 or 4, with the 3’s call
out, or) 1, and the third o; fo the circle is always
complete at 3 places, and the divifion begins anew.
The fum of fuch a circle cannot be a multiple of 3 ;
for, fince the repeating figure is not 3, nor any of its
multiples, the fum of 3 places is not a multiple of 9,
and therefore cannot be divided by 9, nor twice by 3,
without a remainder.
Again, if the decimal equal to be divided by 3,
we {hall obtain the decimal equal to ^r. The dividend,
as we have ftiewn already, is a pure circulate of 3
places, whofe fum is not a multiple of 3. Therefore^
when dvided by 3, the firft circle leaves a remainder
of 1 or 2, which being prefixed to the fecond, and the
divifion continued, the remainder, at the end of the
fecond circle, is 2 or 1, and, at the end of the third
circle, there is no remainder; all which may be illuf*
trated by calling out the 3’s. The divifion being com¬
pleted at 9 places, finifties the circle ; and it may be
ftiown, as before, that the fum of thefe places is not a
multiple of 3. The learner will apprehend all this if
he reduce thefe, or the like vulgar fractions, to deci¬
mals, by fucceffive divifions.
27 = 9 X 3’ and 9)irO(-ITI/> and 3)11 ,-r(-°37»
8 i =27 X 3, and 3)037,037,037(.012345679.
For the fame reafon, if any circulating decimal, not
a multiple of 3, be divided by 3, the quotient will cir¬
culate thrice as many places as the dividend; and, if
any circulate obtained by fuch divifion be multiplied by
3, the circle of the produft will be reftricted to one
third of the places in the multiplicand.
All vulgar fractions, whofe denominators are multi¬
ples of 2, 5, or their powers, except thofe already
confidered, produce mixed circulates; for they may be
reduced by dividing by the component parts of the de¬
nominator. The firft divifor is 2, 5, or fome of their
powers, and therefore gives a finite quotient. The fe¬
cond divifor is none of the numbers enumerated p. 680.
col. 2. par. 2. and therefore gives a circulating quotient
when the fignificant figures of the dividend are ex-
haufted, and cyphers annexed to the remainder.
■Ex.
2i6)x.ooo(.oo4,629,
864
216=27X8,
or 8)x.oco
27) .i25(.oo4,629,
108
* 170
162
So
- 54
260
243
All mixed circulates are derived from vulgar frac-
682 A R I T H
Interminate tions of this kind, whofe denominators are multiples
Decimals. 0f 2> ^ or theJr powers ; and therefore all other de¬
nominators, except 3 and 9, produce pure circulates.
The reader will eafily perceive, that, when a decimal is
formed from a vulgar fraction, whofe numerator is I,
when the remainder 1 occurs in the divilion, the deci¬
mal is a pure circulate; but, if any other remainder
occurs twice, the decimal is a mixed circulate. We
are to ftiow that this laft will never happen, unlefs the
divifor be a multiple of 2, 5, or their powers. If two
numbers be prime to each other, their produdl will be
prime to both ; and, if two numbers be propofed,
whereof the firft does not meafure the fecond, it will
not meafure any produft of the fecond, if the multiplier
be prime to the firft. Thus, becaufe 7 does not mea¬
fure 12 it will not meafure any produft of 12 by a
multiplier prime to 7. For inftance, it will not mea¬
fure 12X3, or 36. Otherwife, the quotient of 12 di¬
vided by 7, or 1 4 multiplied by 3, would be a whole
number, and 5X3 would be meafured by 7, which it
cannot be, iince 5 and 3 are both prime to 7.
Now, if we infpedl the foregoing operation, we lhall
perceive that the produft of 136, the remainder, where
the decimal begins to circulate, multiplied by 999> is
meafured by the denominator 216. But 999 is not
meafured by the denominator, otherwife the decimal
would have been a pure circulate ; therefore 126, and
136, are not prime to each other, but have a common
meafure, and that meafure muft apply to 864, a mul¬
tiple of 126, and to 1000, the fum of 136 and 864;
fee p. 672. col. 2. par. ult. &c. But it was proven,
p. 679. col. 1. par. 1. that no numbers, except the
powers of 5 and 2, meafure a number confifting of 1
with cyphers annexed ; confequently the denominator
muft be meafured by a power of 2 or 5. The reader will
perceive, that the exponent of the power muft be the
fame as the number of cyphers annexed to 1, or as the
mumber of figures in the finite part of the decimal.
We fhall now recapitulate the fubftance of what has
been faid with refpeft to the formation of decimals. 2,
5, and their powers, produce finite decimals, by p. 679.
col. x. par. 3. &c. and the number of places is mea¬
fured by the exponent of the power. 3 and 9 produce
pure repeaters (p. 679. col. 2. par. 2.) The produfts
of 2, 5, and their powers, by 3 or 9, produce mixed re¬
peaters by p. 679. col. 2. par. ti/t.; their produ&s by
other multipliers, produce mixed circulates by p. 679.
col. 2. par. u/t.; and all numbers of which 2 and 5 are not
aliquot parts, except 3 and 9, produce pure circulates.
To find the form of a decimal correfponding to any de¬
nominator, divide by 2, 5, and 10, as often as can be
done without a remainder; the number of divifions
fliows how many finite places there are in the decimal, by
p. 681. col. 2. par. 3. If the dividend be not exhaufted
by thefe divifiohs, divide a competent number of 9*8 by
the laft quotient, till the divifion be completed with¬
out a remainder: the number of 9’s required fhows
how many places there are in the circle, and the reafon
may be inferred from p. 680. col. 2. par. 5.
We fhall conclude this fubjedft by marking down the
decimals produced by vulgar fra&ions, whofe nume¬
rator is 1, and denominators 30; and under that the
reader may obferve their connexion with the deno¬
minators.
M E T I C.
Chap. X.
T—«5 tV=.c625 Ir
t=-33* tt—•°5^^2352941 i7^47, _
t=-25 A=-055^
4-=:.2 ^=.052631578947368421,
■3-=. 1666 iV—*05
4--. 142857, ^=.047619,
1=125 -A=0,45,45,
£=.11/ ^=.0434782608695652173913,
,^•=.1
tt=.o9>°9> -rr=.04
A—08333 0,3 84615,
tV—•°79^23> *V=-°37>
^=.0,714285, tt=-03»57i42«»
^-=.066^ ^=.0344817586206896^51724137931,
tV=-°333
Rules for reducing interminate decimals to vulgar
fractions.
I. “ If the decimal be a pure repeater, place the
“ repeating figure for the numerator, and 9 for the
“ denominator.”
II. “ If the decimal be a pure circulate, place the
“ circulating figures for the numerator, and as many 9’s
“ as there are places in the circle for the denominator.”
III. “ If there be cyphers prefixed to the repeating
“ or circulating figures, annex a like number to the
“ 9’s in the denominator.”
IV. “ If the decimal be mixed, fubtraft the finite
“ part from the whole decimal. The remainder is the
“ numerator ; and the denominator confifts of as many
“ 9’s as there are places in the circle, together with
“ as many cyphers as there are finite places before
“ the circle.
Thus, 235,62,=|-^4*
From the whole decimal 23562
we fubtraft the finite part 235
and the remainder 23327 is the numerator.
The reafon may be illuftrated by dividing the deci¬
mal into two parts, whereof one is finite, and the o-
ther a pure repeater or circulate, with cyphers prefixed.
The fum of the vulgar fractions correfponding to thefe
will be the value of the decimal fought.
. 2 3 5,62, may be divided into. 2 3 5 =, Vgu by rule I.
and. 000,62=5—^0^}" rules il.lll
In order to add thefe vulgar fradlions, we reduce
them to a common denominator ; and, for that purpofe,
we multiply both terms of the former by 99, which
gives ; then we add the numerators.
235 or by method explained p. 658. col. 1. par. 3.
99
  Sum of numerators.
23500 23265 or 23562
2115
235
62
235
23265 23265 _ 23327 _ 23327
The value of circulating decimals is not altered,
though one or more places be feparated from the cir¬
cle, and confidered as a finite part, providing the cir¬
cle be completed. For example, .27 may be writ¬
ten .2,72, which is reduced by the laft of the forego¬
ing rules to or -l^-, which is alfothe value of .27.
And, if two or more circles be joined, the value of the
decimal is (till the fame. Thus, 2727, which
is reduced by dividing the terms by ioj to-j-£.
AH
Chap. X. A R I T H
Interminate All circulating decimals maybe reduced to a fimilar
Decimals. forrnj having a like number both of finite and circu¬
lating places. For this purpofe, we extend the finite
part of each as far as the longeft, and then extend all
the circles to fo many places as may be a multiple of
of the number of places in each.
Ex. .34,725, extended .34,725725725725,
1,4562, 14,562456245624,
Here the finite part of both is extended to two places,
and the circle to 12 places, which is the leaft: multiple
for circles of 3 and 4 places.
3° Seft. ii. Addition and Subtraction of Intermi¬
nate Decimals.
To add repeating decimals, “ Extend the repeating
“ figures one place beyond the longeft finite ones, and,
“ when you add the right-hand column, carry to the
“ next by 9.”
Ex. .37524 or 37524
.8 8888§
.643 643
•78 73338
264046
To fubtratt repeating decimals, “ Extend them as
“ directed for addition, and borrow at the right-hand
“ place, if neceffary, by 9.
.9356^ .646 .735$ .738^ .469
•8473$ -5342# -62568 .6$ •3*'
.0872# .1117^
The reafon of thefe rules will be obvious, if we re¬
collect that repeating figures fignify ninth-parts. If
the right-hand figure of the fum or remainder be o, the
decimal obtained is finite ; otherwife it is a repeater.
To add circulating decimals, “ Extend them till they
“ become fimilar (p. 682. col. 1. par. ult. &c.); and,
“ when you add the right-hand column, include the fi-
“ gure which would have been carried if the circle had
“ been extended further.
Ex. Ist.
•514>
.2,698,
.428
•37>983>
Extended.
•574»574>
.266,869,
.428
•379>839>
Ex. 2d.
.874,
.1463:
.1,58,
•32>
Extended.
.874,874874,
•H6,333333.
.158,585858,
•323»232323,
1.652,284, 1.503,026390,
Note 1. Repeaters mixed with circulates are ex¬
tended and added as circulates.
Note 2. Sometimes it is neceffary to infpeCt two or
more columns for afcertaining the carriage; becaufe
the carriage from a lower column will fometimes raife
the fum of the higher, fo as to alter the carriage from
it to a new circle. This occurs in Ex. 2.
Note 3. The fum of the circles muft be confidered as
a fimilar circle. If it confift entirely of cyphers, the
amount is terminate. If all the figures be the fame,
the amount is a repeater. If they can be divided into
parts exactly alike, the amount is a circle of fewer pla¬
ces ; but, for the moft part, the circle of the fum is fi¬
milar to the extended circles.
.3,868, .0842, \ .368 .003094, -hr
.4,375, .08,42 i .57, .765, ^
•853492> -0,842 A .895 .76, A
.62, .084^ 44 .742 .765 A
M E T I C. 683
To fubtratt circulating decimals, “ Extend them till Interminate
“ they become fimilar; and, when you fubtraft the
“ right-hand figure,/confider whether 1 would have
“ been borrowed if the circles had been extended fur-
“ ther, and make allowance accordingly.
.5,72, .974, or .974974, .8,135, or .8,135135,
.4,86, .86, .868686, .452907 or .4,529074,
.0,85, .106288, .3,606060,
or 3,60,
Se£t. iii. Multiplication c/" Interminate Deci- 31
MALS.
Csse I. “ When the multiplier is finite, and the
“ multiplicand repeats, carry by 9 when you multiply
“ the repeating figure: The right-hand figure of each
“ line of the product is a repeater; and they muft be
“ extended and added accordingly.”
Ex. .13494
•367
9446X
80966^
4048333
.0495246,1
If the fum of the right-hand column be an even
number of 9’s, the produdft is finite ; otherwife, it is a
repeater.
Case II. “ When the multiplier is finite, and the
“ multiplicand circulates, add to each produ& of the
“ right-hand figure the carriage which would have
“ been brought to it if the circle had been extended.
“ Each line of the product is a circle fimilar to the
“ multiplicand, and therefore they muft be extended
“ and added accordingly.”
The product is commonly a circulate fimilar to the
multiplicand; fometimes it circulates fewer places,
repeats, or becomes finite; it never circulates more
places.
Ex. .37,46,X.235
235
187,32,
1123,93,
7492,92,
1. .674, x.78
2. .37, X .86
3. .625, X.42
4. .4793, X 4.8
5. .3,75, X 1.24
6. .2,963,X.36
.08804,19,
Case III. “ When the multiplier repeats or cir-
“ culates, find the produft as in finite multipliers, and
“ place under it the products which would have arifen
“ from the repeating or circulating figures, if extend-
“ ed.”
Ex. Ist. .958X.8 2d.] .784X.36,
8 36
7664
766 4
7664
7 664
7664
.8514
4704
2352
28224I
28224
218224
-284,09,
684
DecfhiaSs,
A R I T
L 3d0
.714285,X54,
54
2859142
357H285
38,571428
3857i4
3*57
571428571428,
285714285714,
42857 142857,
571428
3857H
3857
571428,
285714,
42875»
38571428
3857i4
3857
38
H M E T I C. Chap. X.
The multiplication of interminate decimals may be Interminate
often facilitated, by reducing the multiplier to a vulgar Decimals.
fra&ion, and proceeding as dire&ed p. 674. col. 1.
par. 6.
Thus,
4th0 .3824X^=5- 5th-] •384X.2^2=|4
7 23 2
9)2.6768
•9742
1152
768
90)8.832
.09812
Therefore, in order to multiply by we take one
third-part of the multiplier; and, to multiply by 0, we
take two thirds of the lame. Thus,
6tb0 -784=-3Xi 7th-] .8761X^=1-
38.961038,961038,961038,
It is evident, that, if a repeating multiplier be ex¬
tended to any length, the product arifing from each fi¬
gure will be the fame as the firft, and each will Hand
one place to the right hand of the former. In like
manner, if a circulating multiplier be extended, the
prodiuSt arifing from each circle will be alike, and will
itand as many places to the right hand of the former
as there are figures in the circle. In the foregoing
examples, there are as many of thefe products re¬
peated as is necefiary for finding the total produft.
If we place down more, or extend them further, it
will only give a continuation of the repeaters or cir¬
culates.
This is obvious in Ex. Ist and 2d. As the learner
may not apprehend it fo readily in Ex. 3d, when the
multiplicand is a circulate, and confequently each line
of the produft is alfo a circulate, we have divided it in¬
to columns, whofe fums exhibit the fucceffive circles.
The fum of the firft column is 28,961037, and there
is a carriage of 1 from the right-hand column, which
completes 38,961038. This one is fupplied from the
three firft lines of the fecond column, the fum of which
is 999999, and being increafed by 1, in confequence
of the carriage from the third column, amounts to
1,000000, and therefore carries 1 to the firft column,
and does not affe<ft the fum of the remaining lines,
which are the fame as thofe of the firft column. The
third column contains two fets of thefe lines, which a-
mount to 99<J999, befides the lines which compofe the
circle. Each of thefe fets would be completed into
1,000000 by the carriage from the 4th column, if ex¬
tended, and each would carry 1 to the fecond column.
One of thefe would complete the fum of the three firft:
lines, and the other would complete the fum of the
circle. In like manner, if the circles be extended ever
fo far, the increafing carriages will exa&ly anfwer
for the increafing deficiencies, and the fum will be
always a continuation of the circle: but the produft
could not circulate, unlefs the fum of the lines marked
off in the fecond column had confifted entirely of q’s,
or had been fome multiple of a number of 9’s ; and the
circles muft be extended till this take place, in order to
find the complete produdt.
3).784  
•261* 3)I-7522
.5840^
As the denominator of the vulgar fra&ions always
confifts of q’s, or of p’s with cyphers annexed, we may
ufe the contraction explained p. 661. col. 1. par. ult.
&c.; and this will lead us exaftly to the fame operation
which was explained p. 683. col. 2. par. ult. &c. on the
principles of decimal arithmetic.
8th.] •735X-3>26,=^
323 3
9th.] *278X365,—
365
2205 323
1470
2205
1390
1668
834
9910)237405
2374,05
23»74
>23
999)IOI47°»
101,
.101,571,
.239803,
When the multiplier is a mixed repeater or circu¬
late, we may proceed as in Ex. 5th and 8th; or we may
divide the multiplier into two parts, of which the firft
is finite, and the fecond a pure repeater or circulate,
with cyphers prefixed, and multiply feparately by thefe,
and add the produfts.
Thus, .384X.2/ or by .2 = .0768 or thus, .384
and by .05 = .0213,3 .2,y
.09813 9)1920
0981.3
In the following examples, the multiplicand is a re¬
peater ; and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator of the vulgar fra&ion is performed as dire&ed
p. 683. col. 2. par. 2.
lO*.]
Chap. X.
ARITHMETIC.
68S
Interminate IOth.}
Decimals. _
.%X.2,39,=f^
.237 2
9)3‘4^(-37>9<52,
27
7i
63
* 86
81
""56
54
26
18
* 86
443 237
i890
1266^
99)i5oio(’i5>i6»
99
495
* 160
99
610
594
* 16
I0 the following examples the multiplicand is a cir¬
culate, and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator is performed as dire&ed p. 683. col. 2. par, 4.
12th.] .3)8i,X53—f-g-
48 5
In Ex. 13th. we have omitted the produfts of the di- fnterininate
vifor, and only marked down the remainders. Thefe ccima s’
are found, by adding the left-hand figure of the divi¬
dual to the remaining figures of the fame. Thus, 363
is the firft dividual, and 3, the left-hand figure, added
to 63, the remaining figures, gives 66 for the firft re¬
mainder ; and the fecond dividual, 666, is completed
by annexing the circulating figure 6. The reafon of
which may be explained as follows. The higheft place
of each dividual ihows, in this example, how many hun¬
dreds it contains; and, as it muft contain an equal num¬
ber of ninety-nines, andalfo an equal number of units,
it follows, that thefe units, added to the lower places,
muft fhow how far the dividual exceeds that number of
ninety-nines. The figure of the quotient is generally
the fame as the firft place of the dividual, fometimes
one more. This happens in the laft ftep of the fore¬
going example, and is difcovered when the remainder
found, as here directed, would amount to 99, or up¬
wards ; and the excefs, above 99 only, muft in that cafe
be taken to complete the next dividual.
i4th.].cn,X.oi, = .gV
S9).oi ,(0001620304010(50708091011 tii 3141516171819x0
(i 1212 3242516z 7x829303132 J3 3435 3*537 383940
(4I4243‘»44S46474H49S°SIJ3S3J4S5S<SJ7S859<5®
(616263646566076869707172737475767 7787980
(818283848586878889909192939435969799,
13th-]
3054 48
I5272
9|o) 183,27,(.203,65,
18
* 032
27
57
54
* 32
.I2,X03,=5V
3
99) 36* 3 ^ (*03 6730945 8 21854912 764>
666
723
206
936
453
576
813
216
183
846
543
486
9°3
126
273
756
633
396
* 036
The number of places in the circle of the produft is
fometimes very great, though there be few places in
the factors : but it never exceeds the product of the
denominator of the multiplier, multiplied by the num¬
ber of places in the circle of the multiplicand. There¬
fore, if the multiplier be 3 or 6, the product may cir¬
culate three times as many places as the multiplicand ;
if the multiplier be any other repeater, nine times as
many; if the multiplier be a circulate of two places,
ninety-nine times as many: thus, in the laft example,
.01, a circulate of two places, multiplied by .01, a cir¬
culate of two places, produces a circulate of twice 99,
or 198 places. And the reafon of this limit may be
inferred from the nature of the operation; for the great-
eft poffible number of remainders, including o, is equal
to the divifor 99 ; and each remainder may afford two
dividuals, if both the circulating figures, 3 and 6, oc¬
cur to be annexed to it. If the multiplier circulate
three places, the circle of the produft, for a like rea¬
fon, may extend nine hundred and ninety-nine times as
far as that of the multiplicand. But the number of
places is often much lefs.
The multiplication of interminate decimals may be
proven, by altering the order of the fadlors, (p. 658.
col. z. par. 2.) or by reducing them both to vulgar frac¬
tions in their loweft terms, multiplying thefe as direc¬
ted p. 673. col. 2. par. 3. and reducing the produft
to a decimal.
Se£t. iv. Division c/Tnterminate Decimals.
Case I. “ When the dividend only is interminate,
u proceed as in common arithmetic; but, when the fi-
“ gures of the dividend are exhaufted, annex the re-
“ peating figure, or the circulating figures in their or-
“ der, inftead of cyphers, to the remainder.”
4 R Ex.
Si
VOL. I.
686 A R I T H
Jnterminate Ex. Ist.] Divide .5376 by 7. 2d.] Divide .843 by 5.
Decimals. 7').537$(.76,095238, .5)843(.l680
49 5
M E T I C. Chap.
The foregoing method is the only one which pro- Ext
perly depends on the principles of decimal arithmetic ; of
but it is generally fhorter to proceed by the following
rule.
34
3°
43
40
* 33
30
33
3d.] Divide .6532$ by 8.
8).6532$(.o8i664
In thefe accounts the quotient is never finite. It
may repeat, if the dividend repeats; or, if the dividend
circulate, it may circulate an equal number of places,
often more, and never fewer. The greateft poffible ex¬
tent erf the circle is found by multiplying the divifor
into the number of places in the circle of the dividend.
Thus, a circulate of 3 places, divided by 3, quotes a
circulate of 3 times 3, or 9 places._
Case II. “ When the divifor is interminate, the
“ multiplications and fubtra&ions muft be performed,
“ according to the dire&ions given for repeating and
“ circulating decimals.”
Ex. Ist-] Divide .37845 by ^
5)-37845(-6Si21
33333?
45ii<&
444441
67^
Hi
II (S
III
$
X
42
42
*066
36
■35
16
26
21
# 066
“ Reduce the divifor to a vulgar fraction, multiply
“ the dividend by the denominator, and divide the pro-
“ dutt by the numerator.”
Ex. Ist.] Divide .37845 by ^t=|-
9
5)3.4o6o5(.68i2i
2d.] Divide .3784^ by
3
2)i-i3536(.56^683
Note 1. Divifion by 3 triples the dividend, and di-
vifion by $ iocreafes the dividend one half.
Note 2. When the divifor circulates, the denomina¬
tor of the vulgar fra&ion confifts of 9’s, and the mul¬
tiplication is looner performed by the contra&ion ex¬
plained p. 658. col. 1. par. 3. It may be wrought in the
fame way, when the divifor repeats, and the denomina¬
tor, of confequence, is 9.
Note 3. If a repeating dividend be divided by a re¬
peating or circulating divifor ; or, if a circulating di¬
vidend be divided by a fimilar circulating dividend;
or, if the number of places in the circle of the divifor
be a multiple of the number in the dividend; then the
product of the dividend multiplied by the denominator
of the divifor will be terminate, fince like figures are
fubtracled from like in the contra&ed multiplication,
and confequently no remainder left. The form of the
quotient depends on the divifor, as explained at large,
p. 679. col. 1. par. i.—p. 681. col. 2. par. 3.
Note 4, In other cafes, the original and multiplied
dividend are fimilar, and the form of the quotient is
the fame as in the cafe of a finite divifor. See p. 685.
col. 2. par. ult. &c.
Note 5. If the terms be fimilar, or extended till
they become fo, the quotient is the fame as if they
were finite, and the operation may be conduced ac¬
cordingly; for the quotient of vulgar fractions that
have the fame denominator is equal to the quotient of
their numerators.
o
2:d. Divide .245892 by 2,18
.2,i8,).245892(i.i27qo5;
218181,81,
27710,18,.
21818,18,
5892,00,.
4363>63>
1528,36,
I527>27»
\
Chap. XL Of the EXTRACTION of ROOTS.
The origin of powers by involution has already
been explained under the article Algebra, ji° 8 and
9. There now remains therefore only to give the
moft expeditious methods of extrafting the fquare
and cube roots; the reafons of which will readily
appear from what is faid under that article. As for
all powers above the cube, unlefs fuch as are multi¬
ples of either the fquare and cube, the extra&ion of
their roots admits of no deviation from the algebraic
canon which muft be always conftru&ed on purpofe for
them.
If the root of any power not exceeding the feventh
power, be a fingle digit, it may be obtained by infpec-
tion, from the following table of powers.
1090,90
1090,90
Chap. XI.
A R I T H M
M
7 49
8 - 64
Bj
256
625
1296
343 2401
512 140963:
729 656
S .72
1024
3125
7776
64
729
4096
15625
46656
128
2187
16384
78125
279936
16807117649 823543
32768 262i44!2097i52
59°49i53144^4782969
E T I C. 687
2 div. 725) 3625 refolvend. Extraflion
3625 produdt. I3322>5 proof. of R°ots.
2d.] Required the fquare root of 72, to eight de¬
cimal places.
72.00000000(8.48528x37 root.
64
Seft. i. Extraction of the Square Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods
“ of two figures, beginning at the right hand in inte-
“ gers, and pointing toward the left. But in deci-
“ mals, begin at the place of hundreds, and point to-
“ ward the right. Every period will give one figure
“ in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial,
“ the neareft lefler root of the left-hand period, place
“ the figure fo found in the quot, fubtraft its fquare
“ from the faid period, and to the remainder bring
“ down the next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
III. “ Double the quot for the firft part of the
“ divifor ; inquire how often this firft part is contain-
“ ed in the whole refolvend, excluding the units place;
“ and place the figure denoting the anfwer both in the
“ quot and on the right of the firft part; and you have
“ the divifor complete.”
IV. “ Multiply the divifor thus completed by the
“ figure put in the quot, fubtraft the produft from
“ the refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the
“ following period for a new refolvend, and then pro-
“ ceed as before.”
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor, with unity
fuppofed to be annexed to it, happen to be greater than
the refolvend, in this cafe place o in the quot, and alfo
on the right of the partial divifor ; to the refolvend
bring down another period ; and proceed to divide as
before.
Note 2. If the produft of the quotient-figure into
the divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend, you
muft go back, and give a Idler figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number
is brought down, there happen at laft to be a re¬
mainder, you may continue the operation, by annex¬
ing periods or pairs of cyphers, till there be no re¬
mainder, or till the decimal part of the quot repeat or
circulate, or till you think proper to limit it.
£x. Ist. Required the fquare root of 133225.
Square number 133225(365 root 365
9 365
i div. 66) 432 refolvend. 1825
396 produft. 2190
After getting half of the de¬
cimal places, work by contrad-
ed divifion for the other half;
and obtain them with the fame
accuracy as if the work had
been at large.
. (9)
3d.] Required the fquarc root of .2916.
.29i6(.54 root
2*
104) 416
416
If the fquare root of a vulgar fradion be required,
find the root of the given numerator for a new numera¬
tor, and find the root of the given denominator for a new
denominator. Thus, the fquare root of £ is y, and the
root of iy is y; and thus the root of is 4-=2y.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomi¬
nator cannot be extraded without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fradion to a decimal, and then extrad the
root, as in Ex. 3d. above.
Sed. ii. Extraction of the Cvw Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods
“*of three figures, beginning at the right hand in in-
“ tegers, and pointing toward the left. But in deci-
“ mals, begin at the place of thoufands, and point to-
“ ward the right. The number of periods ftiews the
“ number of figures in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
<{ neareft lefler root of the left-hand period; place the
“ figure fo found in the quot ; fubtrad its cube from
“ the faid period ; and to the remainder bring down
“ the next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
The divifor confifts of three parts which may be
found as follows.
4 R 2 III.
4 R 2
688
Extraflion
of Roots.
*See Arians.
A R I T H
III. “ The firft part of the divifor is found thus :
“ Multiply the fquare of the quot by 3, and to the pro-
“ duff annex two cyphers; then inquire how often this
“ firft part of the divifor is contained in the refolvend,
“ andplace the figure denoting the anfwer in the quot.”
IV. “ Multiply the former quot by 3, andthepro-
“ duff by the figure now put in the quot; to this laft
“ product annex a cypher; and you have the fecond
part of the divifor. Again, fquare the figure now
** put in the quot for the third part of the divifor ;
“ place thefe three parts under one another, as in ad-
“ dition ; and their fum will be the divifor complete.”
V. “ Multiply the divifor, thus completed, by the
“ figure laft put in the quot, fubtraff the produff from
“ the refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the
following period for a new refolvend, and then pro-
“ ceed as before.”
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor happen to be
equal to or greater than the refolvend, in this cafe,
place o in the quot, annex two cyphers to the faid firft
part of the divifor, to the refolvend bring down an¬
other period, and proceed to divide as before.
Note 2. If the produff of the quotient-figure into
the divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend, you
muft go back, and give a leffer figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number
is brought down, there happen at laft to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation by annexing periods
of three cyphers till there be no remainder, or till you
have as many decimal places in the root as you judge
neceffary.
£x. Ist. Required the cube root of 12812904.
Cube number 12812904(234 root
8 
Ist part 1200} )48i2 refolvend.
2J part 180C
3d part, 9J
1 divifor 1389X3—4167 produft
i*' part 158700^ j645904 refolvend.
2d part 2760C
3d part^ l6j
2 divifor 16x476X4=645904 produff.
M E T I C.
P R O O
234
234
936
702
468
Chap. XI.
Extraftio;
of Roots
Square 54756  
234
21CP24
164268
109512
Square 54756 Cube 12812904
2d.] Required the cube root of 28^.
28.750ooo(,3.o6 root.
27
2 70000 p ) 1750000 refolv.
54°of
365
Div. 275436 X 6 = 1652616 prod.
97384 rem.
Proof.
Sq. 9.3636
3.06
3.06
3.06
1836
918
Sq. 9.3636
561816
280908
28.652616
97384r
28.750000 cube.
If the cube root of a vulgar fraffion be required,
find the cube root of the given numerator for a new
numerator, and the cube root^of the given denomina¬
tor for a new denominator. Thus, the cube root of
t8t is y, and the cube root of is ^ ; and thus the
cube root of lys (=15^-) is
But if the root of either the numerator or denomina¬
tor cannot be extraffed without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fraffion to a decimal, and then extraff the
root.
A R I
ARIUS, a divine of the fourth century, the head
and founder of the Arians*, a feff which denied the e-
ternal divinity and confubftantiality of the Word. He
was born in Libya, near Egypt. Eufebius biftiop of
Nicomedia, a great favourite of Conftantia fifter of the
emperor Conftantine and wife of Licinius, became a
zealous promoter of Arianifm. He took Arius under
his protection, and introduced him to Conftantia ; fo
that the feff increafed, and feveral bifhops embraced it
openly. There arofe, however, fuch difputes in the
cities, that the emperor, in order to remedy thefe dif-
orders, was obliged to affemble the council of Nice,
where, in the year 325, the doffrine of Arius was
condemned. Arius was baniihed by the emperor, all
his books were ordered to be burnt, and capital pu-
nifhment was denounced againft whoever dared to keep
them. After five years banilhment, he was recalled to
Conftantinople, where he prefented the emperor with
A R I
a confefiion of his faith, drawn up fo artfully, that it
fully fatisfied him. Notwithftanding which, Athana-
fius, now advanced to the fee of Alexandria, refufed ta
admit him and his followers to communion. This fo
enraged them, that, by their intereft at court, they
procured that prelate to be depofed and baniihed. But
the church of Alexandria ftill refufing to admit Arius
into their communion, the emperor fent for him to
Conftantinople; where, upon delivering in a frelh con-
feffion of his faith in terms lefs offenfive, the emperor
commanded Alexander, the bilhop of that church, to
receive him the next day into his communion : but that
very evening Arius died. The manner of his death
was very extraordinary : as his friends were condufting
him in triumph to the great church of Conftantinople,
Arius, preffed by a natural neceffity, ftepped afide toeafe
himfelf; but expired on the fpot, his bowels gulhing
out.
But
Ark.
Plate
% *•
ARK [ 689 ] ARK
But the herefy did not die with the herefiarch: his
" party continued ftill in great credit at court. Athanafius,
indeed, was foon recalled from banilhment, and as foon
removed again ; the Arians being countenanced by the
government, and making and depofing bilhops as it
beft ferved their purpofes. In (hort, this fed conti¬
nued with great luftre above 300 years : it was the
reigning religion of Spain for above two centuries ; it
was on the throne both in the eaft and weft; it prevailed
in Italy, France, Pannonia, and Africa ; and was not
extirpated till about the end of the 8th century.
This herefy was again fet on foot in the weft by
Servetus, who, in 1531, wrote a little treatife againft
the myftery of the Trinity. After his death, Arianifm
Jot footing in Geneva; from whence it removed into
'oland ; but, at length, degenerated, in a great mea-
fure, into Socinianifm. Erafmus feems to have aimed at
reviving Arianifm, in his commentaries on the New
Teftament; and the learned Grotius feems to lean a
little that way.
With regard to the ftate of Arianifm in England, it
may be fufficient to tibferve, that from the numerous
publications of that call which are daily making their
appearance, it feems to be rather a growings than ex¬
ploded doctrine there.
XLI. ARK, or Noah's Ark, a floating veflel built by
Noah for the prefervation of his family and the fe-
veral fpecies of animals during the deluge.
The ark has afforded feveral points of curious in¬
quiry among the critics and naturalifts, relating to its
form, capacity, materials,
The wood whereof the ark was built is called in
the Hebrew Gopher-wood, and in the Septuagint Jquare
timbers. Some tranflate the original cedar, others pine,
others box, &c. Pelletier prefers cedar on account of
its incorruptibility, and the great plenty of it in Afia,
whence Herodotus and Theophraftus relate, that the
kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets thereof,
inftead of deal.
The learned Mr Fuller, in his Mifcellanies, has ob-
ferved, that the wood whereof the ark was built was
nothing but that which the, Greeks call xvragi<ro-oC, Gr
the cyprefs-tree; for, taking away the termination, ku-
par and gopher differ very little in found. This ob-
fervation the great Bochart has confirmed, and ftiewn
very plainly that no country abounds fomuch with this
wood as that part of Affyria which lies about Baby¬
lon.
In what place Noah built and finifhed his ark is no
Ms made a matter of difputation. But the moft pro¬
bable opinion is, that it was built in Chaldea, in the
territories of Babylon, where there was fo great a quan¬
tity of cyprefs in the groves and gardens in Alexan¬
der’s time, that that prince built a whole fleet out of
it for want of timber. And this conjefture is confirmed
by the Chaldean tradition, which makes Xithurus (ano¬
ther name for Noah) fet fail from that countty.
The dimenfions of the ark, as given by Mofes, are
300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height;
which fome have thought too fcanty, confidering the
number of things it was to contain ; and hence an ar¬
gument has been drawn againft the authority of the
relation. To folve this difficulty many of the ancient
fathers, and the modern critics, have been put to very
miferable fhifts: But Buteo and Kircher have proved
geometrically, that, taking the common cubit of a Ark.
foot and a half, the ark was abundantly fufficient for
all the animals fuppofed to be lodged in it. Snellius
computes the ark to have been above half an acre in
area. Father Lamy ffiews, that it was no feet
longer than the church of St Mary at Paris, and 64
feet narrower : and if fo, it muft have been longer than
St Paul’s church in London, from weft to eaft, and
broader than that church is high in the infide, andf^
feet of our meafure in height; and Dr Arbuthnot com¬
putes it to have been 85 002 tuns.-
The things contained in it were, befides eighi: pet-
fons of Noah’s family, one pair of every fpecies of un¬
clean animals, and feven pair of every fpecies of clean
animals, with provifions for them all during the whole
year. The former appears, at firft view, almoft in¬
finite ; but if we come to a calculation, the number of
fpecies of animals will be found much lefs than is ge¬
nerally imagined, not amounting to an hundred fpe¬
cies of quadrupeds, nor to two hundred of birds ; out
of which, in this cafe, are excepted fuch animals as
can live in the water. Zoologifts ufually reckon but
an hundred and feventy fpecies in all; and bifliop Wil¬
kins ftiews that only 72 of the quadruped kind need¬
ed a place in the ark.
By the defcription Mofes gives of the ark, it ap¬
pears to have been divided into three ftories, each ten
cubits or 15 feet high ; and it is agreed on, as molt
probable, that the loweft ftory was for the beafts, the
middle for the food, and the upper for the birds, with
Noah and his family; each ftory being fubdivided in¬
to different apartments, ftalls, &c. though jofephus,
Philo, and other commentators, add a kind of fourth
ftory under all the' reft; being, as it .were, the hold of
the veffel, to contain the ballaft and receive the filth
and fasces of fo many animals : but F. Calmet thinks,
that what is here reckoned a ftory, was no more than
what is called the keel of (hips, and ferved only for a
confervatory of frelh water. Drexelius makes "300 a-
partments ; F. Fourniet, 333; the anonymous author
of the Queftions on Genefis, 400; Buteo, Tempora-
rius. Arias Montanus, Hoftus, Wilkins, Lamy, and
others, fuppofe as many partitions as there were differ¬
ent forts of animals. Pelletier makes only 72, viz.
36 for the birds, and as many for the beafts. His rea-
fon is, that if we fuppofe a greater number, as 333 or
400, each of the eight perfons in the ark muft have
had 37, 41, or 50 ftalls to attend and cleanfe daily,
which he thinks impoffible to have been done. But
it is obferved, that there is not much in this : to di-
minifh the number of ftalls without a diminution of a-
nimals is vain; it being perhaps more difficult to take
care of 300 animals in 72 ftalls, than in 300. As to
the number of animals contained in the ark, Buteo
computes that it could not be equal to 500 horfes; he
even reduces the whole to the dimenfions of 56 pair of
oxen. F. Lamy enlarges it to .64 pair of oxen, or
128 oxen ; fo that, fuppofing one ox equal to two hor¬
fes, if the ark had room for 256 horfes, there muft
have been room for all the animals. But the fame au¬
thor demonftrates, that one floor of it would fuffice
for 500 horfes, allowing nine fquare feet to a horfe.
As to the food in the fecond ftory, it is obferved
by Buteo from Columella, that 30 or 40 pounds of
hay ordinarily fuffices for an ox a-day; and that a fo-
lid
A R L [ 690 ] ARM
Ark
II
lid cubit of hay, as ufually prefled down in our hay¬
ricks, weighs about 40 pounds ; fo that a fquare cu-
. bit of hay is more than enough for one ox in one day.
Now, it appears, that the fecond ftory contained
150,000 folid cubits; which divided between 206 oxen
will afford each more hay, by two thirds, than he can
eat in a year, Biihop Wilkins computes all the car¬
nivorous animals equivalent, as to the bulk of their
bodies, and their food, to 27 wolves; and all the reft
to 280 beeves. For the former, he allows 1825 (beep;
and for the latter, 109,500 cubits of hay: all which
will be eafily contained in the two firft ftories, and a
deal of room to fpare. As to the third ftory, nobody
doubts of its being fufficient for the fowls ; with Noah,
his fons, and daughters. Upon the whole, the learn¬
ed biihop remarks, that of the two, it appears much
more difficult to affign a number and bulk of neceffary
things to anfwer the capacity of the ark, than to find
fufficient room for the feveral fpecies of animals alrea¬
dy known to have been there. This he attributes to
the imperfeftion of our lift of animals, efpecially thofe
of the unknown parts of the earth; adding, that themoft
expert mathematician at this day could not affign the
proportion of a vell’el better accommodated to the pur*
pofe than is here done: and hence he finally concludes,
that the capacity of the ark, which had been made an
obje&ion againft fcripture, ought to be efteemed a con¬
firmation of its divine authority; fince, in thofe ruder
ages, men, being lefs verfed in arts and philofophy,
were more obnoxious to vulgar prejudices than now;
fo that, had it been an human invention, it would have
been contrived according to thofe wild apprehenfions
which arife from a confufed and general view of things
as much too big as it had been reprefented too little.
But it muft be obferved, that, befides the places re-
quifite for the beafts and birds, and their provifions,
there was room required for Noah to lock up houfe-
hold utenfils, the inftruments of hulbandry, grains and
feeds to fow the earth with after the deluge ; for which
purpofe it is thought that he might fpare room in the
third ftory for 36' cabbins, befides a kitchen, a hall,
four chambers, and a fpace about 48 cubits in length
to walk in.
j Ark of the covenant, a fmall cheft or coffer, three
feet nine inches in length, two feet three inches in
breadth, and two feet three inches in height, in which
were contained the golden pot that had manna, and
Aaron’s rod, and the tables of the covenant. This cof¬
fer was made of fhittim-wood, and was covered with
the mercy-feat, which was of folid gold ; at the two
ends whereof were two cherubims, looking toward each
other, with expanded wings, which, embracing the
whole circumference of the mercy-feat, met on each fide
in the middle. The whole, according to the Rabbins,
was made out of the fame mafs, without joining any
of the parts by folder. Here it was that the Schc-
chinah or Divine Prefence refted, both in the„tabernaclc
and in the temple, and was vifibly feen in the appear¬
ance of a cloud over it; and from hence the Divine
oracles were given out by an audible voice, as often as
God was confulted in the behalf of his people.
ARKLOW,afea-port town of Ireland, in the county
ofWicklow, and province of Leinfter. W.Long. 6.15.
N. Lat. 52. 55.
ARLES, a city of Provence, in France, feated on
the.eaft fide of the Rhone, on a hill, whofe declivity is Arles
towards the north. It is an archbilhop’s fee; and is Ajjm
celebrated for its antiquities, both within and without  1_
the city. Thofe of which any remains are now to
be feen are the amphitheatre, the obelilk, the Elyfian
Fields, the fepulchres, columns with their capitals, bufts,
pedeftals, aquedu&s, with fome remains of the capitol,
and the temples of their gods. The other ancient mo¬
numents are entirely deftroyed. Under the amphithe¬
atre, in 1651, they found the ftatue of Venus, which
was worlhipped by this city ; and has been fince car¬
ried to the caftle of Verfailles. It is a mafter-piece
which will always be admired by connoiffeurs.
The amphitheatre is one of themoft remarkablepieces
of antiquity ; it was built by the Romatns, but the time
is unknown, though fome fay by Julius Caefar. It is
of an oval form, and about four hundred yards in cir¬
cumference, and the front is thirty-four yards in height.
The middle, called the Arena, is a hundred and forty-
two yards wideband a hundred and four broad. The
porticos or piazzas are three ftories, built with ftone of
a prodigious fize. Each of them confifts of fixty ar¬
ches, which ftill remain; and the walls are of a furpri-
fing thicknefs, but gone to decay.
The obelflk is the only one of this kind to be feen in
France. It feems to be one of the forty brought from
Egypt to Rome, becaufe it is of the fame oriental gra¬
nite with them. They are generally full of hierogly¬
phic charafters; but this is quite fmooth. In 1675, 1
it was found in a private garden near the walls of the
city, not far from the Rhone. It confifts of one piece;
and is fifty-two feet high, and feven in diameter at the
bafe. It is now fupported with four lions made of
bronze; and on the top a blue ball is placed, with the
arms of France, and over that a fun.
The Pagans burying-place, called the Elyftan Fields,
is without the city, upon an agreeable hill, divided into
two parts. The firft, called Moulaires, has very few
tombs, they having been broken to build the walls of
gardens, which are made in that place. The fecond,
called Elifcamp, contains a great number. Thofe of
the Pagans have the letters D. M. which fignifies
Diis Manilas. Thofe of the Chriftians have a crofs.
Pieces of coin of gold,.filver, and bronze, are found
here; as alfo urns, lamps, and cups, without number.
Here is a royal academy of fciences, confifting of
thirty members, who muft be natives, gentlemen, and
inhabitants of the city. It enjoys the fame privileges
as that at Paris. Arles is furrounded with marfliy land,
vffiich renders the air full of vapours, and makes it not
very wholefome. Long. 4. 48. E. Lat. 43. 40.
ARLEUX, an ancient town of the Netherlands,
in Cambrefis, with a caftle. It was taken by the French
in 1645, and retaken by the allies in 1711; but the
French got poffeffion again the fame month. E.Long.
3. 16. N. Lat. 59. 17.
ARLON, an ancient town of the Netherlands, for¬
merly a ftrong place, but now difmantled. It belongs
to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 15. 50. Lat. 49. 4.
A RM, a part of the human body, terminating at one
end in the ffioulder, and at the other in the hand *.
Arm, among fportfmen, is applied to a horfe, when, my, u° 43.
by preffing down his head, he endeavours to defend him- ^cc-
felf againft the bit, to prevent his being checked by it.
Arm, in geography, implies a branch of the fea,
running
ARM [ 691 ] ARM
! Arsmcales running fome diftance into the land.
II ARMACALES, a river of Babylon, (Abydenus);
rme ' called Foffa Regia, the Royal Trench, or Cut (Polybius);
the Royal River, (Ptolemy); Ahnarchar, (Pliny);
Naarmalcha, (Ammian) ;, a factitious channel, or cut,
made by Nebuchadanofor, and a horn or branch of the
Euphrates, (Abydenus). The Euphrates naturally di¬
vides into two channels^ one palling through Babylon,
the other through Seleucia, and then falls into the Ti-
Sris : the factitious channel between thefe two is the
byal River ; which mixes with the Tigris, a great
deal lower down than Seleucia, at Apamea, (Ptolemy).
ARMADA, a Spanilh term, fignifying a fleet of
men of war, as armadilla does a fquadron.—The arma¬
da, which attempted to invade England in the time of
Queen Elizabeth, is famous in hiftory.
ARMADILLO, in zoology, a fynonime of the da-
fypus. See Dasypus.
ARMAGH, a county of Ireland, bounded by
Louth on the fouth ; Lough-neagh, on the north ;
Tyrone and Monaghan, on the weft ; and Down, in
part, on the eaft, from which it is feparated by the
river Newry. It is in length 32 miles, in breadth 17 ;
and is divided into five baronies, containing about
170,620 acres. Both the air and foil are good, e-
fpecially the latter, which is faid to be the richeft in
Ireland ; only there is a certain trad; in it called the
Fenves, that is, hilly and barren. The members it fends
to parliament are fix, viz. two for the city of Armagh,
two for the county, and two for the borough of Charle-
mont.
Armagh, ftanding near the river Kalin, gives name
to the county, and is the fee of the primate of all Ire¬
land. It is faid to have been founded by St Patrick
in the fifth century ; and in 1142, it was conftituted
an archbifhoprick, together with Dublin, Calhel, and
Tuam, by cardinal Papyreo, with the confent of the
king, dukes, bifhops, abbots, and ftates of Ireland.
This Papyreo was fent into Ireland by Pope Eugenius,
to reform the abufes that had crept into the church-
difcipline of that country. Here was anciently a fa¬
mous monaftery built by St Colambo, or Columbanus,
about the year 610. This town was firft fubje&ed to
the Englifh by John de Courcy ; but afterwards en¬
tirely deftroyed by Tir Oen, or O’Neal, in Queen E-
lizabeth’s time. However, it was afterwards reco¬
vered, rebuilt, and garrifoned by the Englilh.
ARMAGNAC, a province of Guienne, in France,
55 miles in length, and 40 in breadth ; bounded on
the eaft by the river Garonne, on the fouth by Bigor-
re and Bearn, on the weft by Gafcony, and on the
north by Condomois and Agenois : Auch is the capi¬
tal town. It is fertile in corn and wine, and carries
on a confiderable trade in brandy, wool, and bon-
chretien pears, which are excellent.
ARMED, in the fea-language. A crofs-bar Ihot,
is faid to be armed, when fome rope-yarn or the like
is rolled about the end of the iron-bar, which runs
through the fhot.
A rmed, in heraldry, is ufed when the horns, feet,
beak, or talons, of any bfeaft or bird of prey, are of a
different colour from the reft of their body.
Armed-<S'A/>, a veffel occafionally taken into the
fervice of the government in time of v/ar, and em¬
ployed to guard fome particular coaft,. or attend on a
fleet. She is therefore armed and equipped in all re- Armene,
fpedls like a fliip of war, and commanded by an offi- Armenia.
cer of the navy, who has the rank of matter and com¬
mander. All Ihips of this fort are upon the eftablifh-
ment of the king’s floops, having a lieutenant, matter,
purler, furgeon, &c.
ARMENE, or Armina, anciently a hamlet of Pa-
phlagonia, (Ptolemy). The inhabitants encompaffed it
with a wall, becaufe of the coldnefs of the place, ima¬
gining by that means to render it warmer. But this
proving ineffectual, gave rife to the proverb Armenen
muro fingere, ufed to exprefs fome egregious folly.
ARMENIA, a country of Afia, anciently divided
into Armenia Major and Minor.—Armenia Major, ac¬
cording to Strabo, was bounded on the fouth by mount
Taurus, which feparated it from Mefopotamia; on the
eaft, by the two Medias ; on the north, by Iberia and
Albania, or rather that part of mount Caucafus which
furrounds them both; and on the weft, by Armenia
Minor, or the mountains Paryadres, fome Pontic na¬
tions, and the Euphrates. The moft confiderable ci¬
ties were Artaxata, Tigranocerta, and Thedofiopolis.
—Armenia Minor was bounded on the eaft by the
Euphrates; on the fouth, by mount Taurus, which fe¬
parated it from Cilicia ; on the weft and north, by a
long chain of mountains called in different places Monr
Scordifcus, Amanus, and Antitaurus, by which it was.
feparated from Cappadocia.
Whence this tract received the name of Armenia is
not determined. The Greeks fuppofe it to be fo called
from one Armenia, who attended Jafon in the Argo-
nautic expedition, and afterwards fettled in this coun¬
try. Others, transforming Armenia into Aramia, de¬
rive its name from Aram the fon of Shem, or from one
of the kings of Armenia bearing that name. Bochart
imagines it to be a contradtion or compound of Aar,,
a Hebrew word fignifying a mountain, and Mini fig- .
nifying metal, and which was the name of a province
of Armenia mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah.
Herodotus derives the ancient Armenians- from the
Phrygians, by reafon that feveral Phrygian words were •
crept into the ancient Armenian language. But Strabo
reckons them to have been originally Syrians, which
Bochart looks upon to be the moft probable opinion.
Armenia is faid to have been very early advanced to
the honour of a kingdom. Berofus makes one Sytha
the firft founder of this monarchy, whofe fucceffor Bar-
danes, he fays, was driven out by Ninus king of Af-
fyria. Plutarch mentions one Araxes king of Armenia,,
who in a war with the Perfians, being affured of fuc-
cefs by an oracle, provided he facrifieed his two daugh¬
ters, caufed the two daughters of one Miefalcus, a no¬
bleman of his court, to be facrificed in their (lead,
flattering himfelf that he thereby complied with the
oracle. But Miefalcus did not fail to revenge the death
of his own daughters by putting the king’s two daugh¬
ters to death, and purfued himfelf fo ciofely, that he
was drowned in attempting to fwim acrofs the Araxes,
which was then called Helmus.
The Armenians were in procefs of time fubdued by
the Medes, to whom Aftyages made them tributaries,
but allowed them to be governed by their own kings ;
but on the diffolution of the Median empire by Cyrus,
the kingdom was reduced to the form of a province;
and they were governed by Perfian prefects or lieute¬
nants.
ARM [ ] ARM
Armenia, nants. On the deftru&ion of the Perfian empire by
~~ Alexander the Great, Armenia fell into the hands of
the Macedonians; to whom it continued fubject till the
beginning of the reign of Antiochus the Great. This
prince having appointed two prefedhs called Zadriades
and Artaxias to govern Armenia, they excited the peo¬
ple to a revolt, and caufed themfelves to be proclaim¬
ed kings of the provinces over which they prefided.
Antiochus being then very young, they were attended
with fuccefs beyond their expedfation ; which encou¬
raged them to attempt the enlargement of their terri¬
tories. Accordingly, invading the neighbouring coun¬
tries, they took from the Medes the provinces of Caf-
piana, Phaunitis, and Baforopida ; from the Iberians,
Chorzena and Gogorena on the other fide of the Cy¬
rus ; from the Chalybes and Moffynseci, the provin¬
ces of Pareneta and Herexena, which bordered on Ar¬
menia Minor.
On this occafion, the abovementioned divifion of the
kingdom into Armenia Major and Minor firft took
place. Artaxias became king of Armenia Major, and
Zadriades of Armenia Minor; and this diftindfion fub-
fifts even at this day.
By whom Artaxias was fucceeded is n6t known ;
neither have we any account of the tranfadlions of his
reign, farther than that Antiochus led a powerful army
again ft him and Zadriades, but without being able to
recover a fingle province. Upon this, he concluded a
peace, defigning to fall upon them at a proper oppor¬
tunity; but they having entered into alliance with the
Romans, by that means fecured themfelves in the pof-
feffion of their kingdom. After this, Artaxias was de¬
feated and taken prifoner by Antiochus Epiphanes ;
but, fome how or other, feems to have been reftored
to his kingdom.
From this time we meet with a chafm in the Arme¬
nian hiftory for 70 years ; during which all we know
is, that Tigranes, the king’s fon, was delivered up as
an hoftage to the Parthians; from whence it is plain,
that the Armenians had been carrying on an unfuc-
cefsful war with that nation. On the news of his fa¬
ther’s death, however, the Parthians fet the young
king at liberty, having firft obliged him to give up a
conliderable part of his kingdom by way of ranfom.
Tigranes, being thus reftbred to his father’s king¬
dom, was prevailed upon in the beginning of his reign
to enter into an alliance with Mithridates Eupator a-
gainft the Romans, whofe power began to give jealoufy
to all the princes of Afia. One or the articles of this
treaty was, that Mithridates fhould have the cities and
conquered countries, and Tigranes the captives and
plunder. In confequence of this, Tigranes was to in¬
vade Cappadocia, which he had lately been obliged,
by a decree of the fenate of Rome, to give up to
Ariobarzanes. But before either of the princes took
the field, a marriage wras folemnized with all poffible
magnificence between Tigranes and Cleopatra the
daughter of Mithridates.
Immediately after the nuptials, Tigranes fet out on
his intended expedition; and Ariobarzanes, on the firft
news of his march, abandoned his kingdom and fled to
Rome. Thus Tigranes, without fighting a ftroke,
enriched himfelf with the booty, and then proclaimed
Ariarathes, Mithridates’s fon, king of Cappadocia, to
the univerfal fatisfadtion of the people.
In the mean time the Syrians, being harrafled with Armenia.,
along and inteftine war of the Seleucidse, invitedTi-
granes to come and take pofieffion of their country;
which he accordingly did, and kept it for 18 years, till
he was driven out by Pompey, and Syria reduced to
the form of a Roman province. Encouraged by this
fuccefs, he next invaded Armenia Minor; defeated and
killed king Artanes, who oppofed him witMfe confi-
derable army; and in one campaign made himfelf mafter
of the whole kingdom. From Armenia Minor he
marched againft the Afiatic Greeks, the Adiabenians,
the Aflyrians, and the Gordians, carrying all Before
him, and obliging the people wdierever he came to
acknowledge him fovereign. From this fecond expe¬
dition he returned home loaded with booty, which he
foon after increafed by the fpoils of Cappadocia, inva¬
ding that kingdom a fecond time at the inftance of
Mithridates, who had been obliged by the Romans to
withdraw his forces from thence. From Cappadocia
Tigranes, befides other booty, brought back into Ar¬
menia no fewerthan 300,000 captives, having furroun-
ded the country with his numerous forces in fuch a man¬
ner that none could efcape. Thefe, together with the
prifoners he had taken in his two firft expeditions, he
employed in building the city of Tigranocerta, which
they afterwards peopled.
In the mean time Mithridates, who had concluded
a peace with the Romans for no other end than to gain
time, fent a folemn embafly to Tigranes, inviting him
to enter into a fecond alliance againft the common
enemy. This he at firft declined; but in the end was
prevailed upon by his wife Cleopatra to fend him con-
fiderable fupplies, though he never came heartily into
the war, not caring to provoke the Romans, who on
their part kept fair with him, taking no notice for the
prefent of the fupplies he had fent Mithridates. That
unfortunate prince, being foon after defeated by Lu-
cullus, was forced to fly for {helter into Armenia, where
he met with a very cold reception from his fon-in-law,
who would neither fee him, treat with him, nor own
him as his relation : however, he promifed to prote<9: his
perfon, and allowed hi n in one of his caftles a princely
retinue, and a table fuitable to his former condition.
Though this total overthrow of Mithridates might
have opened the eyes of Tigranes, and made him oppofe
with all his might the growing power of the Romans,
he foolifhly left them to fini/h their conqueft of Pon-
tus, while he marched at the head of a very numerous
army againft the Parthians, with a defign to recover
from them the dominions they had formerly extorted
from him before they fet him at liberty. Thefe he
eafily retook; and, not fatisfied with what formerly be¬
longed: to him, he added to them all Mefopotamia, the
countries that lay about Ninus and Arbela, and the
fruitful province of Migdonia ; the Parthians, tho*
at that time a mighty people, Hying every where be¬
fore him. From Mefopotamia Tigranes marched into
Syria to quell a rebellion which had been railed by
Cleopatra furnamed Selene, who, after the death of her
huftiand Antiochus Pius, reigned jointly with her fons
in that part of Syria which Tigranes had not feized on.
The malcontents were quickly reduced; and the queen
herfelf was taken prifoner, and confined to the caftle of
Seleucia, where {he was foon after put to death by the
king’s order. From Syria Tigranes pafled into Phos«
ARM [ 693 ] ARM
Armenia, nice, which he* fubdued either entirely or in great
part, fpreading far and wide the terror of his arms,
infomuch that all the princes of Afia, except thofe
who were in alliance with the Romans, either in per-
fon, or by their deputies, fubmitted and paid homage
to the conqueror.
The king, having now fubdued all Syria to the
borders of Egypt, and being elated with a long courfe
of victories and profperous events, began to look upon
himfelf as far above the level of other crowned heads.
He aflumed the title of King of kings, and had many
kings waiting upon him as menial fervants. He ne¬
ver appeared on horfeback without the attendance of
four kings drefled in livery, who run by his horfe;
and when he gave anfwers to the nations that applied
to him, the ambaffadors ftood on either fide the throne
with their hands clafped together, that attitude being
of all others then accounted among the orientals the
greateft acknowledgment of vaffalage and fervitude.
In the midft of all this haughtinefs, however,. he was
unexpe&edly vilited by an ambaffador from Lucullus
the Roman general, who without any ceremony told
him, that he was come to demand Mithridates king of
Pontus, who had taken refuge in his dominions, and,
in cafe of his refufal, to declare war againft him. Not-
withftanding his high opinion of himfelf, Tigranes re¬
turned a mild anfwer to this meffage: in which, how¬
ever, he refufed to deliver up his father-in law ; and
being highly provoked at Lucullus for not giving him
the title of King of kings in his letter, he did not fo
much as bellow upon him the title of general, in his
anfwer. In the mean time, being informed that Zar-
bienus king of the Gordians had entered into a pri¬
vate alliance with the Romans, he put him, his wife,
and children, to death; and then, returning into Arme¬
nia, received with the greateft pomp imaginable his
father-in-law'Mithridates, whom to that time he had
not admitted into his prefence, though he had refided
a year and eight months in his dominions. They had
feveral private conferences; and at laft Mithridates was
fent back to Pontus with 10,000 horfe, to raife there
what difturbances he could.
Lucullus, on the other hand, hearing the king’s re-
folution to protedl Mithridates, immediately began his
march for Armenia, at the head of only two legions of
foot and 3000 horfe, having left 6000 men in Pontus
to keep that country quiet. Having palled the Eu¬
phrates without oppofition, he detached two parties;
one to befiege a city where he heard that Tigranes’s
treafure and concubines were kept; and the other un¬
der Sextilius, to block up Tigranocerta, in order to
draw the king to a battle. But Tigranes, after ha¬
ving put to death the fcout that brought him the firft
intelligence of the approach of the Romans, made to¬
wards Mount Taurus, which he had appointed for the
place of the general rendezvous. The Roman general
then difpatched Murasna in purfuit of the king ; who
having overtaken him in a narrow pafs, defeated him,
and, befides all the baggage, carried off a great many
prifoners, the king himfelf having fled in the beginning
of the Ikirmifh. After this, he fent out feveral parties
to fcour the country, in order to prevent the innumer¬
able forces of Tigranes from joining into one body.
This, however, he was not able to effeft: Tigranes
was joined by fuch numbers of Gordians, Medes, A-
VOL. I.
diabenians, Albanians, Iberians, &c. that, before he Armenh.
left Mount Taurus, his army confifted, according to “
Plutarch, of 150,000 foot armed cap-a-pee, 35,000
pioneers, 20,000 archers and flingers, and 55,000
horfe.
Lucullus was fo far from being difmayed at this
formidable army, that the only fear he had was left
the king Ihould follow the advice of Mithridates, which
was not to engage the Romans, but, by ravaging the
country, diftrefs them for want of provifions. In or¬
der to draw him to a battle, therefore, he formed the
liege of Tigranocerta, imagining that Tigranes would
never fuffer that fine city to be taken without making
any attempt to relieve it. The event fully anfwered his
expeditions: Tigranes having called a council of war,
it was unanimoufly refolved to attack the Romans;
and Taxiles, whom Mithridates fent to diffuade the
king from venturing a battle, was in danger of lofing
his head on account of the advice he gave.. The Ro¬
man general, finding Tigranes difpofed to come to an
engagement, left Mursena with 6000 men to carry on
the fiege, while he himfelf marched againft the king’s
vaft army with only 10,000 men, according to fome,
and the bigheft computations make them no more than
18,000. The Romans were at firft greatly dilheartened;
but being encouraged by Lucullus, they immediately
broke the Armenian army, who betook themfelves to
flight almoft at the firft onfet. The Romans purfued
them till night, making a moft terrible flaughter.
Plutarch informs us, that of the Armenians 100,000
foot were killed, and that very few of the cavalry e-
fcaped; whereas of the Romans only five men were
killed, and 100 wounded. Antiochus the philofopher,
mentioning this battle, fays, that the fun never beheld
the like ; and Livy, that the Romans never fought at
fuch a difadvantage ; the conquerors not amounting to
a twentieth part of the conquered. Tigranes in his
flight having met with his fon in as forlorn a condition
as himfelf, refigned to him his royal robes and diadem,
defiring him to fhift for himfelf and fave thofe royal
enfigns. The young prince delivered them to a trufty
friend, who, being taken by the Romans, configned
them to Lucullus.
While the king was making his efcape after this ter¬
rible overthrow, he was met by Mithridates, who was
marching to his affiftance at the head of a confiderable
army. The king of Pontus cheered up his fon-in-law
as well as he could, and encouraged him to continue
the war; advifing him, inftead of fruitlefsly bewailing
the prefent difafter, to rally his troops, raife new fup-
plies, and renew the war, not queftioning but that in
another campaign he might repair all the Ioffes he had
fuftained : but while the two kings were confulting
upon thefe matters, Lucullus made himfelf mailer of
Tigranocerta. From this cityhemarched into the fmall
kingdom of Gordyene, wdiere he celebrated, with the
utmoft pomp, the obfcquies of king Zarbienus, whom
Tigranes had put to death, lighting the funeral pile
with his own hands. In this kingdom, befides im~
menfe fums of gold and filver, he met with fuch ftore
of provifions as enabled him to carry on the war without
putting the republic to any charge.
The two kings, having levied new forces, appointed
their troops to rendezvous in the fpacious plains on the
other fide of Mount Taurus; whereupon Lucullus, lea-
4 S ving
ARM [ 694 ] ARM
Armenia, vlng Gordyene, and pafllng by Mount Taurus, eri-
' camped clofe by the enemy. Several Ikirmilhes hap¬
pened for fome time between the two armies without
any confiderable advantage ; but Lucullus could by no
means draw them to a general engagement. Upon this,
he decamped, as if hedefignedto march to Artaxata
and lay fiege to that place, where Tigranes had left
his wife and children, with great part of his treafures.
He had fcarce formed his camp when the enemy ap¬
peared, and fat down clofe by him. Lucullus did not
allow them to fortify their camp, but immediately at¬
tacked them, and having put them to flight after a
faint refiftance, purfued them all night with great
flaughter, took moll of the chief officers prifoners,
and returned the next day loaded with booty.
The Roman foldiers now, finding the cold very fe-
vere, though it was no later in the year than the au¬
tumnal equinox, requefted their general to allow them
to retire into winter-quarters. This requeft he rejefted
with indignation ; upon which they mutinied. Lu¬
cullus did all he could to perfuade them to continue in
their duty, and prevailed fo far that they confented to
lay fiege to Nifibis in hopes of booty. This place they
took; and Lucullus, to the great fatisfaftion of his
troops, took up his winter-quarters there. The next
year, however, his forces again mutinied, accufing
him of amaffing immenfe wealth for himftif, and
throwing their empty purfes at his feet, told him, that
as he enriched himfelf alone, he might carry on the
war by himfelf. He endeavoured to appeafe them as
much as poffible ; but the feditkm being fomented by
a party who favoured Pompey the great, at that time
afpiring to the command of Lucullus’ army, the latter
found himfelf obliged to fit ftill and fee Mithridates and
Tigranes over-run Cappadocia, and recover all Armenia
and great part of Pontus. They would have gained
much greater advantages, had not a fon of Tigranes
taken arms againft his father, and obliged him to di¬
vide his troops. The father and fon coming to a
pitched battle, the latter was defeated, and forced to
Save himfelf in Parthia, where he perfuaded Phrahates,
king of that country, to affift him with a numerous
army againft his father. Phrahates having laid fiege
to Artaxata, Tigranes the elder was obliged to hide
himfelf in the mountainous parts of his kingdom ; upon
which the king of Parthia returned home. Of this
Tigranes the father being apprifed, he immediately
abandoned the faftneffesof the mountains; and, falling
upon his fon at Artaxata, difperfed the rebels with
great daughter, and entered his metropolis in triumph.
Tigranes the fon fled firft to Mithridates ; but finding
him reduced to great ftraits, having been overcome a
few days before, with the lofs of 40,000 men, by Pom¬
pey, he went over to the Romans, and led them into
Armenia againft his father as an ally of Mithridates.
Tigranes, being now quite difpirited, and unable to
make head againft the Romans, refolved at once to
fubmit. Accordingly he waited on Pompey in his
camp, and having delivered his fword to two li<ftors,
proftrated himfelf before him,, and laid his diadem at
his feet. Pompey, however, gave him a gracious re¬
ception, reftored him the kingdom of Armenia, but
fined him of 6000 talents for making war on the Ro¬
man people without caufe. As the king had appealed
lo the Roman general for juftice againft his fon, Pom¬
pey heard both parties the next day, and made the fon Armenia,
governor of Gordyene and Sophene ; but the treafures ”
that were kept in the latter he adjudged to the father,
becaufe without them he could not pay the fine. The
fon, being thusdifappointed, endeavoured firft to make
his efcape, and afterwards, by private meffengers, fo-
licited the inhabitants not to deliver up the treafures to
his father. This being taken very much amifs by
Pompey, he caufed him to be kept in irons; and even
then he found means to ftir up Phrahates^king of Par¬
thia, \Vhofe daughter he had married, againft the Ro¬
mans, and to form a confpiracy againft his father’s life;
whereupon Pompey fent him in chains to Rome, where
he was kept prifoner in the houfe of L. Flavius a fe-
nator, till the tribunefhip of P. Clodius, who, being
bribed with a large fum of money, fet him at liberty
in fpite of Pompey and the fenate.
Tigranes being now thoroughly humbled, willingly
yielded to the Romans Cappadocia, Syria, Cilicia,
and that part of Phoenice which he pofiefled, content¬
ing himfelf with his paternal kingdom; and not only
paid the fine laid upon him, but made large prefents
to Pompey, and all the officers of his army, which
procured him the title of the friend and ally of the Ro¬
man people. He afterwards entered into a war with
Phrahates king of Parthia, by whom he was overcome,
and would have been driven out of his kingdom, had
not a peace been brought about by the mediation of
Pompey. Fie ever after cultivated a ftriift friendlhip
with the Romans ; infomuch that lie not only refufed
to receive Mithridates, who fled to him after he had
been routed by Pompey near Mount Stella, but even
offered a reward of 100 talents to any one that would
put him to death. His fecond fon alfo, by name Sa-
riafter, took up arms againft him ; but, by the affiftance
of the Romans, that rebellion was foon quelled. He
died in the 85th year of his age; and was fucceeded by
his fon Artuafdes, called by Jofephus Artabazes, by
Orofius Artabanes, and by others Artoadijles.
From this time to the time of Trajan Armenia was
governed by its own kings ; but as they were plainly
vaffals to the Romans, though they did not take that
title till the reign of the emperor Nero, their hiftory falls
to be confidered under that of the Romans.
By Trajan the kingdom of Armenia Major was re¬
duced to the form of a Roman province; but it foon
recovered its liberty, and was again governed by its
own kings in the reigns of Conftantine the Great, and
his fucceffor, to whom the kings of Armenia were feu¬
datories. In the reign of Juftm II. the Saracens fub-
dued and held it till the irruption of the Turks, who
poffcffed themfelves of this kingdom, and gave it the
name of Turcomania. The Turks, after the reduction
of Armenia, invaded Perfia, and other countries fub-
je& to the emperors of the eaft ; which gave the Ar¬
menians an opportunity of ftiaking off the Turkifh
yoke, and fetting up kings of their own, by whom
they were governed till the country was again fubdued
by Occadan, or, as fome ttyle him, Heceata, the fon
of Cingis, and firft cham of the Tartars. Neither was
tlieconqueft of Armenia by the Tartars fo abfolute as
to extirpate the race of their kings ; feeing we read of
Haithon, furnamed the Armenian, reigning fome time
after, and going in.perfon to treat with Mongo, the
great cham of Tartary, of the concerns of his king ¬
dom £
ARM [ 695 J ARM
Armenia, dom ; and in our chronicles we find mention made of
" - Leo king of Armenia, who, in the reign of Richard II.
came into England to fue for aid againft the Turks, by
whom he had been driven from his kingdom. In the
year 1472 of the Chriftian aera, Uflan Caflanes king of
Armenia fuceeeding to the crown of Perfia, made Ar¬
menia a province of that empire ; in which ftate it con¬
tinued till the year 1522, when it was fubdued by Se¬
lim II. and made a province of the Turkilh empire.
Some fay, that Selim T reduced it on his return from
Perfia, where he had gained a complete victory over
the great Sophi Ifmael. But Sanfovin aflures us, that
in the reign of Selim I. who died in 1520, both the
Leffer and Greater Armenia had their own kings; -and
adds, that Selim caufed the head of the king of the
Leffer Armenia to be cut off and fent to Venice, as a
mark of his viftory. We read no where elfe of any
kings of Armenia after it became a province of Perfia.
Be that as it will, the Turkilh annals cited by Calvi-
fius inform us, that Selim II. conquered Armenia in
1522, fince which time it has ever continued fubjedt to
the Turks, except the eaftern part, which the Perfians
are mailers of to this day.
Concerning Armenia Minor we find very little re¬
corded, except what has been already mentioned, and
what falls under the Roman hiftory. It was made a
Roman province by Vefpafian, continued fo till the
divifion of the empire, when it was fubjedled to the
emperors of the eaft; and, on the decline of their power,
was fubdued firft by the Perfians, and afterwards by
the Turks, who gave it the name of Genech, and have
kept it ever fince.
This country is ftill divided into the Great and Small.
Great Armenia comprehends what is now called Tur-
eomania. It has Georgia on the north, frdm which
it is feparated by high mountains ; the river Euphra¬
tes on the weft ; Diarbeker, Curdiftan, and Aderbi-
jan, on the fouth ; and Shirvan on the eaft. The chief
towns in that part of Armenia belonging to Turky are,
Arzum the capital, near the fprings of the Euphrates,
a large city, and a great thoroughfare for the caravans
between Turky and Perfia; Kara, a ftrong city, head
of the government of the fame name ; Bayazid, a re¬
public of Hurds, near mount Ararat ; Baha, another
republic of the fame ; and Van or Wan, on the lake
Van, the head of a government of the fame name; with
other towns of lefs note. That part of Armenia fub-
jedl to Perfia is chiefly contained in the province of
Aran, in which are feveral fine towns; as, Erivan or
Rivarr, the capital of the whole ; Ganjals, one of the
fineft cities in Perfia, in the north of the province,
near the Kur; Kapan, on the fouth fide, near the Aras ;
befides Nakchivan, Aftabad Julfa, Ordabad, Baylakan
or Pilkan, on the Aras; Berdah and Shilkah on the
Kur.
The country in general is full of mountains and val¬
leys, lakes, and rivers; particularly the country about
the three churches, near Erivan, is admirably fine, being
full of rivulets, which render it extremely fruitful.
Befides great quantities of all forts of grain, here are
fields of a prodigious extent covered with tobacco :
but it is not a native of the place, though fuppofed
by fome to be the terreftial paradife ; for it all came
originally from America. The reft of the country pro¬
duces rice, cotton, flax, melons, and grapes • in Ihort,
there is nothing wanting but olives; which is by fome
thought to prove that the ark could not reft on mount
Ararat, becaufe the dove brought an olive-branch in
her mouth, and this tree never leaves a place where it
once grew. It feems, however, to have been otherwife
anciently ; for Strabo tells us, that the olive grew in
Gogarene, a province of Armenia. They get oil to
burn from the ricinus, and ufe linfeed-oil in the kit*
chen. The water-melons are as cool as ice in the hot-
teft day, and melt in the mouth; the beft are produ¬
ced in the falt-lands, near the three churches and the
river Aras. After rain, the fea-falt lies in cryftals up¬
on the fields, and even crackles under the feet. About
ten miles from the three churches, in the road to Tef-
lis, there are pits or quarries of foffile fait, which yield
enough to fupply all Perfia, without being exhaufted;
they cut it into large pieces like ftone, and each buf¬
falo carries two of them ; the mountain from whence
it is dug is nothing but a mafs of fait, which appears
like a rock of filver, when the fun ftiines, on the places
not covered with earth.
This country has been remarkable for its extreme
cold from the remoteft antiquity: Sir John Chardin tells
us, that he found ice in the rivulets in the mornings
even of the month of July. In many places, alfo, if
they had not the convenience of watering their grounds,
they would be almoft entirely barren.
The Armenians are an honeft, civil, .polite people,
fcarce troubling themfelves about any thing elfe but
trade, which they carry on in moft parts of the world,
by which means they have fpread themfelves over the
eaft, and alfo great part of Europe; and wherever they
come, commerce is carried on with fpirit and advan-
tagc*
The religion of the Armenians is the Chriftian, of
the Eutychian fe£l: that is, they own but one nature
in Jefus Chrift ; andwhen they fpeak of the hypoftati-
cal union, that he is perfefl God and perfect man with¬
out mixture. They have a high efteem for a bobk they
call the Little Gofpely which treats of the infancy of
Jefus, and fays that the Virgin Mary being pregnant,
her fifter Salome accufedher of having proftitutedher-
felf; to which the Virgin anfwered, that Ihe needed
only to lay her hand on her belly, and ihe would know
how Are came to be with child: this Salome accord¬
ingly did, and fire came out of her belly, which con-
fumed the half her arm ; upon which fire acknow¬
ledged her fault, and drew it back: after which it was
healed by putting it to the fame place.
The Armenian clergy confift of patriarchs, arch-
bilhops, doftors, fecular priefts, and monks. The
fecular priefts are not allowed to marry a fecond time ;
and therefore they take care to chufe young heal¬
thy wives: they maintain themfelves, and families by
following fome occupation, infomuch that they have
hardly time to perform their ecclefiaftical functions :
they lie in the churches on the vigils of thofe days they
are obliged to officiate.
The Armenian monks are of the order of St Bafil;
and every Wednefday and Friday they eat neither fifh,
nor eggs, nor oil, nor any thing made of milk, and
during Lent they live upon nothing but roots : they
are allowed wine only on the Saturday in the Holy
Week, and meat on the Eafter Sunday. Befides the
great Lent, they have four others of eight days each,
4 S 2 which
ARM L 696 ] ARM
Ai-menia which are inftituted to prepare for the four great fefti-
ii vals of the Nativity, the Afcenfion, the Annunciation,
rmcnns. gt Qeorge|. ;n which times they mult not fo
much as fpeak of eggs, fifli, oil, or butter.
The Armenians have feven facraments; baptifm, con¬
firmation, penance, the eucharift, extreme unftion, or¬
ders, and matrimony. In baptifm, the child is plun¬
ged three times into the water, and the fame form of
words that is ufed with us is repeated every time ; the
prieft then puts a fmall cord made with filk and cotton
on the neck of the infant, and anoints kis forehead,
chin, ftomach, arm-pits, hands, and feet, making the
fign of the crofs on each part. When the child is
baptized, he is carried home by the godfather with the
found of drums and trumpets. The women do not go
to church till forty days after their delivery ; and they
obferve many Jewifh cuftoms.
At the communion, to which infants of two or three
months old are admitted, the priefts give a piece of the
confecrated hoft, foaked in the confecrated wine. The
elements are covered with a great veil, and placed in a
cup-board near the altar, on the fide of the gofpels.
When the prieft takes the chalice and pattin, he is fol¬
lowed by his deacons, and fubdeacons, with flambeaux
and plates of Copper furnifhed with bells: in this man¬
ner, with a cenfer before him, he goes in proceflion
round the fanftuary; he then fets them on the altar,
pronounces the words of confecration, and turns him-
felf to the people, who fall down, kifs the earth, and
beat their breafts: then, after taking it himfelf, he
diftributes the hoft foaked in wine to the people.
The Armenians feem to place the chief part of their
religion in fallings and abftinences: and among the
clergy, the higher the degree, the lower they mull
live ; infomuch that it is faid the archbilhops live on
nothing but pulfe. They confecrate holy water but
once a year, at which time every one fills a pot and
carries it home, which brings in a confiderable revenue
to the church.
ARMENIACA. See Prunus.
ARMENIAN, fomething belonging to or produ¬
ced in Armenia : thus, we fay, Armenian bole, Arme¬
nian Jione, <bc. See Bole, and Armenus Lapis.
ARMENTIERS, a fmall handfome town of the
Netherlands, in the county of Flanders, and diftridt
of Ypres. It was taken by Lewis XIV. in 1667, who
difmantled it; and it now belongs to the French. It
is feated on the river Lis. E. Long. 3. 3. N. Lat. 50.
~ 40.
ARMENUS lapis, ArmenianJlone, in natural hi-
ftory, a mineral fubftance, which is but improperly call¬
ed a Jloneij being no other than an ochreous earth, and
properly called blue ochre. It is a very valuable fub¬
ftance in painting, being a bright and lively blue. It
was in fo high efteem as a paint among the ancients, that
counterfeits were continually attempted to ferve in its
place. Theophraftus has recorded it as a thing judged
worthy a place in the Egyptian annals, which of their
kings had the honour of inventing the factitious kind;
and he tells us the genuine native fubftance was a thing
of that value, that prefents were made of it to great
perfons, and that the Phoenicians paid their tribute in
it.— It is a very beautiful earth, of an even and regu¬
lar texture; and of a fine blue, fometimes deeper, fome-
tiraes paler, and frequently mixed with green.. It is
foft, tender, and light; of an even, but fomewhat dufty, Amiers
furface ; it adheres firmly to the tongue, and is dry, jJ_
but not harlh to the touch. .It eafily breaks between Armiruans-
the fingers, and does not ftain the hands. It is of a
brackifti difagreeable tafte, and does not ferment with
acids. It is a very fcarce foffil; but is found very pure,
though in but fmall quantities, in the mines at Gofle-
laer in Saxony. It is frequently found fpotted with
green, and fometimes with black; and very often is
mixed among the green ochre, called berggruen by the
Germans, which has thence been erroneoufly called by
its name. See further the article Bice.
AMIERS, a town of Hainhault, in the French Ne¬
therlands, feated on the river Samber. E. Lon. 3. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 15.
ARMIGER, a title of dignity, belonging to fuch
gentlemen as bear arms : and thefe are either by cur-
tefy, as fons of noblemen, eldeft fons of knights, &c.;
or by creation, fuch as the king’s fervants, &c. Sec
Esquire.
ARMILLARY, in a general fenfe, fomething con¬
fining of rings or circles.
Armillary Sphere^ an artificial fphere compofed of
a number of circles of the mundane fphere, put toge¬
ther in their natural order, to eafe and afiift the ima¬
gination in conceiving the conftitution of the heavens,
and the motions of the celeftial bodies. The armillary
fphere revolves upon its axis within a filvered horizon,
which is divided into degrees, and moveable every way
upon a brafs fupporter. The other parts are the equi-
noftial, zodiac, meridian, the two tropics, and the two
polar circles. See Geography.
ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman antiquity, a feaft
held among the Romans, in which they facrificed arm¬
ed, to the found of trumpets.
ARMINIANS, a religious fe£t, or party, which a-
rofe in Holland, by a feparation from the Calvinifts^
They followed the do&rine of Arminius, (fee the next
Article) ; who, thinking the do&rine of Calvin, with
regard to free-will, predeftination, and grace, too fe-
vere, returned to that of the Romifh church, and main¬
tained, that there is an univerfal grace given to all men,,
and that man is always free and at liberty to receive
or reject grace. His colleague Gomarus, profeflbr of
divinity in the fame univerfity, ftrenuoufly oppofed
him; and flood up for a particular or fpecial grace
given only to thofe who were predeftinated or eledl,,
and for a pofitive decree both of election and reproba¬
tion. At length the difpute was brought before the
fynod of Dort, where Arminianifm was condemned in
form. Neverthelefs it continued to fpread, and the re¬
public of Holland was once in danger of being over¬
turned by it.
The Arminians are likewife called Remonjlrants,
from a remonftrance which they prefented to the States-
General in 1611, in which were laid down the chief
articles of their faith.
The later Arminians have carried things much far¬
ther than Arminius himfelf, and fome of them even
come very near to Socinianifm. In general, they deny,
that authority is any proof of the truth of a doctrine;
and, on this principle,they retrench abundance of things
which have been looked upon as fundamental articles
of religion. Many of them have quitted the do&rine
of their mafter relating to the points of eternal elec-
ARM
Arminius -t!on and reprobation : for Epifcopius lays it down,
Ari-iro that God eledts no perfon from all eternity, but only
. ~ at the time when he is actually a believer. They fpeak
very ambiguoufly of the prefcience of God, which was
the principal ftrong hold of Arminius. They look on
the dodlrine of the Trinity as a point not neceffary to
falvation ; and they generally avoid the term fatisfac*
tion of Chriji. They contend for a general toleration
of all thofe who profefs the Chriftian religion.
ARMINIUS (James), whofe real name in Low
Dutch was James Harmanni, a famous Proteftant divine,
from whom the modern fedt of Arminians * take their
name, was born at Oude-water, in Holland, in 1560.
He was ordained minifter at Amfterdam, on the iich
t 697 ]
Arm
See the
preceding
ky, feated on the Gulph de Velo. E. Long. 23. 40. -A1-1
N. Lat. 38. 34.
ARMISTICE, in military affairs, a temporary truce
or ceffation of arms for a very fhort fpace of time. The
word is Latin, armijlitium ; and compounded of armat
arms, and Jio, to ftand, or flop.
ARMOISIN, a lilk fluff, or kind of taffety, manu-
fadlured in the Eaft Indies, at Lyons in France, and
at Lucca in Italy. That of the Indies is flighter than
thofe made in Europe.
ARMONIAC See Ammoniac.
ARMORIAL, fomething relating to arms or coat*
of arms. See Arms.
ARMORIC, or Aremoric, fomething that belongs
of Auguft, 1588; when he foon diftinguifhed himfelf to the province of Bretagne, or Britanny, in France,
by his fermons, which were remarkable for their foli- The name Armorica was anciently given to all the nor-
dity and learning, and gained him univerfal applaufe: them and weftern coaft of Gaul, from the Pyreneans
but Martin Lydias, profeffor of divinity at Franker, to the Rhine; under which name it was known even in
judging him a fit perfon to refute a writing in which Casfar’s time. The word is of Bas Breton origin, and
Beza’s dodlrine of predeftination had been attacked by denotes as much as maritime; compounded, according
fome minifters of Delft, Arminius at his intreaties un- to M. Menage, of ar, upon, and more, fea.
dertook the tafk ; but upon thoroughly examining the
reafons on both fides, he came into the opinions he pro-
pofed to deltroy, and afterwards went Hill farther than
the minifters. of Delft had done. In 1600, he oppofed
thofe who maintained that minifters fhould fubfcribe
the confeffion and catechifm every year. In 1602, a
peftilential difeafe raged at Amfterdam, during which
he afted with the greateft refolution and courage, in af-
fifting the poor, and comforting the fick ; and Lucas
ARMORIST, a perfon fkilled in the knowledge
of armory.
ARMORY, a warehoufe of arms, or a place where
the military habiliments are kept to be ready for ufe.
Armory is alfo a branch of the fcience of heraldry,
coniifting in the knowledge of coats of arms, as to their
blazons and various intendments. See Heraldry.
ARMOUR denotes fuch habiliments as ferve to de¬
fend the body from wounds, efpecially of darts, a fword.
Trelcatius and Francis Junius dying of that difeafe at a lance, &c. A complete fuit of armour formerly con-
Leyden, the curators of that univerfity chofe Armi-
nius profeflor of divinity there, and he was after¬
wards made dodlor of divinity. Difputes upon grace
were foon after kindled in that univerftty ; and he was
at length engaged in a new conteft, occafioned by a
difputation of his concerning the divinity of the Son.
Thefe contefts, his continual labour, and the concern.
fifted of a helmet, a ihield, a cuiraffe, a coat of mail,
a gauntlet, &c. all now laid afide.
ARMOURER, a perfon who makes or deals in
arms and armour.
ARMOZA, or Harmozia, a town in Carmania,
at the mouth of the Anamis, which falls into the Per-
fian Gulf, (Arrian); (Ptolemy); and from
of feeing his reputation blafted by a multitude of flan- this the neighbouring ifland, and a fmall kingdom, take
ders in relation to his opinions, impaired his health, and the modern name of Ormus* E. Long. 56. 17. N. Lat.
threw him into a fit of ficknefs, of which he died on 27. 20.
the 19th of Odlober, 1609. ARMS, in a general fenfe, all kinds of weapons,
Arminius was efteemed an excellent preacher : his whether offenfive or defenfive.
voice was low, but very agreeable ; and his pronun- Arms, in a legal fenfe, extend to any thing a per-
ciation admirable: he was eafy and affable to perfons fon wears for his own defence, or takes in his hand,
of all ranks, and facetious in his converfation amongft and ufes in anger, to ftrike or throw at another,
his friends. His great defire was, that Chriftianswould Arms, ox Armories, in heraldry, fignify marks of *
bear with one another in all controverfies which did not honour borne upon fhields, banners, and coats, in order •
affedl the fundamentals of their religion ; and when to diftinguifti kingdoms, ftates, families, and perfons *. * See
they perfecuted each other for points of indifference. Charged Arms are, fuch as retain their ancient in- rMrj
it gave him the utmoft diffatisfa&ion. The curators tegrity, with the addition of fome new honourable °^aP*
of the univerfity of Leyden had fo great a regard for bearing.
him, that they fettled a penfion upon his wife and chil- Canting ox Vocal Arms, thofe in which there are
fome figures alluding to the name of the family.
Full or Entire Arms, fuch as retain their primitive
purity, without any alterations or abatements.
Falfe Arms, fuch as are not conformable to the rule*
of heraldry.
Arms, in falconry, imply the legs of a hawk from
the thigh to the foot.
ARMUYDEN, a fea-port town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in the ifland of Walcherin, formerly very flou-
rifhing; but now inconfiderable, the fea having ftopt
up the harbour. The fait-works are its chief refource.
E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 51. 30.
dren.
He left feveral works, viz. 1. Difputationes de di-
verfis Chriftianse religionis capitibus. 2. Orationes, i-
temque tra&atus infigniores aliquot. 3. Examen mo-
defti libelli Gulielmi Perkinfii de praedeftinationis mo-
do et ordine, itemque de amplitudine gratis divinae.
4. Analyfis capitis noni ad Romanos. 5. Differtatio
de vero et genuino fenfu capitis feptimi epiftolae ad
Romanos. 6. Arnica collatio cum D. Franfcifco Ju-
nio de prasdeftinatione perliteras habita. 7. Epiftola
ad Hippolytum a collibus.
ARMIRO, a town of Macedonia, in European Tur-
ARMYj
A R N [ 698 ] A R N
At'tny, ARMY, a large mimber of foldicrs, confiftiBg of
Amall. ]lorfe an(j foot, completely armed, and provided with
artillery, ammunition, provifions, &c. under the com¬
mand of one general, having lieutenant-generals, ma¬
jor-generals, brigadiers, and other officers, under him.
An army is compofed of fquadrons and battalions; and
is ufually divided into three corps, and formed into
three lines : the hrft line is called the van-guard, the
fecond the main-bady, and the third the rear-guard or
body of referve. The middle of each line is pofieffed by
the foot; the cavalry form the right and left wing of each
line ; and fometimes they place fquadrons of horfe in
the intervals between the battalions. When the army
is drawn up in order of battle, the horfe are placed at
five feet diftance from each other, and the foot at threfc.
In each line the battalions are diitant from each other
1 80 feet, which is nearly equal to the extent of their
front; and the fame holds of the fquadrons, which are
about 300 feet diftant, the extent of their own front.
Thefe intervals are left for the fquadrons and battalions
of the fecond line to range themfelves againft the in¬
tervals of the firfh, that both may more readily march
through thefe fpaces to the enemy: the firft line is u-
fually 300 feet difiant from the fecond, and the fecond
from the third, that there may be fufficient room to
* See the ar- rally when the fquadrons and battalions are broken *.
tide War. This is to be underftood of a land-army only. A
naval or fea-army is a number of fliips of w^ar, equip¬
ped and manned with failors and mariners, under the
command of an admiral, with other inferior officers un¬
der him. See Naval Tactics.
Long experience has (hewn, that in Europe a prince
with a million of fubjedts cannot keep an army of above
j 0,000 men, without ruining himfelf. It was other-
wife in the ancient republics : the proportion of fol-
diers to the reft of the people, which is now as about
1 to too, might then be as about 1 to 8. The reafon
feems owing to that equal partition of lands which the
ancient founders of commonwealths made among their
fubjefts; fo that every man had a coniiderable proper¬
ty to defend, and means to defend it with : whereas,
among us, the lands and riches of a nation being fhared
among a few, the reft have no way of fubfifting but by
trades, arts, and the like; and have neither any free pro¬
perty to defend, nor means to enable them to go to war
in defence of it, without ftarving their families. Alarge
part of our people are either artifans orfervants, and fo
only minifter to the luxury and effeminacy of the great.
While the equality of lands fubfifted, Rome, though
only a little ftate, being refufed the fuccours which the
Latins were obliged to furnilh after the taking of the
city in the confulate of Camillas, prefently railed ten
legions within its own walls; which was more, Livy
affures us, than they were able to do in his time, tho’
mailers of the greateft part of the world. A full proof,
adds the hiftorian, that we are not grown ftronger; and
that what fwells our city is only luxury, and the means
and effefts of it.
ARNALL (William), a noted political writer in
defence of Sir Robert Walpole, was originally an at¬
torney’s clerk; but being recommended to Walpole,
he employed him for a courfe of years in writing the
Free Briton and other papers in defence of his admini-
ftration. By the report of the fecret committee, he ap¬
pears to have received, in the fpace of four years, no
lefs than i©,9971 6s. %d. out of the treafury for his Arnaud.
writings! but fpending his money as fall as it came, and -  ——
his fupplies Hopping on Sir Robert’s refignation, he
died broken-hearted and in debt, in the 26th year of
his age. His invention was fo quick, that his honour¬
able employer ufed to fay, no man in England could
write a pamphlet in fo little time as Arnall.
ARNAUD de Meyrveilh, or Mereuil, a poet
of Provence, who lived at the beginning of the
century. He wrote a book intitled Las recajlenas de
fa comtejfe; and a col left ion of poems and fonnets. He
died in the year 1220. Petrarch mentions him in his
Triumph of Love.
Arnaud de Villa Nova, a famous phyfician, who
lived about the end of the 13th and beginning of the
14th century. He ftudied at Paris and Montpelier, and
travelled through Italy and Spain. He was well ac¬
quainted with languages, and particularly with the
Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. He was at great pains
to gratify his ardent defire after knowledge; but this
paffion carried him rather too far in his refearches: he
endeavoured to difcover future events by aftrology, ima¬
gining this fcience to be infallible ; and upon this foun¬
dation he publiihed a prediftion, that the world would
come to an end in the middle of the 14th century. He
pra&ifed phyfic at Paris for fome time: but having ad¬
vanced fome new doftrines, he drew upon himfelf the
refentment of the univerfity ; and his friends, fearing he
might be arrefted, perfuaded him to retire from that
city. Upon his leaving France, he retired to Sicily,
where he was received by king Frederic of Arragon
with the greateft marks of kindnefs and efteem. Some
time afterwards, this prince fent him to France, to at¬
tend pope Clement in an illnefs; and he was ftiipwreck-
ed on the coaft of Genoa, about the year 1313. The
works of Arnaud, with his life prefixed, were printed
in one volume, in folio, at Lyons, in 1520; and at Ba-
fil in 1585, with the notes of Nicholas Tolerus.
Arnaud d’ANDiLLY (Robert), the fon of a cele¬
brated advocate of the parliament of Paris, was born
in 1588; and, being introduced young at court, was
employed in many confiderable offices, all which he dif-
charged with great integrity and reputation. In 1644,
he quitted bufinefs, and retired into the convent of
Port Royal des Champs, where he paffed the remain¬
der of his days in a continued application to works of
piety and devotion; and enriched the French language
with many excellent tranllations of different writers, as
well as with religious compofitions of his own. He
died in 1674, and his works are printed in 8 vols folio.
Arnaud (Anthony), brother of the preceding, and
a doftor of the Sorbonne, was born in 1612. He pu-
blifhed, in 1643, A Treatife on frequent Communion,
which highly difpleafed the Jefuits ; and the difputes
upon grace, which broke out about this time in the u-
niverfity of Paris, and in which he took a zealous part
with the Janfenifts, helped to increafe the animofity be¬
tween him and the Jefuits. But nothing raifed fo great
a clamour againft him, as the two letters he wrote on
Abfolation ; in the fecond of which the faculty of divi¬
nity found two propofitions which they condemned,
and M. Arnaud was expelled the fociety. Upon this
he retired ; and during a retreat which lafted near 25
years, he compofed that great variety of works which
are extant of his, on grammar, geometry, logic, me-
taphyfics,
Arnay
ArJica
A R N [ 699 ] A R N
taphyfics, and theology. In 1679, he withdrew from
France, living in obfeurity in the Netherlands, and
died in 1694. His heart, at his own requeft, was fent
to be depofited in the Port Royal. Arnaud had a re¬
markable llrength of genius, memory, and command of
his pen, nor did thefe decay even to the laft year of his
life. Mr Bayle fays, he had been told by perfons who
had been admitted into his familiar converfation, that
he was a man very fimple in his manners; and that un-
lefs any one propofed fome queftion to him, or defired
fome: information, he faid nothing that was beyond
common converfation, or that might make one take
him for a man of great abilities; but when he fet him-
felf to give an anfwer to fuch as propofed a point of
learning, he feemed as it were transformed into another
man: he would then deliver a multitude of fine things
with great perfpicuity and learning, and had a parti¬
cular talent at making himfelf intelligible to perfons of
not the greateft penetration.
ARNAY-LE-DUC, a town of France, in the duchy
of Burgundy, which carries on a pretty good trade. It
is feated on the Auxois, in a valley near the river A-
roux. E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 47. 7,
ARNDT (John), a famous proteftant divine of Ger¬
many, born at Ballenftad, in the duchy of Anhalt, in
the year 1555. At firft he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of phyfie : but falling into a dangerous ficknefs, he
made a voW to change his profeffion for that of divini¬
ty, if he fhould be reftored to health; which he accord¬
ingly did, upon his recovery. He was minifter firft at
Quedlinburg, and then at Brunfwick. He met with
great oppofition in this laft city: his faccefs as a preach¬
er raifed the enmity of his brethren, who became his
bitter enemies. In order to ruin his character, they
aferibeda variety of errors to him ; and perfecuted him
to fuch a degree, that he was obliged to leave Brun-
fwiek, and retire to Ifleb, where he was minifter for
three years. In 1611, George duke of Lunenburg,
who had a high opinion of his integrity and fan6lity,
gave him the church of Zell, and appointed him fu-
perintendant of all the churches in the duchy of Lu¬
nenburg ; which office he difeharged for x 1 years, and
died in 1621. It is reported that he foretold his death,
having faid to his wife, upon his return home after his
laft fermon, that now he had preached his funeral fer-
mon. He wrote in High Dutch A Treatife on true
Chriftianity, which has been tranflated into feveral lan¬
guages.
ARNHEIM, a town of the Low Countries, in the
province of Guelderland, capital of Veluive. It was
adorned with feveral fine churches, particularly that of
St Waiburg and of St Eufebius; which laft has a very
high tower. The town has five gates, and feveral fine
ramparts, part of which are walhed by the Rhine, and
the other parts have wide and deep ditches before them.
There is a canal made between this place and Nime-
guen, at the expence of both towns, on which boats
pafs backwards and forwards to carry on a trade be¬
tween them. The air is very healthful; Un which ac¬
count it is inhabited by perfons of diftinftion. E. Long.
5. 55. N. Lat. 52. o.
ARNICA, leopards bane, in botany, a genus
of the polygamia fuperftua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants.
Spseiss. There are feven fpecies of arnica, all of
which are natives of Ethiopia, except the two follow¬
ing: 1. The montana, with oval leaves, grows natural¬
ly on the Alps, and alfo upon many of the high moun¬
tains in Germany, and other cold parts of Europe. The
roots of this fpecies, when planted in a proper foil and
fituation, fpread very far under the furface, and put out
many entire oval leaves, from between which the flower-
ftems arife, which grow about a foot and an half high.
The top is terminated by a fingle yellow flower, com-
pofed of many florets, like thofe of the dandelion.
Thefe are fucceedcd by oblong feeds, which are cover¬
ed with down. 2. The fcorpioides, with fawed leaves
growing alternately, is a native of Bohemia and Sibe¬
ria. The roots of this fort are much jointed, and di¬
vide into many irregular fleftiy off-fets, which are va-
rioufly contorted; from whence fome fuperftitious per-
fens have imagined, that they would expel the poifoii
of fcorpions, and cure the wounds made by the fling
of that animal.
Culture. The firft fpecies delights in a moift fhady fi¬
tuation : it may be propagated by parting the roots in
autumn when the ftalks begin to decay; or by the feeds
fown in autumn foon after they are ripe, for thofe fowit
rrt the fpring often fail. The fecond fort is to be pro¬
pagated in the fame manner. Both are very hardy, and'
require no other Care than to be kept free from weeds.
Medicinal Ufes. The leaves and roots of the firft fpe¬
cies were formerly efteemed a fpecific in refolving coa-
ulated blood, for which purpofe they are ftill preferi-
ed in Germany where they grow; but their violent
operation has made them fall into difufe in this country.
ARNISiEUS (Henningus), a philofopher and
phyfician of great reputation, about the beginning of
the 1 y'1*’century. He was born at Halbefftad in Ger¬
many, and was profeffor of phyfic in the univerfity of
Helmftad. His political works are much .efteemed.
The moft remarkable of them is his book De author it ate
principum in popuhtm femper inviolabili, printed at
Francfort in 1612. In this he maintains that the
authority of princes ought not to be violated. He
Wrote alfo upon the fame dodrinc his three books De
jure majejlatis, printed at the fame place in 1610; and
his Reflediones politicx, printed at Frattcfort in 1615-
Having received an invitation to go to Denmark, he
went thither, and was made counfellor and phyfician
to the king. He travelled into France and England,
and died in November 1635. Befides the pieces al¬
ready mentioned, he wrote feveral philofophical, me¬
dicinal, and political treatifes.
ARNOBIUS, profeffor of rhetoric at Sicca, in
Numidia, towards the end of the third century. It was
owing to certain dreams which he had, that he became
defirous of embracing Chriftianity. For this purpofe he
applied to the biftiops, to be admitted into the church.
But they, remembering the violence with which he had
always oppofed the true faith, had fome diftrutt of him ;
and, before they would admit him, infifted on fome
proofs of his fincerity. In compliance with this de¬
mand, he wrote againft the Gentiles ; wherein he has
refuted the abfur'dities of their religion, and ridiculed
their falfe gods. In this treatife he has employed all
the flowers of rhetoric, and difplayed great learning :
but from an impatience to be admitted into the body
of the faithful, hels thought to have been in too'great
a hurry in compoftng his work, and thence it is that
there
Arnica
II
Arnobius.
A R N [ 5
Amobms, there does not appear in this piece fiich an exaft order
Arnold- and difpofition as could be wiihed ; and not having a
perfeft and exaft knowledge of the Chriftian faith, he
publilhed fome very dangerous errors. Mr Bayle re¬
marks, that his notions about the origin of the foul,
and the caufe of natural evil, and feveral other im¬
portant points, are highly pernicious. St Jerom, in
his epiltle to Paulinus, is of opinion that his ftyle is
unequal and too diffufe, and that his book is written
without any method ; but Dr Cave thinks this judg¬
ment too fevere, and that Arnobius wants neither ele¬
gance nor order in his compofition. Vofiius ftyleshim
the Varro of the ecclefiaftical writers. Du Pin obferves
that his work is written in a manner worthy of a pro-
feflbr of rhetoric : the turn of his fentiments is very o-
ratorical; but his ftyle is a little African, his expreflions
being harlh and inelegant. We have feveral editions
of this work of Arnobius againft the Gentiles, one
publifhed at Rome in 1542, at Bal'd in 1546 and 1560,
at Paris in 1570, at Atwerpin 1582, and one at Ham¬
burg in 1610, with notes by Gebhard Elmenhorftius,
befides many others. He wrote alfo a piece intitled
De rhetorica injiitutione ; but this is not extant.
ARNOLD, of Brefcia, in Italy, diftinguilhed him-
felf by being the founder of a fed, which oppofed the
wealth and power of the Romilh clergy. He went in¬
to France, where he ftudied under the celebrated Peter
Abelard. Upon his return to Italy, he put on the habit
of a monk, and maintained in his fernaons, That the pope
and the clergy ought not to enjoy any temporal eftate;
and that thofe eccleliaftics who had any eftates of their
own, or held any lands, wTere entirely cut off from the
leaft hopes of falvation : that the clergy ought to fub-
fift upon the alms and voluntary contributions of Chri-
ftians; and that all other revenues belonged to princes
and ftates, in order to be difpofed of amongft the lai¬
ty, as they thought proper. He maintained alfo fe¬
veral herefies with regard to baptifm and the Lord’s
fupper. St Bernard has drawn his chara&er in very
ftrong colours. “ Would to God (fays he) that his
do&rine was as holy as his life is ftridf: would you
know what fort of man this is ? Arnold of Brefcia is
a man that neither eats nor drinks ; who, like the de¬
vil, is hungry and thirfty after the blood of fouls; who
goes to and fro upon the earth, and is always doing a-
mong ftrangers what he cannot do amongft his own
countrymen ; who ranges like a roaring lion, always
feeking whom he may devour; an enemy to the crofs
ofChnft, an author of difcords, an inventor of fchifms,
and a difturber of the public peace: he is a man,
whofe converfation has nothing but fweetnefs, and his
do&rine nothing but poifon in it; a man who has the
head of a dove, and the tail of a fcorpion.” He en¬
gaged a great number of perfons in his party, who
were diftinguilhed by his name, and proved very for¬
midable to the popes. His doftrines rendered him fo
obnoxious, that he was condemned in the year 1139,
in a council of near 1000 prelates, held in the church
of St John Lateran at Rome, under Pope Innocent II.
Upon this he left Italy, and retired to Swifferland. Af¬
ter the death of that pope, he returned to Italy, and
went to Rome, where he raifed a fedition againft Pope
Eugenius III. and afterwards againft Hadrian IV.
who laid the people of Rome under an interdict till
they had banifhed Arnold and his followers. This had
•00 ] A R N
its defired effect: the Romans feized upon the houfes ArnoMifts
which the Arnoldifts had fortified, and obliged them ^ ^
to retire to Otricoli in Tufcany ; where they were re- rnus‘
ceived with the utmoft affeftion by the people, who
confidered Arnold as a prophet. However, he was
feized fome time after by cardinal Gerard; and notwith-
ftanding the efforts of the vifcounts of Campanio, who
had refcued him, he was carried to Rome, and con¬
demned by Peter, the prefedt of that city, to be hang¬
ed, and was accordingly executed in the year 1155.
Thirty of his followers went from France to England,
about the year 1160, in order to propagate their doc¬
trine there ; but they were immediately leized and de-
ftroyed.
ARNOLDISTS, in church-hiftory, a fe& fo call¬
ed from their leader Arnold of Brefcia. See the pre¬
ceding article.
ARNOLDUS (Gothofredus), paftor and infpeftor
of the churches of Perleberg, and hiftoriographer to
the king of Pruffia, was born at Annaburg in the
mountains of Mifnia, in 1666. He was a zealous de¬
fender of Pietifts, a fe& among the German Prote-
ftants, and compofed a great number of religious works;
particularly an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, which expofed him
to the refentment of the divines ; and another giving
an account of the doftrines and manners from the fim
ages, in which he frequently animadverts upon Cave’s
primitive Chriftianity. He died in 1714. Various are
the opinions concerning Arnoldus in Germany; fome of
his own countrymen and profeffion extolling him to the
Ikies as a faint of the laft century, and fetting an ine-
ftimable value upon his works; while others pronounce
damnation upon him as an arch-heretic, and condemn
his writings as heterodox.
ARNOT, in botany, the Englifti name of the bu-
nium. See Bunium.
ARNOTTO. The fame with Annotto ; which fee.
ARNSTADE, a town of Germany, in Thuringia,
on the river Gera. E. Long.-11. 3. N. Lat. 50. 54.
ARNULPH, or Ernulph, bifhop of Rochefter in
the reign of Henry I. He was bom in France, where
he was fome time a monk of St Lucian de Beauvais.
The monks led moft irregular lives in this monaftery;
for which reafon he refolved to quit it, but firft took the
advice of Lanfranc archbiftiop of Canterbury, under
whom he had ftudied in the abbey of Becc, when Lan¬
franc was prior of that monaftery. This prelate invi¬
ted him over to England, and placed him in the mona¬
ftery of Canterbury, where he lived a private monk till
Lanfranc’s death. When Anfelm came to the archi-
epifcopal fee, Arnulph was made prior of the mona¬
ftery of Canterbury, and afterwards abbot of Peterbo¬
rough. In 1115, he was confecrated bifhop of Ro¬
chefter, which fee he held 9 years, and died in March
1124, aged 84.
Arnulph wrote, I. A piece in Latin concerning the
foundation, endowment, charters, laws, and other things
relating to the church of Rochefter: it is generally
known by the title of Textus Roffenfis, and is preferred
in the archives of the cathedral church of Rochefter.
2. An Epiftle in Anfwer to fome Queftions of Lam¬
bert, abbot of Munfter; and, 3. An Epiftle on inceftu-
ous Marriage.
ARNUS, now Arno, a very rapid river of Tuf¬
cany, which it divides, and in its courfe wafhes Flo¬
rence
A R O [ 701 ] A R R
Amway rence and Pifa ; rifing in the Apennine, to the eaft of
Aroura Florence, near a village called S. Maria delle Gratie,
 1_ on the borders of Romagna, 15 miles to the weft of
the fources of the Tiber; and then turning fouthward
towards Arretium, it is there increafed by the lakes of
the Clanis; after which it runs weftward, dividing Flo¬
rence into two parts, and at length waftring Pifa, falls
eight miles below it into the Tufcan Sea.
ARNWAY (John), a clergyman diftinguiftied by
his benevolence and loyalty to King Charles I. was de-
fcended from a very good family in the county of Sa¬
lop, from which he inherited a confiderable eftate. He
was educated at Oxford; and, having received holy or¬
ders, obtained the re&ories of Hodnet and Ightfield,
where he diftinguiftied himfelf by his piety and exem¬
plary charity: for it was his cuftom to clothe annually
12 poor people, and every Sunday to entertain as many
at his table, not only plentifully, but with intimacy
and refpecL The civil war breaking out, he preached
againft rebellion, and raifed and clothed eight troopers
for the fervice of King Charles I. upon which bis
houfe was plundered by the parliament’s army. He
then went to Oxford to ferve the king in perfon, which
fubjefted him to a new train of misfortunes: for his
eftate was foon after fequeftered, and himfelf imprifon-
ed till the king’s death ; after which, he w'ent to the
Hague, where he publiftied, 1. The Tablet, or the
Moderation of Charles I. the Martyr; and, 2. An
Alarm to the fubje&s of England. He at laft went to
Virginia, where he died in 1653.
AROLEO, an American weight, equal to 25 of
our pounds.
AROMA philosophorum, denotes either faffron,
or the aroph of Paracelfus; as aroma germanicum de¬
notes elecampane. See Aroph.
AR'OMATA, a town of Lydia, famous for its ge¬
nerous wines ; and hence the appellation, (Strabo).
Alfo the name of a trading town, and promontory of
Ethiopia, at the termination of the Sinus Avalites of
the Red Sea, (Arrian).
AROMATIC, an appellation given to fuch plants
as yield a brilk fragrant fmell, and a warm tafte; as
all kinds of fpices, fee. See Mat. Med. n° 49, fee.
ARONA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
- with a ftrong caftle. It Hands on the lake Maggiore.
E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 45. 41.
ARONCHES, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo,
on the confines of Spain, feated on the river Caro. It
is well fortified, and has about 500 inhabitants. W.
Long. 5. 16. N. Lat. 14. 39.
AROOL, a town of the empire of Ruffia, in the
Ukrain, feated on the river Occa. E. Long. 38. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 48.
AROPH, a contra&ion of aroma philofophorum; a
name given to faffron.
A.u.oph Paracel/i; a name given to a kind of che¬
mical flowers, probably of the fame nature with the
Ens Veneris, elegantly prepared by fublimation from
equal quantities of lapis haematitis and fal ammoniac.
Aroph is alfo a term ufed frequently by Paracelfus
in a fenfe fynonymous with lithontriptic.
AROSBAY, a town of the Eaft Indies, on the
coaft of the ifland of Madura, near Java. E. Long. 14.
30. N. Lat. 9. 30.
AROURA, a Grecian meafure of 50 feet. It was
Vol. I.
more frequently ufed for a fquare-meafure of half the! Arpsguts
plethron. The Egyptian aroura was the fquare of too II
feet. ^ _ Arrag°n-
ARPAGIUS, or harpagius, among the ancients,
a perfon who died in the cradle, at leaft in early youth.
The word is formed from the Greek 7fnatch.—
The Romans made no funerals for their arpagit. They
neither burnt their bodies, nor made tombs, monuments,
or epitaphs for them; which occafioned Juvenal to fay,
—Terra clauditur infans
Et minor igne rogi.
In after times it became the cuftom to burn fuch as had
lived to the age of 40 days, and had cut any teeth; and
thefe they called 'Afrax™, or 'Ag*«y/zivo't q. d. rapt/,
ravijhed. The ufage feems to have been borrowed
from the Greeks; among whom, Euftathius affures us,
it was the cuftom never to bury their children either
by night or full day, but at the firft appearance of the
morning; and that they did riot call their departure by
the name of death, but by a fofter appellation, 'Huipae
agxa.yr, importing that they were ravilhed by Aurora,
or taken away to her embraces. ~
ARPENT, fignifies an acre or furlong of ground;
and, according to the old French account in domefday-
book, 100 perches make an arpent. The moft ordi¬
nary acre, called Varpent de France, is 100 perches
fquare: but fome account it but half an acre.
ARP1NAS, or Arpino, (Jofeph Casfar), a famous
painter, born in the year 1560, at the caftle of Arpi-
nas, in the kingdom of Naples. He lived in great in*
timacy with Pope Clement VIII. who conferred upon
him the honour of knighthood, and bellowed on him
many other marks of his friendlhip. In the year 1600,
he went to Paris with cardinal Aldobrandin, who was
fent legate to the French court on the marriage of
Henry IV. with Mary of Medicis. His Chriftian ma-
jefty gave Arpinas many confiderable prefents, and
created him a knight of St Michael. The colouring of
this painter is thought to be cold and inanimate; yet
there is fpirit in his defigns, and his compofitions have
fomewhat of fire and elevation. The touches of his
pencil being free and bold, give therefore pleafure to
connoiffeurs in painting; but they are generally incor-
redf. What he painted of the Roman hiftory is the
moft efteemed of all his works. The French king has
in his colle&ion the following pieces of this mailer, viz.
the nativity of our Saviour, Diana and A£leon, the
rape of Europa, and a Sufanna. He died at Rome in
1640.
ARPINUM, a town of the Volfci, a little to the
eaft of the confluence of the rivers Liris and Fibrenus,
in the Terra di Lavora ; now decayed, and called yfr-
pino. It was the native place of Cicero, and of C. Ma¬
rius, (Salluft).
ARQUA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, and
territory of Venice, remarkable for the tomb of Pe¬
trarch. E, Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 45. 43.
ARQUEBUS. See Harquebus.
ARQUES, a town of Normandy, in France, feated
on a fmall river of the fame name. E. Long. 1. 30,
N. Lat. 49. 54.
ARRACHEE, in heraldry, a term applied to the
reprefentations of plants torn up by the roots.
ARRACK. See Arack.
ARRAGON. See Aragon.
4 T
AR-
A R R [ 702 ] A R R
Arraign- ARRAIGNMENT, in law, '4*1 e arraigning or
meat. fetting a thing in order, as a perfon is laid to arraign
a writ of novel difieifin, who prepares and fits it for
trial.
Arraignment is moft properly ufed to call a per¬
fon to anfwer in form of law upon an indictment, &c.
When brought to the bar, the criminal is called up¬
on by name to hold up his hand: which, though it
may feem a trifling circumftance, yet is of this im¬
portance, that by the holding up of his hand confiat de
ferfona, and he owns himfelf to be of that name by
■which he is called. However, it is not an indifpenfable
ceremony ; for, being calculated merely for the pur-
pofe of identifying the perfon, any other acknowledge¬
ment will anfwer the purpofe as well: therefore, if the
prifoner obflinately and contemptuoufly refufes to hold
up his hand, but confeffes he is the perfon named, it is
fully fufficient.
Then the indiClment is to be read to him diftinClly
in the Englilh tongue (which was law, even while all
other proceedings were in Latin), that he may fully un-
derftand his charge. After which it is to be demanded
of him, whether he be guilty of the crime whereof he
ftands indifted, or not guilty.
When a criminal is arraigned, he either (lands mute,
or confeffes the faCt; or elfe he pleads to the indict¬
ment.
1. If he fays nothing, the court ought ex officio to
impanel a jury to inquire whether he Hands obftinately
mute, or whether he be dumb ex vijitatione Dei. If
the latter appears to be the cafe, the judges of the
court (who are to be of counfel for the prifoner, and
to fee that he hath law and juftice) (hall proceed to the
trial, and examine all points as if he had pleaded not
guilty. But whether judgment of death can be given
againft fuch a prifoner, who hath never pleaded, and
can fay nothing in arreft of judgment, is a point yet
undetermined.
If he be found to be obftinately mute (which a
prifoner hath been held to be, that hath cut his own
tongue), then, if it be on an indiClment of high trea-
fon, it hath long been clearly fettled, that (landing mute
is equivalent to a conviClion, and he (hall receive the
fame judgment and execution.
The Englifti judgment of penance for (landing mute
was as follows : That the prifoner be remanded to the
prifon from whence he came ; and put into a low, dark
chamber ; and there be laid on his back, on the bare
floor, naked, unlefs where decency forbids ; that there
be placed upon his body as great a weight of iron as he
could bear, and more ; that he have no fuftenance, fave
only, on the firft day, three morfels of the word bread ;
and, on the fecond day, three draughts of (landing wa¬
ter, that (hould be neared to the prifon-door; and in
this fituation this (hould be alternately his daily diet,
till he died, or, as anciently the judgment ran, till he
anfwered.
It hath been doubted whether this punifhment fub-
fifted at the common law, or was introduced in confe-
quence of the ftatute Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 12. which
feems to be the better opinion. For not a word of it
is mentioned in Glanvil or Bradon, or in any ancient
author, cafe, or record (that hath yet been produced),
previous to the reign of Edward I: but there are in-
flances on record in the reign of Henry III. where
perfcns accufed of felony, and Handing mute, were Arraign-
tried in a particular manner, by two fucceffive juries,
and convided ; and it is afferted by the judges in  i—
8 Henry IV. that, by the common law before the fta¬
tute, (landing mute on an appeal amounted to a con-
vidion of the felony. This (latute of Edward I. di-
reds fuch perfons, “ as will not put themfelves upon
“ inquefts of felonies before the judges at the fuit of
“ the king, to be put into hard and ftrong prifon
“ ( foient tnys en la prifone fort et dure), as thofe which
“ refufe to be at the common law of the land.” And,
immediately after this ftatute, the form of the judg¬
ment appears in Fleta and Britton to have been only a
very (Irak confinement in prifon, with hardly any de¬
gree of fuftenance; but no weight is direded to be
laid upon the body, fo as to haften the death of the
miferable fufferer : and indeed any furcharge of punkh-
ment on perfons adjudged to penance, fo as to (horten
their lives, is reckoned by Horne in the Mirror as a
fpecies of criminal homicide. It alfo clearly appears,
by a record of 31 Edw. III. that the prifoner might
then poffibly fubfift for 40 days under this lingering
puniftiment. It is therefore imagined that the pradice
of loading him with weights, or, as it is ufually called,
prejjing him to death, was gradually introduced between
31 Edward III. and 8 Henry IV. at which lad pe¬
riod it firft appears upon the books ; being intended as
a fpecies of mercy to the delinquent, by delivering
him the fooner from his torment: and hence it is al(b
probable, that the duration of the penance was then
firft altered ; and inftead of continuing till he anfwered,
it was diredly to continue till he died, which muft very
foon happen under an enormous preffure.
The uncertainty of its original, the doubts that were
conceived of its legality, and the repugnance of its
theory (for it rarely was carried into pradice) to the
humanity of the laws of England, all concurred to re¬
quire a legiflative abolition of this cruel procefs, and a
reftitution of the ancient common law; whereby the
(landing mute in felony, as well as in treafon and in
trefpafs, amounted to a confeflion of the charge.
2. If the prifoner made a fimple and plain confef-
fion, the court hath nothing to do but to award judg¬
ment : but it is ufually very backward in receiving and
recording fuch confefiion, out of tendernefs to the life
of the fubjed ; and will generally advife the prifoner to
retrad it, and
3. Plead to the indidment; as to which, fee the ar¬
ticle Plea of Indittment.
ARRAN, an ifland of Scotland, in the Frith of
Clyde, between Kintyre and Cunningham. Of this i-
fland the bed defcription we have is that given by Mr
Pennant, in his Tour through Scotland, Vol. II. 172
— 184, which we (hall therefore tranfcribe.
“ Arran, or properly Arr-inn, or the ifland of
mountains, feems not to have been noticed by the an¬
cients, notwithftanding it muft have been known to
the Romans, whofe navy, from the time of Agricola,
had its (lation in the Clot a JEjluarium, or the Frith of
Clyde: Camden indeed makes this ifland the Glota of
Antonine, but no fuch name occurs in his itinerary;
it therefore was bellowed on Arran by fome of his com¬
mentators. Arran pro-
“ Bythe immenfe cairns, the vaft monumental Hones, bably fa-
and many reliques of druidifm, this illand muft have mous in an-
been cknt tinies'
Arran.
A R R [ 703 ] A R R
Arr3n- been confiderable in very ancient times. Here are ftill
traditions of the hero Fingal, or Fin-mac-coul, who is
fuppofed here to have enjoyed thepleafures of the chace;
* and many places retain his name: butlcan difcoverno-
Hiftprv of thing but oral hillory that relates to the ifland, till the
t e ifland. tjme 0p J4agnus the barefooted, the Norwegian viftor,
who probably included Arran in his conquefts of Kin-
tyre. If he did not conquer that ifland, it was cer¬
tainly included among thofe that Donald-bane was to
cede; for it appears that Acho, one of the fuccefibrs of
Magnus, in 1263, laid claim to Arran, Bute, and
the Cumrays, in confequence of that promife : the two
firft he fubdued, but the defeat he met with at Largs
foon obliged him to give up his conquefts.
“ Arran was thepropertyof the crown. Robert Bruce
retired thither during his diftreffes, and met with pro-
teftion from his faithful vaflals : numbers of them fol¬
lowed his fortunes ; and after the battle of Bannock¬
burn he rewarded feveral, fuch as the Mac-cooks, Mac-
kinnons, Mac-brides, and Mac-louis, or Fullertons,
with different charters of lands in their native country.
All thefe are now abforbed by this great family, ex¬
cept the Fullertons, and a Stewart, defcended from a
fon of Robert III. who gaye him a fettlement here.
In the time of the Dean of the Ifles, his defcendent pof-
fefl'ed caftle Douan; and be and his bluid, fays the dean,
are the bejl men in that countrey.
“ About the year 1334, this ifland appears to have
formed part of the eftate of Robert Stewart, great
fteward of Scotland, afterwards Robert II. At that
time they took arms to fupport the caufe of their ma-
fter; who afterwards, in reward, not only granted at
their requeft an immunity from their annual tribute of
corn, but added feveral new privileges, and a donative
to all the inhabitants that were prefent.
“ In 1456, the whole ifland was ravaged by Do¬
nald earl of Rofs and lord of the ifles. At that pe¬
riod, it was ftill the property of James II. but in the
reign of his fucceffor James III. when that monarch
matched his After to Thomas lord Boyd,, he created
him earl of Arran, and gave him the ifland as a por¬
tion : foon after, on the difgrace of that family, he
caufed the countefs to be divorced from her unfortunate
hufband; and beftowed both the lady and ifland on Sir
James Hamilton, in whofe family it continues to this
3 time, a very few' farms excepted.
Extent, &c. “ Arran is of great extent, being 23 miles from
Sgreadan point north to Beinnean fouth; and the
number of inhabitants are about 7000, who chiefly in¬
habit the coafts ; the far greater part of the country
being uninhabited by reafon of the vaft and barren
mountains. Here are only two parifhes, Kilbride and
Kill-more; with a fort of chapel of eafe to each, found¬
ed in the laft century, in the golden age of this ifland,
when it was bleffed with Anne Dutchefs of Hamilton,
whofe amiable difpofltion and humane attention to the
welfare of Arran render at this diftant time her me-
4 mory dear to every inhabitant.
Mountains. “ principal mountains of Arran are, Goat-
field, or Gaoilbhtinn, or the mountain of the winds,
of a height equal to moft of the Scottifti Alps, compo-
fed of immenfe piles of moor-ftohe, in form of wool-
packs, clothed only with lichens and moffes, inhabi¬
ted by eagles and ptarmigans ; Bein-bharrain, or the
fliarp-poiuted; Ceuin-na-caillich, the ftep of the carline
or old hag ; and Grianan-Athol, that yields to none in
ruggednefs. s
“ The lakes are Loch-jorfa, where falmon come to Lakes, &c.
fpawn ; Lochtana ; Loch-nah-jura, on the top of a
high hill ; Loch-mhachrai, and Loch-knoc a char-
beil, full of large eels. The chief rivers are Abhan-
mhor, Moina-mhor, Slondrai-machrei, and Jorfa; the
two laft remarkable for the abundance of falmon. 6
“ The; quadrupeds are very few; only otters, wild Animals,
cats, flirew-mice, rabbits, and bats: the flags, which
ufed to abound, are now reduced to about a dozen.
The birds are eagles, hooded crows, wild pigeons,
flares, black game, grous, ptarmigans, daws, green
plovers, and curlews. Mr Stuart, in afcending Goat-
field, found the fecondary feather of an eagle, white,
with a brown fpot at the bafe, which feemed to belong
to fome unknown fpecies. It may be remarked, that
the partridge at prefent inhabits this ifland, a proof of
the advancement of agriculture. T
“ The climate is very fevere; for befides the violence Climate,
of wind, the cold is very rigorous; and fnow lay here
in the valleys for 13 weeks of the laft winter. In fum-
mer, the air is remarkably falubrious; and many inva¬
lids refort here on that account, and to drink the whey
of goats milk. s
“ The principal difeafe here is the pleurify: fmall- Difeafesani
pox, meafles, and chin-cough, vifit the ifland once in rcme<AeSi
feven or eight years. The practice of bleeding twice
every year feems to have been intended as a preventa¬
tive againft the pleurify : but it is now performed with
the utmoft regularity at fpring and fall. The duke of
Hamilton keeps a furgeon in pay ; who, at thofe fea-
fons, makes a tour of the ifland. On notice of his
approach, the inhabitants of each farm affemble in the
open air ; extend their arms; and are bled into a hole
made in the ground, the common receptacle of the vi¬
tal fluid.
“ In burning fevers, a tea of nnood-forrel is ufed with
fuccefs, to allay the heat. 9
“ An infufion of ramfotis, or allium urjinum, in Inhabitants,
brandy is efteemed here a good remedy for the gravel.
“ The men are ftrong, tall, and well made ; all fpeak
the £rfe language, but the ancient habit is entirely laid
afide. Their diet is chiefly potatoes and meal; and
during winter, fome dried mutton or goat is added to
their hard fare. A deep dejetftion appears in general
thro’ the countenances of all: no time can be fpared
for amufement of any kind; the whole being given
for procuring the means of paying their rent, of lay¬
ing in their fuel, or getting a fcanty pittance of meat
and clothing.
“ The leafes of farms are 19 years. The fucceeding
tenants generally find the ground a little better than a
caput inortuum .* and for this reafon ; Should they at
the expiration of the leafe leave the lands in a good
ftate, fome avaritious neighbours would have the pre¬
ference in the next fetting, by offering a price more
than the perfon who had expended part of his fubftance
in enriching the farm could pofiibly do. This induces
them to leave it in the original ftate. xo
“ The method of fetting a farm is very Angular: each Method of,
is commonly poffeffed by a number of fmall tenants ; fetting
thus a farm of 40/. a-year is occupied by 18 differentfarnis'
people, who by their leafes are bound, conjun&ly and
feverally, for the payment of the rent to the proprie-
4 T 2 tor.
Arran.
Produce,
&c.
A R R [ 704 ] A R R
tor. Thefe live in the farm in hovtfes cluftered toge¬
ther, fo that each farm appears like a little village.
The tenants annually divide the arable land by lot;
each has his ridge of land, to which he puts his mark,
fuch as he would do to any writing : and this fpecies of
farm is called run-rig, i. e. ridge. They join in
ploughing ; every one keeps a horfe or more; and the
number of thofe animals confume fo much corn as of¬
ten to occafion a fcarcity ; the corn and peas raifed
being (much of it) defigned for their fubfiltence, and
that of the cattle, during the.long winter. The pafture
and moor-land annexed to the farm is common to all
the poffeflbrs.
“ All the farms are open. Inclofures of any form, ex¬
cept in two or three places, are quite unknown : fo that
there muft be a great lofs of time in preferring their
corn, &c. from trefpafs. The ufual manure is fea-
plants, coral, and (hells.
“ The run-rig farms are now difcouraged: butfince
the tenements are fet by roup, or auftion, and advan¬
ced by an unnatural force to above double the old rent,
without any allowance for inclofing, any example fet
in agriculture, any fecurity of tenure by lengthening
the leafes, affairs will turn retrograde, and the farms
relapfe into their old (late of rudenefs ; migration will
encreafe (for it has begun), and the rents be reduced
even below their former value : the late rents were
fcarce 1200 1. a-year; the expe&ed rents 3000.
“ The produce of the bland is oats ; of which about
5000 bolls, each equal to nine Winchefter bufhels,
are fown : 500 of beans, a few peas, and above 1000
bolls of potatoes, are annually fet: notwithftanding
this, 500 bolls of oat-meal are annually imported, to
fubfift the natives.
“ The live (lock of the ifland is 3183 milch-cows;
2000 cattle, from one to three years old; 1058 horfes;
1500 (heep ; and 500 goats : many of the two laid are
killed at Michaelmas, and dried for winter-proviiion, or
fold at Greenock. The cattle are fold from 40 toyos.
per head, which brings into the ifland about 1200I.
per annum : I think that the fale of horfes alfo brings
in about 3001. Hogs were introduced here only two
years ago. The herring-filhery round the ifland brings
in 3001. the fale of herring-nets tool, and that of
thread about 3001. for a good deal of flax is fown
here. Thefe are the exports of the ifland ; but the mo¬
ney that goes out for mere necefiaries is a melancholy
drawback.
“ The women manufadlure the wool for the cloath-
ing of their families ; they fet the potatoes, and drefs
and fpin the flax. They make butter for exportation,
and cheefe for their own ufe-
“ The inhabitants in general are fober, religious,
and induftrious; great part of the fummer is employ¬
ed in getting peat for fuel, the only kind in ufe here;
or in building or repairing their houfes, for the bad-
nefs of the materials requires annual repairs: before and
after haweft, they are bufied in the herring-iilhery; and
during winter, the men make their herring-nets; while
the women are employed in fpinning their linen and
woollen yarn. The light they often ufe is that of
lamps. From the beginning of February to the end
of May, if the weather permits, they are engaged in
labouring their ground : in autumn they burn a great
quantity of fern, to make kelp. So that, excepting
JoJh. x
s ^
at new-years-day, at marriages, or at the two or three Arran,
fairs'in that-ifland, they have no leifure for any amufe- -
ments : no wonder then at their deprefiion of (pirits.
“ This forms part of the county of Bute, and is
fubjett to the fame fort of government: but, befides,
juflice is adminiftered at the baron’s baily-court, who
has power to fine as high as 20 s. ; can decide in mat¬
ters of property, not exceeding 40 s.; can imprifon for
a month ; and put delinquents into the (locks for three
hours, but that only during day-time. n
“ Take a ride into the country : defcend into the Antiquities
valley, at the head of the bay ; fertile in barley, oats, ^ curi0f1'
and peas. See two great (tones, in form of columns,
fet eredt, but quite rude : thefe are common to many
nations; are frequent in North-Wales, where they are
called main hirion, i. e. tall (lones, rneini g'vjir, or men-
pillars, and Llechc ; are frequent in Cornwal, and are al¬
fo found in other parts of our ifland: their ufe is of ^
great antiquity ; are mentioned in the Mofaic writings •(
as memorials of the dead, as monuments of friendfhip,
as marks to diltinguifh places of worlhip, or of folemn
aflemblies: the northern nations ere&ed them to perpe¬
tuate the memory of great aftions, fuch as remarkable
duels, of which there arc proofs both in Denmark and
in Scotland ; and the number of Hones was propor¬
tionable to the number of great men who fell in the
fight: but they were befides erefted merely as fepul-
chral for perfons of rank, who had deferred well of their
country.
“ Not far from hence is a (lone the mod lingular
that I ever remember to have feen, and the only one of
the kind that ever fell within my obfervation : this lies
on the ground, is 12 feet long, two broad, one thick;
has, at one end, the rude attempt to carve a head and
(boulders, and was certainly the firfl deviation from the
former fpecies of monument, the firfl; efiay to give to
(lony a refemblance to the human body. All that the
natives fay of this is, that it was placed over a giant,
and is called Mac Bbrolchin's (lone.
“ Afcend a deep hill, with vaft gullies on the fide;
and, on defcending, arrive in a plain inhabited by cur¬
lews, reforting there to breed, and which flew round
our heads like lapwings. At a place called Moni-quit
is a fmall circle of fmall (lones, placed clofe to each o-
ther: whether a little druidical place of worfhip, or of
aflembly ; or whether a family place of fepulture, as is
ufual with the northern nations, is not eafy to deter¬
mine. If an urn is found in the centre of this coronet,
as is not uncommon, the doubt will ceafe.
“ Pafs by the river Machrai, flowing thro’ a rocky
channel, which in one part has worn thro’ a rock, and
left fo contradled a gap at the top as to form a very
eafy Hep a-crofs. Yet not long ago a poor woman in
the attempt, after getting one foot over, was ftruck
with fuch horror at the tremendous torrent beneath,
that (he remained for fome hours in that attitude, not
daring to bring her other foot over, till fome kind
paflenger luckily came by, and aflifted her out of her
diftrefs.
“ Arrive at Tormore, an extenfive plain of good
ground, but quite in a (late of nature: feems formerly
to have been cultivated ; for there appear feveral vefti-
ges of dikes, which might have ferved as boundaries.
There is a tradition, that in old times the (hores were
covered with woods, and this was the habitable part..
“ The
A R R [ 705 ] A R R
“ The want of trees in the internal part at prefent,
and the kindly manner in which they grow about Brod-
wic, favour this opinion.
“ On this plain are the remains of four circles, in a
line, extending N. E. by S. W. ; very few ftones are
handing to perfedf the inclofure, but thofe are of a
great fize, and Hand remote from each other. One
is. 15 feet high, and 11 in circumference. On the out-
fide of thefe circles are two others : one differs from all
1 have feen, confifting of a double circle of ftones and
a mound within the leffer. Near thefe are the reliques
of a ftone cheft, formed of five flat ftones, the length
of two yards in the infide : the lid or top is loft. In
the middle of thefe repofitories were placed the urn
filled with the afhes of the dead, to prevent its being
broken, or to keep the earth from mixing with the
burnt remains. In all probability there had been a
cairn or heap of ftones above.
“ By the numberof the circles,and by their fequeftred
fituation, this feems to have been facred ground. Thefe
circles were formed for religious purpofes: Boethius
relates, that Mainus, fon of Fergus I. a rcflorer and
cultivator of religion, after the Egyptian manner (as
he calls it) inftituted feveral new and folemn ceremonies,
and caufed great ftones to-be placed in form of a cir¬
cle ; the largeft was fituated towards the fouth, and
ferved as an altar for the facrifices to the immortal
gods. Boethius is right in part of his account: but
the object of the worihip was the fun; and what con¬
firms this, is the fituation of the altar pointed towards
that luminary in his meridian glory. In this place the
altar and many of the ftones are loft ; probabl^carried
to build houfes and dikes not very remote from the
place.
“ At a final! diftanee farther is a cairn of a moft ftu-
pendous fize, formed of great pebbles ; which are pre-
ferved from being fcattered about by a circle of large
Itones that furround the whole bafe, a circumftance
fometimes ufual in thefe monumental heaps.
“ Defcend thro’ a narrow cleft of a rock to a part
of the weftern fnore called Druim-an-duin, or the ridge
of the fort, from a round tower that Hands above.
The beach is bounded by cliffs of whitifh grit ftone,
hollowed beneath into vaft caves. The moft remark¬
able are thofe of Fin-mac cuil, or Fingal, the fon of
Cumhal the father of Oflian, who, tradition fays,
refided in this ifland for the fake of hunting. One of
thefe caverns is 112 feet long, and 30 high, narrowing
to the top like a Gothic arch ; towards the end it
branches into two: within thefe two receffes, which
penetrate far, are on each fide feveral fmall holes, op-
polite to each other: in thefe were placed tranfverfe
beams, that held the pots in which the heroes feethed
their venifon ; or probably, according to the mode of
the times, the bags formed of the Ikinsof animals flain
in the chace, which were filled with flelh, and ferved
as kettles fufficiently ftrong to warm the contents ; for
the heroes of old devoured their meat half raw, hold¬
ing, that the juices contained the beft nouriftiment.
“ On the front of the divifion, between thefe re¬
ceffes and on one fide, are various very rude figures,
cut on the ftone, of men, of animals, and of a clymore
or two-handed fword : but whether thefe were the a-
xnufements of the Fingallian age, or of after-times, is
not eafy to be afcertained j for caves were the retreats
of pirates as well as heroes. Here are feveral other Arran;
hollows adjacent, which are Ihewn as the liable, cel-
lars, and dog-kennel, of the great Mac-euil: one cave,
which is not honoured with a name, is remarkably fine,
of great extent, covered with a beautiful flat roof, and
very well lighted by two augull arches at each end :
through one is a fine perfpeclive of the promontory
Carn-baan, or the white heap of Hones; wftiofefide ex¬
hibits a long range of columnar rocks (not bafaltic) of
hard grey whin-ftone, refting on a horizontal ftratum
of red-ftonc: at the extremity, one of the columns is
infulated, and forms a fine obelilk.
“ After riding fome time along the ftiore, afcend
the promontory. On the fummit is an ancient retreat,
fecured on the land fide by a great dike of loofe ftones,
that inclofes the accefiible part: within is a fingle ftone,
fet ereft ; perhaps to mark the fpot where the chief¬
tain held his council, or from whence he delivered his
orders.
“ From this ftiore is a fine view of Kin tyre, the we¬
ftern fide of Arran being feparated from it by a ftrait
about eight miles wide. .
“ Leave the hills, and fee, at Feorling, another ftu-
pendous cairn 114 feet over, and of a vaft height;,
and from two of the oppofite fides are two vaft ridges ;
the whole formed of rounded ftones, or pebbles, brought
from the Ihores. Thefe immenfe accumulations of
ftones are the fepulchral proteAion of the heroes among
the ancient natives of our iflands : the ftone chefts, the
repofitory of the urns and allies, are lodged in the earth
beneath ; fometimes one, fometimes more, are found
thus depofited ; and I have one inftance of as many as
17 of thefe ftone chefts being difcovered under the fame
cairn. The learned have alugned other caufes for thefe
heaps of ftones : have fuppofed them to have been, in
times of inauguration, the places where the chieftaih-
eleft ftood to ftiew himfelf to bell advantage to the peo¬
ple ; 6r the place from whence judgment was pronoun¬
ced; or to have been erefted on the road-fide in honour
of Mercury; or to have been formed in memory of fome
folemn compadl. Thefe might have been the reafons,
in fome inllances, where the evidences of Itone-chefts
and urns are wanting ; but thofe generally are found to
overthrow all other fyllems.
“ Thefe piles may juftly be fuppofed to have been
proportioned in fize to the rank of the perfon, or to
his popularity: the people of a whole diftrid. affem-
bled to Ihew their refped to the deceafed ; and, by an
adive honouring of his memory, foon aceumuiated
heaps equal to thofe that aftonilh us at this time. But
thefe honours were not merely thofe of the day; as
long as the memory of the deceafed endured, not a paf-
fettger went by without adding a ftone to the heap ;
they fuppofed it would be an honour to the dead, and
acceptable to his manes.
Quanquam feftinas, non eft mora ionga : licebit,
lojecfto ter pulvere, curras.
To this moment there is a proverbial exprefiion a-
mong the highlanders allufive to the old practice: a
fuppliant will tell his patron, Curri tns clock er (fa
charne, “ I will add a ftone to your cairn ;” meaning.
When you are no more, I will do all poflible honour to
your memory.
“ There was another fpecies of honour paid to the
chieftains, that I believe is Hill retained in this ifland,
but
A R R [ 7°6 ] A R R
but the reafon is quite loft ; that of fwearing by his
name, and paying as great a refpeft to that as to the
moft facred oath: a familiar one in Arran is, “ by Nail;”
it is at prefent unintelligible, yet is fufpe£ted to have
been the name of fome ancient hero.
“ The cairns are to be found in all parts of our
iflands, in Cornwal, Wales, and all parts of North Bri¬
tain 5 they were in ufe among the northern nations;
Dahlberg, in his 323d plate, has given the figure of
one. In Wales they are called carneddau ; but the
proverb taken from them, with ug, is not of the com-
plimental kind: Karnar dy ben, or, A cairn on your
head, is a token of imprecation. ”
ARRAS, the capital city of Artois, a province in
the French Netherlands. It is feated on a mountain ;
and the parts about it are full of quarries, where they
get ftone for building. It is divided into two parts,
the town and the city. The abbe of St Vaaft is lord
of the town, and the bifhop of Arras of the city, which
is the leaft part. They are divided by a ftrong wall,
a large fofte, and the little river Chrinchron, which
100 paces below falls into the Scarp. They are both
well fortified, inclofedby high ramparts, and by double
deep fofles, which in feveral places are cut out of the
rock. It has four gates; and, fincethe French are be¬
come mafters of it, has a ftrong citadel with five baf-
tions. The moft remarkable places are, the great
fquare where the principal market is kept; this is full
of fine buildings, with piazzas all round it like thofe
of Covent-garden. Not far from this is the leffer mar¬
ket, which contains the town houfe, a very noble ftruc-
ture, with a high tower covered with a crown, on the
top of which is a brazen lion which ferves for a vane.
In the midft of this market is the chapel of the Holy
Candle, which the papifts pretend was brought by the
Virgin Mary herfelf above 600 years ago, when the
city was afflifted with divers difeafes, and every one that
touched the candle was cured; it is kept in a filver Ihrine.
This chapel has a fpire-fteeple, adorned with feveral fta-
tues. The cathedral church of Notre-Dame ftandsinthe
city : it is a very large Gothic building, extremely well
adorned ; the tower is very high, and has a fine clock
embellilhed with little figures in bronze, which repre-
fent the paffion of Jefus Chrift; they pafs before the
bell to ftrike the hours and half hours. In this church
there is a filver fhrine, enriched with pearls and dia¬
monds, which contains a fort of wool, which they call
manna ; that they fay fell from heaven in the time of
a great drought, almoft 1400 years ago: they carry
it very folemnly in proceffion when they want rain.
The abbey-church of St Vedaft is the greateft orna¬
ment of Arras, it being adorned with a fine fteeple,
and feats for the monks of admirable workmanlhip ;
the pulpit is of brafs, falhioned like a tree, fupported by
two bears of the fame metal, fitting on their hind legs;
there are little bears in different poftures coming to
climb up the tree. The chimes are remarkable for
the different tunes which they play. There are x 1
parifh churches, and a great many convents of men and
women. It is from this city that the tapeftry called
arras hangings takes its denomination.—E. Long. 2.
56. N. Lat. 50. 17.
Arras, or Araxes, is alfo the name of a river of
Georgia, which difeharges itfelf into the Cafpian fea.
ARRAY; in law, the ranking or fetting forth of
a jury, or inqueft of men impanelled on a caufe.
Array, the order or difpofition of an army,
drawn up with a view to engage the enemy *.
ARREARS, the remainder of a Run due, or money *
remaining in the hands of an accountant. It likewife
fignifies the money due for rent, wages, &c. or what
remains unpaid of penfions, taxes, &c.
ARRENTATION, in the foreft laws, implies the
licenfing the owner of lands in a foreft to inclofe them
with a low hedge and a fmall ditch, in confideration of
a yearly rent.
A RREST, in Englifh law, (from the French word
arrejler, to flop or flay), is the reftraint of a man’s per-
fon, obliging him to be obedient to the law; and is de¬
fined to be the execution of the command of fome court
of record or office of juftice. An arreft is the begin¬
ning' of imprifonment; where a man is firft taken, and
reftrained of his liberty, by power or colour of a law¬
ful warrant.
Arrefts are either in civil or criminal cafes.
1. An arreft in a civil caufe is defined to be the ap¬
prehending or reftraining one’s perfon by procefs in ex¬
ecution of the command of fome court.
An arreft muft be by corporal feifing or touching the
defendant’s body; after which the bailiff may juftify
breaking open the houfe in which he is, to take him:
otherwife he has no Rich power; but muft watch his op¬
portunity to arreft him. For every man’s houfe is look¬
ed upon by the law to be his caftle of defence and afy-
lum, wherein he ftiould fuffer no violence. Which prin¬
ciple is carried fo far in the civil law, that, for the moft
part, not fo much as a common citation or fummons,
much lefs an arreft, can be executed upon a man within
his own walls. Peers of the realm, members of parlia¬
ment, and corporations, are privileged from arrefts ;
and of courfe from outlawries. And againft them the
procefs to inforce an appearance m'uft be by fummons
and diftrefs infinite, inftead of .a capias. Alfo clerks,
attorneys, and all other perfons attending the courts of
juftice (for attorneys, being officers of the court, arc
always fuppofed to be there attending), are not liable
to be arrefted by the ordinary procefs of the court, but
muft be fued by hill (called ufually. a bill of privilege)
as being perfonally prefent in court. Clergymen per¬
forming divine fervice, and not merely flaying in the
church with a fraudulent defign, are for the time privi¬
leged from arrefts, by ftatute 50 Edw. III. c. 5. and
1 Rich. II. c. 16.; as likewife members of convocation
a&ually attending thereon, by ftatute 8 Hen. VI. c. 1.
Suitors, witneffes, and other perfons, neceffarily at¬
tending any courts of record upon bufinefs, are not to
be arrefted during their aftual attendance, which in¬
cludes the neceffary coming and returning. Seamen in
the king’s fervice are privileged from arrefts for debts
under 20/. (1 Geo. II. c. 14. and 14 Geo. II c. 38.);
and foldiers or marines are not liable to arrefts for a
debt of lefs than 10/. (30 Geo. II. c. 6, 11.) And no
arreft can be made in the king’s prefence, nor within
the verge of his royal palace, nor in any place whei-e
the king’s juftices are a&ually fitting. The king hath
moreover a fpecial prerogative (which indeed is very
feldom exerted), that he may by his ’writ of protection
privilege a defendant from all perfonal, and many real,
fuits, for one year at a time, and no longer; in refpedt
of his being engaged in his fervice out of the realm.
And
Array
B .
Arreft.!
A Pv R [ 707 ] A R R
j^rreft. And the king alfo by the common law might take his
creditor into his prote&ion, fo that no one might fue
or arrell him till the king’s debt were paid: but by the
ftatute 25 Edw. III. ft. 5. c. 19. notwithftanding Inch
protection, another creditor may proceed to judgment
againft him, with a ftay of execution, till the king’s
debt be paid ; unlefs fiich creditor will undertake for
the king’s debt, and then he (hall have execution for
both. And, laftly, by ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 7. no ar-
reft can be made, nor procefs ferved, upon a Sunday, ex¬
cept for treafon, felony, or breach of the peace.
2. An arreft in a criminal caufe is the apprehend¬
ing or reftraining one’s perfon, in order to be forthco¬
ming to anfwer an alleged crime. To this arreft all
perfons whatfoever are, without diftinCtion, equally li¬
able ; and doors may be broken open to arreft the of¬
fender: but no man is to be arrefted, unlefs’charged
with fuch a crime as will at leaft juftify holding him to
bail when taken. There is this difference alfo between
arrefts in civil and criminal cafes, that none {hall be ar¬
refted for debt, trefpafs, or other caufe of adtion, ,but
by virtue of a precept or commandment out of fome
court; but for treafon, felony, or breach of the peace,
any man may arreft with or without warrant or pre-
‘ See War- cept *. But the king cannot command any one
by word of mouth to be arrefted; for he muft do it
by writ, or order of his courts, according to law: nor
may the king arreft any man for fufpicion of treafon,
or felony, as his fubjefts may; becaufe, if he doth
wrong, the party cannot have an aftion againft him.
Arrefts by private perfons are in fome cafes com¬
manded. Perfons prefent at the committing of a fe¬
lony muft ufe their endeavours to apprehend the offen¬
der, under penalty of fine and imprifonment; and they
are alfo, with the utmoft diligence, to purfue and en¬
deavour to take all thofe who fhall be guilty thereof,
out of their view, upon a hue and cry levied againft
f See Hue them *, By the vagrant a& 17 Geo. IP. c. 5. every
'and Cry. perfon may apprehend beggars and vagrants ; and e-
; . very private perfon is bound to aflift an officer requi¬
ring him to apprehend a felon.
In fome cafes likewife arrefts by private perfons are
rewarded by law. By the 4 and 5 William and Mary,
c. 8. perfons apprehending highwaymen, and profe-
cuting them to a convi&ion, are intitled to a reward of
40 /. and if they are killed in the attempt, their execu¬
tors, &c. are intitled to the like reward. By the 6 and
7 William III. c. 17. perfons apprehending counter¬
feiters and clippers of the coin, and profecuting them
to convi&ion, are intitled to 40/.
By 5 Ann, c. 31. perfons who {hall take any one
guilty of burglary, or the felonious breaking and en¬
tering any houfe in the day-time, and profecute them
to conviftion, {hall receive the fum of 40 /. within one
month after fuch conviftion.
With regard to arrefts by public officers, as watch¬
men, con [tables, &c. they are either made by their
own authority, which differs but very little from the
power of a private perfon; or they are made by a war¬
rant from a juftice of peace. See Warrant.
Arrest of Judgment, in law, the affigning juft rea-
fon why judgment ffiould not pafs: as. Want of notice of
the trial; a material defeft in the pleading; when the
record differs from the deed impleaded; when perfons
are mif-named; where more is given by the verdict
than is laid in the declaration, See. This may be done Arreftment
either in criminal or civil cafes. U
ARRESTMENT, in Scots law, fignifies the fecu- rroe‘ .
ring of a criminal till trial, or till he find caution to
ftand trial, in what are called bailable crimes. In ci¬
vil cafes, it fignifies either the detaining of ftrangers or
natives in meditatione fuga, till they find caution ju-
dicio fifti, or the attaching the effects of a ftranger in
order to found jurifdiftion. But, in the moft general
acceptation of the word, it denotes that diligence by
which a creditor detains the goods or effefts of his
debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due
to him be either paid or fecured. See Law, Part III.
N° clxxviii.
ARRESTO facto super bonis, &c. a writ
brought by a denizen againft the goods of aliens found
within this kingdom, as a recompence for goods taken
from him in a foreign country.
ARRESTS, in farriery, mangy tumours upon a
horfe’s hinder-legs, between the ham and the pattern.
ARRETIUM, (Cicero, Caefar); Arrhetiurn, (Pto¬
lemy) ; Urbs Arrhctinorum, (Polybius) ; one of the
twelve ancient towns of Tufcany, near the Arnus and
Clanis, fituated in a pleafant valley. Now Arezzo,
42 miles eaft of Florence. E. Long. 13. 18. Lat. 43.
I5-
ARRHABONARII, a fe<ft of Chnftians, who
held that the eucharift is neither the real flelh or blood
of Chrift, nor yet the fign of them; but only the
pledge or earneft thereof.
ARRHEPHORIA, afeaft among the Athenians,
inftituted in honour of Minerva, and Herfe daughter
of Cecrops.
ARRIAN, a famous philofopher and hiftorian un¬
der the emperor Hadrian and the two Antonines, was
born at Nicomedia in Bithynia. His great learning
and eloquence procured him the title of The fecond
Xenophon; and railed him to the moft confiderable dig¬
nities at Rome, even the confullhip itfelf. We have
4 books of his DiJJertations upon Rpiftetus, whofe
fcholar he had been; and his Hijlory of Alexander the
Great, in 7 books, is greatly admired by the beft
judges.
ARRIERE, the hinder or pofterior part of any
thing.
Arriere Ban, in the French cuftoms, is a general
proclamation, whereby the king fummons to the war
all that hold of him, both his vaffals, i. e. the nobleffe,
and the vaffals of his vaffals.
Arriere Fee or Fief, is a fee dependant on a fu-
perior one. Thefe fees commenced, when the dukes
and counts, rendering their governments hereditary in
their families, diftributed to their officers parts of the
royal domains which they found in their refpe&ive pro¬
vinces, and even permitted thofe officers to gratify the
foldiers under them in the fame manner.
ARROBAS, or Arobas, a weight ufed in Spain,
Portugal, and the foreign dominions of both. The
Arrobas of Portugal is alfo called Arata, and contains
32 Liftxm pounds ; that of Spain contains 25 Spanifti
pounds. In Peru it is called Arroue.
ARROE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Baltic
Sea, a little fouth, of the ifland of Funen. It is eight
miles in length, and about two in breadth ; and pro¬
duces corn, annifeed, black cattle, and horfes. It has
three
A R S r 708 1 ART
•Anojo three parilhes, the moft confiderablcof which is Koping.
a il. It Hands at the fouth fide of the ifland, in the bottom of
Anon. a anj jlag a ^or(. w;^ji fGme trade. E. Long. 9.
40. N. Lat. 55. 20.
ARROJO, de St Servan, a town of Spain, in
Eftramadura. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 38. 40.
ARRONDEE, in heraldry, a crofs, the arms of
which are compofed of fections of a circle, not oppo-
ftte to each other, fo as to make the arms bulge out
thicker in one part than another; but the feftions of
each arm lying the fame way, fo that the arm is every
where of an equal thicknefs, and all of them termi¬
nating at the edge of the efcutcheon like the plain
crofs.
ARROW, a milTive weapon of offence, flender,
* See Bovi. pointed, and barbed, to be call or fhot with a bow *.
Arrows are alfo called Jhafts.
Kkv.o'K-Makers are called fletchers ; and were for¬
merly, as well as bowyers, perfons of great confe-
quence in the commonwealth.
ARSCHIN, in commerce, a long meafure ufed in
China to meafilre Huffs. Four arfeins made three yards
of London.
ARSHOT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
fituated about fourteen miles eaft of the city of Mech¬
lin, in E. Long. 4. 45. N. L. 51. 5.
ARSENAL, a royal or public magazine, or place
appointed for the making and keeping of arms ne-
celfary either for defence or affault.
ARSENIC, a poifonous mineral preparation, which
is either white, red, or yellow, prepared from the
* See Cheml- flowers of cobalt *.
Jlry, n° 60, ARSENIUS, a deacon of the Roman church, of
,5°’ great learning and piety. He was pitched upon by
40 ’ 4 °' the Pope to go to the emperor Theodofius, as tutor to
his fon Arcadius. Arfenius arrived at Conftantinople
in the year 383. The emperor happening one day to
go into the room where Arfenius was inilructing Ar¬
cadius, his fon was feated and the preceptor Handing;
at this he was exceedingly difpleafed, took from his fon
the imperial ornaments, made Arfenius fit in his place,
and ordered Arcadius for the future to receive his lef*
fons Handing uncovered. Arcadius, however, profited
but little by his tutor’s inflruAons, fer fome time af¬
ter he formed a defign of difpatching him. The officer,
to whom Arcadius had applied for this purpofe, di¬
vulged the affair to Arfenius, who retired to the de¬
farts of Scete, where he paffed many years in the ex-
ercifes of the moH ffridt and fervent devotion. He
died there, at 95 years of age.
ARSIS and thesis, in mufic, is a term applied to
compofitions in which one part rifes and the other
falls.
ARSMART, in botany. See Persicaria.
ARSON, in Englifh law, is the malicious and wil¬
ful burning of the houfe or out-houfe of another man ;
which is felony at common law.
This is an offence of very great malignity, and much
more pernicious to the public than fimple theft : be-
caufe, firff, it is an offence againff that right of ha¬
bitation which is acquired by the law of nature as
well as by the laws of fociety; next, becaufe of the
terror and confufion that neceffarily attends it; and,
laffly, becaufe in fimple theft the thing ffolen only
changes its maffer, but Hill remains in ejfe for the be¬
nefit of the public, whereas by burning the very fub- Art. i|
Hance is abfolutely deffroyed. It is alfo frequently
more deffru&ive than murder itfelf, of which too it is
often the caufe : iince murder, atrocious as it is, fel*
dom extends beyond the felonous ait defigned ; where¬
as fire too frequently involves in the common calamity
perfons unknown to the incendiary, and not intended
to be hurt by him, and friends as well as enemies.
ART is defined by Lord Bacon, A proper difpo-
fal of the things of nature by human thought and ex¬
perience, fo as to anfwer the feveral purpofes of man¬
kind ; in which fenfe, art Hands oppofed to nature.
Art is principally ufed for a fyffemof rules ferving*
to facilitate the performance of certain ailions ; in
which fenfe it Hands oppofed to faience, or a fyflem of
fpeculative principles.
Arts are commonly divided into ttfeful or mechanic,
liberal or polite. The former are thofe wherein the
hand and body are more concerned than the mind ; of
which kind are moff of thofe which furnilh us with
the necejfaries of life, and are properly known by
the name of trades; as baking, brewing, carpentry,
fmithery, weaving. See.—The latter are fuch as de¬
pend more on the labour of the mind than that of the
hand ; they are the produce of the imagination, their
effence confiffs in exprefion, and their end is' pleafure.
Of this kind are poetry, painting, mufic, &c. f
Progrefs of the Arts. Some ufeful arts muH be Origin |
nearly coeval with the human race; for food, cloathing,
and habitation, even in their original fimplicity, re¬
quire fome art. Many other arts are of fuch antiqui¬
ty, as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tra¬
dition. Several have gradually crept into exiHence,
without an inventor. The bufy mind, however, ac- an{1
cuHomed to a beginning in things, cannot refi till it
finds or imagines a beginning to every art. The moH
probable conje&ures of this nature the reader may fee
in the hifforical introdudb’ons to the different articles.
In all countries where the people are barbarous and progrefs of |
illiterate, the progrefs of arts is extremely flow. It is “^ful arts,
vouched by an old French poem, that the virtues of the gkcide/ ^
loadffone were known in France before anno 1180. sk. V.] 1
The mariner’s compafs was exhibited at Venice anno
1260, by Paulus Venetus, as his own invention. John
Goya of Amalphi was the firff who, many years after¬
ward, ufed it in navigation ; and alfo paffed for being
the inventor. Tho’ it was ufed in China for naviga¬
tion long before it wa's known in Europe, yet to this
day it is not fo perfeft as in Europe. InHead of fuf-
pending it in order to make it aft freely, it is placed
upon a bed of faud, by which every motion of the fhip
diffurbs its operation. Hand-mills, termed querns,
were early ufed for grinding corn; and when corn came
to be railed in greater quantity, horfe-mills fucceeded.
Water-mills for grinding corn are deferibed by Vitru¬
vius. Wind-mills were known in Greece and in Ara¬
bia as early as the feventh century; and yet no mention
is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth. That they
were notknown in England in the reign of Henry VIII.
appears from a houlhold book of an ear! of Northum¬
berland, cotemporary with that king, Hating an al¬
lowance for three mill-horfes, “ two to draw in the
“ mill, and one to carry Huff' to the mill and fro.”
Water-mills for corn muff in England have been of a
later date. The ancients had mirror-glaffes, and em¬
ployed
Arts.
ART [ 709 ] ART
Arts. ployed glafs to imitate cryftal vafes and goblets : yet
they never thought of ufing it in windows. In the
1 3th century, the Venetians were the only people who
had the art of making cryftal glafs for mirrors. A
clock that ftrikes the hours was unknown in Europe
till the end of the 12th century. And hence the cuf-
tom of employing men to proclaim the hours during
night ; which to this day continues in Germany, Flan¬
ders, and England. Galileo was the firft who conceived
an idea that a pendulum might be ufeful for mea-
furing time ; and Huygens was the firlt who put the
idea in execution, by making a pendulum clock. Hook,
in the year 1660, invented a fpiral fpring for a watch,
though a watch was far from being a new invention.
Paper was made no earlier than the 14th century ; and
the invention of printing was a century later. Silk ma¬
nufactures were long eftablilhed in Greece before filk-
worms were introduced there. The manufacturers were
provided with raw filk from Perfia : but that com¬
merce. being frequently interrupted by war, two monks,
in the reign of Juftinian, brought eggs of the filk-
worm from Hindoftan, and taught'their countrymen
the method of managing them.—The art of reading
made a very flow progrefs. To encourage that art in
England, the capital punilhment for murder was re¬
mitted if the criminal could but read, which in law-
language is termed benefit of clergy. One would ima¬
gine that the art mull have made a very rapid progrefs
when fo greatly favoured : but there is a fignal proof
of the contrary ; for fo fmall an edition of the Bible
as 600 copies, tranflated into Englifh in the reign of
Henry VIII. was not wholly fold off in three years.
The people of England muft have been profoundly ig¬
norant in Queen Elizabeth’s time, when a forged claufe
added to the 20th article of the Englilh creed paffed
unnoticed till about 40 years ago.
The difcoveries of the Portuguefe in the weft coaft of
Africa is a remarkable inftance of the flow progrefs of
arts. In the beginning of the ly11’ century, they were
totally ignorant of that coaft beyond Cape Non, 28 deg.
north latitude. In 1410, the celebrated Prince Henry
of Portugal fitted out a fleet for difcoveries, which pro¬
ceeded along the coaft to Cape Bojadore in 26 deg. but
had not courage to double it. In 1418, Triftan Vaz
difcovered the ifland Porto Santo ; and the year after,
the ifland Madeira was difcovered. In 1439, a Portu¬
guefe captain doubled Cape Bojadore and the next
year the Portuguefe reached Cape Blanco, lat. 20. deg.
In 1446, Nuna Triftan doubled Cape Verd, lat. 14.
40. In 1448, Don Gonzallo Vallo took poffeflion of
the Azores. In 1449, the iflands of Cape Verd were
difcovered for Don Henry. In 1471, Pedro d’Efcovar
difcovered the ifland St Thomas and Prince’s ifland.
In 1484, Diego Cam difcovered the kingdom of Con¬
go. In 1486, Bartholomew Diaz, employed by John II.
of Portugal, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which
he called Carbo Tormentcfo, from the tempeftuous
a weather he found in the paflage.
Caufes Tim exertion of national fpirit upon any particular
which ad- art, promotes adlivity to profecute other arts. The Ro-
vance the mans, by conftant ftudy, came to excel in the art of
progrefs of war> wjjich led them naturally to improve upon other
arts. Having, ’in the progrefe of fociety, acquired
fome degree of tafte and polifh, a talent for writing
broke forth. Nevius compofed in yerfe feven bopks
Vol. I.
of the Punic war; befides comedies, replete with bit¬
ter raillery againft the nobility^ Ennius wrote annals,
and an epic poem. Lucius Andronicus was the father
of dramatic poetry in Rome. Pacuvius wrote trage¬
dies. Plautus and Terence wrote comedies. Lucilius
compofed fatires, which Cicero efteems to be flight
and void of erudition. Fabius Piftor, Cincius Ali-
mentus, Pifo Frugi, Valerius Antias, and Cato, were
rather -annalifts than hiftorians, confining themfelves to
naked fafts, ranged in order of time. The genius of the
Romans for the fine arts was much inflamed by Greek
learning, when free intercourfe between the two nations
was opened. Many of thofe who made the greateftfigure
in the Roman ftate commenced authors; Casfar, Cice¬
ro, tic. Sylla compofed memoirsof his own tranfa&ions,
a work much efteemed even in the days of Plutarch.
The progrefs of art feldom fails to be rapid, when
a people happen to be roufed out of a torpid ftate by
fome fortunate change of circumftances: profperity
contrafted with former abafement, gives to the mind a
fpring, which is vigoroufly exerted in every new pur-
fuit. The Athenians made but a mean figure under
the tyranny of Pififtratus ; but upon regaining free¬
dom and independence, they were converted into he¬
roes. Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, being deftroy-
ed by the king of Perfia, and the inhabitants made
flaves ; the Athenians, deeply affected with the mifery
of their brethren, boldly attacked the king in his own
dominions, and burnt the city of Sardis. In lefs than
10 years after, they gained a fignal victory at Mara¬
thon ; and, under Themiftocles, made head againft that
prodigious army with which Xerxes threatened utter
ruin to Greece. Such profperity produced its ufual ef-
fe6t: arts flourifhed with arms, and Athens became
the chief theatre for fciences as well as for fine arts.
The reign of Auguftus Casfar, which put an end to
the rancour of civil war, and reftored peace to Rome
with the comforts of fociety, proved an aufpicious sera
for literature; and produced a cloud of Latin hiftorians,
poets, and philofophers, to whom the moderns are in¬
debted for their tafte and talents. One who makes a
figure roufes emulation in all: one catches fire from
another, and the national fpirit is every where triumph¬
ant : claffical works are compofed, and ufeful difcove¬
ries made in every art and fcience. With regard to
Rome, it is true, that the Roman government under
Auguftus was in effeft defpotic : but defpotifm, in that
Angle inftance, made no obftruftion to literature, it ha¬
ving been the politic of that reign to hide power as
much as pofiible. A fimilar revolution happened ia
Tufcany about three centuries ago. That country ha¬
ving been divided into a number of fmall republics,
the people, excited by mutual hatred between fmall na¬
tions in clofe neighbourhood, became ferocious and
bloody, flaming with revenge for the flighteft offence.
Thefe republics being united under the Great Duke of
Tufcany, enjoyed the fweets of peace in a mild go¬
vernment. That comfortable revolution, which made
the deeper impreflion by a retrofpeft to recent calami¬
ties, roufed the national fpirit, and produced ardent
application to arts and literature. The reftoration of
the royal family in England, which put an end to a
cruel and envenomed civil war, promoted improvements
of every kind : arts and induftry made a rapid progrefs
among the people, though left to themfelves by a weak
4 U and
ART [
Arts. and flu&uating adminiftration. Had tlie nation, upon
~ that favourable turn of fortune, been blefled with a
fucceffion of able and virtuous princes, to what a height
might not arts and fcknces have been carried ! In
Scotland, a favourable period for improvement was the
reign of the firlt Robert, after (baking off the Englidr
yoke : but the domineering fpirit of the feudal fyltem
rendered abortive every attempt. The reftoration of
the royal family, mentioned above, animated the legif-
lature of Scotland to promote manufactures of various
kinds : but in vain ; for the union of the two crowns
had introduced defpotifm into Scotland, which funk
the genius of the people, and rendered them heartlefs
and indolent. Liberty, indeed, and many other ad¬
vantages, were procured to them by the union of the
two kingdoms ; but the falutary effedts were long fuf-
pended by mutual enmity, fuch as commonly fublifts
between neighbouring nations. Enmity wore out gra¬
dually, and the eyes of the Scots were opened to the
advantages of their prefent condition ; the national fpi¬
rit was roufed to emulate and to excel; talents were
exerted, hitherto latent; and Scotland at prefent makes
a figure in arts and fciences, above what it ever made
while an independent kingdom.
Another caufe of adtivity and animation, is the be-
ing engaged in fome important aCtion of doubtful e-
vent; a ftruggle for liberty, the refifting a potent in¬
vader, or the like. Greece, divided into fmall ftates
frequently at war with each other, advanced literature
and the fine arts to unrivalled perfection. The Corfi-
cans, while engaged in a perilous war for defence of
their liberties, exerted a vigorous national fpirit: they
founded an univerfity for arts and fciences, a public li¬
brary, and a public bank. After a long ftupor during
the dark ages of Chriftianity, arts and literature re¬
vived among the turbulent ftates of Italy. The royal
fociety in London, and the academy of fciences in Pa¬
ris, were both of them inftituted after civil wars that
had animated the people and roufed their activity.
As the progrefs of arts and fciences toward perfec¬
tion is greatly promoted by emulation, nothing is more
fatal to an art or fcience than to remove that fpur, as
where fome extraordinary genius appears who foars
above rivalftiip. Mathematics feem to be declining in
Britain : the great Newton, having furpaffed all the
ancients, has not left to the moderns even the fainteft
hope of equalling him ; and what man will enter the
lifts who defpairs of victory ?
In a country thinly peopled, where even neceifary
arts want hands, it is common to fee one perfon ex-
ercifing more arts than one: in feveral parts of Scot¬
land, one man ferves as a phyfician, furgeon, and apo¬
thecary; In every populous country, even fimple arts
are fplit into parts, and each part has an artift appro¬
priated to it. In the large towns of ancient Egypt,
a phyfician was confined to a fingle difeal'e. In me¬
chanic arts that method is excellent. As a hand con¬
fined to a fingle operation becomes both expert and ex¬
peditious, a mechanic art is perfected by having its dif¬
ferent operations diftributed among the greateft num¬
ber of hands: many hands are employed in making a
watch ; and a ftill greater number in manufacturing a
web of woollen cloth. Various arts or operations car¬
ried on by the fame man, envigorate his mind, becaufe
they exercife different faculties; and as he cannot be
io ] ART
equally expert in every art or operation, he is fre- Arts,
quently reduced to fupply want of /kill by. thought '
and invention. Conftant application, on the contrary,
to a fingle operation, confines the mind to a fingle
objeCt, and excludes all thought and invention : in
fuch a train, of life, the operator becomes dull and ftu-
pid, like a bead of burden. The difference is vi-
iible in the manners of the people : in a country,
where, from want of hands, feveral occupations mult
be carried on by the fame perfon, the people are know¬
ing and converfable : in a populous country, where ma¬
nufactures flourilli, they are ignorant and unfociable.
The fame effeCt is equally viiible in countries where an
art or manufacture is confined to a certain clafs of men.
It is vifible in Indoftan, where the people are divided
into cafts, which never mix even by marriage, and
where every man follows his father’s trade. The Dutch
lint-boors are a fimilar inftance : the fame families
carry on the trade from generation to generation; and
are accordingly ignorant and brutifh even beyond other
Dutch peafants. The inhabitants of Buckhaven, a
fea-port in the county of Fife, were originally a co¬
lony of foreigners, invited hither to teach our people
the art of filhing. They continue fifhers to this day,
marry among themfelves, have little intercourfe with
their neighbours, and are dull and ftupid to a proverb. 3
Ufeful arts paved the way to fine arts. Men upon Progrefs of
whom the former had bellowed every convenience, ar/f'
turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was ftu-
died in objeCls of fight; and men of tafte attached
themfelves to the fine arts, which multiplied their en¬
joyments and improved their benevolence. Sculpture
and painting made an early figure in Greece ; which
afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be copied in
tbefe imitative arts. Statuary, a more fimple imita¬
tion than painting, was fooner brought to perfection:
the llatue of Jupiter by Phidias, and of Juno by Po-
lycletes, though the admiration of all the world, were
executed long before the art of light and lhade was
known. Apollodorus, and Zeuxis his difciple, who
flourilhed in the 15th Olympiad, were the firft who
figured in that art. Another caufe concurred to ad¬
vance ftatuary before painting in Greece, viz. a great
demand for ftatues of their gods. Architecture, as a
fine art, made a flower progrefs. Proportions, upon
which its elegance chiefly depends, cannot be accu¬
rately afeertained, but by an infinity of trials in great
buildings : a model cannot be relied on ; for a Targe
and a fmall building, even of the fame form, require
different proportions.
From the fine arts mentioned, we proceed to lite¬
rature. It is agreed, among all antiquaries, that the
firft writings were in verfe, and that writing in profe 4
was of a much later date. The firft Greek who wrote Literary
in profe was Pherecides Synis : the firft Roman was compofition
Appius Caecus, who compofed a declamation againft
Pyrrhus. The four books of the Chatah Shade,
which is the facred hook of Hindoftan, are compofed
in verfe ftanzas ; and the Arabian compofitions in profe
followed long after thofe in verfe. To account for that
Angular faCt, many learned pens have been employed ;
but without fuccefs. By fome it has been urged, that
as memory is the only record of events w'here writing
is unknown, hiftory originally was compofed in verfe,
for the fake of memory. This is not fatisfaCtory. To
undertake
Arts,
ART [ 711 ] ART
Arts, undertake the painful talk of compofmg in vcrfe, mere- however by the fame perfon, but by dilferent perfon*
ly for the fake of memory, would require more fore- who have occafion in the courfe of the ftory tb fay the
fight than ever was exerted by a Barbarian: not to fame things ; which is natural in the dramatic mode,
mention that other means were ufed for preferving the where things are reprefented precifely as they were
memory of remarkable events; a heap of ttones, a pillar, tranfafted. In that view, Homer’s repetitions are a
or other objedt that catches the eye. The account beauty, not a blemifh; for they are confined to the
given by Longinus is more ingenious. In a fragment dramatic part, and never occur in the narrative,
of his treatife on verfe, the only part that remains, he But the dramatic mode of compofition, however
obferves, “ that meafure or verfe belongs to poetry, pleafing, is tedious and intolerable in a long hiftory.
“ becaufe poetry reprefents the various paffions with In the prpgrefs of fociety new appetites and new paf-
“ their language ; for which reafon the ancients, in fions arife ; men come to be involved with each other in
“ their ordinary difeourfe, delivered their thoughts in various connexions ; incidents and events multiply,
“ verfe rather than in profe.” Longinus thought, and hiftory becomes intricate by an endlefs variety of
that anciently men were more expofed to accidents and circumftances. Dialogue accordingly is more fparingly
dangers, than when they were proteXed by good go- ufed, and in hiftory plain narration is mixed with it.
vernment and by fortified cities. But he feems not to Narration is as it were the ground-work ; and dia-
have adverted, that fear and grief, infpired by dangers logue is raifed upon it, like flowers in embroidery,
and misfortunes, are better fuited to humble profe than . Homer is admitted by all to be the great mafterinthat
to elevated verfe. It may be added, that "however na- mode of compofition.
tural poetical diXion may be when one is animated with The narrative mode came in time fo to prevail, that
any vivid paflion, it is not fuppofeable that the ancients in a long chain of hiftory, the writer commonly leaves
never wrote nor fpoke but when excited by pafiion. off" dialogue altogether. Early writers of that kind
Their hiftory, their laws, their covenants, were cer- appear to have very little judgment in diftingui/hing
tainly not compofed in that tone of mind. capital faXs from minute circumftances, fuch as can be
An important article in the progrefs of the fine arts, fupplied by the reader without being mentioned. The
which writers have not fufficiently attended to, will, hiftory of the Trojan war by Dares Phrygius is a cu-
perhaps, explain this myftery. The article is the pro- rious inftance of that cold and creeping manner of com-
feffion of a bard, which fprung up in early times, be- pofition. The Roman hiftories before the time of Ci-
* See the fore writing was known *, and died away gradually cero are chronicles merely. Cato, Fabius PiXor,jand
article as wr;ting turned more and more common f. Pifo, confined themfelves to naked faXs. In the Au-
^'see^Bard The fongs of the bards, being univerfal favourites, guftse Hiftoriae Scriptores we find nothing but a jejune
were certainly the firft compofitions that writing was narrative of faXs, commonly of very little moment,
employed upon : they would be carefully colleXed concerning a degenerate people, without a Angle inci-
by the moft fkilful writers, in order to preferve them dent that can roufe the imagination or exercife the
in perpetual remembrance. The following part of judgment. The Monkifti hiftories are all of them com-
the progrefs is obvious. People acquainted with no pofed in the fame manner.
written compofitions, but what were in verfe, com- The dry narrative manner being very little inte-
pofed in verfe their laws, their religious ceremonies, refting or agreeable, a tafte for embdllilhment prompt-
and every memorable tranfaXion that was intended to ed fome writers to be copious and verbofe. Saxo-
be preferved in memory by writing. But when fubjeXs Grammaticus, who in the i2rh century compofed in
of writing multiplied, and became more and more in- Latin a hiftory of Denmark, furprifingly pure at that
volved; when people began to reafon, to teach, and to early period, is extremely verbofe and full of touto-
harangue; they were obliged to defeend to humble logics. Such a ftyle, at any rate unpleafant, is into-
profe; for to confine a writer or fpeaker to verfe in lerable in a modern tongue, before it is enriched with
handling fubjeXs of that nature, would be a burden a ftock of phrafes for exprefling aptly the great vari-
s unfupportable. ety of incidents that enter into hiftory.
Hiftory. The profe compofitions of early hiftorians are all of The perfeXion of hiftorical compofition, which
them dramatic. A writer deftitute of art is naturally writers at laft attain to after wandering through vari-
prompted to relate faXs as he faw them performed : he ous imperfeX modes, is a relation of interefting faXs,
introduces his perfonages as fpeaking and conferring; conneXed with their motives and confequences. An hi-
and he himfelf relates what was aXed, and not fpoke. ftory of that kind is truly a chain of caufes and effeXs.
The hiftorical books of the Old Teftament are com- The hiftory of Thucydides, and ftill more that of
pofed in that mode ; and fo addiXed to the dramatic Tacitus, are fhining inftances of that mode. <s
are the authors of thofe books, that they frequently in- Eloquence was of a later date than the art of literary Eloquence,
troduce God himfelf into the dialogue. At the fame compofition ; for till the latter was improved, there
time, the fimplicity of that mode is happily fuited to the were no models for ftudying the former. Cicero’s
poverty of every language in its early periods. The oration for Rofcius is compofed in a ftyle diffufe and
dramatic mode has a delicious effeX in exprefling fen- highly ornamented ; which, fays Plutarch, was uni-
timent, and every thing that is fimple and tender, verfally approved, becaufe at that time the ftyle in
Read, as an inftance of a low incident becoming, by Afia, introduced into Rome with its luxury, was in
that means, not a little interefting, Ruth i. 8. to iv. 16. high vogue. But Cicero, in a journey to Greece,
The dramatic mode is far from pleafing fo much in where he leifurely ftudied Greek authors, was taught
relating bare hiftorical faXs. Read, as an example, to prune off fuperfluities, and to purify his ftyle, which
the ftory of Adonijah in 1 Kings i. 11.—49. he did to a high degree of refinement. He introdu-
In that paffage there are frequent repetitions ; not ced into his native tongue a fweetnefs, a grace, a ma-
4 U 2 jefty,
ART [?
Arts. jefty, that furprifed the world, and even the Romans
themfelves. Cicero obferves with great regret, that if
ambition for power had not drawn Julius Csefar from
the bar to command legions, he would have become
the moll complete orator in the world. So partial are
men to the profeffion in which they excel. Eloquence
triumphs in a popular affembly, makes fome figure in
a court of law compofed of many judges, very little
where there is but a fingle judge, and none at all in a
defpotic government. , Eloquence flourilhed in the re¬
publics of Athens and of Rome; and makes fome fi-
T gure at prefent in a Britifh houfe of Commons.
Tragedy. The Greek ftage has been juftly admired among all
polite nations. The tragedies of Sophocles and Eu¬
ripides in particular are by all critics held to be perfect
in their kind, excellent models for imitation, but far a-
bove rivallhip. - If the Greek llage was fo early
brought to maturity, it is a phenomenon not a little
Angular in the progrefs of arts. The Greek tragedy
made a rapid progrefs from Thefpis to Sophocles and
Euripides, whofe compofitions are wonderful produc¬
tions of genius, confidering that the Greeks at that
period were but beginning to emerge from roughnefs
and barbarity into a talle for literature. The compo¬
fitions of Efchylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, muft
have been highly relifhed among a people who had no
idea of any thing more perfect. We judge by com-
parifon, and every work is held to be perfedl that
has ino rival. It ought at the fame time to be kept in
view, that it was not the dialogue which chiefly en¬
chanted the Athenians, nor variety in the pafiions re-
prefented, nor perferfion in the aftors; but machinery
and pompous decoration, joined with exquifite mufic.
That thefe particulars were carried to the greateft
height, we may with certainty conclude from the ex¬
travagant fums beftowed on them : the exhibiting a
fingle tragedy was more expenfive to the Athenians,
than their fleet or their army in any fingle campaign.
One would imagine, however, that thefe compoli-
tions were too Ample to enchant for ever ; as variety in
aftion, fentiment, and paflion, is requifite, without
which the ftage will not continue long a favourite en¬
tertainment: and yet we find not a fingle improve¬
ment attempted after the days of Sophocles and Euri¬
pides. The manner of performance, indeed, prevented
abfolutely any improvement. A fluftuation of paflion
and refined fentiments would have made no figure on
the Grecian ftage. Imagine the difcording fcene be¬
tween Brutus and Caflius in Julius Caefar to be there
exhibited, or the handkerchief in the Moor of Venice :
how flight would be their effedl, when pronounced in
a mafic, and through a pipe ? The workings of nature
upon the countenance, and the fledlions of voice ex-
preflive of various feelings, fo deeply affefting in mo¬
dern reprefentation, would have been entirely loft. If
a great genius had arifen with talents for compofing a
pathetic tragedy in perfeftion, he would have made no
figure in Greece. An edifice muft have been eredled
of a moderate fize : new aftors muft have been trained
to a£l with a bare face, and to pronounce in their own
voice. And after all there remained a greater miracle ftill
to be performed, viz. a total reformation of tafte in the
people of Athens. In one word, the fimplicity of the
Greek tragedy was fuited to the manner of a&ing; and
that manner excluded all improvements.
12 ] ART
With refpefl to comedy, it does not appear that the Arts.
Greek comedy furpafled the tragedy in its progrefs ^
toward perfeftion. Horace mentions three ftages of Comedy.
Greek comedy. The firil well fuited to the rough and
coarfe manners of the Greeks, when Eupolis, Crati-
nus, and Ariftophanes, wrote. Thefe authors were not
afhamed to reprefent on the ftage real perfons, not even
difguifing their names: of which we have a ftriking in-
ftance in a comedy of Ariftophanes, called The Clouds,
where Socrates is introduced, and moft contemptuouf-
ly treated. This fort of comedy, fparing neither gods
nor men, was reftrained by the magiftrates of Athens,
fo far as to prohibit perfons to be named on the ftage.
This led writers to do what is done at prefent: the
characters and manners of known perfons were painted
fo much to the life, that there could be no miftake;
and the fatire was indeed heightened by this regula¬
tion, as it was an additional pleafure to find out the
names that were meant in the reprefentation. This was
termed the middle comedy. But as there ftill remained
too great fcope for obloquy and licentioufnefs, a law
was made prohibiting real events or incidents to be in¬
troduced upon the ftage. This law happily baniftied
fatire againft individuals, and confined it to manners
and cuftoms in general. Obedient to this law are the
comedies of Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus, who
flourifhed about 300 years before the Chriftian aera.
And this is termed the third Jlage of Greek comedy.
The comedies of Ariftophanes, which ftill remain, err
not lefs againft tafte than againft decency. Butthe Greek
comedy is fuppofed to have been confiderably refined by
Menander and his cotemporaries. Their works, however,
were far from perfection, if we can draw any conjeCture
from their imitator Plautus, who wrote about a century
later. Plautus was a writer of genius ; and it may be
reafonably fuppofed that his copies did not fall much
ftiort of the originals, at leaft in matters that can be
faithfully copied ; and he fhews very little art, either
in his compofitions, or in the conduft of his pieces.
With refpeCt to the former, his plots are wondrous
fimple, very little varied, and very little interefting.
The fubjeCl of almoft every piece is a young man in
love with a mufic-girl,. defiring to purchafe her from.
the procurer, and employing a favourite flave to cheat
his father out of the price ; and the different wrays of
accomplifliing the cheat is all the variety we find. In
fome few of his comedies the ftory rifes to a higher
tone, the mufic-girl being difcovered to be the daugh¬
ter of a free-man, which removes every obftruftion to
a marriage between her and her lover. In the condudl
of his pieces there is a miferable defedl of art. Inftearf
of unfolding the fubjeft in the progrefs of the a&ion,
as is done by Terence, and by every modern writer,
Plautus introduces a perfon for no other end but to ex¬
plain the ftory to the audience. In one of his come¬
dies, a houfehold-god is fo obliging as not only to un¬
fold the fubjedt, but to relate before-hand every parti¬
cular that is to be reprefented, not excepting the cata-
ftrophe.
The Roman theatre, from the time of Plautus to that
of Terence, made a rapid progrefs. Ariftotle defines
comedy to be “ an imitation of light and trivial fub-
je£ts, provoking laughter.” The comedies of Plautus
correfpond accurately to that definition : thofe of Te¬
rence rife to a higher tone.
Nothing
ART [
Arts. Nothing is more evident than the foperiority of Te-
rence above Plautus in the art of writing ; and, confi-
dering that Terence is a later writer, nothing would
appear more natural, if they did not copy the fame o-
riginals. It may be owing to genius that Terence ex¬
celled in purity of language, and propriety of dialogue;
but how account for his Superiority over Plautus in the
conftruftion and conduft of a play ? It will not cer¬
tainly be thought, that Plautus would imitate the worft
conftrudled plays, leaving the bed; to thofe who fliould
come after him. This difficulty does not feem to have
occurred to any of the commentators. Had the works
of Menander and of his cotemporaries been preferred,
they probably would have explained the myftery;
which for want of that light will probably remain a
4 myftery for ever.
Epopee. Homer has for more than 2000 years been held the
prince of poets. Such perfection in an author who
flourifhed when arts were far fhort of maturity, is truly
wonderful. The nations engaged in the Trojan war
are defcribed by him as in a progrefs from the fhepherd-
ftate to that of agriculture. Frequent mention is made
in the Iliad of the moft eminent men being fhepherds.
Andromache, in particular, mentions feven of her bre¬
thren who were flain by Achilles as they tended their
father’s flocks and herds. In that ftate, garments of
woollen cloth were ufed ; but the fkins of beafts, the
original clothing, were ftill worn as an upper garment:
every chief in the Iliad appears in that drefs. Such in¬
deed was the fimplicity of this early period,, that a
black ewe was promifed by each chief to the man who
would undertake to be a fpy. In times of fuch fimpli¬
city, literature could not be far advanced ; and it is a
great doubt, whether there was at that time a fingle
poem of the epic kind for Homer to imitate or improve
upon. Homer is undoubtedly a wonderful genius,
perhaps the greateft that ever exifted : his fire, and the
boldnefs of his conceptions, are inimitable. Butin
that early age, it would fall little Ihort of a real mira¬
cle, to find fuch ripenefs of judgment, and correAnefs
of execution, as in modern writers are the fruits of long
experience and progrdfive improvements during the
courfe of many centuries. Accordingly, that Homer
is far from being fo ripe, or fo correct, cannot efcape
the obfervation of any reader of tafte and difcernment.
One ftriking particular is, his digreffions without end,
which draw our attention from the principal fubjeft.
Diomedes, for inftance, meeting with Glaucus in th^
field of battle, and doubting, from his majeftic air,
whether he might not be an immortal, inquires who he
was, declaring that he would not fight with a god.
Glaucus lays hold of this very flight opportunity, in
the very heat of a&ion, to give a long hiftory of his
family. In the mean time, the reader’s patience is
put to a trial, and his ardour cools. Again, Aga¬
memnon defiring advice how to refill the Trojans, Dio¬
medes fprings forward ; but, before he offers advice,
gives the hiftory of all his progenitors, and of their
ehara&ers, in a long train. And, after all, what was
the fage advice that required fuch a preface ? It was,
that Agamemnon fhould exhort the Greeks to fight
bravely. At any rate, was Diomedes fo little known,
as to make it proper to fufpend the a&ion at fo critical
a jundlure, for a genealogical hiftory ? There is a
third particular, which jultly merits cenfure ; and
713 1 ART
that is, an endlefs number of minute circumftances, e- Arts,
fpecially in the defcription of battles, where they are !
moft improper. The capital beauty of an epic poem
ip, the feleftion of fuch incidents and circumftances as
make a deep impreflion, keeping out of view every
thing low or familiar. An account of a fingle battle
employs the whole fifth book of the Iliad, and a great
part of the fixth: yet in the whole there is no general
adlion ; but unknown warriors, whom we never heard
of before, killed at a diftance with an arrow or a jave¬
lin ; and every wound defcribed with anatomical accu¬
racy. The whole feventeenth book is employed in the
conteft about the dead body of Patroclus, fluffed with
minute circumftances, below the dignity of an epic
poem. In fuch fcenes the reader is fatigued with end¬
lefs particulars; and has nothing to fupport him but
the melody of Homer’s verfification. ro
Having traced the progrefs of the fine arts toward Caufes of
maturity, in a fummary way, the decline of thefe arts the decline
comes next in order. An art, in its progrefs toward of the fine
maturity, is greatly promoted by emulation; and, af-” S‘
ter arriving at maturity, its downfal is not lefs promo¬
ted by it. It is difficult to judge of perfedlion but by
comparifon ; and an artift, ambitious, to outftrip his
predeceffors; cannot fubmit to be an imitator, but muft
ftrike out fomething new, which, in an art advanced
to ripenefs, feldom fails to be a degeneracy. This
caufe of the decline of the fine arts may be.illuftrated
by various inftances. The perfection of vocal mufic is
to accompany paflion, and to enforce fentiment. In
ancient Greece, the province of mufic was well under-
ftood ; which, being confined within its proper fphere,
had an enchanting influence. Harmony at that time
was very little cultivated, becaufe it was of very little
ufe : melody reaches the heart, and it is by it chiefly
that a fentiment is enforced, or a paffion foothed : har¬
mony, on the contrary, reaches the ear only; and it
is a matter of undoubted experience, that the moft me¬
lodious airs admit but of very Ample harmony. Art-
ifts, in latter times, ignorant why harmony was fo little
regarded by the ancients, applied tbemfelves ferioufly
to its cultivation ; and they have been wonderfully fuc-
cefsful. But they have been fuccefsful at the expence
of melody ; which, in modern compofitions,'' generally
fpeaking, is loft amid the blaze of harmony. Thefe
compofitions tickle the ear by the luxury of complica¬
ted founds, but feldom make any impreflion on the
heart. The Italian opera, in its form, refembles the
Greek tragedy, from which it is evidently copied; but
very little in fubftance. In the latter, mufic being
made fubfervient to fentiment, the dialogue is nervous
and fublime : in the former, the whole weight is laid on
mufic; and the dialogue, devoid of fentiment, is weak
and fpiritlefs. ReftTefs man knows no golden mean,
but will be attempting innovations without end.—By
the fame ambition, architecture has vifibly declined
from its perfedlion. The Ionic was the favourite
order when architedlure was in its height of glory.
The Corinthian order came next; which, in attempting
greater perfedlion, has deviated from the true fimpli¬
city of nature : and the deviation is ftill greater in the
Compofite order. With refpedt to literary produdlions,
the firft effays of the Romans were very imperfedt..
We may judge of this from Plautus, whofe compofi¬
tions are abundantly rude, though much admired by
his
ART [ 7H ] ART
liis cotemporaries, being the Bed that exifted at that
time. The exalted fpirit of the Romans hurried them
on to the grand and beautiful; and literary produc¬
tions of all kinds were in perfeftion when Auguftus
reigned. In attempting ftill greater perfe&ion, the
Roman compofitions became a ftrange jumble of incon-
fsftent parts : they were tumid and pompous ; and, at
the fame time, full of antithefes, conceit, and tinfel
wit. Every thing new in the fine arts pleafes, though
lefs perfect than what we are accuftomed to ; and, for
that reafon, fuch compofitions were generally relilh-
ed. We fee not by what gradual Heps writers, af¬
ter the time of Auguftus, deviated from the patterns
that were before them ; for no book of any moment
after that time is preferved, till we come down to Se¬
neca, in whofe works nature and fimplicity give place
to artificial thought and baftard wit. He was a
great corrupter of the Reman tafte; and after him
nothing was relifhed but brilliant ftrokes of dan-
cy, with very little regard to fentiment: even Vir¬
gil and Cicero made no figure in comparifon. Lucan
has a forced elevation of thought and ftyle, very diffi¬
cult to be fupported ; and, accordingly, he finks often
into puerile refle&ions; witnefs his encomium on the
river Po, which, fays he, Would equal the Danube,
had it the fame number of tributary ftreams. Quinti¬
lian, a writer of true and claffical tafte, who was pro¬
tected and encouraged by Vefpafian, attempted to ftem
the tide of falfe writing. His rhetoric is compofed in
an elegant ftyle; and his obfervations contain every de¬
licacy of the critical art. At the fame time flourifhed
Tacitus, pofieffing a more extenfive knowledge of the
nature of man than any other author, ancient or mo¬
dern, if Shakefpeare be not excepted. His ftyle is ori¬
ginal, concife, compact, and comprehenfive ; and, in
what is properly called his hijiory, perfectly correft and
beautiful. He has been imitated by feveral, but never
equalled by any. Brutus is faid to be the laft of the
Romans for love of liberty : Quintilian and Tacitus
may be faid to be the laft of the Romans for literary
genius. Pliny the Younger is no exception: his ftyle
is affedled, turgid, and full of childifh brilliancy. Se¬
neca and Pliny are proper examples of writers who ftu-
dy fhow more than fnbftance, and who make fenfe yield
to found. The difference between thefe authors and
thofe of the Auguftan age, refembles the difference be¬
tween Greek and Italian mufic. Mufic, among the
Greeks, limited itfelf to the employment to which it is
deftined by nature, viz. to be the handmaid of fenfe,
to inforce, enliven, or fweeten a fentiment. In the Ita¬
lian opera, the miftrefs is degraded to be handmaid;
a,nd harmony triumphs, with very little regard to fen¬
timent.
Another great caufethat precipitates the downfal of
every fine art is defpotifra. The reafon is obvious; and
there is a difrtial example of it in Rome, particularly
with regard to eloquence. We learn from a dialogue
accounting for the corruption of the Roman eloquence,
that in the decline of the art it became fafhionable to
fluff harangues with impertinent poetical quotations,
without any view but ornament merely ; and this alfo
was long fafhionabR in France. It happened unluck¬
ily for the Romans, and for the world, that the fine
arts were at their height in Rome, and not much upon
the decline in Greece, when defpotifm put an end to the
republic. Auguftus, it is true, retarded their fall, par- Arts.
ticularly that of literature ; it being the politic of his  
reign to hide defpotifm, and to give his government
an air of freedom. His court was a fchool of urbani¬
ty, where people of genius acquired that delicacy of
tafte, that elevation of fentiment, and that purity of
expreffion, which charafterize the writers of his time.
He honoured men of learning, admitted them to his
table, and was bountiful to them. It would be pain¬
ful to follow the decline of the fine arts in Rome to
their total extirpation. The tyrrany of Tiberius, and
of fubfequent emperors, broke at laft the elevated and
independent fpirit of the brave Romans, reduced them
to abjetft flavery, and left not a fpark of genius. The
feieneexjf law is the only exception, as it flourifhed even
in the worft of times : the Roman lawyers were a re-
fpedlable body, and lefs the object of jeaioufy than
men of power and extenfive landed property. Among
the Greeks alfo, a conquered people, the fine arts
decayed ; but not fo rapidly as at Rome; the Greeks,
farther removed from the feat of government, being
lefs within the reach of a Roman tyrant. During
their depreifion, they were guilty of the moft puerile
conceits : witnefs verfes compofed in the form of an
ax, an egg, wings, and fuch like. The ftyle of Greek
authors, in the reign of the emperor Adrian, is une¬
qual, obfeure, ftiff, and affedled. Lucian is the only
exception that may be made.
We need fcarce any other caufe but defpotifm, to
account for the decline of ftatuary and painting in
Greece. Thefe arts had arrived at their utmoft per-
feftion about the time of Alexander the Great; and
from that time they declined gradually with the vigour
of a free people ; for Greece was now enflaved by the
Macedonian power. It may in general be obferved,
that when a nation becomes ftationary in that degree
of power which it acquires from its conftitution and fi-
tuation, the national fpirit fubfides, and men of talents
become rare. It is ftill worfe with a nation that is
funk below its former power and pre-eminence; and
worft of all when it is reduced to flavery. Other caufes
concurred to accelerate the downfal of the arts men¬
tioned. Greece, in the days of Alexander, was filled
with ftatuesof excellent workmanftiip; and there being
little demand for more, the later ftatuaries were re¬
duced to heads and bufts. At laft; the Romans put a
total end both to ftatuary and painting in Greece, by
plundering it of its fineft pieces; and the Greeks, ex-
pofed to the avarice of the conquerors, bellowed no
longer any money on the fine arts.
The decline of the fine arts in Rome is by a * writer * Petronius
of tafte and elegance aferibed to a caufe different from Arbiter,
any above mentioned, a caufe that overwhelms man¬
hood as well as the fine arts where-ever it prevails;
and that is opulence, joined with its faithful attendants
avarice and luxury. “ In ancient times (fays he),
when naked virtue had her admirers, the liberal arts
were in their higheft vigour; and there was a generous
conteft among men, that nothing of real and perma¬
nent advantage Ihould long remain undifeovered. De¬
mocritus extradled the juice of every herb and plant;
and, left the virtue of a Angle Hone or twig Ihould e-
fcape him, he confumed a lifetime in experiments.
Eudoxus, immerfed in the ftudy of aftronomy, fpent
his age upon the top of a mountain. Chryfippus, to
llimulate
ART [ :
Arts. ftimulate his inventive faculty, thrice purified his ge-
nius with hellebore. To turn to the imitative arts :
Lyfippus, while labouring on the forms of a lingle fta-
tue, perifiied from want. Myron, whofe powerful
hand gave to the brafs almoft the foul of man, and ani¬
mals,—at his death found not an heir! Of us of mo¬
dern times what (hall we fay i Immerfed in drunken-
nefs and debauchery, we want the fpirit to cultivate
thofe arts which we poflefs. We inveigh againft the
manners of antiquity ; wx ftudy vice alone ; and vice is
all we teach. Where now is the art of reafoning l
Where aftronomy ? Where is the right path -of wif-
dom ? What man now-a-days is heard in our temples
to make a vow for the attainment of eloquence, or for
the difcovery of the fountain of true philofophy ? Nor
do we even pray for health of body, or a found under-
ftanding. One, while he has fcarce entered the porch
of the temple, devotes a gift in the event of the death of a
rich relation ; another prays for the difcovery of a trea-
fure ; a third for a minifierial fortune. The fenate it-
fdf, the exemplary preceptor of what is good and lau¬
dable, has promifed a thoufand pounds of gold to the
capitol; and, to remove all reproach from the crime of
avarice, has offered a bribe to Jupiter himfelf. How
■fhould we wonder that the art of painting has declined,
U'hen, in the eyes both of the gods and men, there is
more beauty in a mails of gold, than in all the works of
Phidias and Apelles.”—•In England, the fine arts are
far from fuch perfe&ion as to fuffer by opulence. They
are in a progrefs, it is true, toward maturity; but
they proceed in a very flow pace.
There is ftill another caufe that never fails to under¬
mine a fine art in a country where it is brought to
perfe&ion, abftra&ing from every one of the caufes
above mentioned. It is remarked a little above, that
nothing is more fatal to an art or to a fcience than a
performance fo much fuperior to all of the kind as to
extinguifh emulation. This remark is exemplified in
the great Newton, who, having furpaffed all the an¬
cients, has not left to his countrymen even the fainteft
hope of rivalling him ; and to that caufe is attributed
the vifible decline of mathematics in Great Britain.
The fame caufe would have been fatal to the arts of
ftatuary and painting among the Greeks, even though
they had continued a free people. The decay of paint¬
ing in modern Italy is, probably, owing to the fame
caufe: Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, &c. are
lofty oaks that bear down young plants in their neigh¬
bourhood, and intercept from them the funfhine, of e-
mulation. Had the art of painting made a flower pro-
grefs in Italy, it might have there continued in vigour
to this day-. Velleius Paterculus fays judicioufly, “ Ut
“ primo ad confequendosquos priores ducimus accendi-
“ mur ; ita, ubi aut prasteriri aut sequari eos poffe de-
“ fperavimus, ftudium cum fpe fenefcit; et quod adfe-
“ qui non poteft, fequi definit: prasteritoque eo in quo
“ -eminere non poflimus, aliquid in quo nitamur con-
“ quirimus.”
The decline of an art or fcience proceeding from the
foregoing caufe, is the moft rapid where a fin A com¬
panion can be inftituted between the works of different
mafters. The fuperiority of Newton above every other
mathematician can be afcertained with precifion ; arid
hence the hidden decline of that fcience in Great Bri¬
tain. In Italy a talent for painting, continued many
715 ] ART
years in vigour, bccaufe no painter appeared with fuch Arts,
fuperiority of genius as to carry perfection in every
branch of the art. As one furpaffed in defigning, one
in colouring, one in graceful attitudes, there was ftill
fcope for emulation. But when at laft there was not a
fingle perfeCtipn but what one or other mafter had ex¬
celled in, from that period the art began to languifh.
Architecture continued longer in vigour than painting,
becaufe the principles of comparifon in the former are
lefs precife than in the latter. The artift who could
not rival his predeceffors in an eftablifhed mode, fought
out a new mode for hknfelf, which, though perhaps
Ids elegant or perfedf, was for a time fupported by
novelty.
Ufeful arts will never be neglefted in a country Ufeful arcs
where there is any police; for every man finds his ac-Ie& fnbjeft
count in them. Fine arts are more precarious. They t0 ^dine,
are not relifhed but by perfons of tafte, Ayho are
rare ; and fuch as can fpare great fums for fupport-
ing them are ftill more rare. For that reafon, they
will never flourilh in any country, uniefs patroni¬
zed by the fovereign, or by men of power and opu¬
lence. They merit fuch patronage, as one of the
fprings of government: and a capital fpring they make,
by multiplying amufements, and humanizing manners;
upon which account they have always been encouraged
by good princes. ,3
General Theory of the Polite Arts. The effence of THBO*y
the polite arts, as before obferved, confifts in exprejfon. of the Polite
The end of all thefe arts is pleafure ; whereas the end
of the fciences is injlruttion and utility. Some of the
polite arts indeed, as eloquence, poetry, and architec¬
ture, are frequently applied to objects that are ufeful,
orexercifed in matters tkat are inftruftive, as we ftiall
fnow more particularly in their proper place ; but in
thefe cafes, though the ground-work belongs to Thofe
fciences which employ the underftanding, yet the ex-
preffion arifes from the inventive faculty. It is a pic¬
ture that is defigned by Minerva, to which the mufes
add the colouring, and the graces the frame. This u-
nion forms therefore the perfection of the art, accord¬
ing to that fententious and well known precept of Ho¬
race : Omne tulitpunctum, qui mifcuit utile ditlci. 13
Under the denomination, therefore, of Polite Arts, What arts
we comprehend, 1. Eloquence; 2. Poetry; 3. Mufic; ^°a^nomi''
4. Painting; 5. Sculpture ; 6. Graving; 7. Archi-
tehlure ; 8. Declamation ; 9. Dancing. Particular
defcriptions of thefe arts are given under their refpec-
tive names. This branch of the prefent article is in¬
tended as a general introduftion to them; and, as
fuch, will be occafionally referred to.
There is one very effential refledlion, which it ap¬
pears to us proper to make in the firft place, on
the polite arts in general. All the rules in the
world are not fufficient to make a great poet, an able
orator, or an excellent artift ; becaufe the quality, ne-
ceffary to form thefe, depends on the natural difpo-
fition, the fire of genius, which no human art can con- i4
fer, but which is the pure gift of heaven. The rules, Ufe of prs-
however, will.prevent a man from being a bad artift, a cePts-
dull orator, or a wretched poet; feeing they are the re¬
flexions of the greateft mafters in thofe arts, and that
they point out the rocks which the artift: flrould ftiun
in the exercife of his talents. They are of ufe, more¬
over, in facilitating his labours, and in direXing him
Arts.
Art fe
ART [ 7i
to arrive by the fhorteft and fureft road to perfeftion.
They refine, ftrengthen, and confirm, his tafte. Na¬
ture, abandoned to herfelf, has conftantly fomething
wild and favage. Art, founded on juft and fagacious
rules, gives her elegance, dignity, and politenefs ; and
it is impofiible to facrifice properly to the graces, with-
15 out knowing the incenfe that is pleafing to them.
Beauty, ge- Beauty is the objecl of all the polite arts. It is not
what ^ however fo eafy, as it may feem, to give a clear and
i, determinate idea of what we precifely mean by that
* Sec - he term *. Many able writers, who have treated exprefsly
on the fubjeft, have ftiewn that they were totally igno¬
rant of what it was. It is one of thofe expreffions
that we comprehend immediately, that prefent us with
a clear and precife idea, that leave a diftinft impreflion
on our minds, when it is Amply written or pronounced;
V but which philofophers envelope in darknefs, when
' . they attempt to elucidate it by definitions and defcrip-
tions ; and the more, as mankind have different ideas
beauty, t’ ‘ • oj i^ps and taftes being as various as
’mderfta mgs and phyfiognomies. We may fay
ho "in general, that beauty refults from the va¬
rious perfections of which any object is fufceptible, and
which it aCtually poffeffes ; and that the perfections
which produce beauty confift principally in the agree¬
able and delightful proportions which are found, j. Be¬
tween the feveral parts of the fame objeCt; 2. Between
each part and the whole together ; 3. Between the
parts and the end or defign of the objeCt to which they
belong. Genius, or invention, is that faculty of the
f See Tajle. mjn(j hy which beauty is produced. Tafte j-, difpofition,
or rather the natural fenfation of the mind refined by
art, ferves to guide the genius in difcerning, embracing,
and producing, that which is beautiful of every kind.
From whence it follows, that the general theory of the
polite arts is nothing more than the knowledge of
what they contain that is truly beautiful and agree¬
able ; and it is this knowledge, this theory, which mo¬
dern philofophers call by the Latin name of asfthetica.
It (hould be conftantly remembered, that the effence
of the polite arts confifts in expreffion. This expref-
fion lies fometimes in the words, and fometimes in the
pen ; fometimes in founds and their harmony, and at
others in corporeal attitudes; fometimes in the pen¬
cil or in the chifel, and at others in the graver ;
fometimes in a proper difpofition or judicious employ¬
ment of the mechanic arts, and at others merely in their
manner of aCting. From whence arife thofe arts that
we have mentioned, and which are defcribed in their
6rder.
Firft gene- The general theory of the polite arts, or e/ihetics,
ral rule. neceffarily fuppofes, therefore, certain rules ; but thefe
general rules are of no great number. The firft is, That
whoever would devote himfelf to the polite arts, fhould
above all things confult his genius ; diveft himfelf of all
felf-love; and examine if he be a true fon of Apollo,
and cheriftied by the mufes : for
In vain, rath author, cioft thou ftrive to climb.
By lofty verfe, ParnafTns’ height fublimc,
If heaven does not by fecret powers infpiie,
Or if thy natal ftar darts not poetic fire.
Imagination, This precept with regard to-poetry in particular, is
what. applicable to all the polite arts in general; for their
moft happy fuccefs is founded on imagination. By
this term we underftand, in general, a faculty of the
6 ] ART
mind, a particular genius, a lively invention, a certain
fubtile fpirit, which gives a facility in difeovering
fomething new. But it is neceffary alfo to preferibe
juft bounds to this term new, which muft not be here „
taken in an abfolute fenfe. Solomon wifely remarks, Novelty
that, even in his time, there was nothing new under and
the fun. In fa&, all that exifts, and all that is ca- Invention.
pable of being difeovered in the known world, has al¬
ready been difeovered.' The fine arts in their imita¬
tions of nature, in their exprefiions, can borrow ima¬
ges, figures, comparifons, from thofe things only that
exift and are known. As there have been, from the
beginning of the world to our days, millions of au¬
thors in each of the polite arts, almoft all the poffible
combinations of the various fubjetts have been produ¬
ced by their lively imaginations ; and when we hear the
ignorant part of mankind talk of a work of wit or of
art that is entirely new, that offers ideas which were
before utterly unknown, that had never entered into the
brain of any other man, we fhould refer fuch affertions
to the clafs of popular errors ; and reflect on thofe fto-
ries we every day hear of certain empirics, who pre¬
tend to be alone poffeffed of marvellous methods of cure
by means of fimples; as if there were any plant, any
ftalk of grafs that grows in our world, that can have
efcaped the refearchesuf botanifts. But the novelty, of
which we here fpeak, confifts in the ingenious ufe of
combinations of all the various obje&s of nature, that
are new, happy, and agreeable, that have not yet been
exhaufted, and which appear even to be inexhauftible ;
and of the ufe which the artift makes of all new difeo-
veries, which he turns to his advantage, by a judicious
application. Invention therefore fuppofes a confide-
rable fund of preliminary knowledge, fuch as is capable
of furnifhing ideas and images, to form new combina¬
tions. But there is no art by which invention itfelf
can be produced ; for that, as we have already faid, is
the gift of heaven; and it is an endowment which
we cannot even make ufe of whenever we pleafe.
We would rather fay, therefore, that invention con¬
fifts in producing, in works of genius, that which is
unexpected; an objeft, a harmony, a perfeftion, a
thought, an expreflion, of which we had no idea, that
we could not forefee, nor hope to find, where the ar¬
tift has fo happily placed it, and where we perceive it
with delight. This idea appears applicable to fuch
of the polite arts as affeft the mind by the hearing as
well as by the fight; and it is a matter that is highly
effential. IJ>
The fecond rule is, That every artift ought inceffant- Rule,
ly to labour in the improvement of his tajle; in ac- Impmve-
quiring that fenfible, refined, and clear difeernment, of
by which he will be enabled to diftinguifh the real beau¬
ties in each objeft, the ornaments that are agreeable to
it, and the proportions and relations that fubfift among
the feveral parts: and by this faculty, he will be regu¬
lated in the employment of his natural talents. This
labour confifts not only in the profound reflexions he
will make on the properties of objeXs as they relate to
the fine arts, but alfo in a conftant, afliduous ftudy of
the grand models of beauty.
The third rule, to be obferved in the praXice of the ^ Imita-
polite arts, is the imitation of nature. Every objeX in tion of na-
the univerfe has its peculiar nature, of which the artift ture*
fhould never lofe fight in his manner of treating it. In
vain
Aft.
4th, Per-
fpicuity.
Sth, Eleva¬
tion of fen-
timent.
«th The
fubiime to
be endea¬
voured af-
* See the
article
Gran¬
deur and
Sublimity.
ART [ 7
vain will he otherwife ornament his work with the moft
refined and moft brilliantftrokes; for, if nature be not
juftly imitated, it will for ever remain imperfeft. The
fubiime Homer has fometimes finned againft this rule :
for, as the gods have a nature peculiar to themfelves,
it cannot be ajuft imitation when we attribute to them
paffions that are fcarce pardonable in mortals, and make
them frequently converfe in a language that is at once
vulgar and ridiculous. It was not to imitate nature,
to put into the mouth of a hero, at the moment of a
decifive battle, an harangue that muft become tedious
by its exceffive length, and which certainly could not
have been heard by the thoufandth part of a numerous
army: but we have already touched upon fome of the
faults that are ftrevved over the poems of that great
man ; to multiply or dwell upon them would be un¬
grateful. We muft however obferve, that this imita¬
tion of nature, which appears at firft view fo fimple
and fo eafy, is of all things the moft difficult in prac¬
tice ; and that it requires a difeernment fo fagacious,
and an expreffion fo happy, as is rarely beftowed by
heaven on mortal man.
Perfpicnity forms the fourth rule of expreffion. In all
the fine arts, in general, an obfeure, perplexed, ambi¬
guous, and elaborate expreffion, is always bad. The
true, ftriking beauty muft be manifeft, and perceptible
to the moft ignorant of mankind as well as the moft
learned. Thofe are ever falfe or inferior beauties that
have occafion for a covering, a kind of veil that may
make them appear greater than they really are : true
beauty wants no veil, but ffiines by its native luftre.
From the union of the true imitation of nature with
perfpicuity of expreffion arifes that truth which is fo
eftential in the produ&ions of the fine arts.
In all the polite arts, and in all the fubjefts they em¬
brace, there muft neceflarily reign an elevation of fenti-
ment, that expreffes each objeft in the greateft perfec¬
tion of which it is fufceptible ; that imitates nature in
her moft exalted beauty. This makes the fifth general
rule. The defign of the fine arts being to excite plea-
fure by the expreffion of that which is beautiful, every
artift ffiould raife himfelf above his fubjeft; and, chu-
fing the moft favourable light wherein to place it, ffiould
there embelliffi it with the greateft, moft noble, and
beautiful ornaments, that his own genius can fuggeft ;
ftill, however, obferving a ftridt imitation of nature.
From the obfervation of thefe two laft rules refults
the fubiime, which is the union of the greateft perfpi¬
cuity with the ftrifteft truth and moft exalted elevation
poffible. It is neceflary to remark here, that the moft
fimple and common fubjefts are fufceptible of a fubiime
that is agreeable to their nature. An idyl or landfcape
may be as fubiime in their kinds as an epic poem or a
hiftory-piece. When Mofes begins the book of Gene-
fis with thefe words, In the beginning God created the
heaven and the earth ; or when he tells us, that God
faid. Let there be light, and there 'was light; thefe ex-
preffions are fubiime in the higheft degree, becaufe they
are perfe&ly clear, true, and elevated. Every author
ffiould therefore endeavour after the fubiime * in every
fubjecl that he undertakes; and this makes the fixth
and laft general rule in the pra&ice of the polite arts.
But if he cannot attain to this, it is, however, indif-
penfably neceffary that he conftantly make, ufe of
expreffions that are noble and refined. Every thing
Vol. I.
17 ] ART
that is lorw, indecent, or difagreeable,' is naturally re¬
pugnant to the fubiime, and ought to be for ever ba-
nilhed from all works that proceed from the noble and
liberal arts.
Art is alfo an appellation given to feveral fuperfii-
tious pradlices, as, St Anfelkni’s art, St Paul's art, &c.
Art and Part, in Scots law. See Accessory.
ART A, by fome called Larta, a town of Lower
Albania, in Turky in Europe, with a Greek archbi-
ffiop’s fee. It is a pretty large town, and contains
about 7 or 8000 inhabitants, Greeks and Turks, but
the former are the moft numerous. The cathedral has as
many windows and doors as there are days in the year.
It is fupported by above 2000 marble pillars; and was
built by Michael Ducas Commeno emperor of Con-
ftantinople, as appears by an infeription over the great
door. It carries on a confiderable trade, particularly
in tobacco and furs. E. Long. 31. 30. N. Lat 39, 28;
ARTABANUS, the name of feveral kings of Par-
thia. See Part hi a.
ARTABAZUS, the fon of Pharnaces, command¬
ed the Parthians and Chorafmians in the famous ex¬
pedition of Xerxes. After the battle of Salamis, he
efcorted the king his mafter to the Hellefpont with
60,000 chofen men ; and after the battle of Platea, in
which Mardonius engaged contrary to his advice, he
made a noble retreat, and returned to Afia with 40,000
men under his command.
ARTAXATA, orum, the royal refidence, and
metropolis of Armenia Major, (Stiabo, Pliny, Juve¬
nal), and built according to a plan of Hannibal, for
king Artaxias, after whom it was called. It was fi-
tuated on an elbow of the river Araxes, which formed a
kind of peninfula, and furrounded the town like a wall,
except on the fide of the Ifthmus, but this fide was fe-
cured by a rampart and ditch. This town was deemed fo
ftrong, that Lucullus, after having defeated Tigranes,
durft not lay liege to it; but Pompey compelled him
to deliver it up without ftriking a blow. It was then
levelled with the ground; but the Armenians have a
tradition that the ruins of it are ftill to be feen at a
place called Ardachat. Sir John Chardin fays, that
it has the name of Ardachat from Artaxias, whom in
the eaft they call Ardechier. Here are the remains of
a ftately palace which the Armenians take to be that
of Tiridates who reigned in the time of Conftantine the
Great. One front of this building is but half ruined,
and there are many other fine antiquities which the in¬
habitants call Tail. Tardat, that is, the throne of Tiri¬
dates. Tavernier alfo mentions the ruins of Artaxata
between Erivan and mount Ararat, but does not fpe-
cify them. The ancient geographers mention another
city of the fame name, likewife fituated on the Araxes,
but in the northern part of Media, known among the
ancients by the name of Atropatia.
ARTAXERXES, £he name of feveral kings of
Perfia. See Persia.
ARTEDIA, a genus of the digynia order, be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs of plants, for which
there is no Englilh name.
Species. I. The fquamata, with fquamofe feeds,
is a native of the eaft ; Rewvolf found it growing on
mount Libanus. It is an annual plant, whofe ftalks
rife about two feet high, fending out a few fide-branch-
es, which are garniffied with narrow compound leaves
Art
•JR
ART [7
.Artemi- vefembling thofe of dill; the extremity of the ftalk is
dams, terminated by a large umbel of white flowers, cotnpo-
—H!m! a' fed of five unequal petals. Thefe are fucceeded by
roundifti compreffed fruit, each having two feeds, whofe
borders are fcaly. 2. The aculeata, with prickly feeds,
grows upon the African (hore on the Mediterranean,
as alfo in Spain. This is alfo an annual plant, with
an upright ftalk near three feet high, and puts out
many {hoots. The leaves are hairy, and greatly re-
femble thofe of the common carrot: the ftalks are ter¬
minated by umbels of large white flowers (haped like
thofe of the former, and are fucceeded by a prickly
fruit containing two feeds.
Both thefe plants decay as foon as they perfect their
feeds, and often before they are ripe in Britain : for
unlefs the feeds are fown in autumn, and the plants
come up before winter, they rarely perfect their feeds
here. The feeds (hould be fown on a warm border
where the plants are to remain, for they will not bear
tranfplanting.
ARTEMIDORUS, famous for his Treatife upon
Dreams. He was born at Ephefus, but took upon him
the furname of Daldianus in this book, by way of
refpeil to his mother’s country Daltis. He ftyled him-
felf the Epbejian in his other performances. He not
only bought up all that had been written concerning the
explication of dreams, which amounted to many vo¬
lumes ; but he likewife fpent many years in travelling,
in order to contraft an acquaintance with fortune-tel¬
lers : he alfo carried on an extenfive comfpondence
with all the people of this fort in the cities and aflem-
blies of Greece, Italy, and the moft populous iflands ;
colle&ing at the fame time all the old dreams, and the
events which are faid to have followed them. The
work which he wrote on dreams confifted of five books:
the firft three were dedicated to one Caflius Maximus;
and thelaft two to his fon, whom he took a good deal
of pains to inftruft in the nature and interpretation of
dreams. This work, though filled with frivolous ob-
fervations, contains fome things that are interefting.
It was firft printed in Greek, at Venice, in 1518; aiid
Rigaltius publiflied an edition at Paris, in Greek and
Eatin, in 1603, and added fome notes. Artemidorus
wrote alfo a treatife upon Auguries, and another upon
Chiromancy ; but they are not extant. He lived un¬
der the emperor Antoninus Pius.
ARTEMISIA, wife of Maufolus king of Caria,
has immortalized herfelf by the honours which fhepaid
to the memory of her hufband. She built for him in
Halicarnaflus a very magnificent tomb, called the Mcm-
foleum, which was one of the feven wonders of the
world, and from which the title of Maufjlemn was after¬
wards given to all tombs remarkable for their grandeur:
but (he died of regret and forrow before the Maufo-
leum was finifhed. She appointed panegyrics to be
made in honour cif him, and-'propofed a prize of great
value for the perfon who {hould compofe the beft. He
died about the end of the 106th Olympiad, 3^1 years
before the Chriftian aera.
Artemisia, queen of Caria, and the daughter of
Ligdamis, marched in perfon in the expedition of
Xerxes againft the Greeks, and performed wonders in
the fea-fight near Salamis, 480 years before the Chrif¬
tian aera. Being purfued by an Athenian veffel, fne
attacked one of the Perfian {hips, commanded by De-
18 ] ART
mafithymus, king of Calyndus, her enemy, and funk Artemifi*.
it; on which the Athenians, thinking that her {hip — “
was on the fide of the Greeks, ceafed their purfuit :
but Xerxes was the principal perfon impofed upon in
this affair ; for believing (he had funk an Athenian
veffel, he declared, that “ the men had behaved like
women, and the women like men.” Xerxes intrufted
her with the care of the young princes of Perfia, his
fans; when, agreeably to her advice, he abandoned
Greece, in order to return to Afia. Thefe great qua¬
lities did not fecure her from the weaknefs of love :
{he was paffionately fond of a man of Abydos, whofe
name was Dardanus, and was fo enraged at his negledl
of her, that flie put out his eyes while he was afleep.
The gods, in order to punifti her for this, infpired her
with (till a ftronger paffion for him ; fo that the oracle
having advifed her to go to Leucas, which was the
ufage of defperate lovers, {he took the leap from
thence, and was interred at that place.—Many writers
confound this Artemifia with the former, the wife of
Maufolus.
Artemisia, (fo called, according to fome, from
Artemifia, wife of Maufolus kingof Caria, who brought
this plant into ufe, whereas, before, it was called Pat-
theuia, the virgin goddefs being faid to have given
name to it), Mugwcrt, a genus of the polygamia fu-
perflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of plants.
Specks. Of this genus there are upwards of 20
fpecies enumerated by botanical writers; but thofe moft
worthy of notice are the following, x. The vulgaris,
or common mugwort. This grows naturally on banks
and by the fide of foot-paths in many parts of Bri¬
tain, fo is feldom admitted into gardens, where it would
prove a troublefome weed, as it fpreads very faft by
its creeping roots. It flowers in June, at which time
the plant is ready for ufe. 2. The dracunculus, or tar¬
ragon, which is frequently ufed in fallads, efpecially
by the French, It is a very hardy plant, and fpreads
greatly by its creeping roots. 3. The abrotanum, or
fouthernwood, which is kept in gardens for the fake
of ks agreeable fcent. It is a low (hrub, feldom ri-
fing more than three or four feet high, fending out la¬
teral (hrubby branches, growing ereCl, garniflied with
five briftly leaves, having an agreeable fcent when bruif-
ed: the flowers are produced in fpikes from the extre¬
mity of the branches; but unlefs the autumn proves
warm, they feldom open in England. 4. The fanto-
nicum, which produces the femen fantonicum, which is
much ufed for worms in children. It grows naturally
in Perfia, from whence the feeds are brought to Eu¬
rope. It hath the appearance of our wild mugwort;
the branches are (lender, Credf, and garniflied with
linear winged leaves, and terminated by recurved (len¬
der fpikes of flowers which have naked receptacles.
5. The artemifia maritima, or fea-wormwood, grows-
naturally on the fea-coafts in moft parts of Britain,
where there are fevera! varieties, if not diftindt fpecies,
to be found. Thefe are low under ftmibs, moft of
which creep at the root, by which they multiply great¬
ly in their natural fituation, but when tranfplanted in¬
to gardens feldom thrive fo well. 6. The pontica, or
politic wormwood, commonly called Roman wormwood,
is a low herbaceous plant, whofe ftalks die in autumn,
and new ones appear in the fpring. Thefe are gar-
aiftied with finely divided leaves, whofe under-fides are
woolly j
ART [71
woolly; and the upper part of the (lalks are furm'fh-
1 ed with globular flowers which nod on one fide, ha¬
ving naked receptacles. Thefe appear in Auguft,
but are rarely fucceeded by feeds in Britain. 7. The
abfinthium, or common wormwood, grows naturally
in lanes and uncultivated places, and is too well known
to require any particular defcription. 8. The arbo-
refcens, or tree-worm wood, grows naturally in Italy
and the Levant near the tea. It riles, with a woody
ttalk, fix or feven feet high, fending out many lig¬
neous branches, garni (bed with leaves fomewhat like
thole of the common wormwood, but more finely di¬
vided, and much whiter. The branches are termina¬
ted by fpikes of globular flowers in the autumn, which
are feldom fucceeded by feeds in this country.
Culture. The fouthernwood is propagated by flips
or cuttings planted in a Ihady border about the begin¬
ning ot April, obferving to water them duly in dry
weather. In this border they may remain till the fol¬
lowing autumn, when they Ihould be tranfplanted, ei¬
ther into pots, or thofe parts of the garden where they
are to remain. The fantonicum is likewife propagated
by flips ; but the plants fhould be placed in a dry foil
and flickered fituation, where they will endure the cold
of our ordinary winters pretty well} but it will be pro¬
per to have a plant or two in pots, which may be fliel-
tered under a common hot-bed frame in winter, to
preferve the fpecies. The true wormwood is eafily
propagated in the fame manner. The cuttings mutt
be planted in a fliady border, and duly watered during
the fummer feafon, in which cafe they will take root
freely. In autumn, fome of the young plants ftiould
be potted, that they may be flickered in winter; the
others may be planted in a warm border, where they
will live, provided the winter proves favourable. The
other forts fpread by their creeping roots; and require
no culture, as they are very hardy, and will thrive any
where.
Medicinal Ups. ■ The moxa, fo famous in the eaft-
ern countries for curing the gout by burning it on the
part affected, is the lanugo or down growing on the
under fide of the leaves of a fpecies of mugwort, fup-
pofed to be the fame with our common fort. From
fome dried famples of this plant, which have been
brought over to this country, Mr Miller reckons them
to be the fame, differing only in fize ; in which the
Fail Indian kind is inferior to ours. ]^ie fuppofes that
the lanugo of our mugwort would be equally efficaci¬
ous. The feeds of the fantonieum are fmall, light,
chaffy, compofed as it were of a number of thin mem¬
branous • coats, of a yellowifh colour, an unpkafant
fmell, and a very bitter tafte. Thefe feeds are cele¬
brated for anthelmintic virtues (which they have in
common with other bitters), and are fometimes taken
in this intention, either along with melaffes, or candied
with fugar. They are not very often met with genuine
in the ihops. The leaves of the fea, common, and
Roman wormwoods are ufed as ftomachics, but are all
very difagreeahle: the Roman isthe leaft fo, and there¬
fore is to be preferved ; but the other two kinds are
generally fubftituted in its place. The diHilled oil of
wormwood is fometimes made ufe of to rub on the bel¬
ly as a cure for worms.
ARTEMISIUM, either a promontory, (Harpo-
cration), or a part of the fea-coaft, on the north-eaft
9 ] ART
of Euboea, (Plutarch) 5 called Leon, and Cale Afic, Artemifium
(Ptolemy) ; memorable for the firtt fea-engagement ^ie
between the Greeks and Xerxes.—Another promontory 1C
of Caria, (Strabo) — A third in Spain, now called
Cape Martin, in Valencia : in the meridian of Lon¬
don, and Lat. 38. 50.
Artemisium, a town of Oenotria, (Stephanas):
now S. Agatha, in the Hither Calabria, on the river
Pifaurus, or la Foglia, diftant eight miles from the
Tufcan Sea.— Another of the Conteftani, in Spain,
(Strabo); otherwife called Dianium 1 now Denia, on
the fea-coaft of Valencia. W. Long. 20. Lat. 39.
ARTE RIOTOMY, the opening an artery, with
defign to procure an evacuation of blood.
ARTERY, in anatomy, a conical tube or canal
which conveys the blood from the heart to all parts off
the body. See Anatomy, n° 381,—'389.
ARTHRITIS, in medicine, the gout. See the
Index fubjoined to Medicine.
ARTHRODIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of im-
perfeft cryftals, found always in complex maffes, and
forming long fingle pyramids, with very fhort and
{lender columns.
Artrhodia, in anatomy, a fpeoies of articulation,
wherein the flat head of one bone is received into a
fliallow focket in the other. The humerus and fcapula
are joined by this fpecies of articulation.
ARTHUR, king of the Britons, of whom fcarcely
any thing can be certainly affirmed. He is faid to
have been the fon of Uther Pendragon king of Bri¬
tain, and to have been born in 501. His life is a con¬
tinued fcene of wonders. It is faid that he killed four
hundred and feventy Saxons with his own hand in one
battle ; and after having fubdued many mighty nations,
and irtftituted the order of the Knights of the Round
Table, died A. D. 542.
ARTICHOAK, in botany. SccCinara.
ARTICLE, a claufe or condition of a contraft,
treaty, &c. It is alfo a fmall part or divifion of a dif-
courfe, book, or writing, &c.
Article of Death, the laft pangs or agony of one
juft expiring.
Article, in grammar. See there n° 61.
Articles of Religion, in the church of England.
In the beginnings of Cbriftianky, the declaration that
was required of a Chriftian’s faith was conceived in very
general terms ; but, as herefies fprung up, it was found
neceffary to guard againft them, by enlarging the creeds
or confeffions of iaith. It was in imitation of this pro¬
cedure that the reformers were fo copious in Hating
the doArfnes of the' church of England in that work
which is intituled, £e Articles whereupon it was a-
“ greed by ArchbifliOps and Bifiiops of both provinces,
“ and the whole Clergie, in the convocation holden at
“ London, in the yeare of our Lorde God 1562, ac-
“ cording to the computation of the Church of Eng-
“ lande, for the avoiding of the diverfities of opinions,
“ and for the ftabliftiing of confent touching true re-
“ ligion.” There were two particular circumftances
in that time which made this feem to be the more ne¬
ceffary : the one was, that there fprung up, together
with the reformation, many impious and extravagant
fe&s ; the other, that, having but juft got rid of Popery,
it was abfolutely neceffary to take the utmoft precau¬
tions againft it for the future. .Thefe articles were
4X2 pre-
ART L 720 ] ART
Articulate prepared, as is moft probable, by the biihops Cran-
.1 . mer and Ridley, and were publirtied by royal antho-
Attificial. moft authentic inanufcript of them is in the
library of Corpus Chrifti college in Cambridge. It
belonged to Archbifhop Parker, and was left by him
to that college.
The fubfcription to thefe articles is enjoined by fla-
tute, which ellablilhes them, and requires every clergy¬
man to declare his alfent, and fubfcribe them in the
prefence of his ordinary. The form of the fubfcrip¬
tion is not prefcribed by the ftatute ; but by the canon
it is exprefsly required, that he acknowledge them,
and every one of them, to be agreeable to the word of
God. There is a claufe in the ilatute, which fubjedts
every miniftcr, who maintains any do&rine repugnant
to thefe articles, to;deprivation.
ARTICULATE sounds are fuch founds as ex-
prefs the letters, fyllables, or words, of any alphabet or
language : fuch are formed by the human voice, and
by fome few birds, as parrots, &c. .
ARTICULATION, or jointing, is the joining
of bones together; and is of two kinds, viz. articula¬
tion and connexion. Articulation is of two kinds,
i. Diarthrofis, which is capable of motion. 2. Syn-
arthrojis, which is not capable of motion. There is a
fpecies compofed of thefe two, which fome call aviphi-
arthrofis. Connection, or fymphyjis, is of three kinds:
1. By ligament, caWtA fyneuroJis, or fyndefmofis. 2. By
cartilages, called fyncbondrofis. 3. By mufcles palling
from one bone to another, called fyffarcofts.
Articulation, in botany, is the connexion of
parts that confift of joints or knees, fuch as the pods of
French honey-fuckles, which when ripe divide into fo
many parts as there are knees or joints; alfo thofe parts
of plants which fwell into nodes or joints, and which
ufually fend forth branches.
ARTIFICER, a perfon whofe employment it is to
manufa&ure any kind of commodity, as in iron, brafs,
wool, &c. fuch are fmiths, braziers, weavers, &c. By
the law of England, if artificers or workmen confpire
not to work under certain prices, they are liable to cer¬
tain penalties by ilatute 2 and 3 Edw. VI. c. 15. A
ft ranger, artificer in London, is not allowed to keep
above two ftrangers fervants, but he may have as many
Englilh fervants and apprentices as he can get, (ftatute
81 Henry VIII. c. 16.) And, to prevent the deftruc-
tion of our home manufa&ures, by tranfporting and fe-
ducing our artifts to fettle abroad, it is provided by
ftatute 5 Geo. I. c. 27. that fuch as fo entice or fe-
ducethem lhall be fined icol. and be impriibned three
months; and for the fecond offence (hall be fined at dif-
cretion, and be imprifoued a year: and the artificers,
fo going into foreign countries, and not returning with¬
in fix months after warning given them by the Britilh
ambaffador where they refide, fhall be deemed aliens,
lhall forfeit all their lands and goods, and lhall be inca¬
pable of any legacy or gift. By ftatute 23 Geo. II.
c. 13. the feducers incur, for the firft offence, a for¬
feiture of 500I. for each, artificer contra&ed with to be
fent abroad, and imprifonment for twelve months; and
for the fecond, 1000I. and are liable to two years im¬
prifonment.
ARTIFICIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing made, falhioned, or produced by art, in Contra-
diftin&ion from the produttions of nature.
ARTIGI, indeclinable, (Pliny); Artigis, (Ptole- Aiugi.
my); a town of the Turduli, in Baetica. Now Alba- Aitihtry.
via. See Alhama.
ARTILLERY, in its moft limited fenfe, fignifies
fire-arms, mounted on their carriages and ready for ac¬
tion, with their balls, their bombs, their grenades, &c.
If we take the term in a more extenfive meaning, it
includes the pov/der, the matches, inftruments for fire¬
works, the utenfils of ordnance, the machines which fa¬
cilitate their motion and tranfport them, the vehicles
over which they traverfe rivers, every thing neceffary
to them, and all that enters into the form of a train of
artillery.
The fame word, ftill farther extended in its mean¬
ing, likewife comprehends the men deftined ior the fer-
vice of the artillery ; the people w'ho provide the artil¬
lery with materials and implements when engaged, the
cannoniers, the bombardiers, the officers of every rank,
and engineers of every kind.
By artillery is likewife underftood the fcience w'hich
the officers of artillery ought to poffefs. This fcience
teaches to know the nature of all the materials and in¬
gredients which enter into the compoiition and the
ftru£ture of every thing relative to the artillery : fuch
as, nitre, fulphur, charcoal ; the properties of air and
fire; the compofition and preparation of gun-powder;
the materials for fire-works; the conftrudlion, propor¬
tions, &c. of the different warlike machines ; the ar¬
rangement, movement, and whole management, of can¬
non, &c. in the field or in lieges, in fuch a manner,
that each of them, according to the Jength of its tube
and the diameter of its bore, may be lituated in the
beft place and at the propereft diftance for execution,
and that the whole train taken together may recipro¬
cally affift and fupport each other with the greateft ad¬
vantage.
Artillery, taken in its moft limited acceptation, has
undergone many changes from its origin to the prefent
time. The artillery of the ancients were the catapulta,
the baliftae, the different kinds of flings, &c. The
chevalier Folard was extremely attached to thefe anci¬
ent machines, and feemed even to prefer them to our
fire-arms: an opinion which mull appear not a little ex¬
traordinary, from fuch a perfon. Father Daniel might
well be miftaken in the comparifon which he made be¬
tween the effefts of ancient and modern artillery, and
in his conclufion that the latter was of little ufe : the
fituation of this good father removed him from the
feenes of war, and the opportunities of military expe¬
rience. But it is aftonilhing, that one fo learned in
the military art as the commentator of Polybius,
who had ocular demonftration of'the fuccefs of mo¬
dern artillery, fttould have declared fo violently againft
it. Whatever be the cafe with thefe authors and
their maxims, it may be afferted, that cannon is one
of the moft Angular difeoveries which have been made
amongft men ; and by little and little it has changed
the whole art of w'ar, and of confequence influenced
■the whole fyftem of policy, in Europe. The sera of
artillery is dated from the battle of Creffy in 1346, be-
caufe it is only from that day that cannons were men¬
tioned in battle. Edward III. of England fuccefsfully
employed fome pieces of artillery placed in the front of
his army. The invention of artillery was then known
in France as well as in England; but probably Phi-
Artillery,
Arcifl.
* See fur¬
ther the ar¬
ticles
Gunnery znd
Trojciiiles.
* Ew/. Dif-
courfe of
Medals,
P. *J7,
ART [ 7^1 ] ART
lip VI. marched with fo much hurry and precipitation
to attack his enemy, that he left his cannon as ufelefs
incumbrances behind him. The ignorance of that age
in mechanical arts conftderably retarded the progrefs
of artillery $ and that of which they were then poifef-
fed was fo unweildy and imperfecl, that they could not
poffibly difcern its importance and efficacy in practice.
Even to the prefent period, they never have ceafed, nor
ever will ceafe, to labour for the improvement of thefe
ignivomous machines that mock the thunder, which,
though they feem to be invented for the deftruftion of
the human racej and the fubverfionof empires, have yet
by their effecls rendered war lefs favage and lefs fan-
guine; political alliances have been more fuccefsfully
conciliated among all nations, conquefts are become;
lefs frequent and lefs rapid, and fucceffes in war have
been more eafily reduced to calculation.
Figuerra, in his embaffy in 1518, relates, that the
Perfians would neither make ufe of infantry, nor of ar¬
tillery, becaufe by them the impetuofity of attack and
the facility of retreat were equally incumbered and re¬
tarded : in thefe expedients alone their addrefs and
their glory confided. This method of advancing and
recalling is widely different from the prefent conduct
of war, as the artillery in armies is now prodigioufly
multiplied, and mud be tranfported to every place
where any body of troops whatever is dedined to ope¬
rate.
The length and diameter of cannon has been much
diminilhed, which mud likewife proportionably dimi-
ni(h their weight. It is by long practice and experi¬
ence that they have difcovered how much might be
deduced from their magnitude in both thefe refpedfs
with propriety, without hurting the grand effects which,
on fome occafions, it is neceffary they fhould produce,
by rendering them more eafy to be wedded, which was
the advantage purfued by leffening their fize *.
ARTiLLERY-Par^, the place in the rear of both lines
^ in the army, for encamping the artillery, which is
drawn up in lines, of which one is formed by the
guns; the ammunition-waggons make two or three
lines, 60 paces behind the guns, and 30 didant from
one another ; the pontoons and tumbrils make the lad
line. The whole is furrounded with a rope which forms
the park: the gunners and matroffes encamp on the
the flanks; and the bombardeers, pontoon-men, and
artificers, in the rear.
Artillery-Tt#/#, a certain number of pieces of
ordnance mounted on carriages, with all their furni¬
ture fit for marching.
ARTiLLERY-CW/wzy, a band of infantry, confifting
of 600 men, making part of the militia or city-guard
of London.
ARTIST, in a general fenfe, a perfon Hulled in
fome art; or, to give Mr Harris’s definition, an artifl is
« A perfon poffeffing an habitual power of becoming
“ the caufe of fome effeft, according to a fyflem of va-
“ rious and well-approved precepts.” See Art.
■ We are told * of a privilege granted at Vicenza to
artids, like that of clergy in England: in virtue there¬
of, criminals adjudged to death fave their lives if they
can prove themfelves the mod excellent and confum-
mate workmen in any ufeful art. This benefit is allow¬
ed them in favorem artis, for the firff offence, except
in fome particular crimes, of which coining is one; for
here the greater the artid, the more dangerous the Artifl:
perfon. !l
Artist, (drtifta), in an academical fenfe, denotes Amle?
a philofopher or proficient in the faculty of arts.
In the early ages of univerfities, the feven liberal arts
completed the whole courfe of dudy, or philofophy, as
it was called: whence the maders ®f this faculty were
denominated Artijls. What they underdood by the li¬
beral arts ufed to be dimmed up in the following La¬
tin verfe;
Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulos, Aftra.
Artist is more peculiarly ufed, by Paracelfus and
other adepts, for a chemiff oralchemiff.—We find fre¬
quent mention, in authors of this clafs, of Elias Artifla,
or E-lias the artid, who is to come fome time before
the diffolution of the world, and redore and make per-
fe<d all arts and fciences, but efpecially the gold ma¬
king art; and uflier in a truly golden age, or millen¬
nium. The lower and meaner things in this fublime
art, Paracelfus obferves, God has permitted to be al¬
ready difcovered; but for the greater and more impor¬
tant matters, as the tranfmutation of other metals into
gold, they are referred to the coming of Elias the
artid.
ARTOI5RIGA, a town of Vindelicia, (Ptolemy);
now Altzburg, in Bavaria, on the Danube, below In-
golfladt, (Aventinus); but Cluverius fuppofes it to be
L&benatt, on the Sakzbach, below Lauffen, in the arch-
bilhoprick of Saltzburg.
ARTOIS, a province of France, and one of the
fined and mod fertile in the whole kingdom; formerly
it was one of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, but
now belongs entirely to France. The names of Ar¬
tois, and Arras, its capital, are derived from the Atre-
bates, a people of Gallia Belgica, mentioned by Ju¬
lius Caefar. Its greated length from north to fouth
is about 24 leagues, and its breadth about 12, being
bounded to the fouth and wed by Picardy, to the ead
by Hainault, and to the north by Flanders. A con-
fiderable trade is carried on in the province in grain,
flax, hops, wool, and linen cloth. The dates, who
meet regularly once a year, confiff of the clergy, no¬
bility, and commoners ; and fit generally a fortnight at
Arras : their chief bufinefs is to deliberate on the ways
and means to raife the money which the king demands
of them, and which ufually amounts to about 400,000
livres, exclufive of forage-money. The mod considerable
places in Artois are, Arras the capital, Bapaume, Be-
thune, St Venant, and St Omer. See thefe articles.
ARTOTYRITES, a Chridian fe&, in the primi¬
tive church, who celebratedthe eucharid with bread and
cheefe, faying, that the fird oblations of men were of
the fruits of the_earth, and of fiieep. -The word is de¬
rived from a-QT'^r, bread, and cheefe.
The Artotyrites admitted women to thepriedhood and
efpifcopacy; and Epiphanius tells us, it was a commoft
thing to fee feven girls at once enter into their church,
robed in white, and holding a torch in their hand ;
where they wept, and bewailed the wretchednefs of hu¬
man nature, and the miferies of this life.
ARVALES fratres, in Roman antiquity, a col¬
lege of 12 prieds, indituted by Romulus, and chofen
out of the mod noble families, himfelf being one of
that body ; they affifled in the facrifices of the amber-
valia, annually offered to Ceres and Bacchus, for the
pro-
A R U [ 722 1 A R U .
profperity of the fruits of the earth; when they wore
on their heads crowns made of ears of corn.—The ori¬
ginal of this inftitution was as follows: Acca Lauren-
tia, Romulus’s nurfe, was accuftomed once a-year to
make a folemn facrifice for a bleffing on the fields, her
12 fons always affifting her in the folemnity ; but at
laft lofing one of her fons, Romulus offered himfelf
to fupply his place, and gave this fmall fociety the
name of Arvales fratres. This order was in great re¬
pute at Rome: they held the dignity for life, and ne¬
ver loll it upon account of imprifonment, banilhment,
or any other accident.
ARUBA, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Terra Fir-
ma, fubjedt to the Dutch, and fituated in W. Long.
69. 30. N. Lat. 12. 30.
ARUCCI, a town of Bcetica, in the Conventus
Hifpalenfis, (Pliny); now Moron, in Andalulia, from
an ancient infcription ; five leagues to the weft of Of-
funa. W. Long. 5. 20. Lat. 370.
ARVERNI, an appellation early ufed for the capi¬
tal of the Arverni, according to the cuftom of the lat¬
ter ages of naming towns from the people; it was for¬
merly called A’evw/kr* (Strabo). The Arverni, a brave
and ancient people, and one of the moft powerful na¬
tions of Gaul, claimed affinity with the Romans, as
defeendants from Antenor, (Lucan) : and after their
conqueft by the Romans, their ancient liberty was pre-
ferved to them, on account of their bravery, (Pliny).
Above IOOO years ago the town was called Clarus Mans,
from its fituation, (Valefius). Now Clermont, in Au¬
vergne. E. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat, 45. 42.
ARVIL-supper, a feaft or entertainment made at
funerals, in the north part of England. Arvil-bread is
the bread delivered to the poor at funeral folemnities ;
and arvil, arval, arfal, are ufed for the burial or fune¬
ral rites; as.
Come, hring my jerkin, Tibb, I’ll to the arvil.
Yon man’s dea 1'euy feoun, it makes me marvil,
Yorkjh. Did. p. s8.
ARVIRAGUS, an ancient Britifh king who fiou-
rifhed in the time of the emperor Domitian. He gain¬
ed a complete viftory over Claudius; but being foon
after befieged in the city of Winchefter, he made a
treaty with the Romans, and married the emperor’s
daughter Genuiffa. This monarch lived to a good old
age: he confirmed the ancient laws, enadfed new ones,
and liberally rewarded perfons of merit.
ARUM, WAKEROBIN, Or CUCKOW-PINT ; 3 genUS of
the polyandria order, belonging to the gynandrla clafs
of plants.
Species. Of this genus there art 22 fpecies, of which
the moft remarkable are the following. 1. The ma-
culatum, or common wakerobin, grows naturally in
woods and on (hady banks in moft parts of Britain.
The leaves are halberd-fhaped, very entire, and fpot-
ted; the berries numerous, growing in a naked clufter.
The flowers appear in April; and their wonderful ftruc-
ture hath given rife to many difputes among the bota-
nifts. The receptacle is long, in the fhape of a club,
with the feed-buds furrounding its bafe. The chives
are fixed to the receptacle amongft the feed-buds, fo
that there is no occafion for the tips to be fupported
upon threads, and therefore they have none; but they
are fixed to the fruit-ftalk, and placed between two'
rows of tendrils: the point in difpute is, what is the
ufe of thofe tendrils. 2, The probofeidimn, 3. The
arifarum. 4, The tenuifolium. Thefe three fpecies
have ufually been feparated from this genus, and diftin*
guifhed' by the general name of arifarv.m, or friar's
cowl, on account of the refemblance of their flowers to
the fhape of the cowls worn by friars. The flowers ap¬
pear in April. 5. The italicum, is a native of Italy,
Spain', and Portugal. The leaves rife a foot and an
half high, terminating in a point; they are very large,
and finely veined with white, interfperfed with black
fpots, which, together with the fine fhining green, make
a pretty variety. The flowers grow near a foot high;
and have very long upright fpathas, which are of a pale
green. They appear in the end of April, or begia-
ning of May. 6. The dracunculus, or common dra¬
gon, grows naturally in moft of the fouthern parts of
Europe. It hath a ftraight ftalk three or four feet high,
which is fpotted like the belly of a fnake : at the top
it is fpread out into leaves, which arc cut into feveral
narrow fegments almoft to the bottom, and are fpread
open like a hand; at the top of the ftalk the flower is
produced, which is in lhape like the common arum, ha¬
ving a long fpatha of a dark purple colour, handing
eredb, with a large piftil of the fame colour, fo that
when it is in flower it makes no unpleafing appear¬
ance ; but the flower hath fo ftrong a feent of carrion,
that few people can endtire it, for which reafon it hath
been banifhed moft gardens. 7. The trilobatum, Cr
arum of Ceylon, is a native of that ifland and fome other
parts of India; fo is very impatient of cold. It is a low
plant; the flower rifes immediately from the root, hand¬
ing on a very fhort footftalk: the fpatha is long, eredt,
and of a fine fcarlet colour, as is alfo the piftil. 8. The
colocafia. 9. The divaricatum, with fpear-fliaped
leaves. 10. The perogrinum, or elder. 11. The ef-
culentum, or eatable arum. 12. The fagittifolium, or
greateft Egyptian arum. All thefe fpecies have mild
roots, which are eaten by the inhabitants of the hot
countries, where they grow naturally; and fome of them
are cultivated by the inhabitants of the fugar colonies,
where their roots are conftantly eaten, as alfo the leaves
of fome of them, particularly thofe of the efculentum,
which they call Indian kale; and which, in thofe coun¬
tries wheremanyof theefculentvegetablesof Englandare
with difficulty produced, proves a good fuccedaneum.
13. The arborefeens, or dumb cane, is a native of the
fugar iflands, and warm parts of America, where it
grows chiefly on low grounds. All the parts of it a-
bound with an acrid juice; fo that, if a leaf or part of
the ftalk is broken, and applii..< to the tip of the tongue,
it occafions a very painful fenfation, and great defluxion
of faliva. The ftalks of this plant are fometimes ap¬
plied to the mouths of the negroes by way of punifh-
ment.
Culture. All the fpecies of this plant are hardy, ex¬
cept that of Ceylon, and the arborefeens. The Ceylon
arum muft be kept conftantly in a ftove, and the laft
in a moderate hot-bed. The arborefeens is propagated
by cutting off the ftalks into lengths of three or four
joints, which muft be left to dry fix weeks or two
months; for if the wounded part is not perfedfly heal¬
ed over before the cuttings are planted, they will rot
and decay. They are then to be planted in fmall pots
filled with light fandy earth, and plunged in a mode¬
rate hot-bed of tan, obferving to let them have little
A R U [ 723 ] A R U
Ansnfla, water till they have taken good root.
Alundel' Medicinal Ufes. The roots of the maculatum
dracunculus are ufed in medicine, and differ in nothing
but that the latter is fomewhat ftronger than the for¬
mer. All the parts of the arum, particularly the root,
have an extremely pungent, acrimonious tafle; if the
root be but lightly chewed, it continues to burn and vcl-
licate the tongue for fome hours, occafioning at the
fame time a confiderable thirft : thefie fymptoms are al¬
leviated by butter, milk, or oily liquors. Dried and
kept for fome time, itlofes much of its acrjmony, and
becomes at length an almoft. infipid farinaceous fub-
ftance.
This root is a powerful ftimulant and attenuant. It
is reckoned a medicine of great efficacy in fome cachec¬
tic and chlorotic cafes, in weaknefs of the ftomach oc-
cafioned by a load of vifeid phlegm, and in fuch dif-
orders in general as proceed from a cold fluggifh indif-
pofition of the folids and lentor of the fluids.
ARUNDA, a town of Hifpania Bsetica, on the
Annas, orGuadiana, (Ptolemy, Pliny): Now faid to
be Ronda, in the province of Granada, on the confines
of Andalufia. W. Long. 5. 40. Lat. 36. 26.
ARUNDEL (Thomas), archbifhop of Canterbury
in the reigns of Richard II. Henry IV. and Henry V.
He was the fecond foo of Robert earl of Arundel and
Warren, and brother of Richard earl of Arundel who
was beheaded. At 22 years of age, from being arch¬
deacon of Taunton he was raifed to the bifhopric of
Ely, the b11' of April, 1375, in the reign of Edward
III. He was a great benefaftor to the church and
palace of this fee ; among other donations he gave a
curious table of mafly gold, adorned with precious
ftones, which had been given to prince Edward by
the king of Spain, and fold by the latter to biffiop A-
rtmdel. In 1386, he was appointed lord chancellor of
England; two years after, he was tranflated to the fee
of York ; and, in 1396, was advanced to the archiepi-
fcopal fee of Canterbury, when he refigned the chan-
cellorlhip. This was the firft inftance of the tranfla-
tion of an archbiffiop of York to the fee of Canterbury.
Scarce was he fixed in this fee, when he had a contell
with the univerfity of Oxford, about the right of vili-
tation. The affair was referred to king Richard, who
determined it in favour of the archbiffiop. At his vi-
fitation in London, he revived an old conftitution, by
which the inhabitants of the refpeftive pariffies were
obliged to pay to their reftor one halfpenny in the
pound out of the rent of their houfes. In the fecond
year of his tranflation, a parliament being held at Lon¬
don, the commons with the king’s leave impeached
the archbiffiop, together with his brother the earl of
Arundel, and the duke of Glocefter, of high treafon.
The archbiffiop was fentenced to be baniffied, and with¬
in. forty days to depart the kingdom on pain of death.
He retired firft to France ; and then to the court of
Rome, where pope Boniface IX. gave him a kind re¬
ception. About this time, the duke of Lancafter (af¬
terwards Henry IV). was in France, having been ba¬
niffied by king Richard. The nobilify and others, tired
with the oppreffions of Richard, folicited the duke to
take the crown ; this their requeft they drew up in a
letter, and fent it over by faithful meffengers to arch¬
biffiop Arundel, defiring him to be their advocate on
this occafion with the duke. The archbiffiop, being a
fellow-fufferer, gladly accepted the office ; and went
with the meffengers to the duke at Paris, where they'
delivered the letters from the nobles and commons of
England, and the archbiffiop feconded them with the
bell arguments he could invent. The inviting offer,
after fome obje£tions which were eafily obviated, the
duke accepted ; and upon his acceffion to the throne,
Arundel, who had returned with him to England, was
reftored to his fee. In the firft year of this prince’s
reign, Arundel fummoned a fynod which fat at St
Paul s. The next year the commons movedthatthereve-
nues of the church might be applied to the fervice of the
public; but Arundel oppofed the motion with fuch
vigour, that it was thrown afide. In the year 140S,
Arundel began to exert himfelf againft the Lollards,
or Wickliffites; and his zeal for fuppreffing that fe&
carried him to feveral unjuftifiable feverities againft the
heads of it, particularly againft Sir John Oldcaftle and
Lord Cobham. He alio procured a fynodical conftitu¬
tion, which forbad the tranfiation of the Scriptures
into the vulgar tongue. This prelate died at Canter¬
bury, Feb. 20th, 14x3, of an inflammation in his throat,
with which he was feized (as it is pretended) whiift
he was pronouncing fentence upon Lord Cobham. The
Lollards afferted this to be a judgement from God;
and indeed biffiop Goodwin fpeaks in the fame manner,
faying, “ He Who had with-held from the people the
“ word of God, the food of the foul, by the juftjudge-
“ ment of God had his throat fo clofed, that could
“ not fpeak a Angle word, nor fwallow meat or drink,
“ and was fo ftarved to death-” He was buried in
the cathedral church of Canterbury, near the weft cud,
under a monument eredled by himfelf in his lifetime.
To this church he. was a confiderable benefactor : for
he built the lantern-tower and great part of the nave ;
gave a ring of five bells, called from him Arundel’s
ring-, feveral rich veftments, a mitre enchafed with
jewels, a fiiver gilt crofier, and two golden chalices.
Arundel (Thomas), earl of Arundel and Surry,
lord marffial of England, who fent William Petty into
Afia, to fearch for fome curious monuments of anti¬
quity, where he bought thofe which we call the Arun¬
del marbles, of a Turk, who had taken them from a
learned man fent by the famous Pierefq into Greece
and Afia upon the fame defign. Thefe curious mar¬
bles were placed in the eajPs houfe and gardens, upon
the banks of the Thames, and afterwards entrufted
to the care of the univeriity of Oxford, where they
now are. This chronology, engraved 264 years be¬
fore the Chriftian asra, ferves to rectify the dates of a
great many events of the ancient hiitory of Greece,
The great Selden wrote a book of their contents, 1629.
They have fince been publiffied by Dr Prideaux, 1676,
at Oxford; and again, at London, 1732, with com¬
mentaries, and an index, by Maittaire. The reader
will meet with a'CorreCt Latin and Engliffi tranflation
of thefe marbles, in The Chronological tables of univer-
fal hijlory, by the learned abbe Lengkt Dufrenoy, late¬
ly tranflated into Engliffi.
Arundel, a borough and market town in Suflex,
feated on the north-weft fide of the river Arun, over
which there is a bridge. It had a harbour, wherein a
ffiip of 100 tun burthen might ride ; but the fea had
ruined it fo far, that, in 1733, an adt paffed for re¬
pairing it, and for ereCling new piers, locks, &c. The
caftle,
Arundel.
A R U
Arnndo, caflie) which gives the title of earl to it* poffeffors, is
A,t'rl’ices- feated on the call of the Tame, and is reputed to be a
~ mile in compafs. It fends two members to parliament;
and is 5^ miles fouth-weft by fouth of London, and
ten miles eaft of Chichefter. W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat.
5°. 45. . .
ARUNDO, the reed ; a genus of the digyma or¬
der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are fix fpecies. 1. The
phragmitis, or common marfh-reed, which grows
by the fides of rivers and in Handing waters. 2. The
denax, or manured reed. This is a native of warm
countries, but will bear the cold of our moderate win¬
ters in the open air. It dies to the furface in autumn,
but appears again in the fpring, and, if kept fupplied
with water, will grow 10 or 12 feet high in one fum-
mer. The ftalks of this are brought from Spain and
Portugal ; and are ufedby the weavers, as alfo forma-
king fifhing-rods. 3. The verficolor, or Indian va¬
riegated reed, is fuppofed to be a variety of the fe-
cond, differing from it only in having variegated leaves.
* See Btfw- ^ The bamboa, or bamboo *, is a native of the Eaft
Indies and fome parts of America. Some of thefe
plants, when kept in ftoves, in this country arife to the
height of 20 feet; and, were the ftoves high enough to
admit them, they would in appearance rife to double
that height. Some of thefe ftems are as large as
a man’s wrift; but in general are as big as walking-
fticks, for which purpofe they are as fit as thofe that
* See Cane. are imported from India *. 5. The arborea, with a
tree-like ftalk, differs from the former only in ha¬
ving narrower leaves. 6. The orientalis is what the
Turks ufe as writing-pens; it grows in a valley near
mount Athos, as alfo on the banks of the river Jor¬
dan. None of thefe plants are at prefent to be found
in Britain.
Culture. As all thefe pfiants grow naturally in low
marfhy lands, they muft be fupplied with plenty of
water. The fecond kind requires little care ; the third
is more delicate, and requires to be kept in pots. The
fourth, fifth, and fixth forts muft be preferred in ftoves.
They are to be planted in tubs filled with rich earth,
and plentifully fupplied with water. When the tubs
decay, they may be fuffered to grow into the tan, which
will encourage them to grow to a larger fize : but
care muft be taken, when the bed is refreftied with
new tan, to leave a fufficient quantity of old tan about
the roots of the plants; for if they are too much bared
and the new tan laid near them, when that heats, it
will fcorch their roots, fo that the plants are fome-
times deftroyed by it.
Arundo Saccharifera, or Sugar-cane. See Sac-
charum.
ARUSINI campi, plains in Lucania, famous
for the lad battle fought between the Romans and
Pyrrhus, and the total defeat of the latter, (Florus,
Front!nus).
ARUSPICES, or haruspices, in Roman anti¬
quity, an order of priefts who pretended to fortel fu¬
ture events by infpedting the entrails of vidtims killed
in facrifice ; they were alfo confulted on occafion of
portents and prodigies. The harufpices were always
chofen from the heft families; and as their employment
was of the fame nature as that of the augurs, they
were as much honoured- Their college, as well as
A R U
thofe of the other religious orders, had its particular Anc
regifters and records.
ARX britannica, a citadel of Batavia, whofe a*
foundation is feen at low water, near the old mouth of
the middle Rhine: fome imagine it the Pharos, or high
tower of Caligula, as Suetonius calls it; a monument
of Caligula’s (ham conqueft of Britain. Others, that
it was built by Drufus, with an altar afterwards by
Claudius, on his expedition into Britain. But the
ufual paffage was from Gefforiacum; and Suetonius
exprefsly fays, Claudius paffed over thence. The an¬
cient name of this citadel, now covered by the fea, is
no where expreffed: now commonly called V Huts
Britten, or Brittenburg; that is, Hrx Britannica •, but
from what authority does not appear.
ARYTzENOIDES, in anatomy, the name of two
cartilages which, together with others, conftitute the
head of the larynx. It is alfo applied to fome mufcles
of the larynx.
ARYTHMUS, in medicine, the want of a juft mo¬
dulation in the pulfe. It is oppofed to eurytbtnus, a
pulfe modulated agreeably to nature.
ARZERUM, ofErzerum. See Theodosiopolis.
ARZILLA, a very ancient maritime town of A-
frica, in the kingdom of Fez. Alphonfo king of
Portugal took it by affault, and brought away the
prefumptive heir of the crown. After that prince came
to the throne, he befieged it, in 1508, with 100,000
men ; but was obliged to abandon the undertaking.
However, at length the Portuguefe forfook it of their
own accord. W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 35. 30.
AS, in antiquity, a particular weight, confifting of
x 2 ounces ; being the fame with libra, or the Roman
pound. The word is derived from the Greek “‘f,
which in the Doric dialed! is ufed for £'r> one, q. d. an
entire thing ; though others will have it named tfr qua-
fi as, becaufe made of brafs.
Hs was alfo the name of a Roman coin, which was
of different weights and different matter in different
ages of the commonwealth.—Under Numa Pompilius,
according to Eufebius, the Roman money was either
of wood, leather, or {hells. In the time of Tullus
Hoftilius, it was of brafs; and called as, libra, libella,
or pondo, becaufe actually weighing a pound or 12
ounces. Four hundred and twenty years after, the firft
Punic war having exhaufted the treafury, they reduced
the as to two ounces. In thefecond Punic war, Han¬
nibal preffing very hard upon them, they reduced the
as to half its weight, viz. to one ounce. And laftly,
by the Papirian law, they took away half an ounce
more, and confequently reduced the as to the diminu¬
tive weight of half an ounce: and it is generally
thought that it contjnued the fame during the com¬
monwealth, and even till the reign of Vefpafian. The
as therefore was of four different weights in the com¬
monwealth. Its original ftamp was that of a ftieep,
ox, or fow: but from the time of the emperors, it had
on one fide a Janus with two faces, and on the reverfe
the roftrum or prow of a {hip.
As was alfo ufed to denote any integer or whole.
Whence the Englifh word ace.—Thus as fignified the
whole inheritance ; whence hares ex ajfe, the heir to the
whole eftate.
ASA, king of Judah, fucceeded his father Abijam.
He pulled down the altars ere&ed to idols, reftored the
worfhip
t 734 ]
1
ASA [7:
Afa worftiip of the true God, and, with the afliftance of
Afarum Benhadad king of Syria, took feveral towns from the
_ L_ king of Ifrael. He died 917 years before the Chriftiar
asra, and was fucceeded by Jehofhaphat.
Asa, or assa, in the materia medica, a name gi¬
ven to two very different fubftances, called afa-dulcis,
and afa-fcetida.
Sen- As&-Dulcis is the fame with Benzoin *.
AsA-Fcctida is the concrete juice of a large umbelli¬
ferous plant growing in Perfia. This juice exfudes from
wounds made in the root of the plant, liquid and white
like milk. When expofed to the air, it turns of a
brownifh colour, and gradually acquires different de¬
grees of confidence. It is brought to us in large irre¬
gular maffes, compofed of various little fhining grains,
which are partly whitifh, partly reddifh, and partly of
a violet colour. Thofe maffes are accounted five beft
which are clear, of a pale reddifh colour, and variega¬
ted with a great number of elegant white tears. This
drug has a ftrong fetid fmell, like garlic; and a bitter,
acrid, biting tafte. It is frequently ufed in hyfteric and
nervous complaints, flatulent colics, and as a promoter
of the menfes. See Materia Medica, n° 129.
ASAPH (St), a city in Flintfhire, with a bifhop’s
fee; on which account only it is taken notice of; for it
is fo poor a place, it would not otherwife be worth
mentioning. W. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 53. 18.
ASAPPES, or Azapes, in the Turkifh armies, a
name given to the auxiliary troops which they raife a-
mong the Chriftians under their dominion, and expofe
to the firft fhock of the enemy.
ASAR-ADDON, or Esar-Haddon, the fon of
Sennacherib, fucceeded his father about 712 years be¬
fore the Chriftian sera, and united the kingdoms of
Nineveh and Babylon. He rendered himfelfmafler of
Syria; fent a colony to Samaria; and his generals took
king Maneffes, and carried him loaded with chains to
Babylon. Afar-Addon died after a reign of 12 years.
ASARINA. See Chelone.
ASARUM, asarabacca ; a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are three fpecies; the
Europeum, the Canadenfe, and Virginicum. Thefirfl
fpecies grows naturally in fome parts of England. It
hath thick flefhy jointed roots ; the leaves grow fingly
upon fhort foot-ftalks, which arife immediately from
the root: the flowers grow upon very fhort foot-ftalks
clofe to the ground, fo are hid under the leaves. They
have a bell-fhaped empalement, of a worn-out purple
colour, which is cut in three at the top, where it turns
backward. It delights in a moift fhady place, and
may be propagated by parting the roots in autumn.
The two other fpecies have no remarkable properties.
Medicinal Ufes. The dried roots of this plant have
been generally brought from the Levant; thofe of our
own growth being fuppofed weaker.
Both the roots and leaves have a naufeous, bitter,
acrimonious, hot tafte ; their fmell is ftrong, and not
very difagreeable. Given in fubftance from half a dram
to a dram, they evacuate powerfully both upwards and
downwards. It is laid, that tinctures made in fpiri-
tuous menftrua, poffefs both the emetic and cathartic
virtues of the plant; that the extraift obtained by m-
fpiffating thefe tinftures, a£ts only by vomit, and with
great mildnefs; that an infufion in water proves ca-
Vol. I.
^ ] A S C
thartic, rarely emetic; that aqueous decoftions made Afbeftos
by long boiling, and the watery extradt, have no pur- ilj
gative or emetic quality, but prove notable diaphore- ca on’
tics, diuretics, and emmenagogues.
The principal ufe of this plant among us is as a fter-
nutatory. The root of afarum is perhaps the ftrongeft
of all the vegetable errhines, white hellebore itfelf not
excepted. Snuffed up the nofe, in the quantity of a
grain or two, it occafions a large evacuation of mucus,
and raifes a plentiful fpitting. The leaves are conii-
derably milder, and may be ufed to the quantity of
three, four, or five grains. Geoffroy relates, that
after bluffing up a dofe of this errhine at night, he
has frequently obferved the difcharge from the nofe
to continue for three days together; and that he has
known a paralyfis of the mouth and tongue cured by
one dofe. He recommends this medicine in ftubborn
diforders of the head proceeding from vifciJ tenacious
matter, in palfies, and in foporific diftempers *. * See Mate-
ASBESTOS, a fort of native foffile {tone, which ria Medica,
may be fplit into threads and filaments, from one inch n° Il°*
to ten inches in length, very fine, brittle, yet fomc-
what tradlable, filky, and of a greyiffi colour, not un¬
like talc of Venice. It is almoft infipid to the tafte,
indiffoluble in water, and endued with the wonderful
property of remaining unconfumed in the fire, which
only whitens it, There are fome forts of affieftos whofe
,filaments are rigid and brittle; others more flexible.
The firft are not at all to be fpun or formed into cloth,
and the latter very difficultly. This manufafture ap¬
pears to have been known among the ancients, who,
according to Pliny, wrapt the corpfes of the dead in af-
beftine clothes to preferve their affies feparate from thofe
of the funeral pile; an ufe to which they are ftill faid
to be applied among the princes of Tartary. The me¬
thod of preparation, as defcribed by Ciampini in the
Philofophical Tranfa6lions, n° 273, is as follows. The
ftone is laid to foak in warm water, then opened and
divided by the hands, that the earthy matter may be
waffied out. This earth is white like chalk, and ren¬
ders the water thick and milky. The ablution being
feveral times repeated, the flax-like filaments are col-
le&ed and dried: they are moft commodioufly fpun
with an addition of flax. Two or three filaments of
the afbeftos are eafily twifted along with the flaxen
thread, if the operator’s fingers are kept oiled. The
cloth alfo when woven is beft preferved by oil from
breaking or wafting. On expofure to the fire, the flax
and oil burn out, and the cloth comes out pure and
white. Probably from the diffipation of fome extra¬
neous matter of this kind proceeded the diminution of
weight which an afbeftine napkin fuffered in the fire,
in an experiment made before the Royal Society; for
pure afbeftos lofes nothing.—The ffiorter filaments,
which feparate in walking the ftone, may be made in¬
to paper in the common manner. This ftone is found
in many places of Afia and Europe ; particularly in
the ifland of Anglefey in Wales, and in Aberdeenffiire
in Scotland.
ASBAMEA, a fountain of Cappadocia, near Ty-
ana, facredto Jupiter, and to an oath. Tho’this fountain
bubbled up, as in a ftate of boiling, yet its water was
cold; and never ran over, but fell back again, (Phi-
loftratus, Ammian).
ASCALON, an ancient city, and one of the five
4 Y fatrapies
A S C L 726 ] A S C
Afeanius fatrapies or principalities of the Philiftines; fituated
i on the Mediterranean, 43 miles to the fouth-weft of
Afcenfion. jerufa]em> (Antonine), between Azotus to the north,
and Gaza to the fouth. The birth-place of Herod
the Great, thence furnamed Afcalonita, (Stephanas).
Famous for its fcallions, which take name from this
town, (Strabo,. Pliny). Now E. Long. 34.
30. Lat. 31. 30.
ASCANIUS, the fon of iEneas and Creufa, fuc-
ceeded his father in the kingdom of the Latins, and
defeated Mezentius king of the Tufcans, who had re-
fufed to conclude a peace with him. At length he
founded Alba Longa; and died about 1139 years be¬
fore the Chriftian sera, after a reign of 38 years.
♦ ASCARIS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order of vermes intettina. The body of the
afcaris is cylindrical, filiform, and tapers at both ends.
The fpecies are two, viz. 1. The vermicularis, with
faint annular rugae, arid the mouth tranfverfe, is about
a quarter of an inch long, and thicker at one end than
the other. It is found in boggy places, in the roots
of putrid plants, and very frequently in the redlum of
children andhorfes. It emaciates children greatly, and
is fometitnes vomited up. 2. The lumbricoides is a-
bout the fame length with the lumbricus terreftris, or
common earth-worm; but it wants the protuberant ring
towards the middle of the body, the only mark by
which they can properly be diftinguifhed. The body
of the lumbricoides is cylindrical, and Tubulated at each
extremity ; but the tail is fomewhat triangular. The
lumbricoides is the worm which is moft commonly
found in the human inteftines. It is viviparous, and pro¬
duces vaft numbers. For the method of expelling thefe
two kinds of infedls, fee the Index fubjoined to Me¬
dicine.
ASCENDANTS, inlaw, are oppofed todefcendants
in fucceffion; /. e. when a father fucceeds his fon, or
an uncle his nephew, <bc. heritage is faid to afcend, or
go to afcendants.
ASCENDING, in aftronomy, is faid of fuch ftars
as are rifing above the horizon in any parallel of the
equator.
Ascending Latitude^ is the latitude of a planet when
going towards the north pole.
Ascending Node, is that point of a planet’s orbit,
wherein it paffes the ecliptic, to proceed northward.
This is otherwife called the northern node, and repre-
fented by this charadler
Ascending Vejfeh, in anatomy, thofe which carry
* See Aorta, the blood upwards ; as the aorta afcendens *.
ASCENSION, in aftronomy, is either right or o-
blique. Right afcenfion of the fun, or a ftar, is that
degree of the equinoftial, counted from the beginning
of aries, which rifes with the fun or ftar in aright fphere.
Oblique afcenfion is an arch of the equator intercepted
between the firft point of aries, and that point of the e-
quator which rifes together with a ftar in an oblique
fphere.
Ascension Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
held ten days before Whitfuntide, in memory of our Sa¬
viour’s afcenfion into heaven after his refurredtibn.
Ascension IJland, a barren ifland on the coaft of
Africa, lying in W. Long. 17. 20. S. Lat. 7. 5.
The following account is given of it by Mr For-
fter. “ This ifland was firft difcovered in ijoi, by Joad
de Nova Galego, a Portuguefe navigator, who named A’cmfion.
it llha de Nojfa Senkora de Conceicao. The fame ad- ~
nviral, on his return to Portugal in 1502, difcovered
the ifland of St Helena, which obtained that name from
the day of the difcovery. Afcenfion was feen a fecond
time by Alfonfo d’Albuquerque on his voyage to In¬
dia in 1503, and then received the name it now bears;
but was already at that time in the fame defolate con¬
dition as at prefent. We fent feveral parties on Ihore,
who palTed the night on the watch for turtles, which
came to lay their eggs on the fandy Ihores. The
drearinefs of this ifland furpaffed all the horrors of Ea-
fter Ifland and Tierra del Puego, even without, the af-
fiftance of fnow. It was a ruinous heap of rocks, many
of which, as far as we could difcern from the Ihip,
feemed to be totally changed by the fire of a volcano.
Nearly in the centre of the ifland rifes a broad white
mountain of great height, on which we difcerned fome
verdure by the help of our glaffes, from whence it has
obtained the name of Green Mountain.
“ We landed early in the morning among fome
rocks, the furf being always immenfely high on the
great beach; which confifts of minute Ihell-fand, chiefly
of a fnowy white, very deep, dry, and intolerable to
the eyes when the fun fhines. We afeended among
heaps of black cavernous ftone, which perfeftly re-
fembles the moft common lavas of Vefuvius and Ice¬
land, and of which the broken pieces looked as if they
had been accumulated by art. The lava currents cool¬
ing very fuddenly, may eafily be imagined to produce
fuch an effeft. Having afeended about 12 or 15 yards
perpendicular, we found ourfelves on a great level plain,
of fix er eight miles in circuit; in the different corners
of which, we obfevved a large hill of an ex a (ft conical
fhape, and of a reddifh colour. Handing perfedtly infu-
lated. Part of the plain, between thefe conic hills was
covered with great numbers of fmaller hillocks, confift-
ing of the fame wild and ragged lava as that near the
fea, and ringing like glafs when two pieces are knock¬
ed together. The ground between the heaps of lava
was covered with a black earth, on which we walked
very firmly ; but when thefe heaps did not appear, the
whole was a red earth, which was fo loofe, and in fuch
dry minute particles, that the wind raifed clouds of
duft upon it. The conic hills confifted of a very dif¬
ferent fort of lava, which was red, foft, and crumbling
into earth. One of thefe hills ftands dire&ly in front
of the bay, and has a wooden crofs on its fummit, from
whence the bay is faid to take its name. Its fides are
very fteep, but a path near three quarters of a mile
long winds round it to the fummit. After examining
this remarkable country a little longer, we concluded,
with a great degree of probability on our fide, That the
plain on which we ftood was once the crater or feat of
a volcano, by the accumulation of whofe cinders and
pumice-ftones the conic hills had been gradually form¬
ed : that the currents of lava which we now faw divi¬
ded into many heaps, had perhaps been gradually bu¬
ried in frefh cinders and alhes; and the waters coming
down from the interior mountain in the rainy feafom
had fmoothened every thing in their way, and filled up*
by degrees the cavity of the crater. The rocky black
lava was the refidence of numberlefs men-of-war birds
and boobies, which fat on their eggs, and fuffered us
to come clofe to them.
About
A S G
“ About eight in the evening, it being then quite
. a fmall veiTel came into the bay, and anchored
diredtly within us. Captain Cook having hailed her re¬
peatedly, received in anfwer, that fhe was the Lucretia,
a New-York Hoop, which had been at Sierra Leon, and
was now come to catch turtles, in order to fell them at
the windward iflands of the Weft Indies. A lieutenant
was fent on board, who learned from the mafter, that
he had taken our Ihip to be a French Indiaman, and
was very delirous of trading with Englifti India-lhips,
in which he was difappointed by the company’s regu¬
lations. He dined with our officers the next day, but
on the 31st at day-break left the ifland. On the 30th
in the morning, we landed a fecond time; and, croffing
the plain, arrived at a prodigious lava-current, inter¬
fered by many channels from fix to eight yards deep,
which bore ftrong marks of being worn by vaft tor¬
rents of water, but were at prefent perferiy dry, the
fun being in the northern hemifphere.' In thefe gul¬
lies we found afmall quantity of foil confifting of a black
volcanic earth, mixed with fome whitiih particles grit¬
ty to the touch. Here we faw fome fmall bunches of
purflane, and a fpecies of grafs (panicum fanguineum)
which found fufficient nutriment in the dry foil. Ha¬
ving at laft, with great fatigue, climbed over this ex-
tenfive and tremendous current of lava, which was
much more folid than the heaps nearer to the fea, we
came to the foot of the Green Mountain, which even
from the fhips place in the bay we had plainly diitin-
guiftied to be of a different nature from all the reft of
the country. Thofe parts of the lava which furround-
ed it were covered with a prodigious quantity of pur¬
flane, and a kind of new fern (lonchites Adfcenfionis),
where feveral flocks of wild goats were feeding. The
great mountain is divided in its extremities, by various
clefts, into feveral bodies; but in the centre they all run
together, and form one broad mafs of great height.
The whole appears to confift of a gritty tophaceous
lime-ftone, which has never been attacked by the vol¬
cano, but probably exifted prior to its eruption; its
fides are covered with a kind of grafs, peculiar to the
ifland, which Linnaeus has named ariflida Adfcenjionis.
We likewife obferved feveral flocks of goats feeding on
it ; but they were all exceffively ftiy, and ran with fur-
prifing velocity along tremendous precipices, where it
was impoffible to follow them. The mafter of the New-
York floop acquainted us, that there is a fpring of wa¬
ter on one part of this mountain, which falls down a
great precipice, and is afterwards abforbed in the fand.
I am almoft perfuaded, that, with a little trouble, Af-
cenfion might (hortly be made fit for the refidence of
men. The introduction of furze (ulex Ruropccus), and
of a few other plants which thrive bell in a parched foil,
and are not likely to be attacked by rats or goats,
would foon have the fame effeCt as at St Helena. The
moifture attracted from the atmofphere by the high
mountains in the centre of the ifland, would then no
longer be evaporated by the violent aCtion of the fun,
but colled into rivulets, and gradually fupply the
whole ifland. A fod of graffes would every where co¬
ver the furface of the ground, and annually increafe the
ftratum of mould, till it could be planted with more
ufeful vegetables.
“ We returned gradually to Crofs Bay, in the heat of
noon, over the plain; having a fpace of more than five
[ '7*7 1 A S C
miles to traverfe, where the fun burnt and hi i lie red our Afcenfional
faces and necks, and heated the foil to fuch a degree, ^
that our feet were likewife extremely fore. About * bul,T
three o’clock we arrived at the water’s fide; and after _
bathing in a fmall cove among a few rocks, we made
the iignal for a boat, and were taken on board. The
next forenoon we made another fmall excuriion, in com¬
pany with captain Cook, towards the Green Mountain;
but we were all of us fo much fatigued, that we could
not reach it. We made no new obfervations in the
courfe of this day, the nature of the ifland being dreary
beyond defcription in its outflcirts.”
ASCENSIONAL difference, the difference be¬
tween the right and oblique afcenfion of the fame point
to the furface of the fphere.
ASCENT, in ageneral fenfe, implies the motion of a
body upwards, or the continual recefs of a body from
the earth. The Peripatetics attribute the fpontaneous
afcent of bodies to a principle of levity inherent in
them. The moderns deny any fuch thing as fponta¬
neous levity; and ftiew, that whatever afeends, does it
in virtue of fome external impulfe or extrufion. Thus
it is that fmoke and other rare bodies afeend in the
atmofphere ; and oil, light woods, <bc. in water; not
by any external principle of levity, but by the fupe-
rior gravity or tendency downwards of the parts of
the medium wherein they are. The afcent of light
bodies in heavy mediums is produced after the fame
manner as the afcent of the lighter fcale of a balance.
It is not that fuch fcale has an internal principle where¬
by it immediately tends upwards; butit is impelled up¬
wards by the preponderancy of the other fcale; the excefs
of the weight of the one having the fame effedt, by aug¬
menting its impetus downwards, as fo much real levity
in the other; by reafon the tendencies mutually oppofe
each other, and that adtionandreadlion are always equal.
Ascent of Bodies on Inclined Planes, the reader will
find explained under Mechanics; Ascent of Fluids,
under Hydrostatics; and Ascent of Vapours, un¬
der the article Evaporation.
ASCESIS, properly denotes exercife of the body.
It is formed from the verb ao-KuV, ufed by the ancients in
fpeaking of the fports and combats of the athletae.
Ascesis is alfo ufed by philofophers, to denote an
exercife conducive to virtue, or to the acquiring a great¬
er degree of virtue. This is particularly denominated
thephilofophical afeefis, becaufe praclifed chiefly by phi¬
lofophers, who make a rhore peculiar profeffion of im¬
proving themfelves in virtue ; on the model whereof, the
ancient Chriftians introduced a religious Afeefis.
ASCETERIUM, in ecclefiaftical writers, is fre¬
quently ufed for a monaftery, or place fet apart for the
exercifes of virtue and religion. The word is formed
from afeefis, exercife; or afeetra, one who performs
exercife. Originally it figniiied a place where the ath¬
letae or gladiators performed their exercifes.
ASCETICS, in church-hiftory, fuch Chriftians in
the primitive church as enured themfelves to great de¬
grees of abftinence and faffing, in order to fubdue their
paffions.
AStHAFENBURG, a town of Germany, feated
on the river Maine, in the circle of the lower Rhine,
and territory of the ele&or of Mentz, who has a palace
there. It is memorable for being the place where the
king of Great Britain took up his quarters the night
4 Y 2 before
A S C L 728 ] A S C
Afcharo, before the battle of Dettingen. E. Long. 9. 35. N. Lat.
Africa.
ASCHAM( Roger) was born at Kirby-Wifke, near
North-Allerton in Yorkfhire, in the year 1516. His
father was fteward to the noble family of Scroop. Our
author Roger was educated in the family of Sir An¬
thony Wingfield, who, about the year 1530, fent him
to St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he was foon
diftinguiihed for his application and abilities. He took
his degree of bachelor of arts at the age of eighteen,
was foon after ele&ed fellow of his college, and in T536
proceeded matter of arts. In 1544, he was chofen u-
niverfity orator ; and, in 1548, was fent for to court, to
inftruft the lady Elizabeth (afterwards queen) in the
learned languages. In the year 1550, he attended Sir
Richard Moryfine, as fecretary, on his embalfy to the
emperor Charles V. at whofe court he continued three
years, and in the mean time was appointed Latin fecre-
tarytokingEdw. VI. But, upon the death of that prince,
he loft his preferment and all his hopes, being profef-
fedly of the reformed religion ; yet, contrary to his ex¬
pectations, he was foon after, by the intereft of his
friendlord Paget, made Latin fecretary to the king and
queen. In June 1554, he married Mi'sMaragret How, a
lady of a good family, with whom he had a confiderable
fortune. It is very remarkable of Mr Afcham, that, tho’
he was known to be a Proteftant, he continued in favour
not only with the miniftry of thofe times, but with
queen Mary herfelf. Upon the accefiion of queen E-
lizabeth, he was not only confirmed in his pott of La¬
tin fecretary', but was conttantly employed as pretep-
tor to her majefty in the Greek and Latin languages.
He died in the year 1568, much regretted, efpecially
by the queen, who faid fhe had rather loft ten thoufand
pounds. Camden and fome other writers tell us, that
he had a great propenfity to dice and cock-fighting.
He certainly died poor.—He wrote,
I. Toxophilus. The fchole or partitions of /hooting,
contayned in two bookes, written by Roger Afcham,
•1544, and now newly perufed. Pleafaunt for all gen¬
tlemen and yeomen of England, &c. Lond. 1571.
Whilft at the univerfity he was fond of archery by way
of exercife and amufement, for which he was cenfured ;
and on that account hefatdowm to write this book, which
was dedicated to Hen. VIII. who fettled apenfion of 10I.
per annum on the author. It is rather whimfical; but
is admirably well written, and full of learning. 2. A
report and difcourfe, written by Roger Afcham, of the
affairs and ftate of Germany, and the emperor Charles
his court, &c. 4to. A valuable curiofity. 3. The
fchoolmatter. Firft printed in 1573, 410. Mr Upton
publiihed an edition with notes in 1711. It has un¬
common merit; abounding in great good fenfe, as well
as knowledge of ancient and modern hiftory : it is alfo
expreffive of the great humanity of the author, who was
for making the paths of knowledge as level and plea-
fant as poffible, and for trying every gentle method of
enlarging the mind and winning the heart. 4. Latin
epiftles. Firft publiihed by Mr Grant in 1576 ; have
fince paffed many editions : the beft is that of Oxford
in 1703. Much admired on account of the ftyle, and
cfteemed almoft the only claffical work of that kind
written by an Engli/hman. 5. Apologia contra mif-
fam. 1577, 8vo.
ASCIDIA, a genus of animals belonging to the or¬
der of vermes mollufca. The body is cylindrical, and Afcii
fixed to a fhell, rock, &c. It has two apertures ; one Af-Cjj! ^
on the fummit, the otherlower, forminga fheath. There . . 1 ‘ "
are fix fpeciesof this animal, viz. the papillofum, gelati-
nofum, inteftinalis, quadridentata, ruftica, and echina-
ta ; only one of which, viz. the ruftica *, is found in Pi3'6 XLU.
the Britifh feas. Animals of this genus have the faculty *•
of fquirting out the water they take in.
ASCII, among geographers, an appellation given
to thofe inhabitants of the earth who, at certain feafons
of the year, have no ftiadowfuch are all the inhabi¬
tants of the torrid zone, when the fun is vertical to them.
ASCITiE, (from ao-xer, a lag or lottle), in antiquity
a fedl or branch of Montanifts, who appeared in the
fecond century. They were fo called, becaufe they
introduced a kind of Bacchanals into their affemblies,
who danced round a bag or Ikin blowed up ; faying.
They were thofe new bottles filled with new wine,
whereof our Saviour makes mention, Matth. ix. 17.
—They are fometimes alfo called u4fcodrogit<s.
ASCITES, in medicine, the dropfy.
ASCLEPIA, a feftival of Efculapius the god of
phyfic, obferved particularly at Epidaurus, where it
wras attended with a conteft betw-een the poets and
muficians, whence it was likewife called hgo; Aya», tJ.g
facred contention.
ASCLEPIAD, in ancient poetry, a verfe compo-
fed of four feet, the firft of which is a fpondee, the fe¬
cond a choriambus, and the two laft da&yls ; or of
four feet and a csefura, the firft a fpondee, the fecond a
da&yl, after which comes the csefura, then the two
dadtyls ; as, Maecenas atavis edite regibus.
ASCLEPIADES, one of the moft celebrated phy-
ficians among the ancients, v/as a native of Prufa, in
Bithynia; and pra&ifed phyfic at Rome, under Pom-
pey, ninety-fix years before the Chriftian sera. He was
the head of a new' fed; and, by making ufe of wine and
cold water in the cure of the fick, acquired a very great
reputation. He wrote feveral books, which are fre¬
quently mentioned by Galen, Celfus and Pliny; but they
are now loft.
AsclepiAdes, a famous phyfician under Hadrian,
of the fame city with the former: he wrote feveral
books concerning the compofition of medicines, both
internal and external.
ASCLEPIAS, swallow-wort ; a genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandriaclafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are 19 fpecies enume¬
rated by botanical writers ; but the following are the
moft remarkable. 1. The alba, or common fwallow-
wort. The root is compofed of many ftrong fibres
conne&ed at top like thofe of afparagus, from whence
arife many ftalks, in number proportional to the fize of
the roots, which grow two feet high, and are very (len¬
der at the top : the leaves are placed oppofite by pairs;
the flowers are white, growing in umbels near the top
of the ftalk, from whence are fent out fmaller umbels.
After the flower is paft, the two germens become long
pointed pods, inclofing many compreffed feeds lying
imbricatim, which are crowned with a- foft white down.
It flowers in June, and the feeds ripen in September.
It is a native of the fouth of France, Spain, and Italy.
2. The Syriaca, or greater Syrian dogsbane, is a per¬
ennial plant, which fends up feveral upright ftalks in
the fpring, about two feet high, garniflied with oval
leaves
Alclepias
II
Afcyrum.
A S C [ 729 ] ASH
leaves growing oppofite; at the top of the ftalks the
umbels of flowers are produced, which are of a bright
. purple colour, making a pretty appearance, but are
not fucceeded by pods in England. 3. The curraflavi-
ca, or baftard ipecacuanha, is a native of the warm parts
of America. It rifes to the height of five or fix feet,
with upright ftems, and fmooth oblong leaves placed
oppofite. Toward the top of the branches the umbels
of flowers come out, which ftand ereft : the petals of
the flowers are of a fcarlet colour, and the horny nec-
tariums in the middle are of a bright faffron colour,
which make a pretty appearance; and there is a fucceffion
of flowers on the fame plant from June to October.
The flowers are fucceededby long taper pods, filled with
feeds crowned with a foft down, which ripen late in
autumn. The firft two fpecies are hardy; but the laft
one is tender, and therefore muft be preferved in a ftove.
Medicinal Ufes, See. The root of the firft fpecies is
ufed in medicine. It is reckoned by botanifts a fpe¬
cies of apocynum, or dogfbane ; from all the poifo-
nous forts of which it may be diftinguiftied, by yield¬
ing a limpid juice, whilfi that of the others is milky.
The root has a ftrong fin ell, efpecially when frelh, ap¬
proaching to that of valerian, or nard ; the tafle is at
firft fweetifh and aromatic, but foon becomes bitterilh,
fubacrid, and naufeous. This root is efteemed fudorific,
diuretic, and emmenagogue: it is alfo frequently em¬
ployed by the French and German phyficians as an a-
lexipharmic, and fometimes as a fuccedaneum to con-
trayerva, whence it has received the name of contray-
erva Germanorum. Among us it is very rarely made
ufe of: it appears from its fenfible qualities to be a me¬
dicine of much the fame kind with valerian, which is
indifputably preferable to it.
The root of the third fpecies has been fometimes fent
over from America inftead of that of ipecacuanha, and
mifehievous effe&s have been produced by it. Thofe
who cultivate this plant ought to be careful that none
of its milky juice mix. with any thing which is taken
inwardly.
ASCODEUTiE, in antiquity, a feft of heretics, in
the fecond century, who rejected all ufe of fymbols and
facraments, on this principle, That incorporeal things
cannot be communicated by things corporeal, nor di¬
vine myfteries by any thing vifible.
ASCOLI, formerly Afculum Apulum, a pretty large
and populous town of Italy, in the marche of Ancona,
and territory of the church ; it is a biftiop’s fee, and
feated on a mountain, at the bottom of which runs the
river Fronto. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 42. 47.
Ascoli de satriano, formerly Afculum Picenum,
an epifcopal city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples;
feated on a mountain. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 42. 8.
ASCOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival cele¬
brated by the Athenian hulhandmen in honour of Bac¬
chus, to whom they facrificed a he-goat, becaufe it
deftroys the vines (Ovid. Faft. i. 357.); and, to fhew
the greater indignity to an animal hated by Bacchus,
the peafants, after having killed him, made a foot-ball
of his lkin. Virgil has beautifully deferibed the occa-
fion of the facrifice, and manner of celebrating the fefti¬
val, Georg, ii. 380.
ASCYRUM, peters-wort ; a genus of the polyan-
dria order, belonging to the polydelphia clafs of plants.
Of this- genus there are three fpecies; but they have
no property worthy of notice, and therefore are never
cultivated but in botanic gardens for the fake of variety.
ASDRUBAL, the name of feveral Carthaginian
generals. See Carthage.
ASELLUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of onifeus. See Oniscus.
ASGILL(John),a late humourous writer, was bred
to the law, and praftifed in Ireland with great fuccefs.
He was there elefted a member of the houfe of commons,
but was expelled for writing a treatife on the poflibility
of avoidingdeath; and being afterwardschofen amember
for the borough of Bramber, in Suffex, he was alfo on the
fame account expelled the parliament of England. After
this, he continued thirty years a prifoner in the mint,
fleet, and king’s-bench; during which time he pub-
liftied a multitude of fmall political pamphlets, feveral
of which were in defence of the fucceflion of the houfe
of Hanover, and againft the pretender. He died in
the rules of the king’s-bench, in the year 17*58, when
he was upwards of fourfeore.
ASH, in botany. See Fraxinus.
Asn-Hde, among chemifts, is the lowed; part of a
furnace; and is intended to receive the alhes falling
from the fire, and to give a paffage to the air which is
to be introduced into the furnace, to keep up the com-
buftion.
A&H-Wednefday, the firft day of Lent; fuppofed to
have been fo called from a cuftom in the church, of
fprinkling afhesthat day on the headsof penitents then
admitted to penance. See Lent.
ASHBORN, a town in Derbylhire, featedbetween
the rivers Dove and Compton, over which there is a
ftone bridge, in a rich foil. It is a pretty large town,
though not fo flourifhing as formerly. W. Long. 1.35-
N. Lat. 53. o.
ASHBURTON, a town in Devonfhire. It fends
two members to parliament, and is one of the four {tan¬
nery towns. It is feated among the hills, which are
remarkable for tin and copper ; and has a very hand-
fome church; as alfo a chapel, which is turned into a
fchool. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 50. 30.
ASHBY de la zouch, a market town in Leicefter-
{hire, fituated in W. Long. 1. 2'o. N. Lat- 52. 40. It
had a caftle which was long in the pofleflion of the far
mily of de la Zouch. It afterwards fell into the hands
of Edward IV. who granted it to Sir Edward Haftings,
created baron Haftings, with licence to make a caftle
of the manor houfe, to which he adjoined a very high
tower. It was demoliftied in 1648; but a great part
of the tower is ftill Handing. It now belongs to the earl
of Huntingdon.
ASHES, the earthy particles of combuftible fub-
ftances after they have been burnt.
If the afties are produced from vegetable bodies, they
contain a confiderable quantity of fixed fait, blended
with the terrene particles : and from thefe afties the
fixed alkaline falls called pot-ajh^ pearl-afhy See. are
extradited.
The afties of all vegetables are vitrefiable, and found
to contain iron.—They are alfo an excellent manure
for cold and wet grounds. See Agriculture, n° 21.
ASHFORD, a market-town of Kent, fituated about
12 miles fouth-weft of Canterbury, in E. Long. 45. and
N. Lat. 51. 15.
ASHMOLE (Elias), a great antiquary and herald5,
founder
Afdrubal
Aflimole.
ASH [ 73° 1 A S I
founder of the Afhmolean mufaeum at Oxford, was born
at Litchfield in Staffordfhire, 1617. In the early part
of his life, he pra&ifed in the law; and in the civil war
had a captain’s commiflion under the king, and was alfo
comptroller of the ordnance. He married the lady
Mainwaring in 1649, and fettled at London ; where
his houfe was frequented by all the learned and inge¬
nious men of the time. Mr Afhmole was a diligent
and curious collector of manufcripts. In the year 1650,
he publiihed a treatife written by Dr Arthur Dee, re¬
lating to the philofopher’s ftone ; together with ano¬
ther traft on the fartie fubjedt, by an unknown author.
About the fame time, he was bulied in preparing for
the prefs a complete colleftion of the works of fuch
Englilh chemifis as had till then remained in manufcript.
This undertaking coil him great labour and expence ;
and at length the work appeared, towards the clofe of
the year 1652. He propofed at firft to have carried
it on to feveral volumes ; but he afterwards dropped this
defign, and feemed to take a different turn in his ftudies.
He now applied htmfelf to the ftudy of antiquity and
records: he was at great pains to trace the Roman road,
which in Antoninus’s Itinerary is called Bennevanna,
from Weedon to.Litchfield, of which he gave Mr Dug-
dale an account in a letter. In 1658, he began to col-
left materials for his hixtory of the order of the garter,
which he lived to finifh, and thereby did no lefs honour
to the order than to himfelf. In September following,
he made a journey to Oxford, where he fet about gi¬
ving a full and particular defcriplion of the coins pre-
fented to the public library by archbifhop Laud.
Upoa the reftoration of king Charles II. Mr. Afh¬
mole was introduced to his majefty, vrho received him
verygracioufly; and on the 18th of June 1660, bellowed
on him the place of Windfor herald. A. few days after,
he appointed him to give a defcription of his medals,
which were accordingly delivered into' his poffelfion,
and king Henry VIII’s clofet was affigned for his ufe.
On the 15th of February, Mr Afhmole was admitted a
fellow of the royal fociety; and, on the 9th of Febru¬
ary following, the king appointed him fecretary of Su-
s-inam, in the Weft Indies. On the ig111 of July 1699,
the univerfity of Oxford, in confideration of the many
favours they had received from Mr Afhmole, created
him doftor of phylic by diploma, which was prefented
to him by Dr Yates, principal of Brazen Nofe college.
On the of May 1672, he prefentedhis “ Inftitution,
laws, and ceremonies of the moil noble order of the
garter,” to the king; who received it very gracioufly,
and, as a mark of his approbation, granted him a
privy feal for 400 /. out of the cuftom of paper. On
the 26th January 1679, a fi’‘e broke out in the Middle
Temple, in the next chamber to Mr Afhmole’s, by
which he loft a noble library, with a colleftion of 9000
coins, ancient and modern, and a vaft repofitory of
feals, charters, and other antiquities and curiofities;
but his manufcripts and his moft valuable gold medals
were luckily at his houfe at Lambeth. In 1683., the
univerfity of Oxford having finifhed a magnificent re¬
pofitory near the theatre, Mr Afhmole fent thither his
curious colleftion of rarities ; which benefaftion was
confiderably augmented by the addition of his manu¬
fcripts and library at his death, which happened at
Lambeth, the 18th of May, in the 76th year of his age.
Fie was interred in the church of Great-Lambeth, in
Surry, on the 26th of May 1692, and a black marble
ftone laid over his grave, with a Latin infcription.
Befides the works which we have mentiofned, Mr
Afhmole left feveral which were pubiifhed fince his
death, and fome which remain ftill in manufcript.
ASIA, is one of the three general parts of our con¬
tinent, and one of the four of the whole earth. It is
feparated from Europe by the Mediterranean fea, the
Archipelago, the Black Sea, the Pains Meotis, the
Don, and the Dwina, which fall into the White Sea;
and from Africa, by the Arabic Gulph or Red Sea, and
the Ifthmus of Suez. All the other parts are furround-
ed by the ocean. The late difcoveries fhew that it does
not join to America, though it extends very near it.
It is fituated between 44 and 196 degrees of eafl lon¬
gitude, and 1 and 74 degrees of north latitude. From
the Dardanelles to the moft eaflern fliore of Tartary, it
is 4740 miles in length; and from the moft foutliern
point of Malacca to the moft northern point of Nova
Zembla, it is 4380 miles in breadth. It may be di¬
vided into the following parts : Turky in Afia, Ara¬
bia, Perfia, the Mogul’s Empire, with the two pen-
infulas of the Indies; Tibet, China, and Korea ;
Great and Little Buckaria, with Korafin; Tartary, Si¬
beria, and the ifiands. The principal governments are
generally monarchial. Turky, Perfia, the Mogul’s
Empire, and China, are fubjeft to Angle monarchs;
the reft are divided among feveral fovereigns. Siberia
is fubjeft to the Ruffians; Little Tartary to the Tar¬
tars of the Crim; Great Tartary, partly to the Ruf¬
fians, partly to its own monarch, and partly to China.
Great Buckaria is fubjeft to the Periians; and Little
Buckaria, partly to the Tartars, and partly to the
emperor of China. As to the number of the poten¬
tates, there are feven emperors, thirty kings, befides
petty princes, and the rajahs of India. The emperors
are, the grand fignior, the great mogul, the emperor
of Japan, the khan of the Eluth Tartars, the emperor
of Ruffia, the emperor of China, and the fhah of Per¬
fia. The principal kings are, the ftieriffs of Mecca
and Medina ; the follars of Yamen, or Arabia the
Happy; the grand lama of Tibet; the kings of Vifi-
pone, Ava, Siam, Tonquin, Cochinchina, Korea, Cey¬
lon, Borneo, <foc.
The principal religions of Afia are, the Chriftian,
the Mahomedan, the Pagan, and that of Confucius.
The Chriftian religion is profefled in fome parts of A-
fiatic Turky, part of Little Tartary, the north-weft
part of Perfia, and by the Ruffians in Siberia. The
Mahomedan is eftabliffied in Arabia, Perfia, Little
Tartary, Buckaria, and the Mogul’s empire. It like-
wife begins to fpread along the coaft of India, and in
the iflands. The Pagan religion, by which we under-
ftand that wherein images are ufed, or wherein the
worfhip of the Deity is mixed with that of idols, is
profefled by the bulk of the inhabitants of the Mogul’s
empire, in both the peninfulas of India, in China and
Siberia, in the illands of Afia, in all Weftern Tar¬
tary, in Tibet, and in all the countries between India
and China. The religion of Confucius is eftabliffied in
China. Formerly the religion profeflfed in Tartarv
was downright Deifm, as appears from the hiftory of
Jenghiz Khan; but the inhabitants of that country are
now funk in the grofleft fuperftitions.
The languages of Afia are fo many, that we cannot
pretend
A S I [ 731 ] A S O
pretend to enumerate them all, and therefore we lhall
only mention the chief. The principal of Turky in
Europe, are the Grecian and Turkifh ; the Armenian
is fpoken in part of Turky in Afia and Perfia ; the
Arabic is the only tongue in Arabia, and is fpread
over part of Turky in Afia, as a learned language.
The Perfian is ufedin Perfia, and the court of the great
mogul. The Indian is fpoken in India, by the ancient
inhabitants of that country. The Malayan language is
common on the coaft of India, and in fome of the
islands ; the Siamefe in Siam ; the Tibetran in Ti¬
bet ; the Manchewin China and eaftern Tartary; and
the Tartarian in Great Tartary. Befides thefe, there
are feveral diftindt languages in Siberia and the iflands
of Afia. The charaders they make ufe of in writing
are almoft as different as the languages, having each
charadters of their own, except the Chinefe, which are
ufed in Japan as well as China, as alfo in Tonking and
Cochinchina.
The chief rivers of Afia are, the Euphrates and Ti¬
gris,. in Turky; the Indus and Ganges, in India; the
Kiang and Hoang-ho, in China ; the Sir Amu and
Wolga, in Weftern Tartary ; the Saghalia Ula or A-
mur, in Eaftern Tartary ; the Irtifh, Oby, Jenifea,
and Lena, in Siberia. The lakes are, that prodigious
one called the Cafpiqn Sea; and near that another very
large one, but lately known to us, called Aral, or the
lake of eagles. The Baykal is in Siberia, the Kokonor
near Tibet,, and the Tong Ping in China. The chief
mountains are, the Taurus in Turky and Perfia; the
Imaus, between India and Tibet; and the Altay, in
Tartary.
The Allan iflanus are very numerous, infomuch that
fome reckon 150,000,; but of this there is no certain¬
ty. However, they may be divided into thofe of the
eaft, weft, fouth, and fouth-eaft. Thofe that lie on
the eaft of Afia are, the ifiands of Jeffo or Yedfo, and
Japan, with feveral fmall ones on the coaft of Korea,,
the ifland of Formofa, and the Philippines. Thole on
the weft, are the ifland of Cyprus, in the Mediterra¬
nean ; Scanderoon, off Natolia, and the ifle of Rhodes,
off Phifchio, on the fame coaft. Thofe on the fouth
are, the iftes of the Maldives, in the Indian Sea; the
ifle of Ceylon, off cape Komorin; with a great many
fmall ones in the gulph of Bengal. Thofe on the fouth-
eaft are, the iffes of Saudi, as Sumatra, the iftes of Ja¬
va, Borneo, &e, the Moluccas, the ifles of Kumba-
va, Timor, &c. See all thefe articles in their proper
places.
Asia Minor, on Leffer Afia ', the fame with Nato¬
lia. See Natolia.
ASIARCHiE, (termed by St Paul, Chief of Afia,
Acts xix. 31.) were the Pagan Pontifs of Afia, chofen
to fuperintend and have the care of the public games,;
which they did at their own expence ; for which rea-
fon they were always the richeft and moft conliderable
men of the towns.
ASIDE, in the drama, fomething faid by an ac¬
tor, which fome, or even all the other a£tors prefent,
are fuppofed not to hear; a circumftancejuftly con¬
demned as being unnatural and improbable.
ASIITO, a town of Italy, in Perugia, and in tire
Pope’s territories. E. Long. 2,3. 40. N. Lat. 43. o.
ABILUSj or hornet-fly, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of. infecta diptera. It has two
wings ; and a horny, ftrait, two-valved beak. There Afinara
are 17 fpecies of this infeft. Many of them wound in a Jl
very painful manner ; others of them are quite harmlefs.  TT05.'.
ASINARA, an ifland of Italy, on the weftern coaft
of Sardinia. E. Longi 8. 30. N. Lat. 41.0. 1
ASINIUS (Pollio), confuland Roman orator, di-
ftinguifhed himfelf under Auguftus by bis exploits and
his literary works. He is frequently mentioned with
praifes by Horace and Virgil, and is faid to have col-
le&ed the firft library at Rome. He died at Frefcati,
at 80 years of age.
ASISIO, or Asitio, a city of the Pope’s territo¬
ries in Italy, fituated about 16 miles eaft of Perugia.
E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43.
ASKRIG, a town in the N. Riding of Yorkfhire.
W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50.
ASLANI, in commerce, a filver coin, worth from
115 to 120 afpers. See As per.
ASMONEUS, or Assamoneus, the father of Si¬
mon, and chief of the Afmoneans, a family that reign¬
ed over the Jews during 126 years.
ASNA, or Esna, a town in Upper Egypt, feared
upon the Nile, believed by fome authors to be the an¬
cient Syena, though others fay the ruins of it are ftill
to be feen near Affuan. It is fo near the cataracts of
the Nile, that they may be heard from thence. It con¬
tains feveral monuments of antiquity; and among the
reft an ancient Egyptian temple, pretty entire, all
painted throughout, except in fome places that are ef¬
faced by time. The columns are full of hieroglyphic
figures. This fuperb. ftrudfure is now made ufe of for
a ftable, wherein they put oxen, camels^ and goats. A
little way from thence are the ruins of an ancient nun¬
nery, faid to be built by St Helena, furrounded -with
tombs.—Afna is the principal town in thefe parts, and
the inhabitants are rich in com and cattle. They drive a
confiderable trade into Lowrer Egypt and Nubia, by¬
means of the Nile,.and alfo by the caravans that pais over
the Defart. The inhabitants are all Arabs, except a-
bout 200 Copts, the ancient inhabitants, and a fort of.
Chriftians. They are under the government of the
Turks, who have a cadi, and the Arabs have two (he-
riffs of their own nation. E. Long. 31. 40. N. Lat.
38. 15- jl
ASQLA, a. town of the Breffan in Italy, belong¬
ing to the republic of Venice. E. Long. 14. 18. N.
Lat. 45. 15.
ASOLO, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, feated
on a mountain 17 miles north-weft of Trevifan, and io>
north-eaft of Baffano. E. Long. 12. 2. N. Lat. 45. 491
ASOPH, a town of Coban Tartary, in Afia,*featecL
on the river Don, near its mouth, a little to the eaft
of the Pains Moeotis, or Sea of Azoph. It has beem
feveral times taken and retaken of late years ; but ia
1739, the contending powers agreed that the fortifica¬
tions fliould be demoliflied, and the town remain under
the dominion of Kuffia. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat.
47. 18.
ASOPUS, a river of Phrygia Major, which, toge¬
ther with the Lyons, wadies Laodicea, (Pliny). —An¬
ther of Boeotia, which running from mount Cithseron,
and watering the territory of Thebes, feparates it from
the territory of Platasa, and falls with an eaft courfe in¬
to the. Euripus, at Tanagra. On this river Adrafrus
king of Sicyon built a temple to. Netuefis, thence
qailed
ASP L 732 ] ASP
Afopns called Adrajleia. From this river Thebae came to be
ii furnamed Afipides, (Strabo). It is now called Afopo.
p' A third Afopus, a river of Peloponnefus, which runs
by Sicyon, (Strabo) ; and with a north-weft courfe
falls into the Sinus Corinthiacus, to the weft of Co¬
rinth.—A fourth, a fmall river of the Locri Epicne-
midii, on the borders of Theffaly, (Pliny) ; rifing in
Mount Oeta, and falling into the Sinus Maliacus.
Asopus, a town of Laconica, (Paufanius); on the
Sinus Laconicus, with a port in a peninfula, between
Bose to the eaft, and the mouth of the Eurotas to the
weft. The citadel only remains {landing, now called
by the failors Cajiel Rampano.
ASOW, a celebrated and important fortrefs of Ruf-
fia, once a place of confiderable trade, but now demo-
liftied. It was fituated in the diftriit of Bachmut, near
the place where the Greeks many centuries ago built
the city of Tanais, which was very famous for its trade,
and underwent many vicifiitudes. The Genoefe, who
fettled a trade with Rufiia foon after the difcovery of
Archangel by Captain Chancellor, became mafters of
this place, and gave it the name of Tana, or Catana:
but the Tartars, who were very powerful in thefe parts,
feem to have been in pofiefiion of it long before ; for,
as Bufching informs us, there are Afow coins yet ex¬
tant, on which is the name of Taktamyfs-Kan. From
the Genoefe it fell into the hands of the Turks, loft
its trade, and became an inconfiderable town. In 1637,
it was taken by the Coflacks, who defended it againft
the Turks in 1641, and next year fet fire to it, and blew
it up. The Turks rebuilt it with ftrong fortifications.
The Ruffians laid claim to it in 1672, and took it in
1696; but, by the treaty of Pruth in 1711, it was re-
ftored to the Turks. In 1736, the Ruffians became
mafters of Afow; but by the treaty of Belgrade they
were obliged to relinquifti it, and entirely deftroy the
place.
ASP, in natural hiftory, a fmall poifonous kind of
ferpent, whofe bite gives a fpeedy but eafy death. It
is faid to be thus denominated from the Greek ao-*/?,
Jhield, in regard to the manner of its lying convolved
in a circle, in the centre of which is the head, which it
exerts, or raifes, like the umbo or umbilicus of a buck¬
ler. This fpecies of ferpent is very frequently men¬
tioned by authors ; but fo carelefsly defcribed, that it is
not eafy to determine which, if any of the fpecies known
at prefent, may properly be called by this name. It is
faid to be common in Africa, and about the banks of
the Nile; and Bellonius mentions a fmall fpecies of fer¬
pent which he had met with in Italy, and which had a
fort of callous excrefcence on the forehead, which'he
takes to have been the afpis of the ancients. It is with
the afp that Cleopatra is faid to have difpatched herfelf,
and prevented the defigns of Auguftus, who intended
to have carried her captive to adorn his triumphal
entry into Rome. But the fadl is contefted: Brown
places it among his vulgar errors. The indications of
that queen’s having ufed the miniftry of the afp, were
only two almoft infenfible pricks found in her arm. In
reality, Plutarch fays, it is unknown what death {he
died of.
Lord Bacon makes the afp the leaft painful of all
the inftruments-of death: he fuppofes it to have an
affinity to opium, but to be lefs difagreeable in its ope¬
ration : Which, however, does not fo well agree with
the defeription of the fymptoms given by Diofcorides
and others; who inform us, that the bite is followed by » - “
a ftupor of the whole body, palenefs, coldnefs of the ParaSu?-
forehead, continual yawning, ni6litation of the eye¬
lids, inclination of the neck, heavinefs of the head,
finking into a profound fleep, and laftly convulfions.
The ancients had a plafter called Ji ao"xl&ov, made of
this terrible animal, of great efficacy as a difeutient of
ftrumae, and other indurations, and ufed likewife againft
pains of the gout. The flefh and {kin, or exuviae, of
the creature, had alfo their fliare in the ancient mate¬
ria medica.
ASPA, a town of Parthia, (Ptolemy); now Ifpa-
han*, (Holftenius). In Ptolemy the latitude feems to * SeeT#*-
agree, being 330; but whether the longitude does, is ^an'
a queftion. E. Long. 510, Lat. 32. 30.
ASPALATHUS, African broom; a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants- Of this genus there are 19 fpecies; all of which
are natives of warm climates, and muft be preferred in
ftoves by thofe who would cultivate them here. They
have no great beauty, nor other remarkable property;
which renders a particular defeription of them needlefs.
ASPARAGUS, sparagus, sperage, or spar¬
row-grass; a genus of the monogynia order, belong¬
ing to the hexandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are ten fpecies ; but
the only one cultivated in the gardens is that with
an upright herbaceous {talk, briftly leaves, and equal
ftipula, or the common afparagus. The other fpe¬
cies are kept only in the gardens of the curious for the
fake of variety.
Culture. The garden afparagus is with great care
cultivated for the ufe of the table. The propagation
of this ufeful plant is from feed; and as much of the
fuccefs depends upon the goodnefs of the feed, it is
much better to fave it than to buy it at the {hops. The
manner of faving it is this: Mark with a flick fome of
the faireft buds; and when they are run to berry, and
the ftalks begin to dry and wither, cut them up; rub
off the berries into atub, and, pouring waterupon them,
rub them about with your hands; the hufles will break
and let out the feed, and will fwim away with the water
in pouring it off; fo that in repeating this two or three
times, the feeds will be clean waflied, and found at the
bottom of the tub. Thefe muft be fpread on a mat
to dry, and in the beginning of February muft be fown
on a bed of rich earth. They muft not be fown too
thick, and muft be trod into the ground, and the earth
raked over them fmooth : the bed is to be kept clear
of weeds all the fummer; and in Odlober, when the
{talks are withered and dry, a little rotten dung muft
be fpread half an inch thick over the whole furface of
the bed. The fpring following, the plants will be fit
to plant out for good ; the ground muft; therefore be
prepared for them by trenching it well, and burying
a large quantity of rotten dung in the trenches, fo
that it may lie at leaft fix inches below the furface of
the ground: when this is done, level the whole plot
exactly, taking out all the loofe {tones. This is to be
done juft at the time when the afparagus is to be plant¬
ed out; which muft be in the beginning of March, if
the foil is dry, and the feafon forward ; but in a wet
foil, it is better to wait till the beginning of April,
which is about the feafon that the plants are begin¬
ning
ASP [ 733 ] ASP
Afparagiis. ning to flioot. The feafon being now come, the roots
muft be carefully taken up with a narrow-pronged
dung-fork, {baking them out of the earth, feparating
them from each other, and obferving to lay all their
heads even, for the more convenient planting them,
which muft be done in this manner. Lines muft be
drawn, at a foot diftance each, ftraight acrofs the bed;
thefe muft be dug into fmall trenches of fix inches deep,
into which the roots muft be laid, placing them againft
the fides of the trench with their buds in a right pofi-
tion upwards, and fo that, when the earth is raked
over them, they may be two inches under the furface
of the ground. Between every four rows a fpace of
two feet and a half fliould be left for walking in, to
cut the afparagus. When the afparagus is thus plant¬
ed, a crop of onions may be fown on the ground, which
will not at all hurt it. A month after this, the afpara¬
gus will come up, when the crop of onions muft be
thinned, and the weeds carefully cleared away. About
Auguft the onions will be fit to pull up. In Odtober
following, cut off the ftioots of the afparagus within
two inches of the ground, clear well all weeds away,
and throw up the earth upon the beds, fo as to leave
them five inches above the level of the alleys. A row
of colworts may be planted in the middle of the alleys,
but nothing muft be now fown on the beds. In the
fpring the weeds muft be hoed up, and all the fummer
the beds kept clear of weeds. In October they muft
be turned up, and earthed again, as the preceding fea¬
fon. The fecond fpring after planting, feme of the
young afparagus may be cut for the table. The larger
{hoots {hould only be taken, and thefe ftiould be cut at
two inches under ground, and the beds every year ma¬
naged as in the fecond year. But as fome people are
very fond of early afparagus, the following directions are
given by which it may be obtained anytime in winter:
Plant fome good roots at one year old in a moift rich
foil, about eight inches apart; the fecond and third
years after planting, they will be ready to take up for
the hot-beds ; thefe {hould be made pretty ftrong, a-
bout three feet thick, with new ftable-dung that has
fermented a week or more ; the beds muft be covered
with earth fix inches thick; then againft a ridge made
at one end, begin to lay in your plants, without trim¬
ming or cutting the fibres, and between every row lay
a little ridge of fine earth, and proceed thus till the
bed is planted ; then cover the bed two inches thick
with earth, and encompafs it with a ftraw-band, and
in a week, or as the bed is in the temper, put on the
frames and glaffes, and lay on three inches thick of
freftt earth over the beds, and give them air and add
frefti heat to them as it requires. Thefe beds may be
made from November till March, which will laft till
the natural grafs comes in.
Medicinal Ufes. The roots have a bitterifli mucila¬
ginous tafte, inclining to fweetnefs ; the fruit has much
the fame kind of tafte ; the young {hoots are more a-
greeable than either. Afparagus promotes appetite,
but affords little nourilhment. It gives a ftrong ill
$ fmell to the urine in a little time after eating it, and
for this reafon chiefly is fuppofed to be diuretic : it is
I likewife efteemed aperient and deobftruent; the root
is one of the five called opening roots. Some fuppofe
the {hoots to be moft efficacious; others the root; and
others the bark of the root. Stahl is of opinion that
) Vou. I.
none of them have any great {hare of the virtues ufually Afpe«ft
aferibed to them. Afparagus appears from experience .11
to contribute very little either to the exciting of urine A pe'u a'
when fuppreffed, or increafing its difeharge; and in
cafes where aperient medicines generally do fervice,
this has little or no effect.
ASPECT, in aftronomy, denotes the fituation of
the planets and ftars with refpedl to each other.
There are five different afpe&s. i. Sextile afpe<ft is
when the planets or ftars are 6o° diftant, and marked
thus 2. The quartile, or quadrate, when they are
90° diftant, marked □. 3. Trine, when 1200 diftant,
marked A. 4. Oppofition, when 18o° diftant, mark¬
ed g . And, 5. Conjunftion, when both in the fame
degree, marked tf.
Kepler, who added eight new ones, defines afpe& to
be the angle formed by the rays of two ftars meeting
on the earth, whereby their good or bad influence is
meafured : for it is to be obferved, that thefe afpedts
being firft introduced by aftrologers, were diftinguilh-
ed into benign, malignant, and indifferent; the quar¬
tile and oppofition being accounted malign ; the trine
and fextile, benign or friendly; and the conjundlion,
indifferent.
ASPEN-tree, in botany. See Populus.
ASPER, in grammar, an accent peculiar to the
Greek language, marked thus (‘); and importing, that
the letters over which it is placed ought to be ftrongly
afpirated, or pronounced as if an h were joined with
them.
Asper, or Afpre, in commerce, a Turkifli coin, three
of which make a medine. See Medine.
ASPERA arter.1 a, in anatomy, the fame with the
windpipe or trachea. See Anatomy, n°38o.
A.SPERIFOLIATE, or asperifotious, among
botanifts, fuch plants as are rough-leaved, having their
leaves placed alternately on their ftalks, and a mono-
petalous flower divided into five parts.—They confti-
tute an order of plants in the Fragmenta methodi na-
turalis of Linnaeus, in which are thefe genera, viz.
tournefortia, cerinthe, fymphytum, pulmonaria, an-
chufa, lithofpermum, myofotis, heliotropium, cyno-
gloffum, afperugo, lycopfis, echium, borrago : magis
7ninufve oleracece, mucilaginofee, & glutinofe funt. Lin.
In the prefent fyftem, thefe are among the pentandria
monogynia.
ASPERITY, the inequality of the furface of any
body, which hinders the hand from paffing over it
freely.—From the teftimony of fome blind perfons, it
has been fuppofed that every colour hath its particular
degree of afperity: though this has been denied by o-
thers. See the article Blind.
ASPEROSA, a town of Turky, in Europe ; it is
a biftiop’s fee, fituated on the coaft of the Archipela¬
go. E. Long. 25. 20. N. Lat. 40. 5.8.
ASPERUGO, small wild bugloss, in botany;
a genus of the pentandria monogynia clafs. There
are two fpecies, viz. the procumbens, or wild buglos,
a native of Britain; and the ^Egyptiaca, a native'of
Egypt. Horfes, goats, ftieep and fwine eat the firft
fpecies; cows are not fond of it.
ASPERULA, woodroof ; a genus of the mono¬
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants,
of which there are two fpecies, the cynanchica and
the odorata. Both of them grow wild in Britalin, fo
4 Z are
ASP [ 734 1 ASP
Afphaltites. are feldom admitted into gardens. The firft is found
’ on chalky hills. The latter is a low umbelliferous plant,
growing wild in woods and copfes, and flowering in
May. It has an exceeding pleafant fmell, which is im¬
proved by moderate exficcation; the tafte is fubfaline,
and fomewhat auftere. It imparts its flavour to vinous
liquors. Afperula is fuppofed to attenuate vifcid hu¬
mours, and Arengthen the tone of the bowels; it is re¬
commended in obflru&ions of the liver and biliary
dutts, and by fome in epilepfies and palues ; modern
pra&ice has neverthclefs reje&ed it. The fmell of it
is laid to drive away ticks and other infe&s. The roots
of the firft are ufed in Sweden to dye red.
ASPHALTITES, fo called from the great quan¬
tity of bitumen it produces ; called alfo the deadfea;
and from its fituation, the eaji fea; the fait fea, the
fea of Sodom, the fea of the defart, and fea of the
plain, by the facred writings : A lake of Judea. Many
things have been faid and written of this famed, or, if
they were indeed true, rather infamous lake ; fuch as
that it arofe from the fubmerfion of the vale of Sid-
dim, where once flood, as is commonly reported, the
three cities which periftied in the miraculous conflagra¬
tion, with thofe of Sodom and Gomorrah, for their
. unnatural and deteftable wickednefs : on which account
this lake has been looked upon as a lafting monument
of the juft judgement of God, to deter mankind from
fuch abominations. Hence it is added, that the wa¬
ters of the lake are fo impregnated with fait, fulphur,
and other bituminous fluff, that nothing will fink or
live in it; and that it cafts fuch flench and fmoke, that
the very birds die in attempting to fly over it. The
defcription likewife of the apples that grew about it,
fair without, and only afhes and bitternefs within,
were looked upon as a farther monument of God’s
anger. So likewife the defcription which many tra¬
vellers give not only of the lake, but of all the coun-
tiy round about, of the whole appearing dreadful to
behold, all fulphureous, bituminous, {linking, and fuf-
focating ; and laftly, what hath been farther affirmed
of the ruins of the five cities being ftill to be feen in
dear weather, and having been actually feen in thefe
later times; all thefe furprifing things, and ill-ground¬
ed notions, though commonly, and fo long, received
among Chriftians, have been of late fo much exploded,
not only by the teftimony of very credible witneffes,
but even by arguments drawn from fcripture, that we
muft give them up as inventions, unlefs we will fup-
pofe the face and nature of all thefe things to have been
entirely changed. Thofe, in particular, of bodies not
finking in the water, and of birds being ftifled by the
exhalations of it, appear now falfe in fact. ’Tis true,
the quantity of fait, alum, and fulphur, with which
it is impregnated, render it fo much fpecifically heavier
(Dr Pococke fays one-fifth) than freih water, that bo¬
dies will notfo eafily fink; yet that author, and others,
affure us, they have fwam and dived in it; and, as to
the birds, we are told likewife, that they will fly over
it without any harm. To reconcile thefe things with
f Nat. Hifi. the experiments which Pliny f tells us had been made by
lib. v.. Vefpalian, is impoffible, without fuppofing that thofe
cap. i;. ingredients have been fincemuch exhaufted, which is not
at all improbable; fuch quantities of them, that is, of
the bitumen and fait, having been all along, and be¬
ing ftill taken off, and fuch ftreams of frefti water con¬
tinually pouring into it, as may reafonablybc fuppofed Afphahitei.
to have confiderably diminiftied its gravity and denfe-
nefs. For, with refpedl to its fait, we are told, the
Arabs made quantities of it from that lake, in large
pits about the ftiore, which they fill with that water,
and leave to be cryftallized by the fun. This fait is in
fome cafes much commended by Galen, as very whole-
fome, and a ftrengthener of the ftomach, &c. on ac¬
count of its unpleafant bitternefs.
What likewile relates to the conftant fmoke afcend-
ing from the lake, its changing the colour of its wa¬
ter three times a-day, fo confidently affirmed by Jo-
fephus f and other ancients, and confirmed by prince j. gel. Jud
Radziville and other moderns, who pretend to have lib. v. cap. "j.
been eye-witneffes of it, is all now in the fame manner
exploded by others of more modern date, and of at leaft
equal candor. The unhealthinefs of the air about
the lake was affirmed by Jofephus and Pliny, efpecial-
ly on the weft : the monks that live in the neighbour¬
hood confirm the fame, and would have diffuaded Dr
Pococke from going to it on that account; and, as he
ventured to go and bathe in it, and was, two days af¬
ter, feized with a dizzinefs, and violent pain in the fto¬
mach which lafted near three weeks, they made no doubt
but it v/as occafioned by it; and he doth not feem to
contradict them. As to the water, it is, though clear,
fo impregnated with fait, that thofe who dive into it,
come out covered with a kind of faline matter. There
is one remarkable thing relating to this lake, general¬
ly agreed on by all travellers and geographers; viz.
that it receives the waters of Jordan, a confiderable
river, the brooks of Jabok, Kiftion, Arnon, and other
fprings which flow into it from the adjacent moun¬
tains, and yet never overflows, tho’ there is no vifible
way to be found by which it difcharges that great in¬
flux. The common opinion is, that it hath fome fub-
terraneous vent, either into the Mediterranean, or the
Red fea ; but Dr Shaw hath endeavoured to account
for it in the fame ingenious way as Dr Halley had
done by the Mediterranean, that is, by exhalation,
without having recourfe to any other folution. It is
inclofed on the eaft and weft with exceeding high
mountains, many of them craggy, and dreadful to be¬
hold; on the north it has the plain of Jericho ; or, if
we take in both fides of the Jordan, it has the,Great
Plain, properly fo called, on the fouth; which is o-
pen, and extends beyond the reach of the eye. Jo¬
fephus gives this lake 580 furlongs in length, from the
mouth of the Jordan to the town of Segor, on the op-
pofite end; that is, about 22 leagues ; and about 150
furlongs, or five leagues, in its largeft breadth: but our
modern accounts commonly give it 24 leagues in length,
and fix or feven in breadth. On the weft fide of it is a
kind of promontory, where they pretend to (how the re¬
mains of Lot’s metamorphofed wife. Jofephus fays it
was ftill Handing in his time; but when prince Rad¬
ziville inquired after it, they told him there was no
fuch fait pillar or ftatue to be found in ail that part.
However, they have found means, about a century af¬
ter him, to recover, as they pretended to affure Mr
Maundrell, a block or flump of it, which may in time
grow up, with a little art, into its ancient bulk.
It is to be obferved here, that the name of Dead fea
is not to be found in the facred writings, but hath been,
given to this lake becaufe no creature will live in it, on
account
ASP [ 735 1 ASP
Afphaltites. account of its exceflive faltnefs, or rather bituminous
~ quality ; for the Hebrews rank fulphur, nitre, and bi¬
tumen, under the general name of fait. However,
fome late travellers have found caufe to fufpe& the com¬
mon report of its breeding no living creature ; one of
them having obferved, on the Ihore, two or three fhells
of filh like thofe of an oyfter, and which he fuppofes
to have been thrown up by the waves, at two hours
diftance from the mouth of the Jordan, which he there
takes notice of, left they ftiould be fufpe&ed to have
been brought into the lake by that way. And Dr Po-
cocke, tho’ he neither faw fi(h nor {hells, tells us, on the
authority of a monk, that fome fort of fi{h had been
caught in it; and gives us his opinion, that as fo ma¬
ny forts live in falt-water, fome kind may be fo formed
as to live in a bituminous one.
It is on account of this bitumen that it hath had the
name of Afphaltite Lake, it being reported to have
thrown up great quantities of that drug, which was
much in ufe among the Egyptians, and other nations,
for embalming of dead bodies. Jofephus affures us, that
in his days it rofe in lumps as big as an ox without its
head, and fome even larger. But, whatever it may have
formerly done, wc are affured by Mr Maundrell and
others, that it is now to be found but in fmall quanti¬
ties along the fhore, though in much greater near the
mountains on both fides the lake. But the contrary is
* Peeeeie s fince affirmed by two or more late * travellers, the one of
rawi, whom tells us, that it is obferved to float on the fur-
face of the water, and to come on the ffiore, after windy
weather, where the Arabians gather it, and put it to
all the ufes that common pitch is ufed for, even in
Travels5 t^ie comP0^lti°ns f°me medicines: and another f tells
p 374t ’ us, he was there informed, that it was raifed at certain
times from the bottom, in large hemifpheres, which,
as foon as they touch the furface, and are afted upon by
the external air, burft at once, with great noife and
fmoke, like the pulvis fulminans of the chemifts, difperf-
ing themfelves about in a thoufand pieces. From both
thefe judicious authors we may conclude the reafon of
Mr Maundrell’s miftake, both as to the lake’s throw¬
ing it up only on certain feafons (that reverend gentle¬
man might chance to be there at the wrong time) ;
and likewife as to his not obferving it about the ffiores,
feeing the Arabs are there ready to gather it as foon as
thrown up: all of them defcribe it as refembling our
black pitch, fo as not to be diftinguifhed from it but by
its fulphureous fmoke and ftench when fet on fire; and
it hath been commonly thought to be the fame with
that which our druggifts fell under the name of bitu~
nten Judaicum, or JenxiiJh pitch, though we have rea¬
fon to think that this laft is fa&itious, and that there is
now none of the right afphaltum brought from Judea.
It hath, moreover, been confounded with a fort of
blackifli combuftible ftone thrown on the ftrore, and
called by fome Mofes’s fione, which, being held in the
flame of a candle, will foon burn, and call a fmoke
and intolerable ftench; but with this extraordinary
property, that though it lofes much of its weight and
colour, it becoming in a manner white, yet it diminifli-
es nothing of its bulk. But thefe, Dr Pococke tells
us, are found about two or three leagues from the
Ihore. He concludes, however, from it, that a Jira-
tum of that ftone under the lake is probably one part
of the matter that feeds the fubterraneous fire, and
caufes the bitumen to boil up out of it, . ATphaltum,
ASPHALTUM, bitumen Judaicum, or Jews •Afpllode!us
pitch, is a light folid bitumen, of a dulky colour on
the outfide, and a deep finning black within ; of very
little tafte ; and having fcarcely any fmell, unlefs heat¬
ed, when it emits a ftrong pitchy one. It is found in
a foft or liquid ftate on the furface of the Dead fea, and
by age grows dry and hard. The fame kind of bitu¬
men is met with likewife in the earth, in other parts of
the world, in China, America, and in fome places of
Europe, as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel,
&c. There are feveral kinds of Jews pitch in the
{hops, but none of them are the genuine fort, and have
little other title to their name than their being artifi¬
cially compounded by Jews; and as they are a medley
of we know not what ingredients, their medicinal ufe
begins to be defervedly laid afide, notwithftanding the
difeutient, refolvent, pedtoral, and other virtues, attri¬
buted to this bitumen by the ancients. The true af¬
phaltum was formerly ufed in embalming the bodies of
the dead. The thick and folid afphalta are at prefent
employed in Egypt, Arabia, and Perfia, as pitch for
{hips ; as the fluid ones, for burning in lamps, and for
varnifties. Some writers relate, that the walls of Ba¬
bylon, and the temple of Jerufalem, were cemented
with bitumen inftead of mortar. Thus much is cer¬
tain, that a true natural bitumen, that for inftance
which is found in the diftri6t of Neufchatel, proves an
excellent cement for walls, pavements, and other pur-
pofes, uncommonly firm, very durable in the air, and
not penetrable by water. The watch and clock makers
ufe a compofition of afphaltum, fine lamp-black, and
oil of fpike or turpentine, for drawing the black figures
on dial-plates: this compofition is prepared chiefly by
certain perfons at Auglburg and Nurenberg. See the
preceding article.
ASPHODELUS, asphodel, or king’s spear ;
a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hex-
andria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus botanical writers enumerate
five fpecies. I. The luteus, or common yellow af-
phodel, hath roots compofed of many thick flelhy fibres,
which are yellow, and joined into a head at the top;
from whence arife ftrong round fingle ftalks near three
feet high, garniftied on the upper part with yellow ftar-
{haped flowers, which appear in June, and the feeds
ripen in autumn. 2. The ramofus, or branching af-
phodel, hath roots compofed of flelhy fibres, to each of
which is fattened an oblong bulb as large as a fmall
potato ; the leaves are long and flexible, having {harp
edges ; between thefe come out the flower-ftalks, which
arife more than three feet high, fending forth many la¬
teral branches. The upper parts of thefe are adorned
with many white ftar-ftiaped flowers, which grow in
long fpikes flowering gradually upward. They come
out in the beginning of June, and the feeds ripen in
autumn. 3. The ramofus, or unbranched afphodel,
hath roots like the fecond, but the leaves are longer
and narrower; the ftalks are fingle, never putting out
any fide-branches. The flowers appear at the fame
time with the former, are of a purer white, and grow
in longer fpikes. 4. The albus, with keel-ftiaped
leaves, hath roots compofed of fmaller fibres than the
two laft, nor are the knobs at bottom half fo large;
the leaves are long, almoft triangular, and hollow
4 Z 2 like
ASP [ 736 ] ASS
Afphnrelata like the keel of a boat; the (talks feldom rife above
Alpicueta. two feet high, and divide (into feveral fpreading
branches; thefe are terminated by loofe fpikes of white
flowers fmaller than thofe of the former. 5. The ftu-
lofus, or annual branching fpiderwort, hath roots
compofed of many yellow flefhy fibres : the leaves are
fpread out from the crown of the root, clofe to the
ground, in a large clufter ; thefe are convex on their
under fide, but plain above. The flower-ftalks rife im¬
mediately from the root, and grow about two feet high,
dividing into three or four branches upward, which are
adorned with white ftarry flowers, with purple lines on
the outfide. Thefe flower in July and Auguft, .and
their feeds ripen in O&ober.
Culture. The way to increafe thefe plants is by part¬
ing their roots in Auguft, before they (hoot up their
frefti green leaves. They may alfo be raifed from feeds
fown in Auguft; and the Auguft following the plants
produced from thefe may be tranfplanted into beds,
and will produce flowers the fecond year. They muft
not be planted in fmall borders, among tender flowers;
for they will draw away all the nouriftunent, and ftarve
every thing elfe.
ASPHURELATA, in natural hiftory, are femi-
metallic foflils, fufible by fire, and not malleable in
their pureft date, being in their native (late intimately
mixed with fulphur and other adventitious matter, and
reduced to what are called ores.
Of this feries of fofiils there are only five bodies,
each of which makes a diftinft genus; viz. antimony,
bifmuth, cobalt, zinc, or quickfilver.
ASPICUETA (Martin de), commonly called the
Doctor of Navarre, or Doftor Navarrus; was de-
feended of a noble family, and born the 13th of De¬
cember 1491, at Varafayn, a fmall city of Navarre,
not far from Pampeluna. He-entered very young into
the monaftery of Regular canons at Roncevaux, where
betook the habit, which he continued to wear after he
left the convent. He ftudied clalfical learning, natural
and moral philofophy, and divinity, at Alcala, in New
Caftile, adopting chiefly the fyftem of Petrus Lombar-
dus, commonly called the Ma/ler of the Sentences. He
applied to the ftudy of the law at Ferrara, and taught
it with applaufe at Touloufe and Cahors. After being
firft profeffor of canon law at Salamanca for 14 years,
he quitted that place to be profeffor of law at Coim¬
bra, with a larger falary. The duties of this office he
difeharged for the fpace of 20 years, and then refigned
it to retire into his own country, where he took care of
his nieces, the daughters of his deceafed brothers. Ha¬
ving made a journey to Rome, to plead the caufe of
Bartholomeo de Caranza archbiftiop of Toledo, who
had been accufed of herefy before the tribunal of the
inquifitionin Spain, and whofe caufe was, by the Pope’s
order, to be tried in that city, Afpicueta’s writings,
which were well known, procured him a moft honour¬
able reception. Pope Pius V. made him afixftant to
cardinal Francis Aciat, his vice-penitentiary; and Gre¬
gory XIII. never paffed by his door without calling for
him, and flopped fometimes a whole hour to talk with
him in the ftreet. His name became fo famous, that
even in his lifetime the higheft encomium on a learned
man was to call him a Navarrus. Fie was confulted
as an oracle. By temperance he prolonged his life to
a great length. Flis ceconomy enabled him to- give
fubftantial proofs of his charity. Being very old, he Afplra^e
ufed to ride on a mule through the city, and relieved
all the poor he met; to which his mule was fo well ac-  L.
cuftomed, that it flopped of its own accord at the fight
of every poor man, till its mafter had relieved him. He
refufed feveral honourable pofts in church and ftate,
that he might have leifure to corredl and improve the
works he had already written, and compofe others. He
died at the age of 94, on the 21st of June 1586. He
wrote a vaft number of treatifes, all which are either on
morality or canon law.
ASPIRATE, in grammar, denotes words marked
with the fpiritus afper. See Asper.
ASPIRATION, among grammarians, is ufed to
denote the pronouncing a fyllable with fome vehemence.
ASPLENIUM, ceterach ; a genus of the order
of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafsof plants;
of which there are feven fpecies, but only two are na¬
tives of Britain. They grow upon old walls or moift
rocks; one is called fcolopendrium, or hart's tongue;
the other is properly ceterach, alfo called fpleenrwort.
It has an herbaceous, fomewhat mucilaginous, rough-
ifti tafte: it is recommended as apedtoral, and for pro¬
moting urine in nephritic cafes. The virtue which it
has been moft celebrated for is that which it has-the
lead title to, viz. diminifhing the fpleen.
ASS, in zoology, is ranked as a fpecies of equus,
or horfe. See Equus.
Coronation of the ass, in antiquity, was a part of the
ceremony of the feaft of Vefta, wherein the bakers put
bread crowns on the heads of thefe quadrupeds; Ecce
coronatis panis dependet afellis *■ Hence, in an ancient * qv-kj pdru
calendar, the ides of June are thus denoted ; Fefum ef vi. 311.
Veflce. Afmus coronatur!—This honour, it feems, was
done the bead, becaufe, by its braying, it had faved
Vefta from being raviftied by the Lampfacan god.
Hence the formula, Vefla delicium ejl afinus.
ASSAI, in mufie, fignifies quick; and, according
to others, that the motion of the piece be kept in a
middle degree of quicknefs or flownefs. As, ajfai alle¬
gro, ajfai prefto. See Allegro and Presto.
ASSANCALA, a ftrong town in Armenia, near
the river Arras, in the road between Erzerum and E-
rivan, and noted for its hot baths. It (lands on a high
hill; the walls are built in a fpiral line all round the
rock, and ftrengthened with fquare towers. The ditches
are about two fathoms over, cut out of hard rock.
E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat. 39. 46.
ASSANCHIF, a town of Afia, in Diarbekir, feat-
ed on the river Tigris. E. Long. 42. 30. N. Lat. 37.
20.
ASSARIUM, in antiquity, denotes a fmall copper
coin, being a part or diminutive of the as. The word
ctairccgicv is ufed by Suidas indifferently with and
vofAitr/j.u to denote a fmall piece of money ; in which he
is followed by Cujacius, who defines aa<ra.Sio^ by Mini¬
mus ceris nummus. We find mention of the affarion
in the gofpel of St Matthew, chap. x. verfe 29.
ASSARON, or Omer, a meafure of capacity, in
ufe among the Hebrews, containing five pints. It was
the meafure of manna which God appointed for every
Ifraelite.
ASSASSIN, aperfon who kills another by attacking
him at fome difadvantage. It is alfo meant of one who
hires himfelf to murder a perfon, in order to revenge
the
ASS [ 737 ] ASS
Affafllns,
the quarrel of another.
~ Assassins, a tribe or clan in Syria, called alfo
Ifmaelians and Batanifts. Thefe people probably owed
their origin to the Karmatians, a famous heretical
fedt among the Mahometans, who fettled in Periia about
the year 1090, whence, in procefs of time, they fent a
colony into Syria, where they became poffeffed of a con-
fiderable trad; of land among the mountains of Leba¬
non, extending itfelf from the neighbourhood of An¬
tioch to Damafcus.
The firft chief and legiflator of this remarkable tribe
appears to have been Haffan Sabah, a fubtle impoftor,
who by his artifices made fanatical and implicit flaves
of his fubjeds. Their religion was compounded of
that of the Magi, the Jews, the Chriftians, and the Ma¬
hometans : but the capital article of their creed was
to believe that the Holy Ghoft refided in their chief;
that his orders proceeded from God himfelf, and were
real declarations of his divine pleafure. To this mo¬
narch the orientals gave the name of Scheik : but he is
better known in Europe by the name of the Old Man
of the Mountain. His dignity, inftead of being here-
ditary, was confirmed by eledion ; where merit, that
is, a fuperior multiplicity and enormity of crimes, was
the moft efiFedual recommendation to a majority of fuf-
frages.
This chief, from his exalted refidence on the fummit
of mount Lebanon, like a vindidive deity, with the
thunderbolt in his hand, fent inevitable death to all
quarters of the world; fo that from one end of the earth
to the other, Khalifs, Emperors, Sultans, Kings, Prin¬
ces, Chriftians, Mahometans, and Jews, every nation
and people, execrated and dreaded his fanguinarypower,
from the ftrokes of which there was no fecurity. At
the leaft fuggeftion or whifper that he had threatened
the death of any potentate, all immediately doubled
their guards, and took every other precaution in their
power. It is known that Philip Auguftus king of
France, on a premature advice that the Scheik intend¬
ed to have him affaffinated, inftituted a new body-guard
of men diftinguiftied for their adtivity and courage,
called fergens d'Amies, with brafs clubs, bows and ar¬
rows ; and he himfelf never appeared without a club,
fortified either with iron or gold. Moft fovereigns
paidfecretlyapenfion to the Scheik, however fcandalous
and derogatory it might be to the luftre of majefty,
for the fafety of their perfons. The Knights Templars
alone dared to defy his fecret machinations and open
force. Indeed they were a permanent difperfed body,
not to be cut off by maffacres or affaffinations.
This barbarous prince was furnifhed with refources
unknown to all other monarchs, even to the moft abfo-
lute defpotic tyrant. His fubjedls wouldproftrate them-
felves at the foot of his throne, requefting to die by his
hand or order, as a favour by which they were fure of
palling into paradife. On them if danger made any
impreffion, it was an emulation to prefs forward ; and
if taken in any enterprife, they went to the place of ex¬
ecution with a magnanimity unknown to others. Hen¬
ry count of Champaigne, who married Ifabella daugh¬
ter of Amaury king of Jerufalem, palling over part
of the territory of the Afi'affins in his way to Syria,
and talking highly of his power, their chief came to
meet him, “ Ai-e your fubje&s (faid the old man of the
mountain) as ready in their fubmiffion as mine?” and,
without Haying for an anfwer, made a fign with his
hand, when ten young men in white, who were Hand¬
ing on an adjacent tower, inftantly threw themfelves
down. On another occafion, Sultan Malek-Shah
fummoning the Scheik to fubmit himfelf to his govern¬
ment, and threatening him with the power of his arms,
Ihould he hefitate to comply; the latter, very com-
pofedly turning himfelf towards his guards, faid to one
of them, “ Draw your dagger, and plunge it into your
breaftand to another, “ Throw yourfelf headlong
from yonder rock.” His orders were no fooner utter¬
ed, than they were joyfully obeyed : and all the anfwer
he deigned to give the fultan’s envoy was, “ Away to
thy mafter, and let him know I have many thoufand
fubjefts of the fame difpofition.” Men fo ready to de-
ftroy themfelves were equally alert and refolute in being
the minifters of death to others. At the command of
their fovereign, they made no difficulty of ftabbing any
prince, even on his throne; and being well verfed in
the different diale&s, they conformed to the drefs and
even the external religion of the country, that they
might with lefs difficulty ftrike the fatal blow required
by their chief. With the Saracens they were Maho¬
metans ; with the Franks, Chriftians; in one place they
joined with the Mamaluks; in another, with the eccle-
fiaftics or religious; and under this difguife, feized the
firft opportunity of executing their fanguinary commif-
fion. Of this we meet with an inftance in the hiftory
of Saladin, while he was befieging Manbedge, the ce¬
lebrated Hieropolis of antiquity. Being one day, with
a few attendants, and they at fome diftance, reconnoi¬
tring the place for the better difpofition of the attack,
a man rumed on him with a dagger in his hand, and
wounded him in the head; but the fultan, as he was
endeavouring to repeat his ftroke, wrefted the dagger
from him, and, after receiving fevera! wounds, laid him
dead at his feet. Before the fultah had well recovered
himfelf, a fecond encountered him to finilh the treache¬
ry of the former; but he met with the fame fate : he
was fucceeded with equal fury by a third, who alfo
fell by the hand of that magnanimous prince whom he
was fent to affaffmate. And it was obferved, that thefe
wretches dealt about their fruitlefs blows as they lay in
the agonies of death. With fuch rapidity was this
tranfafted, that it was over before Saladin’s guards
could come to his affiftance. He retired to his tent,
and in great perturbation throwing himfelf on his fopha
ordered his fervants to take a ftricl view of his houfe-
hold, and to caihier all fufpe&ed perfons; at the fame
time aiking with great earneftnefs, “ Of whom have I
deferved fuch treacherous ufage ?” but it afterwards
appeared, that thefe villains had been fent by the old
man of the mountain; of whom the vizir Kamfchlegin
had purchafed the murder of Saladin, to free himfelf
from fo great a warrior whom he -could not meet in
the field. JTo animate them in their frantic obedience,
the Scheik, before their departure on fuch attempts,
ufed to give them a fmall foretafte of fome of the de¬
lights which he affured them would be their recom-
penfe in paradife. Delicious foporific drinks were gi¬
ven them ; and while they lay afleep, they were car¬
ried into beautiful gardens, where every allurement in¬
vited their fenfes to the moft exquifite gratifications.
From thefe feats of voluptuofnefs, inflamed with li¬
quor and enthufiaftic views of perpetual enjoyments,
Aflaflins.
ASS [ 738 ] ASS
A (fault they fallied forth to perform aflafllnatlons of theblack-
eft dye.
 em This people once had, or at leaft they feigned to have,
an intention of embracing the Chriftian religion. They
reigned a long time in Perfia, and on mount Lebanon.
Hulaku, a khan of the mogul Tartars, in the year 655
of the Hegira, or 1254 of the Chriftian aera, entered
their country and difpoffeffed them of feveral places;
but it was not till the year 1272 that they were total¬
ly conquered. This atchievement was owing to the
conduift and intrepidity of the Egyptian forces fent a-
gainft them by the fultan Bibaris. It has, however,
been thought that the Drufes, who ftill refide among
the eminences of mount Lebanon, and whofe religion
and cuftoms are fo little known, are a remnant of thofe
barbarians.
ASSAULT, in law, is an attempt or offer to beat
another, without touching him : as if one lifts up his
cane or his fift in a threatening manner at another ; or
ftrikes at him, but miffes him ; this is an affault, in-
fultus, which Finch defcribes to be “ an unlawful fel¬
ting upon one’s perfon.” This alfo is an inchoate vio¬
lence, amounting confiderably higher than bare threats;
and therefore, though no actual fuffering is proved, yet
the party injured may have redrefs by action of trefpafs
vi et armii, wherein he fhall recover damages as a
compenfation for the injury.
Assault, in the military art, a furious effort made
to carry a fortified poll, camp, or fortrefs, wherein
the affailants do not fcreen themfelves by any works :
while the affault continues, the batteries ceafe, for fear
of killing their own men.—The enfans perdus march
firft to the affault. See Enfans Perdus.
ASSAY, or essay, in metallurgy. See Essay.
AsskY-Mafter, an officer appointed by certain
corporations to make a juft effay of all gold and filver
brought to him, and to make a true report thereof.
ASSAYING, or essaying, of Ores. See Metal¬
lurgy.
ASSELYN (John), a famous Dutch painter, was
born in Holland, and became the difciple of Ifaiah
Vandevelde, the battle-painter. He diftinguiftied him-
felf in hiftory-paintings, battles, landfcapes, animals,
and particularly horfes. He travelled into France and
Italy ; and was fo pleafed with the manner of Bambo-
chio, that he always followed it. He painted many
pi&ures at Lyons, where he married the daughter of a
merchant of Antwerp, and returned with her to Hol¬
land. Here he firft difcovered to his countrymen a
freffi and clear manner of painting landfcapes, like
Claude Lorraine; upon which, all the painters imi¬
tated his ftyle, and reformed the dark brown they had
hitherto followed. Affelyn’s pictures were fo much ad¬
mired at Amfterdam, that they fold there at a high
price. He died in that city, in 1660. Twenty-four
pieces of landfcapes and ruins, which he painted in
Italy, have been engraved by Perelle.
ASSEMBLAGE, the uniting or joining of things
together; or the things themfelves fo united or joined.
It is alfo ufed, in a more general fenfe, for a collec¬
tion of various things fo difpofed and diverfified, that
the whole produces fome agreeable effe&.
ASSEMBLY, the meeting of feveral perfons, in
the fame place, upon the fame defign.
Assembly, in the beau monde, an appointed meet¬
ing of faffiionable perfons of both fexes, for the fake of AffemBly-
play, gallantry, converfation, &c. II
Assembly, in the military art, the fecond beating As^lC'ton'
of a drum before a march ; at which the foldiers ftrike
their tents, roll them up, and ftand to arms.
Assemblies of the clergy are called convocations,
fynods, councils; the annual meeting of the church of
Scotland is called a general ajfembly.
Assemblies of the Roman people werecalledcozw/V/rf.
ASSENS, a fea-port town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Funen. It is the common paffage from the
duchy of Slefwick to Copenhagen. E. Long. 10. 30.
N. Lat. 55. 15.
. ASSENT, in a general fenfe, implies an agreement
to fomething propofed or affirmed by another.
Royal Assent, the approbation given by the king
to a bill in parliament, after which it becomes a law.
ASSER, John, (or Asserius Menevensis, that is,
AJfer of St Davids), bifhop of Shirburn in the reign
of Alfred the Great. He was born in Pembrokeffiire,
in South Wales ; and educated in the monaftery of
St David’s by the archbiffiop Afferius, who, accord¬
ing to Leland, was his kinfman. In this monaftery he
became a monk, and by his affiduous application foon
acquired univerfal fame as a perfon of profound learning
and great abilities. Alfred, the munificent patron of
genius, about the year 880, fent for him to court.
The king was then at Dean in Wiltlhire. He was fo
charmed with After, that he made him his preceptor
and companion. As a reward for his feryices, he ap¬
pointed him abbot of two or three different monafteries;
and at laft promoted him to the epifcopal fee of Shir¬
burn, where he died, and was buried, in the year 910.
He was, fays Pits, a man of a happy genius, wonderful
modefty, extenfive learning, and great integrity of life.
He is faid to haie been principally inftrumental in per-
fuading the king to reftore the univerfity of Oxford to
its priftine dignity and luftre.—He wrote, De vita et
rebus geftis Alfred's, &c. Lond. 1574, publiftied by
archbilhop Parker, in the old Saxon charafter, at the
end of Walfmghami hift. Francf. 1602, fob Oxf.
1722, 8vo. Many other works are afcribed to this
author by Gale, Bale, and Pits ; but all doubtful.
ASSERTION, in the language of the fchools, a
propofition advanced by the affertor, who avows the
truth of it, and is ready to defend it.
ASSESSOR, an inferior officer of juftice, appointed
chiefly to affift the ordinary judge with his opinion and
advice.
Assessor is alfo one who affeffes, or fettles taxes
and other public dues.
ASSEVERATION, a pofitive and vehement affir¬
mation of fomething.
ASSHETON(William), do&or of divinity, and
redtor of Beckenham, in Kent, was born in the year
1641, and was educated at Brazen-nofe college, Ox¬
ford. After entering into orders, he became chaplain
to the duke of Ormond, and was admitted dodtor of
divinity in 1673. Soon after, he was nominated to a
prebend in the church of York, prefented to the living
of St Antholin, London, and to the redlory of Beck¬
enham in Kent. He was the firft projedior of the
fcheme for providing for clergymens widows, and o-
thers, by a jointure payable out of the mercers com¬
pany. He wrote feveral pieces againft the Papifts and
D iffenters,
ASS
ASS [ 739 ] •
Afl!deans Diflenters, and fome devotional trails. He died at
Afilfe Beckenham, in September 1711 , in the 70rh year of
  !— his age.
ASSIDEANS (or Chasidaans, from the Hebrew
“ chajidimmerciful, pious;) thofe Jews who reforted to
Mattathias to fight for the law of God and the liberties
of their country. They were men of great valour and
zeal, having voluntarily devoted themfelves to a more
ftridt obfervation-of the law than other men. For, af¬
ter the return of the Jews from the Babylonifh capti¬
vity, there were two forts of men in their church ;
thofe who contented themfelves with that obedience
only which was prefcribed by the law of Mofes, and
who were called Zadikim, i. e. the righteous ; and thofe
who, over and above the law, fuperadded the confti-
tutions and traditions of the elders, and other rigorous
obfervances : thefe latter were called Chaftdirn, i. e. the
pious. From the former fprung the Samaritans, Sad-
ducees, and Caraites; from the latter, the Pharifees and
the Eflenes.
ASSIDENT signs, in medicine, are fymptoms
which ufually attend a difeafe, but not always ; hence
differing from pathognomic figns, which are infeparable
from the difeafe : e.gr. In the pleurify, a pungent pain
in the fide ; in an acute fever, difficulty of breathing,
See. colleftively taken, are pathognomic figns ; but
that the pain extends to the hypochondrium or clavicle,
or that the patient lies with more eafe on one fide than
on the other, are ajfdent figns.
ASSIENTO, a Spanifh word fignifying a farm, in
commerce, is ufed for a bargain between the king of
Spain and other powers, for importing negroes into the
Spanifh dominions in America, and particularly to
Buenos Ayres. The firft affiento was made with the
French Guinea-company; and, by thetreaty of Utrecht,
transferred to the Englifh, who were to furnifh 4800
negroes annually.
ASSIGN, in common law, a perfon to whom a
thing is affigned or made over.
ASSIGNEE, in law, a perfon appointed by another
to do an aft, tranfaft fome bufinefs, or enjoy a parti¬
cular commodity.
ASSIGNING, in a general fenfe, implies the ma¬
king over the right of one perfon to another. Tn a
particular fenfe, it fignifies the pointing out of fome-
thing; as, an error, falfe judgment, or wafte.
ASSIGNMENT, the tranSerring the intereft one
has in a leafe, or other thing, to another perfon.
ASSIMILATION, in phyfics, is that motion by
wliich bodies convert other bodies related to them, or
at leaft fuch as are prepared to be converted, into their
own fubftance and nature. Thus, flame multiplies it-
felf upon oily bodies, and generates new flame; air
upon water, and produces new air; and all the parts,
as well fimilar as organical, in vegetables and animals,
firft attraft with fome eleftion or choice, nearly the
fame common or not very different juices for aliment,
and afterwards affimilate or convert them to their own
nature.
ASSISE, in old Englifh law-books, is defined to
be an affembly of knights and other fubftantial men,
together with the juftice, in a certain place, and at a
certain time : but the word, in its prefent acceptation,
implies a court, place, or time, when and where the
writs and proceffes, whether civil or criminal, are de¬
cided by judge and jury. Affife,
All the counties of England are divided into fix
circuits; and two judges are affigned by the king's
commiffion, who hold their aflifes twice a-year in e-
very county (except London and Middlefex, where
courts of niji prius are holden in and after every
term, before the chief or other judge of the feveral fu-
perior courts ; and except the four northern counties,,
where the affifes are taken only once a-year) to try by
a jury of the refpeftive counties the truth of fuch mat¬
ters of faft as are then under difpute in the courts of
Weftminfter-hall. Thefe judges of affife came into ufe
in the room of the ancient juftices in eyre, jujliciarii
in itinere ; who were regularly eftabli/hed, if not firft
appointed, by the parliament of Northampton, D.
1176, 22 Hen. II. with a delegated power from the
king’s great court or aula regia, being looked upon as
members thereof: and they afterwards made their cir¬
cuit round the kingdom once in feven years for the pur-
pofe of trying caufes. They were afterwards direfted
magna charta, c. 12. to be fent into every county
once a-year to take or try certain aft ions then called
recognitions or aflifes ; the moft difficult of which they
are direfted to adjourn into the court of common pleas
to be there determined. The itinerant juftices were
fometimes mere juftices of affife, or of dower, or of
gaol-delivery, and the like ; and they had fometimes a
more general commiffion, to determine all manner of
caufes, jujliciarii ad omnia placita : but the prefent
juftices of affife and nif prius are more immediately'
derived from the ftatute Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 30.
explained by feveral other afts, particularly the ftatute
14 Edw. III. c. 16. and muft be two of the king’s
juftices of the one bench or the other, or the chief
baron of the exchequer, or the king’s ferjeants fworn.
They ufually make their circuits in the refpeftive va¬
cations after Hilary and Trinity terms; affifes being
allowed to be taken in the holy time of Lent by confent
of tke bifhops at the king’s requeft, as expreffed in
ftatute Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 51. And it was alfo
ufual, during the times of Popery, for the prelates to-
grant annual licences to the juftices of affife to admini-
fter oaths in holy times : for oaths being of a facred
nature, the logic of thofe deluded ages concluded that
they muft be of ecclefiaftical cognizance. The pru¬
dent jealoufy of our anceftors ordained that no man of
law fhould be judge of affife in his own country ; and a
fimilar prohibition is found in the civil law, which has
carried this principle fo far, that it is equivalent to the
crime of facrilege, for a man to be governor of the
province in which he was born, or has any civil con-
neftion.
The judges upon their circuits now fit by virtue of
five feveral authorities. 1. The commiflion of x\\epeace,
in every county of the circuits ; and all juftices of the
peace of the county are bound to be prefent at the af¬
fifes ; and fheriffs are alfo to give their attendance on
the judges, or they fhall be fined. 2. A commiffion
of oyer and terminer, direfted to them and many other
gentlemen of the county, by which they are empower¬
ed to try treafons, felonies, fee. and this is the largefl
commiffion they have. 3. A commiffion of general
gaol-delivery, direfted to the, judges and the clerk of
affife aflbeiate, which gives them power to try every
prifoner in the gaol committed for any offence what-
ASS •[ 74o ] ASS
Afiife foever, but none but prifoners in the goal; fo that one
„J way or other they rid the goal of all the prifoners in it.
unan ' 4. Acommiffion of rfj^/e,dire6ted to the judges and clerk
of affife, to take affifes; that is, to take the verdift of a
peculiar fpecies of jury called an ajjife, and fummoued
for the trial of difputes. The other authority
is, 5. That of nifi prius, which is a confequence of the
commillion of ajjife, being annexed to the office of thofe
juftices by the iftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 30.
And it empowers them to try all queftions of faft iffu-
ing out of the courts at Weftminfter, that are then ripe
for trial by jury. The original of the name is this :
all caufes commenced in the courts of Weftminfter-hall
are by the courfe of the courts appointed to be there
tried, on a day fixed in fome Eafter or Michaelmas
term, by a jury returned from the county wherein
the caufe of adtion arifes; but with this provifo, nifi
prius jujlitiarii ad ajfifas capiendas venerint ; unlefs be¬
fore the day prefixed the judges of affife come into the
county in queftion. This they are fure to do in the
vacations preceding each Eaiter and Michaelmas term,
and there difpofe of the caufe ; which faves much ex-
penfe and trouble, both to the parties, the jury, and
the witneffes.
The word ajfife (from the French affis, feated, fettled,
or eftablifhed, and formed of the Latin verb aflideo, I
fit by) is ufed in feveral different fenfes. It is fome-
times taken for the fittings of a court; fometimes for
its regulations or ordinances, efpecially thofe that fix
the ftandard of weights and meafures; and fometimes
it fignifies a jury, either becaufe juries confided of a
fixed determinate number, or becaufe they continued
fitting till they pronounced their verdidt. In Scots
law, an affife or jury confifts of fifteen fworn men
{juratores') picked out by the court from a greater
number, not exceeding 45, who have been fummoned
for that purpofe by the fheriff, and given in lift to the
defender, at ferving him with a copy of his libel.
ASSISIO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the duchy
of Spoleto, built on the fide of a very high mountain.
The cathedral of St Francis is very magnificent, and
compofed of three churches one above another. E.
Long- 13- 35- N- Lat- 43- 4-
ASSITHMENT, a wiregeld, or compenfation, by
a pecuniary muldt; from the prepofition ad, and the
S&yi.fthe, vice: quod vice fupplicii ad expiandum delic¬
tum folvitur."
ASSOCIATION, the adt of affbciating, or conftitu-
ting a fociety, or partnerfhip, in order to carry on fome
fcheme or affair with more advantage.—The word is
Latin, ajfociatio ; and compounded of ad, to, and focio,
to join.
Association of Ideas, is where two oj- more ideas
conftantly and immediately follow one another, fo that
* See Mela- the one lhall almoft infallibly produce the other *.
fbyfics, ASSOILZIE, in law, to abfolve, or free,
fetf. xxviii. ASSONANCE, in rhetoric and poetry, a term
ufed where the words of a phrafe, or a verfe, have the
fame found or termination, and yet make no proper
rhyme. Thefe are ufually accounted vicious in Englilh;
though the Romans .fometimes ufed them with ele¬
gancy : as, Militem comparavit, exercitum ordinavit,
aciem lufravit.
ASSONANT rhymes, is a term particularly ap¬
plied to a kind of verfes common among the Spaniards,
where a refemblance of found ferves inftead of a natu- A (Tump fit.
ral rhyme. Thus, ligera, cubierta, tierra, mefa, may '
anfwer each other in a kind of ajfonant rhyme, having
each an e in the penult fyllable, and an a in the laft.
ASSUMPSIT, in the law of England, a voluntary
or verbal promife, whereby a perfon afliimes, or takes
upon him to perform or pay any thing to another.
A promife is in the nature of a verbal covenant, and
wants nothing but the folemnity of writing and fealing
to make it abfolutely the fame. If therefore it be to
do any explicit aft, it is an exprefs contract, as much
as any covenant: and the breach of it is an equal in¬
jury. The remedy indeed is not exaftly the fame:
fince, inftead of an adtion of covenant, there only lies
an aftion upon the cafe, for what is called an ajfump-
fit or undertaking of the defendant; the failure of per¬
forming which is the wrong or injury done to the
plaintiff, the damages whereof a jury are to eftimate
and fettle. As, if a builder promifes, undertakes,
or affumes to Caius, that he will build and cover his
houfe within a time limited, and fails to do it; Caius
has an aftion on the cafe againft the builder for this
breach of his exprefs promife, undertaking, or af-
fumpfit; and {hall recover a pecuniary fatisfadtion for
the injury fuftained by fuch delay. So alfo in the
cafe of a debt by fimple contradt, if the debtor pro¬
mifes to pay it and does not, this breach of promife
entitles the creditor to his adtion on the cafe, inftead
of being driven to an adtion of debt. Thus likewife a
promiflbry note, or note of hand not under feal, to
pay money at a day certain, is an exprefs affumpfit;
and the.payee at common law, or by cuftom and adt
of parliament the indorfee, may recover the value of
the note in damages, if it remains unpaid. Some a-
greements indeed, though never fo exprefsly made, are
deemed of fo important a nature, that they ought not
to reft in verbal promife only, which cannot be proved
but by the memory (which fometimes will induce the
perjury) of witnefles. To prevent which, the ftatute
of frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. II. c. 3. enadts, that
in the five following cafes no verbal promife ftiall be
fufficient to ground an adtion upon, but at the leaft
fome note or memorandum of it fhall be made in
writing, and figned by the party to be charged there¬
with : 1. Where an executor or adminiftrator promifes
to anfwer damages out of his own eftate. 2. Where
a man undertakes to anfwer for the debt, default, or
mifcarriage, of another. 3. Where any agreement is
made upon confideration of marriage. 4. Where any
contradt or fale is made of lands, tenements, or here¬
ditaments, or any intereft therein. 5. Andlaftly, where
there is any agreement that is not to be performed
within a year from the making.thereof. In all thefe
cafes, a mere verbal aflumpfit is void.
From thefe exprefs contradts the tranfition is eafy
to thofe that are only implied by law. Which are
fuch as reafon andjuftice didtate, and which therefore
the law prefumes that every man has contradted to per¬
form; and, upon this prefumption, makes him anfw^er-
able to fuch perfons as fuffer by his non-performance.
Thus, 1. If I employ a perfon to tranfadt any bufi-
nefs for me, or perform any work, the law implies that
I undertook, or afiumed to pay him fo much as his
labour defervedj and if I negledt fo make him amends,
he has a remedy for this injury by bringing his adtion
on
AfTumpfit.
ASS [ 74i ] ASS
on the cafe upon this implied affumpfit; wherein he is
at liberty to fuggeft that I promifed to pay him fo
much as he reafonably deferved, and then to aver that
his trouble was really worth fuch a particular fum,
which the defendant has omitted to pay. But this
valuation of his trouble is fubmitted to the determina¬
tion of a jury ; who will alfefs fuch a fum in damages
as they think he really merited. This is called an af-
fumpfit on a quantum meruit.
2. There is alfo an implied aflumpfit on a quantum
valebat, which is very fimilar to the former; being only
where one takes up goods or wares of a tradefman,
without exprefsly agreeing for the price. There the
law concludes, that both parties did intentionally agree
that the real value of the goods Ihould be paid ; and
an aft ion on the cafe may be brought accordingly, if
the vendee refufes to pay that value.
3. A third fpecies of implied affumpfit is when one
has had and received money belonging to another with¬
out any valuable confideration given on the receiver’s
part: for the law conftrues this to be money had and
received for the ufe of the owner only ; and implies
that the perfon fo receiving, promifed and undertook
to account for it to the true proprietor. And, if he
unjuftly detains it, an aftion on the cafe lies againft •
him for the breach of fuch implied promife and under¬
taking ; and he will be made to repair the owner in
damages, equivalent to what he has detained in fuch
violation of his promife. This is a very extenfive and
beneficial remedy, applicable to almoft every cafe where
the defendant has received money which ex tequo et born
he ought to refund. It lies for money paid by miftake,
or on a confideration which happens to fail, or through
impofition, extortion, or opprefiion, or where undue
advantage is taken of the plaintiff’s fituation.
4. Where a perfon has laid out and expended his
own money for the ufe of another at his requeft, the
law implies a promife of repayment, and an aftion will
lie on this affumpfit.
5. Likewife, fifthly, upon a ftated account between
two merchahts, qr other perfons, the law implies that
he againft whom the balance appears has engaged to
pay it to the other; though there be not any aftual pro¬
mife. And from this implication it is frequent for ac¬
tions on the cafe to be brought, declaring that the
plaintiff and defendant had fettled their accounts toge¬
ther, infunul computajfent, (which gives name to this
fpecies of affu'mpfit); and that the defendant engaged
to pay the plaintiff the balance, but has fince negleft-
ed to do it. But if no account has been made up,
then the legal remedy is by bringing a writ of account
de computo; commanding the defendant to render a juft
account to the plaintiff, or fhew the court good caufe
to the contrary. In this aftion, if the plaintiff fuc-
ceeds, there are two judgements ; the firft is, that the
defendant do account (quod computet) before auditors
appointed by the court; and when fuch account is fi-
niftied, then the fecond judgment is, that he do pay the
plaintiff fo much as he is found in arrear.
6. The laft clafs of contrafts, implied by reafon and
conftruftion of law, arifes upon this fuppofition, that e-
very one who undertakes any office, employment, truft,
or duty, contrafts with thofe who employ or entruft
him, to perform it with integrity, diligence, and fltill:
and, if by his want of either of thofe qualities any
Von. I.
injury accrues to individuals, they have therefore their
remedy in damages, by a fpecial aftion on the cafe.
A few inftances will fully illuftrate this matter. If an
officer of the public is guilty of negleft of duty, or a
palpable breach of it, of non-feafance or of mif-feafance;
as, if the fheriff does not execute a writ fent to him, or
if he wilfully makes a falfe return ' thereof; in both
thefe cafes, the party aggrieved fhall have an aftion on
the cafe, for damages to be affeffed by a jury. If a
ffieriff or gaoler fuffers a prifoner who is taken upon
mefne procefs (that is, during the pendency of a fuit)
to efcape, he is liable to an aftion on the cafe. But if,
after judgment, a gaoler or a fheriff permits a debtor
to efcape, who is charged in execution for a certain
fum ; the debt immediately becomes his own, and he
is compellable by aftion of debt, being for a fum li¬
quidated and afcertained, to fatisfy the creditor in his
whole demand. An advocate or attorney that betray
the caufe of their client, or, .being retained, negleft:
to appear at the trial, by which the caufe mifcarries,
are liable to an aftion on the cafe, for a reparation to
their injured client. There is alfo in law always an
implied contraft with a common inn-keeper, to fecure
his gueft’s goods in his inn ; with a common carrier or
barge-mafter, to be anfwerable for the goods he car¬
ries ; with a common farrier, that he flioes a horfe well,
without laming him ; with a common taylor, or other
workman, that he performs his bufinefs in a workmanlike
manner: in which if they fail, an aftion on the cafe
lies to recover damages for fuch breach of their general
undertaking. Alfo if an inn-keeper, or other viftu-
aller, hangs out a fign and opens his houfe for tra¬
vellers, it is an implied engagement to entertain all
perfons who travel that way; and upon this univerfal
ajfumpfit an aftion on the cafe will lie againft him for
damages, if he without good reafon refufes to admit a
traveller. In contrafts likewife for fales, if the feller
doth upon the fale warrant it to be good, the law an¬
nexes a tacit contraft to this warranty, that if it be
not fo, he ftiall make compenfation to the buyer : elfe
it is an injury to good faith, for which an aftion on
the cafe will lie to recover damages.
ASSUMPTION, a feftival in the Romifh church,
in honour of the miraculous afcent of the Virgin Mary
into heaven: the Greek church, who alfo obferve this
feftival, celebrate it on the 15th of Auguft with great
ceremony.
Assumption, in logic, is the minor or fecond pro-
pofition in a categorical fyllogifm.
Assumption is alfo ufed for a confequence drawn
from the propofitions whereof an argument iscompofed.
Assumption, an ifland of North America, in the
gulph of St Laurence, at the mouth of the great river
of the fame name. It is covered with trees. W. Long.
60. 40. N. Lat. 49. 30.
Assumption, a large and handfome town, of Pro¬
per Paraguay, on the river of the fame name in South
America. It is a bifhop’s fee, is well peopled, and
feated in a country fruitful in corn and fruits, whofe
trees are always green. There is likewife a quantity of
pafture, and the air is temperate and falutary. W. Lon.
60. 40. S. Lat. 34. 10.
ASSUMPTIVE ARMS, in heraldry, are fuch as a
perfon has a right to affume, with the approbation of
his fovercign, and of the heralds: thus, if a perfon, who
5 A has
Afiiimpfil
Affumptiv
AST [ 742 ] AST
Affurance has no right by blood, and has no coat of arms, ftiall
II 4 captivate, in any lawful war, any gentleman, nobleman,
ar,,e' or prince, he is, in that cafe, intitled to bear the fhield
of that prifoner, and enjoy it to him and his heirs for
ever.
ASSURANCE, or insurance, in commerce. See
Insurance.
ASSUROR, a merchant, or other perfon, who
makes out a policy of affurance, and thereby infures a
fhip, houfe, or the like.
ASSUS, /, feminine, (Strabo); or AJfan,
neuter, (Ptolemy); a town of Troas (though by others
fuppofed to be of Myi.a), and the fame with Apollonia,
(Pliny); but different from the Apollonia on the river
Rhyndacus. Ptolemy places it on the fea-coait, but
Strabo more inland; if he does not mean the head of
an inland bay, as appears from Diodorus Siculus. It
was a town of the Leleges, the country of Cleanthes
the ftoic philofopher, who fucceeded Zeno; and is ftill
called Afros. E. Long. 27. 30. N. Lat. 38. 30.
ASSYRIA. See Babylonia.
ASSYTHMENT. See Assithment.
ASTA, an inland town of Liguria, a colony, (Pto¬
lemy); on the river Tanarus: now E. Long. 8.15.
Lat. 44. 40.
Asta Regia, a town of Baetica, (Pliny) ; fituated
at that mouth of the Baetis, which was choaked up with
mud, to the north of Cadiz; 16 miles diftantfrom the
port of Cadiz, (Antonine). Its ruins (hew its former
greatnefs. Its name is Phosnician, denoting a frith, or
arm of the fea, on which it ftood. It is faid to be the
fame with Xera; which fee.
ASTABAT, a town of Armenia, in Afia, fituated
near the river Aras, 12 miles fouth of Nakfhivan. The
land about it is excellent, and produces very good wine.
There is a root peculiar to this country called ronas ;
which runs in the ground like liquorice, and ferves for
dying red. It is very much ufed all over the Indies,
and for it they have a great trade. E. Long. 46. 30.
N. Lat. 39. o.
ASTAROTH, or Ashtaroth, in antiquity, a
goddefs of the Sidonians.—The word is Syriac, and
ligniiies Jheep, efpecially when their udders are turgid
with milk. From the fecundity of thofe animals, which
in Syria continue to breed a long time, they formed
the notion of a deity, whom they called Aftaroth, or
AJlarte. See Astarte.
Astaroth, the royal refidence of Og king of Ba¬
lkan ; whether the fame with Attaroth Carnaim, is mat¬
ter of doubt: if one and the fame, it follows from Eu-
febius’s account, that it lay in Bafhan, and to the eaft
of Jordan, becaufe in the confines of Arabia.
ASTARTE, in Pagan mythology, (the fingular of
* See Vbt£- Aftaroth), a Phoenician goddefs *, called in Scripture
mda. the queen of heaven, and the goddefs of the Sidonians—
Solomon, in compliment to one of his queens, eredled
an altar to her. In the reign of Ahab, Jezebel caufed
her worftiip be performed with much pomp and cere¬
mony : (he had 400 priefts ; the women were employ¬
ed in weaving hangings or tabernacles for her; and Je¬
remiah obferves, that “ the children gathered the
“ wood, the fathers kindled the fire, and the women
“ kneaded the dough, to make cakes for the queen of
“ heaven.”
Astarte, a city on the other fide Jordan ; one of
the names of Rabbath Ammon, in Arabia Petrsea, Afleifm
(Stephanus). ||
ASTEISM, in rhetoric, a genteel irony, or hand- Aher-
fome way of deriding another. Such, e. gr. is that of
Virgil : ^ui Bavium non edit, amet tua carmina, M*vi, See.
Diomed places the charafteriftic of this figure, or fpe-
cies of irony, in that it is not grofs and ruftic, but in¬
genious and polite.
ASTELL (Mary), the great ornament of her fex,
and country, was the daughter of     Aftell, an o-
pulent merchant at Newcaftle upon Tyne, where (he '
was born about the year 1668. She was educated in a
manner fuitable to her ftation; and, amongft other ac-
complifhments, was miftrefs of the French, and had
fome knowledge of the Latin tongue. Her uncle, a
clergyman, obferving in her fome marks of a promifing
genius, took her under his„ tuition, and taught her ma¬
thematics, logic, and philofophy. She left the place
of her nativity when Ihe was about 20 years of age, and
fpent the remaining part of her life at London, and at
Chelfea. Here (he purfued her (Indies with great af-
fiduity, made great proficiency in the above-mentioned
fciences, and acquired a more complete knowledge of
many claffic authors. Among thefe Seneca, Epictetus,
Hierocles, Antoninus, Tully, Plato, and Xenophon,
were her principal favourites.
Her life was fpent in writing for the advancement of
learning, religion, and virtue; and in the pra&ice of
thofe religious duties which (he fo zealoufly and pathe¬
tically recommended to others, and in which perhaps
no one was ever more fincere and devout. Her fenti-
ments of piety, charity, humility, friendlhip, and other
Chriftian graces, were uncommonly refined and fub-
lime; and religion fat gracefully upon her, unattended
with any forbidding airs of fournefs or of gloom. Her
mind was generally calm and ferene ; and her conver-
fation was innocently facetious, and highly entertain¬
ing. She would fay, “ The good Chriftian only hath
reafon, and he always ought, to be cheerful;” and,
“ That deje&ed looks and melancholy airs were very
unfeemly in a Chriftian.” But thefe fubje&s (he hath
treated at large in fome of her excellent writings.
She was remarkably abftemious; and feemed to en¬
joy an uninterrupted date of health, till a few years
before her death ; when, having one of her breads cut
off, it fo much impaired her conftitution, that (he did
not long furvive it. This painful operation (he under¬
went without difeovering the lead timidity, or fo much
as uttering a groan; and (hewed the fame refolution and
refignation during her whole illnefs. When (he was con¬
fined to her bed by a gradual decay, and the time of her
diffolution drew near, ihe ordered her (hroud and coffin
to be made, and brought to her bed-fide; and there to
remain in her view, as a conftant memento of her ap¬
proaching fate, and to keep her mind fixed on proper
contemplation. She died in the year 1731, in the 63d
year of her age, and was buried at Chelfea. She wrote,
1. A ferious Propofal to the Ladies. 2. An Effay in
Defence of the Female Sex. 3. Letters concerning
the Love of God. 4. Reflections upon Marriage.
5. Moderation truly dated. 6. The Chriftian Reli¬
gion, as profeffed by a Daughter of the Church of
England; and fome other works.
ASTER, starwort ; a genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants;
Plate XLII .
AS CIIVLA
Asteria:
As TEE IAS
Ardea Herodias
Astroitbs
f /if//
AST [ 743 ] AST
After plants; of which there are no lefs than 30 diftinft fpe-
Afleria. cies: as none t^lern are Puffed of any remark-
— able properties, we reckon a particular defcription un-
neceffary.
Culture. All the fpecies of this genus may be raifed
from feed fown either in autumn or fpring ; but the
greateft part of them being perennial plants, and in-
crealing greatly at the roots, are generally propagated
by parting their roots early in the fpring, and they will
grow in almoft any foil or fituation ; and the larger
forts increafe fo fall, that, if not prevented, they will
in a little time run over a large fpace of ground. They
grow heft in the (hade; but the lower kinds do not run
fo much at the root, but (hould be taken up and tranf-
planted every other year; which will make them pro¬
duce much fairer flowers. Some few forts, which are
natives of warm climates, will require artificial heat to
raife them, if not to preferve them.
Aster, or Stella Marina, in zoology. See Aste-
R1AS.
ASTERABAD, a province in the north-eaft part
of Perfia, having Tabriftan on the weft, part of the
Cafpian Sea and part of Jorjan on the north, Korafan
on the weft, and Koumas on the fouth. It is a moun¬
tainous country, except near the banks of the rivers
t,hat almoft furround it, where it is pleafant, and fruit¬
ful, producing grapes of a prodigious fize. In other
parts the foil is fandy and barren. Afterabad is the
chief town, which gives name to a gulph in the Perfian
Sea, at the bottom of which it (lands. E. Long, 35.
N. Lat. 36. 50.
ASTER I A, in zoology, a name by which fome au-
* See Yahn. thors have called the falco palumbarius, or gojha'wk *.
Asteria is alfo the name of a gem, ufually called
the cat's eye, or oculus cati. It is a very Angular and
very beautiful (lone, and fomewhat approaches to the
nature of the opal, in having a bright encluded colour,
which feems to be lodged deep in the body of the (lone,
and (hifts about, as it is moved, in various directions;
but it differs from the opal in all other particulars, but,
above all, in its want of the great variety of colours
> feen in that gem, and in its fuperior hardnefs. It is
ufually found between the lize of a pea, and the breadth
of a fixpence ; and is alrnoft always of a femicircular
form, broad and flat at the bottom, and rounded and
convex at the top; it is naturally fmooth and poliftied,
and is ufually wore with is natural polifti. It has only
two colours, a pale brown and a white; the brown feem-
ing the ground, and the white playing about in it, as
the fire-colour in the opal. It is confiderably hard, and
will take a fine polifli, but is ufually worn with its na¬
tive (hape and fmoothnefs. It is found in the Eaft and
Weft Indies, and in Europe. The ifland of Borneo
affords fome very fine ones, but they are ufually final!;
they are very common in the fands of rivers in New
Spain ; and in Bohemia they are not unfrequently found
immerfed in the fame maffes of jafper with the opal.
Asteria is alfo the name of an extraneous foflil,
called in Englifli the ftar-fione. Thefe foflils are final!,
ffiort, angular or fulcated columns, between one and two
inches long, and feldom above a third of an inch in di¬
ameter: compofed of feveral regular joints; when fepa-
rated, each refembles a radiated ftar. They are, not
without reafon, fuppofed to be a part of fome fea-fi(h
* See AJlc- putrified, probably the afterias, or feu-ftar #. The
afteria is alfo called ajlrites, ajlroites, and ajlerifcus. Aliena.
They may be reduced to two kinds; thofe whofe whole 
bodies make the form of a ftar; and thofe which in the
whole are irregular, Lat are adorned as it were with
conftellations in the parts. Dr Lifter, for diftinaion’s
fake, only gives the name ajleria to the former fort,
diftinguilhing the latter by the appellation of ajlrci-
tes; other naturalifts generally ufe the two indiferimi-
nately. The alteria fpoken of by the ancients appears
to be of this latter kind. The quality of moving in
vinegar, as if animated, is fcarce perceivable in the
aftroites, but is iignal in the afteria. The former mud
be broken in final! pieces before it will move ; but the
latter will move, not only in a whole joint, but in two
or three knit together. The curious frequently meet
with thefe (tones in many parts of England: at Cley-
don in Oxfordfhire they are fopnd rather larger than
common, but of a fofter fuhllafice ; for, on being left a
fmall fpace of time in a ftrong acid, they may eafily b»
feparated at the joints in finail plates.
ASTERIAS, star-fish, or sea-star, in zoolo-
gy, a genus of infeCts of the order of vermes molufea.
It has a depreffed body, covered with a coriaceous coat;
is compofed of five or more fegments, running out from
a central part, and furniftied with numerous tentacula ;
and has the mouth in the centre.—The conformation
of the mouth is this: the under part of each lobe runs
towards a point with the reft at the centre of the body;
and thefe feveral produdlions of the rays make a fort
of lips, the ends of each of which are armed with a
number of (harp teeth, which ferve to take and convey
the food into the body. From this mouth there goes
a feparate canal to all or many of the rays, which
runs through their whole length, and becomes gradual¬
ly narrower as it approaches the extremity. The ten¬
tacula refemble the horns of fnails, but ferve the ani¬
mal to walk with. They are capable of being con¬
tracted or (hortened : and it is only at the creature’s
moving that they are feen of their full length ; at o-
ther times, no part of them is feen but the extremity of
each, which is formed like a fort of button, being
fomewhat larger than the reft of the horn.
Mod of the fpecies of afterias are found in the Britiffi
feas. 1. The glacialis, with five rays, depreffed, broad
at the bafe, yellow, and having a round ftriated oper¬
culum on the back, is the moll common ; it feeds on
oyfters, and is very deftruClive to the beds. 2. The
clathatra, or cancellated fea-ftar, with five (hort thick
rays, hirfute beneath, cancellated above, is found with
the former, but more rare. 3. The oculata, with five
fmooth rays, dotted or punctured, is of a fine purple
colour, and is found about Anglefea*. 4. Thehifpida, *,See Plate
with five rays, broad, angulated at top, and rough XLlI.figj.
with fnort bridles, is of a brown colour, and likewife
found about Anglefea f. 5. The placenta, with five f Fig. 4.
very broad and membranaceous rays, extremely thin
and flat, is found about Weymouth f. 6. The fpheru- t F'g- S-
lata, with a pentagonal indented body ; a fmall glo¬
bular bead between the bafe of each ray; the rays
(lender, jointed, taper, and hirfute on their (ides ; found
off Anglefea*. 7. The caput medufae, or arborefeent * Fig. 6.
fea-ftar, with five rays iffuing from an angular body;
the rays dividing into innumerable branches, growing
flender as they recede from the bafe. Thefe the ani¬
mal, in fwimming, fpreads like a net to their full
5 A 2 length
A ft eras
Aftracan.
* See AJle-
f See Ardea.
* See Afte¬
rtax and
Star-ftctc.
AST [ 744 ] AST
length ; and when he perceives any prey within them, intenfely hot: the winter continues about three months Aftracan.
draws them in again, thus catching it with all the dex- fo fevere, that the Volga is frozen hard enough to bear
terity of a fifherman. It is an inhabitant of every fea. loaded fledges. The foil is rich and fertile ; but the
8. The decacnemos, has ten vefy flender rays, with Tartars who inhabit it are ftrangers to agriculture. On
numbers of long beards on the fides ; the body is the weftern and fouthern fides of the Volga are heaths
fmall, and furrounded beneath with ten fmall filiform of a prodigious extent, fandy, defert, and uncultiva-
rays. It inhabits the weftern coafts of Scotland.— ted: thefe, however, produce vaft quantities of fine
There are feveral other fpecies mentioned by authors; tranfparent fait in pits, where the fun bahes and incru-
fomeofthem of 10, 12, 13, or even 14 rays. ftates it to the thicknefs of an inch on the furface of
Ariftotle and Pliny called this genus and flella the water. There are pits in the neighbourhood of
marina, from their refemblance to the pictured form Aftracan which yield this excellent fait in fuch abun-
of the ftars of heaven; and they aflerted that they were dance, that any perfon may carry it off, paying at the
fo exceedingly hot, as inftantly to confume whatfoever rate of one farthing a pooft, which is equal to forty
they touched. pounds. The metropolis, Aftracan, is fituated with-
The foffil world has been greatly enriched by the in the boundaries of Afia, on an ifland called Dolgci,
fragments and remains of the feveral pieces of ftar-fifh, about 60 Englifh miles above the place where the Vol-
which have been converted into ftones *. ga difembogues itfelf into the Cafpian Sea. The city
Asterias, the ancient name of the bittern f. derives its name from Hadgee Tarken, a Tartar, by
ASTERISK, a mark in form of a ftar (*), placed whom it was founded. It was conquered by.Iwan Ba-
over a word or fentence, to refer the reader to the mar- filowitz, recovered by the Tartars in the year 1668,
gin, or elfewhere, for a quotation, explanation, or the and retaken by the Czar, who employed for this pur¬
like. pofe a great number of flat-bottomed vefiels, in which
ASTERIUS, or Asturius, a Roman conful, in he tranfported his forces down the Volga from Cafan.
449. We have under his name, A Conference on the The city of Aftracan is about two miles and a half in
Old and New Teftament, in Latin verfe: in which each circumference, furrounded by a brick-wall, which is
ftrophe contains, in the firft verfe, an hiftorical faft in now in a ruinous condition : but, if we comprehend
the Old Teftament; and in the fecond, an application the fuburbs, the circuit will be near five miles. The
of that faft to fome poinfein the New. number of inhabitants amounts to 70,000, including
ASTEROPODIUM, a kind of extraneous foffil, Armenians and Tartars, as well as a few Perfians and
of the fame fubftance with theafteriae, or ftar-ftones to Indians. The garrifon confiftsof fix regiments of the
which they ferve as a bafe *. beft Ruffian troops, who, when this place was alarm-
ASTHMA. See the Index fubjoined to Medicine, ed from the fide of Perfia, had in the adjacent plain e-
ASTI, a city of Montferrat in Italy, feated on the refted a great number of fmall batteries, to fcour the
Tanaro, and capital of the county of the fame name, fields, and obftrudf the approach of the enemy. The
It is a biftiop’s fee, and well fortified with ftrong walls houfes of Aftracan are built of wood, and generally
and deep ditches; and is divided into the city, borough, mean and inconvenient. The higher parts of the city
citadel, and caftle. There are a great many churches command a profpeft of the Volga, which is here about
and convents, as well as other handfome buildings; and three miles in breadth, and exhibits a noble appear*
its territory is well watered, abounding with groves, ance. The marftiy lands on the banks of it render the
pleafant hills, and fpacious fields. It was taken by the place veiy fickly in the fummer : the earth, being im-
French in 1745, and retaken by the king of Sardinia pregnated with fait, is extremely fertile, and produces
in 1746. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 54. 50. abundance of fruit, the immoderate ufe of which isat-
ASTIGI, indeclinable; a colony, and conventus ju- tended with epidemical diftempers. Sicknefs is likewife
ridicus, of Bastica, furnamed Alugujla Firma, fituated the confequence of thofe annual changes in the atmo-
on the Singulus, which falls into the Bsetis; called al- fphere produced by the floods in fpring and autumn,
fo Collonia AJUgitana, (Pliny); now Ecya, midway be- All round the city of Aftracan, at the diftance of two
tween Seville and Corduba. W. Long. 5°. Lat. 37. 20. miles, are feen a great number of gardens, orchards,
ASTOMI, in anthropology, people feigned with- and vineyards, producing all forts of herbs and roots,
out mouths. Pliny fpeaks of a nation of Aftomi in In- (except cauliflowers). The grapes are counted fo de-
dia, who lived only by the fmell or effluvia of bodies, licious, that they are preferved in fand, and tranfported
taken in by the nofe. to court by land-carriage at a prodigious expence: yet
ASTORGA, a very ancient city of Spain, in the the wine of Aftracan is very indifferent. The fummer
kingdom of Leon, with a biftiop’s fee, is feated on the being generally dry, the inhabitants water their gar-
river Tuerta, and well fortified both by art and nature, dens by means of large wheels worked by wind or hor-
It ftands in a moft agreeable plain, about 150 miles fes, which raife the water to the higheft part of the
north-weft of Madrid. There are excellent trouts in garden, from whence it runs in trenches to reffefti the
the river. W. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 42. 20. roots of every Angle tree and plant. The neighbour-
ASTRACAN, a province of Ruffia, and the moft ing country produces hares and patridges, plenty of
eafterly part of Europe, bounded on the north by quails in fummer, with wild and water fowl of all
Bulgaria and Baflciria; on the fouth, by the Cafpian forts in abundance.
Sea; on the weft by the Volga, which divides it from About ten miles below Aftracan is a fmall ifland,
the Nagayan Tartars and Don Coffacks; and on the called Bofmaife, on which are built large ftorehoufes
eaft, by the great ridge of mountains, which part it from for the fait, which is made about twelve miles to
Great Tartary. The province extends from the 46th to the eaftward, and, being brought hither in\ boats,
the 52d degree of latitude. The fummer is long, and is conveyed up the Volga, in order to fupply the
country
AST [ 74S ] AST
country as far as Mofcow and Twere. The quantity
of fait annually dug for thefe purpofes amounts to fome
millions of pounds, the exclufive property of which is
claimed by the crown, and yields a conliderable reve¬
nue; for thefoldiers and bulk of the people live almoft en¬
tirely oh breadandfalt. The neighbourhoodof thefe falt-
works is of great advantage to the lidieries, which ex¬
tend from hence to the Cafpian Sea, and reach to the
fouth-eaft as far as Yack, and even too miles above
Zaritzen. The principal filh here caught are fturgeon,
ftarlett, belluga, and aflbtra. Theie, being falted,
are put on board of veffels, and fent away in tire fpring,
for the ufe of the whole empire, even as far as Peterf-
burg : but as filh may be kept freih as long as it is
frozen, the winter is no fooner fet in, than they tranf-
port great quantities of it by land through all the pro¬
vinces of Ruffia. Of the roes of the fifh called belluga,
which are white, tranfparent, and of an agreeable fla¬
vour, the fifhers here prepare the caviare, which is in fo
much efteem all over Europe. Thefe fifheries were firil
eftabliftied by one Tikon DemedofF, a carrier, who
fettled in this place about half a century ago, his whole
wealth confifting of two horfes. By dint of fkillandindu-
ftry, he foon grew the richeft merchant in this country:
but his fuccefs became fo alluring to the crown, that of
late years it hath engrofled fome of the fifheries as well
as the falt-works.
From the latter end of July to the beginning of Oc¬
tober, the country about Aflracan is frequently infeft-
ed with myriads of locufts, which darken the air in their
progreffion from the north to the fouthward; and,
wherever they fall, confume the whole verdure of the
earth. Thefe infects can even live for fome time un¬
der water : for when the wind blows acrofs the Volga,
vaft numbers of them fall in cluflers, and are rolled
afhore ; and their wings are no fooner dry, than they
rife and take flight again.
Heretofore the inhabitants of Aftracan traded to
Khuva and Bokhara; but at prefent thefe branches are
loft, and their commerce is limited to Perfia and thedomi-
nions of Ruflia. Even the trade to Perfia is much dimi -
niftied by the troubles of that country: neverthelefs, the
commerce of Aftracan is ftill confiderable. A few years
ago, the city maintained about 40 veffels, from x to 200
tons burden, for the Cafpian traffick. Some of thefe
belong to the government, and are commanded by a
commodore, under the direction of the admiralty. This
office is generally well ftocked with naval ftores, which
are fold occafionally to the merchants. The trading
fhips convey provifions to the frontier towns of Terkie
and Killar, fituated on the Cafpian Sea ; and tranfport
merchandize to feveral parts of Perfia. Some years
ago, the Englilh Ruffian company opened a trade from
Aftracan to Perfia over the Cafpian Sea, and ftiips were
built for that purpofe; but this commerce was foon
prohibited by the Czarina, in confequence of the mif-
management of an Engliffi fa&or, and the jealoufy of
the Ruffians. The merchants of Aftracan export to
Perfia, chiefly on account of the Armenians, red leather,
linens, woollen cloths, and other European manufac¬
tures. In return, they import the commodities of Per¬
fia, particularly thofe manufasftured at Cafan; fuch as
filk fafhes intermixed with gold, for the ufe of the Poles;
wrought filks and fluffs mixed with cotton ; rice, cot¬
ton, rhubarb, and a fmall quantity of other drugs; but
the chief commodity is raw filk. The government has Afiracan
engroffed the article of rhubarb, the greater part of .H
which is brought into Ruffia by the Tartars of Yakut- nngenr.
fki, bordering on the eaftern Tartars belonging to Chi¬
na. They travel through Siberia to Samura, thence to
Cafan, and laftly to Mofcow. The revenue of Aftra¬
can is computed at 150,000 rubles, or 33,000 pounds,
arifing chiefly from fait and filh. The city is ruled by
a governor, under the check of a chancery. He is ne¬
verthelefs arbitrary enough, and exercifes oppreffion
with impunity. The officers of the admiralty and cu-
ftom-houfe, having very fmall falaries, are open to cor¬
ruption, and extremely rapacious. At chriftening-
feafts, which are attended with great intemperance, the
guefts drink a kind of cherry-brandy out of large go¬
blets ; and every perfon invited throws a prefent of mo¬
ney into the bed of the mother, who fits up with great
formality to be faluted by the company.
The Indians have a Pagan temple at Aftracan, in
which they pay their adoration, and make offerings of
fruit to a very ugly deformed idol. The priefts of this
pagod ufe incenfe, beads, cups, and proftrations. The
Tartars, on the contary, hold idol-worfhip in the ut-
moft abomination.
ASTRAGAL, in archite&ure, a little round moul¬
ding, which in the orders furrounds the top of the fhaft
or body of the column. It is alfo called the talon and
tondino', it is ufed at the bottoms as well as tops of co-
lums, and on other occafions : it properly reprefents a
ring, on whatever part of a column it is placed ; and
the original idea of it was that of a circle of iron put
round the trunk of a tree, ufed to fupport an edifice to
prevent its fplitting, See Plate XXIX. fig. 2. The
ajlragal is often cut into beads and berries, and is ufed
in the ornamented entablatures to feparate the feveral
faces of the architrave.
Astragal, in gunnery, a round moulding encom-
paffing a cannon, about half a foot from its mouth.
ASTRAGALUS, milk-vetch, or liquorice-
vetch ; a genus of the decandria order, belonging to
the diadelphia clafs of plants. Of this genus there
are 39 fpecies; but none of them feem to d'eferve parti¬
cular notice, except the common fort, which grows
wild upon dry uncultivated places, and is recommend¬
ed by Mr Anderfon to be cultivated as proper food for
cattle. See Agriculture, n° 58.
Astragalus, in anatomy. See there, n° 64.
ASTRANTIA, masterwort ;
1 gen:
us of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants,
of which there are three fpecies ; but as they are only
preferved in botanic gardens for the fake of variety, we
omit any particular defeription of them.
ASTRiEA, in aftronomy, a name which fome give
to the fign Virgo, by others called Erigone, and fome-
times Ifts. The poets feign that juftice quitted hea¬
ven to refide on earth, in the golden age ; but, grow-
in weary of the iniquities of mankind, file left the earth,
and returned to heaven, where fhe commenced a con-
ftellation of ftars, and from her orb ftill looks down on .
the ways of men.
ASTRICTION, in law. SccThirlage.
Astriction, among phyficians^ denotes the opera¬
tion of aftringent medicines.
ASTRINGENTS, in the Materia Medica. See
there, n° 36,.&c.
AST ROGNQSI A,
Aftrognofia
il
Aftrono-
sth plate
XLII.
fig. 4.
AST [ 746 ] AST
ASTROGNOSIA, the fcience of the fixed ftars,
or the knowledge of their names, conftellations, mag¬
nitudes, &c. See Astronomy.
ASTROITES, or star-stone, in natural hiftory.
See the articles Asteria and Star-stone; and Plate
XLII. fig. 7.
ASTROLABE, the name for a ftereographic pro*
jeftion of the fphere, either upon the plane of the e-
quator, the eye being fuppofed to be in the pole of the
world ; or upon the plane of the meridian, when the
eye is fuppofed in the point of the interfedUon of the
equino&ial and horizon.
Astrolabe, is alfo the name of an inftrument for¬
merly ufed for taking the altitude of the fun or ftars
at fea.
Astrolabe, among the ancients, was the fame as
our armillary fphere.
ASTROLOGY, a conje&ural fcience, which teach¬
es to judge of the effedls and influences of the ftars,
and to foretel future events by the fituation and differ¬
ent afpe&s of the heavenly bodies. This fcience has
long ago become a juft fubje6l of contempt and ridi¬
cule. See Divination, n° 1.
ASTRONOMICAL, fomething relating to aftro-
nomy.
Astronomical Calendar, an inftrument engraved on
copper plates, printed on paper, and pafted on a board,
with a brafs Aider carrying a hair: it ftiews by infpec-
tion the fun’s meridian altitude, right afeenfion, de¬
clination, rifing, fetting, amplitude, &c. to a greater
degree of exaftnefs than the common globes.
Astronomical Setter, a very ufeful mathematical
inftrument, made by the late ingenious Mr Graham.
It is allowed that a micrometer is the moft accurate
and convenient inftrument for obferving the place of a
planet or comet, when it happens to be near enough
to any known ftar, by taking the differences of its
right afeenfion and declination from thofe of the ftar :
but this being frequently impra&icable, by reafon that
many large places in the heavens are void of ftars
whofe places are known, it is neceffary to have recourfe
to moveable quadrants, or fextants, furnifhed with te-
lefcopic fights, for taking larger diftances. But be-
fides the difficulty and charge of procuring good in-
ftruments of this kind, the great trouble and uncer¬
tainties in obferving with them are very notorious,
arifing chiefly from the difficulty the obfervers find in
making their obfervations and each telefcope corre-
fpond together at the fame inftant while the inftru¬
ment is following the diurnal motion of the heavens.
The lovers of aftronomy are therefore much obliged to
the late ingenious Mr George Graham, F. R. S. not
only for many ufeful improvements in the mechanifm of
feveral aftronomieal inftruments, but alfo for contriving
a very commodious and accurate one for the purpofe
aforefaid; that is, for taking fuch differences of right
afeenfion and declination as are too large to be ob-
ferved through a fixed telefcope; and yet with equal
facility and exaftnefs too in proportion to the radius of
the inftrument.
Let A B reprefent an arch of a circle, containing
ten or twelve degrees well divided, having a ftrong
plate C D for its radius, fixed to the middle of the
arch at D : let this radius be applied to the fide of an
axis H F I, and be moveable about a joint fixed to it
at F, fo that the plane of the feftor may be always
parallel to the axis H I; which being parallel to the
axis of the earth, the plane of the fe&or will always
be parallel to the plane of fome hour-circle. Let a
telefcope C E be moveable about the centre C of the
arch A B, from one end of it to the other, by turning
a Ikrew at G ; and let the line of fight be parallel to
the plane of the fe&or. Now, by turning the whole
inftrument about the axis H I, till the plane of it be
fucceffively dire&ed, firft to one of the ftars, and then
to another, it is eafy to move the feeftor about the joint
F, into fuch a pofition, that the arch A B, when fix¬
ed, ftiall take in both the ftars in their paffage, by the
plane of it, provided the difference of their declina¬
tions does not exceed the arch A B. Then, having
fixed the plane of the fe&or a little to the wellward of
both the ftars, move the telefcope C E by the flerew
G ; and obferve by a clock the time of each tranfit
over the crofs-hairs, and alfo the degrees and minutes
upon the arch A B, cut by the index at each tranfit;
then, in the difference of the arches, the difference of
the declinations, and by the difference of the times, we
have the difference of the right afeenfions of the ftars.
The dimenfions of this inftrument are thefe: the
length of the telefcope, or the radius of the fedtor, is
2 4- feet; the breadth of the radius, near the end C,
is 1 4- inch; and at the end D two inches. The
breadth of the limb A B is 14- inch ; and its length
fix inches, containing ten degrees divided into quarters,
and numbered from either end to the other. The tele¬
fcope carries a nonius or fubdividing plate, whofe length,
being equal to fixteen quarters of a degree, is divided
into fifteen equal parts ; which, in effect, divides the
limb into minutes, and, by eftimation, into fmaller
parts. The length of the fquare axis H I F is eigh¬
teen inches, and of the part H I twelve inches; and
its thicknefs is about a quarter of an inch : the dia¬
meters of the circles are each five inches : the thick¬
nefs of the plates, and the other meafures, may be ta¬
ken at the dire&ion of a workman.
This inftrument may be re&ified, for making obfer¬
vations, in this manner : By placing the interfe£Iion of
the crofs-hairs at the fame diftance from the plane of
the fe&or, as the centre of the objed-glafs, the plane
deferibed by the line of fight, during the circular
motion of the telefcope upon the limb, will be fuffi-
ciently true, or free from conical curvity ; which may
be examined by fufpending a long plumb-line at a con¬
venient diftance from the inftrument; and by fixing
the plane of the fe&or in a vertical pofition, and then
by obferving, while the telefcope is moved by the Ikrew
along the limb, whether the crofs hairs appear to move
along the plumb-line.
The axis h f 0 may be elevated nearly parallel to the
axis of the earth, by means of a fmall common qua¬
drant ; and its error may be correded, by making the
line of fight follow the circular motion of any of the
circumpolar ftars, while the whole inftrument is moved
about its axis h f 0, the telefcope being fixed to the
limb: for this purpofe, let the telefcope i / be direc¬
ted to the ftar a, when it paffes over the higheft point
of its diurnal circle, and let the divifion cut by the
nonius be then noted : then, after twelve hours, when
the ftar comes to the loweft point of its circle, having
turned the inftrument half round its axis, to bring the
telefcope
Aftrono¬
mieal.
AST [ 747 i AST
telefcope into the pofxtion mn; if the crofs hairs cover
the fame ftar fuppofed at b, the elevation of the axis
b f o \s exadlly right; but if it be neceiTary to move
the telefcope into the pofition u v, in order to point to
this ftar at c, the arch.//z u, which meafures the angle
mfu ox bf c, will be known ; and then the axis h f o
muft be depreffed half the quantity of this given angle
if the ftar paffed below b, or muft be raifed fo much
higher if above it; and then the trial muft be repeat¬
ed till the true elevation of the axis be obtained. By
making the like obfervations upon the fame ftar on
each fide the pole, in the/ix-o’clock-hour-circle, the
error of the axis, toward the eaft or weft, may alfo be
found and corre&ed, till the crofs-hairs follow the ftar
quite round the pole : for fuppofing « 0 /> £ c to be an
arch of the meridian (or in the fecond practice of the
fix-o’clock hour-circle), make the angle afp equal to
half the angle a f c, and the line f p will point to the
pole ; and the angle 0 f pt which is the error of the
axis, will be equal to half the angle b f c ox m f u,
found by the obfervation; becaufe the difference of the
two angles a fb, a f cyh double the difference of their
halves afo and afp. Unlefs the ftar be very near the
pole, allowance muft be made for refractions.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
5 ^
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
*5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Directions for placing the Plates in this Volume.
Plate I. To face
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XIX.
XX.
XVIII.
XXL
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXIV. (a)
Page 40
55
66 ■
144 -<
158 •
170 »
185,
204 *
271 *•
318'
335 '
- 358 '
359
365
366>
389
390
394
400
420
440
446
451
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
Plate XXIV. (b) To face
XXV.
XXV. (a)
XXV. (b) -) '
xxvi. C
XXVII. 3
XXVIII.-V
XXIX. /
XXX. i
XXXI. J
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
xxxvii. C -
XXXVIII. 3
i St XXXIX. -
2<1 XXXIX.
3d XXXIX. -
4th XXXIX.
cth XXXIX. .
XL. - - -
XLI.
XL 11. -
Page 455
526
527
- 608
609
611 $
615
616
616 j
- 618
- 619
622
627
622
- 615
631
690
743
N. B- Errata, Omissions, &c. noticed and fupplied in the APPENDIX at the end of the Work.