Xi ENCTCLO P^DIA BRITANNICA; Or, A DICTIONARY O F ARTS, S C I E N C E S, &c. On a Plan entirely New: By Which, THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS Are digefted into the Form of Diftina TREATISES or SYSTEMS, comprehending The History, Theory, and Practice, of each, according to the Lateft Difcdveries and Improvements; AND FUL lEXPLANATIONS are given of the VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHETHER RELATING TO Natural and Artificial Objeas, or to Matters Ecclesiastical, Civil, Military, Commercial, &c. TOGETHER WITH A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, drc. throughout the World; A General History, Ancient and Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States; AND An Account of the Lives of the mofl Eminent Perfons in every Nation, from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times. ‘ THE WHOLE COMPILED FROM THE WRITINGS OF THE BEST AUTHORS, IN SEVERAL LANGUAGES; THE MOST APPROVED DICTIONARIES, AS WELL OF GENERAL SCIENCE AS OF PARTICULAR BRANCHES; THE TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, AND MEMOIRS, OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, BOTH AT HOME AND ABROAD; THE MS. LECTURES OF EMINENT PROFESSORS ON DIFFERENT SCIENCES; AND A VARIETY OF ORIGINAL MATERIALS, FURNISHED BY AN EXTENSIVE CORRESPONDENCE. The Second Edition; greatly Improved and Enlarged. ILLUSTRATED WITH ABOVE THREE HUNDRED COPPERPLATES. VOL. X. INDOCTI DISC4.NT, ET AMENT MEMINJSS E PERITI. EDI NBU RGH: Printed for J. Balfour and Co. W. Gordon, J. Bell, J. Dickson, C. Elliot, W. Creech, J. McCh£sh, A. Bell, J. Hutton, and C. Macfarqjjhar. MDCCLXiXXIir. ^ 14 %-r %1S6: t'N-n A NEW Sculpture. Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, &c. s c u CULPTURE, the art of carving wood, or hew¬ ing (lone, into images. The antiquity of this art is paft doubt; as the facred writings, the mod ancient and authentic monu¬ ments we have of the earliell ages, mention it in feve- ra! places: witnefs Laban’s idols ftolen away by Ra¬ chel, and the golden calf which the Ifraelites fet up in the defart, &c. But it is very difficult to fix the original of the art, and the firft artifts, from profane authors ; what we read thereof being intermixed with fables, after the manner and talle of thofe ages. The firft works in fculpture were with clay, not only in making ftatues, but in forming models; and to this day a fculptor never undertakes any thing confiderable, without forming a model either in clay or wax. In making figures of thefe materials, they begin and fi- nifh their work with their hands, ufing only three or four pieces of wood, which are roundifh at one end, and at the other flat, with a fort of claws and teeth, which are to fmooth and fcratch the work. For wax¬ en models, to every pound of wax add half a pound colophony ; fome add turpentine, and melt it together with oil of olives, more or lefs of the latter being iifed as they would have the matter harder or fofter ; fome alfo add a little vermilion to give it a colour: this is wrought and moulded with the fingers like clay. For fcnlpture in wood, which we properly call car¬ ving., the firft thing required is tochoofe wood proper for the work the fculptor is to perform. If it be any thing large, and that requires a great deal of (Length and folidity, the hardeft and moft durable wood is to be chofen ; and for fmaller works and ornaments, the fofter wood is ufed ; but it mud be fuch, however, as is firm and clofe : for a large work, though it be only a (ingle figure, it is better to make ufe of feveral pieces of wood, or bits of board, glued together, than of one whole piece, which is more liable to crack ; for a thick piece of wood may not be dried to the heart, however it may appear on the outfide. See Carving. In fculpture in marble and other done, the fit ft thing to be done is to faw out a block of marble, of the bignefs of the work to be performed ; and this being done, the fuperfiuities are to be taken off by a dubbed point and a heavy mallet : thus bringing it near the tneafures required, the fculptor reduces it Hill nearer with a finer tool, called a clog’s tooth, it having two points, but one not fo (harp as the other. After this he makes ufe of his gradine, which is a flat cutting tool s c u with three teeth ; he then takes off, with a fmooth Sculpture chifel, the fcratches the gradine left on the marble, I! and ufes it with dexterity and delicacy to give foft- nefs and tendernefs to his figure ; till at length, taking .... rafps of different degrees of finenefs, the work is gra¬ dually rendered fit for polifhing. To polifli the work, the fculptor ufes pumice-ftone and fmalt ; then he goes over it with tripoli ; and when he would give it more luftre, rubs it with leather and ftraw-aflies. There are feveral other tools ufed by feulptors, adapted to the different parts of the work and the nature of the (lone they make ufe of. As the models of clay (brink as they grow dry, whenever fculptors undertake a con¬ fiderable piece of work, they only ufe the model for .making a mould of plafter or ftucco, in which is form¬ ed a figure of the fame matter, which ferves them thenceforth for a model, and by which they adjuft all their meafures and proportions. To proceed the more regularly, on the head of the model they place an im¬ moveable circle divided into degrees, with a moveable rule or index, fixed in the centre of the circle, and di¬ vided alfo into equal parts : from the end of the rule hangs a line with a plummet, which ferves to take ali the points, to be transferred thence to the block of marble, from whofe top hangs another plummet like that of the model. But there are fome excellent fculp¬ tors who difapprove of this method ; urging, that the fmalleft motion of the model changes their meafures ; for which reafon they choofe rather to take all their meafures with the compaffes. For the calling of ftatues or figures of metal, and the moulding of ftatues, &c. of (lucco, plader, See. fee the articles Casting, Foundery of Statues, &c. SCUM, properly denotes the impurities, which a liquor, by boiling, cads up to the furface. The term feum is alfo ufed for what is more properly called the Icoria of metals. SCURVY, in medicine. See that article, n° 97, 448. SCURVY-grass, in botany. See Cochlearea. The officinalis, or common officinal feurvy-grafs; grows upon rocks on the fea coaft, and on the High¬ land mountains, abundantly. It has an acrid, bitter, and acid tafte, and is highly recommended for the feur- vy. There are inftances of a whole (hip’s crew having been cured of that diftemper by it ; and as it abounds with acid falts, there can be no doubt but that it is a great refifter of putrefa&ion. The bed way of taking 40 F 2 it C Y r 8060 1 S C Y Scutage jt is raw in a falad. It is alfo diuretic, and ufeful in Sc Lla dropfies. The Highlanders efteem it as a good fto- l—machic. The corqnopus, another fpecies, was forae years ago rendered famous, the afliCs of it being an ingre¬ dient in Mrs Joanna Stephens’s celebrated medicine for the done and gravel; but, unfortunately for thofe affii&ed with that excruciating complaint, it has not been able to fupport its credit. It is acrid, and taftes like garden crefs. SCUTAGE {fcutagium. Sax. fcildpcning), was a tax or contribution raifed by thofe that held lands by knights-fervice, towards furniihing the king’s army, at one, two, or three merks for every knight’s fee. Henry III. for his voyage to the Holy Land, had a tenth granted by the clergy, and fcutage three merks of every knight’s fee by the laity. This was alfo levied by Henry II. Richard I. and king John. See KviGHT-&xf/V(?. SCUTE, (fcutum) a French'gold coin of 3s. 4d. in the reign of king Henry V. And Catharine queen of England had an afl’urance made her of fundry caftles, manors, lands, &c. valued at the fum of 40,000 fcutes, every two whereof were worth a noble. Rot. Pari. 1. Hen. VI. SCUTTLES, in a (hip, fquare holes cut in the deck, big enough to let down the body of a man, and which ferve upon fome occafions to let the people down into any room below, or from one deck to ano¬ ther. SCYLAX, a celebrated mathematician and geo¬ grapher in the ifle of Caryanda, in Caria, flourifhed under the reign of Darius Hyftafpts, about 522 B. C. Some have attributed to him the invention of geogra¬ phical tables. We have under his name a geographi¬ cal work publifhedby Hoefchelius; but it is written by a much latter author, and is perhaps only an abridge¬ ment of Scylax’s Ancient Geography. SCYLLA, (anc. geog.) a rock in the Fretum Si- culum, near the coaft of Italy, dangerous to (hipping, oppofite to Charybdis, a whirlpool on the coaft of Si¬ cily : both of them famous in mythology. SCYROS, (anc. geog.) an ifland in the Egean fea, oppofite to the middle of Euboea to the call, with a oognominal town, (Ptolemy). The country of king Lycomedes ; where Achilles, in the habit of a girl, was educated and lay concealed, to prevent going to the fiege of Troy ; who debauchrd Diedamia, the king’s daughter, and by her had Pyrrhus, (Ovid.) Famous alfo for the death and place of exile of The- ftus, king of Athens, (Valerius Maximus). Ancient¬ ly inhabited by the Dolopes, a race of intolerable robbers, expelled by Timon the Athenian, (Thucy¬ dides, Plutarch). Now Sciro. E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 38.15. SCYTALA laconica, in antiquity, a ftratagem or device of the Lacedemonians, for the fecret writing of letters to their correfpondents, fo that if they (hould chance to be intercepted, nobody might be able to read them—To this end they had two wooden rollers, or cylinders, perfeflly alike and equal; one whereof was kept in the city, the other by the perfon to whom the letter was diredted. For the letter, a fkin of very thin parchment was wrapped round the roller, and thereon was the matter written; which done, it was taken off, and fent away to the party, who, upon put¬ ting it in the fame manner upon his roller, found the" lines and words in the very fame difpofition as when they were firft wrote. This expedient they fet a very high value on ; though, in truth, artlefs, and grofs enough : the moderns have improved vaftly on this method of writing. See Cipher. SCYTHIA, an ancient name for the northern parts of Afia, now known by the name of Tartary; alfo for fome of the north-eaflern parts, of Europe. This vail territory, which extends itfelf from the Ifter or Danube, the boundary of the Celtes, that is from about the 25th to almoft the noth degree of eaft longitude, was divided into Scythia in Europe, and Scythia in Afia, including, however, the two Sar- matias ; or, as they are called by the Greeks, Sauro- mafias, now the Circaffian Tartary, which lay between and fevered the twq Scythias from each other. Sau- romatia was alfodiftinguifhed into European and Afia- tic; and was divided from the European Scythia by the river Don or Tanis, which falls into the Paulus Meotis ; and from the Afiatic by the.Rha, now Volga, which empties itfelf into the Cafpian fea. 1. The Afiatic Scythia comprehended, in gene¬ ral, great Tartary, and Ruflia in Afia ; and, in par¬ ticular, the Scythia beyond or without Imaus con¬ tained the regions of Bogdoi or Ofliacoi, and Tan- guti. That within, or on this fide Imaus, had Tur- keflan and Mongal, the Ufbeck or Zagatai, Kal- muc and Nagaian Tartars ; befides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes, and Nova Zembla. Thefe three laft not being fo foon inhabited as the former, as may be reafonably fuppofed, were wholly unknown to the ancients; and the former were peopled by the Badtrians, Sogdians, Gandari, Sack?, and Maffagetes. As for Sarmatia, it contained Albania, Iberia, and Colchis; which makes now the Circaflian Tartary, and the pro¬ vince of Georgia. 2. Scythia in Europe, reached (towards the fouth- weft) to the Po and the Alps, by which it was divided from the Celtes, or Celto-Gallia, and' by the Rhine northward. It was bounded on the fouth by the Ifter or Danube, and the Euxine fea. Its northern limits have been fuppofed to ftretch to the fpring-heads of the Borifthenes or Nieper, and the Rha or Volga, and fo to that of the Tanais.—The ancients divided this country into Scythia Arimafptea, which lay eaft- ward, joining to Scythia in Afia ; and Sarmatia Eu- ropeana on the weft. In Scythia, properly fo call¬ ed, were the Arimafpsei on the north ; the Getse or Dacians along the Danube, on the fouth; and the Neuri between thefe two. So that it contained the European Ruffia, or Mufcovy, and the leffer Crim Tartary eaftward ; and, on the weft, Lithuania, Po¬ land, part of Hungary, Tranfilvania, Walachia, Bul¬ garia, and Moldavia. Sarmatia is fuppofed to have reached northward, to that part of Swedeland called Feningia, now Finland; in which they placed the Ocenes, Panoti, and Hippopodes. This part they di¬ vided from northern Germany, now the weft: part of Sweden and Norway, by the Mare Sarmaticum or Scythicum, which they fuppofed ran up into the npr- thern ocean, and, dividing Lapland info two parts, formed the weftern part of Sweden, with Norway, into one illand, and Finland into another j fuppofing this SEA Scythian, alfo to be cut off from the continent by the gulph of Sea- that name. Although the ancient Scythiaps were celebrated as a warlike people, yet their hiftory is-too uncertain and obfcure to enable us to give any detail which would not prove equally tirefome and uninterefting to the reade r. Scythian Lamb, in natural hiftory. See Scythian Lamb. . SEA, is frequently ufed for, that vaft tra£t of wa¬ ter encompafiing the whole earth, more properly called ocean. See Ocean. What proportion the fuperficies of the fea bears to that of the land, is not precifely known, though it is faid to be fomewhat more than two-thirds. As the waters of the earth mult neceffarily rife to the furface thereof, as being fpecifically lighter than the earth, it was neceffary there Ihould be large cavities therein for receptacles to contain them; otherwife they would have overfpread all the fuperficies of the earth, and fo have rendered it utterly uninhabitable for terreftrial animals: for the centre of the earth being the common centre of gravity, and the nature of fluids being fuch that they equally yield to equal powers, and the power of attraflion being every where equal at equal diftan- ces from the centre, it follows, that the fuperficial parts of ihe water will every where conform thhnfelves to an equidiftant fituation from the centre, and confe- quently will form the furface of a fphere fo far as they extend. Hence, that the fea feems higher than the earth or land, refulisfrom the fallacy of vifion, where- by all obje&s, and the parts of land as well as fea, the farther they are off from us, the higher they appear ; the reafon of all which is plain from optics : for it is well known, that the denfer any medium is through which we-behold obje&s, the greater is the refraftion, or the more their images appear above the horizontal leveli alfo the greater quantity of the medium the rays pafs through, the more will they be bent from their firft direflion : on both thefe accounts, the ap¬ pearances of things remote, and on the fea, will be fomewhat above the horizon, and the more fo as they are the more remote. With regard to the depth or profundity of the fea Varenius affirms, that it is in fome places unfathom¬ able, and in others very various, being in certain placesi-j^q, 4-J.Englifti miles,in other places deeper, and much lefs in bays than in oceans. In ge¬ neral, the depths of the fea bear a great analogy to the height of mountains on the land, fo far as is hither¬ to difcovered. There are two principal reafons why the fea doth not increafe by means of rivers, &c. falling every where into it. The firft is, becaufe waters return from the fea by fubterranean cavities and aquedu&s, thro’ various parts of the earth. Secondly, becaufe the quantity of vapours raifed from the fea, and falling on the land, only caufe a circulation, but no increafe, of water. It hath been found by calculation, that in a fymmer’s day there may be raifed in vapours, frpm the Mediterranean Sea, 52800&OOOO tuns of Water ; and yet this fea receiveth not, from all its nine great rivers above 18270COCOO tuns per day, which is but a third part of what is exhaufted in vapours. Sea, is more properly ufed for a particular part or SEA divifion of the ocean; denominated from the countries it wafhes, or from other circumftances.—Thus we fay, the Irijhfea, the Mediterranean fea, the Baltic fea, the Red fea, &c. Till the time of the emperor Juftinian, the fea was common and open to all men : whence it is that the Roman laws grant an a&ion againft a perfon who (hall prevent another in the free navigation or fiftiing therein.—The emperor Leo, in his 56th novel, fitll allowed fuch as were in poffeffion of the land the foie privilege of filhing before their refpe&ive territories, exclufive of all others: he even gave a particular com- miffion to certain perfons, to divide the Thracian Bof- phorus among them. From that time, the fovereign princes have been endeavouring to appropriate the fea, and to withdraw it from the public ufe. The republic of Venice pretends to be fo far miftrefs in her gulf, that there is a formal marriage every year, between that feignory and the Adriatic. In thefe laft ages, the Britiih have particularly claimed the empire of the fea in the channel; and even that of all the feas encompaffing the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland ; and that as far as the (bores of the neighbouring dates. In confe- quence of which pretenfion it is, that children bom on thefe feas are declared natural Britons, as much as if born on Britifti ground.—The juftice of this pretenfion is ftrenuonfly argued between Grotiua and Selden, in the Mare Liberum, and Mare Clau- fum. Encroachments by the Sea on the Dry Land. It has. been matter of difpute whether the land or the water are gaining upon each in this terraqueous globe, and it is a difpute which feems not to be capable of an ea- fy faint ion. In many places, it is certain that the fea has gained very confiderably, and very recently too. In Britain feveral remarkable encroachments have been remarked. In the reign of Auguftus, the ifle of Wight made part of the ifland of Britain, fo that at low water the Britons croflcd over towards it with cart loads of tin ; but now the connection is totally cut off, and the ifle of Wight is conftantly feparated from Britain by a channel half a mile wide. And in other places the fame encroachments are perceptible. In general, on the eaftern coaft, the fea has gained ground; while on the fouthern and weftern, it has gained in fome places, and loft in others. It has gain¬ ed confiderably on the coaft of Yorklhire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Effex, and the eaftern fhore of Kent ; as al¬ fo that of Suffex, Hampflbire, Dorfetftiire, and Corn¬ wall. Within this laft; half century alfo the fea has made large encroachments upon the iflands of Scilly, and from May 1766 to May 1767 was obferved to encroach 40 inches. It has alfo encroached upon the coafts of North Dcvonftiire, Pembrokefliire, and Car- diganlhire. But, on the other hand, in the fouthern parts of Kent, in Lincolnihire and Lancafhire, the land has gained upon the fea. In Kent, it has re¬ treated from the beach of Sandwich, funk the fmall aeftuary of Solinus into an infignificant current, and converted a fine harbour, called by the Romans Rhu~ tupce, where their fleet were regularly laid up, into a valley watered by a river. In Lincolnfliire it has ad¬ ded a confiderable quantity -of ground to the coaft, and left many thoufand acres betwixt the old bank o£ its. [ 8o6l ] SEA f S062 1 SEA Sea. us waters and the prefent margin of its (hore. And in Lancaihire, the fands which originally formed the beach of the fea, and were covered every tide with its waters, are now regularly inhabited. They-ftill retain the name given them by the Britons, viz. Meales, or Icofe quaggy lands ; tho’, loofe and quaggy as they once were, they are now cultivated, and a parochial church and village ere&ed upon them. From confidering thefe fafls, we may doubt whe¬ ther the fea in fadt has gained on the land, or the land on the fea ; as what is gained by either on one fide may perhaps be loft on the other. Buffon imagines, that the fea is perpetually gaining upon the land, and will at la-ft cover the tops of the higheft mountains, leaving its prefent bed quite dry ; but his notions con¬ cerning the gradual motion of the waters from one place to. another have been fo fully refuted under the article Earth, that it is needlefs to mention any thing fur¬ ther concerning them in this place. Others there are who argue ftrenuoufly for the continual incre^feof dry land, and decreafe of the fea. Their principal argu¬ ment is drawn from a fnppofition of the vegetation of ftone, and a petrifying quality inherent in fea water. A Scotch gentleman, who w’as at Boulogne in the fummer 1750, has favoured us with a remarkable in- ftance of this petrifying quality in fea-water. He ob- ferved, that the Britilh channel, which wafhes the bottom of a hill near that place, (commonly called ■Ctffar’s Font, from a Roman encampment ftill vifible on it, faid to have been conttru&ed by Julius Ctefar when he invaded Britain), had worn in thro* a great part of the hill, which confifts moftly of mixed land, with about three or four feet of a ftrong bluilh clay foil above. As the Tandy part is wafhed away, the clay falls down in large mafl'es, and, as the inhabitants there affirm, is petrified by the fait water. In fa agrimony, rhex'tci, fmgli wild buglpfs, dock, nettle, pellitory, gnd lead-wort; or to their fruit or feed-veffel, as in liqgorice, enchanter’s night-fhade, eyofs-wort, qlivers, French honeyfockle, and arrow- headed grafs. 4. The feeds which difperfe themfelves by an ela¬ ftic force, hgve that force refident either in their ca- lix, as in ogts and the gregter number pf ferns ; in their pappus, as in centaureg crupina; or in their cap- yi'/‘ on fuch an excellent plan, that the city was quickly obliged to capitulate. Ninus was fo charmed with the beauty and addrefs difplayed by Semiramis on this oc- cafion, that he foon after married her; upon which Menon her former hufband killed himfelf. Ninus alfo did not long furvive him, and was buried by her at a vaft expence. Seroiramis, thus advanced to the imperial dignity, refolvedto build the city of Babylon* ; which accord- * See'Baly- ingly (he did in the rooft magnificent manner. Several !o”' other cities alfo fhe built on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, for the fake of commerce and communi¬ cation between the remote parts of the empire. She invaded and conquered Media and Ethiopia ; but ha¬ ving undertaken an expedition againft India, was de¬ feated, and obliged to fly, after having loft thegreateft; part of her army. She is faid to have vaniftied from the fight of men, after her fon Ninyas had attempted to afl’affinate her; but moft probably (he was murdered by the confpirators. SEMPERVIVUM, live-ever, or Houfe-leek; a genus of the dodecagynia order, belonging to the do- decandria clafs of plants. There are twelve fpecies, four of which are natives of Britain; all of them hardy ever-green perennials, formed of roundifti clufters of fucculent fmooth leaves in expanded open beads, pro¬ ducing very fpreading off-fets, and ere& fucculent ftalks from fix to twelve inches high, with flowers of a deep-red or yellow colour—Befides thefe, there are two fpecics, natives of warm countries; the arboreum, or tree boufe-leek; and the canarienfe, or Canary flirub- by houfe-leek. The former rifes with an upright fmooth flelhy ftem, fix or eight feet high, with the branches terminated by large cluftering heads of fpear- fhaped brighr-green leaves; and from the centre of the heads large pyramidal fpikes of bright yellow flowers. There is a variety with variegated leaves and white flowers, exceedingly ornamental. The cana¬ rienfe rifes with an upright fucculcnt rugged ftalk, half a yard or more high, appearing ragged with the rudiments of paft foliage, having the top crowned by large globular heads of retufe fucculent leaves ; and from the centre of the head a long pyramidal fpike of greenifh-coloured flowers.—They are all eafily proj pagated by off-fets, cuttings, or feeds. The four hardy fpecies will thrive on any old wall; but the other two being tender, muftbe flieltered in the green-houfe. The leaves of the common houfe leek have been re¬ commended as refrigerant, though their fenfible qua¬ lities difeover no great fignsof any virtue of this kind; their tafte being herbaceous, with a flight.degree of pungency. It is remarkable of t.'us plant, that its juice, purified by filtration, when it appears of a dilute yellowifh colour, upon the admixture of an equal quan¬ tity of redlified fpirit of wine, forms a beautiful white, light coagulum, like the finer kinds of pomatum, which proves extremely volatile; fo that, when freed from the aqueous phlegm, and expofed to the air, it in a very little time totally exhales. Hence fome have concluded that the juice contained a volatile alkaline fait; but nothing of this kind is difeovered by any other trial, and there are many fubftances befides thefe (alts which coagulate with fpirit of wine. 40 I 3 SENA, SEN [ 8084 ] SEN Sena, SENA, the leaf of the cassia fena of Linnxus, a Senate. very common and ufeful purgative. It is produced " from a flirub about a foot high, growing naturally in Egypt and feveral parts of the Levant. The fineft is that from Alexandria, called by the Turks palte, which pays a confiderable tribute to the grand fignior. The leaves are of an oblong figure, (harp-pointed at the ends, about a quarter of an inch broad, and not a full inch in length, of a lively yellowifti green colour, a faint not very difagreeable fmell, and a fubacrid, bitterifh, naufeous talte. Some inferior forts are brought from Tripoli and other places; thefe may be eafily diftinguifhed by their being either narrower, longer, and (harper-pointed ; or larger, broader, and round-pointed, with fmall prominent veins; or large and obtufe, of a frelh green colour, without any yel¬ low caft. Sena is a very ufeful cathartic, operating mildly, and yet effeftually ; and, if judicioufly doled and ma¬ naged, rarely occafioning the ill confequences which too frequently follow the exhibition of the ftronger purges. The only inconveniences complained of in this drug are, its being apt to gripe, and its naufeous flavour. The griping quality depends upon a refinous fubftance, which, like the other bodies of this clafs, is naturally difpofed to adhere to the coats of the in- teftines ; the more this refin is divided by fuch matters as take off its tenacity, the lefs adhefive, and confc- quently the lefs irritating and griping it will prove ; and the lefs it is divided, the more griping : hence fena given by itfelf, or infufions made in a very fmall quantity of fluid, gripe feverely, and purge lefs than when diluted by a large portion of fuitable menftruum, or divided by mixing the infufion with oily emulfions. The ill flavour of this drug is faid to be abated by the greater water-fig wort ; but we cannot conceive that this plant, whole fmell is manifeftly fetid, and its tafte nanfeous and bitter, can at all improve thofe of fena : others recommend bohea tea, though neither has this any confiderable effed. The fmell of fena refides in its more volatile parts, and may be difcharged by lightly boiling infufions of it made in water; the li¬ quor thus freed from the peculiar flavour of the fena, may be eafily rendered grateful to the tafte, by the addition of any proper aromatic tindture or diftilled water. The colleges both of London and Edinburgh, * S-eP/wr-]iave given feveral very elegant infufions of this drug*. '10 &c ^ie fena in fubftance is from a fcruple to a ji 310, l t]rarn. ;n infufiopj fr0m one to three or four drams.— It has been cuftomary to rejeft the pedicles of the leaves of fena as of little or no ufe ; GeofFroy, however, obferves, that they are not much inferior in efficacy to the leaves themfelves. The pods, or feed-veffels, met with among^ the fena brought to us, are by the college of Bruflels preferred to the leaves ; they are lefs apt to gripe, but proportionably lefs purgative. SENATE, in general, is an aflembly or council of fenators ; that is, of the principal inhabitants of a Hate, who have a (hare in the government. The fenate of ancient Rome is, of all others, the moft celebrated'. It exercifed no contentious jurifdic- tion; but appointed judges, either from among the fe¬ nators or knights, to determine proceffes: it alfo ap¬ pointed governors of provinces, and difpofed of the revenues of the commonwealth, &c. Yet did QOt the whole fovereign power refide in the fenate, fince it Senate* could not cleft magiftrates, make laws, or decide of s 8 war and peace; in all which cafes the fenate was obliged — to confult the people. According to Dr Middleton, the conftant and re¬ gular fupply of the fenate was from the annual magi- ftrates ; who, by virtue of their feveral offices, ac¬ quired a right to fit and vote in that affembly : the ufual gradation of thefe offices being that of quseftor, tribune of the people, sedile, praetor, and conful.— But though thefe offices gave both an immediate right, and aftual entrance into the fenate ; yet the fenatorial charafter was not efteemed complete, till the new fe¬ nators had been enrolled by the cenfors, at the next general luftrum, or review of all the orders of the people. The fenate always met of courfe on the 1 ft of January, for the inauguration of the new confuls; and in all months, univerfally, there were three days, viz. the kalends, nones, and ides, on which it regularly met: but it always met on extraordinary occafions, when called together by conful, tribune, or diftator. SENATOR, in general, denotes a member of fome fenate. Among us, fenator is a member of parliament. In the laws of king Edward the Confeffor, we are told, that the Britons called thofe fenators, whom the Saxons called afterwards aldermen and borough-mafersi tho’ not for their age, but their wifdom ; for fome of them were young men, but very well (killed in the laws. Kenulph king of the Mercians granted a charter, which ran thus, viz. Confdio et confinfu epifeoporum et fenatorum gent is fux largitus fait ditto monajieris, &c. In Scotland, the lords of feffion are called fenators of the college of juftice. SENATUS auctoritas, a vote of the Roman fenate, drawn up in the fame form with a decree, but without its force, as having been hindered from paf- fing into a decree by fome of the tribunes of the people. SzKATVs-Confultum, a decree of the Roman fenate, pronounced on lome queftion or point of law ; which, when pronounced, made part of the Roman law. SENECA (Lucius Annmus), a ftolc philofopher, was born at. Corduba in Spain, about the beginning of the Chrittian tera, of an Equeftrian family, which had probably been tranfplanted thither in a colony from Rome. He was the fecond fon of Marcus An- nams Seneca, commonly called the rhetorician, whofe remains are printed under the title of SuaforU Con- troverfia, cum Declamationum excerptis ; and his youngeft brother, Annceus Mela, for there were three of them, was memorable for being the father of the poet Lucan. He was removed to Rome, together with his father and the reft of his family, while he was yet in his infancy. There he was educated in the moft liberal manner, and under the heft mailers. He learned eloquence from his father ; but his genius ra¬ ther leading him to philofophy, he put himfelf under the ftotes Attains, Sotion, and Papirius Fabianus-; men famous in their way, and of whom he has made honourable mention in his writings. It is probable, too, that he travelled when he was young, fince we find him, in feveral parts of bis works, particularly in his tones Naturalest making very exaft and cu¬ rious SEN r 8o8s ^ SEN Seneca, rious obfmations upoa Egypt and the Nile. But this, though entirely agreeable to his own humour, did not at all correfpond with that feheme or plan of life which his father had drawn out for him ; who therefore forced him to the bar, and put him upon fo¬ liating for public employments; fo that he afterwards became quseftor, praetor, and, as Lipfius will have it, even conful. In the firft year of the reign of Claudius, when Ju¬ lia the daughter of Germanicus was accufed of adul¬ tery by Meflalina, and banifhed, Seneca was banifhed too, being charged as one of the adulterers. Corfica was the feat of his exile, where he lived eight years; “ happy in the midft of thofe things which ufually make other people miferable ; inter eas res beatust qua folent miferos facere:" and where he wrote his books of confolation, addrefled to his mother Helvia, and to his friend Polybius, and perhaps fome of thofe trage¬ dies which go under his name ; for he fays, mode fe kvioribus Jiudiis ibi oblettajje. When Agrippina was married to Claudius, as fhe was upon the death of Meffalina, fhe prevailed with the emperor to recal Se¬ neca from banifhment; and afterwards procured him to be tutor to her fon Nero, whom fhe defigned for the empire. By the bounty and generofity of his royal pupil, he acquired that prodigiuos wealth which ren¬ dered him in a manner equal to kings. His houfes and walks were the moft magnificent in Rome. His villas were innumerable : and he had immenfe fums of money placed out at intereft in almofl every part of the world. The hiftorian Dio reports him to have had 250,000 1. Sterling at interefl in Britain alone ; and reckons his calling it in all at a fum, as one of the caufes of a war with that nation. All this wealth, however, together with the luxury and effeminacy of a court, does not appear to have had any ill effect upon the temper and difpofition of Se¬ neca. He continued abftemious, exadl in his man¬ ners, and, above all, free from the vices fo commonly prevalent in fuch places, flattery and ambition. “ I had rather (faid he to Nero) offend you by fpeaking the truth, than pleafe you by lying and flattery : via- luerim verb offendere, quam placere adulando.,> How well he acquitted himfeif in quality of preceptor to his prince, may be known from the five firft years of Ne¬ ro’s reign, which have always been confidered as a perfeft pattern of good government ; and if that em¬ peror had but been as obfervant of his mafter through the whole courfe of it, as he was at the beginning, he would have been the delight, and not, as he afterwards proved, the curfe and deteflation, of mankind. But when Poppaea and Tigellinus had got the command of his humour, and hurried him into the moft extravagant and abominable vices, he foon grew weary of his ma¬ fter, whofe life muft indeed have been a conftant re¬ buke to him. Seneca, perceiving that his favour de¬ clined at court, and that he had many accufers about the prince, who were perpetually whifperijng in his ear the great riches of Seneca, his magnificent houfes, and fine gardens, and what a favourite through means of thefe he was grown,with the people, made an offer of them all to Nero. Nero refufed to accept them: which however did not hinder Seneca from changing his way of life; for, as Tacitus relates, he “ kept no more levees, declined fche ufual civilities which had been paid to him, and, under a pretence of indifpofition or fome engagement or other, avoided as much as pof- fible appearing in public.” Nero, in the mean time, who, as it is fuppofed, had difpatched Burrhus by poifon, could not be eafy till he had rid himfelf of Seneca alfo : for Burrhus and Seneca were, the one the manager of his military con¬ cerns, the other of his civil. Accordingly he attempt¬ ed, by means of Cleonicus, a freedman of Seneca, to take him off by poifon ; but this not fucceeding, he ordered him to be put to death, upon an information that he was privy to Pifo’s confpiracy againft his per- fon. Not that he had any real proof of Seneca’s be¬ ing at all concerned in this plot, but only that he was glad to lay hold of any pretence for deftroying him. He left Seneca, however, at liberty to choole his manner of dying $ who caufed^his veins to be opened immediately. His wife Paulina, who was very young in comparifon of himfelf, had yet the refolution and affeftion to bear him company, and thereupon ordered her veins to be opened at the fame time ; but as Nero was not will¬ ing to make his cruelty more odious and infupportable than there feemed occafion for, he gave orders to have her death prevented : upon which her wounds were bound up, and the blood flopped, in juft time enough to fave her; though, as Tacitus fays, fhe looked fo miferably pale and wan all her life after, that it was eafy to read the lofs of her blood and fpirits in her countenance. In the mean time, Seneca, finding his death flow and lingering, defired Statiss Annsens his phyfician to give him a dofe of poifon, which had been prepared fome time before in cafe it fhould be wanted ; but this not having its ufual effedf, he was carried to a hot bath, where he was at length ftifled with the fteams. He died, as Lipfius conjectures, in the 63d or 64th year of his age, and in about the 10th or n th of Nero’s reign. Tacitus, on mentioning his death, obferves, that, as he entered the bath, he took of the water, and with it fprinklecT fome of his neared domeftics, faying, “ That he offered thofe libations to Jupiter the Deliverer.” Thefe words are an evident proof that Seneca was not a Chriftian, as fome have imagined him to have been; and that the 13 epiftles from Seneca to St Paul, and from St Paul tty Seneca, are fuppofititious pieces. His philofophical works are well known. SENEGA, or Senegal, a kingdom 0/Africa, in Negroland, feated on a river of the fame name, which fome fuppofe to' be a branch of the Niger; but this is very uncertain, no European having travelled fo far up as to determine this affertion. However, it overflows like the Nile, and much about the fame time of the year. It is 40 days before it comes to the height ; when the river overflows its banks, and the channel is difficult to find by thofe who go up it ini boats. The French once fent 30 men up this river,, who rowed 1000 miles, undergoing great hardfliips, infomuch that only five returned back alive; their boat once ffuck faft on the tops of trees, and they got it off with a great deal of difficulty. The kingdom of Senegal was formerly very confiderabie, but it is now reduced into a very narrow compafs: it is populous and full of trees, but the foil is fandy and barren ; for which reafon they- never fow till the rainy feafon comes on, in June, and get in their harveil in Septejnber.. The French had a fort SEN [ 8086 ] SEN ISenefchal fort and fa&ory in an ifland at the mouth of this ri- Senlble ver’ an<^ were entire mafter8 of the gum-trade. It was L called Fort-Louis, and was taken by the Britifii on the 1 ft of May 1758, and ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1763. SENESCHAL, (Stntfchallus,) derived from the •German fein “ a houfe or place,” and fcale “ an of¬ ficer,” is a fteward, and fignifies one who has the dif- penfing of juftice in fome particular cafes: As the high fenefchal or fteward of England } fenefchal de la ht/td de roy, “ fteward of the king’s houfehold, fenef¬ chal, or fteward of courts, &c.” Co. Lit. 61. Crake's Jurifd. 102. Kitch. 83. See Steward. SENNERTUS (Daniel), an eminent phyfician, was born in 1572 at Breflaw; and in 1593 he was fent to Wittemberg, where he made a great progrefs in phi- lofophy and phyfic. He vifited the univerfities of Leipfic, Jena, Francfort upon the Oder, and Berlin ; but foon returned to Wittemberg, where he was pro¬ moted to the degree of dodlor of phyfic, and foon after to a profefforfhip in the fame faculty. He was the firft who introduced the ftudy of chemiftry into that uni- verfity; he gained a great reputation by bis works and practice, and was very generous to the poor. He died of the plague at Wittemberg in 1637. He railed himfelf enemies by contradi&ing the ancients. He thought the feed of all living creatures animated,' and that the foul of this feed produces organization. He was accufed of impiety for afferting that the fouls of beads are not material; for this was affirmed to be the fame thing with afferting that they are imortal: but he rejefted this confequencer SENONES, (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia Cel- tica, fituate on the Sequana to the fouth of the Parifii, near the confluence of the Jeauna or Yonne with the above-mentioned river. Their moft confiderable ex¬ ploit was their invafionof Italy, and taking and burn¬ ing Rome, as related under that article. This was done by a colony of them long before tranfported into Italy, and fettled on the Adriatic. Their capital, Agendi- cum in Gaul, was in the lower age called Senones, now Sens. In Italy the Senones extended themfelves as far as the river Aefis; but were afterwards driven beyond the Rubicon, which became the boundary of Gallia Cif- alpina, (Polybius, Strabo.) SENSATION, in philofophy, the perception of external objeft by means of the fenfes. See Meta¬ physics, n° 21, &c. SENSE, a faculty of the foul whereby it perceives external objects by means of the imprelfions they make on certain organs of the body. Thefe organs of fen- fation are commonly reckoned five, viz. the eye, where¬ by we fee objefts ; the ear, which enables us to hear founds; the nofe, by which we receive the ideas of dif¬ ferent fmells; the palate, by which we judge of taftes; and the cutis or fkin, which enables us to feel the dif¬ ferent forms, hardnefs, or foftnefs of bodies. SENSIBLE note, in mufic, is that which confti- lutes a third major above the dominant, and a femi- tone beneath the tonic. Si, or B, is the fenfible note in the tone of a/ or C fol$,• or G fharp, in the tone of la or A. They call it the fenfible note on this account, that it caufes to be perceived the tone or natural feries of the key and the tonic itfelf, upon which, after the chord of the dominant, the fenfible note taking the Ihorteft Senfitive. road, is under a neceflity of rifing ; which has made fome authors treat this fenfible note as a major diflb- nance, for want of obferving, that dilfonance, being a relation, cannot be conftituted unlefs by two notes be¬ tween which it fubfifts, It is not meant that the fenfible note is the fevenlh of the tone, becaufe, in the minor mode, this feventh cannot be a fenfible note but in afcending; for, in de- fcending, it is at the diftance of a full note from the tonic, and of a third minor from the dominant. SENSITIVE plant. See Mimosa and Diona:a Mufcipula. The fenfitive and humble plants are arranged by. Linnaeus under the fame genius with the acacias. Thefe are well known to poffefs a kind of mufcular motion, by which the leaves and ftalks are contraded and fall down upon being flightly touched, or ftiaken with fome degree of violence. The fenfibility of thefe plants is lodged in the ypung branches, in the common foot- ftalk of the winged leaves, and in the nerve or middle rib to which the lobes or lefler leaves are attached. Thefe different motions, which feem to be totally in¬ dependent of each other, may be aptly enough com¬ pared, by analogy, with the irritability of certain parts in animals. The fenfitive plant has two kinds of motion ; the one natural, occafioned by the aftion of warm nourifh- ing vapours; the other artificial, in confequence of be¬ ing touched or fhaken. Mr Duhamel having obferved, about the 15th of September, in moderate weather, the natural motion of a branch of fenfitive plant, remarked, that at nine in the morning, it formed with the ftem an angle of 100 degrees; at noon, 112 degrees; at three after¬ noon, it returned to too; and after touching the branch, the angle was reduced to 90. Three quarters of an hour after, it had mounted to 112; and, at eight at night, it defcended again, without being touched, to 90. The day after, in finer weather, the fame branch, at eight in the morning, made an angle of 135 degrees with the ftem; after being touched, the angle was di- niiniftied to 80; an hour after, it rofe again to 135 ; being touched a fecond time, it defcended again to 80; an hour and a half after, it had rifen to 145; and upon being touched a third time, defcended to 135; and re¬ mained in that polition till five o’clock in the afternoon; when being touched a fourth time, it fell to no. With whatever body the fenfitive plant is touched or irritated, it is remarkable that the fenfibility refides particularly in the articulation or joining either of the branches of the common foot-ftalk, or of the particu¬ lar foot-(talk of each wing. The time which a branch requires to recover itfelf after being touched, varies according to the vigour of the plant, the hour of the day, the leafon of the year, or the heat and other circumftances of the atmo- fphere. The order in which the parts recover themfelves va¬ ries in like manner: fometimes it is the common foot- ftalk; fometimes the rib to which the lobes are attach¬ ed; and fometimes the lobes themfelves are expanded, before the other parts have made any attempt to be reinftated in their former pofition. If, without Ihaking the other fnaaller leaves, we cut SEN [ S0S7 ] SEN Senfiiivfi. off the half of a lobe belonging to the lad pair, at the * “^extremity or fummit of a wing, the leaf cut, and its antagonitl, that is to fay, the firft pair, begin to ap¬ proach each other; then the fecund; and fo on fuccef- lively, till all the lefl'er leaves, or lobes of that wing, have collapfed in like manner. Frequently, after 12 , or 15 feconds, the lobes of the other wings which were to)."oiff not imnsediately affeded by the ftroke, (liut ; whilft the ftalk and its wing, beginning at the bottom, and proceeding in order to the top, gradually recover themfelves. If, inftead of one of the lefler extreme leaves, we cut off one belonging to the pair that is next the foot-ftalk, its antagonift flints, as do the other pairs fnccefiively, from the bottom to the top. If ail the lobes of one fide of a wing be cut off, the oppofite lobes are not affe&ed, but remain expanded. With fome addrefs, it is poflible even to cut off a branch without hurting the leaves or making them fall. The common foot-ftalk of the winged leaves being cut as far as three-fourths of its diameter, all the parts which hang down collapfe, but quickly recover without ap¬ pearing to have fuffered any qonfiderable violence by the fliock. An incifion being made into one of the principal branches, to the depth of one half the dia¬ meter, the branches fituated betwixt the fe&ion and the root will fall down; thofe above the incifion re-' main as before, and the leffer leaves continue open; but this dire&ion is foon ckftroyed, by cutting off one of the lobes at the extremity, as was obferved above. Laftly, a whole wing being cut off with precaution near its infertion into the common foot-flalk, the other wings are not affe&ed by it, and its own lobes do not fhut. No motion, likewife, enfues from piercing the branch with a needle or other fharp inftrument. From the preceding experiments, to omit many others which might be mentioned, thefe inferences are clearly to be deduced. 1. That when the plant is in its greateft vegetative force, its motions are greater and more fenfible. 2. That when the Iky is ferene, and the fun bright during the whole day, the plant is more fenfible in the morning (han at noon. 3. That in the circumftances in which they are lefs fenlible, the * leaves continue to fold and collapfe, although the foot- ffalks, which through age become (tiff and woody, have loft their motion. 4. That a ftroke, or an irritation, produces a more forcible effeft than an incifion or even an entire fedion. 5. That a flight irritation only afts upon the neighbouripg parts, and extends its influ¬ ence in proportion to its force. 6. That any given irritation a6ts more ftrongly upon fome parts than on others. 7. That whatever can produce any effedl upon the organs of animals, afts upon the fenfitive plant; as a ftroke, excefs of heat or cold, the (team of boiling wa¬ ter, that of fulphur and volatile fpirits, &c. 8. That plunging it in water, or lodging it in the exhaufted re¬ ceiver of an air-pump, fe-em to have no other effeft than that of diminiftiing its vigour. 9. That there ap¬ pears to be no more intimate a communication betwixt the oppofite lobes of a winged or pinnated leaf, than betwixt the other parts of the plant. 10. That the taufcular motion of the fenfitive plant is owing to a ftrong contra&ion: each foot-ftalk feems to be termi¬ nated with a kind of joint, on which the leaves turn in all dire&ions with fnrprifing facility. jDiffsrent from all the kinds of fenfuive giants hi¬ therto known, is the dion&a mufcipula, or Venus’s raoufe- Sentence, trap, a plant lately difcovered in the fwamps of North * * America ; for a defcrption of which, fee Dionjea Mufcipula.—The negroes in Senegal call a large fpe- cies of fenfitive plant which grows in that country, gucrackiao, is, “ good-morrow;’* becaufe, fay they, when you touch it, or draw near to fpeak to it, the plant immediately inclines its leaves, to wifh you, as it were, a good-morrow, and to (how you that it is fenfible of the politencfs done it. In the fame country is produced a final! fenfitive plant, that is rampant, not fpinous, and which Mr Adanfon affirms to be infi¬ nitely more delicate and feniible than all the other fpe- cies. To conclude, the caufe of this and the other mo¬ tions of plants is merely external. The motions them¬ felves, therefore, are not fpontaneous as in perfect ani¬ mals, which have that caufe dependent on their choice and will. How many imperfeft animals, however, are there, fuch as thofe in animal and vegetable infufions, the polypes and animalcules in feed, whofe certain mo¬ tions, like thofe of the plants in queftion, are perhaps to be attributed to heat, light, and other external caufes? and again, how many, as the gall-infefts, the oyfter, and other (hell fifh, have not a motion fo per¬ ceptible nor rapid as that of Venus’s moufe-trap and the fenfitive plant! SENTENCE, in law, a judgment,paffed in court by the judge on fome procefs, either.civil or criminal. See Judgment. Sentence, in grammar, denotes a period; or a fet of words comprehending fome perfeft fenfe or fenti- ment of the mind. The bufinefs of pointing is todiftinguifti the feveral parts and members of fentences, fo as to render the fenfe thereof the cleared, apteft, and fulleft poffiblei See Punctuation. In every fentence there are two parts neceffarily re¬ quired ; a noun for the fubjeft, and a definite verb r whatever is found more than thefe two, affe&s one of them, either immediately, or by the intervention of fome other, whereby the firft is affefted. Again, every fentence is either fimple or conjunfl; a fimple fentence is that confiding of one Angie fub- je&, and one finite verb.—A conjunct fentence con¬ tains feveral fuhje&s and finite verbs, cither exprefsly or implicitly. A fimple fentence needs no point or diftinftion; only a period to clofe it: as, “ A good man loves virtue for itfelf.”—In fuch a fentence, the feveral adjun£ts af- fedl either the fubjeS or the verb in a different man¬ ner. Thus the word good, expreffes the quality of the fubjeft, virtue the objed of the a&ion, and for itfelf' the end thereof.—^Now none of thefe adjun&s can be feparated from the reft of the fentence: for if one be, why (hould not all the reft? and if all be, the fentence will be minced into almoft as many parts as there are words. But if feveral adjun&s be attributed m the fame manner either to the fubjed or the verb, the fentence- becomes conjund, and is to be divided into parts. In every conjund fentence, as many fubjeds, or as many finite verbs as there are, either exprefsly or im¬ plied, fo many diftindions may there be. Thus, “ My hopes, fears, joys, gains, all centre in you.” And thus Cicero. SEN r 8088 1 S E Sentence Cicero, Catilina abut, excejfit, evaftt, erupit. .The Sentiments.rea^on w^‘c^ pointing is obvious; for as many fub- je&s or finite verbs as there are in a fentence, fo many members does it really contain. Whenever, therefore, there occur more nouns than verbs, or contrariwife, they are to be conceived as equal. Since, as every fubjecl requires its verb, fo every verb requires its fub- je&, wherewith it may agree: excepting, perhaps, in fome figurative expreflions. Sentence, is alfo ufed, in rhetoric and poetry, for a fhort pithy remark, or refleftion, containing fome fentiment of ufe in the conduft of life. See Apoph¬ thegm, Adage, Proverb, Sec. SENTICOSiE, (from fentis, a “ briar or bram¬ ble;”) the name of the 35th order in Linnaeus’s frag¬ ments of a natural method, confiding of rofe, bramble, and other plants which refemble them in port and ex¬ ternal ftrufture. See Botany, p. 1312. SENTIMENT, according to Lord Kaims, is a term appropriated to fuch thoughts as are prompted by paffion. It differs from a perception ; for a per¬ ception fignifies the aft by which we become confcious of external objefts. It differs from confcioufnefs of an •internal aftion, fuch as thinking, fufpending thought, inclining, refolving, willing. See. And it differs from the conception of a relation among objefts ; a concep¬ tion of that kind being termed opinion. Sentiments, in poetry. To talk in the language of mufic, each paffion hath a certain tone, to which Elements of every fentiment proceeding from it ought to be tuned ■Cnitctfm. the greatelt accuracy: which is no eafy work, efpecially where fuch harmony ought to be fupported during the courfe of a long theatrical reprefentation. In order to reach fuch delicacy of execution, it is ne- ceffary that a writer affume the precife charafter and paffion of the perfonage reprefented; which requires an uncommon genius. But it is the only difficulty ; for the writer, who, annihilating himfelf, can thus be¬ come another perfon, need be in no pain about the fentiments that belong to the affuraed charafter: thefe will flow without the lead ftudy, or even preconcep¬ tion; and will frequently be as delightfully new to him¬ felf as to his reader. But if a lively pifture even of a iingle emotion, require an effort of genius, how much greater the effort to compofe a paffionate dialogue with as many different tones of paffion as there are fpeak- ers ? With what duftility of feeling muff that writer be endued, who approaches perfeftion in fuch a work; when it is neceffary to affume different and even oppo- fite charafters and paffions, in the quickeft fucceffion? Yet this work, difficult as it is, yields to that of com- pofing a dialogue in genteel comedy, exhibiting cha¬ rafters without paffion. The reafon is, that the diffe¬ rent tones of charafter are more delicate, and lefs in light, than thofe of paffion; and, accordingly, many writers, who have no genius for drawing charafters, make a fhift to reprefent, tolerably well, an ordinary paffion in its Ample movements. But of all works of this kind, what is truly the moft difficult, is a charac- iteriffical dialogue upon any philofophical fubjeft : to interweave charafters with reafoning, by Cuiting to the charafter of each fpeaker a peculiarity not only of thought but of expreffion, requires the .perfeftion of genius, talle, and judgment. How hard dialogue-writing is, will be evident, even without reafoning, from the miferable compofitions of Sent! that kind found without number in ail languages. The — art of mimicking any Angularity in gefture or in voice, is a rare talent, though direfted by fight and hearing, the acuteft and moft lively of our external fenfes: how much more rare mull that talent be, of imitating cha¬ rafters and internal emotions, tracing all their diffe¬ rent tints, and reprefenting them in a lively manner by- natural fentiments properly expreffed ? The truth is, fuch execution is too delicate, for an ordinary genius ; and for that reafon the bijlk/of writers, inftead of ex- preffing a paffion as one does who feels it, content themfelves with deferibing it in the language of afpec- tator. To awake paffion by an internal effort merely, without any external caufe, requires great fenfibility; and yet that operation is neceffary, not lefs to the wri¬ ter than to the aftor: becaufe none but thofe who ac¬ tually feel a paffion can reprefent it to the life. The writer’s part is the more complicated : he muft add compofition to paffion; and muft, in the quickeft fuc¬ ceffion, adopt every different charafter. But a very humble flight of imagination may ferve to convert a writer into a fpeftator, fo as to figure, in fome obfeure manner, an aftion as palling in his fight and hearing. In that figured fituation, being led naturally to write like a fpeftator, he entertains his readers with his own refleftions, with cool defeription, and florid declama¬ tion; inftead of making them eye-witneffes, as it were, to a real event, and to every movement of genuine paffion. Thus moft of our plays appear to be caft in the fame mould; perfonages without charafter, the mere outlines of paffion, a tirefome monotony, and a pompous declamatory ftyle. This deferiptive manner of reprefenting paffion is a very cold entertainment; our fympathy is not raifed by defeription; we muft firft be lulled into a dream of reality, and every thing muft appear as palling in our fight. Unhappy is the player of genius who afts a part in what may be termed a deferiptive tragedy; af¬ ter afluming the very paffion that is to be reprefented, how is he cramped in aftion, when he muft utter, not the fentiments of the paffion he feels, but a cold de¬ feription in the language of a byftander? It is that im- perfeftion, undoubtedly, in the bulk of our plays, which confines our ftage almoft entirely to Shakefpeare, notwithftanding his many irregularities. In our late Englifh tragedies, we fometimes find fentiments tole¬ rably well adapted to a plain paffion: but we muft not in any of them expeft a fentiment expreffive of cha¬ rafter; and, upon that very account, our late perform¬ ances of the dramatic kind are for the moft part into¬ lerably infipid. But it may be proper to illuftrate this fubjeft by ex¬ amples. The firft examples (hall be of fentiments that appear the legitimate offspring of paffion; to which Ihall be oppofed what are deferiptive only, and illegi¬ timate: and in making this comparifon, the inftances (hall be borrowed from Shakefpeare and Corneille, who for genius in dramatic compofition ftand uppermoft in the rolls of fame. I. Shakefpear ffiall furnifli the firft example, being of fentiments diftated by a violent and perturbed paf¬ fion: i It Lear. ■Filial ingratitude 1 SEN [ Sentilfcnts. Js It not as if this mouth fliould tear this hand For lifting food to’t?—But I’ll punilh home; No, I will weep no more. In fucb a night, To fhut me out! Pour od, I will endure. In fuch a night-as this! O Regan, Gonerill, Your old kind father, whole frank heart gave all— O! that way madnefs lies; let me (bun that; No more of that. Kent. Good, my lord, enter here. Lear. Pr’ythee, go in thyfelf, feek thine own cafe, This tempeft will not give me leave to ponder On things would hurt me more:—but I’ll go in; In, boy, go firft. You houfelefs poverty ¥ Nay, get thee in; I’ll pray, and then I’ll flcep— Poor naked wretches, wherefoe’er you are, Tnat bide the pelting of this pitilefs ftorm! How (hall your houfelefs heads, and unfed Tides, Your loop’d and window’d raggednefs defend you From feafons fuch as thefe? O I have ta’en Too little care of this! take phyfic, Pomp; Expofe thyfelf to feel what wretches feel, That thou may’ll lhake the fnperflux to them, And fhow the heavens more juft. King Lear, afi 3. fc. 5. The following is an example of the fame kind, expref- fing fentiments arifing from remorfe and defpair: Qthello. Lo! I have a weapon: A better never did itfelf fuftain Upon a foldier’s thigh. I’ve feen the day, That with this little arm, and this good fword, I’ve made my way through more impediments Than twenty times your Hop. But, oh vain boaft! Who can controul his fate? ’tis not fo now. Be not afraid, though you do fee me weapon’d; Here is my journey’s end, here is my butt, The very fea-mark of my utmoft fail. Do you go back difmay’d? ’tis a loft fear. Man but a rulh againft Othello’s breaft, And he retires. Where (hould Othello go? Now—how doll thou look now! Oh ill ftarr’d wench! Pale as thyf.i.ock! when we lhall meet at compt, This look of thine will hurl my foul from beav’n, And fiends will fnatch at it. Cold, cold, my girl; Ev’n like thy chaftity. O curfed Have! Whip me, ye devils, From the poffeffion of this heav’nly fight: Blow me about in winds, roaft me in fulphur, Waft) me in fteep-down gulfs of liquid fire Oh, Defdemona! Defdemona! dead! dead! oh! oh! Othello, all 5. fc. 9. The fentiments here difplayed flow fo naturally from the paffions reprefented, that we cannot conceive any imitation more perfeft. With regard to the French author, truth obliges us to acknowledge, that he defcribes in the ftyle of a fpec- tator, inftead of expreffing paffion like one who feels It; which naturally betrays him into a tirefome mono¬ tony, and a pompous declamatory ftyle. It is fcarce neceffary to give examples, for he never varies from that tone. We fhall, however, take two paffages at a venture, in order to be confronted with thofe tranfcri- bed above. In the tragedy of Cinna, ^Emilia, after the confpiracy was difcovered, having nothing in view but racks and death to herfelf and her lover, receives Von. X. r 8089 ] SEN a pardon.from Auguftus, attended with the brighteft Sentiments, circumftances of magnanimity and tendernefs. This is a lucky fituation for reprefenting the paflinn# of fur- prife and gratitude in their different ftages, which feem naturally to be what follow. Thefe paflions, railed at once to the uunoft pitch, and being at firft too big for utterance, muft, for fome moments, be expreffed by violent geftures only: fo foon as there is vent for words, the firft exprefiions are broken and interrupted: at laft, we ought to expeft a tide of intermingled fentiments, occafioned by the fluctuation of the mind between the two paffions. ./Emilia is made to behave in a very dif¬ ferent manner: with extreme coolnefs fhe defcribes her own fituation, as if flic were merely a fpe&ator; or ra¬ ther the poet takes the talk off her hands’: • Et je me rens, Seigneur, a ces hautes bontes: Te recouvre la vue aupres de leurs claries. Je connois mon forfait qui me fembloit juftice ; Et ce que n’avoit pu la terreur du fupplice, Je fens naitre en mon ame un repentir puiffant, Et mon coeur en fecret me dit, qu’il y confent. Le ciel a refolu votre grandeur fupreme; Et pour preuve, Seigneur, je n’en veux que moi-meme. J’ofe avec vanite me donner cet eclat, Puifqu’il change mon cceur, qu’il veut changer 1’etat. Ma haine va mourir, que j’ai crue immortelle; Elle eft morte, et ce coeur devient fujet fidele; Et prenant deformais cette haine en horreur, L’ardeur de vous fervir fuccede a fa fureur. Jltt 5. fc. 3. In the tragedy of Sertorius, the queen, furprifed with the news that her lover was affaffinated, inftead of vent¬ ing any paffion, degenerates into a cool fpe&ator, and undertakes to inftrucl the byftanders how a queen ought to behave on fuch an occafion. Viriate. 11 m’en fait voir enfemble, et 1’auteur, et la caufe. Par cet affaffinat e’eft de moi qu’on difpofe, C’eft mon trone, e’eft moi qu’on pretend conquerir; Et e’eft mon jufte choix qui feul 1’a fait perir. Madame, apres fa perte, et parmi ces alarmes, N’attendez point de moi de foupirs, ni de larmes; Ce font amufemens que dedaigne aifement Le prompt et noble orgueil d’un vif reffentiment. Qui pleure, 1’affoiblit; qui foupire, 1’exhale: II faut plus de fierte dans une ame royale; Et ma douleur foumife aux foins de le venger, &c. A£l 5. fc. 3. So much in general upon the genuine fentiments of paffion. We proceed to particular obfervations. And, firft, paffions feldom continue uniform any confiderabie time: they generally flu&uate, fwelling and fubfiding by turns, often in a quick fucceffion ; and the fenti- ments cannot be juft unlefs they correfpond to fuch fluc¬ tuation. Accordingly, a climax never ftiows better than in expreffing a fwelling paffion: the following paffages may fuffice for an illuftration. Oroonoko. —— Can you raife the dead? Purfue and overtake the wings of time? And bring about again the hours, the days, The years, that made me happy! Oronooko, aft 2. fc. 2. Almria. —— How haft thou charm’d 40 K The Sentiments. SEN l 7090 ] SEN The wildnefs of the waves and rocks to this ; ’ That thus relenting they have giv’n thee back To earth, to light and life, to love and me? Mourning Bride, afi 1. fc. 7. I would not be the villain that thou think’ft For the whole fpace that’s in the tyrant’s grafp. And the rich earth to boot. Macleth, aft 4. fc. 4. The following paffage exprefies finely the progrefs of conviftion. Let me not ftir, nor breathe, left I diflblve That tender, lovely form, of painted air, So like Almeria. Ha! it finks, it falls; I’ll catch it ere it goes, and grafp her {hade. ’Tis life! ’tis warm! ’tis (he! ’tis (he herfelf! It is Almeria 1 ’tis, it is my wife! Mourning Bride, aft z. fc. 6. In the progrels of thought, our refolutions become more vigorous as well as our paffions. If ever I do yield or give confent, By any aft ion, word, or thought, to wed Another lord; may then juft heav’n fhow’r down, &c. Mourning Bride, aft 1. fc. 1. And this leads to a fecond obfervation, That the dif¬ ferent ftages of a paffion, and its different direftions, from birth to extinftion, muft be carefully reprefented in their order ; becaufe otherwife the fentiments, by being mifplaced, will appear forced and unnatural. Refentment, for example, when provoked by an atro¬ cious injury, difcharges itfelf firft upon the author: fentiments therefore of revenge come always firft, and muft in fome meafure be exhaufted before the perfon injured think of grieving for himfelf. In the Cid of Corneille, Don Diegue having been affronted in a cruel manner, expreffes fcarce any fentiment of-revenge, but is totally occupied in contemplating the low fituation to which he is reduced by the affront: fuggefted by the pafiion of refentment. As the firft Sentiments, movements of refentment are always direfted to its ob- jeft, the very fame is the cafe of grief. Yet with rela- lation to the fudden and fevere diftemper that feized Alexander bathing in the river Cydnus, Quintus Cur- tius deferibes the firft emotions of the army as direfted to themfelves, lamenting that they were left without a leader, far from home, and had fcarce any hopes of re¬ turning in fafety: their king’s diftrefs, which muft na¬ turally have been their firft concern, occupies them but in the fecond place according to that author. In the Aminta of Taflb, Sylvia, upon a report of her lover’s death, which fhe believed certain, inftead of bemoan¬ ing the lofs of her beloved, turns her thoughts upon herfelf, and wonders her heart does not break: Ohime, ben fon di faflb, Poi che quefta novella non m’uccide. dft 4. fc. 2. In the tragedy of Jane Shore, Alicia, in the full pur> pofe of deftroying her rival, has the following reflec¬ tion: Oh Jealoufy! thou baneof pleafing friendftiip, Thou worft invader of our tender bofoms; How does thy rancour poifon all our loftnefs, And turn our gentle nature into bitternefs! See where ftie comes! Dnce my heart’s deareft bieffing, Now my chang’d eyes are blafted with her beauty, Loathe that known face, and ficken to behold her. Afts.fc.i. Thefe are the refleftions of a cool fpeftator. A pafiion, while it has the afeendant, and is freely indulged, fug- gefts not to the perfon who feels it any fentiment to its own prejudice: refleftions like the foregoing oc¬ cur not readily till the pafiion has fpem its vigour. A perfon fometimes is agitated at once by different pafiions ; and the mind in that cafe, vibrating like a pendulum, vents itfelf in fentiments that partake of the fame vibration. This we give as a third obfervation: O rage! 6 defefpoir! 6 vieillefle ennemie! N’ai-je done tant vecu que pour cette infamie? Et ne fuis-je blanchi dans les travaux guerriers, Que pour voir en un jour fletrir tant de lauriers ? Mon bras, qu’avec refpeft tout I’Efpagne admire, Mon bras, qui tant de fois a fauve cet empire, Tant de fois affermi le tr6ne de fon Roi, Trahit done ma querelle, et ne fait rien pour moi! O cruel fouvenir de ma gloire paflee ! Oeuvre de tant de jours en un jour effacee! Nouveile dignite fatale a mon bonheur! Precipice eleve d’ou tombe mon honneur! Faut-il de votre eclat voir triompher le comte, Et mourir fans vengeance, ou vivre dans la honte? Comte, fois de mon prince a prefent governeur, Ce haul rang n’admet point un homme fans honneur; Et ton jaloux orgueil par cet affront infigne, Malgre le chiox du Roi, m’en a fu rendre indigne. Et toi, de mes exploits glorieux inftrument, Mais d’un corps tout de glace inutile ornement, Fer jadis tant a craindre, et qui dans cette offenfe, M’as fervi de parade, et non pas de defenfe, Va, quitte deformaia le dernier des humains, Paffe pour me venger en de meilleures mains. Le Cid, aft l. fc. 7. 'J’befe fentiments are certainly not the firft that are Queen. Would I had never trod this Englifh earth. Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it! Ye’ve angels faces, but heav’n knows ybur hearts. What fliall become of me now? wretched lady! I am the moft unhappy woman living. Alas! poor wenches, where are now your fortunes? \fTo her •women. Shipwreck’d upon a kingdom, where no pity, No friends, no hope, no kindred, w’eep for me! Almoft, no grave allow’d me. Henry VIII. aft 3. fc. 1. Othello. Oh devil, devil! If that the earth could teem with woman’s tears. Each drop (he falls would prove a crocodile. Out of my fight! Defdemona. I will not flay t’offend you. \Coing. Lodovico. Truly, an obedient lady : I do befeech your lordftiip, call her back. Oth. Miftrefs Def. My lord. Oth. What would you with her, Sir ? Lod. Who, I, my lord ? Oth. Ay; you did wilh that I would make her turn: Sir, (he can turn and turn, and yet go on; And turn again. And/he can weep, Sir, weep; Aad /he’s obedient; as you fay, obedient: Very Sentiment?, SEN Stntiments. Wry obedient—proceed you in your tears— Concerning this, Sir,—oh well-painted paffion!— I am commanded home—get you away, I’ll fend for you anon—Sir, I obey the mandate, And will return to Venice. Hence, avaunt! [Exit Defdemona. Othello, ail 4. fc. 6. JEmilia. Oh! my good lord, I would fpeak a word with you. Othello. Yes, ’tis ^Emilia—By and by.—She’s dead. *Tis like Hie comes to fpeak of Caflio’s death; The noife was high.—Ha! no more moving? Still as the grave. Shall (he come in? were’t good? I think Ihe itirs again—No—what’s the belt? If Ihe come in, (he’ll, fure, fpeak to my wife: My wife! my wife! What wife? I have no wife; Oh infupportable! oh heavy hour! Othello, aft 5. fc, 7. A fourth obfervation is, That nature, which gave us paffions, and made them extremely beneficial when mo¬ derate, intended undoubtedly that they (hould be fub- jefted to the government of rcafon and confcience. It is therefore againft the order of nature, that paffion in any cafe (hould take the lead in contradiftion to rea- fon and confcience: fuch a (fate of mind is a fort of anarchy which every one is afitamed of, and endeavours to hide or diffemble. Even love, however laudable, is attended with a confeious fiiame when it becomes im¬ moderate : it is covered from the world, and difclofed only to the beloved objeft: Et que 1’amour fouvent de remors combattu Paroifie une foiblefle, et non une vertu. Boileau, I'Art poet, chant. 3. /. lor. O, they love lead that let men know they love. Two Gentlemen of Verona, aft \. fc. 3. Tlence a capital rule in the reprefentation of immode¬ rate paffions, that they ought to be hid or diffembled as much as poffible. And this holds in an efpecial manner with refpeft to criminal paffions : one never counfels the commiffion of a crime in plain terms ; guilt muft not appear in its native colours, even in thought; the propofal muft be made by hints, and by reprefenting the aflion in fome favourable light. Of the propriety of fentiment upon fuch an occafion, Shake- fpeare, in the Tempeft, has given us a beautiful ex¬ ample, in a fpeech by the ufurping duke of Milan, advifing Sebaltian to murder his brother the king of Naples: Antonio. — What might, Worthy Stbaftian,—O, what might—no more. And yet, methinks, I fee it in thy face What thou (houldft be: the occafion fpeaks thee, and My ftrong imagination fees a crown Dropping upon thy head. Aft 2. fc. 1. There cannot be a finer pi&ure of this kind, than that of king John foliciting Hubert to murder the young prince Arthur: K. John. Come hither,.Hubert. O my gentle Hubert, We owe thee much; within this wall of flelh There is a foul counts thee her creditor. And with advantage means to pay thy love- And, my good freind, thy voluntary oath Lives in this bofom, dearly cheriffied. SEN Give me thy hand, I had a thing to fay. But I will fit it with fome better time. By heav’n, Hubert, I’m almoft afham’d To fay what good refpeft I have of thee. Hubert. I am much bounden to your majefty. K. John. Good friend, thou haft no caufe to fay fo yet But thou (halt have—and creep time ne’er fo flow. Yet it (hall come for me to do thee good. I had a thing to fay but, let it go: The fun is in the heav’n, and the proud day, Attended with the pleafures of the world, Is all too wanton and too full of gawds To give me audience. If the midnight-bell Did with his iron-tongue and brazen mouth Sound one into the drowfy race of night; If this fame were a church-yard where we ftand. And thou poffeffed with a thoufand wrongs; Or if that furly fpirit Melancholy Had bak’d thy blood, and made it heavy-thick. Which elfe runs tickling up and down the veins, Making that idiot Laughter keep mens eyes. And drain their cheeks to idle merriment, (A paffion hateful to my purpofes); Or if that thou couldft fee me without eyes. Hear me without thine ears, and make reply Without a tongue, ufing conceit alone, Without eyes, ears, and harmful founds of words.; Then, in defpite of broad-ey’d watchful day, I would into thy bofom pour my thoughts. But ab, I will not.—Yet I love thee well; And, by my troth, I think thou lov’d me well. Hubert. So well, that what you bid me undertake. Though that my death were adjund to my ad, By hcav’n, I’d do’t. K. John. Do not I know thou wouldft? Good Hubert, Hubert, Hubert, throw thine eye On yon young boy. I’ll tell thee what, nvy friend; He is a very ferpent in my way. And, wherefoe’er this foot of mine doth tread, He lies before me. Doft thou underftand me? Thou art his keeper. King John, aft 3. fc. 5. II. As things are bed illuftrated by their contra¬ ries, we proceed to faulty fentiments, difdaining to be indebted for examples to any but the moft approved authors. The firft clafs (hall confift of fentiments that accord not with the paffion ; or, in other words, fentiments that the paffion does not naturally fug¬ ged. In the fecond clafs, (hall be ranged fenti- ments that may belong to an ordinary paffion, but un- fuitable to it as tindured by a Angular charader. Thoughts that properly are not fentiments, but rather deferiptions, make a third. Sentiments that belong to the paffion represented, but are faulty as being in¬ troduced too e^rly or too late, make a fourth. Vicious fentiments expbfed in their native drefs, inftead of be¬ ing concealed or difg-uifed, make a fifth- And in the lad clafs (hall be colleded fentiments fuited to no cha¬ rader nor paffion, and therefore unnatural. The firjl clafs contains faulty fentiments of va¬ rious kinds, which we (hall endeavour to diftinguifti from each other. 1. Sentiments that are faulty by being above the tone of the paflion : 40 K 2 Othello. [ 8091 ] Sentiments. SEN [ 8092 ] SEN Othello. O my foul’s joy ! If after every tempeft come fuch calms, May the winds blow till they have waken’d death : And let the labouring bark climb hills of feas Olympus high, and duck again as low As hell’s from heaven ? Othello, aft. 2. fc. 6. This fentiment may be fuggefted by violent and in¬ flamed pafllon ; but is not fuited to the fatisfa6tion, however great, that one feels upon efcaping danger. Philajler. Place me, fome god, upon a pyramid Higher than hills of earth, and lend a voice Loud as your thunder to me, that from thence I may difcourfe to all the under-world The worth that dwells in him. Pkilajter of Beaumont and Fletcher, a£l 4. 2. Sentiments below the tone of the paflion. Pto¬ lemy, by putting Pompey to death, having incurred the difpleafure of Csefar, was in the utmoft dread of being dethroned : in that agitating fltuation, Corneille makes him utter a fpeech full of cool refledion, that is in no degree exprefiive of the paflion. Ah ! fi je t’avois crft, je n’aurois pas de maitre, Je ferois dans le tr6ne ou le ciel m’a fait naitre ; Mais c’eft une imprudence aflez commune aux rois, D’£couter trop d’avis, et fe tromper au choix. Le Deftin les aveugle au bord du precipice, Ou fi quelque lumiere en leur ame fe glifle, Cette fauffe clarte dont il les eblouit, Le plonge dans une gouffre, et puis s’evanouit. La mart de Pompe, act fc. I. In Les Freres Ennemies of Racine, the fecond aft is opened with a love-fcene : Hemon talks to his miftrefs of the torments of abfence, of the luttre of her eyes, that he ought to die nowhere but at her feet, and that one moment of abfence is a thoufand years. An¬ tigone on her part afts the coquette ; pretends that (he muft be gone to wait on her mother and brother, and cannot flay to liften to his courtfhip. This is odious French gallantry, below the dignity of the paflion of love : it would fcarce be excufable in painting modern French manners; and is infufferable where the an¬ cients are brought upon the ftage. The manners painted in the Alexandre of the fame author are not more juft: French gallantry prevails there through¬ out. 3. Sentiments that agree not with the tone of the paffion ; as where a pleafant fentiment is grafted up¬ on a painful paflion, or the contrary. In the follow¬ ing inftances the fentiments are too gay for a ferious paffion. No happier talk thefe faded eyes purfue ; To read and weep is all they now can do. Eloifa to Abelard, l. 47. Again, Heav’n firft taught letters for fome wretch’s aid, Some banilh’d lover, or fome captive maid : They live, they fpeak, they breathe what love infpires, Warm from the foul, and faithful to its fires; The virgin’s wifh without her fears impart, Excufe the blufh, and pour out all the heart; Speed the foft intercourfe from foul to foul, And waft a figh from Indus to the pole. Ehfa to Abshrd, /. 51. Thefe thoughts are pretty: they fuit Pope, but not Sentiments, Eloifa. Satan, enraged by a threatening of the angel Ga¬ briel, anfwers thus: Then when I am thy captive, talk of chains, Proud limitary cherub ; but ere then Far heavier load thyfelf expeft to fed From my prevailing arm, though heaven’s King' Ride on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers, Us’d to the yoke, draw’ll his triumphant wheels In progrefs thro’ the road of heav’n far-pav’d. Paradife Left, bock 4. The concluding epithet forms a grand and delight¬ ful image, which cannot be the genuine offspring of rage. 4. Sentiments too artificial for a ferious paffipn. The firft example is a fpeech of Piercy expiring. O, Harry, thou haft robb’d me of my growth : I better brook the lofs of brittle life, Than thofe proud titles thou haft won of me ; £fiefli. They wound my thoughts, worfe than thy fword my But thought’s the flave of life, and life time’s fool; And time, that takes furvey of all the world, Muft have a flop. Firjl Part, Henry IV. aft 5. fc. g. Livy inferts the following paffage in a plaintiveoration of the Locrenfes, accufing Pkminius the Roman legate of oppreflion. In hoc legato veftro, nec hominw quicquam eft, Pa- tres Confcripti, praster figuram et fpeciem; neque Romani civis, praeter habitum veftitumque, et fonum linguae Latinae. Peftis et bellua immanis, quales fre- tum, quondam, quo ab Sicilia dividimur, ad perni- ciem, nigantium circumfediffe, fabulae ferunt. Livy, l. xxix. $17. The fentiments of the Mourning Bride are for the moft part no lefs delicate than juft copies of nature : in the following exception the pifture is beautiful, but too artful to be fuggefted by fevere grief. Almeria. O no! Time gives increafe to my af- fliftions. The circling hours, that gather all the woes Which are diffus’d through the revolving year, Come heavy laden with th’ oppreffive weight To me ; with me, fucceffively, they leave The fighs, the tears, the. groans, the reftlefs cares. And all the damps of grief, that did retard their flight; They ftiake their downy wings, and fcatter all The dire collefted dews on my poor head; Then fly with joy and fwiftnefs from me. Aft I. fc. I. In the fame play, Almeria feeing a dead body, which fhe took to be Alphonfo’s, expreffes fentiments ftrain- ed and artificial, which nature fuggefts not to any perfon upon fuch an occafion : Had they or hearts or eyes, that did this deed ? Could eyes endure to guide fuch cruel hands ? Are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs, That thus can gaze, and yet not turn to ftone? —I do not weep ! The fprings of tears are dry’d. And of a fudden I am calm, as if £der’d 3 All things were well; and yet my hufband’s mur- Sentiment;. SEN [ 8093 ] SEN Sentiments. Yes, yes, I know to mourn : I’ll fluice this heart, rV ~ ■ The fource of wo, and let the torrent in. Aa ft.w. Lady Trueman. How could you.be Jo cruel to de¬ fer giving me that joy which you knew I muft receive from your prefence ? You have robb’d my life of fome hours of happinefs that ought to have been in it. Drummer, aa 5. Pope’s elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady, exprefles delicately the mod tender concern and for- row that one can feel for the deplorable fate of a per- fon of worth. Such a poem, deeply ferious and pa¬ thetic, rejects with difdain all fiftion. Upon that ac¬ count, the following paffage deferves no quarter ; for it is not the language of the hear;, but of the imagi¬ nation indulging its flights at eafe, and by that means is eminently difeordant with the fubjedt. It would be a ftill more fevere cenfure, if it fhould be aferibed to imitation, copying indifcreetly what has been faid by others : What tho’ no weeping loves thy allies grace, Nor polilh’d marble emulate thy face ? What though no facred earth allow thee room. Nor hallow’d dirge be mutter’d o’er thy tomb ? Yet lhall thy grave with rifing flow’rs be dreft. And the green turf lie lightly on thy breaft: There lhall the morn her earlieft tears bellow, There the firft rofes of the year lhall blow ; While angels with their filver wings o’erlhade The ground, now facred by thy relics made. 5. Fanciful or finical fentiments. Sentiments that degenerate into point or conceit, however they may amufe in an idle hour, can never be the offspring of any feriousor important pafiion. In the Jerufalem of Taffo, Tancred, after a Angle combat, fpent with fa¬ tigue and lofs of blood, falls into a fwoon; in which fnuation, underllood to be dead, he is difeovered by Erminia, who was in love with him to diftraftion. A more happy fituation cannot be imagined, to raife grief in an intlant to its higheft .pitch ; and yet, in venting her forrow,'lhe defeends moll abominably into antithefis and conceit, even of the loweft kind: E in lui verso d’ineflicabil vena Lacrime, e voce di fofpiri mifta. In chemifero punto horqui me mena Fortuna ? a che veduta amara e trifta l Dopo gran tempo i’ ti ritrovo a pena Tancredi, e ti riveggio, e non fon villa Villa non fon da te, benche prefente T trovando ti perdo eternamente. Canto 19. Ji. 105. Armida’s lamentation refpe&ing her lover Rinaldo is in the fame vicious tafte. Fid, canto 20. ftan. 124., 125, 126. • $>ueen. Give me no help in lamentation, I am not barren to bring forth complaints: All fprings reduce their currents to mine eyes, That I, being govern’d by the wat’ry moon, May fend forth plenteous tears to drown the world. Ah, for my hufband, for my dear lord Edward, King Richard III. a a 2. fc. 2. Jane Shore. Let me be branded for thepublic [corn, Turn’d forth, and driven to wander like a vagabond, Be friendlefs and forfaken, feek my bread Upon the barren wild and defolate wade. Feed on my figks, and drink my falling tears ; Ere I content to teach my lips injullice. Or wrong the orphan who has none to fave him. Jane Shore, aC 4 Give me your drops, ye foft-defeending rains; Give me your llreams, ye nqver ceafing fprings; That my fad eyes may ftill fupply my duty. And feed an everlafting flood of forrow. Ibid, aa 5. Jane Shore utterc her lall breath in a witty conceit : Then all is well, and I lhall lleep in peace ’Tis very dark, and I have loll you now Was there not fomething I would have bequeath’d you? But I have nothing left me to bellow, Nothing but one fad figh. Oh mercy, Heav’n ! IDies. Aa 5. Gilford to Lady Jane Gray, when both were con¬ demned, to die: Thou Hand’ll, unmov’d; Calm temper fits upon thy beauteous brow ; Thy eyes that flow’d fo fall for Edward’s lofs. Gaze unconcern’d upon the ruin round thee, As if thou hadfl refolv’d to brave thy fate. And triumph in the midft of defolation. Ha ! fee, it fwells, the liquid cryftal riles, It Harts in fpite of thee but I will catch it. Nor let the earth be wet with dew lo rich.. Lady Jane Gray, aa 4. near the ench The concluding fentiment is altogether finical, unfuit- able to the importance of the occafion, and even to the dignity of the paffion of love. Corneille, in his Examen of the Cid, anfwering an objedion, That his fentiments are fometimes too much refinedfor perfons indeepdiitrefsjobferves, that if poets did not indulge fentiments more ingenious or refined than are prompted by paffion, their performances would of¬ ten below, and extreme grief would never fuggell but exclamations merely. This is in plain language to alfert, that forc’d thoughts are more agreeable than thole that are natural, and ought to be preferred. The fecondclafs is of lentiments that may belong to an ordinary paffion, but are not perfectly concordant with it, as tindured by a lingular charader. In the lall ad of that excellent comedy, The Care- lefs Hu/band, Lady Eafy, upon Sir Charles’s reforma¬ tion, is made to exprefs mpre- violent and turbulent fentiments of joy than are confillent with the mildnefs of her charader: Lady Eafy. O the foft treafure ! O the dear re¬ ward of long-defiring love. Thus 1 thus to have you mine, is fomething more than happinefs; ’tis double life,and madnefs of abounding joy. If the fentiments of a paffion ought to be Anted to a peculiar charader, it is Hill more neceflary that adioiv be Anted to the charader. In the 5th ad of the Drum¬ mer, Addifon makes his gardener ad even below the charader of an ignorant credulous rultic : he gives him the behaviour of a gaping idiot. The following inftances are deferiptions rather than, fentimems, which coirpofe 1 third clafs. Of SEN [ 8094 ] SEN Sentiment?. Of this defcriptive manner of painting the paflions, "there is in the Hippolytus of Euripides, aft 5. an illu- ilrious inttance, viz. the fpeech of Thefeus, upon hear¬ ing of his fon’s difmal exit. In Racine’s tragedy of EJlher, the queen hearing of the decree il'fued again!! her people, inftead of exprelfing fentiments fuitable to the occafion, turns her attention upon herfelf, and de- fcribes with accuracy her own fituation: Jufte ciel! tout mon fang dans mes veines fe glace. AH i. Jc. 3* Again, Aman. C’en eft fait. Mon orgueil eft force de plier. L’inexorable Aman eft reduit a prier. EJiher, an 3. fc. 5. Athalie. Quel prodige nouveau me trouble et m’etn- barraffe ? La douceur de fa voix, fon enfance, fa grace, Font infenfiblement a mon inimitie Succeder Je ferois fenfible a la pitie? Athalie, an 2. fc. 7. Titus. O de ma paffion fureur defefperc. ! Brutus of Voltaire, an 3. fc. 6. What other are the foregoing inftancts but defcribing the paffion another feels ? Captain Flafh, in a farce compofed by Garrick, en¬ deavours to hide his fear by faying, “ What a damn’d paffion I am in.” An example is given above of remorfe and defpair expreffed by genuine and natural fentiments. In the fourth book of Paradife Lof, Satan is made to ex- prtfs his remorfe and defpair in fentiments which, tho’ beautiful, are not altogether natural : they are rather the fentiments of a fpeftator than of a perfon who ac¬ tually is tormented with thefe paffions. The fourth clafs is of fentiments expreffed too early or too late. Some examples mentioned above belong to this clafs. Add the following from Venice Preferv'd, att 5. at the clofe of the fcene between Belvidera and her father Friuli. The account given by Belvidera of the danger fhe was in, and of her hufband’s threatening to murder her, ought naturally to have alarmed her relenting fa¬ ther, and to have made him exprefs the moft pertur¬ bed fentiments. Inftead of which, he diffolves into ten- dernefsand love for his daughter, as if he had already delivered her from danger, and as if there were a per- fe& tranquillity: Canft thou forgive me all my follies paft! I’ll henceforth be indeed a father; never. Never more thus expofe, but cheriffi thee, Dear as the vital warmth that feeds my life, Dear as thofe eyes that weep in fondnels o’er thee : Peace to thy heart. Immoral fentiments expofed in their native colours, inftead of being concealed or difguifed, compofe the fifth clafs. The Lady Macbeth, proje&ing the death of the king, has the following foliloquy. The raveti himfelf’s not hoarfe That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. Come, all you fpirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unfex me here, And fill me from the crown to the toe, top-full Of dire& cruelty ; make thick my blood, Sentiment* ! Stop up th’ accefs and paffage to remorfe, ■— That no compunAious vifitings of nature Shake my fell p*irpofe. Macbeth, aB r. fc. 7. This fpeech is not natural. A treacherous murder was never perpetrated even by the moft hardened mifcreant without compundtion : and that the lady here muft have been in horrible agitation, appears from her invo¬ king the infernal fpirits to fill her with cruelty, and to flop up all avenues to remorfe. But in that ftate of mind, it is a never-failing artifice of felf-deceit to draw the thickeft veil over the wicked a&ion, and to extenuate it by all the circumftances that imagination can fuggeft : and if the crime cannot bear difguife, the next attempt is to thruft it out of mind altogether, and to rulh on to a&ion without thought. This laft was the hufband’s method. Strange things I have in head, that will to hand ; Which muft be aAed ere they rnuft be fcann’d. An 3. fc. 5. The lady follows neither of thefe courfes, but in a de¬ liberate manner endeavours to fortify her heart in the commiffion of an execrable crime, without even at¬ tempting to colour it. This, we think, is not natural; we hope there is no fuch wretch to be found as is here reprefented. In thePow/^yof Corneille, Photinecounfels a wicked a&ion in the plaineft terms without difguife; an 1. fc. I* In the tragedy oi Efther, {an. 2. fc. I.) Hainan acknowledges without difguife his cruelty, infolence, and pride. And there is another example of the fame kind in the Agamemnon of Seneca (beginning of an 2.) la the tragedy of Athalie, Mathan, in cool blood, re¬ lates to his friend many black crimes he had been guilty of, to fatisfy his ambition. ( ABz. clofe of3.) In Congreve’s Double-dealer, Malkwell, inftead of difguifing or colouring his crimes, values himfelf upon them in a foliloquy : Cynthia, let thy beauty gild my crimes; and what" foever I commit of treachery or deceit, fhall be im" puted to me as a merit. Treachery ! what trea¬ chery ? Love cancels all the bonds of friendffiip, and fets men right upon their firft foundations. An. 2. fc 8. In French plays, love, inftead of being hid or dif¬ guifed, is treated as a ferious concern, and of greater importance than fortune, family, or dignity. The rea- fon may be, that, in the capital of France, love, by the eafinefs of intercourfe, has dwindled down from a real paffion, to be a conne&ion that is regulated entirely by the mode or fafhion. This may in fome meafure cxcufe their writers, but will never make their plays be relifhed among foreigners. The lafl clafs comprehends fentiments that are unna¬ tural, as being Anted to no chara&er nor paffion. Thefe may be fubdivided into three branches: firft, fentiments unfuitable to the conftitution of man, and to the laws of his nature; fecond, inconfiftent fenti¬ ments ; third, fentiments that are pure rant and extra¬ vagance. When the fable is of human affairs, every event, every incident, and every circumftance, ought to be natural, otherwife the imitation is imperfeA. But an imperfeA imitation is a venial fault, compared with that SEN [ 8095 ] SEN ■Sentiments. l^at running crofs to nature. In the Hippolytut Euripides, (« Give me that minute when (he made that vow, J That minute ev’n the happy from their blifs might give. And thofe who live in grief a (horter time would live, So fmall a link, if broke, th’ eternal chain Would like divided waters join again. Conqueft of Granada, ad 3. Almanzor. 1’H hold it fait As life ; and when life’s gone, I’ll hold this laft. And if thou tak’ii it after I am (lain, 1’il fend my ghoft to fetch it back again. Conquejl of Grenada, part 2. 0$ 3. Lyndiraxa. Acrown is come, and will not fate allow. And yet I feel fomething like death is near. My guards, my guards — Let not that ugly (keleton appear. Sure Deftiny miftakes; this death’s not mine; She doats, and meant to cut another line. Tell her I am a queen—but ’tis too late ; Dying, I charge rebellion pa my fate; Bow down, ye (laves Bow quickly down, and your fubmifiion (how; I’m pleafed to tafte an empire ere I go. [D/V/. Conqueji of Granada, part 2. ad 5,. Ventidius* But you, ere love milled your wand’ring eyes, Were fure the chief and bed of human race, Fram’d in the very pride and boaft of nature, So perfe£V, that the gods who form’d you wonder’d At their own (kill, and cry’d, A lucky hit Has mended our defign. Dryden, All for Love, ad r. Not to talk of the impiety of this featiment, it is ludi¬ crous inftead of being lofty. ^ Sentinel, Sepia, SEN [ 8096 ] SEN The famous epitaph on Raphael is not lefs abfurd than any of the foregoing paffages : Raphael, timuit, quo fofpite, vine?, Rerum magna parens, et moriente mori. Imitated by Pope, in his epitaph on Sir Godfrey Knel- ler : Living, great Nature fear’d he might outvie Her works ; and dying, fears herfelfmay die. Such is the force of imitation; for Pope of himfelf would never have been guilty of a thought fo extrava¬ gant. SENTINEL, or Sentrv, in military affairs, a private foldier placed in fome poft to watch the ap¬ proach of the enemy, to prevent furprifes, to flop fuch as would pafs without orders or difeovering who they are. They are placed before the arms of all guards, at the tents and doors of general officers, offi¬ cers, colonels of regiments, See. Sentinel Perdu, a foldier ported near an enemy, or in fome very dangerous port, where he is in hazard of being loft. All fentinels are to be vigilant on their ports ; neither are they to fing, fmoke tobacco, nor fuffer any noife to be made near them. They are to have a -watchful eye over the things committed to their charge. They are not to fuffer any light to remain, ct any fire to be made, near their ports in the night¬ time ; neither is any fentry to be relieved or removed from his poft but by the corporal of the guard. They are not to fuffer any one to touch or handle their arms, or in the night-time to come within'ten yards of their poft. No perfon is to ftrike or abufe a fentry on his poft; but when he has committed a crime, he is to be relie¬ ved, and then punifhed according to the rules an^ ar¬ ticles of war. A fentincl, on his poft in the night, is to know no¬ body but by the counter-fign : when he challenges, and is anfwered, Relief, he calls out, Stand, relief! advance, corporal! upon which the corporal halts his men, and advances alone within a yard of the fentry’s firelock, (firft ordering his party to reft, on which the fentry does the fame), and gives him the counter-fign, taking care that no one hear it. SEPIA, the Cuttle-fish, a genus belonging to the order of vermes mollufca. There are eight bra- chia interfperfed on the interior fide, with little round ferrated cups, by the contra&ion of which the animal lays faft hold of any thing. Befides thefe eight arms, it has two tentacula longer than the arms, and fre¬ quently pedunculated. The mouth is fituated in the centre of the arms, and is horny and hooked, like the bill of a hawk. The eyes are below the tentacula, towards the body of the animal. The body is flefhy, and received into a fheathas far as the breaft. There are five fpecies. See Plate CCLXII. 1. The loligo, or great cuttle, with fhort arms and long tentacula ; the lower part of the body rhomboid and pinnated, the upper thick and cylindric. Inha¬ bit all our feas: are gregarious; fwift in their mo¬ tions : take their prey by means of their arms ; and embracing it, bring it to their central mouth. Adhere to the rocks, when they|wifh to be quiefeent, by means S of the concave difes that are placed along their arms. 2. The oftopodia, with eight arms, connefted at their bottom by a membrane. This is the poly-: pus of Pliny, whitffhe diftinguilhes from the loligo and fepia by the want of tentacula. Inhabits our feas. In hot climates thefe are found of an enormous fize. The Indians affirm, that fome have been feen two fathoms broad over their centre, and each arm nine fathoms long. When the Indians navigate their little boats, they go in dread of them ; and left thefe animals fhould fling their arms over and fink them, they never fail without an ax to cut them off. 3. The media, or middle cuttle, with a long, flender, cylindric body ; tail finned, pointed, and carinated on each fide; two long tentacula; the body almoft tranfpa- rent, green, but convertible into a dirty brown ; con¬ firming the remark of Pliny f, that they change their f b colour through fear, adapting it, chameleon-like, toc,*: that of the place they are in. The eyes are large and fmaragdine. 4. The fepiola, or fmall cuttle, with a ftiort body, rounded at the bottom ; a round fin on each fide; two tentacula. Taken off Flintlhire. 5. The officinalis, or officinal cuttle, with an ovated body; fins along the whole of the fides, and almoft meet¬ ing at the bottom; two long tentacula; the body con¬ tains the bone, the cuttle-bone of the fhops, which was formerly ufed as an abforbent. The bones are frequently flung on all our ftiores; the animal very rarely. This emits, (in common with the other fpe¬ cies) when frighted or purfued, the black liquor which the ancients fuppofed darkened the circumambient wave, and concealed it from the enemy. Th’ endanger’d cuttle thus evades his fears. And native hoards of fluid fafety bears. A pitchy ink peculiar glands fupply, Whofe (hades the fharpeft beam of light defy. Purfu’d, he bids the fable fountains flow. And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th’!impending foe. The fifh retreats unfeen, while felf-born night. With pious (hade befriends her patent’s flight. The ancients fometimes made ufe of it inft 'td of ink. Perfius mentions the fpecies in his deferiptioh of the noble ftudent. ‘Jam liber, et bicolor pofitis membrane capillis, Inque manus chart*, nodafque venit arundo. Turn querimur, crajfus calamo quod pendeat humor; Nigra quod infufa venefcat fepia lymph a. At length, his book he fpreads, his pen he takes; His papers here in learned order lays. And there|his parchment’s fmoother fide difplays. But oh! what croffes wait on ftudious men! The cuttle’!, juice hangs clotted at our pen. In all my life fueh Jluff I never knew. So gummy thick—Dilute it, it will do. Nay, novu’tis-water ! Dry den. This animal was efteemed a delicacy by the an¬ cients, and is eaten even at prefent by the Italians. Rondeletius gives us two receipts for the dreffing, which may be continued to this day. Athenaeus alfo leaves us the method of making an antique cuttle-filh faufage ; and we learn from Ariftotle, that thofe ani¬ mals are in higheft feafon when pregnant. SEPIARIiE, (from fepes, “ a hedge”), the name of tht 44th order of Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, confifting of a beautiful colledlion of woody plants, fome of which, from their fize and elegance, are SEP [ 8097 ] SEP -Scps are very proper furniture for hedges. See Botany* N. p. 315. Sept-1Ci' SEPS, in zoology. See Lacerta. SEPTARI^E, in natural hiftory, a large clafs of foflils, commonly known by the names of ludus Hel- montii and 'waxen veins. They are defined to be folfils not inflammable, nor foluble in water ; of a moderately firm texture and dufky hue, divided by feveral fepta or thin partitions, and compofed of a fparry matter greatly debafed by earth ; not giving fire with fteel ; fermenting with acids, and in great part diflblved by them ; and cal¬ cining in a moderate fire. Of this clafs there are two di(lin& orders of bodies, and under thofe fix genera. The feptariae of the firft order are thofe which are ufually found in large maf- fes, of a fimple uniform conftru&ion, but divided by large fepta either into larger and more irregular por¬ tions, or into fmaller and more equal ones, called ia/e. The genera of this order are four. 1. Thofe divided by fepta or fpar, called fecontice: 2. Thofe di¬ vided by fepta of earthy matter, called gaiophragmia : 3. Thofe divided by fepta of the matter of the py¬ rites, called pyritercia: And, 4. Thofe divided by fepta of fpar, with an admixture of cryltal, called diau- gophragmia. Thofe of the fecond order are fuch as are ufually found in fmaller maffes, of a cruftated ftru&ure, form¬ ed by variaus incrultations round a central nucleus, apd divided by very thin fepta. Of this order are only two genera. 1. Thofe with a Ihort roundifh nu¬ cleus, inclofed within the body of the mafs ; and, 2. Thofe with a long nucleus, Handing out beyond the ends of the mafs. SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, con¬ fiding of only thirty days : it took its name as being tire feventh month, reckoning from March, with which the Romans began their year. SEPTENNIAL, any thing lading feven years. Septennial Elettions. Blackflione, in his Com¬ mentaries, Vol. I. p. 189. fays, (after obferving that the utmod extent of time allowed the fame parliament to fit by the flat. 6 W. and M. c. 2. was three years), “ But, by the datute 1 Geo. I. fl. 2. c. 38. (in or¬ der profejfedly to prevent the great and continued ex- pences of frequent ele&ions, and the violent heats and animofities confequent thereupon, and for the peace and fecurity of the government, jufl then recovering from the late rebellion), this term was prolonged to feven years; and what alone is an inftance of the vaft au¬ thority of parliament, the very fame houfe that was ‘chofen for three years ena&ed its own continuance for feven.” SEPTENTRIO, in adronomy, a condellation, more ufually called urfa minor. In cofmography, the term feptentrio denotes the fame with north : and hence feptentrional is applied to any thing belonging to the north; as feptentrional figns, parallels, &c. SEPTICS, are thofe fubdances which promote putrefaftion, chiefly the calcareous earths, magnefia, and tedaceous powders. Dr Pringle has reckoned common fait among the feptic fubdances; but later ob- lervations give reafon to believe, that it is only in con- fequence of its impurities that fait ads in this manner, Vol. X, it being highly probable that all pure falls are anti- Septizon feptic. * I. SEPTIZON, or Septizonium, in Roman ami- Sepulehfe- quity, a celebrated maufoleum, built by Septimus Se- verus, in the tenth region of the city of Rome : it was fo called from feptem and zona, by reafon it con¬ fided of feven dories, each of which was furrounded by a row of columns. SEPTUAGESIMA, in the kalendar, denotes the third Sunday before Lent, or before Quadragefima Sunday: fuppofed by fome to take its name from its being about feventy days before Eader. SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a Greek ver- fion of the books of the Old Teflament, from its be¬ ing fuppofed to be performed by feventy-two Jews, who are ufually called the feventy interpreters feventy is a round number. The hidory of this verfion is exprefsly written by Aridseas, an officer of the guards to Ptolemy Phila- delphus, the fubdance of whofe account is as follows: Ptolemy having ere&ed a fine library at Alexandria, which he took care to fill with the mod curious and valuable books from all parts of the world, was in¬ formed that the Jews had one containing the laws of Mofes, and the hidory of that people; and being de- firous of enriching his library with a Greek tranflation of it, applied to the high-pried of the Jews ; and to engage him to comply with his requed, fet at liberty all the Jews whom his father Ptolemy Soter had re¬ duced to flavery. After fuch a dep, he eafily obtained what he defired; Eleazar the Jewifh high-prieft fent back bis ambafladors with an exaft copy of the mo- faical law, written in letters of gold, and fix elders of each tribe, in all feventy-two; who were received with marks of refpsA by the king, and then condufted into the ifle of Pharos, where they were lodged in a houfe prepared for their reception, and fupplkd with every thing neceflary in abundance. They fet about the tranllation without lofs of time, and finifhed it in feventy-two days : and the whole being read in the pre¬ fence of the king, he admired the profound wifdom of the laws of Mofes; and fent back the deputies laden with prefents, for themfelves, the high-pried, and the temple. This verfion was in ufe to the time of our bleffed Saviour, and is that out of which all the citations in the New Tedament, from the Old, are taken. It was alfo the ordinary and canonical tranflation made ufe of by the Chridian church in the earlied ages; and it dill fubfids in the churches both of the eafl and wed. It is however obfervable, that the chronology of the feptuagint is different from the Hebrew text. SEPTUM, in anatomy, an inclofure, or partition; a term applied to ftveral parts of the body, which ferve to feparate one part from another; zs, feptum narium, or partition between the noflrils, &c. SEPULCHRAL, fomething belonging to fe- pulchres or tombs: thus a fepulchral column is a co¬ lumn eredfed over a tomb, with an infeription on its fhaft; and fepulchral lamps, thofe faid to have been found burning in the tombs of feveral martyrs and others. See Lamp. SEPULCHRE, a tomb or place deflined for the interment of the dead. This term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the burying-places of the ancients, thofe 40 L of S E CL L 8098 ] S E R Sepulchre of the moderns being ufually called tomls. H Sepulchres were held facred and inviolable 5 and the Se?ion ^ care taken of them has always been held a religious --.rhity, grounded on the fear of God, and the belief of the foul’s immortality. Thofe who have fearched or violated them, have been thought odious by all na¬ tions, and were always feverely punifhed. The Egyptians called fepulchres eternal houfes, in contradiftindiion to their ordinary houfes or palaces, which they called inns, on account of their (hort ftay in the one, in comparifon of their long abode in the other. Regular Canons of St Sepulchre, a religious order, formerly inftituted at Jerufalem, in honour of the holy fepulchre, or the tomb of Jefus Chrift. Many of thefe canons were brought from the Holy Land into Europe, particularly into France, by Lewis the younger ; into Poland, by Jaxa a Polifh gentle¬ man ; and into Flanders, by the counts thereof; many nlfo came into England. This order was, however, fupprefled by pope Innocent VIII. who gave its re¬ venues and effeds to that of our Lady of Bethlehem : which alfo becoming extind, they were beftowed on the knights of St John of Jerufalem. But the fup- preffion did not take effed in Poland, where they ftill fubfift, as alfo in feveral provinces of Germany. Thefe canons follow the rule of St Auguftrne. Knights of //i?/)'“Sepulchre, a military order, dlablilhed in Paleftine about the year 1114. The knights of this order in Flanders chofe Phi¬ lip II. king of Spain, for their mafter, in 1558, and afterwards his fon ; but the grand-mafter of the order of Malta prevailed on the laft to refign : and when afterwards the duke of Nevers aflumed the fame qua¬ lity in France, the fame grand-mafter, by his intereft and credit, procured a like renunciation of him, and a confirmation of the union of this order to that of Malta. SEQUANI, a people anciently forming a part of Gallia Celtica, but annexed to Belgica by Auguftus, feparated from the Helvetii by mount Jura, with the Rhine on the eaft (Strabo), bordering on the jEdui, and Seguftiano to the fouth, and Lingones to the weft, (Tacitus). Now the Franche Comte. SEQUESTRATION, in common law, is fetting afide the thing in controverfy from the poflefiion of both the parties that contend for it. In which fenfe it is either voluntary, as when done by the confent of the parties; or neceflary, as where it is done by the judge, of his own authority, whether the parties will or not. A fequeftration is alfo a kind of extent on an exe¬ cution for debt, in the cafe of a beneficed clergyman, of the profits of his living, dire&ed to the church¬ wardens to receive the fame to fatisfy the judg¬ ment. Sequeftration is granted on a perfon’s (landing out, and all the proceffes of contempt for non-appearance in the court of chancery, or exchequer, upon a bill exhibited ; and alfo where obedience is not yielded to a decree, in which cafe the court grants a fequeftration of the party’s lands. A fequeftration is alfo made, in London, upon an aftion of debt ; the courfe of proceeding in which cafe is this; The aftion being entered, the officer goes to the defendant’s fhop or warehoufe, when no perfon is'Seqiteftra- there, and takes a padlock, and hangs it on the door, 110,1 uttering thefe words: “ I do fequefter this warehoufe, Serapion. and the goods and merchandife therein, of the defendant — — in this aftion, to the ufe of the plaintiff,” &c. after which he fets on hisfeal,and makes a return of the fequeftration in the compter ; and four days being paffed after the return made, the plaintiff may, at the next court, have judgment to open the fhop or warehoufe, and to have the goods appraifed by two freemen, who are to be fworn at the next court held for that compter ; and then the ferjeant puts his hand to the bill of appraife- ment, and the court grants judgment thereon : but yet the defendant may put in bail before fatisfadion, and by that means diffolve the fequeftration ; and after fatisfadlion, may put in bail to difprove the debt, &c. In the time of the civil wars, fequeftration was ufed for a feizing of the eftates of delinquents for the ufe of the commonwealth. Sequestration, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxii. 10. and clxxiii. 12. SEQUIN, a gold coin, ftruck at Vfcnice, and in feveral parts of the grand fignior’s dominions. See the article Coin. SERAGLIO, a Perfian word, which fignifies the “ palace of a prince or lord;” in which fenfe the houfes of the ambaffadors of Britain, France, &c. are, at Conftantinople, called their feraglios. But the term feraglio is ufed, by way of eminence, for the palace of the grand fignior at Conftantinople, where he keeps his court, in which his concubines are lodged, and where the youth are trained up for the principal polls of the empire. It is in form of a triangle, about two miles round, at the end of the promon¬ tory Chryfoceras, now called the feraglio point : buildings extend to the top of the hill, and from thence there are gardens that reach to the fea. The outward appearance is not very beautiful, the archite&ure being irregular, confifting of feparate edifices in the manner of pavilions and domes. The old feraglio is the palace where the grand fignior’s old miftreffes are kept. The ladies of the haram, which is the part allotted to the women, are a colleftion of young beautiful girls, who, on their admiffion, are committed to the charge of fome old lady, and taught mufic, dancing, and other accomplifhments. Thefe frequently play and dance before the grand fignior, while others entertain him with their converfation. Befides thefe ladies, there are a great many black eunuchs and female flaves in the feraglio, whofe bufinefs it is to guard and wait upon them. SERAPH, or Seraphim; a fpirit of the higheft; rank in the hierarchy of angels ; who are thus called from their being fuppofed to be moft inflamed with di¬ vine love, by their nearer and more immediate atten¬ dance at the throne of God, and to communicate their fervour to the remoter and inferior orders. See An¬ gel. SERAPHIC, burning or inflamed with love or zeal, like a feraphim: thus St Bonaventure is called the feraphit dottor, from his abundant zeal and fer¬ vour. fiERAPIQN; a phyfician of Alexandria. He and Phi- S E R [ 8099 ] S E R Serenade Phillnus of the ifle of Cos were bath fcholars of He- Sereeant rophilns, and were founders of the Empiric fe&j which 1 happened about 287 B. C. SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night by a lover to his miftrefs, under her window. Thefe fometimes only confift of inftrumental mufic, but at other times voices ara added : the mufic and fonga compofed for thefe occafions are alfo called ferenades. SERENE, a title of honour given to feveral prin¬ ces, and to the principal magiftrates of republics. The king of England, the republic and doge of Venice, and the chlidren of the king of Spain, are called nioft ferene ; and when the pope or the facred college write to the emperor, to kings, or to the doge, they give them no'other title. In like manner, the emperor gives no other title to any king, except to the king of France. SERENUS (Sammonicus), a celebrated phyfician in the reigns of the emperors Severus and Caracalla, in and about the year 200. ,He wrote feveral trea- tifes on hiftory and the works of nature ; but there is only one of them extant, which is a very indifferent poem on the Remedies of Difeafes. He was murdered at a feftival by the order of Caracalla. He had a library that contained 62,000 volumes, which Qmntus Se- renus Sammonicus his fon gave to Gordian the Youn¬ ger, to whom he was preceptor. SERES, (Ptolemy); a people of the Farther Alia; bounded on the weft by Scythia extra Imaum; on the north and eaft, by Terra Incognita; and on the fouth, by India extra Gangem. According to thefe limits, their country anfwers nearly to Cathoy or North China. Other authors vary greatly in placing them, though the generality agree in placing them far to the eaft. Mela places them between the Indi and Scythae; and perhaps beyond the Indi, if we diftinguifh the Sinae from them. The ancients commend them for their cotton manufaclures, different from the produce of the bombyces or filk-worms, called feres by the Greeks; whence /erica, “ filk.” SERGE, a woollen fluff, manufa&ured in a loom; of which there are various kinds, denominated either from'their different qualities, or from the places where they are wrought. The molt confiderable is the Lon¬ don ferge, which is highly valued abroad ; and of which a manufacture has for fome years been carried on in France. SERGEANT, or Serjeant at Law, or of the Coif, is the .higheft degree taken at the common law, as that of Dodor is of the civil law; and as thefe are fuppofed to be the moft learned and experienced in the practice of the courts, there is one court appointed for them to plead in by themfelves, which is the com¬ mon pleas, where the common layv of England is moft ftriCtly obferved : but they are not reftriCted from pleading in any other court, where the judges, who cannot have that honour till they have taken the de¬ gree of ferjeant at law, call them brothers. Sergeant at Arms, ox Mace, an officer appointed to attend the perfon of the king ; to arreft traitors, and fuch perfons of quality as offend ; and to attend the lord high fteward, when fitting in judgment on a traitor.—The number of thefc officers is by ftatute li¬ mited to 30. Sergeant, in war, is an inferior officer in a company of foot or troop of dragoons, armed with Sergeanty an halbert, and appointed to fee difeipline obferved, ^ to teach the foldiers the exercife of their arms, to or- p der, ftraiten, and form their ranks, files, &c. He receives the orders from the adjutant, which he com¬ municates to his officers. Each company generally has two fergeants. SERGEANTY [Serjeantia), fignifies, in law, a fervice that cannot be due by a tenant to any lord but the king ; and this is either grand ferjeanty, or petit. The firft is a tenure by which the one holds his lands of the king by fuch fervices as he ought to do in per¬ fon to the king at his coronation ; and may alfo con¬ cern matters military, or fervices of honour in peace ; as to be the king’s butler, carver, &c. Petit ferjeanty is where a man holds lands of the king to furnifh him yearly with fome fmall thing towards his wars; andirt effeft payable as rent. Though all tenures are turned into focage by the 12 Car. II. cap. 24; yet the ho¬ norary fervices of grand ferjeanty ftill remain, being therein excepted. See Ksigut-Service. SERIES, in general, denotes a continued fuccef- fion of things in the fame order, and having the fame relation or connexion with each other: in this fenfe we fay, a feries of emperors, kings, bifhops, See. In natural hiftory, a feries is ufed for an order or fubdivifion of fome clafs of natural bodies; compre- prehending all fuch as are diftinguifhed from the other bodies of that clafs, by certain chara&ers which they pofhfs in common, and which the reft of the bodies of that caft have not. Series, in mathematics, is a numberof terms, whe¬ ther of numbers or quantities, increafing or decreafing in a given proportion. SERIPHUS (anc. geog.) one of the Cyclades or iflands in the Egean fea, called Saxum Seriphium by Tacitus, as if all a rock: one of the ufual places of banifhment among the Romans. The people, Seriphii; who, together with the Siphnii, joined Greece againft Xerxes, and were almoft the only iflanders who re- fufed to give him earth and water in token of fubmif- fion, (Herodotus). Seriphia Rena, a proverbial fay¬ ing concerning a perfon who can neither fing nor fay; frogs in this ifland being faid to be dumb, (Pliny). SEROSITY, in medicine, denotes an over-abun¬ dance of ferum. SERPENS, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere, confiding of 17 ftars, according to Ptolemy ; of 19, according to Tycho ; and of 59 in the Britannic catalogue. Serpens Biceps, or Double-headed Snake; a mon- fter of theferpent kind, there beingno permanent fpecies of this conformation. That reprefented on Plate CCLXII. and copied from Edwards, came from the ifland of Barbadoes; and was faid to have been taken out of an egg of the fize of a fmall pullet’s egg, by a man who found it under-ground as he was digging. The heads were not in an horizontal pofition when the fnake lay on its belly, but inclined to each other on their under-fides, leaving an opening for the throat to come in between the two heads underneath, as is ex- preffed at A. The upper-fide, for the whole length, was covered with fmall feales, falling one over another; the belly was covered with tingle feales running acrofs it, in the form of half rings. It was all over of a yel- 40 L 2 lowifli S E R r 8100 1 S E R Serpent, fowifti Colour, without any fpots or variation. Mr J " 'Edwards alfo informs us that a perfon brought to him a common Englifh fnake, which had two heads quite feparate from each other, the necks parting about an inch from the head. SERPENT, Serpens, in zoology, a general term for all amphibious animals without legs. See Colu¬ ber, Boa, Anguis, Cjecilia, Amphisb-sena, Cro- TALUS, &c. The ferpent has from the beginning been the enemy cf man ; and it has hitherto continued to terrify and annoy him, notwithftanding all the arts which have been pra&ifed to deftroy it. Formidable in itfelf, it deters the invader from the purfuit; and from its fi¬ gure, capable of finding fhelter in a little fpace, it is not eafily difcovered by thofe who would venture to try the encounter. Thus pofTeffed at once of potent arms and inacceffible or fecure retreats, it baffles all the arts of man, though ever fo earneftly bent upon its deftru&ion. For this reafon, there is fcarce a country in the world that does not ftill give birth to this poi- fonous brood, that feem formed to quell human pride, and reprefs the boafts of fecurity. Mankind have driven the lion, the tiger, and the wolf, from their vicinity; but the fnake and the viper ftill defy their power. Their numbers, however, are thinned by human af- fiduity; and it is poffible fome of the kinds are wholly deftroyed. In none of the countries of Europe are they fufficiently numerous to be truly terrible. The wrious malignity that has been afcribed to European ferpents of old, is now utterly unknown; there are not above three or four kinds that are dangerous, and their ^Seepfl^s poifon operates in all in the fame manner f. The drowfy death, the ftarting of the blood from every pore, the infatiable and burning thirft, the melting down the folid mafs of the whole form into one heap of putrefaftion, faid to be occafioned by the bites of African ferpents, are horrors with which we are entire¬ ly unacquainted. But though we have thus reduced thefe dangers, ha¬ ving been incapable of wholly removing them, in other parts of the world they ftill rage with all their ancient malignity. In the warm countries that lie within the tropic, as well as in the cold regions of the north, where the inhabitants are few, the ferpents propagate in equal proportion. But of all countries, thofe re¬ gions have them in the greateft abundance where the fields are unpeopled and fertile, and where the climate fupplies warmth and humidity. All along the fwampy banks of the river Niger or Oroonoko, where the fun is hot, the forefts thick, and the men but few, the fer¬ pents cling among the branches of the trees in infinite numbers, and carry on an unceafing war againft all other animals in their vicinity. Travellers have allured us, that they have often feen large fnakes twining round the trunk of a tall tree, encompaffing it like a wreath, and thus rifing and defcending at pleafure. We are not, therefore, to rejefl as wholly fabulous the accounts left us by the ancients of the terrible devafta- tions committed by a fingle ferpent. It is probable, in early times, when the arts were little known, and man¬ kind were but thinly fcattered over the earth, that fer¬ pents, continuing undifturbed poffeffors of the foreft, grew to an amazing magnitude; and every other tribe of animals fell before them. It then might havt hap¬ pened, that ferpents reigned the tyrants ef a diftrift Serpent. for centuries together. To animals of this kind, grown by time and rapacity to 100 or 150 feet in length, the lion, the tiger, and even the elephant itfelf, were but feeble opponents. That horrible fsetor, which even the commoneft and the moft harmlefs fnakes are ftill found to diffufe, might, in thefe larger ones, become too powerful for any living being to withftand; and while they preyed without diftindtion, they might thus alfo have poifoned the atmofphere around them. In this manner, having for ages lived in the hidden and un¬ peopled foreft, and finding, as their appetites were more powerful, the quantity of their prey decreafing, it is poffible they might venture boldly from their retreats into the more cultivated parts of the country, and carry confternation among mankind, as they had before de- folation among the lower ranks of nature. We have many hiftories of antiquity, prefenting us fuch a pic¬ ture; and exhibiting a whole nation finking under the ravages of a fingle ferpent. At that time man had not learned the art of uniting the efforts of many to effe& one great purpofe. Oppofing multitudes only added new vidlims to the general calamity, and increafed mu¬ tual embarraffment and terror. The animal was there¬ fore t® be fingly oppofed by him who had the greateft ftrength, the beft armour, and the moft undaunted cou¬ rage. In fuch an encounter, hundreds muft have fal¬ len; till one, more lucky than the reft, by a fortunate blow, or by taking the monfter in its torpid interval, and furcharged with fpoil, might kill, and thus rid his country of the deftroyer. Such was the original occupation of heroes; and thofe who firft obtained that name, from their deftroying the ravagers of the earth, gained it much more defervedly than their fucceffors, who acquired their reputation only for their ikill in de¬ ftroying each other. But as we defeend into more en¬ lightened antiquity, we find thefe animals lefs formi¬ dable, as being attacked in a more fuccefsful manner. We are told, that while Regulus led his army along the banks of the river Bagrada in Africa, an enor¬ mous ferpent difputed his paftage over. We are affured by Pliny, who fays that he bimfelf faw the Ikin, that it was 120 feet long, and that it had deftroyed many of the army. At laft, however, the battering engines were brought out againft it; and thefe affailing it at a diftance, it was foon deftroyed. Its fpoils were car¬ ried to Rome, and the general was decreed an ovation for his fuccefs. There are, perhaps, few fads better afeertained in hiftory than this: an ovation was a re¬ markable honour ; and was given only for fome fignal exploit that did not deferve a triumph : no hiftorian would offer to invent that part of the ftory at leaft, without being fubjed to the moft fflameful detedion. The fltin was kept for feveral years after in the Capi¬ tol ; and Pliny fays he faw it there. At prefent, in¬ deed, fuch ravages from ferpents are fcarce feen in any part of the world ; not but that, in Africa and Ame¬ rica, fome of them are powerful enough to brave the aflaults of men to this day. Nequent expleri corda tuendo Terrililes occulos nillofaque fells peHore. If we take a furvey of ferpents in general, they have marks by which they are diftinguifhed from all* the reft of animated nature. They have the length and the fup- plenefs of the eel* but want fina to fwim with; they have Serpent. S E R [ 8101 ] S E R have the fcaly covering and pointed tail of the lizard, but they want legs to walk with; they have the crawl¬ ing motion of the worm, but, unlike that animal, they have lungs to breathe with: like all the reptile kind, they are refentful when offended ; and nature has fup- plied them with terrible arms to revenge every injury. Though they are pofTeffed of very different degrees of malignity, yet they are all formidable to man, and have a.ftrong fimilitude of form to each other. With refpeft to theirconformation, all ferpents have a very wide mouth in proportion to the fize of the head ; and what is very extraordinary, they can gape and fwallow the head of another animal which is three times as big as their own. However, it is no way furprifing that the fkin of the foake fhould ftretch to receive fo large a morfel; the wonder feems how the jaws could take it in. To ex¬ plain this, it muff be obferved, that the jaws of this animal do not open as ours, in the manner of a pair of hinges, where bones are applied to bones and play upon one another: on the contrary, the ferpent’s jaws are held together at the roots by a ftretching mufcolar fkin; by which means they open as widely as the ani¬ mal choofes to ftretch them, and admit of a prey much thicker than the fnake’s own body. The throat, like ftretching leather, dilates to admit the morfel; the ftomach receives it in part, and the reft remains in the gullet, till putrefaftion and the juices of the ferpent’a body unite to diffolve it. Some ferpents have fangs or canine teeth, and others are without them. The teeth in all are crooked and hollow; and, by a peculiar contrivance, are capable of being eredted or depreffed at pleafure. The eyes of all ferpents are fmall, if compared to the length of the body; and though differently co¬ loured in different kinds, yet the appearance of all is malign and heavy; and, from their known qualities, they ftrike the imagination with the idea of a creature meditating mifchief. In fome, the upper eye-lid is wanting, and the ferpent winks only with that below; in others, the animal has a niftitating membrane or fkin, refembling that which is found in birds, which keeps the eye clean and preferves the fight. The fub- ftance of the eye in all is hard and horny; the cryftal- line humour occupying a great part of the globe. The holes for hearing are very vifitle in all: but there are no conduits forfmelling; though it is proba¬ ble that fome of them enjoy that fenfe in tolerable perfeftion. The tongue in all thefe animals is long and forky. It is compofed of two long flelhy fubftances, which terminate in lharp points, and are very pliable. At the root it is connedled very ftrongly to the neck by two tendons, that give it a variety of play. Some of the viper kind have tongues a fifth part of the length of their bodies; they are continually darting them out; but they are entirely harmlefs, and only terrify thofe ■who are ignorant of the real fituation of their poifon. If from the jaws we go on to the gullet, we (hall find it very wide for the animal’s fize, and capable of being diftended to a great degree; at the bottom of this lies the ftomach, which is not fo capacious, and receives only a part of the prey, while the reft conti¬ nues in the gullet for digeftion. When the fubftance in the ftomach is diffolved into chyle, it paffes into the inteftines, and from thence goes to nourilhment, or to be excluded by the vent. Like moil other animals, ferpents are furniihed with lungs, which we fuppofe are ferviceable in breathing, though we cannot perceive the manner in which this operation is performed; for though ferpents are often feen apparently to draw in their breath, yet we cannot find the fmalleft figns of their ever refpiring it again. Their lungs, however, are long and large, and doubt- lefs are neceffary to promote their languid circulation. The heart is formed as in the tortoife, the frog, and the lizard kinds, fo as to work without the alhftance of the lungs. It is fingle; the greateft part of the blood flowing from the great vein to the great artery by the (horteft courfe. By this •ontrivance of nature we eafily gather two confequences; that fnakes are amphibious, being equally capable of living on land and in the water; and that alfo they are torpid in win¬ ter, like the bat, the lizard, and other animals formed in the fame manner. The vent in thefe animals ferves for the emiffion of the urine and the fasces, and for the purpofes of gene¬ ration. The inllrument of generation in the male is double, being forked like the tongue : the ovaries in the female are double alfo; and the aperture is very large, in order to receive the double inftrument of the male. They copulate in their retreats ; and it is faid by the ancients, that in this fituation they appear like one ferpent with two heads. As the body of this animal is long, flender, and ca¬ pable of bending in every direftion, the number of joints in the back-bone are numerous beyond what one would imagine. In the generality of quadrupeds, they amount to not above 30 or 40; in the ferpent kind they amount to 145 from the head to the vent, and 25 more from that to the tail. The number of thefe joints muft give the back-bone a furprifing degree of pliancy; but this is ftill increafed by the manner in which each of thefe joints are locked into the other. In man and quadrupeds, the flat furfaces of the bones are laid one againft the other, and bound tight by finews; but in ferpents, the bones play one within the other like ball and focket, fo that they have full motion upon each other in every direftion. Though the number of joints in the back-bone is great, yet that of the ribs is ftill greater; for, from the head to the vent, there are two ribs to every joint, which makes their number 290 in all. Thefe ribs are furnifhed with mufcles, four in number; which being inferted into the head, run along to the end of the tail, and give the animal great ftrength and agility in all its motions. The (kin alfo contributes to its motions, being com¬ pofed of a number of fcales, united to each other by a tranfparent membrane, which grows harder as it grows older, until the animal changes, which is generally done twice a-year. This cover then burfts near the head, and the ferpent creeps from it by an undulatory mo¬ tion, in a new (kin, much more vivid than the former. If the old (lough be then viewed, every fcale will be diftinftly feen like a piece of net-work, and will be found greateft where the part of the body they covered was largeft. There is much geometrical ncatnefs io the difpofal o£.‘ Serpent. S E R r 8102 S E R of the ferpent’s fcales, for aflifting the animal’s finu- ' ous motion. As the edges of the foremoft fcales lie ifver the ends of their following fcales, fo thofe edges, when the fcales are erefted, which the animal has a power of doing in a fmall degree, catch in the ground, like the nails in the wheel of a chariot, and fo promote and facilitate the animal’s progreffive motion. The ere&ing thefe fcales is by means of a multitude of di- ftinft mufcles with which each is fupplied, and one end of which is tacked each to the middle of the forego¬ ing. In fome of the ferpent kind there is the exafteft fymmetry in thefe fcales ; in others they are difpofed more irregularly. In fome there are larger fcales on the belly, and often anfwering to the number of ribs; in others, however, the animal is without them. Upon this flight difference, Linnaeus has founded his diftinc- tions of the various claffes of the ferpent tribe. When we come to compare ferpents with each other, the firft great diftin&ion appears in their fize; no other tribe of animals differing fo widely in this particular. This tribe of animals, like that of fiflies, feems to have no bounds put to their growth: their bones are in a great meafure cartilaginous, and they are confequently capable of great extenflon: the older, therefore, a fer¬ pent becomes, the larger it grows; and as they feem to live to a great age, they arrive at an enormous fize. Leguat affures us, that he faw one in Java that was 50 feet long. Carli mentions their growing to above 40 feet; and we have now the fkin of one in the Britifli Mufseum that meafures 32. Mr Wentworth, who had large concerns in the Berbices in America, affures us, that in that country they grow to an enormous length. He one day fent out a foldier, with an Indian, to kill wild-fowl for the table ; and they accordingly went fome miles from the fort: in purfuing their game, the Indian, who generally marched before, beginning to tire, went to reft himfelf upon the fallen trunk of a tree, as he fuppofed it to be ; but when he was juft going to fit down, the enormous monfter began to move; and the poor favage perceiving that he had ap¬ proached a boa, the greateft of all the ferpent kind, dropped down in an agony. The foldier, who percei¬ ved at fome diftance what had happened, levelled at the ferpent’s head, and by a lucky aim ftiot it dead : however, he continued his fire until he was affured that the animal was killed; and then going up to refeue his companion, who was fallen motionlefs by its fide, he, to his aftonifliment, found him dead likewife, being killed by the fright. Upon his return to the fort, and telling what had happened, Mr Wentworth ordered the animal to be brought up, when it was meafured, and found to be 36 feet long. He hadtheflein fluffed, and then fent to Europe as a prefent to the prince of Orange, in whofe cabinet it is now to be feen at the Hague; but the Hein is flmink, by drying, two or three feet. In the Eaft Indies they grow alfo to an enormous fize, particularly in the ifland of Java, where, we are affured, that one of them will deftroy and devour a buffalo. See Boa. But it is happy for mankind that the rapacity of thefe frightful creatures is often their punifhment; for when¬ ever any of the ferpent kind have gorged themfelves in this manner, whenever their body is feen particularly diftended with food, they then become torpid, and may be approached and deftroyed with fafety. Patient of hunger to a furprifing degree, whenever they feize and fwallow their prey, they feem, like furfeited glut¬ tons, unwieldy, ftupid, helplefs, and fleepy: they at that time feek fome retreat, where they may lurk for fevcral days together, and digeft their meal in fafety : the fmalleft effort at that time is capable of deftroying them; they can fcarce make any refin¬ ance ; and they are equally unqualified for flight or oppofition : that is the happy opportunity of attack¬ ing them with fuccefs ; at that time the naked Indian himfelf does not fear to affail them. But it is other- wife when this fleepy interval of digeftion is over; they then iffue, with fami/hed appetites, from their retreats, and with accumulated terrors, while every animal of the foreft flies before them. Carli deferibes the long ferpent of Congo, making its track through the tallgrafs, like mowers in a fum- mer’s day. He could not without terror behold whole lines of grafs lying levelled under the fweepof its tail. In this manner it moved forward with great rapidity, until it found a proper fituation frequented by its prey : there it continued to lurk, in patient expe&ation; and would have remained for weeks together, had it not been difturbed by the natives. Other creatures have a choice in their provifion: but the ferpent indiferiminately preys upon all; the buf¬ falo, the tiger, and the gazelle. One would think that the porcupine’s quills might be fufficient to pro- tedl it; but whatever has life, ferves to appeafe the hunger of thefe devouring creatures : porcupines, with all their quills, have frequently been found in their fto- machs when killed and opened ; nay, they moft fre¬ quently are feen to devour each other. A life of favage hoftility in the foreft, offers the imagination one of the moft tremendous pidures in nature. In thofe burning countries, where the fun dries up every brook for hundreds of miles round; when what had the appearance of a great river in the rainy feafon, becomes, in fummer, one dreary bed of fand ; in thofe countries, a lake that is never dry, or a brook that is perennial, is confidered by every ani¬ mal as the greateft convenience of nature. When they have difeovered this, no dangers can deter them from attempting to flake their thirft. Thus the neigh¬ bourhood of a rivulet, in the heart of the tropical con¬ tinents, is generally the place where all the hoftile tribes of nature draw up for the engagement. On the banks of this little envied fpot, thoufands of animals of various kinds are feen venturing to quench their thirft, or preparing to feize their prey. The elephants are perceived in a long line, marching from the darker parts of the foreft; the buffalos are there, depending upon numbers for fecurity ; the gazells relying folely upon their fwiftnefs; the lion and tiger waiting a pro¬ per opportunity to feize ; but chiefly the larger fer¬ pents are upon guard there, and defend the ac¬ cedes of the lake. Not an hour paffes without fome dreadful combat; but the ferpent, defended by its fcales, and naturally capable of fuftaining a multitude of wounds, is, of all others, the moft formidable. It is the moft wakeful alfo; for the whole tribe fleep with their eyes open, and are confequently for ever upon . S E R S«rpent. t!ie watch; fo that, till their rapacity is fatisfied, ~~"few other animals will venture to approach their fla- tion. But though thefe animals are of all others the mod voracious ; and though the morfel which they fwallow without chewing, is greater than what any other creature, either by land or water, can devour; yet no animals upon earth bear abllinence fo long as they. A Angle meal, with many of the nake kind, feems to be the adventure of a fea- fon ; it is an occurrence, of which they have been for weeks, nay fometimes for months, in patient ex- peftation. When they have feized their prey, their induftry foT feveral weeks is entirely difcontinued ; the fortunate capture of an hour often fatisfies them for the remaining period of their annual adlivity. As their blood is colder than that of mod other terredrial ani¬ mals, and as it circulates but flowly through their bo¬ dies, fo their powers of digedion are but feeble. Their prey continues, for a long time, partly in thedomach, partly in the gullet, and is often feen in part hang¬ ing out of the mouth. In this manner it digeds by degrees; and in proportion as the part below is dif- folved, the part above is taken in. It is not therefore till this tedious operation is entirely performed, that the ferpent renews its appetite and its aftivity. But fhould any accident prevent it from ifluing once more from its cell, it dill can continue to bear famine, for •'‘‘‘weeks, months; nay for years together. Vipers f are of¬ ten kept in boxes for fix or eight months, without any food whatever ; and there are little ferpents fometimes fent over to Europe from Grand Cairo, that live for feveral years in glades, and never eat at all, nor even ftain theglafs with their excrements. If, leaving the confideration of their appetites, we come to compare ferpents as to their voices, fome are found filent, fome have a peculiar cry ; but hiding is the found which they mod commonly fend forth, ei¬ ther as a call to their kind, or as a threat to their ene¬ mies. In the countries where they abound, they are generally filent in the middle of the day, when they are obliged to retire from the heat of the climate; but as the cool of the evening approaches, they are then heard iduing from their cells, with continued hidings; and fuch is the variety of their notes, that fome have adured us they very much refemble the mufic of an Englidigrove. This fome will hardly credit: at any rate, fuch notes, however pleafing, can give but very little delight, when we call to mind the malignity of the mindrel. If confidered, indeed, as they anfwer the animal’s own occadons, they will be found well adap¬ ted to its nature, and fully anfwering the purpofes of terrifying fuch as would venture to offend it. With refpeft to motion, fome ferpents, particularly thofe of the viper kind, move dowly ; while others •dart with amazing fwiftnefs. The motion in all is fi- milar; but the ftrength of body in fome gives a very different appearance. The viper, that is but a dow feeble-bodied animal, makes way in a heavy undulating manner; advancing its head, then drawing up its tail behind, and bending the body into a bow ; then from the fpot where the head and tail were united, advan¬ cing the head forward as before. This, which is the motion of all ferpents, is very different from that of the earth-worm or the naked fnail. The ferpent, as S E R was faid above, has a back-bone, with numerous Serpent. joints; and this bone the animal has a power of bend- ing in every direction, but without being able to fhorten or lengthen it at pleafure. The earth-worm, on the other hand, has no back-bone ; but its body is compofed of rings, which, like a barber’s puff, it can lengthen or fhorten as it finds neceffary. The earth¬ worm, therefore, in order to move forward, lengthens the body; then by the fore part clings to the ground where it has reached, and then contrails and brings up its rear: then, when the body is thus fhortened, the fore-part is lengthened again for another progref- fion, and fo on. The ferpent, inflead of fhortening the body, bends it into an arch ; and this is the prin¬ cipal difference between ferpentine and vermicular pro- greffion. We have inftanced this motion in the viper, as mofl eafily difcerned ; but there are many ferpents that dart with fuch amazing fwiftnefs, that they appear ra¬ ther to leap than crawl. It is moft probable, how¬ ever, that no ferpent can dart upon even ground far¬ ther than its own length at one effort. Our fears in¬ deed may increafe the force of their fpeed, which is fometimes found fo fatal. We are told by fome, that they will dart to a very great diflance ; but this we have never been able to ascertain. The manner of pro- greffion in the fwifteft ferpent we know, which is the jaculus, is by inflantly coiling itfelf upon its tail, and darting from thence to its full extent; then carrying the tail, as quick as lightning, to the head ; coiling and [darting again: and by this means proceeding with extreme rapidity, without ever quitting the ground. Indeed, if we confider the length and the weaknefs of the back-bone in all thefe animals ; if we regard the make of the vertebrae, in which we fhall find the junflures all formed to give play, and none to give power ; we cannot be of opinion that they have a faculty of fpringing from the ground, as they entirely want a fulcrum, if we may fo exprefs it, from whence to take their fpring ; the whole body being compofed of unfupported mufdes and joints that are yielding. Though all ferpents are amphibious, fome are much fonder of the water than others; and, though deftitute of fins or gills, remain at the bottom, or fwim along the furface with great eafe. From their internal ftruc- ture, we fee how well adapted they are for either clement; and how capable their blood is of circula¬ ting at the bottom, as freely as in the frog or the tor- toife. They can, however, endure to live in frefli water only ; for fait is an effedlual bane to the whole tribe. The greateft ferpents are moft ufually found in frefh water, either choofing it as their favourite element, or finding their prey in fuch places in the greateft abun¬ dance. But that all will live and fwim in liquids, ap¬ pears from an experiment of Redi ; who put a ferpent into a large glafs veffel of wine, where it lived fwim- ming about fix hours ; though, when it was by force immerfed and put under that liquid, it lived only one hour and an half. He put another in common water- where it lived three days; but when it was kept un¬ der water, it lived only about j 2 hours. Their mo¬ tion there, however, is perfedlly the reverfe of what it is upon land ; for, in order to fupport themfelves upon an element lighter than their bodies, they are obliged to increafe their furface in a very artificial' man* [ 8103 '] S E R r 8104 ] S E R 'Serpent, manner. On earth their windings are perpendicular to the furface ; in water they are parallel to it: in other words, if a perfon fliould wave his hand up and down, it will give an idea of the animal’s pro- -grefs on land; if to the right and left, it will give fome idea of its progrefs on the water. Some ferpents have a moft horrible faetor attending them, which is alone capable of intimidating the brave. This proceeds from two glands near the vent, like thofe in the weafel or polecat; and, like thofe animals, in proportion as they are excited by rage or by fear, the feent grows (Ironger. It would feem, how¬ ever, that fuch ferpents as are moft venomous are lead offenfive in this particular; fince the rattlefnake and the viper have no fmell whatever; nay, we are told, that at Calecut and Cranganon, in the Eaft In¬ dies, there are fome very noxious ferpents, who are fo far from being difagreeable, that their excrements are fought after, and kept as the moft pleafing perfume. The Efculapian ferpent is alfo of this number. Some ferpents bring forth their young alive, as the viper; fome bring forth eggs, which are hatched by the heat of their fituation, as the common black fnake, and the majority of the ferpent tribe. When a reader, ignorant of anatomy, is told, that fome of thofe ani- mali produce their young alive, and that fome pro¬ duce eggs only, he is apt to fuppofe a very great dif¬ ference in the internal conformation, which makes fuch a variety in the manner of bringing forth. But this is not the cafe : thefe animals are internally alike, in whatever manner they produce their young ; and the variety in their bringing forth is rather a flight than a real diferiminatiom The only difference is, that the viper hatches her eggs, and brings them to maturity, within her body ; the fnake is more premature in her produ&ions, and fends her eggs into the light fome time before the young ones are capable of leaving the (hell. Thus, if either are opened, the eggs will be found in the womb, covered with their membranous ihell, and adhering to each other like large beads on a ftritjg. In the eggs of both, the young ones will be found, though at different ftages of maturity: thofe of the viper will crawl and bite in the moment the Ihell that inclofes them is broke open ; thofe of the fuake are not yet arrived at their perfedt form. Father Labat took a ferpent of the viper kind that was nine feet long, and ordered it to be opened in his prefence. He then faw the manner in which the eggs of thefe animals lie in the womb. In this creature there were fix eggs, each of the fize of a goofe egg, but longer, more pointed, and covered with a mem¬ branous Ikin, by which alfo they were united to each otherr Each of thefe eggs contained from 13 to 15 young ones, about fix inches long, and as thick as a goofe-quill. Though the female from whence they were taken was fpotted, the young feemed to have a variety of colours very different from the parent ; and this led the traveller to fuppofe that the colour was no charafteriftic mark among ferpents. Thefe little mif- chievous animals were no fooner let loofe from the fliell, than they crept about, and put themfelves into a threat¬ ening pofture, coiling themfelves up and biting the flick with which he was deftroying them. In this manner he killed 74 young ones ; thofe that were contained in ene of the eggs efcaped at the place where the female was killed, by the burfting of the egg and their get- .Serpent. ting among the bufhes. r The laft diftinftion that we fhall mention, but the moft material among ferpents is, that fome are veno¬ mous, and fome, inoffenfive. The various calamities that the poifon of ferpents is capable of producing, are not only inflidted by the animal itfclf, but by men more mifehievous even than ferpents, who prepare their venom to deftroy each other. With this the fa- vages poifon their arms, and alfo prepare their re¬ vengeful potions. The ancients were known to pre- ferve it for the purpofes of filicide ; and even among femi-barbarous countries at this day, the venom of fnakes is ufed as a philtre. But though the poifon be juftly terrible to us, it has been given to very good purpofes for the animal’s own proper fupport and defence. Without this, fer¬ pents, of all other animals, would be the moft expofed and defencelefs ; without feet for efcaping a purfuit, without teeth capable of inflidting a dangerous wound, or without ftrength for refiftance; incapable, from their fize, of finding fecurity in very fmall retreats like the earth-worm, and difgufting all from their defor¬ mity, nothing was left for them but a fpeedy extirpa¬ tion. But furnifhed as they are with powerful poifon, every rank of animals approach them with dread, and never feize them but at an advantage. Nor is this all the benefit they derive from it. The ma¬ lignity of a few ferves for the prote&ion of all. Tho' not above a tenth of their number are adlually ve¬ nomous, yet the fimilitude they all bear to each other, excites a general terror of the whole tribe ; and the uncertainty of their enemies in which the poifon chiefly refides, makes even the moft harmlefs formidable. Thus Providence feems to have adled with double pre¬ caution : it has given fome of them poifon for the ge¬ neral defence of a tribe naturally feeble ; but it has thinned the numbers of thofe which are venomous, left they fhould become too powerful for the reft of ani¬ mated nature. From thefe noxious qualities in the ferpent kind, it is no wonder that not only man, but beafts and birds, carry on an unceafing war againft them. The ich¬ neumon of the Indians, and the peccary f of America, + See the Is deftroy them in great numbers. Thefe animals have art‘cI*4 Su| the art of feizing them near the head ; and it is faid ^"erra J that they can Ikin them with great dexterity. The j vulture and the eagle alfo prey upon them in great abundance ; and often, foufing down from the clouds, drop upon a long ferpent, which they fnatch up ftruggling and writhing in the air. Dogs alfo are bred up to oppofe them. Father Feuillee tells us, that being in the woods of Martinico, he was attacked by a large ferpent, which he could not eafily avoid, when his dog immediately came to his relief, and feized the aflailant with great courage. The ferpent entwined him, and preffed him fo violently, that the blood came out of his mouth, and yet the dog never ceafed till he had tore it to pieces. The dog was not fenfible of his wounds during the fight; but foon after his head fwelled prodigioufly, and he lay on the ground as dead. But his mafter having found hard by a banana tree, he applied its juice, mixed with treacle, to the wounds; which recovered the dog, and quickly healed his fores. The Serpent. See Pfjl!’. S E R The Pfylli of old were famous for charming and deftroying ferpentsf. Some moderns pretend to the fame an. Cafaubon fays that he knew a man who coaid at any time fummon too ferpents together, and draw them into the fire. Upon a certain occafion, when one of them, bigger than the reft, would not be brought in, he only repeated his charm, and it came forward, like the reft, to fubmit to the flames. Phi- loftratus deferibes particularly how the Indians charm ferpents “ They take a fcarlet robe, embroidered [ 8:05 ] S E R neck, and a tail. It has fix holes, by means whereof Serpent it takes in the compafs of two oftaves. Servant Serpent-£*tw. See Cornu Ammonis. !l_ iSe#-Serpent. See StA-Serpent. SERPENTARIA, snake-root ; a fpecies of Aristolochia. jSERPENTARIUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere, confiding, according to different authors, of 25, 29, or even 69 ftars. SERPENTINE, in general,- denotes any thing with golden letters, and fpread it before a ferpentV that refembles a ferpent; hence the worm or pipe of a hole. The golden letters have a fafeinating power; ftill, twifted in a fpiral manner, is termed a ferpentine and by looking ftedfaftly, the ferpent’s eyes are over- 'worm. come and laid afleep.” Thefe and many other feats SERRATED, in general, fomething indented or have been often pra&ifed upon thefe animals by art- notched in the manner of a faw; a term much ufed in the ful men, who had firft prepared the ferpents for their defeription of the leaves of plants. See Botany, p.1296. exercife, and then exhibited them as adventitioufly af- SERRATULA, saw-wort ; a genus of the po- fembled at their call. In India there is nothing fo lygamia sequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia common as dancing ferpents, which are carried about clafs of plants. There are 16 fpecies ; the moft re- 1 a broad flat vcffel, fomewhat refembling a fieve. Thefe ereft and put themfelves in motion at the word of command. When their keeper fings a flow tune, they feem by their heads to keep time; when he fings a quicker meafure, they appear to move more brifle and lively. All animals have a certain degree of do¬ cility ; and we find that ferpents themfelves can be brought to move and approach at the voice of their matter. From this trick, fuccefsfully praftifed before the ignorant, it is moft probable has arifen moft ©f the boafted pretenfious which fome have made to charming of ferpents ; an art to which the native Americans pre¬ tend at this very day, but the exiftence of which we are affured of by Mr Hafielquift amongft the native Egyptians. Though the generality of mankind regard this for- markable of which are, 1. The tinftoria, or dyer’s faw-wort, growing naturally in woods and paflures in many places of Britain. The leaves are lyre-fhaped, with winged clefts ; the terminating fegment very large ; the florets uniform : blofloms purple, but fome- times white. This is much ufed by the dyers to give a yellow colour; but being inferior to the yellow'- weed, its ufe is confined to the coarfer woollen cloths. —Goats eat it; horfes are not fond of it ; fheep, fwine, and cows, refufe it. 2. The arvenfis, corn faw-wort, or way-thiftle, has toothed, thorny leaves ^ bloflbms, pale purple. It grows wild in corn-fields and ,road-fides, and is faid to yield a very pure fixed alkali when burnt. Goats eat it; neither-cows, horCes, fheep, nor fwine, are fond of it. SERRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to feve- midable race with horror, yet there have been fome ral mufcles, from their refemblance to a faw. See nations, and there are fome at this day, that con- Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles. fider them with veneration and regard. The ado- SERVANT, a term of relation, fignifying a perfon ration paid by the ancient Egyptians to a ferpent, who owes and pays obedience for a certain time to is well known : many of the nations at prefent along another in quality of a mafter. the weftern coaft of Africa retain the fame unaccouat- As to the feveral forts of fervants : It was obferved. able veneration. Upon the gold and Have coafts, flranger, upon entering the cottages of the natives, is often furprifed to fee the roof fwarming with ferpents, that cling there without molefting and unmolefted by the natives. But his furprife will increafe upon going farther fouthward to the kingdom of Widah, when he finds that a ferpent is the god of the country. This animal, which travellers deferibe as a huge overgrown creature, has its habitation, its temple, and its priefts. Thefe imprefs the vulgar with an opinion of its vir¬ tues ; and numbers are daily feen to offer not only under the article Liberty, that pure and proper fla- very does not, nay cannot, fubfift in Britain; fuch, we mean, whereby an abfolute and unlimited power is given to the mafter over the life and fortune of the flave. And indeed it is repugnant to reafon, and the principles of natural law, that fuch a ftate fhould fub¬ fift any where. The three origins of the right of flavery, affigned by Juftinian, are all of them built upon falfe foundations. As, firft, flavery is held to arife jure gentium, from a ftate of captivity in war ; whence flaves are called viancipia, quaf manu capti. their goods, their provifions, and their prayers, at the The conqueror, fay the civilians, had a right to the fhrine of their hideous deity, but alfo their wives and daughters. Thefe the priefts readily accept of, and after fome days of penance, return them to their fup- pliants, much benefited by the ferpent’s fuppofed em¬ braces. Serpent, a mufical inftrument, ferving as a bafs to life of his captive ; and, having fpared that, has a right to deal with him as he pleafes. But it is an un¬ true pofition, when taken generally, that, by the law of nature or nations, a man may kill his enemy: he has only a right to kill him in particular cafes ; in cafes of abfolute neceflity, for felf-defence ; and it is the cornet or fmall fhawm, to fuftain a chorus of plain this abfolute neceffity did not fubfift, fince the fingers in a large edifice.—It has its name ferpent, vi6tor did not a&ually kill him, but made him pri- from its figure; asconfifting of feveral folds or wreaths, foner. War is itfelf juftifiable only on principles of which ferve to reduce its length, which would other- felf-prefervation ; and therefore it gives no other right wife be fix or feven feet.—It is ufually covered with over prifoners, but merely to difable them from doing leather; and confifts of three parts, a mouth-piece, a harm to us, by confining their perfons : much lefs yox,. X. 1 40 M can S E R [ 8106 ] S E R &*vant. Gaa ,'t give a right to kill, torture, abufe, plun- ' ~ der, or even to enflave, an enemy, when the war is over. Since, therefore, the right of making flaves by captivity, depends on a fuppofed right of (laughter, that foundation failing, the confequence drawn from it jnuft fail likewife. &at, zdly, it is faid, that fla- very may begin jure civili; when one man fells him- felf to another. This, if only meant of contra&s to ferve or work for another, is very juft : but when ap¬ plied to drift flavery, in the fenfe of the laws of old Rome or modern Barbary, is alfo impofiible. Every fale implies a price, a quid pro quo, an equivalent given to the feller in lieu of what he transfers to the buyer : but what equivalent can be given for life and liberty, both of which (in abfolute flavery) are held to be in the mailer’s difpofal ? His property alfo, the very price he feems to receive, devolves ipfo fa£io to his mafter, the inftant he becomes his flave. In this cafe, therefore, the buyer gives nothing, and the feller re¬ ceives nothing: of what validity, then, can a fale be, which deftroys the very principles upon which all fales are founded ? Laftly, we are told, that befides thefe two ways by which flaves/a/tf, or are acquired, they may alfo be hereditary : fervi nafcuntur, the children of acquired flaves are, jure nature, by a negative kind of birthright, flaves alfo. But this, being built on the two former rights, muft fall together with them. If neither captivity, nor the fale of one’s felf, can by the law of nature and reafon reduce the parent to fla¬ very, much lefs can they reduce the offspring. Upon thefe principles the law of England abhors, and will not endure the exiftence of, flavery within this nation : fo that, when an attempt was made to intro- Blackft'. duce it, by ftatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 3. which ordained, Comment., that all idle vagabonds fhould be made flaves, and fed upon bread, water, or fmall drink, and refufe-meat; fhould wear a ring of iron round their necks, arms, or legs; and (hould be compelled, by beating, chaining, or otherwife, to perform the work afligned them, were it ever fo vile ; the fpirit of the nation could not brook this condition, even in the moft abandoned rogues; and therefore this ftatute was repealed in two years afterwards. And now it is laid down, that a Have or negro, the inftant he lands in Britain, be¬ comes a freeman ; that is, the law will proteft him in the enjoyment of his perfon, and his property. Yet, with regard to any right which the mafter may have lawfully acquired to the perpetual fervice of John or Thomas, this will remain exaftly in the fame (late as before : for this is no more than the fame date of fub- jeftion for life, which every apprentice fubmits to for the fpace of feven years, or fometimes for a longer term. Hence, too, it follows, that the infamous and unchriftian prafticeofwith-holdingbaptifm from negro-fervants,left they (hould thereby gain their liberty, is totally with¬ out foundation, as well as without excufe. The law of England afts upon general and extenfive principles: it gives liberty, rightly underftood, that is, proteftion, to a Jew, a Turk, or a Heathen, as well as to thofe who profefs the true religion of Chrift; and it will not diflulve a civil obligation between mafter and fer- vant, on account of the alteration of faith in either of the parties: but the flave is entitled to the fame pro¬ teftion in England before, as after baptifm; and, whatever fervice the Heathen negro owed of right to his America* mafter, by general, not by local law, the fame (whatever it be) is he bound to render when- brought to England and made a Chriftjan. 1. The firft fort of fervants, therefore, acknowledged by the laws of England, are menial fervants; fo called from being intra mxnia, or domeftics. The contraft between them and their mafters arifes upon the hiring. If the hiring be general, without any particular time limited, the law conftrues it to be a hiring for a year; upon a principle of natural equity, that the fervant (hall ferve, and the mafter maintain him, throughout all the revolutions of the refpeftive feafons; as well when there is work to be done, as when there is not: but the contraft may be made for any larger or fmal- ler term. All Angle men between 12 years old and 60, and married ones under 30 years of age, and all Angle women between 12 and 40, not having any vi- fible livelihood, are compellable by two jullices to go out to fervice in hulbandry or certain fpeciAc trades, for the promotion of honeft induftry : and no mafter can put away his fervant, or fervant leave his mafter, after being fo retained, either before or at the end of his term, without a quarter’s warning ; unlefs upon reafonablecaufe, to be allowed by a jufticeof the peace: but they may part by confent, or makea fpecial bargain. 2. Another fpecies of fervants are called apprentices, (from apprendre, to learn) ; and are ufually bound for a term of years, by deed indented or indentures, to ferve their mafters, and be maintained and inftrufted by them. This is ufually done to perfons of trade,. in order to learn their art and myftery; and fometimes very large fums are given with them, as a premium for fuch their inftruftion : but it may be done to huf- bandmen, nay to gentlemen, and others.. And chil¬ dren of poor perfons may be apprenticed out by the overfeers, with confent of two juftices, till 24 years of age, to fuch perfons as are thought Atting ; who are alfo compellable to take them : and it is held, that gentlemen of fortune, and clergymen, are equally liable with others to fuch compulfion : for which pur- pofes our ftatutes have made the indentures obligatory, even though fuch parifli-apprentice be a minor. Ap¬ prentices to trades may be difeharged on reafonable caufe, either at the requeft of themfelves or mafters, at the quarter-feffions, or by one juftice, with appeal to the feflions ; who may, by the equity of the ftatute, if they think it reafonable, direft reftitution of a rate¬ able (hare of the money given with the apprentice : and parifh-apprentices may be difeharged in the fame manner, by two juftices. But if an apprentice, with whom lefs than 10 pounds hath been given, runs away from his mafter, he is compellable to ferve out his time of abfence, or make fatisfaftion for the fame, at any time within feven years after the expiration of bis original contraft. 3. A third fpecies of fervants are labourers, who are only hired by the day or the week, and do not live intra nnxnia, as part of the family ; concerning whom the ftatutes before-cited have made many very good regulations; 1. Direfting that all perfops who have no viAble effefts may be compelled to work : 2. Defining how long they muft continue at work in fummer and in winter : 3. Punilhing fuch as leave or defert their work : 4. Empowering the juftices at fef- Cobs, ct the Iheriff of the county, to fettle their wages; S £ R [ 8107 ] S E S •Servetifti sikJ, j1. Inflifting penalties on fuch as either give or II . exa6t more wages than are fo fettled. Seivia‘ 4. There is yet a fourth fpecies of fervants, if they may be fo called, being rather in a fuperior, a mini- fterial, capacity ; fuch as Jlswards, fattors, and bailiffs: whom, however, the law confiders as fervants pro tem~ pore, with regard to fuch of their a£b as affedl their mafter’s or employer’s property. As to the mariner in which this relation affecis the mailer, the fervant himfelf, or third parties, fee the article Master and Servant. For the condition of fervants by the law of Scot¬ land, fee Law, N° clxi. 34, 35. SERVETISTS, a name given to the modern An- titrinitarians, from their being fuppofed to be the fol¬ lowers of Michael Servetus; who, in the year 1553, was burnt at Geneva, together with his books. SERVETUS (Michael), an ingenious and learned Spaniard, born in 1509 at Viileneuva in Arragon. He ftudied the civil law at Touloufe, where he began to read the Scriptures, and to be fond of Antitrinita- rian notions; fo that after he had been two or three years there, he refolved to retire into Germany and fet up for a reformer. He there printed two tradts, De Trinitatis erroribus, and Dialogorum de Trinit ate libri duo; which raifed a great tumult among the German divines, and fpread his name throughout Eu¬ rope. After publilhing thefe works, Servetus return¬ ed to Paris, where he lludied phyfic, and was admit¬ ted a do&or of phyfic into the univerfity there. All this while Calvin the reformer, who was the head of the church at Geneva, kept up a correfpondcnce with Servetfis by letters; for he tells ns, that he endea¬ voured for the fpace of fixteen years to reclaim that phyfician from his errors. Servetus confulted him on ' many occafions, and fent him a MS. to have his opi¬ nion of it; a confidence which Calvin made an unge¬ nerous and bafe ufe of: for he fent this MS. toge¬ ther with the letters he had received from him, con¬ taining heretical opinions, to the magiftrates of Ly¬ ons, where Servetus refided, who thereupon dillrefled him. This unfortunate man made his efcape, and fled to Vienne in Dauphiny ; but there, by means of Calvin’s correfpondence with fome principal divines, he was put in prifon. Calvin now, under pretence of a reconciliation, invited him, when he was fet at li¬ berty, to retire to Geneva : but he was fcarce arrived there, when, to the eternal difgrace of that reformer, he accuftd him of herefy ; and by continna) preach¬ ings and declamations on the danger the true reli¬ gion was in from fuch impoftors, he hurried the ma- gifirates into an unjuft fentcnce againft him; which was as cruelly executed, for he was burnt alive in 1553. ■—Servetus was a man of great acutcnefs, of prodi¬ gious learning, and fo admirably fleilled in his own profdfion, that he appears to have had fome obfcure conception of the circulation of the blood. There are feveral of his books extant; the fcarcelt of which are, I. De Trinitatis Erroribus, lib. vii. 2. Dialogorum de Trinhate, lib. ii. 3. De JuJUtia Regni Chrijli Ca- pitula, lib. iv. Thefe works are very fcarce, becaufe .both Calvin and the Papirts took great pains in burn¬ ing all the copies they could find. SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, bound¬ ed on the north by the rivers Danube and Save, which feparate it from Hungary ; on the call, by Bulgaria ; Service on the weft, by Bofnia ; and on the fouth, by Alba- Sefam!um nia and Macedonia. It is about 190 miles in length * from call to weft ; 95 in breadth from north to fouth ; and is divided into four fangiacates. Two of thefe were ceded to the Chriftians in 1718, who united them into one. Th*S“continued till 1739, when the Turks were vidortous; and then they were abandoned to the Turks by the treaty of Belgrade. Belgrade is the ca¬ pital town. SERVICE, in law, is a duty which a tenant, on account of his fee, owes to his lord. There are many divifions of fervices; as, I. Into perfonal, where fomething is to be done by the tenant in perfon, as homage and fealty. 2. Real, fuch as wards, marriages, &c. 3. Accidental, including he- riots, reliefs, and the like. 4. Entire, where, on the alienation of any psrt of the lands by a tenant, the fervices become multiplied. 5. Frank-fervice, which was performed by freemen, who w'ere not obliged to perform any bafe fervice, but only to find a man and horfe to attend the lord into the army or to court. 6. Knight’s fervice, by which lands were anciently held of the king, on paying homage, fervice in war, &c. ServiCe-TVcc. See Sorbus. SERV1TES, a religious order in the church of Rome, founded about the year 1233, by feven Flo¬ rentine merchants, who, with the approbation of the bifttop of Florence, renounced the world, and lived together in a religious community on mount Senar, two leagues from that city. SERVITOR, in the univerfily of Oxford, a ftudent who attends on another for his maintenanceandlearning. SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or ra¬ ther flave. Servitude, in Scots law. See there, N° clxx. SERVIUS (Maurus Honoratus), a celebrated grammarian and critic of antiquity, who flourifhed about the time of Arcadius and Honorius; now chiefly known by his Commentaries on Virgil. There is alfo extant a piece of Servius upon the feet of verfes and the quantity of fyllables, called Centwietrum. SERUM, a thin, tranfparent, faltilh liquor, which makes a confiderable part of the mafs of blood. See Anatomy, n° 389,-Air, n° 48, and Blood. SESAMOIDEA OSSA, certain fmall bones fonne- what refemhling the feeds of fefamum, whence their name. They are placed at the under part of the bones of the laft joints of the fingers and toes. SESAMUM, oily grain, in botany, a genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. The fpecies are, 1 The orientale, with oblong, oval, entire bafes: it is cultivated in great plenty in the Levant, but is fuppofed to have been brought there from India.' It is an annual plant, ri¬ ling with an herbaceous four-cornered (talk, two feet high, fending out a few Ihort fide-branches; the leaves are oblong, oval, a little hairy, and (land oppofite. The flowers terminate the ftalks in loofe fpikes; they are fmall, of a dirty white colour, fhaped fomewhat like thofe of the foxglove. After the flowers are pad, the germen turns to an oval acute-pointed capfnle with four cells, filled with oval compreffed feeds, which ri¬ pen in autumn. 2. The indicum, with trifid lower leaves, grows naturally in India : this is alfo an an- <50 M 2 nual S E S [ 8i< Sefamum nual plant; the flalk riies taller than that of the for- Scffion rrier ’ 'ower leaves are cut into three parts, which is the only difference between them. 3. The trifolia- tum, with all the leaves trifid ; grows naturally in A- frica. This is alro an annual plant, wfth a taller and more branched ftalk than that of the former, in which it differs from both the other. • The firft fort is frequently cultivated in all the eaft- crn countries, and alfo in Africa, as a pulfe ; and of late years the feeds have been introduced into Carolina by the African negroes, where they fucceed extremely well. The inhabitants of that country make an oil from the feed, which will keep good many years, without having any rancid fmell or tafte, but in two years becomes quite mild ; fo that when the warm tafte of the feed, which is in the oil when firft drawn, is worn off, they ufe it as a falad-oil, and for all the purpofes of fweet oil. The feeds of this plant are alfo ufed by the negroes for food ; which feeds they parch over the fire, and then mix them with water, and flew other ingredients with them, which makes an hearty food. Sometimes a fort of pudding is made of tnefe feeds, in the fame manner as with millet or rice, and is by fome perfons efteemed, but is rarely ufed for thefe purpofes in Europe. This is called benny, or bonny, in Carolina. In England thefe plants are pre- ferved in botanic gardens as curiofities. Their feeds muft be fown in the fpring upon a hot-bed ; and when the plants are come up, they muft be tranfplanted into a frefh hot-bed to bring them forward. After they have acquired a tolerable degree of ftrength, they fhould be planted into pots, and plunged into another bot-bed, managing them as hath been direded for amaranthufes ; for if thefe plants are not thus brought forward in the former part of the fummer, they will not produce good feeds in this country. The feeds of the firft fort is mentioned in the lift of officinal fimples in the college difpenfatory, but is rarely ufed in medicine in England. From nine pounds of this feed which came from Carolina, there were up¬ wards of two quarts of oil drawn, which is as great a quantity as hath been obtained from any vegetable whatever. This might occafion its being called the $ily grain. SESOSTRIS, king of Egypt or Ramefes. Of the eight kings of the 16th dynafty there were fix of the name of Sefoftris or Ramefes; and it was upon the death of Ramefes Miriam, the great perfecutor of the Jews in Egypt, that they were delivered from their firft captivity : but it is fuppofed.that the Egyp¬ tian priefts have afcribed the various, real orfiditious, exploits of feveral of thefe princes to one man, under the name of Sefojlris Ramefes Miriam. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes the great Sefoftris to have been the fame with Shifhak, who plundered Jerufalem after the death of Solomon.. See Egypt, n° 3—5.. SESQUL, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and a half; which, joined with altera, terza, quarta, &c. is much ufed in the Italian tnufic to exprefs a kind of ratios, particularly feveral fpecies of triples. SESSILE, among botanifts. See Botany, p. 1296. SESSION, in general, denotes each fitting or af- fembly of a council, Sec. Session of Parliament, is the feafon or fpace from its meeting to its prorogation. See Paruament, >8 ] S E S Court of Session. See Law, N° civil. 4. SelTiorr, Court of 4>ya/7er-SEssiONS, an Englifh court that Seftercf- muft be held in every county once in every quarter of a year ; which, by ftatute 2 Hen. V. c, 4. is appoint¬ ed to be in the firft week after Michaelmas-day, the firft; week after the epiphany, the firft week after the clofe of Eafter, and in the week after the tranflation of St Thomas the martyr, or the 7th of July. It is held before two or more juftices of the peace, one of which muft be of the quorum. The jurifdidion of this court, by 34 Edvv. III. c. 1. extends to the try¬ ing and determining all felonies and trefpaffes *’hat- foever: though they feldom, if ever, try any greater offence than fmall felonies within the benefit of cler¬ gy ; their commiffion providing, that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they fhall not proceed to judgment, but in the prefence of one of the juftices of the courts of king’s-bench or common-pleas, or one of the judges of affile : and therefore murders, and other capital fe¬ lonies, are ufually remitted for a more foletnn trial to the affifes. They cannot alfo try any new-created offence, without exprefs power given them by the fta¬ tute which creates it. But there are many offences and particular matters which, by particular ftatutes, belong properly to this jurifdiftion, and ought to ba profecuted in this court; as, the fmaller mifdemeanors againft the public or commonwealth, not amounting to felony ; and efpecially offences relating to the game, highways, alehoufes, baftard children, the fettlement. and provifion for the poor, vagrants, fervants- wagesj- and Popifti recufants. Some of thefe are proceeded upon by indidlment: others in a fummary way, by motion, and order thereupon ; which order may for the moft part, unlefs guarded againft by particular fta¬ tutes, be removed into the court of king’s bench by writ of certiorari facias, and be there either quafhed or confirmed. The records or rolls of the feffions are committed to the cuftody of a fpecial officer, denomi¬ nated cufios rotulorum, who is always a juftice of the quorum; and among them of the quorum (faith Lam- bard) a man for the moft part efpecially picked out, either for wifdom, countenance, or credit. The no¬ mination of the cujlos rotulorum (who is the principal officer in the county, as the lord lieutenant is chief in military command) is by the king’s fign-manual: and to him the nomination of the clerk of the peace be¬ longs ; which office he is exprefsly forbidden to fell for money. In moft corporation-towns there are quarter-feffiona kept before jullices of their own, within their refpec- tive limits; which have exaftly the fame authority as the general quarter-feffions of the county, except in a very few inftances; one of the moft confiderable of which is the matter of appeals from orders of removal of the poor, which, though they be from the order? of corporation-juftices, muft be to the feffions of the county, by ftatute 8 and 9 W. III. c. 30. In both corporations and counties at large, there is fometimea kept a fpecial or petty feffion, by a few juftices, for difpatching fmaller bufinefs in the neighbourhood be¬ tween the times of the general feffions ; as for licenfing. alehoufes, palling the account of pariffi-officers, and the like. SESTERCE, fejlertius, a filver coin in ufe among the Roma-nfc Some., JSeftos II Sethians. SET [Si Some authors make two kinds of fefterces; the lefs, called fejlertius, in the mafc'uline gender; and the great one, calledfejiertium, intheneuter; thelatter containing a thoufand of the other. Others will have any fuch diftindtion of great and little fefterces unknown to the Romans. Seftertius, fay they, was an adjedtive, and fignified as fejlertius, or two afes and an half; and when ufed plurally, as in quinquaginta fejiertium, or fejlertia, it was only by way of abbreviation, and there was always underftood millia or thoufands. Sesterce, or fejlertius, was alfo ufed by the an¬ cients for a thing containing two wholes and an half of another, as <2/ was taken for any whole or integer. SESTOS, a noted fortrefs of European Turkey, fituated at the entrance of the Hellefpont or Darda¬ nelles, 24 miles fouth-weft of Gallipoli. This place is famous for the loves of Hero andLEANDER, fung by the poet Mufaeus. SET, or Sets, a term ufed by the farmers and gar¬ deners to exprefs the young plants of the white thorn and other fhrubs, with which they ufe to raife their quick or quickfet hedges. SETACEOUS worm, in natural hiftory, a name given by Dr Liller to that long and flender water- worm, which fo much refembles a horfe-hair, that it has been fuppofed by the vulgar to be an animated hair of that creature. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be li¬ ving hairs, are a peculiar fort of infe&s, which are bred and nourilhed within the bodies of other infe&s, as the worms of the ichneumon flies are in the bodies of the caterpillars. Aldrovand defcribes the creature, and tells us it was unknown to the ancients; but called feta aquatica, and vermis fetarius, by the moderns, either from its figure refembling that of a hair, or from the fuppofltion of its once having been the hair of fome animal. We ge¬ nerally fuppofe it, in the imaginary ftate of the hair, to have belonged to a horfe; but the Germans fay it was once the hair of a calf, and call it by a name flgnify- ing vitulus aquaticus, or the “ water calf.” Albertus, an author much reverenced by the com¬ mon people, has declared that this animal is generated of a hair; and adds, that any hair thrown into a Hand¬ ing water, will, in a very little time, obtain life and motion. Other authors have diffented from this opi¬ nion, and fuppofed them generated of the fibrous roots of water-plants; and others, of the parts of grafshop- pers fallen into the water. This laft opinion is rejec¬ ted by Aldrovand as the moll improbable of all; yet in reality it comes neareft the truth of any of them. Standing and foul waters are moll plentifully ftored with them; but they are fometimes found in the clear¬ ed and puretl fprings, and fometimes out of the water, on the leaves of trees and plants, as on the fruit-trees in our gardens, and the elms in hedges. They are from three to five inches long, of the thicknefs of a large hair; and are brown upon the back, and white under the belly, and the tail is white on every part. SETH, the third fon of Adam, the father of Enos, was born 3874 B. C. and lived 912 years. SETHIANS, in church-hidory, Chridian heretics; fo called becaufe they paid divine worlhip to Seth, whom they looked upon to be Jefus Chrid the fon of God, but who was made by a third divinity, and fub- ftitgted in the. room of. the two families of Abel and 09 ] SET Cain, which had been dedroyed by the deluge. Thefe Setimo heretics appeared in Egypt in the fecond century ; and 8 as they were addi&ed to all forts of debauchery, they did not want for followers; and continued in Egypt above 200 years. ' SETIMO, a town of Italy in the province of Pied¬ mont, fituated-on the river Po, eight miles north of Turin. SETON, in furgery, a few horfe-hairs, fmall threads, or large packthread, drawn through the Ikin, chiefly the neck, by means of a large needle or probe, with a view to redore or preferve health. We find by experience, that felons are very ufeful in catarrhs, inflammations, and other diforders, parti¬ cularly thofe of the eyes, as a gutta ferena, cataradl, and incipient fuffuflon ; to thofe we may add intenfe headachs, with fiupidity, drowfinefa, epilepfies, and even the apoplexy itfelf. SETTING, in adronomy, the withdrawing of a liar or planet, or its finking below the horizon. A- ftronomers and poets make three different kinds of fel¬ ting of the ftars, viz. theCosMicAL, Acronycal, and Heliacal. See thefe articles. Setting, in the fea-language. To fet the land or the fun by the compafs, is to obferve how the land bears on any point of the compafs, or on what point of the compafs the fun is. Alfo when two (hips fail iu fight of one another, to mark on what point the cha¬ fed bears, is termed fetting the chafe by the cwnpafs. Setting, among fportfmen, a term ufed to exprefs the manner of taking partridges by means of a dog peculiarly trained to that purpofe. See Shooting. SEVENTH, in mufic, an interval called by the Greeks heptachordon. See Interval. SEVERIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, with the title of a duchy, bounded on the north by Smo- lenflto and Mufcovy, on the ead by Vorotinflu and the country of the Coflacks, on the fouth by the fame, and on the wed by Zernegovia. It is a country over¬ run with woods, and on the fouth part is a fored of great length. Novogrod.ec, or Novogprod, is the ca¬ pital town. SEVERINA (St)j a town of Italy,, in the king¬ dom of Naples, and in Lower Calabria, with an arch- bifliop’s fee. It is very well fortified, and feated on a craggy rock, on the river Neeto; in E. Long. 1 7. 20, N. Lat. 39; 15. SEVERING, a town of Italy, in the territory of the church,, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a bi- Ihop’s fee. It has fine vineyards, and is feated be¬ tween two hills on the river Petenza, in E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat. 43. 10. SEVERN, a river of England, which rifes near Plinnilliom-hill in Montgomeryfliire, and before it en¬ ters Shroplhire receives about 30 dreams, and pafles down to Laudring,, where ii receives the Morda, that flows from Ofwedry. When it arrives at Monford, it receives the river Mon;, paffing on to Shrewlbury, which it almod furrounds; then to Bridgnorth; after¬ wards it runs through the ikirts of Staffordfhire, enters Worcederfhire, and pafles by Worceder: then it runs to Tewkfbury, where it joins the Avon; and from thence to Glouceder, keeping a north-wederly courfe till it falls into the Briftol channel. It begins to be navigable for boats at Welch Pool in Montgomery- ftiirej. S E V X Si •Setreras. (hire, and takes in feveral other rivers in its eourfe be- —— fides thofe already mentioned; it is the fecond in England. SEVERUS (Cornelius), an ancient Latin poet of the Augullan age; whofe^E/»«, together with a frag¬ ment De morte Ciceronis, were publifhed, with notes and a profe interpretation, by Le Clerc, i2mo, Am- fterdam, 1703. They were before inferted among the Cataletta Virgilii publifhed by Scaliger; whofe notes, with others, Le Clerc has received among his own. SEVERUS (Septimius), a Roman emperor, born ?«t Leptis in Africa. On pretence of revenging the death of the emperor Pertinax, he ftept into his room in 193. He next overcame Pefcentius Niger, who was declared emperor by the legions of Syria ; and took Byzantium. He conquered the Parthians, Medes, Arabians, &c. and punifhed the rebelling Jews. Af¬ ter this, he defeated Albinus near Lyons He be¬ gan the fifth perfecution againft the Chriftians; quel¬ led the Britons rebelling againft him, and built the wall that bears his name. He had two fons, Antoni¬ nus Caracalla and Geta, both Caefars. Caracalla had defigned, one day as he was marching behind his fa¬ ther, to have dabbed him, and drew his fword to that intent; but was hindered by fome that were near him. Severus himfelf took notice of it, but diflembled his knowledge; yet the horror of fo unnatural an attempt caft him into a deep melancholy, of which he died at York in 2ir. He was a man of wit, underftanding, and ability; underftood mathematics and hiftory; lo¬ ved learned men; and writ the hiftory of his own life. Severus’/-in Britifh topography, the fourth •and laft barrier ere&ed by the Romans againft the in- curfions of the North Britons. See the articles Agri- cola, Adrian, and Antoninus’/ IVall. We learn from feveral hints in the Roman hifto- •rians, that the country between the walls of Ha¬ drian and Antoninus continued to be a fcene of perpe¬ tual war and fubjeft of contention between the Ro¬ mans and Britons, from the beginning of the reign of Commodus to the arrival of the emperor Septimius Se¬ verus in Britain, A. D. 206. This laft emperor ha¬ ving fubdued the Maeatre, and repulfed the Caledo¬ nians, determined to eredl a ftrongerand more impe¬ netrable barrier than any of the former, againft their future incurfions. Though neither Dio nor Herodian make any men¬ tion of a wall built by Severus in Britain for the pro¬ tection of the Roman province, yet we have abundant evidence from other writers of equal authority, that he really built fuch a wall. “ He fortified Britain (fays Spartian) with a wall drawn crofs the jfland from fea to fea; which is the greateft glory of his reign. After the wall was finifhed, he retired to the next ftation (York), not only a conqueror, but founder of an eter¬ nal peace.” To the fame purpofe, Aurelius Viftor and Orofius, to fay nothing of Eutropius and Caffiodo- rus. “ Having repelled the enemy in Britain, he for¬ tified the country, which was fuited to that purpofe, with a wall drawn crofs the ifland from fea to fea.”— ‘‘ Severus drew a great ditch, and built a ftrong wall, tilled with feveral turrets, from fea to fea, to prote& that part of the ifland which he had recovered, from the yet unconquered nations.” As the refidence of the emperor Severus in Britain was not quite four 10 ] S E V years, it is probable that the two laft of them wefe cm- Severij jt ployed in building this wall; according to which ac- \ count, it was begun A. D. 209, and fmiflied A. D. | 210. This wall of Severus was built nearly on the fame ; trad with Hadrian’s rampart, at the diftance only of j a few paces north. The length of this wall, from Cou- fins-houfe near the mouth of the river Tyne on the eaft, to Boulnefs on the Solway frith on the weft, hath been : found, from two a&ual menfurations, to be a little more than 68 Englifh miles, and a little lefs than 74 Ro- * man miles. To the north of the wall was a broad and 1 deep ditch, the original dimenfions of which cannot , now be afcertained, only it feems to have been larger j than that of Hadrian. The wall itfelf, which ftood on the fouth brink of the ditch, was built of folid ftone, l ftrongly cemented with the heft mortar; the ftones ^ which formed both the faces being fquare aftilers, and the filling ftones large flags, fet a little flaming. The height of this wall was 12 feet befides the parapet, and its breadth 8 feet, according to Bede, who lived only at a fmall diftance from the eaft end of it, and in whofe j time it was almoft quite entire in many places. Such was the wall ere&ed by the command and under the direction of the emperor Severus in the north of Eng¬ land ; and, confidering the length, breadth, heighth, and folidity, it was certainly a work of great magnifi. cence and prodigious labour. But the wall itfelf was but a part, and not the moil extraordinary part, of this work. The great number and different kinds of for- treffes which were built along the line of it for its de¬ fence, and the military-ways with which it was attend¬ ed, are ftifl more worthy of our admiration, and come j now to be defcribed. The fortreffes which were ere&ed along the line of Severus’s wall for its defence, were of three different ; kinds, and three different degrees of ftrength; and were called by three different Latin words, which may be tnnRitedJlations, cajllest and turrets. Of each of thefe in their order. The Jlationes, Rations, were fo called from their (la¬ bility and the dated refidence of garrifons. They were alfo called cajira, which hath been converted into chejlres, a name which many of them dill bear. Thefe were by far the larged, ftrongeft, and mod magnificent of the fortreffes which were built upou the wall, and were defigned -for the head-quarters of the cohorts of troops which were placed there in garrifon, and from whence detachments were fent into the adjoining cailles and turrets. Thefe ftations, as appears from the ve~ Itiges of them which are dill vifible, were not all exactly of the fame figure nor of the fame dimenfions; fome of them being exa&ly fquares, and others oblong, and fome of them a little larger than others. Thefe vari¬ ations were no doubt occafioned by the difference of fituation and other circumftances. The ftations were fortified with deep ditches and ftrong walls, the wall itfelf coinciding with and forming the north wall of each ftation. Within the ftations were lodgings for the officers and foldiers in garrifon ; the fmalleft of them being fufficient to contain a cohort, or 600 men. Without the walls of each ftation was a town, inhabi¬ ted by labourers, artificers, and others, both Romans and Britons, who chofe to dwell under the proteftion of thefe fortreffes. The number of the ftations upon the S E V [ Sin ] S E V Screrns. the wall was exaftly 18; and if they had been placed — ^at equal diitances, the interval between every two of them would have been four miles and a few paces: but the intervention of rivers, marlhes, and mountainsj the conveniency of fituation for ftrengtb, profpeft, and water; and many other circumftances to us unknown, determined them to place thefe ftations at unequal di- ftances. The fituation which was always chofen by the Romans, both here and everywhere elfe in Britain where they could obtain it, was the gentle declivity of a hill, near a river, and facing the meridian fan. Such was the fituation of the far greateft part of the ftations on this wall. In general we may obferve, that the ftations flood thickeft near the two ends and in the middle, probably becaufe the danger of invafion was greateft in thefe places. But the reader will form a clearer idea of the number of thefe ftations, their Latin and Engliih names, their fituation and diftance from one another, by infpe&ing the following table, than we can give him with equal brevity in any other way. The firft column contains the number of the fta- tion, reckoning from eaft to weft; the fecond contains its Latin, and the third its Englifh name ; and the three laft its diftance from the next ftation to the weft of it, in miles, furlongs, and chains. Latin Name. | Engliih Name. M. F. C. Segedunum jCoufins'-houfe Pons iElii Newcaftle Condercum Benwellhill Vindobala Rutchefter Halton-chefters Walwick-chefters Carrawbrugh Houfefteeds Little-chefters Great-chefters Carrvoran Burdofwald Cambeck Watchcrof* Stanwix Brugh Brumbrugh Boulnefs Hunnum Cilurnum Procolitia Borcovicus Vindolana iElica Magna Amboglanna Petriana Atallaba Congavata Axelodunum Gabrofentum Tunnocelum Length of the wall 68 313 The cajislla, or caftles, were the fecond kind of for- tificatfbns which were built along the line of this wall for its defence. Thefe caftks were neither fo large nor ftrong as the ftations, but much more numerous, being no fewer than 81. The fhapeand dimenfions of the caftles, as appears from the foundations of many of them which are ftill vifible, were exaft fquares of 66 feet every way. They were fortified on every fide with thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, ex¬ cept on the north fide; on which the wall itfelf, raifed much above its ufual height, with the ditch attending it, formed the fortification. The caftles were fituated in the intervals between the flations, at the diftance of about feven furlongs from each other; though in this, particular circumftances fometimes occafioned a little variation. In thefe caftles guards were conftantly kept by a competent number of men detached from the neareft ftations. The turret, or turrets, were the third and laft kind of fortifications on the wall. Thefe were ftill much fmaller than the caftles, and formed only a fquare of about 12 feet, (landing out of the wall on its fouth fide. Being fo fmal), they are more entirely ruined than the ftations and caftles, which makes it difficult to difeover their exaft number. They flood in the in¬ tervals between the caftles; and from the faint veftiges of a few of them, it is conjeftured that there were four of them between every two caftles, at the diftance of about 300 yards from one another. According to this conje&ure, the number of the turrets amounted to 324. They were defigned for watch-towers and places for centinels, who, being within hearing of one another, could convey an alarm or intelligence to all parts of the wall in a very little time. Such were the ftations, caftles, and turrets on the wall of Severus; and a very confiderable body of troops was conftantly quartered in them for its defence. The ufual complement allowed for this fervice was as follows: 1. Twelve cohorts of foot, confiding of 600 men each - 7i2c,0| 2. One cohort of mariners in the ftation at Boulnefs - - - 600 3. One detachment of Moors, probably equal to a cohort - - - 600 4. Four alse or wings of horfe, confiding, at the lowed computation, of 400 each 1,600 10,000 For the conveniency of marching thefe troops from one part of the wall to another, with the greater eafe and expedition, on any fervice, it was attended with two military ways, paved with fquare ftones, in the mod folid and beautiful manner. One of thefe ways was fmaller, and the other larger. The fmaller military way run clofe along the fouth fide of the wall, from turret to turret, and caftfe to caftle, for the ufe of the foldiers in relieving their guards and centinels, and fuch fervices. The larger way did not keep fo near the wall, nor touch at the turrets or caftles, but' purfued the mod direclcourfe from one ftation to ano¬ ther, and was defigned for the conveniency of march¬ ing larger bodies of troops. It is to be regretted, that we cannot gratify the reader’s curiofity, by informing him by what particu¬ lar bodies of Roman troops the feveral parts of this great work were executed ; as we were enabled to do with regard to the wall of Antoninus Pius from in- feriptions. For though it is probable that there were ftones with inferiptions of the fame kind, mentioning the feveral bodies of troops, and the quantity of work performed by each of them, originally inferted in the face of this wall, yet none of them are now to be- found. There have indeed been difeovered, in or near the ruins of this wall, a great number of fmall fquare flones, with very (hort, and generally imperfeft, in¬ feriptions upon them; mentioning particular legions, cohorts, and centuries ; but without direftly aflerting that they had built any part of the wall, or naming. any number of paces. Of thefe inferiptions, the reader* Severus. S E V [ 81 Severnreader may fee no fewer than twenty-nine among the Northumberland and Cumberland inferiptions in Mr Horfley’s Britannia Romana. As the Hones on which thefe inferiptions are cut, are of the fame fliape and fize with the other facing-ftones of this wall, it is al- moft certain that they have been originally placed in the face of it. It is equally certain, from the unifor¬ mity of thefe inferiptions, that they were all intended to intimate fome one thing, and nothing fo probable as that the adjacent wall was buBt by the troops men¬ tioned in them. This was, perhaps, fo well under- flood, that it was not thought neceflary to be exprefl- ed ; and the diftance of thefe inferiptions from one another fliowed the quantity of work performed. If this was really the cafe, we know in general, that this great work was executed by the fecond and fixth le¬ gions, thefe being the only legions mentioned in thefe inferiptions. Now, if this prodigious wall, with all its appendages of ditches, ftations, caftles, turrets, and military ways, was executed in the fpace of two years by two legions only, which, when moft com¬ plete, made no more than 42,000 men, how greatly mud we admire the Ikill, the induftry, and excellent difeipline of the Roman foldiers, who were not only the valiant guardians of the empire in times of war, but its mail aftive and ufeful members in times of peace ? This wall of Severus, and its fortrefles, proved an .impenetrable barrier to the Roman t'erritories for near 200 years. But about the beginning of the jth cen¬ tury, the Roman empire being aflaulted on all fides, and the bulk of their forces withdrawn from Britain, ■the Mseatas and Caledonians, now called Scots and Pi£ts, became more daring ; and fome of them break¬ ing through the wall, and others failing round the ends of it, they carried their ravages into the very heart of Provincial Britain. Thefe invaders were in¬ deed feveral times repulfed after this by the Roman legions fent to the relief of the Britons. The laft of thefe legions, under the command of Gallio of Ra¬ venna, having, with the afliftance of the Britons, thoroughly repaired the breaches of Severus’s wall and its fortefles, and exhorted the Britons to make a brave defence, took their final farewell of Bri¬ tain. It foon appeared, that the ftrongeft walls and ramparts are no fecurity to an undifeiplined and da- flardly rabble, as the unhappy Britons then were. The Scots and Pids met with little refiftance in breaking through the wall, whofe towns and caftles were tame¬ ly abandoned to their deftrudtive rage. In many pla¬ ces they levelled it with the ground, that it might prove no obftrudion to their future inroads. From this time no attempts were ever made to repair this noble work. Its beauty and grandeur procured it no refpeft in the dark and taftelefs ages which fucceeded. It became the common quarry for more than a thou- fand years, out of which all the towns and villages around were built; and is now fo entirely ruined, that the penetrating eyes of the moft poring and patient antiquarian can hardly trace its vaniftring foundations. SEVIGNE (Marie de Rabulin, Marquifle de), a French lady, celebrated for her wit and her fine fenfe, was born in 1626, and was not above a year old when her father was killed at the defeentof the Englifh up- pn the ifk of Rhee. la 164+, fhc married tbe mar- ■ 2 ] S E V quis of Sevigne, who was killed in a duel in 1651. Sevi; She had by him a fon and a daughter ; to the care of Sevi1 whofe education Ihe afterwards moft religioufly devo¬ ted herfelf: they became accordingly moft accom- plilhed perfone, as it was reafonable to expedt. This illuftrious lady was acquainted with all the wits and learned of her time. It is faid Ihe decided the fa¬ mous difpute between Perrault and Boileau, concern¬ ing the preference of the ancients to the moderns, thus: “ The ancients are the fineft, and we are the u prettieft.’, She died in 1696, and left us a moft valuable colle&ion of letters ; the beft edition of which is that of Paris 1754, in eight volumes i2mo. “ Thefc letters,” fays Voltaire, “ filled with anecdotes, writ¬ ten with freedom, and in a natural and animated ftyle, are an excellent criticifm upon ftudied letters of wit, and ftill more upon thofe fidlitious letters which aim to imitate the epiftolary ftyle, by a recital of falfe fen- timents and feigned adventures to imaginary corre- fpondents.” A Sevigniana was publifhed at Paris in 1756 ; which is nothing more than a colleftion of li¬ terary and hiftorical anecdotes, fine fentiments, and moral apophthegms, fcattered throughout thefe letters. SEVILLE, a large and populous city of Spain, fituated on the Guadalquiver river, in W. Long. 5. 5'. N. Lat. 37. 20. This city is fuppofed to have been founded by the Phoenicians, who gave it the name of Hifpalis. When it fell under the power of the Ro¬ mans, it was called Julia : and at laft, after a variety of corruptions, was called Sebilla or Sevilla ; both of which names are retained by the Spaniards. The Ro¬ mans embellifhed it with many magnificent edifices ; of which fcarce any veftige now remains. • The Go¬ thic kings for fome time made it their refidence: but in procefs of time they removed their court to Toledo; and Seville was taken by ftorm foon after the victory obtained at Xeres over the Gothic king Rodrigo. In 1027, Seville became an independent monarchy ; but was conquered 70 years afterwards by Yufef Al- moravides, an African prince. At laft it was taken by Ferdinand III. after a year’s fiege; and 300,000 Moors were then obliged to leave the place. Not- withftanding this prodigious emigration, Seville con¬ tinued to be a great and populous city, and foon after it was enlarged and adorned with many magnificent buildings, the chief of which is the cathedral. Se¬ ville arrived at its utmoft pitch of grandeur a little after the difeovery of America, by reafon that all the valuable produftions of the Weft Indies were brought hither. Its court was then the moft fplendid in Eu¬ rope; but in the courfe of a few years all this gran¬ deur difappeared, owing to the impediments in navi¬ gating the Guadalquivir. The fuperior excellence of the port of Cadiz induced government to order the galeons to be ftationed there in time to come. The lhape of Seville is circular, without any great rifing in the whole fpace. The walls feem to be of Mooriftt conftru&ion, and are about five miles and an half in circumference. The ditch is filled up in many places. On the weft fide of the river is a fuburb called Triana, as large as many towns, but remark¬ able for nothing but its Gothic caftle ; where, in 148^, the inquifition was firft eftablilhed in Spain. The ftreets of Seville are crooked, dirty, and nar¬ row j fo that two coaches can fcarcely pafs one ano¬ ther S E V [ $1 Seville, ther abreaft. The wideft and handfotneft place i# Sevvel1, called the Alameda, or Great Walk of Old Elms, in the heart of the city. The length of this is 600 yards, and its breadth 150 ; decorated with three fountains, the flatues of Hercules the fuppefed founder, and of Ju¬ lius Caefar the reftorer, of Seville. The cathedral is 420 feet by 273 within, and 126 feet high ; the cir¬ cumference of each clutter of pillars, 42 feet. It has nine doors, 80 windows, and 80 altars, at which 500 mattes are daily celebrated. At one angle (lands the Giralda, a tower 350 feet high, erefted by the Moors in the year 1000. The Chriftians added two ftones, with a prodigious large weathercock; and as the whole rifes much higher than any other edifice in Seville, it has a noble effect. According to tradition, the Moors, in order to form a folid foundation for this edifice, made a deep hole, in which they caft all the marble and (lone monuments of the Romans that could be found; and indeed, when repairs have been neceffary, this tradition feems to have been countenanced by the many monuments of antiquity difeovered on fuch oc- cafions. The whole work is brick and mortar ; with a winding (lair-cafe within, fo eafy and wide, as to admit two horfemen riding abreaft above half way up. The other churches are unworthy of notice; and even the cathedral, according to Mr Swinburne, is inferior to York Minder. This cathedral was begun by Don Sancho the Brsve about the clofe of the 13th centu¬ ry, and finilhed by John II. about an hundred year* after. The Canos de Carmone, or great aqueduct of Se¬ ville, is reckoned, by the hiftorians of this city, one of the mod wonderful works of antiquity. Mr Swin¬ burne, however, remarks, that it is ugly, crooked, the arches unequal, and the archite&ure negle&ed. The conduit, befides, is fo leaky, that a rivulet is formed by the wafte water. Neverthelefs, it dill con¬ veys to the city an ample fupply pf water fufficient to turn feveral mills, and to give almoft every houfe in town the benefit of it. The only other remarkable building about Seville >is the fnuff-manufadtory. For the more convenient carrying on this branch of commerce, Ferdinand VI. ere&ed aunod magnificent roomy palace, in a grand, •but rather heavy ftyle of architedlure, which was fi¬ nilhed in 1756. A thoufand men are employed con- -ftantly here at about four or fix reals per day, for nine hours work. One hundred and eighty mules work 28 mills or machines for mixing the tobacco with a red earth from Almazarron. The exceffive adultera¬ tion with this earth, however, has of late occafioned a prodigious falling off in the exportation of the ma- nufafture : the northern nations have long refufed to take any off their hands ; and unlefs they alter their method, the trade will probably foon be confined to Spain and its dominions. The neat profits, for one year, have amounted to more than fix millions of dol¬ lars. SEWELL (George), an eminent phyfician, ele¬ gant writer, and excellent poet, was the elded fon of Mr John Sewell treafurer and chapter-clerk of the college of Windfor; and was educated at Eton fchool, and at Peter-houfe in Cambridge, where he. took the degree of bachelor in pbyfic. In order to complete 13 ] SEW his knowledge in medicine, he went to Leyden, and Sewer, ftudied under the celebrated Boerhaave ; and on his return praftifed phyfic in London with good fuc- cefs. Towards the latter part of his life he retired to Hampftead, where he continued to purfue the bu- finefs of his profeffion till the time of his death, which happened in the year 1726. He wrote feveral effays in the Spectators and Tatlers ; and was concerned in the tranflation of Ovid’s Metamorphofes, with Dr Garth and others. He likewife wrote, 1. The life of Mr john Philips, author of the poem on cyder. 2. A vindication of the Englifh Stage, exemplified in the Cato of Mr Addifon, in a letter to a nobleman. 3. Sir Walter Raleigh, a tragedy: and feveral mifcellaneous poems. SEWER, in the Household, an officer who comes in before the meat of a king or nobleman, to place and range it on the table. Sewer is alfo a paffage or gutter made to carry wa¬ ter into the fea or a river, whereby to preferve the land, &c. from inundations and other annoyances. Court of Commifioners of Sewers in England. A temporary tribunal, erected by virtue of a commiflion under the great feal; which formerly ufed to be granted pro re nata at the pleafure of the crown, but now at the diferetion and nomination of the lord chan¬ cellor, lord treafurer, and chief juftices, purfuant to the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. Their jutifdiftion is to overlook the repairs of fea-banks and fea-walls, and the cleanfing of rivers, public dreams, ditches, and other conduits, whereby any waters are carried off; and is confined to fuch county or particular di- ftridt as the commiffion (hall exprefsly name. The commilfioners are a court of record, and may fine and imprifon for contempts ; and in the execution of their duty, may proceed by jury, or upon their own view, and may take order for the removal of any annoyan¬ ces, or the fafeguard and confervation of the fewers within their commiffion, either according to the Jaws and cuftoms of Romney-marfh, or otherwife at their own diferetion. They may alfo affefs fuch rates or foots upon the owners of lands within their diftrift, as they (hall judge neceffary : and if any perfon refufts to pay them, the commiflioners may levy the fame by diftrefsofhis goods and chattels; or they may, by ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. fell his freehold-lands, (and by the 7 Ann. c. 10. his copyhold alfo), in or¬ der to pay fuch fcots or affeffments. But their con- du& is under the controul of the court of King’s- Bench, which will prevent or punifhany illegal or ty¬ rannical proceedings. And yet in the reign of king James I. (8 Nov. 1616.) the privy-counci! took upon them to order, that no a£lion or complain^ (liould be profecuted againft the commiffioners unlefs before that board ; and committed feveral to prifon who had brought fuch a&ions at common law, till they (hould releafe the fame : and one of the reafons for difehar- ging Sir Edward Coke from his office of lord chief- Juftice, was for countenancing thofe legal proceedings. The pretence for thefe arbitrary meafnres was no other than the tyrant’s plea of the necejfity of unlimi¬ ted powers in works of evident utility to the public, “ the fupreme reafon above all reafons, which is the falvation of the king’s lands and people.” But now it 40 N is SEX L 8114 ] SEX is clearly held, that this (as well as all other inferior jurifdidlions) isfubje& to the difcretionary coercion of his majeily’s court of King’s-bench. SEX, fomething in the body which diftinguiflies male from female. Sex of Bees. See Bee. Sexes of Plants. Theophraftus, the father of bo¬ tany, frequently mentions the fexes of plants. He ob- ferves, that trees may be dillinguifhed into feveral clafles, on account of their great variety: but that their moft common diftinftion is into male and female; the one of which is fertile ; the other, in fome forts, barren. This diftinftion of the fexes, however, is not fo much founded upon an analogy betwixt vegetables and animals, as upon the greater or lefs perfedtion of the fruit in the plants in queftion. In a fpecies of palm-tree, mentioned by this author and Ariftotle, the analogy in queftion is more ftridtly preferved. “ If the duft of a branch of the male palm (fays Ariftotle) is (haken over the female, the fruit of the latter will quickly ripen ; nay, (continues the fame author), if this male duft fhall be carried along with the wind, and difperfed upon the female, the fame effeft will follow as if a branch of the male had been fufpended over it.” To the fame purpofe Theophraftus obferves, that un- lefs the duft or down of the male palm is fprinkled over the fruit of the female, it will never ripen, but fall off. That thefe naturalifts, however, were not clear in opinion that the fruit fo fprinkled with the male duft was impregnated by it in the fame manner as the ovary is fecundated in animals, appears from another paffage in the laft quoted author, in which he afferts, that though the fadljuft mentioned cannot be denied, yet no reafon whatever can be affigned for the effeft of the fprinkling. Diofcorides, the next Greek botanift of note afttfr Theophraftus, denominates many plants male and fe¬ male, but without regard to analogy, or to their fertility or barrennefs. Thus his male mercury carries the feed, and the female is barren. Thefe ideas of the fexes of plants have been transferred to our own times; and it is not uncommon to hear peafants confounding the fexes of hemp, fpinage, and hop, by calling the male plant female, and the female plant, or that which bears the feeds, male. Ariftotle, as well as Diofcorides, errs widely in his manner of diftinguilhing the male from the female plant ; the former of which, in his opinion, is lar¬ ger and ftronger j the female weaker, but more fruit¬ ful. “ Naturalifts,” fays Pliny, “ admit the diftinftion of fex, not only in trees, but in herbs and all plants. Yet (continues the fame author) this is no where more cbfervable than in palms, the females of which never propagate but when they are fecundated by the duft of the male.” The palm-tree is the only inflance among the an¬ cients where fexes are attributed to particular plants on account of fertility or barrennefs ; other plants be¬ ing, as we have feen, diftinguilhed into male and fe¬ male, merely for diftinftion’s fake, and often erro- ueoufly. Casfalpinus was the firft who corre&ed the miftakes of the ancients with refpeA to the fex of plants, and eftabliftied what are now generally called orthodox opinions on that fubjeft. He obferved, that in fome trees, as yew; and in fome herbaceous vege¬ tables, as mercury, hemp, and nettle; the fruit was produced on one root, and flowers only on the other : the laft being barren, was denominated the male plant; the other being fertile, the female. The female plants, continues the fame intelligent author, fucceed better, that is, become more fruitful, if fowed in the neigh¬ bourhood of the male : certain exhalations from the latter difperfing themfelves over their furface, and, by an operation not to be explained, difpofing them to produce riper and more perfedt feeds. Caefalpinus’s idea of fex in plants was reftri6!ed to a very inconfiderable number ; thofe, to wit, in which the pretended organs are placed apart from each other, on fepai-ate roots produced from the fame feed. In plants of this defcription, their analogy to animals would, in a manner, fuggeft itfelf. From the fame feed are produced two differen^plants ; the one bar¬ ren, the other fertile. The analogy to the fexes of ani¬ mals immediately prefents itfelf to the mind, and we denominate that which is barren, or bears no feeds, male; that which is fertile, or bears feeds, female. The fame analogy carries us farther, and induces a conjefture, that thefe male and female plants are con¬ nected together in fuch a manner, that the fecundation of the feeds of the female is operated, as in animals, by the male. This conjedture, furniftied by analogy, leads to obfervations and experiments for its fupport 1 and thus the do&rine of the fexes, fmall and inconfi¬ derable in its beginnings, becomes enlarged, and, from being confined to a very fmall number of plants, ex-t tends itfelf over the whole vegetable kingdom,. Dr Nehemiah Grew is thought to have firft fuggeft- ed the univerfality of fexes ia plants, and the primary ufe of the anther# apices, or tops of the ftamina, in impregnating the feed. Thefe tops, he obferves, are chiefly ufeful to the plant itfelf; becaufe all plants, even fuch as want the foliature or petals, are provided with them : he then plainly afferts, as his opinion, that when the tops, which he calls the attire, break or open, their inclofed pollen, or duft, falls down on the feed-bud, the vegetable uterus, and endues it with a prolific virtue ; not, as he explains himfelf, by en¬ tering into it bodily, as the femen mafculinum in ani¬ mals, but by communicating to it fome fubtle and vivi- fic effluvia. This opinion of Grew was adopted by feveral fuc- ceeding botanifts, particularly Mr Ray, Camerarius, Geoffrey, Samuel Morland, Dr Blair, Juffieu, Brad¬ ley, Van Royen, Malpighi, Vaillant, Ludwig, Woi- fius, Logan, Monro, and the juftly celebrated Lin- na“us. Ray, at firft, mentions Grew’s doftrine only as probable; but afterwards declares his full affent to it, and colledts the arguments that are ufed to fup¬ port it. Rudolphus Jacobus Camerarius, about the end of the laft century, endeavoured to demonftrate the ana- logy betwixt the generation of plants and animals. A- mong other arguments for the fex of plants, he makes ufe of the following r- “ That copulation (fays he) is neceffary in the generation of animals is pall a doubt: that a fimilar jundion obtains in that of plants appears from this circumftance, that if either the tops (asitht* rx) of the male, or the ftyles of the female, or both,. SEX t 8nj ] SEX Sex. are wanting, no fecundation, and confequently no ge- cafe containing the feeds, being frequently found per- Sexagenary — "■"neration, can take place.” This affertion he exem- feftly folid and impenetrable by that fubftance. .11 plifiea in the mulberry-tree, mays, and mercury, in Laftly, the celebrated Sir Charles Linnaeus has cxtl1s' which the ftamina of the male flowers being either completed the doftrine of the fex of plants, by collcc- picked off before they had attained maturity, as in the ting all the arguments in fupport of it that can pof- two firft inftances, or placed at a diftance from the fe- fibly be advanced f; and by founding upon it a fyftem, t See Bo- male plant, as in the laft, the buds that ought to have in which all vegetables are arranged under particular produced fruit came not to maturity. The fame au- clafles, diftinguiihed by the number and other circum- thor fpeaks of the number of ftamina in flowers; fo ftances of their ftamina or inale organs. See Bo- that in his works we may recognize almoft the firft tany, paflim. principles of the celebrated fexual fyftem of Lin- SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the num- nteus. ber fixty : thus fexagenary or fexagefimal arithmetic. However, almoft a century before Grew, Zaluzian- is a method of computation proceeding by fixties; fid, a native of Poland, had clearly diftinguifhed the fuch is that ufed in the divifion of a degree into fixty fexes of plants, and pointed out the difference betwixt minutes, of the minute into fixty feconds, of the fe¬ male, female, androgynous, and hermaphrodite plants. cond into fixty thirds, &c. Alfo fexagenary tables Grew’s improvements on the idea of Casfalpinus and are tables of proportional parts, fhowing the produ£t Zaluzianlki, have made him generally be confidered as of two fexagenarics that are to be multiplied, or the the author of the do&rine alluded to. Certain it is, quotient of the two that are to be divided, that he has handled the fubjedl with great accuracy, SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sunday before Lent, end endeavoured, by repeated microfcopical examina- or the next to Shrove-Sunday, fo called as being about . tions, to throw light upon this obfeure, but curious the 6oth day before Eafter. inquiry. SEXAGESIMALS, or sexagesimal Fraftions, Signor Malpighi, who was contemporary with fractions whofe denominators proceed in a fexagecuple Grew, likewife examined by the microfcope the male ratio; that is, a prime, or the firft minute, =^3-; a or fecundating dull, the ftyles of the feed-bud, and fecond = y-g^; a third Anciently, there the manner in which the open, or burft, when were no other than fexagefimals ufed in aftronomy ; ripe. and they are ftill retained in many cafes, though deci- Morland, Geoffrey, and Vaillaut, who have writ- mal arithmetic begins to grow in ufe now in aftrono- ten fucceffively upon this fubjeft, all concur in afferting, mical calculations. In thefe fra&ions, which fome that the duft of the anther* or tops of the ftamina is call agronomical fraftions, the denominator being al- entirely analogous to the femen mafculinum of animals, ways 60, or a multiple thereof, is ufually omitted, and abfolutely neceffary for fecundating the feed, and the numerator only written down : thus, 40, 59% Morland, however, differs from Grew, in his concep- jz", 50'", 16"", is to be read, 4 degrees, 59 minutes, tion of the manner in which the fecundation in que- 32 feconds, 50 thirds, 16 fourths, &c. ftion is accompliftted. The latter, as we have feen, SEXTANS, Sextant, a fixth part of certain gave it for his opinion, that the fecundating duft did not things. The Romans having divided their as into 12 enter bodily into the ovary of the plant, but operated ounces or unica, the fixth part of that, or two ounces, its effeft by means of fome fpirituous emanations, or was the fextans.—was alfo a meafure which vivifying effluvia. Morland, on the other hand, af- contained two ounces of liquor, or two cyathi. ferted, that “ the male-duft is a congeries of feminal SEXTANT, in mathematics, denotes the fixth plants ; one of which muft be conveyed through the part of a circle, or an arch comprehending 60 de- ftyle into every ovum or feed, before it can become grees. prolific.” This hypothefis, as the reader will eafily The word /extant is more particularly ufed for an perceive, is analogous to that of animal generation, by aftronomical inftrument made like a quadrant, except- means of anirnalcula ia femine mafeulino.. Geoffrey, ing that its limb only comprehends 60 degrees. The in a memoir prefented to the Academy of Sciences at ufe and application of the fextant is the fame with Paris in 1711, on the ftrufture and ufe of the princi- that of the quadrant. See Quadrant. pal parts of flowers, afferts, that the germ, or/a/? t77i> 8vo.—Mr War- burton, Lond. 1747, 8vo, 8 vol,—Dr Johnfon, 1765, 1768, 8vo. 8 vol.—G. Steevens, 20 plays, 1766, 4 vol. 8*/o.—Mr Capel, 1768, 8vo. 10 vol.—Johnfon and Steevens, 1773, 10 ^v0‘ Befides his dramatic works, Shakefpeare is faid to have written ftveral poems, which are publiftied in a Angle 8vo volume. His fonnets were publiftied in 1609, 410. SHAKLES, in a fhip, are the rings with which the ports are ftmt faft, by lafhing the port-bar to them. There are alfo ftiakles put upon bilbow-bolts, for confining the men who have deferved corporal pu- nifhment. SHALLOP, a fort of large boat with two mafts, and ufually rigged like a fchooner. See Schooner. SHAMBLES, among miners, a fort of niches or landing-places, left at fuch diftances in the adits of the mines, that the (hovel-men may conveniently throw up the ore from (hamble to lhamble, till it comes to the top of the mine. SHAMMY, or chamois-leather, a kind of lea¬ ther, either drefled in oil or tanned ; and much efteem- ed for its foftnefs, pliancy, and being capable of bear¬ ing foap without hurt.—The true (hammy is prepared of the (kin of the chamois-goat, a fpecies of Capra. SHANK, in the manege, that part of a horfe’s fore-leg which lies between the knee and the fetlock. SHANKER, or Chancrp, in medicine, a malig¬ nant ulcer, ufually occafioned by fome venereal dif- order. See Medicine, n° 447. 18 ] S H A SHANNON, a river of Ireland, and the largeft in that ifland. It rifes in the county of Leitrim, run¬ ning from north to fouth, and divides the provinces, of Leinfter and Connaught; it then turns fouth-weft, runs through the province of Munfter, pafles by the city of Limerick, and falls into the weftern ocean be¬ tween the counties of Clare and Limerick. SHARE of a Plough, that part which cuts the ground ; the extremity forwards being covered with a fharp-pointed iron, called the point of the Jhare; and the end of the wood behind, the tail of the Jhare. SHARK, in ichthyology. See Sq^ialus. SHARP, in mufic. See Interval. Sharp (Dr John), archbiftiop of York, was de¬ scended from the Sharps of Little Norton, a family of Bradford Dale in Yorkftiire; and was fon of an emi¬ nent tradefman of Bradford, where he was born in 1644. He was educated at Cambridge, and in 1667 entered into orders. That fame year he became do- meftic chaplain to Sir Heneage Finch, then attorney- general. In 1672, he was collated to the archdea¬ conry of Berkftiire. In 1675, he was inftalled a pre¬ bendary in the cathedral church of Norwich ; and the year following, was inftituted into the reftory of St Bartholomew near the Royal Exchange, London. In 1681, he was, by the intereft of his patron Sir He¬ neage Finch, then lord high chancellor of England, made dean of Norwich ; but in 1686 was fufpended, for taking occafion, in fome of his fermons, to vindi¬ cate the dodtrine of the church of England in oppoli- tion to Popery. In 1688, he was fworn chaplain to king James II. being then probably reftored after his fufpenfion ; for it is certain that he was chaplain to king Charles II. and attended as a court-chaplain at the coronation of king James II. In 1689, he was declared dean of Canterbury ; but never could be per- fuaded to fill up any of the vacancies made by the de¬ prived biftiops. Upon the death of Dr Lamplugh, he was promoted to the fee of York. In 1702 he preached the fermon at the coronation of queen Anne5 and the fame year was fworn of the privy-council, and made lord almoner to her majefty. He died at Bath in 1713 ; and was interred in the cathedral of York, where a monument is eredled to his memory.—His fermons, which were colle&ed after his death and pu- blifhed in 7 vols 8vo, are juftly admired. SHASTER, or Shastram, a facred book, con¬ taining the religion of the Banians: itconfiftsof three trafts; the firft of which contains the moral law, the fecond the ceremonial, and the third delivers the peculiar obfervances for each tribe of Indians.—The (hafter is looked upon by fome as a commentary on the vedam, and by others as an original work, an extraft of which has been lately publiftied in England, and has thrown fome light upon the fubjed. This book teaches, that the Eternal Being, abforbed in the contemplation of his own efience, formed the refolution of created beings who might partake of his glory. He fpoke, and an¬ gels rofe into exiftence ; they fang in concert the praifes of their Creator, and harmony reigned in the celeftial regions; when two of thefe fpirits having re¬ volted, drew a legion after them. The Supreme Being drove them into a place of torment, from whence they were releafed at the interceffion of the faithful angels, upon conditions which at once infpired them with joy Shannon II Shafter. SHE Shaw and terror. The rebels were fentenced, under dif- Jl ferent forms, to undergo punifhments in the lowed of 5 eep- the 15 planets, in proportion to the enormity of their firft offence ; accordingly each angel underwent 87 tranfmigrations upon earth, before he animated the body of a cow, which holds the higheft rank among the animal-tribes. Thefe different tranfmigrations are confidered as fo many ftages of expiation, preparatory to a ftate of probation, which commences as foon as the angel tranfmigrates from the body of the cow into a human body : in this fituation the Creator enlarges his intelle&ual faculties, and conftitutes him a free agent ; and his good or bad conduct haftens or retards the time of his pardon. The good are at their death re-united to the Supreme Being, and the wicked be¬ gin anew the aera of their expiation. SHAW (Dr Thomas), known to the learned world by his travels to Barbary and the Levant, was born at Kendal in Weftmoreland, about the year 1692. He was appointed chaplain to the Engliflt conful at Al¬ giers, in which ftation he continued for feveral years j and from thence took proper opportunities of travel¬ ling into different parts. He returned in 1733 ; was elefted fellow of the royal fociety ; and publifhed the account of his travels at Oxford, folio, 1738. In 1740 he was nominated principal of St Edmond-hall, which he raifed from a ruinous ftate by his munificence; and was regius profeffor of Greek at Oxford until his death, which happened in 1751. Dr Clayton, bi- fhop of-Clogher, having attacked thefe travels in his “ Defeription of the Eaft,” Dr Shaw publifhed a fupplement by way of vindication, which is incorpo¬ rated into the fecond edition of his travels, prepared by himfelf, and publifhed in 410, 1757. SHEATHING, in the fea-language, is the cafing that part of a fhip which is to be under water with fir-board of an inch thick ; firft laying hair and tar, mixed together, under the boards, and then nailing them on, in order to prevent worms from eating the (hip’s bottom.—Ships of war are now generally fheath- ed with copper. SHEATS, in a fhip, are ropes bent to the clews of the fails ; ferving in the lower fails to haul aft the dews of the fail; but in top fails they ferve to haul home the clew of the fail clofe to the yard-arm. SHEEP, in zoology. See Ovis. Sheep Ntfe-Wortns, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of fly-worm found in the nofes of fheep, goats,.and flags, and produced there from the egg of a large two-wing¬ ed fly. The frontal finufes above the nofe in fheep and other animals, are the places where thefe worms live, and attain their full growth. Thefe finufes are always full of a foft white matter, which furnifhes'thefe worms with a proper nourifhment, and are fufficiently large for their habitation ; and when they have here acqui¬ red their deftined growth, and come to the condition in which they are fit to undergo their changes for the fly- ftate, they leave their old habitation, and falling to the earth, bury themfelves there; and when thefe are hatched into flies, the female, when fhe has been im¬ pregnated by the male, knows that the nofe of a fheep, or other animal, is the only place to depofit her eggs in order to their coming to good. Mr Vallifnieri, to whom the world owes fo many dif- S H E coveries in the infedl-clafs, is the firft who has given any true account of the origin of thefe worms. Tho’ their true hiftory had been till that time unknown, the creatures themfelves were very early difeovered, and many ages fince were efteemed great medicines in epi- lepfies. It is very common to find only one worm in the head of the creature that has them, often two are found, and fometimes three, but very feldom any more than that. Redi has given a very imperfect figure of this crea¬ ture, nor is that of Mr Vallifnieri much better. The worm has two brown hooks at the anterior part of its head, placed parallel, or nearly parallel, to one another. It is compofed of 11 rings, which toge¬ ther form a conic figure, fomething flatted, of which the head of the worm is the point. When the worm is young, it is very white; but has two brown fpots placed over againft each other, in the hinder part of its body, which are its two pofterior fligmata. Each of thefe fpots is parted into two by a concentric circle, which is fenfible, as it is whitifh, the reft of the fpot being brown. It is plaialy this very feparation which gives paffage to the air. When the creature pleafes, it fhows thefe; but it can alfo draw them into a fort of purfe in its pofterior ring. The anus is juft below, and is ufually hid by the folds of the ficin. The hooks are brown and ftrong ; juft above thefe are two little flefhy horns, and between them is placed the mouth. This worm, when at its full growth, is confiderably large, and becomes brownifh, or of a dirty white. Its belly, examined by the microfcope, is feen furnifhed with a number of fine (hort prickles between the rings: the points of all thefe are turned backward, and one may even feel thefe prickles, in drawing the finger along the belly from the hinder part toward the head. Thefe worms are capable of moving themfelves very fwiftly ; and it is doubtlefs owing to their motions in the bead of the creature, and to the pain that the fen¬ fible membranes there muft, have from being wounded by the hooks and prickles of this animal, that fheep are often feen to growoutrageous,and ftrike their heads again ft trees and other hard bodies. When thefe worms are taken out of the heads of fheep, if they are put upon the earth, they immediate¬ ly bury themfelves very deeply iu it; and if net yet at their full growth, or in a proper ftate for their changes, they die there: but if it be near the time that they would naturally have quitted their ancient habitation, which may be known by their being changed from their fine white to a brovvnifh colour, then they un¬ dergo all their proper changes under a fhell made by the hardening of their own fkin. This fhell is of the fame fbape with the animal itfdf,but is of a deep brown. It takes fomc time for the creature to undergo its feveral changes, and that more or lefs according to the feafon. Mr Vallifnieri had one produced in the per¬ fect fly-ftate, after 40 days from the time of its firft change. Mr Reaumur found thofe which formed their fhell on the 24th of April, not to produce the fly be¬ fore the 27th of June. The creature, when ready to appear in the fly-ftat<“3 has no great difficulty in the getting out of its cafe; the fwelling and inflating its head, and throwing out itSj r 8119 ] Shefp. SHE [ 811 She?p, its bladder, which is the pra&ice of thefe creatures on Sheering. th;8 occafion, eafily detaches a piece of the fliell, ori¬ ginally loofe, and gives the fly a fufficient paflage. The fly produced from this worm has all the time of its life a very lazy difpofition, and does not like to make any ufe either of its legs or wings. Its head and corcelet together are about as long as its body, which is compofed of five rings, ftreaked on the back; a pale yellow and brown are there difpofed in irregular fpots: the belly is of the fame colour; but they are there more regularly difpofed, for the brown here makes three lines, one in the middle, and one on each fide, and all the in¬ termediate fpaces are yellow. The wings are nearly of the fame length with the body, and are a little in¬ clined in their pofition, fo as to lie upon the body; they do not, however, cover it, but a naked fpace is left between them. The ailerons, or petty wings, which are found under each of the wings, are of a whitifh colour, and perfedtly cover the balancers, fo that they are not to be feen without lifting up thefe. The upper part of the corcelet is full of fmall black prominences, which, when examined by the microfcope, appear as fo many corns of gunpowder. Its head is large in proportion to the fize of the body, and its reticular eyes are of a deep changeable green. Thefe eyes take up lefs fpace in the head than thofe of mod other flies: they leave a confiderable fpace between them; and in that are placed the three fmaller or gloffy eyes, which are placed in form of a fmall triangle, and Hand fo'oear as to touch one another. The reft of the upper part of the head is yellowifli, and, viewed by the microfcope, appears cavernous like a fpunge, or morel; and in the bottom of each of thefe final! cavities is a little black prominence. There are other two hollows in the an¬ terior part of the head, in which the antennae are pla¬ ced ; thefe are of the battledoor form, but rather round than flat, and have each a large hair going from them. The under part of the head, which is rounder than the upper, is whitifh, and very fmooth; it has two forts of bands direfted downward, which are the elongations of the rims of the arches where the antennae are lodged. The fmoothnefs of the under part of the head makes one fee very diftin&ly thtfe three little tubercles; the upper one brown, the under ones of a paledeadilh yel¬ low. The mouth of the fly feems to be placed between thefe, immediately under the upper tubercle. The fly will live two months after it is firft produ¬ ced from the /hell, but will take no nourifhment of any "kind; and poflibly it may be of the fame nature with the butterflies, which never take any food during the whole time of their living in that ftate. Sheep-Stealing. See Theft. Compofition for Marking Sheep. For this purpofe Dr Lewis tecommends tallow mixed with a certain pro¬ portion of tar, and the mixture thickened by powder of charcoal. The proportions he tried were an eighth, a fixth, and a fourth part of tar. None of thefe could be difeharged by any wafhing or rubbing with water, but all of them completely by foap; that which had the fmalleft proportion, ealily enough; the others more difficultly. SHEERING, in the fea-language. When a (hip is not fleered fteadily, they fay fhe fheers, or goes fheer- ing; or when, at anchor, fhe goes in and out by means of the turrent of the tide, they alfo fay flic fheers. 10 1 SHE SHEERNESS, a fort in Kent, feated on the point Sheerneft where the river Medway falls into the Thames. It was II. built by king Charles II. after the infultof the Dutch, Shcriield. who burnt the men of war at Chatham. The build¬ ings belonging to it, in which the officers lodge, make a pretty little neat town; and there is alfo a yard and a dock, a chapel and a chaplain. Mr Lyons, who fail¬ ed with the Hon. Captain Phipps in his voyage to¬ wards the pole, fixed the longitude of Sheernefs to o. 31'E. its latitude 51° 31'30" N. SHEERS, in a fhip, are two mads fet acrofs at the upper end of each other; a contrivance generally ufed for fetting or taking out the mafts of a fhip, where there is no hulk to do that office. SHEFFIELD, a town in the Weft Riding of York- fhire, with a market on Tuefdays, and two fairs, on Tuefday after Trinity-Sunday and November 28, for cattle and horfes. It is feated on the river Don, or Dune; and had a ftrong caftle, which was demolifhed in the late civil wars. It is a large place, whofe houfe# are built of ftone, and has been long noted for edge- tools, knives, and fwords; for Chaucer, in one of his tales, takes notice of a man with a Sheffield whittle by his fide. It is now a place where there is the moft con¬ fiderable manufactures for hardware in England, next to Birmingham. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 53.23. Sheffield (John) duke of Buckinghamffiire, one of the fined writers of the laft and prefent century, of great perfonal bravery, and an able minifter of ftate, was born about 1646. He loft his father at nine years of age; and his mother marrying with lord Of- fulfton, the care of his education was left entirely to a governor, who did not greatly improve him in his fludies. Finding that he was deficient in many parts of literature, he refolved to devote a certain (lumber of hours every day to his fludies; and thereby im¬ proved himfelf to the degree of learning he afterwards attained. Though pofltfled of a good eftate, he did not abandon himfelf to pleafure and indolence, but offered to go a volunteer in the fecond Dutch war; and accordingly was in that famous naval engagement where the duke of York commanded as admiral: on which occafion his lordffiip behaved fo gallantly, that he was appointed commander of the Royal Catherine. He afterward made a campaign in the French fervice, under M. de Turenne. As Tangier was in danger of being taken by the Moors, he offered to head the forces which were fent to defend it; and accordingly was appointed commander of them. He was then earl of Mulgrave, and one of the lords of the bed¬ chamber to king Charles II. The Moors retired on the approach of his majefty’s forces; and the refult of the expedition was the blowing up of Tangier. He continued in feveral great ports during the ffiort reign of king James II. till that unfortunate prince was de¬ throned. Lord Mulgrave, though be paid his refpedts to king William before he was advanced to the throne, yet he did not accept of any poft in the government till fome years after. In the lixth year of William and Mary, he was created marquis of Normanby in the county of Lincoln. He was one of the moft aftive and zealous oppofers of the bill which took away Sir John Fenwick’s life; and exerted the utmoft vigour in carrying through thofe two admirable bills, the Ireafon Bill, and (hat for Triennial Parliaments. He SHE [Si SheffleM, He enjoyed forae confiderable poftsunder king William, Shak. anj was generally pretty well in his favour and con- fidence. In 1702, he was fworn lord privy-feal ; and in the fame year was appointed one of the com- miffioners to treat of an union between England and Scotland. In 1703, he was created duke of Normandy, and foon after duke of Buckinghbamfture. In 1711, he was made fteward of her majefty’s houfehold, and prefident of the council. During queen Anne’s reign he was hut once out of employment; and then he re- figned it himfelf, being attached to what were called the Tory principles. Her majefty offered to make him lord chancellor; which poft he refufed. He was in- ftrumental in the change of the miniftry in 1710. A circumftance that refleds the highteft honour on him is, the vigour with which he aded in favour of the unhappy Catalans, who afterward were fo inhumanly facrificed. He was furvived by only one legitimate fon, (who died at Rome in 1735); but left feveral na¬ tural children. His worft enemies allowed him to have lived always very kindly with his lafl wife, natural daughter to king James II. the late duchefs of Buck¬ ingham, a lady who always behaved with a dignity fuitable to her high birth and quality. He died in 1721, aged 75 years; and hia works dpeak him one of the moll beautiful profe-writers and greateft poets of this age, which is alfo proved by the teftimonies of the fined writers his cotemporaries. His writings were fplendidly printed in 1723, in two volumes 410; and have fince been reprinted in 1729, in two vols 8vo. The firft contains his poems on various fubj'e&s: the fecond, his profe works; which confift of hiftorical memoirs, fpeeches in parliament, charadlers, dialogues, critical obfervations, effays, and letters. It may be proper to obferve, that the edition of 1 729 is caftrated ; fbme particulars relating to the revolution in that of 1723 having given offence. SHEIK, in the oriental cufloms, the perfon who has the care of the mofques in Egypt; his duty is the fame as that of the imams at Conftantinople. There are more or fewer of thefe to every mofque, according to its fize or revenue. One of thefe is head over the reft, and anfwers to a parifh-prieft with us; and has under him, in large mofques, the readers, and people who cry out to go to prayers ; but in fmall mofques the Iheik is obliged to do all this himfelf. In fucb it is their bufinefs to open the mofque, to cry to prayers, and to begin their fhort devotions at the head of the congregation, who ftand rank and file in great order, and make all their motions together. Every Friday the Iheik makes an harangue to his congregation. SmiK-hellet, the name of an officer in the Oriental nations. In Egypt the fheik-bellet is the head of a city, and is appointed by the ptecha. The bufinefs of this officer is to take care that no innovations be made which may be prejudicial to the Porte, and that they fend no orders which may hurt the liberties of the people. But all his authority depends on his credit and intereft, not his office: for the government of Egypt is of fuch a kind, that often the people of the leait power by their polls have the greatell influence ; and a caia of the janizaries or Arabs, and fometimes one of their meaneft officers, an oda-balha, finds means, by his parts and abilities, to govern all things. Vol. X. r 21 ] SHE SHEILDS, or Sheals, South and North, two fea- Shelldts port towns, one in the county of Durham, and the other in Northumberland ; neither has market nor * fair, but both are remarkable for being the mart where Ihips take in their loading of coals, and where they make large quantities of fait. They are feated on each fide of the mouth of the river Tyne, 10 miles call of Newcaftle, and 188 north by weft of London. W. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 55. o. SHEKEL, in Jewilh antiquity, an ancient coin worth 2 s. 3^d. Sterling. SHELF, among miners, the fame with what they otherwife call faft ground ox faft country ; being that part of the internal ftru&ure of the earth which they find lying even and in an orderly manner, and evi¬ dently having retained its primitive form and fitu- ation. SHELL, in natural hiftory, a hard, and, as it were, ftony covering, with which certain animals are defended, and thence called Jhell-fiJh. The Angular regularity, beauty, and delicacy, in the ftru&ure of the Ihells of animals, and the variety and brilliancy in the colouring of many of them, at the fame time that they ftrike the attention of the rood incurious obfervers, have at all times excited philofophers to inquire into and deleft, if poffible, the caufes and manner of their formation. But the at¬ tempts of naturalifts, ancient and modern, to difcover this procefs, have conftantly proved unfuccefsful. M. de Reaumur hitherto appears alone to have given a plaufible account, at lead, of the formation of the ffiell of the garden-fnail in particular, founded on a courfe of very ingenious experiments, related in the Paris Memoirs*. He there endeavours to fliow,'S4® that this fubftance is produced merely by the per- fpirable matter of the animal, condenfing and after- wards hardening on its furface, and accordingly taking Edit, de the figure of its body, which has performed the office Holtande, in of a mould to it; in ffiort, that the ihell of a fnai!, and, as he fuppofed, of all other animals poflefled of fliells, was only the produft of a vifcous tranfudation from the body of the animal, containing earthy par¬ ticles united by mere juxtapofition. This hypothefis, however, is liable to very great and infurrr.ountable difficulties, if we apply it to the formation of fome of the moft common (hells: for how, according to this fyllem, it may be afked, can the oyfter, for inftance, confidered fimply as a mould, form to itfelf a cover¬ ing fo much exceeding its own body in dimenflons? M. HerifTant, in the memoirs of the academy of fciences for 1766, has difcovered theftruftureof (hells to be organical. In the numerous experiments that he made on an immenfe number, and a very great variety, of animal-fliells, he conftantly found that they were compofed of two diftinft fubftances; one of which is a cretaceous br earthy matter; and the other ap- pe'ared, from many experiments made upon it, by burning, diftillation, and otherwife, to be evidently of an animal-nature. Thefe two fubftances he dex- troufly feparated from each other by a very eafy che¬ mical analyfis; by the gentle operation of which they were exhibited dillinftly to view, without any mate¬ rial alteration from the aftion of the folvent, or inftru- ment, employed for that purpofe. On an entire (hell, or a fragment of one, contained in a glafs veffel, he 40 O poured SHE Sbefl. poured a fufficlent quantity of the nitrous acid, con- *■ fiderably diluted either with water or fpirit of wine. After the liquor has difiblved all the earthy part of the (hell, (which may be collefted, after precipitation by a fixed or volatile alkali), there remains floating in it a foft fubftance, confiding of innumerable membranes of a retiform appearance, and difpofed, in different (hells, in a variety of pofitions, which conftitutes the animal-part of it. This, as it has not been affe&ed by the folvent, retains the exaft figure of the fhell; and, on being viewed through a microfcope, exhibits fatisfaftory proofs of a vafcular and organical ftruc- ture. He fliows that this membranous fubftance is an appendix to the body of the animal, or a continuation cf the tendinous fibres that compofe the ligaments by which it is fixed to its fhell ; and that this laft owes its hardnefs to the earthy particles conveyed through the veffels of the animal, which fix themfelves into, and in¬ cruft, as it were, the mefhes formed by the reticular filaments of which this membranous fubftance is com- pofed In the fhell calledporcelaine, in particular, the delicacy of thefe membranes was fo great, that he was obliged to put it into fpirit of wine, to which he had the patience to add a fingle drop of fpirit of nitre day by day, for the fpace of two months; left the air generated, or let loofe by the a&ion of the acid on the earthy fubftance, fhould tear the corn- pages of its fine membranous ftrufture into (hatters ; as it certainly would have done, in a more hafty and lefs gentle diflblution. The delicate reticulated film, left after this operation, had all the tenuity of a fpider’s web ; and accordingly he does not attempt to delineate its organifation. In other (hells, he em¬ ployed even five or fix months in demonftrating the complicated membranous ftrnfture of this animal-fub- ftance by this kind of chemical anatomy. In general, however, the procefsdoes not require much time. Of the many Angular configurations and appearances of the membranous part of different (hells, which are defcribed in this memoir, and are delineated in feveral ■well executed plates, we (hall mention only, as a fpe- cimen, the curious membranous ftrufture obferved in the laminae of mother-of-pearl, and other (hells of the fame kind, after having been expofed to the operation of the author’s folvent. Befide the great variety of fixed or permanent colours with which he found the animal-filaments of thefe (hells to be adorned, it is known that the (hell itfelf prefents to the view a fuc- cefiion of rich and changeable colours, the produftion of which he eafily explains from the configurations of their membranes. Nature, he obferves, always mag¬ nificent In her defigns, but Angularly frugal in the execution of them, produces thefe brilliant decorations at a very fmall expence. The membranous fubftance above-mentioned is plaited and rumpled, as it were, in fuch a manner, that its exterior laminae, incrufted with their earthy and femi-tranfparent matter, form an infinite number of little prifms, placed in all kinds of direftions, which refraft the rays of light, and produce all the changes of colour obfervable in thefe (hells. Fofile Shells'. Thofe found buried at great depths in the earth. Of thefe fome are found remaining almoft entirely ia their native ftate, but others are varioufly altered by s h !e being impregnated with particles of done and of other Shall, fofllls; in the place of others there is found mere (lone or fpar, or fome other native mineral-body,exprelfing all their lineaments in the greateft nicety, as having bi-en formed wholly from them, the (hell having been firft de- pofited in fome folid matrix, and thence diflblved by very flow degrees, and this matter left in its place, on the cavities of (tone and other folid fubftances, out of which (hells had been diffolved and walhed away, be¬ ing afterwards filled up lefs (lowly With thefe different fubftances, whether fpar or whatever elfe : thefe fub¬ ftances, fo filling the cavities, can neceffarily be of no other fdrm than that of the (hell, to the abfence of which the cavity was owing, though all the nicer li¬ neaments may not be fo exaftly expreffed. Befides thefe, we have alfo in many places maffes of (lone formed within various (hells ; and thefe having been received into the cavities of the (hells while they were perfectly fluid, and having therefore nicely filled all their cavities, mull retain the perfedt figures of the in¬ ternal part of the (hell, when the (hell itfelf (hould be worn away or perifhed from their outfide. The va¬ rious fpecies we find of thefe are, in many genera, as numerous as the known recent ones; and as we have in our own ifland not only the (hells of our own (hores, but thofe of many other very diftant ones, fo we have alfo many fpecies, and thofe in great numbers, which are in their recent ftate, the inhabitants of other yet unknown or unfearched feas and (hores. The cockles, mufcles, oyfters, and the other common bivalves of our own feas, are very abundant : but we have alfo an amazing number of the nautilus kind, particularly of the nautilus graecorum, which though a (hell not found living in our own or any neighbouring feas, yet is found buried in all our clay-pits about London and elfewhere ; and the mod frequent of all foffile (hells, in fome of our counties, are the conchse anomise, which yet we know not of in any part of the world in their recent ftate. Of this fort alfo are the cornua ammo- nis and the gryphitae, with feveral of tbeechinitte and others. The exadl fimilitude of the known (hells,-recent and foflile, in their feveral kinds, will by no means fuffer us to believe, that thefe, though not yet known to us ia their living ftate, are, as fome have idly thought, a fort of lufus nature. It is certain, that of the many known (hores, very few, not even thofe of our own ifland, have been yet carefully fearched for the (hell-fifh that inhabit them ; and as we fee in the nautilus graecorum an inftance of (hells being brought from very diftant parts of the world to be buried here, we cannot won¬ der that yet unknown (hores, or the unknown bottoms of deep feas, (hould have furmfhed us with many un¬ known (hell-fith, which may have been brought with the reft ; whether that were at the time of the general deluge, or the effeS of any other cataftrophe of a like kind, or by whatever other means, to be left in the yet unhardened matter of our (tony and clayey ftrata. Shells, in gunnery, are hollow iron balls to throw out of mortars or howitzers, with a fufe-f\ole of about an inch diameter, to load them with powder, and td receive the fuze. The bottom, or part oppofite to the fufe, is made thicker than the reft, that the fufe may fall uppermoft. But in fmall elevations this does not always happen, nor indeed is it neceffary ; for, let the (hell. [ 8l22 ] SHE [ 81 Shell fbell fall as it will, the fufe fets (ire to the powder II within, which burfts the (hell, and caufes great deva- - ont" ftation. The (hells had much better be of an equal thickm fs ; for then they burft into more pieces. Shells, are nothing more than howitz- fheils, in the infide of which a letter or other papers are put : the fufe-hole is (topped up with wood or cork, and the (hells are fired out of a royal or howitz, either into a garrifon or camp, It is fuppofed, that the perfon to whom the letter is fent knows the time, and accordingly appoints a guard to look out for its arrival. SHELL-ZV/fr. Thefe animals are in general ovipa¬ rous, very few inftances having been found of fuch as are viviparous. Among the oviparous kinds, anato- mifts- have found that fome fpecies are of different fexes in the different individuals of the fame fpecies-; but others are hermaphrodites, every one being in it- felf both male and female. In both cafes their in- creafe is very numerous, and fcarce inferior to that of plants, or of the mod fruitful of the infeft-clafs. The eggs are very fmall, and are hung together in a fort of clufters by means of a glutinous humour, which is always placed about them, and is of the nature of the gelly of frog’s fpawn. By means of this, they are not only kept together in the parcel, but the whole clu- fter is fafiened to the rocks, (hells, or other folid fub- ftances ; and thus they are preferred from being dri¬ ven on (hore by the waves and left where they cannot fucceed, Shell-GW*/. See Shell Gold. SHELTIE, a fmall, but ftrong kind of horfe, fo called from Shetland, or Zetland, where they are pro¬ duced. SHENAN. See Zty/flg Leather, (p.4161. foot-note.) SHENSTONE (William), an admired Englifli poet, was the eldeft fon of a plain country gentleman who farmed his own eftate in Shropshire. The fa¬ ther, fenfible of his fon’s capacity, placed him in Pembroke college, Oxford ; but he could never per- fuade him to enter into orders. In his private opinions, our author adhered, to no particular fed, and hated all religious difputes. Tendernefs, in every fenfe of the word, was his peculiar chara&eriftic ; and his friends, domeftics, and poor neighbours, daily experienced the effe&s of his benevolence. This virtue he carried to an excefs that feemed to border upon weaknefs ; yet if any of his friends treated him ungeneroufly, he was not eafily reconciled. On fuch occafions, however, he ufed to fay, “ I never will be a revengeful enemy ; but I cannot, it is not in my nature, be half a friend.” He was no ceconomift ; for the generofity of his tem¬ per prevented his paying a proper regard to the ufe of money : he exceeded therefore the bounds of his pa¬ ternal fortune. But, if we confider the perfed para- dife into which he had converted his eftate, the hofpi- tality with which he lived, his charities to the indi¬ gent, and all out of an eftate that did not exceed 3001. a-year, one (liould rather wonder that he left any thing behind him, than blame his want of ceconomy ; he yet left more than fufficient to pay all his debts ; and, by his will, appropriated his whole eftate for that purpofe. Though he had a high opinion of many among the fair fex, he forbore to marry. A paffion he eutertained 43 ] S H E in his youth was with difficulty furmounted. The lady Sheppy, was the fubjed of that admirable paftoral, in four sh<:nff' parts, which has been fo univerfally and fojuftly ad¬ mired, and which, one would have thought, muft. have foftened the proudeft and mod obdurate heart. His works have been publiftied by Mr Dodfley, in 3 vols 8vo. The firft volume contains his poetical works, which are particularly diftinguiflied by an amiable elegance and beautiful fimplicity; the fecond volume contains his profe works; the third his letters, &c. SHEPPEY, an ifland at the mouth of the river Medway, about 20 miles in circumference. It is fepa- rated from the main land by a narrow channel; and has a fertile foil, which feeds great flocks of (heep. The borough-town of Queenborough is feated thereon ; befides which it has ieveral villages. SHERIFF, an officer, in each county in England, nominated by the king, invefted with a judicial and minifterial power, and who takes place of every noble¬ man in the county during the time of his office. The (heriff is an officer of very great antiquity in this kingdom, his name being derived from two Saxon words, (ignifying the reeve., bailiff, or officer of the fhire. He is called in Latin vice-comes, as being the deputy of the earl or comes, to whom the cuftody of the (hire is faid to have been committed at the firft di- vifion of this kingdom into counties. But the earls, in procefs of time, by reafon of their high employments and attendance on the king’s perfon, not being able to tranfafi the bufinefs of the county, were delivered of that burden; referving to themfelves the honour, but the labour was laid on the (heriff. So that now the fheriff does all the king’s bufinefs in the county ; and tho’ he be ftill called vice-comes, yet he is entirely in¬ dependent of, and not fubjeft to, the earl; the king, by his letters-patent, committing cufiodiam comitatus to the (heriff, and him alone. Sheriffs were, formerly chofen by the inhabitants of the feveral counties. In confirmation of which it was ordained by ftatute 28 Edw. I. c. 8. that the peoplfe (hould have election of (heriffs in every fhire where the (hrievalty is not of inheritance. For anciently in fome counties the (heriffs were hereditary ; as we apprehend they were in Scotland till the ftatute 2oGeo. II. c. 43; and ftill continue in the county of Weftmorland to this day : the city of London having alfo the inheritance of the fhrievalty of Middlefex veiled in their body by charter. The reafon of thefe popular eledtions is af- figned in the fame ftatute, c. 13. “ that the commons might choofe fuch as would not be a burden to them.” and herein appears plainly a ftrong trace of the demo- cratical part of our conftitution ; in which form ofgo- vernment it is an indifpenfable requifite, that the people fhould choofe their own magillrates. This election was in all probability not abfolutely veiled in the commons, but required the royal approbation. For in the Go¬ thic conftitution, the judges of their county-courts (which office is executed by the (heriff) were defied by the people, but confirmed by the king: and the form of their ele&ion was thus managed ; the people, or incolce territorii, chofe twelve electors, and they nominated three perfons, quibus rex ununt confirma- bat. But, with us in England, thefe popular elec¬ tions, growing tumultuous, were put aa end to by the 40 O 2 fti * SHE [ 81 Sheriff, flatute 9 Edw. II. ft. 2. which enabled, that the ‘ 'ftieriffs (hould from thenceforth be affigned by the chancellor, treafurer, and the judges; as being per- fons in whom the fame truft might with eonftdence be repofed. By ftatutes 14 Edw. III. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. and 21 Hen. VIII. c. 20. the chancellor, trea¬ furer, prefident of the king’s council, chief jufticifs, and chief baron, are to make this eledlion ; and that on the morrow of All Souls, in the exchequer. And the Hlacijl. king’s letters-patent, appointing the new ftieriffs, ufed Comment, commonly to bear date the fixth day of November. The ftatute of Cambridge, 12 Ric. II. c. 2. ordains, that the chancellor, treafurer, keeper of the privy feal, fteward of the king’s houfe, the king’s chamberlain, clerk of the rolls, thejufticesof the one bench and the other, barons of the exchequer, and all other that ftiall be called to ordain, name, or make juftices of the peace, ftieriffs, and other officers of the king, ftiall be fworn to aft indifferently, and to name no man that fueth to be put in office, but fuch only as they ftiall judge to be the beft and moft fufficient. And the cu- ftom now is, (and has been at leaft ever fince the time of Fortefcue, who was chief juftice and chancellor to Henry the fixth), that all the judges, together with the other great officers, meet in the exchequer chamber on the morrow of All Souls yearly, (which day is now altered to the morrow of St Martin by the laft; aft for abbreviating Michaelmas term), and then and there propofc three perfons to the king, who afterwards ap¬ points one of them to be ftieriff. This cuftom, of the twelve judges propofing three perfons, feems borrowed from the Gothic conftitution before-mentioned ; with this difference, that among the Goths the 12 nomi¬ nors were full elefted by the people themfelves. And this ufage of ours, at its full introduftion, there is reafon to believe, was founded upon fome llatute, tho’ not now to be found among our printed laws: full, becaufe it is materially different from the direftion of all the ftatutes beforementioned ; which it is hard to conceive that the judges would have countenanced by their concurrence, or that Fortefcue would have inferted in his book, un- lefs by the authority of fome ftatute: and alfo, becaufe a ftatute is exprefsly referred to in the record, which Sir Edward Coke tells us he tranfcribed from the coancil-book of 3d March, 34 Hen. VI. and which is in fubftance as follows. The king had of his own au¬ thority appointed a man ftieriff of Lincolnfhire, which office he refufed to take upon him : whereupon the opinions of the judges were taken, what fhould be done in this behalf. And the two chief jullices, Sir John Fortefcue and Sir John Prifot, delivered the unani¬ mous opinion of them all ; “ that the king did an er¬ ror when he made a perfon fheriff, that was not cho- fen and prefented to him according to the ftatute; that the perfon refufing was liable to no fine for difo- bedience,. as if he had been one of the three perfons chofen according to the tenor of the ftatute ; that they would advife the king to have recourfe to the three perfons that were chofen according to the fta¬ tute#* or that fome other thrifty man be^ intreated to occupy the office for this year; and that,, the next year, to efehew fuch inconveniences, the order of the ftatute in this behalf made be obferved.” But, not- withftanding this unanimous refolution of all the judges of England, thus entered in the council-book} and the 24 ] SHE ftatute 34 Sc 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26. § 61. which ex- ShcrifT. prefsly recognizes this to be the law of the land, fome of our writers have affirmed, that the king, by his pre¬ rogative, may name whom he pleafes to be ftieriff, whether chofen by the judges or no. This is grounded on a very particular cafe in the fifth year of queen E- lizabeth, when, by reafon of the plague, there was no Michaelmas term kept at Wdlminfter ; fo that the judges could not meet there in crajiim anirnarum to nominate the ftieriffs: whereupon the queen named them herfelf, without fuch previous affembly, appoint¬ ing for the moft part one of two remaining in the laft: year’s lift. And this cafe, thus circumltanccd, is the only authority in our books for the making thefe ex¬ traordinary ftieriffs. It is true, the reporter adds, that it was held that the queen by her prerogative might make a ftieriff without the eledion of the judges, non objiante aliquojlatuto in contrarium: but the dodrine of non objiante's, which fets the prerogative above the laws, was effe&ually demoliftied by the bill of rights at the revolution, and abdicated Weftminfter-hall when king James abdicated the kingdom. However, it mud be acknowledged, that the pra&iceof occafionally na¬ ming what are called pocket-/heriffs, by the foie autho¬ rity of the crown, hath uniformly continued to the reign of his prefent majefty ; in which, it is believed, (if any) inftances have occurred. Sheriffs, by virtue of feveral old ftatutes, are to con¬ tinue iu their office no longer than one year ; and yet it hath been faid that a fiieriff may be appointed, durante lene placito, or during the king’s pleafure; and fo is the form of the royal writ. Therefore, till a new flieriff be named, his office cannot be determined, unlefs by his own death, or the demifeofthe king; in which laft cafe it was ufual for the fucceffor to fend a new writ to the old ftieriff: but now, by ftatute 1 Ann. ft. 1. c. 8. all officers appointed by the preceding king may hold their offices for fix months after the king’s de- mife, unlefs fooner difplaced by the fucceffor. We may farther obferve, that by ftatute 1 Ric. II. c. 1 1. no man that has ferved the office of flieriff for one year, can be compelled to ferve the fame again within three years after. We ftiall find it is of the utmoft importance to have the ftieriff appointed according to law, when we con- fiderhis power and duty. Thefe are either as a judge, as the keeper of the king’s peace, as a minifterial of¬ ficer of the fuperior courts of juftice, or as the king’s bailiff. In his judicial capacity he is to hear and deter¬ mine all caufes of 40 Ihillings value and under, in his county-court; and he has alfo a judicial power in divers other civil cafes. He is likewife to decide the eledtians of knights of the fhire, (fubjeft to the control of the Houfe of Commons), of coroners, and of verderors; to judge of the qualification of voters, and to return fuch as he fhall determine to be duly ele&ed. As the keepers of the king’s peace, both by com¬ mon law and fpecial commiffion, he is the firft man in the county, and fuperior in rank to any nobleman therein, during his office. He may apprehend, and commit to prifon, all perfons who break the peace, or attempt to break it ; and may bind any one in a re¬ cognisance to keep the king’s peace. He may, and SHE [ 8125 ] SHE Sheriff, is bound ex officio, to purfue and take all traitors, mur- derers, felons, and other mifdoers, and commit them to gaol for fafe cuftody. He is alfo to defend his county againft any of the king’s enemies when they come into the land : and for this purpofe, as well as for keeping the peace and purfuing felons, he may command all the people of his county to attend him ; which is called the poffie comitatus, or power of the county : which fummons, every perfon above 15 years old, and under the degree of a peer, is bound to at¬ tend upon warning, under pain of fine and imprifon- ment. But though the fberiff is thus the principal confervator of the peace in his county, yet, by the exprefs dire&ions of the great charter, he, together with the conftable, coroner, and certain other officers of the king, are forbidden to hold any pleas of the crown, or, in other words, to try any criminal offence. For it would be highly unbecoming, that the execu¬ tioners of juftice (hould be alfo the judges ; fhould im- pofe, as well as levy, fines and amercements; Ihould one day condemn a man to death, and perfonally exe¬ cute him the next. Neither may he aft as an ordi- eary juftice of the peace during the time of his office: for this would be equally inconfiftent, he being in many refpe£ts the fervant of the juftices. In his minifterial capacity, the fheriff is hound to execute all procefs ifluing from the king’s courts of juftice. In the commencement of civil caufes, he is to ferve the writ, to arreft, and to take bail; when the caufe comes to trial, he muft fummon and return the jury ; when it is determined, he muft fee the judg¬ ment of the court carried into execution. In criminal matters, he alfo arrefts and imprifons, he returns the jury, he has the cuftody @f the delinquent, and he executes the fentence of the court, though it extend to death itfelf. As the king’s bailiff, it is his bufinefs to preferve the rights of the king within his bailiwick ; for fo his county is frequently called in the writs: a word intro¬ duced by the princes of the Norman line; in imitation of the French, whofe territory is divided into baili¬ wicks, as that of England into counties. He muft feize to the king’s ufe all lands devolved to the crown by attainder or efeheat ; muft levy all fines and for¬ feitures, muft feize and keep all waifs, wrecks, eflrays, and the like, unlefs they be granted to fome fubjeA ; and muft alfo colled the king’s rents within his baili¬ wick, if commanded by procefs from the exchequer. To execute thefe various offices, the fheriff has un¬ der him many inferior officers; an under-fheriff, bai¬ liffs, and gaolers, who muft neither buy, fell, nor farm their offices, on forfeiture of 500 1. The under-lheriff ufually performs all the duties of the office ; a very few only excepted, where the per- fonal prefence of the high-fheriff is neceffary. But no under-fheriff {hall abide in his office above one year and if he does, by ttatute 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. he for¬ feits 2001. a very large penalty in thofe early days. And no under-ffieriff or fheriff’s-officer (hall pradife as an attorney during the time he contipues iafucb office : for this would be a great inlet to partiality and oppreffion. But thefe falutary regulations are fhame- fully evaded, by pradifing in the names of other at¬ torneys, and putting in {ham deputies by way of no¬ minal under-ffieriffs: by reafon of which, fays Dal¬ ton, the under-ffieriffs and bailiffs do grow fo cunning in their fevera! places, that they are able to deceive, Sherlock, and it may well be feared that many of them do de- ceive, both the king, the high-ftieriff, and the county. Sheriff, in Scotland. See Law, N° clviii. 1,2,3. SHERLOCK (William), a learned Eoglifh divine in the 17th century, was born in 1641, and educated at Eaton fchool, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by the vigour of his genius and his application to ftudy. Thence he was removed to Cambridge, where he took his degrees. In 1669, became redor of the pariffi of St George, Botolph-lane, in London; and in 1681 was collated to the prebend of Pancras, in the cathedral of St Paul’f. He was likewife chofen 'mailer of the Temple, and had the reftory of Ther- field in Hertfordffiire. After the revolution he was fufpended from his preferment, for refufing the oaths to king William and queen Mary ; but at laft he took them, and publicly juftified what he had done. In 1691, he was inftalled dean of St Paul’s. His Vin¬ dication of the Doflrine of the Trinity, engaged him in a warm controverfy with Dr South and others. Bi- fhop Burnet tells us, he was “ a clear, a polite, and a ftrong writer ; but apt to affume too much to him¬ felf, and to treat his adverfaries with contempt.” He died in 1707. His works are very numerous ; among thefe are, 1. A Difcourfe concerning the Knowledge of Jtfus Chrift, againft Dr Owen. 2. Several pieces againft the Papifts, the Socinians, and Diifenters. 3. A pradical Treatife on Death, which is much ad- aiired. 4. A pradlical Difcourfe on Providence. 5. A pradical Difcourfc on the future Judgment; and many- other works. Sherlock (Dr Thomas), biffiop of London, was the fon of the preceding Dr William Sheilock, and was born in 1678. He was educated in Catharine- hall, Cambridge, where he took his degrees, and of which he became mafter : be was made mafter of the Temple very young, on the refignation of his father; and it is remarkable, that this mafterfhfp was held by father and fon fucceffively for more than 70 years. He was at the head of the oppofition againft Dr Hoadley biffiop of Bangor ; during which conteft he publiffied a great number of pieces. He attacked the famous Collins’s “ Grounds and reafons of the Chriftian religion,” in a courfe of fix fermons preached at the Temple-church, which he intitled “ The ufe and in¬ tent of Prophecy in the feveral ages of the world ” In 1728, Dr Sherlock was promoted to -the biffiopric of Bangor; and was tranflated to Saliffiury in 1734. In 1747, he refufed the archbiffiopric of Canterbury, on account of his ill ftate of health ; but recovering in a good degree, accepted the fee of London the fol¬ lowing year. On occafion of the earthquakes in 1750, he publilhed an excellent Paftoral Letter to the clergy and inhabitants of London and Weftminfter: of which it is faid there were printed in 410, 5000; in 8vo,. 20,000; and in izmo, about 30,000 ; befide pirated editions, of which not lels than 50,000 were fuppofed to have been fold. Under the weak ftate of body in which he lay for feveral years, he revifed and pubWhed 4 volumes of Sermons in 8vo, which are particularly admired for their ingenuity and elegance. He died in 1762, and by report worth 150,000!. “ Flis learn¬ ing,” fays Dr Nicholls, “ was very extenfive : Godi had given him a great and an underftanding mind, a quick coroprehenlion, and. a foiid judgment. Thefe advan- Shetland. SHE [ 8: advantages of nature he improved by much induftry and application. His fltill in the civil and canon law was very confiderablc ; to which he had added fuch a knowledge of the common law of England, as few clergymen attain to. This it was that gave him that influence in all caufes where the church was concerned} as knowing precifely what it had to claim from its conftitutions and canons, and what from the common law of the land.” Dr Nicholls then mentions his conftant and exemplary piety, his warm and fervent zeal in preaching the duties and maintaining the doc¬ trines of Chriftianity, - and his large and diffufive mu¬ nificence and charity ; particularly by his having given large fums of money to the corporation of clergymens fons, to feveral of the hofpitals, and to the fociety for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts: alfo his be¬ queathing to Catharine-hall in Cambridge, the place of his education, his valuable library of books, and his donations for the founding a librarian’s place and a fcholarfliip, to the amount of feveral thoufand pounds. SHETLAND, the name of certain iflands belong¬ ing to Scotland, and lying to the northward of Ork¬ ney. There are many convincing proofs that thefe iflands where very early inhabited by the Pifts, or ra¬ ther by thofe nations who were the original poffeflors of the Orkneys; and at the time of the total deftruc- tion of thefe nations, if any credit be due to tradition, their woods were entirely ruined (a). It is highly probable that the people in Shetland as well as in the Orkneys, flourilhed under their own princes dependent upon the crown of Norway ; yet this feems to have been rather through what they acquired by filhing and commerce, than by the cultivation of their lands. It may alfo be reafonably prefumed, that they grew thin- uer of inhabitants after they were annexed to the crown of Scotland; and it is likely that they revived again, chiefly by the very great and extenfive improvements which the Dutch made in the herring-fiftiery upon their coafts, and the trade that the crews of their bufles, then very numerous, carried on with the inhabitants, neceflarily refulting from their want of provifions and other conveniences, which in thofe days could not be very confiderable. There are many reafons which may be aflxgned why thefe iflands, though part of our dominions, have not hitherto been better known to us. They were com¬ monly placed two degrees too far to the north in all the old maps, in order to make them agree with Pto¬ lemy’s defcription of Thule, which he aflerted to be in the latitude of 63 degrees; which we find urged by Camden as a reafon why Thule mull be one of the Shetland ifles, to which Speed alfo agrees, though from their being thus wrong placed he could not find room for them in his maps. Another, and that no light caufe, was the many falfe, fabulous, and impertinent relations publiflied concerning them (b), as if they were countries inhofpitable and uninhabitable; and laftly, the indolence, or rather indifference, of the natives, who, 26 ] SHE contenting themfelves with thofe neceffarie# and con¬ veniences procured by their intercourfe with other na¬ tions, and conceiving themfelves negleded by the mo¬ ther country, have feldom troubled her with their ap¬ plications. There are few countries that have gone by more names than thefe iflands; they were called iflandic, Hialtlandia, from hialt, the “ hilt of a fword ;” this might be poffibly corrupted into Hetland, Hitland, or Hethland, though fome tell us this fignifies a “ high land.” They have been likewife, and are ftill in fome maps, called Zetland and Zealand, in reference, as has been fuppofed, to their fituation. By the Danes, and by the natives, they are ftyled Ye alt aland; and not- withftanding the oddnefs of the orthography, this dif¬ fers very little, if at all, from their manner of pronoun¬ cing Zetland, out of which pronunciation grew the mo¬ dern names of Shetland and Shetland. The iflands of Shetland, as we commonly call them, are well fituated for trade. The neareft continent to them is Norway; the portof Bergen lying^leagueseaft, whereas they lie 46 leagues north north-eaft from Bu- channefs; eaft north-eal from Sanda, one of the Ork¬ neys, about 16 or 18 leagues; fix or feven leagues north- eaft from Fair Ifle ; 58 leagues eaft from the Ferroe ifles; and at nearly the fame diftance north-eaft from Lewis. The fouthern promontory of the main land, called Sivinburgh Head, lies in 50 degrees and 59 mi¬ nutes of north latitude; and the northern extremity of Uift, the moll remote of them all, in the latitude of 61 degrees 15 minutes. The meridian of London paflea through this laft ifland, which lies in the longitude of 2 degrees 30 minutes weft from Paris, and about 5 de¬ grees 15 minutes eaft from the meridian of Cape Li¬ zard. According to the old accounts, from which there feems no juft reafon to vary, there are in all 46 inhabited iflands of different fizes, 40 holms, and 30 Ikerries. It is impofiible to fpeak with precifion; but, according to the bed computation we have been able to form, the Shetland ifles contain near three times as much land as the Orkneys: they are confidered alfo, in this light, equal in fize to the ifland of Madeira; and not inferior to the provinces of Utrecht, Zealand, and all the reft of the Dutch iflands taken together. The principal of the Shetland iflands is ftyled Main Land\ which extends in length from north to fouth about 60 miles, afid is in fome places above 20 broad, in others not more than 2. It is however every where fo interfered by arms of the fea, that there is not a Angle fpot therein that is full three Englilh miles from falt- water. The whole coaft, a very few places excepted, is a high, rough, inacceffible rock ; and within land, the country is mountainous, moffy, and full of mcraffes. Here and there, however, but more efpecially towards the coaft, there are little parcels of land that are both fmooth and fertile. Among the numerous inlets of the fea that pierce both (ides of the ifland, fome of which enter feverai miles, and in the language of the country are ftiled voes, there are a great many ports, not fewer than (a) The tradition is, that this was done by the Scots when theydeftroyed the Pidts; but is more probably referred to the Norwegians rooting out the original pofiefibrs of Shetland. , ts) They reprefented the climate as intenfely cold; the foil as compofed of craggs and quagmire, fo barren as to be incapable of bearing corn ; to fupply which, the people, after drying filh-bones, powdered them, then kneaded and baked them for bread. The larger filh-bones were faid to be all the fuel they had. Yet, in fo dreary a country, and in fuch raiferable cirgumftances, they were acknowledged to be very long-lived, cheerful, and contented. Shetland. SHE Shetland, than 20 that may be with juftice ftyied harbours; and * ~ amongft thefe are fix, three on each fide of the ifland, that are remarkably good. On the weft fide is Scal¬ loway Voe, which flows into the land through feveral iflands of various fizes, by which there are two en¬ trances that lead to the harbour, which is deep, fafe, and commodious. The town of Scalloway before which it lies, was formerly the chief, indeed the only one in the ifland. A. D. 1600, Patrick earl of Orkney built a ftately caftle here, which is now in ruins ; and the place in a courfe of years has fo much declined, that there are fcarce 30 houfes. On the fame fide of the ifland are Olis Voe and Valley Sound, both fine ports and very capacious. On the other fide of the ifland, that is, on the call, the town of Lerwick, which is the prefent capital, is Gtuated, which confifts of upwards of 400 honfes, and is every day increafing. Oppofite to this town lies the ifland of Breflay or Brafifa, and between the ifland and the main runs the famous Brafla, fome- times alfo called Broad, Sound, in which no lefs than 2000 fail of veffels have lain at onoe fafe and commo- dioufly. It is four miles in length ; in fome places two, in others one mile broad, in fome others much narrower ; but deep and well fecured from winds. There is towards the north end a rock called the Uni- torn (c). On the fame fide of the ifland with Brefla Sound, are Dura Voe and Balta, both good ports; and alfo Catford Voe, where in the fummer feafon a whole navy may ride with great conveniency. There are few or no lands or flioals upon the coaft, except one on the weft fide called Have de Grind, and fome dangerous nocks to the north-weft. On the weft fide of the main land there are not fewer than 20 iflands of very different fizes, befides holms and (kerries : neither are either of thefe unprofitable, as the former afford vaft quantities of fine grafs for the feeding of cattle; on the coafts of the latter are caught abundance of fine fifh of different forts; and on both there are immenfe quantities of fowl. To the fouth of Scalloway lies the little ifland of St Ni- nian, corruptly called St Ringing’s, in which, though but a mile long and half a mile broad, there is a large well-built church, which (hows that it was once fully inhabited. Oppofite to the town of Scalloway lie fe¬ veral iflands, which, as we have before obferved, break the rapidity of the flood, and form fafe entrances into the harbour. The biggeft of thefe ifles is Trondra ; three miles long and two broad. Burra confifts of two iflands, one called Houfe, the other Kirk IJland; in nei¬ ther which, it is faid, mice can live. To the north of thefe lies Papa Stour, or the Great Papa; which, though but two miles long and one broad, is efteemed the pleafanteft, and, for its fize, the beft furniftred with the neceffaries of life of any of thefe ifles. There are SHE befides this, Papas, and the little Papa; and to the Shetland. north of thefe, Rou Stour, or the Great Ron, eight”" ” miles long and two broad, with a good port. There are alfo many iflands on the eaft fide of the main land; fome of which it may not be improper to mention. To the fouth of Lerwick lies Moufa or the Queen’s ifland, one mile in length, and about a quar¬ ter of a mile broad, and is remarkable for having upon it the moft complete and entire of thofe little fortifica¬ tions called by the natives brughs, but by the Scots commonly Pitts Houfes, that are ftill remaining in any of thefe iflands (d). Over-againft Lerwick lies Breflay or Braffa ifie, five miles from fouth to north, and two from weft to eaft. This ifle for its fize is very mountainous, and amongft; many hills there are two in it very confpicuous. One of thefe is on the eaft fide, called Andronss’s Hill;- the other, which is the higheft, at the fouth end, called the Wart or Beacon Hill. It is in a manner over-run with heath, though there are fome confiderable parcels of good pafturage and arable jands near the fliore. There are alfo eight frefh-water lochs, abounding with fine trout and eels. It muft have been very populous in former times, fince there are the ruins of five fmall forts, and there are ftill two churches and a chapel. It has likewife a good port called Aiths Voe. At a fmall di- ftance to the eaft lies another ifle, called the Nofs, two miles long and three quarters of a mile broad: it has a church upon it, is equally fertile and pleafant; and has a large holm belonging to it, in which there are abundance of fea-fowls. Whalfey, that is, the ifle of whales, which lies to the north of Breffay, and to the eaft of the main land, is about nine miles in circumfe¬ rence. At fix leagues diftance from this ifle lie the Skerries, on which, in 1664, the Carmalan of Amfter- dam, a very rich Eaft India ftiip, was loft. To the north of Whalfey there are many fmall iflands, moft of which are inhabited; and though but infignificant at prefent, yet, if uny change of fortune flrould happen to the Shetland ifles, they would probably partake of ir, and by being turned to ufeful purpofes, and, in confe- quence of that, retaining all the pofterity of their pre-- fent inhabitants, come to be thought of more confe- quence. But befides thefe, there are two large and confider¬ able iflands belonging to Shetland, with feveral fmall. ones in their vicinity. The firft of thefe is Yell, which anciently was written Zeal, making however, as we have before remarked, no g'reat alteration in the pro-* nunciation. This ifland, in the opinion of the learned Mr Maule, from its nearnefs to Norway, fee ms to have been the firft inhabited, and to have given name to all the reft. His opinion has certainly a great degree of probability ; for the natives call themfelves, and are called [ 8127 ] ( c) When James Hepburn duke of Orkney fled hither, he was purfued by William Kirkcaldie of Grange, in afliip ©ailed the Unicorn, which ftriking thereon, left its name to this rock. This gave the duke an opportunity of efca- pjng, who, after lying many years in prifon in Denmark, perifhed at laft miferably in that confinement. (n) We have an exa<5t deferiptidn of this brugh in Latin, by the learned Mr Maule, of the noble family of Pan- mure, one of the ableft antiquarians his country ever produced. Thefe brughs in their form are not unlike pigeon- houfes: they have a winding ftair in the wall of each, which reaches quite to the top. Thefe ferved as watch-towers and beacons, having heaps of peat on the top, which wrere kindled to give notice of an enemy’s appearance; and there¬ fore all the brughs in an ifland were in fight one of another. There were cells or apartments underneath for fecuring their perfons or effedts ; and in fome of them fubterraneous pafiages to fdme creek, wherein their boats lay^ in which- they might efcape. Whoever attentively confiders the motives which induced thefe people to raife fuch ftrudtures,. how well calculated they were to anfwer the ends for which they were built, and for how many ages they have refill¬ ed the rag? of time, will hefitate at calling thpl'e who conftrufted them barbarians. SHE [ Si Shetland, called by all tbe northern nations, Yalts, and their lan- guage Yaltmoll, Now in the Iflandic, which was the original language of Norway, jell fignifies a “ dark cloudand confequently jell an cl, or jeltland, a “ rainy country,” which it may be prefumed is at ieait as good an etymology as any that has been hitherto offered. Mr Maule like wife thinks that this was the true Thule. This ifland lies north-eaft-by-eaft from Main¬ land, and is divided from it by an arm of the fea called Yell Sound. In the old defcriptions, Yell is faid to be 20 miles long and 8 broad. It is very moun¬ tainous, and full of mofs: but there are pretty confider- able paftures, in which they feed a great many flieep.; and it alfo affords plenty of peat. It has eight large voes or harbonrs, befides many fmaller bays, which would not be thought defpicable anchoring-places in other countries. It fee ms to have been populous in ancient times, fince there are in it 3 churches, 20 cha¬ pels, j.nd many brughs or Pt&ifh forts. There are de¬ pendent upon it Hafcofea, two miles long and one broad, Samphra, and Bigga j all of them iflands very fertile in grafs. Befides thefe, to the fouth-weft lies Fetlar, or Theodore’s ifle, nine or ten miles in com- pafs, with a church, ten chapels, and many brughs; it has feveral creeks for fmall boats, but nothing that can be called a port. The other of thefe two larger iflands is Uuft, which is alfo the moft northern of all the Shetland ifles, and at the fame time the pleafanteft, and not the lead fer¬ tile amongft them. It lies at a fmall diftance eaft from Yell, having that large ifland between it and the main land, being divided from the firft mentioned ifland by an arm of the fea called Blumel Sound. Unft is eight miles long, and between three and four broad, and di¬ vided into 24 fcattalds, 22 of which have each of them a proportion of fea-coaft. There is great plenty of hethcr and peat, with fomc good pafture and a little of very fertile arable ground. Near the middle of this ifle there is a loch three miles in extent, in which there are abundance of trout, eel, and flounders. Here are three churches, 24 chapels, and 11 brughs. There was alfo a caftle at the fouthern extremity, called Monunes, now in decay. There are two excellent har¬ bours, the one in the fouth called Via Bay, being co¬ vered by an ifland of the fame name, equally commo¬ dious and capacious, having nine fathom water, and good anchoring ground. The other is on the eafi fide, covered by the ifle of Balta, and from thence called Balta Voe, very fafe and fpacious, with eight fathom water. There are befides thefe, bays and roads lefs confiderable. The number of inhabitants in thefe iflands, that is Unft and its dependencies, may be about 1500, and they have 70 fifhing-boats. Via is a very fair ifland, and produces great plenty of fi'ne and rich grafs. The fame may be faid of Balta, which is alfo well flocked with rabbits. There are befides thefe iflets four or five holms, which feed fheep and cattle ; and the ifland of Linga, low, flat, covered with mofs, but which would be a very convenient place for falt- pans, if the inhabitants were in fuch a condition as to be capable of carrying on a fifhery entirely on their own account. Between fix and feven leagues weft from the main land lies the ifland of Fula or Foula, commonly called by our feamen Foul IJland, in oppofition to that of which 28 ] SHE we fhall fpeak. It is about three miles long, narrow, and full of rough, fteep, and bare rocks, one of which is fo large, and runs up to fo great a height, as to be clearly feen from the Orkneys. This, therefore, may beefteemed, with the greateft probability, the Thule of Tacit»s, whatever might be the Thule of the Phoeni¬ cians and Greeks. It has fcarce any pafturage, and very little arable land; but that, though fmall in fize, is however very fertile, out of the produce of which, with fowl and fifh, the poor inhabitants fubfift. They have nothing that can be called a port; and the only commodities they have, are ftock-fifh, train-oil, and feathers. The Fair Ifle lies between Orkney and Shetland, 10 or 12 leagues eaft-north-eaft from the former; feven, or, as others fay, 10 leagues fouth-weft from the lat¬ ter ; and about 18 or 19 leagues fouth-eaft from Fou¬ la. It is full three miles long, and fcarce half a mile broad, very craggy, with three high rocks, which are clearly feen both from Orkney and Shetland. There is in this ifland alfo a fmall quantity of arable land, which is very fruitful and well-manured ; they might have confiderably more, but they are obliged to re- ferve this for peat and pafturage. They have, for the fize of the ifland, a great many flieep, and thofe are very good and very fat; but they have no kind of muir-fowl or other game, but very great plenty of fea and water-fowl, and all kinds of fi(h upon their coafts. They have a very pretty church, but no minifter, be¬ ing annexed to one of the parifhes of Shetland, or fer- ved by an itinerant minifter, as fome late accounts af- fert. A layman reads the Scriptures every Sunday in the church, the inhabitants being a very religious, harmlefs, fober, and honeft people. They have in ef- feft no port, though they have two that are nominally fo; one at the fouth end, which is full of rocks, where only fmall boats can lie, and that but indifferently ; the other at the north-eaft end, larger and fafer in the fummer time, fo as to ferve commodioufly enough for their fiftiery. Small and infignificant as this ifland may feem, there is a very remarkable piece of hiftory be¬ longing to it. The duke of Medina Sidonia, when commander in chief of the famous Spanifh Armada in 1588, was wrecked on the eaft coaft of this ifland. The (hip broke to pieces, but the duke and about 200 more efcaped. They lived there till both themfelves and the inhabitants were very near famiftied; at length the duke and the poor remains of his people were car¬ ried over to the main land of Shetland by Andrew Humphry. He continued fome time at Quendale, and. then embarked on board the fame fmall ihip, and was fafely conveyed therein to Dunkirk; for which fervice he rewarded Andrew Humphry with 3000 merks. This ifland produced to its late proprietor between 50 and 60 pound Sterling per annum; and was fold at E- dinburgh, on the 20th day of June 1766, for the fum of 10,200 pounds Scots, or about 850 pounds Ster¬ ling, to James Stuart of Burgh, Efq; In rtlpeft to climate, the Shetland iflands have not much to boaft, and yet are very far from being fuch miferable habitations as fome have reprefented them. The longeft day in the ifland of Unft is 19 hours 15 minutes, and of confequence the fhorteft day 4 hours and 45 minutes. Thefpring is very late, the fummer very fhort; the autumn alfo is of no long duration, dark, Shetland. SHE Shetland, foggy, and rainy ; the winter feta in about November, ’ ' ~:and iafts till April, and fometimes till May. They have frequently in that feafon ftorms of thunder, much rain, but little froft or fnow. High winds are indeed very frequent and very troublefome, yet they feldom produce any terrible effe&s. The aurora borealis is as common here as in any of the northern countries. In the winter feafon the fea fwells and rages in fuch a fhanner, that foriive or fix months their ports are in- acceffible, and of courfe the people during that fpace have no correfpondence with the reft of the world (a). The foil in the interior part of the main land, for the moft part, is mountainous, moorilh, and boggy, yet not to fuch a degree as to render the country ut¬ terly impaftable ; for many of the roads here, and in fome of the northern ifles, are as good as any other natural roads, and the people travel them frequently on all occafions. Near the coafts there are fometimes for miles together flat pleafant fpots, very fertile both in pafture and corn. The mountains produce large crops of very nutritive grafs in the fomraer; and they cut confiderable quantities of hay, with which they feed their cattle in the winter. They might with a little attention bring more of their country into culti¬ vation ; but the people are fo much addifted to their filhery, and feel fo little neceflity of having recourfe to this method for fubfiftence, that they are con¬ tent, how ftrange foever that may feem to us, to let four parts in five of their land remain in a ftate of na¬ ture. They want not confiderable quantities of marie in different iflands, though they ufe but little ; hitherto there has been no chalk found ; limeftone and freeftonc there arc in the fouthern parts of the main land in great quantities, and alfo in the neighbouring iflands, particularly Fetlar; and confiderable quantities of flate, very good in its kind. No mines have been hitherto wrought, though there are in many places vifible ap¬ pearances of feveral kinds of metal. Some folid pieces of filver, it is faid, have been turned up by the jplough. In the ifland of Via, a yellow metal has been met with, which being found difficult to melt, has been negle&ed. In fome of the fmaller ifles there are ftrong appearances of iron ; but, through the want of proper experiments being made, there is, in thisre- fpeft at leaft, hitherto nothing certain. Their mea¬ dows are inclofed with dikes, and produce very good grafs. The little corn they grow is chiefly barley, with fome oats; and even in the northern extremity of Unit (as we have hinted before) the little land they have is remarkable for its fertility. The hills abound with medicinal herbs; and their kitchen-gardens thrive as well, and produce as good greens and roots, as any in Britain. Of late years, and fince this has been at¬ tended to, fome gentlemen have had even greater fuc- ■cefs than they expe&ed in the cultivating tulips, rofes, and many other flowers. It is true, that tho\ as has been before obferved, they have no trees, and hardly any fbrubs except juniper, yet they have a tradition that their country was formerly overgrown with woods; and it feems to be a confirmation of this, that the roots Vol. X. i SHE of timber-trees have been and are ftill dug up at a Shetland. great depth ; and that in fome, and thofe too innacef- fible, places, the rodden tree is ftill found growing wild. That this defeft, viz. the want of wood at prefent, does not arife entirely from the foil or rli- mate, appears from fevcral late experiments ; fomc gentlemen having raifed afli, maple, horfe-chefnuts, &c. in their gardens. Though the inhabitants are without either wood or coals, they are very well fup- plied with fuel, having great plenty of hether and peat. The black cattle in this country are in general of a larger fort than in Orkney, which is owing to their having more extenfive paftures; a clear proof that ftill farther improvements might be made in refpeft to fize. Their horfes are fmall, but ftrong, ftout, and wcll-fhaped, live very hardy, and to a great age. They have likewife a breed of fmall fwine, the flefh of which, when fat, is efteemed very delicious. They have no goats, hares, or foxes; and in general no wild or venomous creatures of any kind, except rats in fome few iflands. They have no moor-fowl, which is the more remarkable as there are every where immenfe quantities of hether; but there are many forts of wild and water fowl, particularly the dunter-goofe, clack- goofe, folan-goofe, fwans, ducks, teal, whaps, foifts, lyres, kittiwaiks, maws, plovers, fcarfs, &c. There is likewife the ember-goofe, which is faid to hatch her egg under her wing. Eagles and hawks, as alfo ravens, crows, mews, &c. abound here All thefe iflands are well watered,; for there are every where excellent fprings, fome of them mineral and medicinal. They have indeed no rivers; but many pleafant rills or rivulets, which they call burnst of dif¬ ferent fixes; in fome of the largeft they have admi¬ rable trouts, fome of which are of 15 and even of 20 pounds weight. They have likewife many frelh-water lakes, well ftored with trout and eels, and in moft of them there are alfo largeAfid fineflounders; in fome very excel¬ lent cod. Thefc frem^vater lakes, if the country was bet¬ ter peopled, and the common people more at their eafe, are certainly capable of great improvements. The fea- coafts of the main land of Shetland, in a ftraight line, are 55 leagues ; and therefore there cannot be a coun¬ try conceived more proper for eftablilhing an extenfive filhery. What the inhabitants have been hitherto able to do, their natural advantages confidered, does not deferve that name, notwithftanding they export large quantities of cod, tulk, ling, and fafe, infomuch, that the bounty allowed by ails of parliament amounts from 1400 1. to 2000 1. annually. They have, befides, codlins, haddocks, whitings, turbot, fkate, and a va¬ riety of other filh. In many of the inlets there are prodigious quantities of excellent oyfters, lobfters, mufcles, cockles, and other Ihell-fifh. As to amphi¬ bious creatures, they have multitudes of otters and feals; add to thefe, that amber, ambergris, and other fpoils of the ocean, are frequently found upon the coafts. In refpefl to the inhabitants, they are a ftout, well- made, comely people; the lower fort of a fwarthy complexion. The gentry are allowed, by all who have 40 P con- [ 8129 ] (e) We muft by no means fuppofe the temper and difpofition of the people affedled by the drearinefs of the feafon. Winter, on the contrary, is a kind of carnival in Shetland. All kinds of people eat flefh and live well during this pe¬ riod of relaxation. Gentlemen of family and fortune, of which there are many here, live fo hofpitably and fo po¬ litely, that few ftrangers regret the length of the winter who happen to fpend it amongft them. SHE [ 8130 ] SHI Shetland, converfed with them, to be mod of them polite, ~~ fhrewd, fenfible, lively, aftive, and intelligent per- fons; and thefe, to the number of too families, have very handfome, ftrong, well-built houfes, neatly fur- nifhed; their tables well ferved, polilhed in their man¬ ners, and exceedingly hofpitable and civil to ftrangers. Thofe of an inferior rank are a hardy, robuft, and la¬ borious people, who, generally fpeaking, get their bread by fifhing in all weathers in their yawls, which are little bigger than Gravefend wherries; live hardily, and in the fummer feafon moftly on fifh ; their drink, which, in reference to the Britilh dominions, is peculiar to the country, is called bland, and is a fort of but¬ ter-milk, long kept, and very four. Many live to great ages, though not fo long as in former times. In refpefl, however, to the bulk of the inhabitants, from the poornefs of living, from the nature of it, and from the drinking great quantities of corn-fpirits of the very word fort, multitudes are afflidled with an inve¬ terate feurvy; from which thofe in better circumftances are entirely free, and enjoy as good health as in any other country in Europe. As they have no great turn to agriculture, and are perfuaded that their country is not fit for it, they do not (tho’ probably they might) raife corn enough to fubfift them for more than two- thirds of the year. But they are much more fuccefsful in their pafture-grounds, which are kept well inclofed, in good order, and, together with their commons, fup- ply them plentifully with beef and mutton. They pay their rents generally in butter at Lammas, and in money at Martinmas. As to manufadlures, they make a ftrong coarfe cloth for their own ufe, as alfo linen. They make likewife of their own wool very fine (lock¬ ings. They export failed and dried ling, cod, and tulle, feme herrings, a confiderable quantity of butter and train oil, otter and feal (kins, and no inconfider- able quantity of the fine dockings before-mentioned. Their chief trade is to Leith, London, Hamburgh, Spain, and to the Sraights. They import timbers, deals, and fome of their beft oats, from Norway ; corn and flour from the Orkneys, and from North Britain; fpirits and fome other things from Hamburgh; cloths and better fort of linen from Leith ; grocery, houfe- hold furniture, and other neceffaries, from London. The fuperior-duties to the earl of Morton are gene¬ rally let in farm; and are paid by the people in but¬ ter, oil, and money. The remains of the old Norwe¬ gian conftitutiom are dill vifible in the divifion of their lands ; and they have fome udalmen or freeholders amongft them. But the Scots laws, cuftoms, man¬ ners, drefs, and language, prevail; and they have a fheriff, magiftrates for the adminiftration of juftice, as well as a cuftom-houfe, with a proper number of offi¬ cers. In reference to their eccUfiaftical concerns, they have a prefbytery, 12 minifters, and an itinerant for Foula, Fair Ifland, and the Skerries. Each of thefe minifters has a ftipend of between 40 and 50 pounds, befides a houfe and a glebe free from taxes. The number of fouls in thefe iflands may be about 20,000. SHEW-bread, among the Hebrews, the name given to thofe loaves of bread which the priefts placed every fabbath-day upon the golden table in the fandlu- ary. The fhew-bread confided of 12 loaves, according uuhe number of the tribes. Thefe were /erved up hot on the fabbath-day; and at the fame time the dale Shield ones, which had been expofed all the week, were taken 1] away. It was not lawful for any one to eat of lp* thefe loaves but the priefts only : this offering was ac¬ companied with fait and frankincenfe, which was burnt upon the table at the time they fet on frefh loaves. SHIELD, an ancient weapon of defence, in the form of a light buckler, borne on the arm, to turn off lances, darts, &c. Shield, in heraldry, the cfcutcheon or field on which the bearings of coats of arms are placed. See Heraldry. SHIEL drake, in ornithology. See Anas. SHILLING, an Englifh filver coin. SeeMoNEY- Table. It is obferved that there were no (hillings or twelve- penny pieces in England till the year 1504, when they were firft coined by Henry VIII. SHINGLES, in building, fmall pieces of wood, or quartered oaken boards, fawn to a certain fcant- ling, or, as is more ufual, cleft to about an inch thick at one end, and made like wedges, four or five inches broad, and eight or nine inches.long. Shingles are ufed inftead of tiles or dates, efpe- cially for churches and fteeples; however, this covering is dear; yet, where tiles are very fcarce, and a light co¬ vering is required, it is preferable to thatch ; and where they are made of good oak, cleft, and not fawed, and well feafoned in water and the fun, they make a fure, light, and durable covering. The building is firft to be covered all over with boards, and the fhingles nailed upon them. SHIP, a general name for all large veffels with fails, fit for navigation on the fea; except galleys, which go- with oars, and fmack-fails. To whom the world is indebted for the invention of (hips, is, like all other things of equal antiquity, un¬ certain. A very fmall portion of art or contrivance was feen in the firft (hips: they were neither ftrong nor du¬ rable; but confifted only of a few planks laid together, without beauty or ornament, and juft fo compared as to keep out the water. In fome places they were only the hulks or (locks of trees hollowed, and then con¬ fifted only of one piece of timber. Nor was wood alone applied to this ufe ; but any other buoyant materials, as the Egyptian reed papyrus; or leather, of which the primitive (hips were frequently compofed; the bottom and fides being extended on a frame of thin battens or fcantlings, of flexible wood, or begirt with wickers, fiich as we have frequently beheld amongft the Ame¬ rican favages. In this manner they were often na¬ vigated upon the rivers of Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sa- Hean Arabia, even in latter times. But in the firft of them, we find no mention of any thing but leather or hides fewed together. In a veffel of this kind, Bar- danus fecured his retreat to the country afterwards called Troas, when he was compelled by a terrible de¬ luge to forfake his former habitation of Samothrace. According to Virgil, Charon’s infernal boat was of the fame compofition. But as the other arts extended their influence, naval architefture likewife began to emerge from the gloom of ignorance and barbarifm; and as the (hips of thofe ages-- SHI [Si Ship, ages were increafed in bulk, and better proportioned " for commerce, the appearance of thofe floating citadels ofunufual form, full of living men, flying with feemingly expanded wings over thefurfaceof the untravelled ocean, ftruck the ignorant people with terror and aftonifliment: and hence, as we are told by Ariftophanes, arofe the fable of Perfeus flying to the Gorgons, who was a&ually carried thither in a (hip! Hence, in all probability, the famous ftory of Triptolemus riding on a winged dragon is deduced, only becaufe he failed from A- thens, in the time of a great dearth, to a more plenti¬ ful country, to fupply the neceflities of his people. The fiction of the flying horfe Pegafus may be joined with thefe, who, as feveral mythologifts report, was nothing but a fhip with fails, and thence faid to be the] offspring of Neptune the fovereign of the fea ; nor does there appeir any other foundation for the fto- ries of griffins, or of fhips transformed into birds and fiflies, which we fo often meet with in the ancient poets. So acceptable to the firft ages of the world were inventions of this nature, that whoever made any improvements in navigation or naval archite&ure, building new fhips better fitted for ftrength or fwift* nefs than thofe ufed before, or rendered the old more commodious by additional contrivances, or difuovered countries unknown to former travellers, were thought worthy of the greatefl honours, and often aflbciated into the number of their deified heroes. Hence we have in aftronomy the fignsof Aries andTaurus, which were no other than two fhips: the former tranfported Phryxus from Greece to Colchos, and the latter Eu- ropa from Phoenicia to Crete. Argo, Pegafus, and Perfeus’s whale, were likewife new fhips of a different fort from the former, which being greatly admired by the barbarous and uninftru&ed people of thofe times, were tranflated amongfl the ftars, in com me; moration of their inventors, and metamorphofed into conftellations by the poets of their own and of fucceed- ing ages. The chief parts, of which fhips anciently con¬ fided, were three, viz. the belly, the prow, and the ftern : thefe were again compofed of other fmaller parts, which fhall be briefly defcribed in their order. In the defcription, we chiefly follow Scheffer, who hath fo copioufly treated this fubjeA, and with fuch induflry and learning colle&ed whatever is neceflary to illuftrate it, that very little room is left for en¬ largement by thofe who incline to purfue this invedi- gation. i. In the belly, or middle part of the fhip, there was -j-fowif, carina, or the “ keel,” which was compofed of wood: it was placed at the bottom of the fhip, being defigned to cut and glide through the waves, and therefore was not broad, but narrow and fharp; whence it may be perceived that not all fhips, but only the nxxgai, which fhips of war were called, whofe bellies were draight and of a fmall circumference, were pro¬ vided with keels, the red having ufually flat bottoms. Around the outfide of the keel were fixed pieces of wood, to prevent it from being damaged when the (hip was fird lanched into the water, or afterwards druck on any rocks; thefe were called in Latin atnei. Next to the keel was the “ pump-well, or well-room,” within which was contained the or 3* 1 SHI “ pump;” through which water was conveyed out of Ship, the (hip. After this, there was oivix.o-crap»oi, or “ red¬ faced :” the blue likewife, or fky-colour, was frequent¬ ly made ufe of, as bearing a near refemblance to the colour of the fea; whence we find fhips called by Ho¬ mer xvavowpapw, by Ariftopbanes xuavEptfoxei. Several other colours were alfo made ufe of; nor were they barely varnifhed oyer with them, but very often an¬ nealed by wax melted in the fire, fo as neither the fun winds, nor water, were able to deface them. The art of doing this was called from the wax xxpoypapia, from the fire Hxaurixx, which is defcribed by Vitruvius, and mentigned in Ovid. 40 P 3 Pitta SHI [ 8132 ] SHI PiRa caloribus uftis Cxruleam matron concava puppis hal.cU The painted (hip with melted wax anneal’d Had Tethys for its deity In thefe colours the various forms of gods, animals, plants, &c. were ufually drawn, which were likewife often added as ornaments to other parts of the IhipS, as plainly appears from the Ancient Monuments pre- fented to the world by Bayfius. The fides of the prow were termed «rVe, or “ wings,” and ■aa.pia.y according to Scheffer, or rather •au.puar, for fince the prow is commonly compared to a human face, it will naturally follow that the fides fhould be called cheeks; xhtit are now called lows by our mariners. 3. rtpu^vD, the “ hind-deck or poop,” fometimes called «?«, the “ tail,” becaufe the hindmoft part of the fliip : it was of a figure more inclining to round than the prow, the extremity of which was fharp, that it might cut the waters; it was alfo built higher than the prow, and was the place where the pilot fat to fleer: the outer-bending part of it was called evirstav, apfwering to our term, quarter. They had various ornaments of .fculpture on the prow ; as helmets, animals, triumphal wreaths, &c. The ftern was more particularly adorned with wings, fhields, &c. Sometimes a little mad was erefted where¬ on to hang ribbands of divers colours, which ferved in- ftead of a flag to diftinguifh the (hip; and a weather¬ cock, to fignify the part from whence the wind blew. On the extremity of the prow was placed a round piece of wood, called the from its bending; and fometimes the “ eye” of the (hip, be¬ caufe fixed in the fore-deck) on this was infcribed the name of the fhip, which was ufually taken from the figure painted on the flag. Hence comes the frequent mention of fhips called Pegajt, Scylhse, bulky rams, ti¬ gers, &c. which the poets took the liberty to rcprefent as living creatures that tranfported their riders from one country to another. The whole fabric being completed, it was fortified with pitch, and fometimes a mixture of rofin, to fe- cure the wood from the waters; whence it comes that Homer’s fhips are every where mentioned with the e- pithet of ,k£x«iv«'i or 12, Back-ftays. 113, Stay. 114, Stay fail and ftay halliards. 113, Runncts. 116, Halliards. 117, Lifts. 118, Clew-lines. 119, Braces and pendants. 120, Horfes. 121, Sheets. 122, Bow-lines and bridles. 123, Bunt-lines. 124, Reef-tackles. 125, Crofs trees. 126, Cap. S, The main top-gallant maft. 127, 128, Shrouds and laniards. 129, Yard and fail. 130, Back ftays. S31, Stay. 132, Stay-fail and halliards. 133, Lifts. 134, Braces and pendants. 133, Bow-lines and bridles. 136, Clew-lines. 137, Flag itaff. 138, Truck. 139, Flag-ftaff ftay. 140, Flag Itandard. T, The mizcn maft. 141, 142, Shrouds and la¬ niards. 143, Pendants and burtons. 144, Yard and S H I fail. 143, Crow foot. 146. Sheet. 147, Pendant- Ship-, lines. 148, Peck brails. 149, Stay-fail. 130, Stay. 131, Derric and fpann. 152, Top. 133, Crofs jack yard. 134, Crofs jack lifts. 133, Crols jack braces. 136, Crofs jack flings. V, The mizen top-maft. 137, 158, Shrouds and laniards. 139, Yard and fail. 160, Back flays. 161, Stay. 162, Halliards. 163, Lifts. 164, Braces and pendants. 163, Bow-lines and bridles. 166, Sheets. 167, Clew-lines. 168, Stay-fail. 169, Crofa trees. 170, Cap. 171. Flag ftaff. 172, Flag ftaff ftay. 173', Truck. 174, Flag union. 173, En- fign ftaff. 176, Truck. 177, Enfign. 178, Poop ladder. 179, Bower cable. Thus have we pointed out the external parts ; mafts, rigging, &c. an account of all which may be feen un¬ der their refpe&ive articles Mast, Hull, Rope/ Rudder, &c. Explanation of Plate CCLXIV. Which reprefents the fedtion of a firft-rate man of war, (bowing its various timbers and apartments. A is the head; containing, 1, The Item. 2. The knee of the head, or cut water. 3, The lower and upper cheek. 4, The tail-board. 5, The figure. 6, The gratings. 7, The brackets. 8, The falfe Item. 9, The breaft hooks. 10, The haufe hole. 11, The bulk head, forward. 12, The cat-head,, 13, The cat-book. 14, Neceffary feats. 15, The manger within board. 16, The bowfprit. B, Upon the forecaftle. 17, The gratings. 18, The partners of the fore maft. 19, The gun wale. 20, The belfry. 21, The funnel for the fmoke. 22, The gangway going off the forecaftle. 23, The forecaftle guns. C, In the forecaftle. 24, The door of the bulk head, forward. 25, The officers cabins. 26, The ftair-cafe. 27, The fore top-fail ftieet bits. 28, The beams. 29, The car lines. D, The middle gun-deck, forward. 30, The fore- jeer bits. 31, The oven and furnace of copper. 32, The captain’s cook-room. 33, The ladder, or way up into the forecaftle. E, The lower gun-deck, forward. 34, The knees fore and aft. 33, The fpirketings, or the firft ftreak next to each deck; the next under the beams being called clamps. 36, The beams of the middle gun- deck fore and aft. 37, The car-lines of the middle- gun-deck, fore and aft. 38, The fore bits. 39, The after, or main bits. 40, The hatchway to the gun¬ ner’s and boatfwain’s ftore-rooms. 4c, The jeer cap- fton. F, The orlap. 42, 43, 44, The gunner’s, boat¬ fwain’s, and carpenter’s ftore-rooms. 43, The beams of the lower gun-deck. 46, 47, The pillars and the riders, fore and aft. 48, The bulk-head of the (lore- rooms. G, The hold. 49, 50, 31, The foot-hook rider, the floor-rider, and the llandard, fore and aft. 52, The pillars. 33, The ftep of the fore maft. 54, The kei- fon, or Life keel, and dead riflng. 55, The dead wood. H, A-midfliips in the hold. 36, The floor timbers. 37, The keel. 58, The well. 59, The chain pump. 60, The ftep of the main maft. 61, 62, Beams and: car-lines of the orlop, fore and aft. L 8*33 ] J, SHI [ 8134 ] SHI I, The orlop a-mldfin'ps. 63, The cable tire. 64, The main hatchway. K, The lower gun-deck a-middrips. 65, The lad¬ der leading up to the middle gun-deck.- 66, The lower tire or ports. L, The middle gun-deck a-mid(hips. 67, The middle tire ports. 63, The entering port. 69. The main jeer bits. 70, Twilled pillars or ftantions. 71, The capftan. 72, The gratings. 73, The ladder leading to the upper deck. M, The upper gun-deck a-midfhips. 74, The main top-fail fheet bits. 75, The upper partners of the main mall. 76, The gallows on which fpare top-mafts, &c. are laid. 77, The fore (beet blocks. 78, The rennets. 79, The gun wale. 80, The upper gratings. 81, The drift brackets. 82, The pifs dale. 83, The capfton pall. N, Abaft the main maft. 84, The gang-way off the quarter-deck. 85. The bulkhead of the coach. 86, The ftair-cafe down to the middle gun deck. 87, The beams of the upper deck. 88, The gratings about the main-maft. 89, The coach, or council- chamber. 90, The ftair-cafe up to the quarter-deck. O, The quarter-deck. 91, The beams. 92, The car-lines. 93, The partners of the mizen mail. 94, The gangway up to the poop. 95, The bulk-head of the cuddy. P, The poop. 96, The trumpeter’s cabin. 97, The taffere'l. The captain-lieutenant’s cabin. R, The cuddy, ufually divided for the mailer and .fecretary’s officers. S, The date-room, out of which is made the bed¬ chamber, and other conveniences for the commander in chief. 98, The entrance into the gallery. 99, The bulk-head of the great cabin, too, The ftern-lighta .and after galleries. T, The ward-room, allotted for the lieutenants and land-officers. 101, The lower gallery. 102, The fteerage and bulk-head of the ward-room. 103, The whip-ftaff, commanding the tiller. 104, The after ftair-cafe down to the lower gun-deck. V, Several officers cabins abaft the main maft, where the foldiers generally keep guard. W, The gun-room. 105, The tiller commanding the rudder. 106, The rudder. 107, The ftern-poft. 108, The tiller-tranfom. 109, The feveral tranfoms, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. no, The gun-room ports, or ftern-chafe. in, The bread-room fcuttle, out of the gun-room. 112, The main capftan. 113, The pall of the capftan, 114, The partner. 115, The bulk¬ head of the bread-room. X, The bread-room. Y, The Reward's room, where all provifions are weighed and ferved out. Z, The cock-pit, where are fubdivifions for the purfer, the furgeon, and his mates. A A, The platform, or orlop, where provifion is made for the wounded in time of fervice. 116, The hold abaft the main-maft. 117, The rtep of the mi¬ zen maft. 115, The kelfon, or falfe keel. 119, The dead-wood, or riling. Different Kinds c/'Ships. All fhips at firil were of the fame form, whatever ufes they were defigned for; t»ut the various ends of navigation, fome of which were better anfwered by one form, fome by another, foon Ship, gave occafion to build and fit out (hips, not only dif- *" ferent in bignefs, but alfo in their conftruftion and rigging: and as trade gave occafion to the fitting out large fleets of different kinds of merchant-ihips; fo fhips of war became neceffary to preferve them to their juft proprietors. Ships of War, are veffels properly equipped with artillery, ammunition, and all the neceffary martial weapons and inilruments for attack or defence. They are diilinguiihed from each other by their feveral ranks or claffes. See Rate. Shiv of the Line, is ufually applied to all men of war mounting 60 guns and upwatds. Of late, how¬ ever, our fifty-gun (hips have been formed fufficiently ftrong to carry the fame metal as thofe of 60; and accordingly may fall into the line in cafes of neceffity. See Naval Tatties, Sedl. II. Armed Ship. See Armed Ship. Hofpital Ship, a veffel fitted up to attend on a fleet of men of war, and receive their fick or wounded ; for which purpofe her decks fliould be high, and her ports fufficiently large. Her cables ought alfo to run upon the upper deck, to the end that the beds or cradles may be more commodioufly placed between decks, and admit a free paffage of the air, to difperfe that which is offenfive or corrupted. Merchant Ship, a veffel employed in commerce, to carry commodities of various forts from one port to another. Merchant fhips are eftimated by their burden ; that is, by the number of tons they bear, each ton reckon¬ ed at 200© lb. weight; this eftimate being made by gauging the hold, which is the proper place of load- ing.—The larged merchant-fhips are thofe employed by the different European companies of merchants who trade to the Eaft Indies. They are in general fome- what larger than our forty-gun fhips: they are mounted with twenty cannon on their upper-deck, which are nine-pounders, and fix on their quarter-deck, which are fix-pounders. Private Shiv of War. See Privateer. Store-Sniv, a veffel employed to carry artillery or naval ftores for the ufe of a fleet, fortrefs, or garri- fon. Tranfport Ship, is generally ufed to conduft troops from one place to another. Befides thofe mentioned above, there are other forms; the principal of which we have collefted into one point of view in Plate CCLXV. fo that the reader who is unacquainted with marine affairs may the more eafily perceive their diftinguifhing chara&ers, which are alfo more particularly deferibed under their refpefitive ar¬ ticles. In the different kinds of fhips referred to above, and diftinguifhed from each other by their fize or figure, we have only confidered thofe which are moil common in European nations, where the marine art has re¬ ceived the greateft improvements. So far is apparently confident with the views of utility. To give a cir^. cumflantial account of the various fpecies of fhips em¬ ployed in different nations, befides being an almoft endlefs tafk, would be of little fervice except to gra>- tify an ufelefs curiofity. Sketch;. fnrninTTrii't^fi^ Ylafe CCLXV. SEA- SERPENT GAIjLEY under SAIL . A ZEBEO . A BILANDER . SHI [ 81 To Ship, is either ufed aftively; as, to embark any perfon, or put any thing aboard-ftiip : Or paflively, to receive any thing into a fiiip ; as, We (hipped a heavy fea at three o’clock in the morning. S H I P - B U HIP BtnLDiNG may be defined, The manner of conftrufting (hips, or the work itfelf; as diftin- guifhed from Naval Architecture, which may be confidered as the theory or art of delineating (hips on 35 ] . s H 1 To Ship, alfo implies to fix any thing in its place; as, to (hip the oars, i. e. to fix them in their row- locks. To (hip the fwivel-guns, is to fix them in their fockets, &c. I L D I N G. a plane. The latter was referred to this place, that we might avoid the impropriety of giving the theory and pra&ice under different articles. PartI. ART of DELINEATING SHIPS on a PLANE. A LL edifices, whether civil or military, are known -Ai- to be ere&ed in confequence of certain eftablifhed plans, which have been previoully altered or improved till they have arrived at the defired point of perfe&ion. The conftruftion of (hips appears aifo to require at lead as much corredtnefs and precifion as the buildings which are founded upon terra firma : it is therefore abfolntely neceffary that the mechanical (kill of the (hipwright (hould be affifted by plans and feftions, which have been drawn with all poffible exa&nefs, ex¬ amined by proper calculations, and fubmitted to the moft accurate fcrutiny. Naval archite&ure may be didinguiflied into three principal parts. Fird, To give the (hip fuch an exterior form as may be mod fuitable to the fervice for which (fie is de- figned. Secondly, To give the various pieces of a (hip their proper figures ; to aflemble and unite them into a firm compadt frame, fo that by their combination and difpofition they may form a folid fabric, fufficient to anfwer all the purpofes for which it is intended. And, Thirdly, To provide convenient accommodations for the officers and crew, as well as fuitable apartments for the cargo, furniture, provifions, artillery, and am¬ munition. The exterior figure of a (hip may be divided into the bottom and upper works. The bottom, or quick-work, contains what is term¬ ed the hold, and which is under water when the (hip is laden. Tiie upper works, called alfo the dead-rvork,. comprehend all that part which is ufually above the Water when the (hip is laden. The figure of the bottom is therefore determined by the qualities which arc neceffary for the veffel, and conformable to the fervice for which (he is propofed. The limits of our'defign will not admit of a minute defcription and enumeration of all the pieces of timber which enter into the cpnftru&ion of a (hip, nor of a- particular defeription of their affemblage and union, or the manner in which they reciprocally contribute to the folidity of thofe floating citadels. It neverthe- lefs appears neceffary to give a general idea of the ufe, figure, and ftation of the principal pieces, to thofe who are entirely unacquainted with the fubjedt. As our definitions will be greatly illuttrated by the proper figures, we have annexed to this article a plate, which temprehends fome of the moft material draughts, as well as a reprefentation of the principal pieces em¬ ployed in naval architedlure. It is ufual among (hfpwrights to delineate three fe- veral draughts. Firft, The whole length of the (hip is reprefented according to a fide-view, perpendicular to the keel, and is termed the plane if elevation, or Jheer-draught. Plate CCXLVI. fig. i. Second, The (hip is exhibited according to an end- view, and dripped of her planks, fo as to prefent the outlines of the principal timbers; and this is properly termed the plane of projection, or the vertical plane of the timbers, (fig. 4.) becaufe it (hows the proje&ion of their frames relatively to each other. Third, It is not fufficient to have the vertical curves of the bottom in different places,, for a diffindt idea of the horizontal curves is alfo equally neceffary and ufe- ful: this (s obtained by means of water-lines, traced upon what is called the horizontal plane, (fig. 2.) In this draught the curves of the tranfoms called the round-aft is alfo marked, and fometimes the breadth and thicknefs of the timbers. The plane of elevation (fig. x.) determines tha length and depth of the keel ; the difference of the draughts of water; the length and projeftion, orraker of the ftem and ftern-poft ; the pofition of the mid¬ ihip-frame upon the keel, together with that of the principal frames afore and abaft ; the load-water line 5 the wales; the dimenfions and fituations of the gun- ports; the projefiion of the rails of the head and ftern- gallery ;. with the ftations of the mads and channels. This draught, however, conveys no idea of the ver¬ tical curve of the ribs or timbers ; for as their projec¬ tion will be only reprefented in a plane elevated upon, the length of the keel, they will appear in this direc¬ tion no otherwife than-as ftraight lines. To perceive thefe curves accurately, they muff be regarded in ano¬ ther point of view ; which will reprefent their projec¬ tion upon a vertical plane, fuppofed to cut the keel at right angles in the place where the (hip is broadeft. For as all (hips are broader near the middle of their length than towards the extremities, it is evident that, the timbers are more extended in proportion. The moft capacious of thefe reprefents what is called the midjhipframe ; and upon the area of this frame is de¬ lineated the proje&ion of all the others. Thus the plane of projection limits the different; breadths of a (hip in various points of her length, and exhibits the outlice. of the timbers refpeftively to each other; Ship.. 8136 t See PI. CLIX % J. I L D I N G. Part I. above it ; and another black line may be delineated upon the bottom, clofe to the furface of the water, which will exhibit a fecond water-line parallel to the firft, but nearer the keel in,proportion to the number of feet which the Ihip has riien. Thus by lightening a fhip gradually, and at the fame time preferving the dircdiion of her keel, or the angle which the keel makes with the furface pf the water, a variety of water-lines may be drawn parallel to each other and to the load water-line. See a far¬ ther, ;Huftration of thefe lines in the article Water- LtNE. The ribands are likevvife of great utility in fhip- building ; they are narrow and flexible planks placed on the bottom at different heights, fo as to form a fort of mould for flationing the inferior timbers between the principal ones. They differ from the water-lines, inafmuch as the latter have only one curve, which is horizontal; whereas the ribbands, befides their hori¬ zontal one, have a vertical curve. To convey a juft idea of thefe curves, which cannot be reprefented on one draught at their full length, without an oblique fedtion of the fhip’s length, it will be neceffary to have recourfe to two planes; that of the elevation, which exhibits their vertical curve ; and to the floor-plane, upon which the horizontal curve is expreffed. See Riband, and Timber. Tbefe different lines are extremely ufeful in exhibi¬ ting the various curves of a fhip’s bottom, that as they are gradually diminiflied, their uniformity or irregula¬ rity may be difeovered by the fliilful artift. S H I P-B XJ other as they are erefted upon the keel. According¬ ly, this draught ought to prefent a variety of feftions of the fhip in different places of her length, and al¬ ways perpendicular to the furface of the water; fo that the eye of the obferver, when placed in what may be properly termed the axis of the fhip, may perceive the feveral feftions at one glance ; that is to fay, when looking full on the ftem from before the fhip f, he fhall 1 difeover the fore-timbers; and when looking from be¬ hind, dire&ly on the ftern, he fhall perceive the form of the after-timbers. See Plate of Stern, fig. 2. 3. at the article Stern; in both of which figures the feftions of the inferior timbers are expreffed by cur¬ ved black lines drawn upon the area of the midfhip- frame, which is already deferibed to be a plane eleva¬ ted perpendicularly upon the keel at the extreme breadth of the veflel. See MiDSHip-ivww. To form a juft idea of this plane, therefore, we ought to fuppofe a fhip refting upon the flocks, in the fame pofition as when afloat upon the water. Thus a variety of black vertical lines may be drawn at equal diftances upon the bottom, which is white, to form different outlines of the fhip correfpondingto the tim¬ bers within. It is to be obferved, that the fafhion of the inferior timbers muft conform to the figure of the midfliip-frame, which is placed in the fulled part of the fhip ; and as the planes of all the other timbers di- minifh in a certain progreflion as they approach the ftem and ftern, they are properly delineated on the plane of the midfhip-frame, which alfo reprefents the depth of the keel and length of the midfhip-beam. As the two Tides of a fhip ought to be exaftly alike, it is judged fufficient to reprefent the feftions of the fore-part of the fhip on the left fide, and thofe in the after-part on the rigl^t fide, fo as to perbeive all the feftions, as well afore as abaft, upon one plane. See Plate CCLXVI. fig. 4. However neceflary it may be to underftand precifely the vertical curves of the bottom, it is no lefs requifite to have a juft idea of thofe which are horizontal. The horizontal, or floor-plane, is that upon which the whole frame is eredted, and will be more clearly underftood by previoufly deferibing the water-lines and ribbands of which it is compofed. When a fhip floats upon the ftream, it is evident that her upper works will be feparated from the bot¬ tom by the furface of the water, which will according¬ ly deferibe an imaginary horizontal line upon the bot¬ tom from the ftem to the ftern-poft. The moft elevated of thofe lines is termed the load nvater-line, which is fuppofed to be drawn by the fur¬ face of the water on the upper part of the bottom, when fhe is fufficiently laden for a fea-voyage. For if we fuppofe this furface a rule, and thereby deferibe a correfponding black line along the veffel’s bottom, that line will be diftinguifhed upon the bottom, which is white, and reprefent what is called the load ouatcr- lim. If the fhip is lightened of any part of her lading, and prefervesthe fame difference in her draught of wa¬ ter at the two ends; or, what is the fame thing, if fhe is lightened fo as to preferve the fame equilibrium of the keel with regard to the furface of the water, it is evident that fhe will rife higher out of the water, fo that the black line already deferibed will be elevated The qualities required in a fhip ought to determine the figure of the bottom. A fhip of war, therefore, fhould be able to fail fwiftly, and carry her lower tier of guns fufficiently out of the water; otherwife a fmall fhip will have the advantage of a large one, inafmuch as the latter cannot Open her lower battery in a frefh fide-wind without being expofed to extreme danger by receiving a great quantity of water in at her ports be¬ tween decks. A merchant-fhip ought to contain a large cargo of merchant-goods, and be navigated with few hands: And both fhould be able to carry fail firmly ; fleer well; drive little to leeward ; and fuftain the fhocks of the fea without being violently ftrained. The firft thing to be eftablifhed in the draught of a fhip is her length ; and as a fhip of war, according to her rate, is furnifhed with a certain number of cannon, which are placed in battery on her decks, it is decef- fary that a fufficient diflance fhould be left between their ports to work the guns with facility ; and parti¬ cularly to leave fpace enough between the foremoft gun and the ftem, and between the aftmoft gun and the ftern-poft on each fide, on account of the arching or inward curve of the fhip toward her extremities. When the length of a fhip is determined, it is ufual to fix her breadth by the dimenfions of the midfhip- beam. On this occafion the fhipwrights, for the moft part, are conduced by rules founded on their own ob- fervation; for having remarked, that feme veflels, which by repeated experience have been found to an- fwer all the purpofes of navigation, have a certain breadth in [proportion to their length, they have in¬ ferred that it would be improper to depart from this proportion: but as other (hips have been conftrufled Min* Bu. Id ill Flaie CCLXVl. -{- Y's/jr/ts (>/YAe Y/rrz,z,. V rlL-J| Parti. SHI P-8 U! with different breadths, which were equally perfeft, a variety of different general rules have been adopted by thefe artifts; who are accordingly divided in their opi¬ nions about the breadth which ought to be affigned to a (hip relatively with her length, whilft each one pro¬ duce's reafons and experience in fupport of his own ftandard. Thofe who would dirninifli the breadth, al¬ lege, i. That a narrow veffel meets with lefs reffftance in palling through the water: adly, Thatby increafing the length Ihe will drive lefs to leeward : jdly, That, according to this principle, the water-lines will be more conveniently formed to divide the fluid : 4thly» That a long and narrow ftiip will require lefe fail to advance fwiftly ; that her mafts will be lower, and her rigging lighter; and, by confequence, the feamen lefs fatigued with managing the fails, &c. Thofe, on the contrary, who would enlarge the breadth, pretend, iff. That this form is better fitted to preferve a good battery of guns: 2dly, That there will be more room to work the guns conveniently : jdly, That, by car¬ rying more fail, the Ihip will be enabled to run fafter; or, that this quality will at lead overbalance the ad¬ vantage which the others have of more eafily dividing the fluid : 4thly, That being broader at the load-water line, or place where the furface of the water defcribes #a line round the bottom, they will admit of being Very narrow on the floor, particularly towards the ex¬ tremities : And, 5thly, That a broad veffel will more readily rife upon the waves than a narrow one. From fuch oppofite principles has refulted that variety of ftandards adopted by different fhipwrights. It has been remarked above, that a (hip of war muff carry her lower tier of cannon high enough above the water, otherwife a great fhip which cannot open her lower battery, when failing with a frefh fide-wind, may be taken by a fmall one that can make ufe of her cannon. A fhip fliould be duly poifed, fo as not to dive or pitch heavily, but go fmooth and eafy through the water, riling to the waves when they run high and the fhip has reduced her fail to the Itorm ; otherwife they will break aboard, and ftrain the decks or carry away the boats; the mafts are likewife in great dan¬ ger from the fame catife. A Ihip Ihould fail well when large and before the wind, but chiefly clofe-hauled, or with a fide-wind, and her fails ftiarp-trimmed, and then not fall off to tbe leeward. Now, tbe great difficulty lies in uniting fo many different qualities in one fhip; which feems to be nearly impoffible: the whole art, therefore, confiftsin form¬ ing the body in fuch a manner that none of thefe qua¬ lities fhcvuld be entirely deftroyed, and in giving a pre¬ ference to that which is chiefly required in the parti- oular fervice for which the veffel is defigned. We fhall briefly fhow the poffibility of uniting them all in one ■'fhip, that each of them may be eafily difeerned : when it happens otherwife, the fault muft lie in the builder, who has not applied himfelf to ftudy the fundamental rules and principles of his art. To make a ftiip carry a good fail. A flat floor- timber, and fomewhat long, or the lower futtock pretty round, a ftraight upper futtock, the top-timber to throw the breadth out aloft ; at any rate, to carry her main breadth as high the lower deck. Now, if VOL. X. I [ L D I N G. 8137 the rigging be well adapted to fuch a body, ffnd the upper works lightened as much as poffible, fo that they all concur to lower the centre of gravity, there will be no room to doubt of her carrying a good fail. To make a fhip fleer well, and anfwer the h«im quickly. If the fafhion-pieces be well formed, the tuck, or fpreading parts under the (tern, carried pretty high, the midfhip-frame well forward, a confiderable difference in the draught of water abaft more than be- afore, a great rake forward and none abaft, a fnug quarter-deck and fore-caftle; all thefe will make a fhip fleer well. A fhip which fails well will certainly fleer well. To make a fhip carry her guns Well out of the wa¬ ter. A long floor-timber, and not of great rifing ; a very full midfliip-frame, and low tuck, with light up¬ per works. To make a {hip go fmoothly through the water without pitching hard. A long keel, a long floor, not to rife too high afore and abaft; but the area or fpace continued in the fore-body, according to the re- fpeftive weights they are to carry ; all thefe are necef- fary to make a fhip go fmoothly through the water. To make a ftiip keep a good wind, and drive little to the leeward. A good length by the keel ; not too broad, but pretty deep in the hold, which will occafion her to have a fhort floor-timber and a great rifing. As fuch a fhip will meet with great refiftance in the water going over the broadfide, and little when going ahead, fhe will not fall much to the leeward. Now, fome builders insagine it is impoffible to make a fhip carry her guns well, bear a good fail, and be a prime failer; becaufe it would require a very full bottom to gain the firft two qualities, whereas a (harp ftiip will anfwer better for the latter: but when it is confidered that a full fhip will carry a great deal more fail than a (harp one, a good artift may fo form the body, as to have all thefe three good qualities, and alfo fleer well. We fhall now proceed to deferibe the principal piece* of which a fhip is compofed, and to explain the prin¬ cipal draughts ufed in the conftru&ion thereof. As the feveral lines exhibited in the planes of eleva¬ tion, proje&ion, &c. will be rendered more intelligi¬ ble by a previous account of thofe pieces, it may not be improper to begin with reciting their names, and giving a fummary defeription of their ufes and ftations. They are for the moft part reprefented according to the order of their difpofition in that part of Plate CCLXVI. which is termed pieces of the hull. A. The pieces which compofe the keel, to be fe- curely bolted together, and clinched. B. The fteru-poft, which is tenanted into the keel, and connefted to it by a knee, G. It fupports the rudder, and unites the fides of the fhip abaft. C. The ftem, which is compofed of two pieces fcarfed together: it is an arching piece of timber, in¬ to which the (hip’s fides are united forwards. D. The beams, which are ufed to fupport the decks, and confine the fides to their proper dillance. E. The falfe poft, which ferves to augment the breadth of the ftern-poft, being alfo tenanted into the keel. F. The knees which conne& the beams to the fides. 40 G. The S H I P - B U I L D I N G. knee of the ftern-poft, which unites it to 8138 Plate G. T CCLXVI. kee] g' 3‘ H. The apron, in two pieces: it is fayed on the infide of the Item, to fupport the fcarf thereof; for which reafon the fcarf of the former mutt be at fome tiifiance from that of the latter. I. The ftemfon, in two pieces, to reinforce the fcarf of the apron. ,K. The wing-tranfom : it is fayed acrofs the ftem- port, and-bolted fo the head of it, having its two ends let into the fathion-pieces. L. The deck-tranfom, parallel to the wing-tranfom, and fecured in the fame manner. M N. The lower tranfoms. O. The fafhion-piece on one fide ; the heel of it is connected with the dead-wood, and the head is fecured to the wing-tranfom. P. The top-timbers, or upper parts of the fafhion- pieces. The knees, which fafhion the tranfoms to the fhip’s fide. R. The bread-books, in the hold; they are fayed acrofs the ftem, to drengthen the fore-part of the fhip. Part f. and from thefe dimenfions the fhipwright is to form Plate a draught fuitabie to the trade for which the fhip isCCLXVI. dtfigned. 3~ In projeffing the draught ©f a veflel of war, the fird article to be confidered is her length. As all (hips are much longer above then below, it is alfo necelFary to diliinguifit the precife part of htr height from which her length is taken : this is ufual’y the lower gun- deck, or the load water-line. It has been already obferved, that water-lines are defcrihed longitudinally on a fhip’s bottom by the furface of the water in which die floats, and that the line which determines her depth under the water is ufually termed the load water-line. In this draught it will be particularly neceffary to leave fufficient diilance between the ports. The next objeft is to edablifh the breadth by the midfhip-beam. Although there is great difference of opinion about proportioning the breadth to the length, yet it is mod ufual to conform to the dimenfions of fhips of the fame rate. After the dimenfions of the breadth and length are determined, the depth of the hold mud be fixed, which is generally half the breadth j but the form of the body fiiould be confidered on this S. The bread-hooks of the .deck : they are placed occafion ; for a flat floor will require lefs depth in the immediately above the former, and ufed for the fame purpofee. T. The rudder, which is joined to the dern-poft by hinges, and ferves to direft the {hip’s courfe. • U. The floor-timbers; they are laid acrofs the keel, to which they are firmly bolted. V. The lower futtocks, and, W. The top-timbers, which are all united to the floor-timbers, forming a frame that reaches from the ked to the top of the fide. X. The pieces which compofe the kelfon : they are fcarfed together like the keel pieces, and placed over the middle of the floor-timbers, upon each of which they are fcored about an inch and a half, as exhibited by the notches. Y. The feveral pieces of the knee of the head ; the lower part of which is fayed to the dem; the heel be¬ ing fcarfed to the fore-foot. Z. The cheeks of the bead or knees, which conned the bead to the bows on each fide. &. The dandard of the head, which fadens it to the dem. hold than a (harp one. The didance between the decks mud alfo be fettled. We may then proceed to fix the length of the keel/ by which we fhaii be enabled to judge of the rake of the dem and dern-pod. The rake is known to be the proje&ion of the fhip at the height of the ftem and dern-pod beyond the ends of the keel afore and abaft, or the angle by which the length is increafed as the fabric rifes. To thefe we may alfo add the height of the dem and wing-tranforo. After thefe dimenfions are fettled, the timbers may be confidered which form the fides of the fhip. A frame of timbers, which appears to be one continued piece, is compofed of one floor-timber, U, whofe arms branch outward to both fides of the fhip ; two or three futtocks, V V ; and a top-timber, W. The futtocks are connedted te the upper arms of the floor-timbers on each fide of the fhip, and ferve to prolong the timber in a vertical diredion: and the top-timbers are placed at the upper part of the futtocks for the fame purpofe. All thefe being united, and fecured by crofs-bars, form a circular inclofure, which is called a. The cat-heads, @ne of which lies on each bow,, a frame of timbers. And as a fbip is much broader proje&ing outwards like the arm of a crane. They arc ufed to draw the anchors up to the top of the fide without injuring the bow. b. The bits, to which the cable is faftened when the fhip rides at anchor. c. The falfe poft, in two pieces, fayed to the fore¬ part of the ftern-poft. d. The fide-counter-timbers, which terminate the Jhip abaft within the quarter-gallery. e e. Two pieces of dead-wood, one afore and ano¬ ther abaft, fayed on the keel. In veffels of war, the general dimenfions are efta- hlifhed by authority of officers appointed by the go¬ vernment to fuperintend the building of fhips. In the merchant-fervice, the extreme breadth, length of the keel, depth in the hold, height between decks and in the waft e, are agreed on by contrail j at the middle than at the extremities, the arms of the floor-timber will form a very obtufe angle at the ex¬ treme breadth: but this angle decreafes in proportion to the diftance of the timbers from the midfhip-frame, fo that the foremoll and aftmoft ones will form a very acute angle. Floor-timbers of the latter fort are ufually called crutches. Shipwrights differ extremely in determining the ftation of the midfhip-frame; fome placing it at the middle of the fhip’s length, and others further for¬ ward. They who place it before the middle allege,, that if a {hip is full forwards, fhs will meet with no refiftance after fhe has opened a column of water; and that the water fo difplaced will eafiiy unite abaft, and by that means force the fhip forward ; befides having more power on the rudder, in proportion to itsdillance from jhe centre of gravity; this alfo comes nearer the form Parti. SHIP-BU Plate form of fifties, which ftiould feem the mod advantageous CCLXVI. for (ilviJIng the fluid. When the rifing of the midfliip-floor-timber is de¬ cided, we may then proceed to deferibe the rifing-Iine of the floor, on the ftern-poft abaft, and on the ftem afore; The height of the lower-deck is the next thing to be confidered; it is determined in the middle by the depth of the hold; and fomfe builders make it no higher than the Item; but they raife it abaft as much above its height in the middle as the load water¬ mark, or draught of water abaft, exceeds that afore. With regard to the height between decks, it is alto¬ gether arbitrary, and muft be determined by the rate of the ftiip and the fervice (he is defigned for. It is alfo neceffary to remember the (heer of the wales, and to give them a proper hanging; becaufe the beauty and flatelinefs of a (hip greatly depend up¬ on their figure and curve, which, if properly drawn, , will make her appear airy and graceful on the water. We come now to coniider the upper works, and all that is above water, called the dead-wrk: and here the ftiip muft be narrower, fo that all the weight lying above the load water-line will thereby be brought nearer the middle of the breadth, and of courfe the fhip will be lefs ftrained by the working of her guns, &c. But although fome advantages are acquired by diminiftiing the breadth, above water, we muft be careful not to narrow her too much ; as there muft be fufficient room left on the upper deck for the guns to recoil. The fecurity of the marts ftiould likewife be remembered, which requires fufficient breadth to fpread the ftirouds. A deficiency of this fort may indeed be in fome meafure fupplied by enlarging the breadth of the channels. We come to explain the ftieer-draught, or plane of Elevation of a fixty-gun (hip ; wherein we have been attentive to make the fame letters refer to the fame objefts, as in the explanation of the Pieces, as above; at lead when the fame objefts are in both figures. fig, ,t A A. Is the keel, whofe upper edge is prolonged by the dotted line />y, upon the extremities of which are ese&ed perpendiculars which determine the height of the wing-tranfom K, and the length of the gun- deck KC. A B. The ftern-polt. A C. The ftem. D D. The quarter-gallery, with its windows. E F. The quarter-pieces, which limit the ftern on each tide. F. The taffarel, or upper piece of the ftern. F G. Profile of the ftern, with its galleries. H. The gun-ports. I. The channels, with their dead-eyes and chain- plates. K. The wing-tranfom. K G. The counter. L B. The deck-tranfom. M N O. The firft, fecond, and third tranfoms, of which O ^ is the third or lowed. m O L P. The dire&ion of the fafhion-piece, having its breadth canted aft towards the ftern. Qjl. The main fkeeds, for hoifting in the boats clear of the fttip’s fide. I t D I N G. 8139 L QZ. The main-wale, with its flteer afore and'abaft. Plate D R X. The channel-wales, parallel to the m ain- wale. S U S. The fheer-rail, parallel to the wales. T /. The rudder. A t F. The rake of the ftern. VWV. The waift-rail. P i /. The drift-rails abaft; and/a, the drift-rails forward. T U C. The water-line. XX. The rails of the head. Y. The knee of the head, or cutwater. Z Z. The cheeks of the head. a a. The cat-head. M @C. The rifing line of the floor. kulZ. The cutting-down line, which limits the thicknefs of all the floor-timbers, and likewife the height of the dead-wood afore and abaft. UW. The midfhip-frame. «, 3, c, d, e,f g, h. The frames or timbers in the fore-body of the ftiip, /.e. before themidfhip frame. T, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The timbers in the after¬ body, or which are erected abaft the midfhip-frame. As the eye of a fpedfator is fuppo.fed in this pro- jedlion to view the (hip’s fide in a line perpendicular to the plane of elevation, it is evident that the con¬ vexity will vanifh, like that of a cylinder or globe, when viewed at a confiderable diftance ; and that the frames will confequently be reprefentedby ftraight lines, except the fafhion-piecc abaft and the knuckle-timber forward. It has been already obferved, that the plane of pro- jeftion may be defined a vertical delineation of the curves of the timbers upon the plane of the midfhip- frame, which is perpendicular to that of the elevation. It is neceffary to obferve here, that the various me¬ thods by which thefe curves are deferibed, are equally mechanical and arbitrary. In the latter fenfe, they are calculated to make a ftiip fuller or narrower, ac¬ cording to the fervice for which (he is defigned ; and in the former they are drawn according to thofe rules which the artift has been implicitly taught to follow, or which his fancy or judgment has efteemed the molt accurate and convenient. They are generally com- pofed of feveral arches of a circle, reconciled together by moulds framed for that purpofe. The radii of thofe arches, therefore, are of different lengths, ac¬ cording to the breadth of the ftiip in the place where fuch arches are fwept ; and they are expreffed on the plane of proje&ion either by horizontal or perpendi¬ cular lines : the radii of the breadth-fweeps being al¬ ways in the former, and the radii of the flaor-fweeps in the latter direftion. Thefe two arches are joined by a third, which coincides with both, without inter¬ fering either. The curve of the top-timber is either formed by a mould which correfponds to the arch of the breadtb-fweep, or by another fweep whofe centre and radius are without the plane of pnjerion. The breadth of the fliip, at every top-timber, is limited by an horizontal line drawn on the floor-plane, called the half-breadth of the tof timbers. The extreme breadth is alfo determined by another horizontal line on the floor-plane; and the lines of half-breadth are thus mutually transferable, from the projection and floor-planes, to each other. 40 Q^2 The 8140 Plate The neceffat-y data by winch the curves of the tim- CCLXVI. ^tr3 are delineateJj then, are the perpendicular height from the keel; the main, or principal breadth ; and the top-timber breadth : for as a fliip is much broader near the middle of her length than towards the end, fo rtie is broader in the middle of her height than above and below; and this latter differetice of breadth is continued throughout every point of her length. The main breadth of each frame of timbers is therefore the (hip’s breadth nearly in the middle of her height in that part: and the top-timber breadth is the line of her breadth near the upper ends of each timber. It has been already obferved, that as both fides of a fliip are alike, the artificers only draw one fide, from which both fides of the (hip are built: therefore the timbers abaft the mid(hip-frame are exhibited on one fide of the plane of projection, and the timbers before it on the other. Plane of Projection. 4< A, The keel. B C, The line which exprefles the upper edge of the keel, from which the height of each timber and height of its different breadths are meafured. B D, and C E, Perpendiculars raifed on the line BC, to limit the (hip’s extreme breadth and height amid-fliips ; or, in other words, to limit the breadth and height of the midfhip-frame. A F, A perpendicular ereCled from the middle of the keel to bifeft the line of the (hip’s breadth in two equal parts. F * 9, The half-breadth line of the aftmoft top- timber ; being the uppermoft horizontal line in this figure. Note, The feven lines parallel to and immediately under this, on the right-fide of the line A F, are all top-timber half-breadths, abaft the midfhip-frame ; the lowed of which coincides with the horizontal line DE. The parallel horizontal lines nearly oppofite to thefe, on the left fide of the line A F, reprefent the top- timber half-breadths in the fore-body, or the half- * breadths of the top-timbers before the midfhip-frame. G, H, I, Q^R, S, T, The radii of the breadth- fweeps abaft the mid(hip-frame ; thofe of the breadth- fweeps in the fore-body, or before the mid(hip-frame are direflly oppofite on the right fide. @ A , The midfhip-frame, from the extreme breadth downwards. i> 2j 3> 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, The outlines of the tim¬ bers abaft the midfhip-frame, in different parts of their height. a, b, c, d, e, f, gy h. The outlines of the timbers before the midlhip-frame, in different parts of their height, h being the foremod or knuckle timber. K /, the^ wing-traufom, whofe ends red upon the fadiion-piece. L, The deck-tranfom, parallel to and undef the wing-tranfom. M N O, The lower-tranfoms, of which O k is the third and lowed. vi k P, The dotted line, which expreffes the figure of the fafhion piece, without being canted aft. P, The upper-part, or top-timber of the fafhion- piece. 0>h rift The radii of the floor-fweeps, abaff; Part f. the midfhip-frame : thofe before the midfhip-frame are Plate on the oppofite fide of the line AF, to which they are CCLXVI- all parallel. id RJ, 2d RJ, 3d Rd, 4th Rd, The diagonal ri¬ bands abaft the midfhips /, «, sc, y. The fame ri¬ bands expreffed in the fore-body. It has been remarked above, that the horizontal plane is eompofed of water-lines and ribands; it alfor contains the main and top-timber-breadth lines, or the longitudinal lines by which the main-breadth and top-timber-breadth are limited in every point of the fhip’s length. The horizontal curve of the tranfoms and harpins are alfo reprefented therein; together with the planes of the principal timbers, the cant of the; fafhion-piece, the length of the rake afore and abaft, the projection of the cat-heads, and the curve of the upper rail of the head, to which the curves of the lower ones are ufuaily parallel. Horizontal Plane. B A C, The line of the fhip’s length, paffing thro’ 3* the middle of the ftem and flern-poft. B, The upper-end of the ftern-poft. C, The upper-end of the ftem. B F, The length of the rake abaft; D W X, The top-timber-breadth line, or the line which limits the breadth of each top-timber. D F, The breadth of the aftmoft timber at the taf- farel. B K, The wing-tranfom. B L P, The horizontal curve of the deck-tranfom. M M, The horizontal curve, or round aft, of the firft tranfom. M N, The horizontal curve of the fecond tranfom : it is prolonged into a water-line, N 8 7. k O, The horizontal curve of the third tranfom, which is alfo prolonged into another water-line, O, U, /, vi O P, The plane of the fafhion-piece, as canted aft. 0 W U, The plane of the midfhip-frame. a, b, c, d, e,f, h. The planes of the timbers before the midfhip-frame. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, The planes of the timbers abaft the midfhip-frame. XX, The figure of the upper-rail of the head. C Y,: The proje&ion of the knee of the head. The third horizontal riband is marked on the plate. a a. The proje&ion of the cat-head. Thus we have endeavoured briefly to explain the nature and ufes of the principal draughts ufed in the' conftruftion of a fhip, which reciprocally correfpond with each other in the dimenfions of length, breadth, and depth. Thus the plane of elevation is exaftly of the fame length with the horizontal or floor-plane. The feveral breadths of the timbers in the floor-plane,i and that of the projection, are mutually transferable ; and the real height of the timbers in the projection exaCtly conforms to their height in the elevation. Thus let it be required to transfer the height of the wing- tranfom from the elevation to the projection : Extend the compaffes from the point K, in the ele¬ vation, down to the dotted line prolonged from the upper-edge of the keel, and fetting the other foot in the point /, then (hall the line K be the perpendi¬ cular SHIP-BUILDING. Part L S H I P-B U Plate cular height in the wing-tranfom : transfer this from CCLXVI. jjjg 0f the line B A C, in the projeftion, to the point K in the perpendicular A F, then will A K be the height of the wing-tranforn in the plane of pro¬ jection : and thus the height of all the tranfoms may¬ be laid from the former upon the latter. Again : Let it be required to transfer the main- breadth of the midfhip-frame from the projection to the horizontal plane : Set one foot of the compafies in the point © on the perpendicular C E, and extend the other along the main-breadth-fweep 0 G; till it touches the perpendicular A F parallel to C E : lay this diftance upon the horizontal plane from the point u in the line of the fhip’s length, BAG, along the plane of the mid(hip-frame to the point 0 ; fo lhall the line W U be the breadth of the midlhip-frame on the horizontal plane. Thus alfo the top-timber-breadth, or the diftance of each top-timber from the middle of the (hip’s breadth, may be in the fame manner transferred, by extending the compaffes from the line BAG, in I L D I N G. 8x41 the horizontal plane, to the top-timber-breadth line,Plate upon any particular timbei;, as t, 2, 3, &c. whichCCLXVI- will give i>s proper dimenfions thereon. In the fame manner the breadths of all the timbers may be laid from the projection to the horizontal plane, and, vice verfa, from that to the prdje In order, therefore, to give fome general idea of joys the fame points of fupport as in its natural ftate. what may be thought moft neceffary in this matter, I fhall endeavour to defcribe that-form of fhoe and me¬ thod of treating the hoofs of horfes, which from expe¬ rience I have found moft beneficial. “ Proper Method. It is to be remembered, that a horfe’s fhoe ought by no means to reft upon the foie, otherwife it will occafion lamenefs; therefore it muft reft entirely on the cruft r and, in order that we may imitate the natural tread of the foot, the fhoe muft be made flat, (if the height of the foie does not forbid it); it muft be of an equal thicknefs all around the outfide of the rim (a); and on that part of it which is to be placed immediately next the foot, a narrow rim or margin is to be formed, not exceeding the breadth of the cruft upon which it is to reft, with the nail-holes placed exa&ly in the middle; and from this narrow rim the Ihoe is to be made gradually thinner towards- its inner edge. See fig. 5. “ The breadth of the fhoe is to be regulated by the fize of the foot, and the work to which the horfe is accuftomed : but, in general, it fhould be made rather broad at the toe, and narrow towards the extremity of each heel, in order to let the frog reft with freedom upon the ground. The neceffity of this has been al¬ ready fhown. « The fhoe being thus formed and fhaped like the foot, the furface of the cruft is to be made fmooth, and the fhoe fixed on with eight or at moft ten nails, the heads of which fhould be funk into the holes, fo as to be equal with the furface of the fhoe. The foie, frog,, and bars, as I have already obferved, fhould never be pared, farther than taking off what is ragged from the frog, and any excrefcences or inequalities from the foie. And it is very properly remarked by Mr Ofmer, “ That the fhoe fhould be made fo as to ttand a little wider at the extremity of each heel, than the foot it- ftlf: otherwife, as the foot grows in length, the heel of the fhoe in a fhort time gets within the heel of the horfe; which preffure often breaks the cruft, and pro¬ duces a temporary lamenefs, perhaps a corn.” “ This method of fhoeing horfes I have followed long before Mr Ofmer’s treatife on that fubjeft was publifhed ; and for thefe feveral years paft I have en¬ deavoured to introduce it into practice.. “ But fo much are farriers, grooms, &c. prejudi¬ ced in favour of the common method of fhoeing and paring out the feet, that it is with difficulty they can even be prevailed upon to make a proper trial of it. “ They cannot be fatisfied unlefs the frog be finely Ihaped, the foie pared; and the bars cut out, in order to make the heels appear wide (b). This praftice gives them a fhow of widenefs for the time ; yet that, toge- It muft therefore be much eafier for the borfe in his- way of going, and be a means of making him furer- footed. It is likewife evident, that, from this fhoe, the hoof cannot acquire any bad form; when, at the fame time, it receives every advantage that poffibly could be expelled from fhoeing. In this refpeft it may very properly be laid, that we make the fhoe to- the foot, and not the foot to the fhoe, as is but too much the cafe in the concave fhoes, where the foot very much refembka that of a cat’s fixed into a wal¬ nut fhell. “ It is to be obferved, that the hoofs of young horfes, before they are fhoed, for the moft part are wide and open at the heels, and that the cruft is fuffi- ciently thick and ftrong to adroit of the nails being fixed very near the extremities of each. But, as I have formerly remarked, from the conftant life of concave fhoes, the cruft of this part of the foot grows thinner and weaker ; and when the nails are fixed too far back, efpecially upon the infide, the horfe becomes lame : to avoid this, they are placed more towards the fore-part of the hoof. This caufes the heels of the horfe to have the greater fpring upon the heels o£ the fhoe, which is fo very detrimental as to occafion lamenefs ; whereas, by ufing this flat form of fhoe,. all thefe inconveniences are avoided ; and if the hoofs, of young horfes, from the firft time that they were fhoed, were continued to be conftantly treated accor¬ ding to the method here recommended, the heels would always retain their natural ftrength and fhape. “ By following this flat method of fhoeing, and: manner of treating the hoofs, feveral horfes now.under my care, that were formerly tender-footed, and fre¬ quently lame, while fhoed with broad concave fhoes, are now quite found, and their hoofs in as good con¬ dition as when the firft fhoes were put upon them : In particular, the horfe that wore the broad concave fhoes, from which the drawings of fig. 2. and 3- were taken, now goes perfeQly found in the open nar¬ row kind of fhoes, as reprefented fig. 4. 5. “ If farriers confidered attentively the defign of fhoeing horks, and would take pains tomake themfelves acquainted with the anatomical ftru&urc of the foot, they would then be convinced, that this method of treating the hoofs, and that this form of fhoe, is pre¬ ferable to that which is fo generally praflikd. “ It has been alleged, that in this form of fhoe horfes do not go fo well as in that commonly ufed. This objeftion will eafily be laid afide, by attending to the following particulars. There are but few prac¬ titioners that can or will endeavour to make this fort of fhoe as it ought to be. The iron, in forming it, does (a) For a draught-horfe about half an inch thick, and larger in proportion for a faddk-horfe. (a) Wide open heels are looked upon as a mark of a found good hdof. S H O [ 8147 ] S H O ^loeing'of does not fo eafily turn into the circular fhape neceffary Morfcs. as jn the common fhoe ; and perhaps this is the prin- *" cipal reafon why farriers object to it, efpecially where they work much by the piece. And as many horfes that are commonly fhoed with concave (hoes have their foies confiderably higher than the cruft, if the fhoe is not properly formed, or if it is made too flat, it muft unavoidably reft upon the foie, and occafion lamenefs. “ Thrpraflice of paring the foie and frog is alfo fo prevalent, and thought fo abfolutely neceffary, that it is indifcriminately pra&ifed, even to excefs, on all kinds of feet: And while this method continues to be followed, it cannot be expe&ed that horfes can go up¬ on hard ground (on this open fhoe) with that freedom they would do if their foies and frogs were allowed to remain in their full natural ftrength. “ Experience teaches us, that, in very thin-foled fhoes, we feel-an acute pain from every fharp-pointed ftone we happen to tread upon. Horfes are fenfible of the fame thing in their feet, when their foies, &c. are pared too thin. Hence they who are prejudiced againft this method, without ever refle&ing upon the thin ftate of the foie, &c. are apt to condemn it, and draw their conclufions more from outward appearances than from any reafoning or knowledge of the ftrudture •of the parts. From a due attention likewife to the ftrufture of a horfc’s foot in a natural ftate, it will be obvious, that paring away the foie, frog, &c. muft be hurtful, and in reality isdeftroying that fubftance pro¬ vided by nature for the defence of the internal parts of the foot: From fuch praftice it muft be more liable to accidents from hard bodies, fuch as fliarp (tones, nails, glafs, &c. From this confideration, we will likewife find, that a narrow piece of iron, adapted to the (hape and fize of the foot, is the only thing ne- ceffary to proted the cruft from breaking or wearing away ; the foie, &c. requiring no defence if never pared. “ There is one obfervation I would farther make, which is, that the (hoe (hould be made of good iron, well worked, or what fmiths call hammer-hardened, that is, beat all over lightly with a hammer when al- moft cold. The Spaniards and Portuguefe farriers ufe this pra&ice greatly, infomuch that many people, who -iiave feen them at work, have reported, that they form their horfes (hoes without heating them in the fire as we do. It is well known, that heating of iron till it is red foftens it greatly; and when (hoes thus -foftened are put upon horfes feet, they wear away like lead. But when the (hoes are well hammered, the iron becomes more compad, firm, and hard ; fo that a well-hammered (hoe, though made confiderably lighter, yet will lalt as long as one that is made heavier; the advantage of which is obvious, as the horfe will move his feet with more a&ivily, and be in lefs danger of cutting his legs. “ The common concave (hoes are very faulty in this refped ; for, in fitting or (haping them to the foot, they require to be frequently heated, in order to make them bend to the unequal furface which the •hoof acquires from the conftant ufe of thefe (hoes: they thereby become foft; and to attempt to harden them by beating or hammering when they are (haped to the foot, would undo the whole. But flat (hoes, by making them, when heated, a little narrower than -the foot, will, by means of hammering, become wider, and acquire a degree cf elalticity and firmnefs which it is neceffary they (hould have, but impoflible to be Shooting;, given them by any other means whatever; fo that any ‘ farrier, from praftice, will foon be able to judge, from the quality of the iron, how much a (hoe, in fitting it to the circumference of the hoof, will ftretch by hammering when it is almoft cold : this operation, in fitting flat (hoes, will be the lefs difficult, efpecially when it is confidered, that as there are no inequalities on the furface of the hoof (or at lead ought not to be) which require to be bended thereto, (hoes of this kind only require to be made ftpooth and flat; hence they will preis equally upon the circumference or cruft of the hoof, which is the natural tread of a horfe.” SHOOTING, in the military art. See Artillery, Gunnery, and Projectiles. Shooting, in fportmanlhip, the killing of game by the gun, with or without the help of dogs. Whether the game be flying, or on a hedge or tree, always endeavour to fhoot as near as you pofiibly can with the wind, and rather fidewife or behind the fowl than in their face ; nor (hoot at a fingle bird, if you can compafs more within your level. If they be on a tree, hedge, or the ground, feek out for the moft convenient (belter you can, of a hedge, bank, tree, &c. that you may be concealed from the fight of the fowl ; and being within Ihot, and having a fair mark, lofe no time, but let fly. If dogs are ufed, we put them on the hunt by whiftling or hying-on (as the term is) : it is necef¬ fary to obferve the motions of fpaniels, for there are but few that will not give fome intimation when they come on fcent ; ufe them to come in at a (harp call, and never fuffer them to run after a bird, except it is wounded : obferve to let the dogs, whether fpa¬ niels or pointers, have the wind as much as pofiible, (that is, let them hunt againft the wind). In ufing pointers, when they are obferved drawing •on a point, and are known to be not quite (launch, call to them to take heed; and if they fpring without (landing, corre£l them (lightly with a fwitch, (peak¬ ing angrily to them, and keep them at a d’ftance the remaining part of the day ; unlefs their after-beha¬ viour deferve encouragement, when it may not be im¬ proper to take them into favour. Shorting flying, is by experience found to be the bed and moft diverting way of (hooting. It is neceflary for any gentleman who (ports much to have two guns; the barrel of one about two feet nine inches, which will ferve very well for the beginning of the feafon, and for wood-(hooting; the other about three feet three inches, for open-lhooting after Michaelmas: the birds by that time are grown (o (by, that your (hots muft; be at longer diftances. But if you intend one gun to ferve for all purpofes, then a three-feet barrel, or thereabouts, is moft proper. ‘You (hould always have it cocked in readine(s ; holding your thumb over the cock, left it (houkl go off when you would not have ir. It is generally accounted the bed way to aim at the head, if the game flies over your head ; but to aim as it were under the belly, if it flies from you ; and it will be bed to let the game fly a little pad you before you let fly, for by fo doing the (hot will the better en¬ ter the body. Shot delivered from a gun in general lofe or decreafe half the quantity every ten yards or thereabouts; fo that at forty yards there will not be thrown in above a fourth of what would be into the 40 R 2 fame Shooting. S H O [ 8148 ] S H O fame fpace at twenty yards. From which it appears, that if you take aim a foot before a crofs-fhot at forty yards, you will be the mo ft likely to meet the bird with the centre-fhot; and which is looked upon to fly the ftrongeft, and to be more efficacious at long di- ftances, than the diverging fhot: forjvhether it be the ffiot ftriking againft each other, or againft the air, at firft coming out of the muzzle, or whatever be the caufe of their diverging, it muft in fome degree retard their motion. But if there be a brifk wind, it will certainly bend the courfe of the fhot ; you muft there¬ fore confider whether the wind blows with the bird or againft it: if it blow with it, you need little more than to obferve the general rule, becaufe the wind helps the bird forward nearly as much as it diverts the fhot; but if it fly againft the wind, the fhot will de¬ cline more than the bird is retarded, and therefore you ought to take aim at a greater diftance before the bird. One good pointer in the field at a time, if you have patience to attend him, will be fufficient for two men to fhoot with ; but if you have an old fpringing fpaniel, that is fo well under command that you can always keep him near you, fuch a dog may be ufed with your pointer with great advantage ; as he will better find birds that are wounded, and alfo fpring fuch as are near you, which youotherwife might pafs. But if you fhould be fond of hunting many pointers together in 3 field, as is frequently done, you fhould cot have more than one amongft them, who has been taught to fetch his game, left, by endeavouring to get it from each other, they fhould tear if. Partridge-Shooting. The feafon for this fport be¬ gins, by aft of parliament, on the ifl of Septem¬ ber, and ends the 12th of February ; and which, on account of the cleannefs, little fatigue, and more cer¬ tain diverfion than any other, by their being found in coveys, and taking fhort flights, is generally efleemed the genteeleft and beft fport we have.—In the begin¬ ning of the feafon, they haunt the wheat, barley,, oat, peafe and bean-ftubbles ; but the wheat-vetch is their favourite: they alfo lie in turnips, clover-feed, and on fallow-land} and indeed, at times, they are found any where. The moft proper dog for partridge-fhooting, is the pointer, a dog extremely well calculated for the fport; as partridges can feldom or ever be feen on the ground, if the ftubble, &c. be but three or four inches high : if the pointer be ftaunch, and have a, good nofe, he will feidom pafs, in common fields, within 40 yards of a covey, without intimating by a point pretty near the exadt line they lie In.. Two perfons in the field with guns are better than more at partridge fhooting, who fhould with patience pay a due attention to^ach other. Obferve, after a fire, never to blow through the bar¬ rel, but charge again immediately, while the infide of the barrel is hot and dry; by this method of imme¬ diate charging, a gun feldom hangs fire, and carries much fmarter and better: there is no occafion to wipe either pan or flint while out, (if the flint is good, which, by the bye, it always fhould be) ; but on re¬ turning home, wipe clean with tow, or linen rags, both out and infide of the barrel, and alfo the lock, from the foil of the powder j when it is thus cleaned, hang it up, and, if it can be fo ordered, where a con- Shoot! llant winter fire is kept, hanging it at a moderate diftance from the fire: the powder-flafk fhould a!£o be kept in the fame degree of warmth in winter-time ; if the gun has received any rain or wet, let it be wiped thoroughly dry, and ftand fome time near a fire, to dry any remaining damp, and have a little oil rubbed over it before hanging up. When your dog points, walk up without any hurry, feparating a few yards, one to the right and the other to tho left of your dog : if a covey fprings, never fhoot into the midft of them,, but let him on the left fingle out a bird which flieth to the left, and him oir the right a bird to the right, that you may not in¬ terrupt each other nor both fhoot at the fame bird, and readily let fly at the firft aim. Let each of you mark the fall of his bird, and immediately run to the place; and if the dog does not fecure.it, or the bird fhould be only wounded and have run, put him upon the feent; but if your dog underftands his bufinefs, and will fetch his game, it is better to truft to him, and load again as quick as you can. It will always be of great ufe, and fave much time and trouble, to have a perfon without a gun to mark the flight of the birds. If a fingle bird be fprung, let him take the fhoot to whofe fide it flies : the bird being killed, caufe your dog to lie by it whilft you load, left he fpring other birds that are near you. If you trace the birds to a hedge, double the row by walking one on each fide, taking your dog on the ditch fide : here if you have a fpaniel, he will be of great ufe ; as you may make him go along in the ditch, and your pointer on the other fide; by which means you will not pafs a bird, and one of you will moft likely get a good fhoot at it. Your own judg¬ ment, with very little experience, will beft dife& where the birds are moft likely to be found at different times- of the day, according to the grounds you have to hunt in. Pheafant and Woodcock Shooting. Pfaeafants and woodcocks generally lie in carrs or woods where there is much cover. Spaniels are therefore the dogs moft proper for tjiis kind of fhooting. Some pointers in¬ deed, that are bold-fpirited and have been a great deal ufed to this work, will follow a pheafant very well; but from the generality of flow ftaunch pointera a pheafant will get off fo fall, as, when fprung, to be out of the reach of gun-fhot ; befides, they are not hardy enough to go into thick cover. The fpaniels proper for this work are of a middling fize, their legs rather fhort and very ftrong : they muft be hardy, able to bear great fatigue, difpofed to go into cover freely and undaunted, to hunt very brifkly, and yet go very flow when upon feent of game. You cannot begin too early with thefe dogs to teach them to fetch a bird and bring it after you; which will prevent their getting a habit of tearing or breaking the game. One of fhis kind muft be always obliged to lie down whilft you load : and as his bufi¬ nefs is to fpring game, you fhould never fuffer him to go above ten or fifteen yards from you; and therefore take him out with others that are brought under com¬ mand as foon as he is able to hunt. For to have good fpaniels, they muft be ufed a great deal. If you find any difficulty in keeping him to hunt near y°,J> S H O t 8149 ] S H O /Shooting, you, put one of his feet into his collar, and hunt him Br—: fo for arf hour or two. Frequent repetitions of this piinifhment will bring him to a fenfe of his duty. One, two, or three brace of fpaniels well broken, may be ufed together; and they will find work enough in a large wood or thick cover. If two perfons intend hunting in a wood, it is beft for one to go round it on the outfide firft, whiift the other goes oppofite to him a little way into the wood, and afterwards to fink in deeper as you {hall find occafion, unlefs you know the molt likely part to'find game in; in which cafe you may hunt the interior part firft. Some perfons, when they want to hunt a very large wood, approve of taking a brace of high-mettled fpaniels that have not been broken, to hunt clofe, and turn them into the middle of the wood ; whiift they with their well- broken fpaniels hunt outwards. But unlefs you have any extenfive woods to hunt, fuch dogs are more likely to hinder than add to your fport; and it will be bet¬ ter to hunt with patience with only fuch dogs as are under good command, let the woods or cover be ever ' fo large. 1. Pheafant-Shooting begins, by a& of parlia¬ ment, on ‘the ill of October, and lafts till the ift of February. Thefe birds afford very pretty fport, though far more fatiguing and tirefome than part ridge-fhooting ; owing to the bufhes, briars, and other difagreable cir- ‘•cumftances of the woods.—In hunting them, keep as near the dogs as poffible; and when they fpring, one or more, let fuch only fire at the bird as to whom, in point of rifing, it belongs; which rule fhould be always obferved in all forts of {hooting in company. In phea¬ fant-(hooting, the trees frequently interfere, therefore forbear firing till you have a clear aim at the bird; which, if it cannot be had, it is better to let him efcape for another chance. 2. Woodcock Shooting generally begins towards the latter end of November; they are birds of pafiage, and come over to us in flights in the night-time, about the full of the moon: the fiift flight, which is fome- times in O&ober, is commonly very fcanty; but they continue coming over, more or lefs, every moon, till w February; confequently it will generally be found they are in greater plenty towards the latter end of the win¬ ter ; thbugh this is no abfolute rule, as they are very irregular with regard to number in their coming over; fometimes the firft or fecond flight being the largeft we have through the winter, and the others very trifling; they remain with us generally till the middle or latter end of March. Their haunts are chiefly in the fprings and bogs, in woods and coppices; and in the beginning of the win¬ ter, before the leaves are well off, they prefer the out- parts of the woods. For fpringing them, therefore, fpaniels are ufed, as already mentioned. A woodcock is a very tender bird ; and being a large mark, affords eafy, pretty fliooting, where a per- fon has got the art of {hooting flying tolerably well; but it frequently occurs that the bird rifes in a perpen¬ dicular line, which is the moft difficult (hot that is. In this cafe, an experienced fportfman will find it more advifeable to forbear firing (if opportunity will allow) till the bird has arrived at the height of the perpendi- eular, and flies offward j but as a ftwt will be often loft by this delay, the good markfman fliould never wait it, Shooting. except he judges the fhot will be- better. Snipe Shooting. The fnipe, like the woodcock, is a bird of paffage; they begin coming over to us about the middle or latter end of Oftober, and remain with us pretty forward in the fpring. They frequent, like the woodcock, the fprings, bogs, and marfhy places; but with this difference, that the cock feeks thefe in- cover, and the fnipe in the open clear parts, as fields and com¬ mon. Snipes afford as pretty fport, to a good markfman, as any bird whatfoever ; though they are very quick fliers, yet are very tender, and will fall almoft at the bare report of the gun. We fpring fnipes either with fpaniels, or by making a flight (harp kind of noife about the places where w£ know they haunt: they moftly fly dire&Iy againft the wind, (if there is any material air ftirring), and a (hot after them is the beft and moft fure : the flant and crofs {hots are rather difficult,as they are a fmall mark, and fly exceeding quick.—For practice in this, which is very nice, fwallow-flvooting may be ufed in fummer to advantage. Of Water-fowl Shooting. In fhooting water-fowl, as geefe, ducks, widgeons, &c. we ufe the longeft killing gun, and as large {hot as the n° 1 or 2. The proper dog is the rough, curled, water fpaniel, of which the white fort are commonly the beft. They fliould be under the ftricleft command f be ready at fetching any thing out of the water, without biting it; and catching what is only wounded ; (hould be ufed, on oecafion, to creep quiet and clofe behind the ma¬ iler’s heel. The fowl may either be {hot fwimming, or, which is better, taken on the wing; as in the water they are ftrongly guarded by the clofe lying of their wings and feathers; therefore, if a perfon is a good markfman, it will be always beft to fpring them firft. The beft place to throw the fhot, if opportunity will allow, is under the wing, as that is by much the ten- dcreft place; and the worfe of all is the breaft, as the feathers here lie extremely thick and clofe. Fen Shooting. In this fport we ufe in general the n° 3 {hot, which will ferve as well for the bittern and curlew, as the plover. One or two fteady water or land fpaniels may be ufed; and it will be always beft to fpring the birds before firing. Upland Winter Shooting. Our common field-flioot- ing is generally beft in frofty weather, and when the ground has a tolerable cover of fnow. The moft com¬ mon birds in this fport are, different forts of wild pi¬ geons, fieldfares, Itariings, redwings, &c. In this diverfion we ufe no dog; and the fewer {hooters toge¬ ther the better. The feveral kinds of require the n0 3 {hot, as being ftrong birds; and may be either taken on the wing, or as they perch on a tree; but the rock-pi¬ geons are beft, in general, taken on the wing; how¬ ever, it fometimes happens that a {hot at them fitting is more proper; in this diferetion mult diredt. The fieldfare is a very common bird: it feems to de¬ light molt in large clofe orchards; but in hard wea¬ ther, in the fields; they frequent the haw bulhes, and afford very pretty diverfion. Though they are natu¬ rally very wild, yet, when a hard froft is fet in, there S H O [ 8150 ] S H O Shooting i'g no difficulty in getting within 40 yards of them, at Shore t’me are ^een^y engagcd on their feeding bufh: here they will fit 40 or 50 fometimes together. The pro¬ per way of managing this kind of fhooting is, if poffible, to fecrete behind a bufh, or in a hedge, within fhot of one of the bufhesthey frequent: when a fufficient num¬ ber (as the perfon may judge) are together, to fire at them as they fit; what are killed fhould be taken up, and the fhooter replace himfelf as before: in a quarter of an hour, or lefs, more will probably be on the bufh; and he may often go on fhooting in the fame place all the while they are on their feed, which is from a little after fun-rife till 11 or 12 o’clock ; and in the after¬ noon they go on again, about an hour before fun-fet.; but fuch fport as this mull be expe&ed only where fieldfares are in great plenty. Starlings afford tolerable diverfion in fhooting. In winter they, for the moft part, go in flocks from 20 to 50; they delight chiefly to be in moift paftures among cattle, and fometimes fit fo clofe together on the ground, that a perfon may kill 25 or 30 at a fhot. Taking thefe oo the ground, or wing, may be left at the dif- cretion of the fhooteV; but the wing will be beft pre¬ ferred: what are fhot, fhould have their heads imme¬ diately pulled off, which, by their bleeding, prevents a bitternefs of tafle they would otherwife have. Ufe for thefe and fieldfares the n° 4 fhot.—-In fhooting larks in flocks, ufe the n° 5 fhot; and make it a rule always to take them on the wing. Here it will be ad- •vifeable to have the gun fcatter more than common: And in order to do this, put in an equal quantity of -{hot, fuppofing the ufual charge to be three parts fhot to two of powder; but if the gun, in common, carries an equal quantity of each, then it will be neceffary to put in only about three parts of fhot to four of powder: and in fhooting any of the fmaller birds in flocks, this rule of charging fhould be obferved. SHOP lifters, are thofe that deal goods privately ©ut of fhops; which being to the value of 5s. though4 no perfon be in the fhop, is felony excluded clergy, by the 10 and 11 W. III. c. 23. SHORE, a place wafhed by the fea, or by fome large river. Count Marfigli divides the' fea-fhore into three por¬ tions: the firft of which is that track of land which rhe fea juft reaches in ftormsand high tides, but which it never covers ; the fecond part of the fhore, is that which is covered in high tides and ftorms, but is dry at other times; and the third is the defcent from this, which is always covered with water. See Sea. The firft part is only a continuation of the conti¬ nent, and fufFers no alteration from the neighbourhood of the fea, except that it is rendered fit for the growth of fome plants, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the faline fleams and impregnations: and it is fcarce to be conceived by any, but thofe who have obferved it, how far on land the effefcts of the fea reach, fo as to make the earth proper for plants which will not grow without this influence; there beingfeveral plant.s frequently found on high hills and dry places, at three, four, and more miles from the fea, which yet would not grow unlefs in the heighbourhood of it, nor will ever be found elfewhere. The fecond part or portion of the (hore is much more affe&ed by the fea than the former, being fre¬ quently wafhed and beaten by it. Its produ&Ions are rendered fait by the water, and is covered with fand, or with the fragments of fhells in form of fand, and in fome places with a tartarous matter depofited from the water; the colour of this whole extent of ground .is ufuatly dufky and dull, efpecially where there are rocks and .ftones, and thefe covered with a flimy mat¬ ter. The third part of the fhore is more affe&ed by the fea than either of the others; and is covered with an uniform cruft of the true nature of the bottom of the fea, except that plants and animals have their refidence in it, and the decayed parts of thefe alter it a little. SHORE (Jane), the celebrated concubine of the licentious king Edward IV. was the wife of Mr Mat¬ thew Shore, a goldfmith in Lombard-ftreet, London. •Kings are feldom unfuccefsful in their amorous pur- fuits : therefore there was nothing wonderful in Mrs Shore’s removing from Lombard-ftreet to fhine at court as the royal favourite. Hiftorians reprefent her as extremely beautiful, remarkably cheerful, and of moft uncommon generofity. The king, it is faid, was no lefs captivated with her temper than with her per¬ fon;; flie never made ufe of her influence over him to the prejudice of any perfon; and if ever flie importu¬ ned him, it was in favour of the unfortunate. After the death of Edward, flie attached herfelf to the lord Haftings; and when Richard III. cut ofi" that noble¬ man as an obftacle to his ambitious fchemes, Jane Shore was arrefted as an accomplice, on the ridiculous accufation of witchcraft. This, however, terminated only in a public penance; excepting that Richard ri¬ fled her of all her little property: but whatever feverity might have been cxercifed towards her, it appears that {he was alive, though fufficiently wretched, under the reign of Henry VIII. when Sir Thomas More faw her poor, old, and ihrivelled, without the lead trace of her former beauty. Mr Rowe, in his tragedy of Jane Shore, has adopted the popular ftory related in the old hiftorical ballad, of her perifhing by hunger in a ditch where Shoreditch now ftands. But Stow allures us that ftreet was fo named before her time. SHORLING and Morling, are words to diftin- guifh fells of flieep ; jhorling being the fells after the fleeces are {horn off the flieep’s back; and morling, the fells flead off after they die or are killed. In fome parts of England they underftand by a Jhorling, a (beep whofe face is {horn off; and by a morling, a iheep that dies. SHORT-hand Writing. See Stenographt. Short-Sigbtednefs, a certain defeat in vifion, by which objects cannot be diftin&ly feen unlefs they are very near the eye. See Medicine, n° 179. and Op¬ tics, n° 123. SHOT, a denomination given to all forts of balls for fire-arms; thofe for cannon being of iron, and thofe for guns, piftols, &c. of lead. Small Shot, or that ufed for fowling, fhould be well fized, and of a moderate bignefs: for ftiould it be too great, then it flies thin, and fcatters too much; or if too fmall, then it hath not weight and ftrength to pene¬ trate far, and the bird is apt to fly away with it. la order, therefore, to have it fuitable to the occafion, it not being always to be had every place fit for the purpofe> we {hall fet down the true method of making ■Shot. S H O [ 81 all forts and fizes under-the name of rnould-fliot. Its “principal good properties are to be round and folid. Take any quantity of lead you think fit, and melt it down in an iron vefl'el; and as it melts keep it ftir- ring with an iron ladle, fkimming off all impurities whatfoever that may arife at the top: when it begins to look of a greenifh colour, ftrew on it as much auri- pigmentum, or yellow orpiment finely powdered, as will lie on a (hilling, to every 12 or 14 pound of lead; then ftirring them together, the orpiment will flame. The ladle (hould have a notch on one fide of the brim, for the eafier pouring out the lead; the ladle mull remain in the melted lead, that its heat may be agreeable to that of the lead, to prevent inconveniences which otherwife may happen by its being either too hot or too cold : then, to try your lead, drop a little of it into the water, which if the drops prove round, *then the temper of heat is right; if otherwife, and the (hot have tails, then add more orpiment to increafe the heat, till it be found right. Then take a plate of copper, about the bignefs of a trencher, which mull be made with a hollownefs in the middle, about three inches compafs, within which mud be bored about 40 holes according to the fize of the (hot which you intend to caft : the hollow bottom fhould be thin; but the thicker the brim, the better it will retain the heat. Place this plate on a frame of iron, over a tub or veffel of water, about four inches from the water, and fpread burning coals on the plate, to keep the lead melted upon it: then take fome lead and pour it gently on the coals on the plate, and it will make its way through the holes into the water, and form itfelf into (hot; do thus till all your lead be run through the holes of the plate, taking care, by keeping your coals alive, that the lead do not cool, and fo ilop up the holes. While you are cafting in this manner, another per- fon with another ladle may catch fome of the (hot, placing the ladle four or five inches underneath the plate in the water, by which means you will fee if they are defe&ive, and reftify them. Your chief care is to keep the lead in a juft degree of heat, that it be not fo cold as to (lop up the holes in your plate, nor fo hot as to caufe the (hot to crack: to remedy the heat, you muft refrain working till it is of a proper coolnefs; and to remedy the coolnefs of your lead and plate, you muft blow your fire; ob- ferving, that the cooler your lead is, the larger will be your (hot; as the hotter it is, the fmaller they will be. After you have done cafting, take them out of the water, and dry them over the fire with a gentle heat, ftirring them continually that they do not melt; when dry, you are to feparate the great (hot from the fmall, by the help of a fieve made for that purpofe, accor¬ ding to their feveral fizes. But thofe who would have very large (hot, make the lead trickle with a dick out of the ladle into the water, without the plate. If it (lop on the plate, and yet the plate be not too cool, give but the plate a little knock, and it will run again ; care mull be had that none of your imple¬ ments be greafy, oily, or the like ; and when the (hot, being feparaled, are found too large or too fmall for your purpofe, or otherwife imperfed, they will ferve again at the next operation. The fizes of (l>ot for fowling are from N°i to 6, and 51 ] . . S H R fmaller, which is called mujiard-feed, or dufl-Jhot; but N° 5 is fmall enough for any (hooting whatfoever. The N° 1 may be ufed for wild-geefe; the N° 2 for ducks, widgeons, and other water-fowl ; the N° 3 for phea- fants, partridges after the firll month, and all the fen- fowl ; the N° 4 for partridges, woodcocks, &c.; and the N° 5 for fnipes and all the fmaller birds. GrapeSaor. See Grape-We/. Tin-cafe Shot, in artillery, is formed by putting a great quantity of fmall iron (hot into a cylindrical tin-box called a cannifler, that juft fits the bore of the gun. Leaden bullets are fometimes ufed in the fame manner; and it muft be obferved, that whatever num¬ ber or fizes of the (hots are ufed, they muft weigh with their cafes nearly as much as the (hot of the piece. Crf/e Shot, formerly confided of all kinds of old iron, nails, mufket-balls, Hones, &c. ufed as above. SHOVEL (Sir Cloudefley), a brave Englifh ad¬ miral, meanly born in 1650. He went to fea a cabin- boy under Sir Chriftopher Mynus; and foon becoming an able feaman, diftinguilhed himfelf by his courage and condudl at Tripoli under Sir John Narborough, whofe widow he afterward married. King William knighted, and made him an admiral. He had a great fhare of the glory in the battles of Bantry bay, La Hogue, Malaga, and at the liege of Barcelona. After the unfuccefsful attempt upon Toulon, he was cad away on his return home, upon the rocks of Scilly ; being then rear-admiral of England, admiral of the white, commander in chief of the queen’s fleet, and one of the council to prince George of Denmark as lord high-admiral of England. SHOVELER, in ornithology, a fpeciesof Anas. SHOWER, in meteorology, a cloud condenfed in¬ to Rain. SHREWMOUSE. See Sorex. SHREWSBURY, the capital of Shropfhire in England. This town, the metropolis of the county:, grew up out of the ruins of Uriconium, anciently a city, now a village called Wroxeter about four miles from it. The Saxons called it Scrobbes-Berig, from the fhrubs that grew about it; and from thence the prefent name of Shrew/bury is fuppofed.to have been formed. It is pleafantly fituated upon a hill near the Severn, over which there are two handfome bridges. It was a place of good note in the Saxon times; after which it was granted by William the Conqueror, to¬ gether with the title of earl and mod of the county, to Roger de Montgomery, who built a caftle upon the north fide of it, where the Severn, that encompafles it on all fides,, leaves an opening. His fon Robert built alfo a wall acrofs this neck, of land, when he revolted from Henry L We learn from doomfday book, that at that time, when a widow of this town married, (he paid 20 (hillings to the king, and a virgin 13. The abovementioned Roger founded alfo,, and endowed here, a Benedidline monaftery,.and a collegiate church. When old age came upon him,, he quitted the world, and fpent the reft of his days as a monk in the abbey, and, when he died, was interred in its church. From the hiftory of this church and monaftery, it appears, that ecclefiaftical benefices about that time were here¬ ditary. The abbey became fo rich afterwards, that the abbot was mitred, and (at in parliament. Befidea this abbey, in after-times there were three others, viz. Shot Shrewfbury S H R [ 8152 ] S H R ShreVvfbary a Francifcan, Dominican, and Auguftin, and like- SlJine W'^e two co^eS*atc churches ; one dedicated to St 1_ Chad, and the other to St Mary. In the contefl between the emprefs Maud and Stephen, this town, and its governor William Fitz-AUan, fided with the the emprefs. In Henry III.’s time, a part of it was burnt down by the Welch ; and in Richard II.’s reign a parliament was held in it. At a place called Battlefield, near this town, Henry Percy the younger, furnamed Hotfpur, was killed in an engagement with Henry IV. againll whom he had rebelled. The king afterwards built a chapel upon the fpot, and fettled two mafs-priefts to pray for the fouls of the flain. Two of Edward IV.’s fons were born here ; namely, Richard, ftyled duke ofTork, whom Perkin Warbeck afterwards perfonated, and who was murdered in the Tower ; and George Plantagenet, who died before his brothers. Here firft broke out the fweating-ficknefs, which carried off great numbers fo fuddenly, that thofe who were feized with it either died or recovered in the fpace of 24 hours. In the beginning of the civil wars king Chaales I. came hither, and formed an ,army, with which he marched towards London ; but was met by the parliament’s forces at Edgehill. He continued here from the 20th of September to the 12th of October.; during which time he was joined by prince Rupert, and many of the gentry and nobi¬ lity of thefe parts. This town anciently gave title of earl to the Montgomeries, and afterwards to the Tal¬ bots, by whom it is (till retained. Here is a free grammar-fehool, with three mailers, and feveral ufhers, well endowed by Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth, and not inferior to many colleges in the univerfities. It has a good library and chapel, and there are feve¬ ral fcholarlhips appropriated to it in the univerfity of Cambridge. Here are alfo feveral hofpitals, alms- houfes, and charity fchools. This town is one of the moft flourilhing in England, having two great weekly markets, for corn, cattle, and provifions; and another for Welch cottons and flannels, of which great quan¬ tities are fold. A great trade is carried on with the Welch, who bring their commodities hither, as to the common mart of both nations. The town is large and well built, and the fituation extremely pleafant. There is a very beautiful walk called the quarry, between the town-walls and the Severn, delightfully fliaded with rows of lime-trees, fo that it is not inferior to the Mall in St James’s Park. The town is alfo noted for its gallantry and politenefs, being full of gentry, and for whom there are always balls and aflemblies once a-week all the year round. Here is a fine houfe and gardens which belonged to the earl of Bradford; and in the neighbourhood, at Wroxeter, the Roman high¬ way, called Watling-Jlreet, may be feen for feveral miles, where Roman coins are frequently found. In Shrewlbury are 12 incorporated trading-companies; and the corporation has a power to try even capital caufes of itfelf, except high-treafon. Thigh-bones of dead men have been found here a yard long, and teeth three inches round and three long. Shrewsbury (earl of). See Talbot. SHRIKE, a fpecies of Lanius. SHRIMP, in ichthyology. See Squilla. SHRINE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a cafe or box t* hold the relics of fome faint. SHROPSHIRE, a county of England, bounded Shroptbi on the fouth by Worcefterfhire, Herefordfhire, and shr0V! Radnorfliire ; on the north, by Chefhire ; on the eaft, by Staffordfhire ; on the well, by Montgomeryfhire and i Denbighfhire, in Wales. Its length is between 30 j and 40 miles, its breadth about 30, and its circum¬ ference about 134. It is an inland county, of an al- ] moft circular form; andcontains 890,000 acres, 139,009 t inhabitants, and 15 hundreds, in which are 170 pa- riflies and 15 market-towns. It makes a part of . three bifhoprics, viz. Herefordfhire, Coventry and j Litchfield, and St Afaph. Some part of it lies on , the north, and fome on the fouth fide of the Severn. Befides the Severn, it is alfo watered by the Tifidiane, ’ or Fafidiane, as it is called in Welch, which flows from ; the mountainsof Radnorfhire; and by theTern, which has its rife and name from one of thofe pools called tearnet in Staffordfhire. All thefe abound with fifh, efpecially j trouts, pikes, lampreys, graylings, carp, and eels. ; The air, efpecially upon the hills, with which the county abounds, is very wholefdme. There is as great a diverfity of foil, as in moft other counties. On the : hills, where it is poor, is very good'Jsafture for fheep; , and in the low grounds, where it is very rich, along ’ the Severn in particular, there is plenty of grafs for hay and black cattle, with all forts of corn. No county is better provided with fuel than this, having j in it many inexhauftible pits of coal; and alfo mines of lead and iron. Over moft of the coal-pits in this county lies a ftratum or layer of blackifh porous rock, of which, by grinding and boiling, they make pitch and tar, which are rather better than the common fort for caulking (hips, as they do not crack, but always continue clofe and fmooth. Quarries of lime-ftone and iron-ftone are common enough in the county ; and the foil in many places is a reddifh clay. As it lies upon the borders of Wales, it was anciently full of caftles and walled towns. On the fide next that coun¬ try there was an almoft continued line of caflles,. to guard the county againft the inroads and depredations of the Welch. The borders here, as thofe between England and Scotland, were called marches, and there were certain noblemen intitled barones marchLs, mar- chiones de niarchia Walliye, “ lords marchers, or mar- quiffes of the marches of Wales,” who were vefted with a fort of palatine juritdidion, held courts of ju- ftice to determine controverfies, and enjoyed many privileges and immunities, the better to enable and encourage them to protect the county againft the in- curfions of the Welch, and to maintain order amongft the borderers; but they often abufed their power, and were the greateft of tyrants. As to the ecclefiaftical government of the county, the far greater part, namely, all that belongs to the biflioprics of Hereford, and of Litchfield and Coven¬ try, is under the jurifdi&ion and vifitation of the arch¬ deacon of Shrewlbury or Salop, and is divided into feveral deaneries. The Oxford circuit includes in it this county, which fends 12 members to parliament, viz. two for the (hire, and two for each of the following towns, Shrewfbury, Ludlow, Wenlock, and Bilhop’s Caftle. SHROVE-Tuesday, is the Tuefday after Quin- quagefima fimday, or the day immediately preceding the firft Lent j being fo called from the Saxon word Jhrive, S I A [ 8153 ] SIB Sljrouds Jhrive, which fignifies to confsfs, as having been em- 6 s. 8 d. a month to live upon in his abfence, Other- I ,11 ployed by the peopldfin the time of Popery in con- wife (he may take another hufband at the year’s end. I"513111' feffing their fins in order to receive the facrament, and And here it muft be noted, that women are never the ' thereby qualify themfelves for a more religious obfer- worfe efteemed for having been married to foreigners, vation of Lent. The natives of both fexes go bare-headed, and cut SHROUDS, (fcrud Sax.) a range of large ropes their hair fo as to leave it two inches long, and then extending from the mail-heads to the right end they gum it, and comb it upwards ; fo that it looks left fide of the fhip, to fupport the mails and enable rather like bridles than hair, and makes their heads them to carry fail, &c. feem very large. They are well fhaped, and have a The fhrouds as well as the fails are detetmined large forehead, with a little nofe, and a handfome from the mads to which they belong. Thus they mouth, with plump lips, and black fparkling eyes, are the main, fore, and mizen (hrouds; the main-tcp- The lappits of their ears are thick, and the men mad, fore-top-roaft, or mizen top-mail-flirouds; and the have but little hair on their chins. The men are of main-top-gallant, fore-top-gallant, or mizen-top-gal- an olive complexion ; but the women are of a draw- lant (hrouds.—The number of fhrouds by which a colour, and very prolific. Even the courtiers have mad is fudained, as well as the fize of rope of which nothing but a cloth which reaches from the waid to they are formed, is always in proportion to the fize the middle of the thigh, and a fort of a waidcoat of the mad and the weight of the fail it is intended made of muflin, with a cap upon their head covered to carry. See Mast and Sail. with muflin, and terminating in a point. The cloth SHRUB, in botany,aplantwhichrifes with awoody that the men wrap about their middles is brought durable dem, to a height fuperior to that of under- round between their legs, and turned into their girdles fhrubs, inferior to that of trees. behind: but that of the women hangs down a little SHUTTLE, in the manufa&ures, an inflrument below their knees; and they cover their breads with much ufed by weavers, in the middle of which is an another cloth, throwing the ends over their (boulder; eye or cavity, wherein is inclofed the fpoul with the the red; of their bodies is quite naked, nor have they woof. any covering on their heads : this mud be underdood SIALOGOGUES, medicines which promote the of the better fort; for the common people of both falivary difcharge. fexes go quite naked, except a covering for thofe parts SIAM, a kingdom of Afia in the Ead Indies, which decency requires them to hide. They however bounded on the north by Laos; on the ead, by Cam- adorn themfelves with rings, bracelets, and pendants, bays and Keo ; on the fouth, by a gulph of the fame The general do&rine of this country is the tranfmi- name ; and on the wed, by the peninfula of Malacca, gration of the foul. It is about 550 miles in length from north to fouth, SIBERIA, a very large country of Afia, extending and 250 in breadth where it is broaded. In the rainy along all the northern part of the continent from the feafon the rice-fields and meadows are overflowed in northern confines of Tartary quite to the Frozen Sea. fuch a manner as to render them very fruitful. The At what time this country was firft inhabited, or city of Siam dands on an ifland made by the river, in by whom it was peopled, we are entirely ignorant, a low country, and is as fruitful as any fpot of ground The Ruffians, from whom we have received our know- in the world; for it produces rice, feveral kinds of ledge, knew nothing of it before the middle of the pulfe, many fruits and roots, with wild and tame 16th century. In the reign of John Bafilowitz I. in¬ cattle, and the river abounds in many forts of excellent deed,an incurfion had been made into Siberia,and fome fi(h. The city is about ten miles in circumference ; Tartar tribes fubdued: but thefe conqueds were not and there are many canals from the river, which crofs permanent; and we hear of no further communication the town feveral ways. The walls are high and thick, between Ruffia and Siberia till the time of John Ba- and are condrufted of brick and done; but the houfes, filowitz II. It was opened again at that time by though large, are low, and built on dakes driven into means of one Anika Strogonoff, a Ruffian merchant the ground, about ten or twelve feet high. The king who had edablidied fome falt-works at a town in the has three palaces ; and there are many large temples, government of Archangel. This man carried on a well adorned and decorated with gilded images, trade with the inhabitants of the north-wed parts of The women in Siam are the only merchants in buying Siberia, who brought every year to the town above¬ goods, and generally maintain their hufbands with mentioned, large quantities of the fined furs. Thus their traffic. The Europeans while at Siam accom- he acquired a very confiderable fortune in a (hort time; modate themfelves with temporary wives ; for the when at lad the czar, perceiving the advantages which women are very fond of foreigners, and they agree would accrue to his fubje&s from having a regular With each other in the prefence of their neared friends intercourfe with Siberia, determined to enlarge the and relations, and then it is a lawful marriage for the communication which was already opened. With this time agreed upon. Thefe wives are very obliging, and view he fent into Siberia a body of troops, who crofled take the whole management of the houfehold-affairs the Yugorian mountains which form part of the into their own hands. They buy provifions, drefsthe north-eadern boundary of Europe. They feem, how- vidtualf, and take care of the deaths, wadiing and ever, not to have pafled the Irtidi, or to have penetrated mending them. If their hulbands have any goods to further than the wedern branch of the river Oby. fell, they fet up a (hop, and diipofe of them by retail, Some Tartar tribes were laid under contribution, and which is of more advantage than felling them by a chief named Tediger confented to pay an annual 'wholefale. If the hufband leaves the kingdom, and tribute of a thoufand fables. But this produced n® is willing to continue the marriage, he leaves her about la-ding advantage to Ruffia; for, foon after, Yediger Voju X. 1 40 S wag Siberia. SIB [ 8154 ] SIC -Sjbem, was defeated and taken prifoner by Kutchum Khan, Sit)yls- 3 defcendant of the Great Jenghiz Khan: and thus the allegiance of this country to Ruffia wasdiffolved. For fome time we hear of no further attempts made by the Ruffians on Siberia ; but in 1577 the founda¬ tion of a permanent conqueft was laid by one Yefmac Temofeeff, a Coffac of the Don. This man was at fjrfl the head of a party of banditti who infefted the Ruffians in the province of Cafan ; but being defeated by the troops of the czar, he retired with 6000 of bis followers into the interior parts of that province. Continuing his courfe ftill eaftward, he came to Orel, the moft eafterly of all the Ruffian fettlements. > Here be took up his winter-quarters : but his reftltfs genius did not fuffer him to continue for any length of time in a ftate of ina&ivity ; and from the intelligence he pro¬ cured concerning the fituation of the neighbouring Tartars of Siberia, he turned his arms toward that quarter. Siberia was at that time partly divided among a number of feparate princes, and partly inhabited by the various tribes of independent Tartars. Of the former Kutchum Khan was the moft powerful fo- vereign. His dominions confifted of that traft of country which now forms the fouth-weftern part of the province of Tobolflt; and ftretched from the banks of the Irtiffi and Oby to thofe of the Tobol and Tura. His principal refidence was at Sibir, a fmall for- trefs upon the river Irtifti, not far from the prefent town of Tobolfk, and of which fome ruins are ftill to be feen. After a courfe of unremitted fatigue, and a feries of viftories which almoft exceed belief, but of which we have not room to give the detail, our in¬ trepid adventurer difpofleffed this prince of his domi¬ nions, and feated himfclf on the throne of Sibir. The number of his followers, however, being greatly reduced, and perceiving he could not depend on the affedion of his new fiibjeds, he had recourfe to the czar of Mufcovy, and made a tender of his new ac- quifitions to that monarch, upon condition of receiving immediate and effedual fupport. This propofal was received with the greateft fatisfadion by the czar ; who granted him a pardon for all former offences, and fcnt him the required fuccours. Yermac, however, being foon after drowned in an unfuccefsful excurfion, the Ruffians began to lofe their footing in the country. But freffi reinforcements being feafonably fent, they not only recovered their ground, but puffied their conquefts far and wide; wherever they appeared, the Tartars were either reduced or exterminated. New towns were built, and colonies were planted on all fides. Before a century had well elapfed, all that vaft trad of coun¬ try now called Siberia, which ftretches from the con¬ fines of Europe to the Eaftern Ocean, and from the Frozen Sea to the prefent frontiers of China, was an¬ nexed to the Ruffian dominions. For an account of the climate, foil, and produce. Sec. of this vaft region, fee the articles Kamtchatka and Tartary. SIBYLS, in pagan antiquity, certain women faid to have been endowed with a prophetic fpirit, and to have delivered oracles for Ihowing the fates and revo¬ lutions of kingdoms, &c. The moft eminent of the ten Sibyls mentioned by the ancient writers was ffie whom the Romans called the Cwneean or Erythraean Sibyl, from her being born at Erythras in Ionia, and Sicily, removed from thence to Cumas in Italy, where (he de- livered all her oracles from a cave dug out of the main rock, according to Virgil, iEneid III. 441, &c. There is ftill preferved, in eight books of Greek verfes, a colledion of verfes pretended to have been delivered by the Sibyls : but the generality of critics look upon them as fpurious ; and it is the opinion of Prideaux that the ftory of the books of the Sibyls fold to Tarquin was a ftate-trick or fetch of politics. SICILY, a large ifland of the Mediterranean fea, lying near the coaft of Italy, between 12° and 160 E. Long, and between 370 and 390 N. Lat. being about 170 miles long and 100 broad. It is divided from Italy by the ftraits of Mtffina, reaching from the Tower of Faro, which is the moft northerly part of the ifland, to the Capo dell’ armi, or the Cape of Arms, the moft fouthern part of Calabria. Thefe > ftraits, by the Latins called FretumySicuIum, by the Italians ll Fare di Mejfma, and by us the Fare of: Mtffitta, are between 12 and 15 miles over in the broadeft places, and in the narroweft about a mile r-nd an half; infomuch that when Meffina was taken by the Carthaginians, many of the inhabitants are faid to have favtd themfelves by fwimming to the oppofite coafts of Italy. Hence has arifenan opinion that the ifland of Sicily was originally joined to the continent, but afterwards feparated by an earthquake or fome other natural caufe.. This feparation, how¬ ever, is reckoned by the moft judicious among the ancients to be fabulous^ and they content themfelves with fpeaking of it as a thing faid to have happened. Anciently this ifland was called Sicaaia, Sicilia, and Trinacria or Triquetra; the two former it had from the Sicani and Siculi, who peopled a confider- able part of the country ; the two latter from its tri¬ angular figure. Its firft inhabitants, according to the moft refpe&able. ancient authors, were the Cyclopes and Lseftrigones, who are faid to have fettled in the countries adjoining to Mount iEtna; but of their origin we know nothing, except what is related by the poets. After them came the Sicani, who called them¬ felves the original inhabitants of the country; but feve- ral ancient hiftorians inform us that they came from a country in Spain watered by the river Siconus. Diodorus, however, is of opinion, that the Sicani were the moft ancient inhabitants of this ifland. He tells us that they were in poffeffion of the whole, and applied themfelves to cultivate and improve the ground in the neighbourhood of iEtna, which was the moft fruitful part of the ifland: they built feveral fmall towns and villages on the bills to fecure therafelves- againft thieves and robbers; and were governed, not by one prince, but each city and diftrift by its own king. Thus they lived till iEtna began to throw out flames, and forced them to retire to the weftern parts of the illand, which they continued to inhabit in the time of Thucydides. Some Trojans, after the deftrudion o£ their city, landed in the ifland, fettled among the Sicani, and built the cities of Eryx and Egefta, uniting themfelves with them’, and taking the general name of Elymi or Elymsi. They were afterwards, joined by fome Phocenfes, who fettled here on their return from the fiegc of Troy. After the Sicani had for many ages enjoyed an un- difturbed SIC [ 8155 ] SIC Sicily, difturbed poffeffion of the whole of Sicily, or fuch parts of it as they chofe to inhabit, they were vifued by the Siculi, who were the ancient inhabitants of Aufonia properly fo called} but being driven out from thence by the Opici, they took refuge in the ifland of Sicily. Not being contented with the narrow bounds allowed them by the Sicani, they began to encroach upon their neighbours; upon which a war enfuing, the Sicani were utterly defeated, and confined to a corner of the ifland, the name of which was now changed from Sicania into that of Sicilia. About 300 years after the arrival of the Siculi, the ifland full began to be known to the'Greeks, who *fta- bliflied various colonies, and built many cities in diffe¬ rent parts of the ifland ; and it is only from the time of their arrival that we hare any hiftory of the ifland. The firft of the Greeks that came into Sicily were the Chalcidians of Euboea, under the condudi of Thucles, who built Naxus, and a famous altar of Apollo, which, as Thucydides tells us, was ftill (landing in his time without the city. The year after, which was, accord¬ ing to Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, the third of the 17th Olympiad, Archias the Corinthian, one of the Hera- clidse, laid the foundations of Syracufe. Seven years after, a new colony of Chalcidians founded Leontini and Catana, after having driven out the Siculi, who inhabited that traft. About the fame time Lamis, with a colony from Megara, a city of Achaia, fettled on the river Pantacius, at a place called Trotilum, where his adventurers lived fome time in common with the Chalcidians of Leontini * but, being driven from thence by the Leontines, he built the city of Thapfus, where he died. Upon his death, the colony left Thap¬ fus ; and, under the conduA of Hyblon king of the Siculi, founded Megara Hyblasa, where they refided 245 years, till they were driven out by Gelon tyrant of Syracufe. During their abode at Megara, they fent one Pamilus, ®who was come from Megara in A- chaia, their original city, to build Selinus. This city was founded about too years after the foundation of Megara. Antiphemus and Entimus, the former a Rhodian, the other a Cretan, led each a colony of their countrymen, and jointly built the city of Gela on a river of the fame name, eftablilhing in their new fettlement the Doric cuftoms, about 45 years after the founding of Syracufe. The inhabitants of Gela founded Agrigentum 108 years after their arrival in Sicily, and introduced the fame cuftoms there. A few years after, Zancle was built by the pirates of CumK in Italy; but chiefly peopled by the Chalcidians, Samians, and la- nians, who chofe rather to Peek new fettlements than live under the Petfian yoke. Some time after, Ana- xales, tyrant of Rhegium, drove out the ancient pro¬ prietors ; and, dividing his lands amongft his fol¬ lowers, called the c\\.y Mejfana or Mejfenc, which was the name of his native city in Peloponncfus. Tiie city of JBimera was founded by the Zancleans under the direAion of Eucleides, Simus, and Sacon; but peopled by the Chalcidians and fome Syracufan exiles, who had been driven out by the contrary faAion. The Syracufians built Acrae, Chafmenas, and Ca- marina ; the firft 70 years, the fecond 90, and the third 135, after the foundation of their own city. This is the account which Thucydides, a moft judi¬ cious and exaA writer, gives us of the various nations; whether Greeks or Barbarians, who fettled in Sicily. Sicily. Strabo counts among the ancient inhabitants of Sicily the Morgetes, who being driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians, fettled in that part of the ifland where the ancient city of Morgantium flood. The Campani, who afiumed the name of Mamertini, that is, in¬ vincible warrior j, and the Carthaginians, who fettled very early in Sicily, ought likewife to be counted among the ancient inhabitants of the ifland. The ifland of Sicily continued to be divided between the Greeks and Carthaginians till the wars of the lat¬ ter with the Romans, when the whole ifland was re¬ duced to a province of that republic about the year 198 B. C. The free cities in the ifland before this time, befides Syracufe, were Leontini, Agrigentum, Gsla, Meflana, Himera, Catana, iEtna, Apollonia, Selinus, Taurominium, Agyris, and Centuripe. Thefe underwent the fame vicillitudes as Syracuse; being fometimes governed by their own laws, and at other times enflaved by domeftic tyrants, till finally, fubdued by the Romans. During the time of itsfubjeAion to the Romans, Si¬ cily was not treated as the other conquered countries, but fuffered to enjoy its ancient rights and privileges. This diftinAion it well defcrved, fince the Sicilians were the firft of foreign nations that had entered into an alliance with Rome, and the firft conqueft that the republic made out of Italy. This ifland was after¬ wards a kind of pafs for their troops into Africa ; and Rome would not foeafily have reduced the formidable power of Carthage, had not Sicily ferved as a ma¬ gazine for fupplying her armies with provifions, and been a fecure retreat for her fleets. Hence Scipio A- fricanus, after having taken and deftroyed Carthage, thought himfelf obliged to adorn the cities of Sicily with fome of the richeft fpoils he had brought from Africa, that the Sicilians might have among them fome mdnuments of thofe viAories to which they had greatly contributed. About the time of the fedition of the Gracchi, a moft dangerous infurreAion of the Sicilian flaves took place on the following occafion. The beft eftates in that country were in the hands of fome rich men of the natives, and of the Roman knights (thofe opulent pub¬ licans), who, finding their account more in employing flaves than hufbandmen of free condition to cultivate the farms, had tranfported fuch multitudes of flaves thither, that the ifland fwarmed with them. The ill treatment thefe wretches fuffered from their mafters, who fcarce allowed them neceffary food or raiment, put them upon feeking by rapine what was needful for the fup- port of life. They frequently went out in gangs, plundered villages, and exercifed all kinds of violence. The feveral praetors, fuccefiively fent from Rome into the ifland, had, out of fear of the mailers to whom the flaves belonged, negleAed doing any thing effec¬ tual to remedy thefe diforders: for the Roman knights were a powerful body, whom it was dangerous to dif- oblige. Impunity naturally increafcd the mifehief; the flaves grew daily more licentious; and their go¬ ing out in bands to rob, gave them an opportunity of forming plots to deliver themfelves from the yoke of fervitude. It happened that one Antigenes, a Cicilian, had a Syrian flave named Eunus, a man of fpirit, and who 40 S 2 had SIC [ 81 Sicily, a particular talent for impofing on the multitude. He pretended to have, by dreams and fenfible appa¬ ritions, intercourfe with the gods. By breathing flames out of his mouth, and by a variety of other jug¬ gling tricks, he got at length into fuch vogue as to pafs for an oracle. Whole crowds came to him to l>e told their fortunes. As to himfelf, he conftantly pub- iifhed that his detliny was to be a king. His mafter, diverted with this whim, ufed frequently, when at table, to queftion him concerning his future royalty, and the manner in which he would treat each of the guefts then prefent. According to his different anfwers, fome infulted him, others fent him meat from the table, craving his future prote&ion when he Ihould be upon his throne. The jeft proved ferious in the event, as we ffiall prefently fee, and Eunus did not forget the dif¬ ferent treatment he had met with from his mafter’s guefts. Among thofe who repaired to this prophet for ad¬ vice, there came at length the Haves of one Damophi- lus of Enna, a man of brutal charatter, and who had a wife no lefs inhuman. Cruelly treated by both, the flaves had formed a plot to murder both. However, before they proceeded to adlion, they thought it ad- vifable to aflc the oracle of the country, Whether the gods would profper them in an enterprife they were meditating ? Eunus anfwered, That whatever was their projed, it was agreeable to the gods, and would infallibly fucceed, provided they did not defer the exe¬ cution. The flaves, thereupon, to the number of 400, armed with forks and fcythes and other rultic wea¬ pons, affembled themfelves in all hafte, put Eunus at their head, and ftraight marched to Enna; where, being joined by the flaves of the town, they maffacred the inhabitants, without regard to age or fex, and plundered the houfes. As for Damophilus, Eunus, to try him in form, ereded, in the public theatre, a court of judicature, where he himfelf prefided. Some of thofe flaves, whom the prifoner had treated barbaroufly, made themfelves the accufers ; and the multitude was judge. Damophilus pleaded earneftly for himfelf, and moved many tocompaffion; but Hermias and Zeuxis, two flaves, more fpirited with revenge, and more au¬ dacious than the reft, approaching the accufed, one of them, without farther ceremony, ran him thro’ with a fword, and the other cut off his head with an ax. And now Eunus was eleded king, not for his valour orlkill in martial affairs, but on account of his pretended in¬ spirations. He began his reign by putting to death all the prifoners, except fuch as could make arms, and thofe of his mafter’s acquaintance who had ufed him civilly. He alfo gave up Damophilus’s wife, Megal- lis, into the hands of her women-flaves, who, when they had whipped and otherwife tormented her as much as they pleafed, threw her headlong down a preci¬ pice i but as for her daughter, who had always difap- proved the barbarity of her parents, and ftiowed great eompaffion to the flaves, they treated her with all ima¬ ginable refped and tendernefs, and conveyed.her fafely to Catana, where they delivered her into the care of fome of her relations. Eunus with his own hands flew Pytho and Antigenes, the two mailers he had fuccefs- fively ferved. After which, putting the regal circle oh his head, and affuming the other ornaments of fove- mgnty, he took the name of Antmbus} and called his 56 ] sic followers Syrians. His next affair was to eftablifli a form of government among his fubje&s. He chofe out fome of the abiell men to be his council; and gave the command of his troops to an Achasan, an old foldier, who by his bravery and experience was qualified to command a better army. In three days, his followers increafing to more than 6000 men, he commenced his military expeditions. It was in the year of Rome 615 that this tumult began, Didius being then praetor of Sicily. In 616, Manlius, who fucceeded him, was defeated by the rebels, and his camp plundered. The like misfortune happened to P. Cornelius Lentulus in 617; and in 618, when Calpurnius Pifo was pnetor, Eunus had ftill the advantage over the Romans. Three praetors thus vanquilhed fucceffively by the flaves, ftruck a terror throughout the whole ifland. Eunus’s army grew' daily more numerous. Cleon, a Sicilian flave, had taken it into his head to imitate him ; and, having got together 5000 flaves, had pillaged Agri- gentum and the territory about it. It was hoped at firft, that thefe two leaders would be competitors for dominion, and deftroy one another; but, contrary to all mens expe&ations, they joined forces, and Cleon ferved as general under Eunus. The Roman affairs were in this bad fituation, when the prsetor Plautius Hypfaeus, in the year 619, came into Sicily, to reftore them. Far from fucceeding, he fuffered a total defeat by the rebels; whofe army, after this vi&ory, augmented to near 200,000 men ; they ravaged the whole country, and took many cities. The example of the flaves in Sicily infe&ed thofe in Italy and Greece, and occafioned infurreftions there. Thefe, however, were eafily quelled. Cal¬ purnius Pifo, one of the confuls for the year 620, having firft rcftored difcipline, that was much re* laxed among the troops, overthrew the flaves be¬ fore Meffana, to which they had laid fiege : 8oco, of them perifhed in the a&ion, and the prifoners were all crucified. Notwithftanding this vi&ory, the war continued, till Rupilius, one of the confuls of the year 621, had the command of the Roman forces. After his arrival in the ifland, he fucceffively laid fiege to Tauromenium and Enna, the ftrongeit places in the poffcffion of the flaves. Both were be* trayed into his hands. Twenty thoufand of the re¬ bels are faid to have been cut off. Eunus, with 60a of his guards, efcaped from Enna, and took refuge in a fteep rocky place. Being there invefted by the Ro¬ mans, and having no hope to efcape, they flew one another, to avoid a more painful death. King Eunus hid himfelf in a cave, whence he was quickly dragged out, together with his cook, his baker, the man that ufed to rub him when he bathed, and a buffooti whofe bufinefs had been to divert him at his meals. Rupilius fent him in chains to Morgantia, where, confumed with vermin, he miferably ended his days in prifon. The tranquillity eftabliflied on this occafion, lafted not long. The Romans, finding themfelves in great danger from the Cimbri and Teutones, applied for fuccours to the ealtern nations; and among the reft to Nicomedes kinjr of Bithynia. That monarch, how¬ ever, excufed hrmfelf; alleging, that a 'great number of his fubjeds had been forcibly carried away into flavery, by thofe who fanned the revenues of the re- publict sic r si Sicily, public In the eaft. The complaint appearing to the fenate to be well-grounded, they pafled a decree, that no freemen of the Roman allies fhould in any province be treated as flaves ; and that the proconfuls and prae¬ tors fhould take care that all fuch as had been inju- rioufly forced into flavery fhould be fet free. In obe¬ dience to this decree, Licinius Nerva, praetor in Si¬ cily, gave liberty in a few days to above 800 flaves. The chief men of the ifland, forefeeing how much they ftiould be lofers by the execution of this decree, ad- dreffed themfelves to the praetor, and begged of him to manumife no more of the flaves. Licinius, either prevailed upon by bribes, or defiring to ingratiate him- felf with the rich, would no longer liften to the com¬ plaints of fuch of the flaves as, having been forced into ilavcry, had recourfe to him for redrefs. On the con¬ trary, he gave them rough language, and fent them home to their matters. The flaves hereupon had re¬ courfe to arms. About 200 of them having potted themfelves upon a rock, fortified it, and defended themfelves for fome time againft all the efforts of Li¬ cinius. At length he fent for one C. Titinius, who had been fome years before condemned to death ; but having efcaped from punifhment, now praftifed rob¬ bery. To this man Licinius promifed pardon and protedlion, if by his means the flaves fhould be re¬ duced. Titinius, with a body of his affociates, went over to the rebels, as if to fpirit them againft their enemies. Being well received by them, and for his bravery declared their general, he foon after betrayed them into the hands of the Romans. This infurrec- tion thus fuppreffed, was immediately followed by ano¬ ther. In a few days the rebels amounted to 2000 men ; and, after a vi&ory which they obtained over a Roman detachment, their number increafed to above 6©oo. They then chofe themfelves a king, one Sal- vius, a pretender to the art of divination by infpefting the entrails of animals. After fome time fpent in plundering the country, Salvius laid fiege to Morgan- tia ; and Licinius advanced with a view to relieve the place. But the rebels turned upon him, and, having the advantage of the ground, defeated him. Only 600 men of the Roman army fell in this a&ioti, but 4000 were taken prifoners ; for Salvius had prudently proclaimed quarter to all who fhould throw down their arms. On the report of this viftory, fuch multitudes flock¬ ed in to the rebels from all parts, that their army was doubled, and they renewed their attacks upon Mor- gantia ; at the fame time promifing liberty to the flaves within the town. But their rxsafters making them the ‘ fame promife in cafe of vi&ory, the flaves fought fo bravely that they forced the rebels to raife the fiege. Neverthelefs Licinius annulled the promife made to thofe flaves, who thereupon went over to the enemy., The contagion of rebellion fpread itfelf to the terri¬ tories of iEgtfta and Lilybseum. Athenio, a Gicilian, a pretender to divination by the ftars, got together about 1000 of his fellow-flaves; and he too affttmed the title of king. His army increafing to io,ouo able- bodied men, (for he would not, like king Salvius, re¬ ceive promifcuoufly all that came to him), he laid fiege to Lilybaeum, a place that was deemed impregnable. Athenio, after fome time, became fenfible of his er- ^orj and.then, that he might quit his enterprife with- 57 1 sic out difhonour, pretended, that the gods had foretold Sicily. him by the ftars, that if the army continued the fiege, "* fomc fudden misfortune would certainly befall it. A fleet from Mauritania, with fucconrs fent by king Bocchus to the Romans, happened to arrive at Lily¬ baeum juft at the time when Athenio began to de¬ camp ; and thofe Africans landed foon enough to fall upon the rear of the rebel army, which fuffered a con- fiderable lofs : but this lofs was more than compen- fated to Athenio by the increafe of credit which his aftrological prediftion gained h m. In the mean time Salvius, who had affumed the name of Tryphon, a name formerly borne by one of the kings of Syria, chofe Triccala for his place of refidence. There he built a palace; fortified the cattle, which was before very ftrong ; and enlarged the town. From hence he fent as king, a command to Athenio to come and join him with the forces he had colleded. Con¬ trary to all mens expetfations, Alhenio obeyed, and marched to Triocala with 3000 men ; the remainder of his army he had difperfed over the country to pillage it, and to engage as many of the flaves as they could to take part with him. The two generals for fome time lived amicably together; but at length Tryphon,. fufpefting Athenio of a defign to fupplant him, caufed him to be feized and put under confinement. The next year, 650, Licinius Lucullus, who fuc- Ceeded Licinius Nerva in the praetorfliip of Sicily, landed in the ifland with 17,000 men. On the newa of their arrival, Tryphon releafed Athenio, and march¬ ed with him at the head of 40,000 men to meet Lu¬ cullus. The battle was long doubtful. Athenio fought with great bravery; but having received three wounds, by two of which his legs were lamed, he at length fell among the dead. Hereupon the flaves loft courage, and took- to their heels. Twenty thoufand of them were flain ; the reft, by favour of the night, efcaped with their king to Triocala. Athenio, tho* grievoufly wounded, was not killed ; in the dark, he made a ttiift to creep away and join his companions. The rebels, much diflieartened by their lofs, held a council to deliberate upon the ftate of their affairs. Some propofed fubmiffion to their matters at difcretion r but the prevailing opinion was to fight it out to the laft. Lucullus gave them time to recover themfelves; for it was nine days after the battle before he invefted Triocala ; and then the rebels made fo refolute a de¬ fence, that they obliged him to quit the enterprife. Nor did the Roman general take any further meafures to crufti the rebellion : his only care was to enrich himfelf at the expence of his province. Of this, at his return to Rome, he was accufed before the people, and found guilty. The praetor Servilius, who, in 651, fucceeded Lti- cullus, had no fuccefs againft the rebels. Tryphon was now dead :: His fucceffor A.henio, always brave and enterprifing, forced the Roman camp, took towns, and ravaged the country at pleafure. In 652, the fifth confullhip of Marius, the fe- nate thought proper to commiffion his coleague* Aquilius to conduct that war, in which three prae¬ tors had been foiled. This new general applied himfelf chiefly to cut off the enemies provifions; nor does he feem to have offered them battle till the next, year, when their number was conjiderably diminifhed. SIC [ 8158 1 SIC Sicily, J^e then entirely defeated them in a general engage- " inetit, wherein, it is faid, he fought hand to hand with Athenio, and killed him, after being wounded by him in the head. About 10,000 of the rebels efcaped to their ftrong holds, where Aquilius afterwards detlroyed them chiefly by famine. A thoufand ftill remained tinder a leader named Satyrus, and thefe furrendered themfelves. The proconful promifed them pardon ; but when he had tranfported them to Rome, he con¬ demned them to fight with wild beads. This they refufed to do ; and chofe rather to fall by the hands of one another: Satyrus alone remaining, he ran upon his own fword, and was the laft that perifhed on ac¬ count of this rebellion, which had lafted four years. We are told, that in this and the former fervile war in Sicily a million of flaves were deftroyed. In A. X). 439, when the weftern empire began to fail, Sicily (hared the fame fate with the reft of the provinces, whofe fufferings indeed had begun long be¬ fore. At this time the Vandals, under their king Oenferic, made a defcent on the ifland, and ravanged all the open country, bnt were unable to take the city of Palermo, to which they laid fiege ; however, they returned to Africa with a very confiderable booty.— In 475 Genferic was attended w’ith better fuccefs ; reducing not only the ifland of Sicily, but all thofe between Italy and Africa. The next year Sicily was ceded by him to Odoacer, (who at this time totally fubverted the Roman empire in the weft), on condition that he (hould hold the ifland of him, and pay him a yearly tribute ; for fecuring which he kept the ftrong caftle of Lilybseum. In the year 550 the whole ifland was reduced by Totila the Goth : however, it was next year given up to the emperor of Conftantinople, who kept pofieffion of it till 857, when the Arabs made a defcent upon it; and five years after, according to fume hiftorians, made themfelves matters of the whole. They appear to have kept poflefiion of the ifland till the year 1040, when the Greeks, aflifted by the Nor¬ mans, took it from them. The hiftory of Sicily from that time is related under the article Naples, d° 20—28. The ifland has fince continued in the hands of the royal family of Spain; and having been reunited to the kingdom of Naples, the king of Spain’s eldeft fon is now king of Sicily as well as of Naples'. See Spain. Sicily is feparated, as we have already obferved, from Italy, by a narrow ftrait called the Fare of Mef Jina. This ftrait is ftill remarkable for the rapidity of its currents, and the irregular ebbing and flowing of the fea, which fometimes rulhes in with fuch violence as to endanger (hips riding at anchor. An¬ ciently it was much more remarkable for the Scylla and Charybdis, one a rock,‘and the other a whirlpool, between which it was very dangerous to fleer, and concerning which fo many fables have been related by the ancients. Scylla is a rock on the Italian fide, oppofite to Cap Pylores, which runs out into the .fea on the Sicilian fide. Mr Brydone informs us, that the navigation of the ftraits is not even yet performed without danger. He informs us, that the noife of the current which fets through the ftraits may be heard for feveral miles, like the roaring of fome large impetuous river confined between narrow banks. In many places the water rofe into whirlpools and eddies, Sicily, which are dangerous to (hipping. The current fet ~ exadly for the rock of Scylla, and would certainly have carried any thing thrown into it againrt that point. Our author, however, is by no means of opi¬ nion that the ftrait is fo dangerous as the ancients have reprefented it; though he thinks that the ftrait is now probably much wider than formerly, which may have diminifhed the danger. There are many fmall rocks, which (how their heads near the bafe of the large ones. Thefe are probably the dogs, de- fcribed by the ancient poets as howling round Scylla *. * See The rock is near 200 feet high, and has a kind of Scyllt^ caftle or fort built on its fummit with a town called Scylla or Sciglio, containing 300 or 400 inhabitants on its fouth fide, which gives the title of prince to a Ca- labrefe family. Charybdia is now fo much diminifhed, that it feems almoft reduced to nothing in comparifon of what it was; though even yet it is not to be paffed without danger. See Charybdis. In the ftraits, Mr Brydone informs us, a mod fur- prifing phenomenon is to be obferved. In the heat of fummer, after the fea and air have been much agi¬ tated, there appear in the heavens over the ftraits a great variety of Angular forms, fome at reft, and others moving with great velocity. Thefe forms, in proportion as the light increafes, feem to become more aerial, till at laft, fome time before fun-rife, they totally difappear. The Sicilians reprefent this as the moft beautiful fight in nature. Leonti, one of their heft and lateft writers, fays, that the heavens appear crowded with a variety of obje&s, fuch as palaces, woods, gardens, .&c. befides the figures of men and other animals that appear in motion among them. Some treatifes have been written concerning this phe- nometron; but nothing fatisfa&ory has been delivered concerning its caufe. Though Sicily lies in a warm climate, the air is healthful, being refrdhed with fea-breezes on every fide. Anciently its fertility was fuch, that it was ftyled the granary or ftore-houfe of Italy ; nor has it yet loft its glory in this refpedl, producing, in great abundance, corn, wine, oil, fruits, fugar, honey, wax, faffron, and filk. Here are alfo fome mines of gold, filver, iron, and other metals; with feveral kinds of minerals, as alum, vitriol, fahpetre, and mineral fait. The mountains yield alfo emeralds, jafper, agate, porphyry, and lapis lazuli. A good deal of coral is found upon the coaft, and plenty of excellent fi(h; among which are the pefee fpada, or fword-fifli, and tunnies. Of thefe commodities, particularly filk, raw or manufafttired, great quantities ufed to be exported from Mefiina, the great fea-port and emporium of the kingdom ; where a conful from almoft every nation in Europe refided, to manage and protetft the trade of his nation. But that city is now no more ; having been totally deftroyed by the late earthquake and eruption of JEtna, (Feb. 5. 7. 8. 1783), when a vaft number of inferior towns and villages, together with the Lipari iflands adjacent, are faid to have (hared the fame fate, and moft. of their inhabitants, including many of the firft eminence, to have perilhed. Here are feveral rivers and gopd fprings; but few of SID [8 Sicily of the rivers are navigable, having but a (hort courfe, I! and defcending precipitately from the mountains. The chief are the Cantera, the Jarretta, and the Saifo; ’ .of which, the two former run from weft to eaft, and the third from north to fouth. Of the mountains in this ifland the moft noted is Mount iEtnn, now called Monte Gibello, or Mongibello, a volcano whofe eruptions have often proved fatal to the neighbouring country. See ^Etna. While Sicily was immediately fubject to Spain, it was governed by a viceroy fent thither, who received from thence a revenue of above 4,000,000 crowns; but fince it hath, jointly with Naples, been erected into a kingdom, under the name of the Two Sicilies, the face of affairs, as well as form of government, is faidtobemuch altered, though, it is to be feared, not much in favour of the inhabitants. The nobility are fo numerous in this ifland, that Labit fays it is paved with noblemen ; there being no lefs than 60 duke¬ doms, 56 marquifates, and upwards of 100 earldoms, befides a great number of baronies. This people, with refptd to their chara&er, are far from appear¬ ing in a favourable light; being reprefented as a perverfe race, who mull be kept under with a high hand, according to an . Id proverb, Infulani plerumq. malt, Siculi autem omnium pejfimi. They are a mix¬ ture of Italians and Spaniards; but fpeak chiefly Spanifh, and follow the Spanilh fafhions, particularly in wearing black. The eftablilhed religion of the ifland is the Roman-Catholic. The Jews are now allowed to fettle here, and make open proftffion of their religion; which was not the cafe while the ifland was immediately fubjeft to Spain. The number of churches, convents, and religious foundations here, is very great, and they are well endowed. There-is a fovereign tribunal, which judges in all ecclefiaftical affairs, and admits of no appeal to the pope. The ifland is commonly divided into three parts or pro¬ vinces, viz. Val di Demoni, Val di NotOj and Val Mazara. SICINNIUS (Dentatus), a tribune of the people, lived a little after the expuifion of the kings from Rome. He was in 120 battles and fkirmifhes, befides Angle combats, in all of which he came off conqueror. He ferved under nine generals, all of whom triumph¬ ed by his means. In thefe battles he received 45 wounds in the fore-part ofhis body, and not one in his back. The fenate made him great prefents, and he was honoured with the name of the Roman Achilles. SIDEREAL year. See Astronomy, n° 290. SIDERIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a ge¬ nus of cryftals, ufed to exprefs thofe altered in their fi¬ gure by particles of iron. Thefe are of a rhomboidal figure, and compofed only of fix planes. Of this ge¬ nus there are four known fpecies. 1. A colourlefs, pellucid, and thin one; found in confiderable quanti¬ ties among the iron ores of the foreft of Dean in Glou- cefterfhire, and in other the like places. 2. A dull, thick, and brown one ; not uncommon in the fame places with the former. And, 3. A black and very gloffy kind, a foflil of great beauty; found in the fame place with the others, as alfo in Leicefterfhire and Suffex. SIDEROXYLUM, iron-wood; a genus of the Bionogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of 159 ] SID plants. There are four fpecies ; the inerme, the op- Sidney, politifolium, the lycioides, and the tenax. The wood of thefe trees being very clofe and folid, has given occafion for this name being applied to them, it being fo heavy as to fink in water ; and the title of iron-wood having been applied to the wood by the inhabitants of the countries where it grows, has occafioned the botanifts to conftitute a genus by this name. But as the charadters of the plants have not been fo well examined as could be wifhed, occafioned by their feldom flowering in Europe, it is very pro¬ bable, that the plants which have been ranged under this genus do not properly belong to it ; for Dr Plu- kenet has figured a plant under the title of ebenus Ja- maicenjis, whofe chara&ers are very different from thofe affigned to this genus : and the Jamaica iron-wood is totally different from both in its charadters, for this has male and female flowers on different trees ; the male flowers have no petals. Thefe plants are natives of warm countries; fo can¬ not be preferved in this country unlefs they are placed, the two former in a warm Hove, the others in a green-houfe. They are propagated by feeds, when thefe can be procured from abroad. SIDNEY (Sir Philip), the eldeft fon of Sir Hen¬ ry Sidney, and Mary the daughter of John Dudley duke of Northumberland, was born in the year 1554 at Penfhurft in Kent. From a grammar-fchool at Shrewfbury he was fent to Chrifl-church, Cambridge, where he continued till the age of 18, and then fet out upon his travels. Immediately on his arrival in France, Charles IX. made him one of his gentlemen of the bed-chamber ; but he had hardly entered upon his office, before the horrid mafl’acre of the Prote- ftants began. He faved his life by.taking refuge in the boufe of Sir Francis Walfingham the Englifli am- baffador. Not chooftng to continue longer at the court of an infernal affaflin, he travelled to Francfort, where he became acquainted with the learned Hubert Languet, whofe future epiftles to Sir Philip Sidney have been fo much admired. In 1573, he fet out for Vienna, whence he proceeded to Hungary, and thence to Italy, where he continued till the latter end of fummer 1574. Returning thro’Germany and Flanders, he arrived in England in May 1575. Our young traveller was at this time only in the 21 ft year of his age ; neverthelefs, the queen was fo charm¬ ed with his abilities and addrefs, that in 1576 flie fent him ambaffador to congratulate the emperor Ro- dolph II. on his acceflion, charging him at the fame time with feveral important negotiations with other German princes. In 1579, he wrote a private letter to the queen, dif- fuading her from the marriage then in agitation with the duke of Anjou ; which letter feems to have been taken by her majefty in good part. In the following year Mr Sidney had a quarrel with the earl of Oxford in a tennis-court; which probably would have ended in a duel, had not the queen interfered. However, Sidney was difgufted, retired from court, and anriuftd: himfelf with writing his Arcadia. Whilft he was thus employed, the Spaniards having taken poffeffion of the kingdom of Portugal on the death of the late king Don Antonio, the competitor for that crown earneftly folicitedMr Sidney’s aid. SID [ 8160 ] SID Sidney. In 1581, we find our young hero again at court, principally engaged injufts and tournaments, which were celebrated for the entertainment of the duke of Anjou, then in England; whom he accompanied, with feveral of the firft nobility, to Antwerp. In 1583, the prince Palatine being inftalled knight of the gar¬ ter, Mr Sidney was appointed topoflefs the ftall in his name, and received the honour of knighthood on that occafion. In 1585, he projected an expedition to A- merica, in conjundlion with Sir Francis Drake ; but when he was at Plymouth ready to fail, he received an exprefs from the queen, brought by a peer of the realm, commanding him to return to court. Soon after this difappointment, he was made gover¬ nor of Flulhing, and general of horfe under his uncle the earl of Leicefter, who at that time commanded the queen’s troops in the Low Countries. In this fer- vice, his courage, prudence, and fagacity, were fo emi¬ nently confpicuous, that his fame became univerfal ; fo univerfal, that the republic of Poland would probably have ele&ed him their king, had not queen Elizabeth refufed her afiiftance. On the zzd of September 1586, in a lucklefs hour, the gallant Sidney was fent out with a party to intercept a convoy marching towards Zut- phen. The morning being hazy, they fell into an am- bufcade of the -enemy, and Sir Philip having juft mounted his decond horfe, received a fliot in the thigh, which broke the bone to pieces. He was carried to Arnheim, and on the 17th of Odlober expired. Thus fell the amiable, the virtuous, the accomplilhed, the brave. Sir Philip Sidney, in the 3zd year of his age ; a polite fcholar, the patron of learning and genius, and the objedt of univerfal panegyric. His body was brought to England, and buried with great pomp, at the queen’s expence, in St Paul’s cathedral. The funeral procefixon was fo uncommonly magnificent, as to be deemed a fubjeft worthy the pencil of Lant, an eminent defigner. It was afterwards engraved on 34 plates by Theodore de Brie, a native of Liege. SIDNEY (Algernon), was fecond fon of Robert earl of Leicefter. During the civil wars, he adhered to the intereft of parliament, in whofe army he was a colonel ; and was nominated one of the king’s judges, though he did not fit among them. He was a zea¬ lous republican ; and confequently a violent enemy to Cromwel, after he had made himfelf prote&or. In 1659 he was appointed by the council of ftate to go with Sir Robert Honeywood, and Bulftrode White- locke, Efq; commifiioners to the Sound, to mediate a peace between the kings of Sweden and Denmark. At the reftoraiion, colonel Sidney would not perfonally accept of the oblivion and indemnity then generally granted to the whole nation, but continued abroad till 1677, when he obtained from the king a particular pardon, upon repeated promifes of conftant quiet and obedience for the future. In 1683, however, he was accufed of being concerned in the Ryehoufe plot; and after the lord Ruffel had been examined, he was next brought before the king and council. He faid that he would make the belt defence he could, if they had any proof againft him ; but he would not fortify their evidence by any thing he Ihould fay ; fo that the exa¬ mination was very fhort. He was arraigned for high- treafon before the lord chief juftice Jeffreys at the king’s bench, tried, found guilty, and beheaded in 1683. He wrote Difcourfss on Governmentf which Sidoa ! have been often printed, and are efteemed decifive au- !i thorities in politics ; infomuch, that fome have decla- Slfant0' ; red them an ample recompence for the lofs ef Ci¬ cero’s fix books De Republica. Is is certain they abound with ftrong fenfe and good learning; and fhow their author to have been very confummate in the t knowledge of human nature and civil polity. SIDON, (anc. geog.), a city of Phoenicia in Afia, famous in Scripture for its riches, arifing from the ex- tenfive commerce carried on by its inhabitants. Heavy judgments were denounced againft the Sidonians on account of their wickednefs, which were accompliftted in the time of Ochus king of Perfia: for that monarch having come againft: them with an army on account of their rebellion, the city -was betrayed by its king ; upon which the wretched inhabitants were feized with fuch defpair, that they fet fire to their houfes, and j 40,000, with their wives and children, periflted in the flames. SIEGE, in the art of war, is to furround a forti¬ fied place with an army, and approach it by paffages made in the ground, fo as to be covered againft the fire of the place. SIEGEN, a town of Germany in Wetteravia, with a caftle and the title of a principality, which it givss to a branch of the houfe of Naffau. It is feated on a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 5°- 43- SIENNA, a large, ancient, and celebrated city of Tufcany in Italy; capital of the Siennefe, with an archbifttop’s fee, a famous univerfity, and a citadel. It is about four miles in circumference, and furrounded with an old wall. The metropolitan church is much efteemed by travellers; and though it is 3 Gothic ftrufture, the architefture is admirable. It is built with black and white marble, and the pavement is of Mofaic work. The town is adorned with a great number of palaces, fountains, and fuperb churches, as alfo a magnificent hofpital. The great area is round, and the houfes about it are of the fame height, fup- ported by piazzas, under which (people may walk in all weathers 5 in the middle is a bafon, which they can fill with water at any time, and reprefent a fea-fight with fmall vefleis. The Italian language is taught here with fuch purity, that a great many foreigners frequent it on that account. It is feated on three emi¬ nences, in a fertile foil; in E. Long. 11. 26. N. Lat. 43. 20. SIENNESE, a duchy in Italy ; bounded on the north by the Florentine, on the fouth by the Medi¬ terranean fea and the duchy of Caftro, on the eaft by the Perugino and Orvietano, and on the weft by the Florentino and the Tufcan fea ; being about 55 miles in length, and as much in breadth. The foil is pretty fertile, efpecially in mulberry-trees, which feed a great number of filk-worms; and there are feveral mineral fprings. Sienna is the capital town. SIERRA morena, mountains of Andalufia in Spain. SIFAN FO, or Siphanto, an ifland of the Archi¬ pelago, to the weft of Paros, to the north-eaft of Milo, and to the fouth-weft of Serphanto. The air is fo good here, that many of the inhabitants live to the age of 120; and their water, fruits, wild fowl, and poultry S I G I 8161 1 S I G Sicur poultry, are excellent, but more efpecially the grapes, -j. II It abounds with marble and granite, and is one of the 1°na 5‘ moil tertile and beft cultivated of thefe iflands. The inhabitants employ themfelves in cultivating olive-trees and tapers; and they have very good filk. They trade in figs, onions, wax, honey, and ftraw-hats ; and may be about 8000 in all. E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat. 38. o. S1EUR, a title of refpect among the French, like that of ?najler among us. It is much ufed by lawyers, as alfoby fuperiors in their letters to inferiors. SIGEFH, a town of Lower Hungary, and capi¬ tal of a county of the fame name. It is feated in a morafs, and has a triple wall, with ditches full of wa¬ ter; and is defended by a citadel, being one of the ftrongeft places in Hungary. It now belongs to the houfe of Auftria, and was retaken from the Turks in 1669, after it had been blocked up two years. In fome maps it is called Zigat. E. Long. 18. 30. N. Lat. 46- 35 SIGHT, or Vision. See Anatomy, n°4o6. and Judex fubjoined to Optics. Imperfection «/'S 1G h t nuith regard to Colours.—Under the article Colours, is given an inftance of a ftrange deficiency of fight in fome people who could not di- flinguilh between the different colours. In the Phil. Tranfi Vol. LXVIII. p. 611. we have an account of a gentleman who could not diftinguifh a claret colour from black. Thefe imperfedions are totally unac¬ countable from any thing we yet know concerning the nature of this fenfe. SIGN, in general, the mark or charader of fome- thing abfent or invifible. See Character. Among phyficians, the term ftgn denotes fome ap¬ pearance in the human body which ferves to indicate or point out the condition of the patient with regard to health or difeafe. Sign, in algebra. See Algebra, fed. i. Sign, in aftronomy, a conftellation containing a 12th part of the zodiac. See Astronomy, n° no. 135. SIGNALS, certain alarms or notices ufed to com¬ municate intelligence to a diftant objtd at fea. Signals are made by firing artillery, and difplaying colours, lanthorns, or fire-works; and thefe are com¬ bined by multiplication and repetition. Thus, like the words of a language, they become arbitrary ex- preffions, to which we have previoufly annexed parti¬ cular ideas : and hence they are the general fource? of intelligence throughout a naval armament, &c. Signals ought to be diftind, with fimplicity. They are fimple when every inftrudion is expreffed by a particular token,, in order to avoid any miftakes ari- fmg from the double purport of one fignal. They are diftind when iffued without precipitation, when fuffi- cient time is allowed to obferve and obey them, and when they are expofed in a confpicuous place, fo as to.be readily perceived at a diftance. All fjgnals may be reduced into three different kinds, viz. thofe which are made by the found of par¬ ticular inftruments, as the trumpet, horn, or fife ; to which may be added, ftriking the bell or beating the drum. Thofe which are made by difplaying pendents,- cnfigns, and flags of different colours ; or by lowering or altering the pofition of the fails; and, finally, thofe which are executed by rockets of different kinds; by Vol. X. firing cannon or fmall arms; by artificial fire-works; Signal?, and by lanthorns. Firing of great guns will ferve equally in the day or night, or in a fog, to make or confirm fignals, or to raife the attention of the hearers to a future order. This method, however, is attended with fome-incon- veniences, and fhould not be ufed indiferiminately. Too great a repetition of the cannon is apt to intro¬ duce miftakes and confufion, as well as to difeover the track of the fquadron. The report and flight of the rockets is liable to the fame objedfion, when at a fhort diftance from the enemy. It is then, by the combination of fignals, previoufiy known, that the admiral conveys orders to his fleet ; every fquadron, every divifion, and every fhip of which has its particular fignal. The inftrudtion may there¬ fore occafionally be given to the whole fleet, or to any of its fquadrons; to any divifion of thofe fquadrons, or to any fhip of thofe divifions. Hence the fignal of command may at the fame time be difplayed for three divifions, and for three fhips of each divifion ; or for three fhips in each fquadron, and for only nine fhips in the whole fleet. For, the gene¬ ral fignal of the fleet being fhown, if a particular pen¬ dant be alfo thrown out from fome particular place on the fame maft with the general fignal, it will commu¬ nicate intelligence to nine fhips that wear the fame pendant. The preparatory fignal given by the admiral to the whole or any part of his fleet, is immediately anfwered by thofe to whom it is dire&ed ; by {bowing the fame fignal, to teftify that they are ready to put his orders in execution. Having obferved their anfwer, he will fhow the fignal which is to dircA their operations: as. To chace, to form the line, to begin the engage¬ ment, to board, to double upon the enemy, to rally or return to adion, to difeontinue the fight, to retreat and fave themfelves. The dexterity of working the fhips in a fleet depends on the precife moment of exe¬ cuting thefe orders, and on the general harmony of their movements ; a circumftance which evinces the utility of a fignal of preparation. As the extent of the line of battle, and the fire and fmoke of the aftion, or other circumftances in naviga¬ tion, will frequently prevent the admiral’s fignals from being feen throughout the fleet, they are always re¬ peated by the officers next in command ; by fhips ap¬ pointed to repeat fignals; and, finally, by the fhip or fhips for which they are intended. The fhips that repeat the fignals, befides the chiefs of fquadrons or divifions, are ufually frigates lying to windward or to leeward of the line. They fhould be extremely vigilant to obferve and repeat the fignals, whether they are to tranfmit the orders of the com¬ mander in chief, or his fecouds, to any part of the fleet; or to report the fortunate or diftrefsful fituation of any .part thereof. By this means all the fhips from the van to the rear will, unlefs difabled, be ready at a moment’s warning to put the admiral’s defigns in exe¬ cution. To preferve order in the repetition of fignals, and to favour their communication, without embarraffment, from the commander in chief to the fhip for which they are calculated, the commanders of the fquadrons re¬ peat after the admiral; the chiefs of the divifions, ac- 40 T cording Signals Silene. S I L [ 81 cording to their order of the line, after the command¬ ers of the fquadrons; and the particular (hips after the _ chiefs of the divifions; and thofe in return, after the particular (hips, vice verfa, when the object is to con¬ vey any intelligence from the latter to the admiral. - Befides the fignals above-mentioned, there are others for different ranks of officers ; as for captains, lieute¬ nants, mafters, &c. or for any of thofe officers of a peculiar (hip. Signals by the Drum, made ufe of, in the exercife of the army, inftead of the word of command, viz. Signals. . Operations- dJhort roll, - To caution. Si flam, - To perform any diftinft thing. To arms, - To form the line or battalion. • {T°^rs:hc"in- The quick march.. To advance quick. The point of ‘war, To march and charge. The retreat, - To retreat. Drum ceafing, - To halt. Two Jhort rolls, - To perform the flank-firing. The dragoon march, To open the battalion. The grenadier march. To form the column. The troop, - To double divifions. The long roll, - To form the fquare. The grenadier march. jT° 'he fquare to the ° £ column. The preparative, - To make ready and fire. The general, - To ceafe firing. Two long rolls, - To bring or lodge the colours. SIGNATURE, a figning of aperfon’s name at the bottom of an aft or deed wrote by his own band. Signature, in printing, is a letter put at the bot¬ tom of the firft page at leaft, in each (heet, as a di¬ rection to the binder in folding, gathering, and colla¬ ting them. The fignatures confift of the capital let¬ ters of the alphabet, which change in every (heet : if there be more fheets than letters in the alphabet, to the capital letter is added a fmall one of the fame fort, as A a, B b; which are repeated as often as neceflary. In large volumes it is eafy to diftinguilh the number of alphabets, after the firft three or four, by placing a figure before the fignature, as 5 B, 6 B, &c. SIGNET, one of the king's feals, made ufe of in fealing his private letters, and all grants that pafs by bill figned under his majefty’s hand: it is always in the cuftody of the fecretaries of ftate. Signet, in Scots law. See Law, N° clvii. 16. SILENE, viscous campion ; a genus of the trigy- nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. The principal fpecies are, Lobel’s catch-fly, dwarf lychnis, Spanifti campion, Portugal campion, nodding or mountain campion, Perfian campion, (hrubby Sici¬ lian campion, &c. The two firft are annuals, the two next biennials, and the laft three perennial in root. They all flower here in fummer from May till Auguft, in the different forts, each flower having five petals; and feveral of the forts produce ripe feeds, particularly the annuals and biennials, by which all the forts may be raifed, and the perennials alfo by parting the roots, &c. They are all hardy herbaceous plants, and in general have very vifeous or clammy (talks, particularly juft below the joints, to which flies often flick faft : hence the name catch-fly, vifeous 62 ] s 1 L campion, Sec. They will all profper in any of the garden-compartments. SILESIA, a duchy of Germany, bounded on the eaft by Poland ; on the weft, by Moravia, Bohemia, Lufatia, and the county of Glatz; on the fouth, by a chain of mountains, and a thicket of confiderable ex¬ tent, which feparates it from Hungary; and to the north, by the mark of Brandenburg. From north-weft to fouth-eaft it is about 225 miles, and about 100 where broadeft: but it is much contra&ed at both ends. Upon the frontiers of this country, to the weft and fouth, are very high mountains, and fome likewife in other parts of it. One of the ridges upon the fron¬ tiers is ftyied the Ripheean Mountains, another the Mo¬ ravian, another the Bohemian, and another the Hun¬ garian, Crapack, or Carpathian. A branch of the Bohemian is called the Giant Mountains. The winter on thefe hilly tracks is more fevere, fets in fooner, and lafts longer, than in the lowlands. The inhabitants ufe a kind of (kaits when the fnow is deep, as they do in Carniola. Little or no grain is raifed in the moun¬ tains and fome fandy tracks; but the reft of the coun¬ try is abundantly fruitful, not only in grain, but fruits, roots, paftiire, flax, hops, madder, tobacco, and hemp, yielding alfo fome wine, with confiderabie quantities of filk and honey. In many places are great woods of pines, fir, beech, larch, and other trees, affording tar, pitch, rofin, turpentine, lamp-black, and timber for all ufes. In this country alfo is found marble of feveral forts, fome precious ftones, limeftone, miliftone, pit-coal, turf, vitriol, fome filver ore, copper, lead, iron, and mineral fprings. Great numbers of black cattle and horfes are brought hither from Poland and Hungary for fale, thofe bred in the country not being fufficient; but of (heep, goats, game, and venifon, they have great plenty. As for wild-beads, here are lynxes, foxes, weafels, otters, and beavers. The rivers, lakes, and ponds, yield filh of feveral forts, particularly tturgeons feveral ells in length, and falmon. Belides a number of fmaller ftreams to water this country, there is the Oder, which traverfes it almoft from one end to the other; and the Viftuia, which, after a pretty long courfe through it, enters Poland. The number of the cities and market-towns is faid to be about 200, the county of Glatz included, and that of the villages 5000. The inhabitants, who are computed to be about a million and an half, are a mixture of Germans, Poles, and Moravians. The language generally fpoken is German ; but in fome places the vulgar tongue is a dia¬ led! of the Sclavonic. The dates confift of the princes and dukes, and thofe called fate-lords, with the nobi¬ lity, who are immediately fubjedt to the fovereign, and the reprefentatives of the chief cities; but (ince the country fell under the dominion of the king of Pruffia, no furftentage or diets have been held. The king, however, when he took poffelfion of the country, con¬ firmed all the other privileges of the inhabitants. With refpedt to religion, not only Proteftants, but Papifts, Jews, and Greeks, enjoy full liberty of con- fcience. The greateft part of Silefia lies in the dioce’fe of Breflau, but fome part of it in the Polifh diocefes of Poftn and Cracow. The biftiop of Breflau (lands im¬ mediately under the pope with regard to fpirituals; but all ecclefiaftical benefices, not excepting the fee of Breflau, is in the king’s gift. Befides Latin fchools, col- S I L [ $163 ] S I L Silefia. colleges, and feminaries, at Breflau is -an univerfity, “ and at Lignitz an academy for martial exercifes. The principal manufactures here are woollens, linens, and cottons of feveral forts, with hats, glafs-ware, gun¬ powder, and iron manufa&ures. Of thefe there is a confiderablc exportation. Accounts are generally kept in rix-dollars, filver grofchens, and deuaren. With re- fpeft to its revolutions and prefent government, it was long a part of the kingdom of Poland; afterwards it had (everal dukes and petty princes for its fovereigns, who by degrees became fubjeCt to the kings of Bohe¬ mia, until at laft king Charles IV. incorporated the whole duchy with Bohemia; and thus it continued in the poffeffiou of the houfe of Auftria, until the prefent king of PrufSa, taking advantage of the troubles that cnfued upon the death of the emperor Charles VI. and pretending a kind of claim, wrefted a great part of it, together with the county of Glatz, from his daugh¬ ter and heirefs Maria Therefa, the late emprefs-dow- ager; fo th^t now only a fmall part of it is poffeffed by the houfe of Auttria, and conneCled with the em¬ pire, the relt being governed by the king of Pruffia, without acknowledging any fprt of dependence on the crown of Bohemia or the empire. For the adminiftra- tion of juftice in all civil, criminal, and feudal cafes, a*d fuch as relate to the revenue, the king of Pruffia has ettablifhed three fupreroe judicatories, to which an appeal lies from all the inferior ones, and from which, when the fum exceeds 500 rix-dollars, caufes may ba moved to Berlin. The Lutheran churches and fchools are under the infpe&ion of the upper-confiftories, and thofe of the Papiits under that of the bilhop’s court at Breflau; but from both an appeal lies to the tribunal at Berlin. As to the revenue, the excife here is levied only in the walled towns, being on the fame footing as in the mark of Brandenburg; but in the reft of the country the contributions are fixed, and the fame both in peace and war. The feveral branches of the revenue are under the management of the war and domain of¬ fices of Breflau and Glogau. The whole revenue ari- fing to the king of Pruffia from Silefia and the coun¬ ty of Glatz amounts to about four millions of rix- dollars per annum. Silefia is divided into Upper and Lower, and each of thefe again into principalities and lordfhips; offome of which both the property and jurifdiftion belong immediately to the foveretgn, but of others to his fub- jefts and vaflals. In regard to the chara&cr of the people, the boors are accounted very dull and filly ; but of thofe of a higher rank, many have diftinguifhed themfelves by their wit and learning; as well as by their military and political talents. However, in general, like their neighbours the Germans and Bohemians, they have more of Mars than Mercury in their compo- fition; and their parts are more folid than fhining. SILESIAN earth, in the materia medica, a fine afttingeiu bole. It is very heavy, of a firm compaft texture, and in colour of a browniffi yellow. It breaks eafily between the fingers, and does not ftain the hands; is naturally of a fmooth furface, is readily diffu- fible in water, Ind melts freely into a butter-like fub- ftance in the mouth. It leaves no grittinefs between the teeth, and does not ferment with acid menftrua. It is found in the perpendicular fiflures of rocks near the gold-mines at Strigonium in Hungary, and is fup- pofed to be impregnated with the fulphur of that me- Silius. tal. It is a good aftringent, and better than moft of the boles in ufe. SILIUS (Italicus Caius), an ancient Roman poet, and author of an epic poem in 17 books, which con¬ tains an hiftory of the fecond Punic war, fo famous in hiftory for having decided the empire of the world in favour of the Romans. He was born in the reign of Tiberius, and is fuppofed to have derived the name of Italicus from the place of his birth; but whether he was born at Italics in Spain, or at Corfinium in Italy, which, according to Strabo, had the name of Italica given it during the Social war, is a point which cannoc be known: though, if his birth had happened at either of thefe places, the grammarians will tell us, that he ftould have been called Italicenjis, and not Italicus. When he came to Rome, he applied himfelf to the bar ; and, by a clofe imitation of Cicero, fucceeded fo well, that he became a celebrated advocate and moft accomplilhed orator. His merit and charadter recom¬ mended him to the higheft offices in the republic, even to the confulfhip, of which he was pofftfled when Nero died. He is faid to have beeh aiding and affifting in accufing perfons of high rank and fortune, whom that wicked emperor had devoted to deftruftion: but he retrieved his charafter afterwards by a long and uni¬ form courfe of virtuous behaviour. Vefpafian fent him as proconful into Afia, where he behaved with clean hands and unblemifhed reputation. After having thus fpent the beft part of his life in the fervice of his country, he bid adieu to public affairs, refolving to confecrate the remainder to a polite retirement and the mufes. He had feveral fine villas in the country! one atTufculum, celebrated for having been Cicero’s; and a farm near Naples faid to have been Virgil’s, and at which was his tomb, which Silvius often vifited. Thus Martial compliments him on both thefe accounts: Silius hiK magni celebrat monumenta Maronis, Jugtra facundi qui Ciccronis habet. Uteredem Dominttmque fui tumulique larifque Non ahum mallet nec Maro nee Cicero. Epigr. 49. Lib. art. Of Tully’s feat my Silius is poflefs’d, And his the tomb where Virgil’s alhes reft. Could thofe great fliades return to choofe their heir. The prefent owner they would both prefer. In thefe retirements he applied himfelf to poetry: led not fo much by any great force of genius, which would certainly not have fuffered him to ftay till life was in the wane and his imagination growing cold, as by his exceeding great love of Virgil, to whofe memory he paid the higheft veneration. He has imitated him in his poem; and though he falls infinitely fhort of him, yet he has difeovered a great and univerfal genius, which would enable him to fucceed in fome degree in whatever he undertook. Since we know little of Silius Italicus but what we learn from an epiftle of the younger Pliny, we cannot do better than fubjoin part of that epiftle, as we find it tranflated by Mr Melmoth; fince it will not only confirm all that has been faid, but let the reader into fome farther particulars concerning him. “ I am juft now informed, that Silius Italicus has ftarved himfelf to death, at his villa near Naples. Ha¬ ving been affiifted with an impofthume, which was deemed incurable, he grew weary of life under fuch un- 40 T 2 eafy S I L [ 8164 ] S I L Sllius, eafy circumflances, and therefore put an end to it with Silk- the mod determined courage. He had been extremely ___ fortunate through the whole courfe of his days, except¬ ing only the lofs of his younger fon ; however, that was made up to him in the fatisfa&ion of feeing his elded, who is of a more amiable charafter, attain the confular dignity, and of leaving him in a very flourifh- ing fituation. He fuffered a little in his reputation in the time of Nero, having been fufpefted of forward¬ ly joining in fome of the informations which were car¬ ried on in the reign of that prince; but he made ufe of his intered in Vitellius with great difcretion and •humanity. He acquired much honour by his admini- ftration of the government of Ada; and by his appro- -ved behaviour after his retirement from bufinefs, clear¬ ed his charafter from that dain which his former in¬ trigues had thrown upon it. He lived among the no¬ bility of Rome without power, and confequently without envy. Though he frequently was confined to his bed, and always to his chamber, yet he was highly refpedded and much vifited; not with a view to his wealth, but merely on account of his merit. He em¬ ployed his time between converfing with men of let¬ ters and compofing of verfes; which he fometimes re¬ cited, in order to try the fentiments of the public; but he difcovered in them more indudry than genius. In the decline of his years he entirely quitted Rome, and , lived altogether in Campania, from whence even the acceffion of the new emperor (Trajan) could not draw him. A circumftance which I mention, as well to the honour of the prince, who was not difpleafed with that liberty, as of Italicus, who was not afraid to make ufe ©f it. He was reproached with being fond of all the elegancies of the fine arts to a degree of ex.cefs.. He had feveral villas in the fame province; and the lad purchafe was always the chief favourite, to the negleft of the red. They were all furnifhed with large ccl- ledlions of hooks, datues, and pidtures, which he more than enjoyed, he even adored ; particularly that of Virgil, of whom he was fo pafiionate an admirer, that he celebrated the anniverfary of that poet’s birth-day with more folemnity than his own; efpecially at Naples, where he ufed to approach his tomb with as much reverence as if it had been a temple. In this tran¬ quillity he lived to the 75th year of his age, with a delicate rather than a fickly conditution. It is re¬ markable,, that as he was the lad perfon upon whom Nero conferred the confular office (that prince being killed during his confuKhip), fo he was the lad alfo that furvived of all thofe who had been raifed by him to that dignity.. When I confider this, I cannot forbear lamenting the tranfitory condition of mankind. Is there any thing in nature fo ffiort and limited as hu¬ man life even in its mod extended period? Does it not feem to you, my friend, but yederday that Nero was upon the throne? and yet none of all thofe who were confuls in his reign now remain!” There have been many editions of Silius Italicus. A neat and correft one was publidied at Leipfic, 1696, in 8vo, with (hort and ufeful notes by Ccllarius: but the bed is that cum notis integris variorum £3" Ar- noldi Drakenborcb. Tvajefl. ad Rhen. 1717, in 410. SILK, is properly an animal fluid, hardened by the air ; being an extremely foft and glofiy thread, fjmn by the fiik-worm See SiLK-wcm., As foon 'as the animal is arrived at the (ize and Silk. drength neceflary for beginning his cod, he makes his web ; for it is thus they call that flight tiffue which is the beginning and ground of this admirable work. This is his fird day’s employment. On the fecond he forms his folliculus or ball, and covers himfelf almoft over with filk. The third day he is quite hid; and the following days employs himfelf in thickening and flrengtheping his ball: always working from one Tingle end, which he never breaks by his own fault ; and which is fo fine, and fo long, that thofe who have examined it attentively think they fp.eak within com- pafs, when they affirm, that each ball-contains fills enough to reach the length of fix £nglifli miles. In ten days time the ball,is in its perfe&ion, and is now to be taken down from the branches of the mul¬ berry-tree, where the worms have hung, it. But this point requires a deal of attention: for there are fome worms more lazy than others ; and it is very dangerous waiting till they make themfelves a paffage, which ufually happens about the fifteenth day of the month. The fird, fined, and dronged balls are kept for the grain, the red are carefully wound; or if it is defired to keep them all, or if there be more than can be well wound at once, they lay them for fome time in an oven moderately hot, or elfe expofe them for feveral days fucceffively to the greated heats of the fun,, in order to kill the infid, which, without this precaution, would not fail to open itfelf a way to go and ufe thofe new wings abroad it has acquired within. Ordinarily, they only wind the more perferd balls ; thofe that are double, or too weak, or too coarfe, are laid afide, not as altogether ufelefs, but that, b^ing improper for winding, they are referved to be drawn out into ikains. The balls are of different colours; the mod common are yellow, orange-colour, ifabella, and flefli-colour; there are fome alfo of a fea-green, others of a fulphur colour, and others white ; but there is no neceffity for feparating the colours and fliades to wind them apart, as all the colours are to be lod in the futnre fcouring and preparing of To wind filks from off the balls, two machines are ne- ceffary, the one a furnace, with its copper 5 the other a reel, or frame, to draw the filk. The winder, then, feated near the furnace,throws intothecopperof water overthe furnace (fird heated and boiled to a certain degree, which cudom alone can teach) a handful or two af ball?, which have been fird well purged of all their loofe furry fubdance. She than dirs the whole very briflely about with birchen rods, bound and cut like brulhes; and when the heat and agitation have de¬ tached the ends of the filks of the pods, which are apt to catch on the rods, flic draws them forth ; and joining ten or twelve, or even fourteen of them toge¬ ther, file forms them into threads, according to the bignefs required to the works they are dedined for: eight ends fufficing for ribbands; and velvets, &c. requiring no lefs than fourteen. The ends, thus joined into two or three threads, are fird paffed into the holes of three iron rods in the fore-part of the. red, then upon the bobbins or pullies, and at lad are drawn, out to the red itfelf, and there fattened each to. an. S I L [8 Silk, an end of an arm or branch of the reel. Thus dif- pofed, the winder, giving motion to the reel, by turn¬ ing the handle, guides the threads; fubititutes new ones, when any of them break, or any of the balls are wound out ; ftrengthens them, where neceflary, by adding others ; and takes away the balls wound out, or that, having been pierced, are full of water. In this manner, two perfons will fpin and reel three pmunds of filk in a day ; which is done with greater dilpatch than is made by the fpinning-whcel or diftaff. Indeed, all filks cannot be fpun and reeled after this manner ; either by reafon the balls have been perforated by the filk-worms themfelves; or b^- caufe they are double, or too weak to bear the water; or becaufe they are coarfe, &c. Of all thefe together, they make a particular kind of filk, called jloretta ; which being carded, or even fpun on the diftaff or the wheel, in the condition it comes from the ball, makes a tolerable filk. As to the balls, after opening them with fciffars, and taking out the infedls, (which are of fome ufe for the feeding of poultry), they are fteeped three or four days in troughs, the water whereof is changed every day to prevent their (linking. When they are well foftened by this fcouring, and cleared of that gummy matter the worm had lined the infide withal, and which renders it impenetrable to the water, and even to air itfelf, theydroil them half.an hour in a lye of allies, very clear and well drained ; and after wafh- ing them out in the river, and drying them in the fun, they card and fpin them on the wheel, &c. and thus make another kind of floretta, fomewhat inferior to the former. As to the fpinning and reeling of raw filks off the balls, fuch as they are brought from Italy and the Levant, the firft is chiefly performed on the fpinning- wheel ; and the latter, either on hand-reels, or on reels mounted on machines, which fcrve to reel feveral fkains at the fame time; Dyeing of Si'LVi Black. To the general dire£lions given under the article Dyeing, n° 17. we (hall here add a particular receipt from Dr Lewis’s Commerce eff Arts. “ The filk,” fays he, “ wafhed as above * See the dire&ed *, is fteeped in a decoction of one-third its laft article, weight of Aleppo or blue galls, or half its weight of the weaker white galls of Sicily and Romania, and afterwards wafhed with water; every 12 ounces are reduced by the cleanfing to 9, which ought to be in- creafed by the galling to i t, and no more. The dye¬ ing liquor for too lb. of filk is prepared by boiling 20 pounds of galls in a fufficient quantity of water, (about 126 gallons), and adding to this deooftion, after being fettled and drawn off from the fediment, two pounds and an half of Englifh vitriol, 12.pounds of iron-filings, and 20 pounds of the gum of the cherry or plum tree : that the gum may diflblve the more readily, it is put into a large copper cullender, im- merfed in the hot liquor, and ftirred and worked from time to time with a wooden rod till it is all pafled through. This mixture is kept for fix or feven days or more, a circumftance fuppofed to be nectflary for its perfe&ion ; and being then made as hot as the hand can bear, frefh parcels of the galled filks are dipped in k fucctfiively, and kept in about 10 minutes each. All of them, after being aired, are dipped again fe- 165 ] six. veral times, with the addition of more vitriol and iron- Silk, filings, till they have acquired the requifite blacknefs, ' after which they are well wafhed in water.” This is the procefs which Mr Macquer tells us is followed in the manufadories at Tours and Genes; on which Dr Lewis makes the following remarks. Ha¬ ving repeated the procefs in fmall, with each of the articles exatflly in the proportions above-mentioned, he found that it required 30 dippings, or more, to pro¬ duce a good colour. With lefs than half this number the filk appears of a beautiful black when taken out of the liquor; but by wafhing, it becomes pale, and ftill more fo by drying. The quantity of vitriol tifcd, in all, was about eight times that recommended above to be added at one time, or one-fifth part of the weight of the filk ; but the iron-filings put in at firft remain¬ ing undiffolved, it was not thought needful to add any¬ more of this ingredient. The operation being re¬ peated without iron-filings at all, no difference could be perceived between the two colours. Without the gum there was a very confiderafcle difference in the filk as taken out of the dye ; that which had been dyed with gum having a fine gloffinefs which the other wanted : the fubfequent wafhing, however, deftroyed that glofiinefs, fo that the gum feemed to be of no fervice, but rather detriment, by thickening the li¬ quor, and making it penetrate with more difficulty in¬ to the filk, in the fame manner as it prevents ink from finking into paper.. Some filk dyed in the fame man¬ ner as woollen cloth *, turned out a rufty black when * See Wool. the filk was put in white, but very good when the filk had been previonfly dyed blue. SiiK-IVorm. This infe& confifts of II rings, and each of thefe of a great number of other fmaller ones, joined to each other; and the head, which terminates thefe rings, is furnifhed with two jaws, which work and cut the food, not by a perpendicular but a lateral adlion. The humours found in the body of this crea¬ ture, all feem approaching to the nature of the filk which it fpins, for on being robbed in the hands they leave a hard or folid cruft behind them. Under the Ain there is always found a mucous rofy-colonred mem¬ brane, enveloping the animal, and fuppofed. to be.the new fkin in which it is to appear on throwing off the old one. The heart of this creature reaches from the head to the tail, running the whole length of the body : it is indeed rather a feries of many hearts con- ne£led together, than one.. The motion of fyftole and diaftole is very evident in this whole chain of hearts ; and it is an elegant fight to obferve the manner of the vital fluids paffing from one of them to the other. The ftomach of this animal is as long as the heart, reaching, like it, from one end of the body to the other. This large receptacle for food, and the fuddcn paffage of it through the animal, are very good rea- fons for its great voracity.-^—In the fides of the belly, all about the ventricle, tliere are depofited a vaft num¬ ber of veffels which contain the filky juice ; thefe run with various windings and meanders to the mouth, and are fo difpofed that the creatures can difcharge their contents at pleafure at the mouth ; and, accord-, ing to the nature of the juices that they are Applied with, furnifh different forts of filk from them, all the fluid contents of thefe veffels hardening in-tbe air into that fart of thread that we find the web or balls of thia* SIM [ 81 Sllphium this creature confift of. Thefe creatures never are of- S'lmlon at any ftench, of whatever kind; but they al- 1. ways fed a fouthern wind, and an extremely hot air always make them fick. SILPHIUM, bastard chrysanthemum ; a ge¬ nus of the polygamia neceffaria order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of plants. There are fix fpecies; all of them herbaceous perennials, rifing from three to nine feet high, with compound radiated flowers of a yellow colour. They are all very hardy, and eafily propagated by parting their roots in autumn. SILVER, called luna by the chemifts, a perfeft metal of a fhining white colour. See Chemistry, n° 140, 195, 238, 363. See alfo Metallurgy, p. 4924, e//ey. _ iMf//-Silver, is prepared of the flireds of filver-leaf or of the leaves themfelves, for the ufe of painters, af¬ ter the fame manner as (hell-gold. See iS/WZ-Gold. SILVERING, the covering of any thing with fil¬ ler. It is ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, See. which is performed either with fire, oil, or fize. Metal- gilders filver by the fire ; painter-gilders all the other ways. See Gilding. To filver copper or brafs. 1. Cleanfe the metal with aquafortis, by wafliing it lightly, and immediately throwing it into fair water; or by heating it red-hot, and fcouring it with fait and tartar and fair water, with a fmall wire brufh. 2. Diffolve fome filver in aquafortis, in a broad-bottomed glafs veffd, or of gla¬ zed earth ; then evaporate away the aquafortis over a chaffing-difh of coals. 3. Put five or fix times its quan¬ tity of water, or as much as will be neceffary to dif¬ folve it perfe&ly, on the remaining dry calx; evaporate this water with the like heat; then put more frefh wa¬ ter, and evaporate again ; and, if need be, the third time, making the fire towards the latter end fo ftrong, as to leave the calx perfeftly dry, which, if your filver is good, will be of a pure white. 4. Take of this calx, common fait, cryftal of tartar, of each a like quantity or bulk, and mixing well the whole compofition, put the metal into fair water, and take of the faid powder with your wet fingers, and rub it well on, till you find every little cavity of the metal fufficiently filvered over. If you would have it richly done, you muft rub on more of the powder, and in the laft place wadi the fil¬ vered metal in fair water, and rub it hard with a dry cloth. .Silvering of Glajfes. See Foliating of Looking- giajfes. SlLURUS,in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order of pifees abt^ominales. The head is naked; the mouth fet round with hairy filaments; the branchise have from 4 to I4rays; the ray of the peftoral fins, or the firft .dorfal one, is prickly, and dentated backwards. There are 21 fpecies, moft of them natives of the Indian and American feas. MrHafielquift mentions one called the tlarias by Linnasus, and fcheilan by the Arabians. If it pricks one with the bone of the breaft-fin, it is dan¬ gerous; and our author faw the cook of a Swedifh merchant-fhip die of the poifon communicated by the prick of one of thefe fifh. SIMEON 0/'Durham, the cotemporary of Wil¬ liam of Malmfbury, took great pains in colle&ing the monuments of our hiftory, efpecially in the north of England, after they had been fcattered by the Danes. 66 ] SIM From thefe he compofed a hiftory of the kings of Eng- Simla. | land, from A. D. 616 to 1130; with fome fmaller hi- 1 ftorical pieces. Simeon both ftudied and taught the fciences, and particularly the mathematics at Oxford; and became precentor of the church at Durham, where he died, probably foon after the conclufion of his hi¬ ftory, which was continued by John, prior of Hexham, to A. D. 1156. SIMIA, the Monkey; 3 genus of quadrupeds, belonging to the order ot primates. They have four fore-teeth in each jaw, placed near each other: the dog-teeth are folitary and more remote; and the grinders are obtufe. They are a numerous race; but almoft all confined to the torrid zone. They fill the woods of Africa, from Senegal to the Cape, and from thence to ^Ethiopia : they are found in all parts of India, and its iflands; in Cochin-China, in the fouth of China, and in Japan; (and one is met with in Arabia): and they fwarm in the forefts of South A- merica, from the ifthmus of Darien, as far as Paraguay. They are lively, agile, full of frolic, chatter, and gri¬ mace. From the ftru&ure of their members, they have many adions in common with the human kind. Moft of them are fierce and untameable: fome are of a mil¬ der nature, and will (how a degree of attachment: but in general, they are endowed with mifehievous intel- lefts; and are filthy, obfeene, lafeivious, thieving. They inhabit the woods, and live in trees; feeding on fruits, leaves, and infeds. In general, they are gre¬ garious, going in vaft companies: but the different fpe¬ cies never mix with each other, always keeping apart and in different quarters. They leap with vaft adivity from tree to tree, even when loaded with their young, which cling to them. They are the prey of leopards and others of the feline race; and of ferpents, which purfue them to the fummit of the trees, and fwallow them entire. They are not carnivorous, but for mip chief’s fake will rob the nefts of birds of the eggs and young: in the countries where they moft abound, the fagacity of the feathered tribe is more marvelloully (hown in their contrivances to fix the neft beyond the reach of thefe invaders. See Motacilla. The fimise being more numerous in their fpecies than any other animals, and differing greatly in their ap¬ pearances, it feemed neceffary to methodize and fubdi- divide the genus. Accordingly Mr Ray firft diftribu- ted them into three claffes: Simla;, Apes, fuch as wanted tails. Cercopithici, Monkeys, fuch as had tails. Papiones, Baboons, thofe with (hort tails: to diftin- guifh them from the common monkeys, which have very long ones. From Ray’s method, Linnaus formed his. M. de Buffon followed the fame: but with a fubdivifion of the long-tailed apes, or the true monkeys, into fuch which had prehenfile tails, and fuch which had not. Mr Pennant has adopted the fame method; but is more definite as to the clafs of baboons, in which he com¬ prehends all whofe tails do not exceed half the length of their bodies, and are carried in an arched dire&ion. According to thofe divifions, the following are the principal ipecies : I- Without tails; the true Apes. 1. The fatyrus, orang outang, or great ape, has a flat face, and a deformed refemblance of the human5; ears SIM [8i Stmia. ears exaftly like thofe of a roan; the hair on the head ' longer than on the body. The body and limbs are covered with reddifh and lhaggy hair; longed on the back, thinned on the fore-parts. The face and paws are fwarthy; the buttocks covered with hair. They inhabit the interior parts of Africa, the ifles of Suma¬ tra, Borneo, and Java. Are folitary, and live in the mod defart places. They grow to the height of fix feet: have prodigious drength, and will overpower the ftronged man. The old ones are (hot with arrows, the young alone can be taken alive. They live en¬ tirely on fruits and nuts. They will attack and kill the negroes who wander in the woods; will drive away the elephants, and beat them with their fids or pieces of wood; and will throw dones at people that offend them. They fleep in trees; and make a fort of fhelter from the inclemency of the weather. They are of a grave appearance and melancholy difpofition, and even when young not inclined to frolic. They go ere&, and are vadly fwift and agile. Thefe accounts are chiefly taken from Andrew Battel, an Englifh failor, who was taken prifoner 1589, and lived many years in the inner parts of Congo; his narrative is plain, and feems very authentic: it is preferved in Purchas’s colleftion. * Defcript. Froger * informs us, “ that thofe along the banks of r’fau'mcde^ r'ver ^an8'es are larger and more mifchievous than ^Tcacar ' ,n any Part Africa : the negroes dread them, and p. .51, ’ cannot travel alone in the country, without running the hazard of being attacked by thefe.animals, who often prefent them with a dick, and force them to fight. I have heard the Portuguefe fay, that they have often feen them hold up young girls, about feven or eight years old, into trees, and that they could not be weed¬ ed from them without a great deal of difficulty. The mod part of the negroes imagine them to be a foreign nation come to inhabit their country, and that they do not fpeak for fear of being compelled to work.” When taken young, they are capable of being tamed, and taught to perform many menial offices. Francis t Voy/iget Pyrard f relates, “ that in the province of Sierra dc Francois Leona, there is a fpecies fo drong-limbed, and fo in- dudrious, that, when properly trained and fed, they work like fervants; that they generally walk on the two hind-feet; that they pound any fubftances in a mor¬ tar; that they go to bring water from the river in fmall pitchers, which they carry full on their heads. But when they arrive at the door, if the pitchers are not foon taken off, they allow them to fall; and when they perceive the pitchers overturned and broken, they $ Euf. Wir-weep and lament.” Father Jarric^:, quoted by Nierem- nTd^Nat ker8> fays fame thing, nearly in the fame terms. teregrin. With regard to the education of thefe animals, the lib. fx. tedimony of Schoutten || accords with that of Pyrard. cap. 4S- “ They are taken'(he remarks) with fnares, taught 'de^Gu^5 t0 wa^ on their hind-feet, and to ufe their fore-feet Schoutten 38 hands in performing different operations^ as rinfing aux Indes glaffes, carrying drink round the company, turning a Orientates, fpit, &c.” “ I faw at Java, (fays Guat) §, a very ex- § * traordinary ape. It was a female. She was very tall, tom ^ii Uat'an& often walked-ereft on her hind-feet. On thefe oc- p. pg, cafions, the concealed with her hands the parts which didinguilh the fex. Except the eye-brows, there was Pyrard, P-331- [67 ] SI M no hair on her face, which pretty much refembled the grotefque female faces I faw among the Hottentots at the Cape. She made her bed very neatly every day, lay upon her fide, and covered herfelf with the bed- cloaths. When her head ached, fhe bound it up with a handkerchief; and it was amufing to fee her thus hooded in bed. I could relate many other little ar¬ ticles which appeared to me extremely fingular. But I admired them not fo much as the multitude; becaufe as I knew the defign of bringing her to Europe to be exhibited as a ffiow, I was inclined to think that fhe had been taught many of thefe monkey-tricks, which the people confidered as being natural to the animal. She died in our fhip, about the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope. The figure of this ape had a very great refemblance to that of man, &c.” Gemelli Carreri tells us, that he faw one of thefe apes, which cried like an infant, walked upon its hind-feet, and carried a matt under its arm to lie down and fleep upon. An orang-outang which Buffon faw, is deferibed by him as mild, affeftionate, and good-natured. His air was melancholy, his gait grave, his movements mea- fured, his difpofitions gentle, and very different from thofe of other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Barbary ape, the malicioufnefs of the baboon, nor the extravagance of the monkeys. “ It may be alleged, (fays our author), that he had the benefit of inftruftion ; but the other apes which I fhall Compare with him, were educated in the fame manner. Signs and words were alone fufficient to make our orang¬ outang ad : but the baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes a whip; for none of them would obey without blows. ^ I have feen this animal prefent his hand to condud the people who came to vifit him, and walk as gravely along with them as if he had formed a part of the compaftv. I have feen him fit down at table, unfold his towel, wipe his lips, ufe a fpoon or a fork to carry the viduals to his mouth,, pour his li¬ quor into a glafs, and make it touch that of the per- fon who drank along with him. When invited to tak^. tea, he brought a cup and faucer, placed them on the table, put in fugar, poured out the tea, and allowed it to cool before he drank it. All thefe adions he per¬ formed without any other inftigation than the figns or verbal orders of bis mafter, and often of his own ac¬ cord. He did no injury to any perfon: he even ap- proached company with circumfpedion, and prefented himfelf as if he wanted to be careffed. He was very fond of dainties, which every body gave him : And as his breaft-was difeafed, and he was afHided with a tea- zing cough, this quantity of fweetmeats undoubtedly contributed to fliorten his life. He lived one fummer in Paris, and died in London the following winter. He eat aimoft every thing; but preferred ripe and dried fruits to all other kinds of food. He drank a litle wine ; but fpontaneoufly left it for milk, tea, or other mild liquors.” This was only two feet four inches high, and was a young one. There is great poffibility that thefe animals may vary in fize and in colour, fome being covered with black, others with reddifh hairs.— They are not the fatyrs of the ancients; which had tails (a), and were a fpecies of monkey. Linnaeus’s Homo (a) iElian gives them tails, lib. Pliny fays they have teeth like dogs, lib. vii. c. 2. circumftances com¬ mon to many monkeys. Ptolemy, lib, vii. c. a. fpeaks of certain Hands in the Indian ocean, inhabited by people with • SIM [ 8168 ] SIM Simia. km fiiSUhtui, an animal of this kind, is unneceffa- “rily feparated from hisfnnia fatyrus. See plate To enable the reader to form a judgment of this CCLXVIII an|mai which has fo great a refemblance to man, it c' ^ may not be unacceptable to quote from BufFon the dif¬ ferences and conformities which make him approach or recede from the human fpecies. “ He differs from man externally by the flatnefs of his nofe, bythe flrort- nefs of his front, and by his chin, which is not eleva¬ ted at the bafe. His ears are proportionally too large, his eyes too near each other, and the diftance between .his nofe and mouth is too great. Thefe are the only differences between the face of an orang-outang and that of a man. With regard to the body and mem¬ bers, the thighs are proportionally too fhort, the arms too long, the fingers too fmall, the palm of the hands too long and narrow, and the feet rather refemble hands than the human foot. The male organs of generation differ not from thofe of man, except that the prepuce -has no frtenum. The female organs are extremely fi- .milar to thofe of a woman. The orang-outang differs internally from the human .fpecies in the number of ribs: man has only 12; but the orang-outang has 13. The vertebrse of the neck are alfo fhorter, the bones of the pelvis narrow, the but¬ tocks flatter, and the orbits of the eyes funk deeper. He has no fpinal procefs on the firft vertebra of the neck. The kidneys are rounder that thofe of man, and the ureters have a different figure, as well as the blad¬ der and gall-bladder, which are narrower and longer than in the human fpecies. All the other parts of the body, head, and members, both external and internal, fo perfe&ly refemble thofe of man, that we cannot make the comparifon without being aftonifhed that fuch a fimilarity in ftrufturc and organization fhould not produce the fame effe&s. The tongue, and all the or¬ gans of fpeech, for example, are the fame as in man; and yet the orang-outang enjoys not the faculty of fpeaking ; the brain has the fame figure and propor¬ tions; and yet he poffeffes not the power of thinking. Can there be a more evident proof than is exhibited in the orang-outang, that matter alone, though perfe&ly organized, can produce neither language nor thought, unlefs it be animated by a fuperior principle? Man and the orang-outang are the only animals who have buttocks and the calfs of the legs, and who, of courfe, are formed for walking ere6! ; the only animals who have a broad chelf, flat fhoulders, and vertebrae of the fame ftru&ure ; and the only animals whofe brain, heart, lungs, liver, fpleen, ftomach, and inteftines, are perfeftly fimilar, and who have an appendix vermifor- mis, or blind-gut. In fine, the orang-outang has a greater refemblance to man than even to the ba¬ boons or monkeys, not only in all the parts we have mentioned, but in the largenefs of the face, the-figure of the cranium, of the jaws, of the teeth, and of the other bones of the head and face; in ^he thicknefs of the fingers and thumb, the figure of the nails, and the number of vertebras; and, laltly, in the conformity of the articulations, the magnitude and figure of the ro- tula, fternum, &c. Hence, as there is a greater fimi¬ larity between this animal and man, than between thofe creatures which refemble him moft, as the Barbary ape, Simla. I the baboon, and monkey, who have all been defigned 1|1 by the general name of apes, the Indians are to beex- cufed for affociating him with the human fpecies, un¬ der the denomination of orang-outang, or ’wild man. ; In fine, if there were a fcale by which We could de- feend from human nature to that of the brutes, and if 1 j the effence of this nature confided entirely in the form of the body, and depended on its organization, the orang outang would approach nearer to man than any other animal. Placed in the fecond rank of beings, he would make the, other animals feel his fuperiority, and oblige them to obey him. If the principle of imita¬ tion, by which he feems to mimic human actions, were a refult of thought, this ape would be dill farther re¬ moved from the brutes, and have a greater affinity to man. But the interval which feparates them is im- menfe. Mind, refle&ion, and language, depend not on figure or the organization of the body. Thefe are endowments peculiar to man. The orang-outang, though, as we have feen, he has a body, members, fenfes, a brain, and a tongue, perfe&ly fimilar to thofe of man, neither fpeaks nor thinks. Though he counterfeits every human movement, he performs no adtion that is charadleriftic of man, no a&ion that has the fame principle or the fame defign. With regard to imitation, which appears to be the mod driking character of the ape-kind, and which the vulgar have attributed to him as a peculiar talent, before we decide, it is neceflary to inquire whether this imitation be fpontaneous or forced. Does the ape imitate us from inclination, or becaufe, without any exertion of the will, he feels the capacity of doing it? I appeal to all thofe who have examined this animal without preju¬ dice; and I am convinced that they will agree with me, that there is nothing voluntary in this imitation. The ape, having arms and hands, ufes them as we do, but without thinking of us. The fimilarity of his mem¬ bers and organs neceffarily produces movements, and fometimes fucceffions of movements, which refemble ours. Being endowed with the human ftru&ure, the ape mud move like man ; but the fame motions imply not that he ads from imitation. Two bodies which receive the fame impulfe, two fimiiar pendulums or ma¬ chines, will move in the fame manner; but thefe bo¬ dies or machines can never be faid to imitate each other in their motions. The ape and the human body are two machines fimilarly conflru&ed, and neceflanly move nearly in the fame manner ; but parity is not imitation. The one depends on matter and the other on mind. Imitation prefuppofes the defign of imita¬ ting. The ape is incapable of forming this defign, which requires a train of thinking : confequently, man, if he inclines, can imitate the ape; but the ape cannot even incline to imitate man.” 2. The fylvanus, or pigmy, has a flattifh face; ears Fig. like thofe of a man; body, of the fize of a cat; colour above, of an olive brown ; beneath, yellowifli: nails flat: buttocks naked. Sits upright. Inhabits Africa. This fpecies is not uncommon in our exhibitions of animals; and is very tradable and good-natured. Mod probably the Pigmy of the ancients. They abound in Ethiopia, with tails like thofe with which fatyrs are painted, whence called the ijles of fatyrs. Keeping, a Swede, pretended to have difeovered thefe homines caudati; that they would have trafficked with him, offering him live parrots; that afterwards they killed feme of the crew that went on fliore, and eat them, &c. &c- Am«n, Acad, vi, 71. SIM [ 8. S'mia, Ethiopia, ofie feat of that imaginary nation. They 'Ape’s, were believed to dwell near the fountains of the Nile : they defcended annually to make war on the cranes, i. e. to (leal their eggs, which the birds may be fup- pofed naturally to defend; whence the fiftion of their combats. Strabo judicioufly obferves, that no perfon worthy of credit ever ventured to aflert that he had ever feen this nation. Ariftotle fpeaks of them only by hearfay: they were faid to be mounted on little horfes, on goats, cm rams, and even on partridges. The In¬ dians, taking advantage of the credulity of people, embalmed this fpecies of ape with fpices, and fold I5* lib. them to merchants as true pigmies *: fuch, donbtlefs, : xvi. were the diminutive inhabitants mentioned by Mr If Raft In- Grofefto be found in the forefts of the Carnatic. •dies, 365. They feed on fruits: are very fond of infe&s, particular¬ ly of ants; affembling in troops, and turning over^very ftone in fearch of them. If attacked by wild beads, they take to flight; but if overtaken, will face their purfuers, and, by flinging the fubtle fand of the defart in their eyes, often efcape. pig- 3- 3. The gibbon, or long-armed ape, with a flat fwarthy face furrounded with grey hairs: hair on the body black and rough: buttocks ba^e: nails on the hands flat; on the feet, long: arms of a moft difpro- portioned length, reaching quite to the ground when the animal is ere£f, its natural pofture: of a hideous deformity.—Inhabits India, Malacca, and the Mol- lucca ilks: a mild and gentle animal: grows to the height of four feet. The great black ape of Mangfi, a province in China, feems to be of this kind, pig. 4. 4. The innuus, magot, or Barbary ape, has a long face, not unlike that of a dog: canine teeth, long and ftrong: ears like the human: nails flat: buttocks bare: colour of the upper part of the body, a dirty greenifli “ brown; belly, of a dull pale yellow: grows to above the Jengrti of four feet.—They inhabit many parts of India, Arabia,1 and all parts of Africa except Egypt, where none of this genus are found. A few are found on the hill of Gibraltar, which breed there: probably from a pair that had efcaped from the town ; as they are not found in any other part of Spain.—They are very ill-natured, mifchievous, and fierce ; agreeing with the ch^rafter of the ancient Cynocephali. They are a very common kind in exhibitions. By force of difcipline, are made to play feme tricks; otherwife, they are more dull and fullen than the reft of this ge¬ nus. They affemble in great troops in the open fields in India.; and will attack women going to market, and take,their provifions from them. The females carry .the young in their arms, and will leap from tree to tree with them. -Apes were worfhipped in India, and had magnificent temples ere&ed to them. When the Por- -tuguefe plundered one in Ceylon, they found in a little golden cafket (b) the tooth of an ape; a relic held by the natives in fuch veneration, that they offered 700,000 ducats to redeem it, but in vain ; for it was burnt by the viceroy, to flop the progrefs of idolatry. M'\g. j- 5. The tufted ape, a fptcies of moft difgufting de¬ formity, deferibed in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, abridged, N° 290. It had a nofe and head 14 inches in length : the nofe of a deep red, face blue, both na* Vol. X. I 69 ] Sim ked ; black eye-brows 5 ears like the human : on the Simla, top of the head a long upright tuft of hair; on the Baboons, chin another; two long tufks in the upper jaw: fore¬ feet exaftly refembling hands, and the nails on the fin¬ gers flat: the fore-part of the body, and the infide of the legs and arms, naked: the outfide covered with mot¬ tled brown and olive hair. Length, from the nofe to, the rump, three feet two inches. It was very fierce and falacious: went on all-fours; but would fit up on its rump, and fupport itfelf with a ftick: in this atti¬ tude, it would hold a cup in its hand, and drink out of it. Its food was fruits. II. Baboons. A. With fhort tails. 6. The fphynx, or great baboon, with hazel irides; Fi^. f, ears fmall and naked; face canine, and very thick ; middle of the face and fore head naked, and of a bright vermilion colour; tip of the nofe of the fame, and end¬ ing trincated like that of a hog; fides of the nofe broadly ribbed, and of a fine violet hue; the opening of the mouth very fmall; cheeks, throat, and goat-like beard yellow ; hair on the fore-head very long, turns back, is black, and forms a kind of pointed creft. Head, arms, and legs, covered with fhort hair, yellow and black intermixed ; the bread with long whitifh yellow hairs, the flioulders with long brown hair. Nails flat; feet and hands black; tail four inches long, and very hairy: buttocks bare, red, and filthy; but the fpace about them is of a moft elegant purple colour, which reaches to the infide of the upper part of the thighs. This was deferibed by Mr Pennant from a fluffed fpecimen in Sir Afhton Lever’s mufaeum. In Auguft 1779, a live animal of this fpecies was fhown at Edin¬ burgh, and in Oftober following at Chefter, where being feen by Mr Pennant, that inquifuive naturalift has deforibed it in his Hiftory of Quadrupeds. “ It differed little (he obferves) in colour from the above, being in^general ranch darker. Eyes much funk in the head, and fmall. On the internal Tide of each ear was a white line, pointing upwards. The hair on the fore¬ head turned up like a toupee. Feet-black; in other refpefts refembled the former. In this I had an op¬ portunity of examining the teeth. The cutting teeth were like thofe of the reft of the genus; but, in the upper and lower jaw, were two canine, or rather tulks, near three inches long, and exceedingly {harp and pointed. This animal was five feet high, of a moft tre¬ mendous ftrength in all its parts; wasexcefiively fierce* libidinous, and ftrong. Mr Scbreber fays, that this fpecies lives on fuccu- lent fruits, and on nuts ; is very fond of eggs, and will put eight at once into its pouches, and, ta¬ king them out one by one, break them at the end, and fwallow the yolk and white: rejefts all flefh- meat, unlefs it be dreffed: would drink quantities of wine or brandy: was lefs agile than other baboons: very cleanly; for it would immediately fling its excre¬ ments out of its hut. That which was ftiown at Che¬ fter was particularly fond of chttefe. Its voice was a kind of roar, not unlike that of a lion, but low and fomewhat inward. It went upon all-fonrs, and never flood on its hind-legs, unlefs forced by the keeper; but would frequently fit on its rump in a crouching roan- 40 U ne/. .(b) Li nfchat ten's Voy. 53. In Amadabat are hofpitals for apes and other maimed animals; Tavernier's Voy. part II. 48. The fame writer fays, that they breed in great numbers in India, in the copfes of bamboos, which grow «n each fide the road, p. 94* Simla. Babooni Fig. 7. 2% 8. Fig. p. ■it SIM [8170] SIM ner, and drop its arms before the belly. Inhabits the hotter parts of Africa.” 7. The wood-baboon, with a long dog-like face, covered with a fmall gloiTy black (kin ; hands and feet naked, and black like the face; hair on all parts long, elegantly mottled with black and tawny; nail,s white. About three feet high when ere&; tail not three inches, and very hairy on the upper part.—Inhabits Guiney, where it is called the man of the ’wood. 8. The netneftrina, or pig-tail baboon, with a pointed face, which is naked, of a fwarthy red- nefs: two (harp canine teeth: ears like the human : hair on the limbs and body brown inclining to afh-colour, paleft on the belly: fingers black : nails long and flat: thumbs on the hind-feet very long, con- nefted to the neareft toe by a broad membrane: tail four inches long, {lender, exaftly like a pig’s, and ai¬ med naked ; the bare fpaces on the rump red, and but fmall: length, from bead to tail, 22 inches. Inhabits the ifles of Sumatra and Japan : is very docile. In Japan it is taught feveral tricks, and carried about the coun¬ try by mountebanks. Kempfer was informed by one of thefe people, that the baboon he had was 102 years old. B. Baboons with longer tails. 9. The hamadryas, or dog-faced baboon, with a long, thick, and ftrong nofe, covered with a fmooth red fkin: ears pointed, and hid in the hair: head great, and flat: hair on the head, and fore-part of the body as far as the waifl, very long and (baggy ; grey and olive-brinded; the fides of the head very full, the hair on the limbs and bind-part of the body very (hort: limbs ftrong and thick : hands and feet dufky : the nails on the fore-feet flat; thofe on the hind like a dog’s: buttocks very bare, and covered with a (kid of a bloody colour: tail fcarce the length of the body, and carried generally ered. They inhabit the hotted parts of Africa and Afia ; where they keep in vaft troops, and are very fierce and dangerous. They rob gardens. They will run up trees when paflengers go by, (hake the boughs at them with great fury, and chatter very loud. They are exceffively impudent, indecent, lafeivious: moft deteftable animals in their manners as well as appearance. They range the woods in hun¬ dreds ; which obliges the owners of the coffte-planta- tions to be continually on their guard againft their de¬ predations. One of them was (hown in London fome years ago: it came from Mokha, in the province of Yeman, in Arabia Felix in the Perfian gulph ; and was above five feet high. It was very fierce, and un- tameable; fo ftrong, as eafily to mailer its keeper, a ftout young man. Its inclinations to women appeared in the moft violent manner. A footman, who brought a girl to fee it, in order to teaze the animal, tiffed and hugged her: The bead, enraged at being fo tantalized, caught hold of a quart pewter-pot, which he threw with fuch force and fo fure an aim, that, had not the man’s hat and wig foftened the blow, his (kull muft have been fraflured; but he fortunately efcaped with a common broken head. 10. The faunus, filenus, or lion-tailed baboon, with a dog-like face, naked, and of a dufky colour: a very large and full white or hoary beard: large canine teeth: body covered with black hair; belly of a light-colour: tail terminated with a tuft of hair like that of a lion. Its bulk that of a middling lized dog. It inhabits the Simla. Eaft-Indiea and the hotter parts of Africa. Monkm III. With tails longer than their bodies, or Mon¬ keys. A. Thofe of the old world, or the continent of Afia and Africa, having within each lower jaw pouches for the reception of their food: buttocks generally naked. A, Tails ftraight, not prehenfile. Fig. is, it. The purpk-faetd monkey, with a great trian¬ gular white beard, fhort, and pointed at the bottom and on each fide of the ears, extending in a winged fa- fhion far beyond them; face and hands purple, body black. Inhabit Ceylon. They are very harmlefs; live in the woods, and feed on leaves and buds of trees ; and when taken foon become tame. 12. The fabaea, or green monkey, has a black and flattiih face: the fide of it bounded by long white hairs, falling backwards, and almoft covering the ears, which are black, and like the human: head, limbs, and whole upper part of the body and tail, covered with foft hair, of a yellowifh green colour at their ends, ci¬ nereous at their roots: under-fide of the body and tail, and inner fide of the limbs, of a filvery colour: tail very long and {lender. Size of a fmali cat.—Inhabit different parts of Africa: keep in great flocks, and live in the woods: are fcarce difcernible when among the leaves, except by their breaking the boughs with their gambols: in which they are very agile and lilent r even when (hot at, do not make the leaft noife ; ffut will unite in company, knit their brows, and gnafh their teeth, as if they meant to attack the enemy: are very common in the Cape Verd iflands. 13. The sethiops, mangaby, or white-eyelid monkey,.pig, has a long, black,, naked, and dog-like face: the up¬ per eye-lids of a pure white: ears black, and like the human: no canine teeth : hairs on the fides of the face beneath the cheeks, longer than the reft : tail long : colour of the whole body tawny and black : flat nails on the thumbs and. fore-fingers; blunt clawson the others: hands and feet black.—Shown in London fome years ago: place uncertain: that deferibed by M. de Buffon came from Madagafcarwas very good-natu¬ red ; went on all-fours. 14. The aygula, or egret monkey, has a long face, Fig. 12. and an upright (harp-pointed tuft of hair on the top of the head. The hair on the fore-'head is black; the tuft, and the upper part of the body, light grey; the belly, white: the eye-brows are large; the beard very fmali. Size of a fmall cat. They inhabit Java. They fawn on men, on their own fpecies, and embrace each other. They play with dogs, if they have none of their own fpecies with them. If they fee a monkey of another kind, they greet him with a thoufand grimaces. When a number of them fleep, they put their heads together. They make a continual noife during night. 15. The Chinefe monkey, (/ Ulloa's Foy. I. 113. Des Marchais, IIL 311. fays, they are excellent eating, and that ajoupe auxfmgcs will be found as good as any other, as foon as you have conquered the averfion to the bonilh of their heads, which look very Ijke thoft of little children. SIM [ 8172 ] SIM Simla, companies; and make a great chatlering, efpecially in and his concubine divine worfhip. Thefe were th4 Simoniiesi.i>21 , fl. ftormy weather; reiide much on a fpecies of tree which earlieft heretics, and whom St John, St Peter, and St ' fr Simomans. jje3rs a podded fruit, which they feed on. Paul, in their epittles, fo often warn Chrittians againft. b. With ftraight tails, not prehenfile. SIMONIDES, the name of feveral poets celebrated 20. Thepithecia, or fox-tailed monkey, with a fwartby in antiquity; but by the Marbles it appears, that the face, covered with fhort white down: forehead and Tides deleft and moft illuftriotis of them was born in the 55th of the face with whitifh, and pretty long hair : body Olympiad, 538 years B. C. and that he died in his 90th with long dulky brown hairs; white or yellowiih at their year; which nearly agrees with the chronology of Eu- tips: hair on the tail very long and bulhy; fometimes febius. He was a native of Ceos, one of the Cyclades, black, fometimes reddifti: belly and lower part of the in the neighbourhood"of Attica, and the preceptor of limbs a reddilh white: length from nofe to tail, near a Pindar. Both Plato and Cicero give him the charac- foot and a half: tail longer, and like that of a fox: ter not only of a good poet and mufician, but fpeak hands and feet black, with claws inftead of nails. In- of him as a perfoa of great virtue and wifdom. Suck habits Guiana. longevity gave him an opportunity of knowing a great Jig- >7- 21. The iacchus, or ftriated monkey, with a very number of the firft chara&ers in antiquity, with whom, round head: about the ears two very long full tufts of he was in fome meafure connected. It appears in Fa- white hairs Handing out on each fide: irides reddifh: bricius, from ancient authority, that Simonides was face a fwarthy flefh colour: ears like the human: cotemporary and in friendfhip with Pittacus of Mity- J| head black: body afti-coloured, reddifh, and dufky ; lene, Hipparchus tyrant of Athens, Paufanias king of the laft forms ftriated bars crofs the body: tail full of Sparta, Hiero tyrant of Syracufe, with ThemHlocles* hair, annulated with afh-colour and black: body feven and with Alevades king of Theffaly. He is mentioned inches long; tail, near eleven: hands and feet covered by Herodotus; and Xenophon, in his Dialogue upont with fhort hairs: fingers like thofe of a fquirrel: nails, Tyranny, makes him one of the interlocutors with or rather claws, fharp. Inhabits Brafil: feeds on ve- Hiero king of Syracufe. Cicero alleges, what har getables; will alfo eat fifh: makes a weak noife: very often been quoted in proof of the modefty and wifdora reftlefs: often brought over to Europe. of Simonides, that when Hiero afked him for a defini¬ ng. 18. 22. The mico, or fair monkey, with a fmall round tion of God, the poet required a whole day to medi- head: face and ears of the moft lively vermilion colour: tate on fo important a queftion ; at the end of which, body covered with moft beautiful long hairs of a bright upon the prince, putting the fame queftion to him a and filvery whitenefs, of matchlefs elegance': tail of a fecond time, he a/ked two days refpite ; and in this {bining dark chefnut: head and body eight inches long; manner always doubled the delay each time he was re¬ tail twelve. Inhabits the banks of the Amazons; dif- quirsd to anfwer it; till at length, to avoid offending1 covered by M. de Condamine. his patron by more difappointments, he frankly con- SIMILE, or SiMiLfTUM, in rhetoric,, a compa- fefitd that he found the queftion fo difficult, that the rifon of two things, which though different in other more he meditated upon it, the hfs was his hope of" refpedls, yet agree in fome one. The difference be- being able to.folve it. tween a fimile and comparifon is faid to confift in this, In his old age, perhaps from feeing the refpedV • that the fimile properly belongs to whatever we call which money procured to fuch as had loft the charms- the quality of a thing, and the comparifon to the of youth and the power of attaching mankind by- quantity. See Comparison; andOxATORY, n°84.118* other means, he became fomewhat mercenary and-ava- SIMILOR, a name given to an alloy of red cop- ricious. He was frequently employed by the vi&ors per and zinc, made in the"beft proportions, tp imitate at the games to write panegyrics and odes in their filver and gold. f praife, before his pupil Pindar had exercifed his ta- SIMON (Richard), a French critic and divine, of lents in their behalf: but Simonides would never gra- great fenfe and learning, born at Dieppe in 1638. tify their vanity in this particular till he had firft tied He made a vaft proficiency in the Oriental tongues, them down to a ftipulated fum for his trouble; and upon- for which he had always a particular turn. He was being upbraided for his meannefs, he faid, that he had the author and editor of feveral works ; but the moft two coffers, in one of which he had for many years important 6f his publications was his Hijioire Critique put his pecuniary rewards; the other was for honours, dii Vieux Tejlament •, which appeared in 1678. He verbal thanks, and promifes ; that the firft was pretty died in 1612. well filled, but the lafl remained always empty. And- SIMONICAL, is applied to any perfon. guilty of he made no fcruple to confefs* in his old age, that fimony. See Simony. of all the enjoyments of life, the love of money wa*. SIMONIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of ancient the only one of which time had not deprived him. heretics, fo called from their founder Simon Magus He was frequently reproached for this vice; how- or the Magician. The herefies of Simon Magus were ever, he always defended himfelf with good-humour, principally his pretending to be the great power of Upon being afked by Hiero’s queen, Whether it was God, and thinking that the gifts of the Holy Ghoft rooft defirableto be learned or rich ?- he anfwered, that were venal, and to be purchafed with money. He is it was far better to be rich; for the learned were aU faid to have invented the iEons, which were fo many ways dependent on the rich, and waiting at their, perfons of whom the Godhead was fuppofed to be com- doors ; whereas he never faw rich men at the doors of pounded. His concubine Helen he called the firft in- the learned. When he was accufed of being fo fordid telligence, and mother of all things. Sometimes he as to fell part of the provifions with which his tabid called her Minerva, and himfelf Jupiter. Simon Ma- was furnifhed by. Hiero, he faid he had done it in or- gus gained a great many profelytes, who paid hjmfdf der » to difplay to the world the magnificence of that prince Si MIA . Plate pci.xvm. II.II aPooixs. '//ir// \\' > ' SlMIA. Flute J ///// /sr/ Yi / /. A> . //ns,/ cries out: Sweet child! what anguifh does thy mother know, Ere cruel grief has taught thy tears to flow ! Amidft the roaring wind’s tremendous found, Which threats deftruftion as it howls around; In balmy fleep thou lieft, as at the breaft, Without one bitter thought to break thy reft.—— The glimm’ring moon in pity hides her light, And (brinks with horror at the ghaftiy fight. Didft thou but know, fweet innocent! our woes. Not opiate’s pow’r thy eye-lids now could dofe. Sleep on, fweet babe! ye waves in filence roar; And lull, O lull to reft my tortur'd foul! There is a fecond great poet of the name of Simo¬ nides recorded on the Marbles, fuppofed to have been his grandfon, and who gained, in 478 B. C. the prize in the games at Athens. SIMONY, is the corrupt prefentation of any one to an ecclefiaftical benefice for money, gift, or reward. It is fo called from the refemblance it is faid to bear to the fin of Simon Magus, though the purchafing of holy orders feems to approach nearer to his offence. It was by the canon law a very grievous crime ; and is fo much the more odious, becaufe, as Sir Edward Goke obferves, it is ever accompanied with perjury; for the prefentee is fworn to have committed no fimony. However, it was not an offence punifhable in a crimi¬ nal way at the common law; it being thought fuffi- cient to leave the clerk to ecclefiaftical cenfures. But as thefe did not affed the fimoniacal patron, nor were efficacious enough to repel the notorious practice of the thing, divers afls of parliament have been made to reftrain it by means of civil forfeitures; which the modern prevailing ufage, with regard to fpiritual pre- 173 ] SIM ferments, calls aloud to be put in execution. The .Sin»n^e, fiatute 31 Eliz. c. 6. enafts, that if any patron, f0r simPllclty* money or any other corrupt confideration or promife, ’ dircftly ormdire&ly given, fhall prefent, admit, infti- tute, indu£, inftall, or collate any perfon to an eccle¬ fiaftical benefice or dignity, both the giver and taker fhall forfeit two years value of the benefice or dignity; one moiety to the king, and the other to any one who will fue for the fame. If perfons alfo corruptly refign or exchange their benefices, both the giver and taker fhall in like manner forfeit double the value of the mo¬ ney or other corrupt confideration. And perfons who ^ fhall corruptly ordain or licenfe any minifter, or pro¬ cure him to be ordained or Hcenfed, (which is the true idea of fimony), fhall incur a like forfeiture of forty pounds; and the minifter himfelf of ten pounds, be- fides an incapacity to hold any ecclefiaftical preferment for feven years afterwards. Corrupt eleflions and re- fignations in colleges, hofpitals, and other eleemofy- nary corporations, are alfo punifhed, by the fame fta- tute, with forfeiture of the double value, vacating the place or office, an- a devolution of the right of elec¬ tion, for that turn, to the crown. SIMPLE, fomething not mixed or compounded in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to compound. Simple, in the materia medica, a general name for all herbs or plants, as having each its particular virtue, whereby it becomes a fimple remedy. SIMPLICITY in writing. If we examine the writers whofe compofnions have flood the teft of ages, and obtained that highefl: honour, “ the concurrent approbation of diftant times and nations,” we fhall find that the character of fimplicity is the unvarying circumflance which alone hath been able to gain this univerfal homage from mankind. Among the Greeks, whofe writers in general are of the fimple kind, the divineft poet, the moft commanding orator, the fineft: hiftorian, and deepeft philofopher, are, above the reft, confpicuoufly eminent in this great quality. The Ro¬ man writers rife towards perfeftion according to that meafure of fimplicity which they mingle in their works: indeed, they are all inferior to the Greek mo¬ dels. But who will deny that Lucretius, Horace, Virgil, Livy, Terence, Tully, are at once the fimplelt and belt of Roman writers ? unhfs we add the noble-* annalift who appeared in after-times; who, notwith- ftanding the political turn of his genius, which fome- times interferes, is admirable in this great quality, and. by it far fuperior to bis contemporaries. It is thia one circumftance that hath raifed the venerable Dante, the father of modern poetry, above the fucceeding poets of his country, who could never long maintain the local and temporary honours bellowed upon them; but have fallen under that juft negled which time will ever decree to thofe who defert a juft fimplicity for the florid colourings of ftyle, contrafted phrafes, af- fe6ted conceits, the mere.trappings of compofition and ' Gothic minutiae. It is this hath given to Boileau the moft lading wreath in France, ^pd to Shakefpeare and Milton in England ; ^fpecially to the laft^ whefe wri¬ tings are more unim.. d in this refpeft, and who had formed himfelf entirely m the fimple model of the bdl Greek writers and of tl.i facred Scriptures. As it ap¬ pears from thefe inftanos, that fimplicity is the only univerfal chara&eriftic of juft writing, fo the fuperior SIM [ 8174 ] SIN Simplicity, eminence of the facred Scriptures in this prime quality _ H hath been generally acknowledged. One of the great- mp °n‘ eft critics in antiquity, himfelf confpicuous in the fub- lime and fimple manner, hath borne this teftimony to the writings of Mofes and St Paul; and by parity of reafon we mull conclude, that had he been converfant with the other facred writers, his tafte and candour would have allowed them the fame encomium. It hath been often obferved, even by writers of no mean rank, that the a Scriptures fuffer in their credit by the difadvantage of a literal verfion, while other ancient writings enjoy the advantage of a free and em* bellifhed tranflation.” But in reality thofe gentlemens concern is ill-placed and groundlefs : for the truth is, “ that mod other writings are impaired by a literal tranflation ; whereas giving only a due regard to the idiom of different languages, the facred writings, when literally tranflated, are then in their full perfe&ion.” Now this is an internal proof, that in all other writings there is a mixture of local, relative, exterior ornament, which is often loft in the transfufion from one language to another. But the internal beauties, which depend not on the particular conftrudtion of tongues, no change of tongue can deftroy. Hence the Bible-compofition preferves its native beauty and ftrength alike in every language, by the foie energy of unadorned phrafe, natural images, weight of fenti- ment, and great fimplicity. It is in this refpecl like a rich vein of gold, which, under the fevereft trials of heat, cold, and moifture, retains its original weight and fplendour, without ei¬ ther lofs or alloy ; while bafer metals are corrupted by earth, air, water, fire, and aflimilated to the various dements through which they pafs. This circumftance, then, may be juftly regarded as fufficient to vindicate the compofition of the facred — Scriptures, as it is at once their chief excellence and greateft fecurity. It is their excellence, as it renders them intelligible and ufeful to all; it is their fecurity, as it. prevents their being difguifed by the falfe and ca¬ pricious ornaments of vain or weak tranflators. We may fafely appeal to experience and fadt for the con¬ firmation of thefe remarks on the fuperior fimplicity, utility, and excellence of the ftyle of the holy Scrip¬ ture. Is there any book in the world fo perfe&ly ad¬ apted to all capacities ? that contains fuch fublime and exalted precepts, conveyed in fuch an artlefs and in¬ telligible drain, that can be read with fuch pleafure and advantage by the lettered fage and the unlettered peafant ? SIMPLOCE. See Oratory, n° 72. SIMPSON (Thomas), profefTor of mathematics at the royal academy at Woolwich, fellow of the Royal Society, and member of the Royal Academy at Stock¬ holm, was born at Market Bofworth in Leicefterfhire in 1710. His father, a fluff-weaver, taught him only to read Englifh, and brought him up to his own bufi- nefs ; but meeting with a fcientifical pedlar, who like- wife pradfifed fortune-telling, young Simpfon by his afliftance and advice, left off waving, and profeffed aftrology. As he improved v} knowledge, however, he grew difgufted with his pr/tended art: and renoun¬ cing it, was driven to fuch d fficulties for the fubfift- ence of his family, that he came up to London, where he worked as a weaver, and‘aught oiathematics at his fpare hours. As his fcholars increafed, his abilities Simpfon became better known, and he publifhed his Treatife . H . on Fluxions by fubfeription in 1737: in 1740, he pub- mapi* lifted his Treatife on the Nature and Laws of Chance; and Effays in fpeculative and mixed Mathematics. Af¬ ter thefe appeared his Dodfrine of Annuities and Re- verfions; Mathematical Differtations; Treatife on Al¬ gebra ; Elements of Geometry; Trigonometry, plane and fpherical; Seledt Exercifes; and hisDodtrine and Application of Fluxions ; which he profeffes to be ra¬ ther a new work, than a fecond edition of his former publication on fluxions. In 1743, he obtained the mathematical profefforftip at Woolwich academy; and foon after was chofen a member of the Royal Society, when the prefident and council, in confideration of bis moderate circumftances, were pleafed to excufe hisad- miflion-fees, and his giving bonds for the fettled future payments. At the academy, he exerted all his abili¬ ties in inftrudting the pupils who were the immediate objedts of his duty, as well as others whom the fuperior officers of the ordnance permitted to be boarded and lodged in his houfe. In his manner of teaching, he had a peculiar and happy addrefs, a certain dignity and perfpicuity, tempered with fuch a degree of miid- nefs, as engaged the attention, efteem, and fr'iend- ftip, of his fcholars. He therefore acquired great applaufe from his fupertors in the difeharge of his duty. His application andclofe confinement, however, injured his health. Exercife and a proper regimen were preferibed to him, but to little purpofe ; for his fpirits funk gradually, till he became incapable of per¬ forming his duty, or even of reading the letters of his friends* At length his phyficians advifed his native air for his recovery, and he fet out in February 1761 ; but was fo fatigued by his journey, that, upon his arri¬ val at Bofworth, he betook himfelf to his chamber, and grew continually worfe till the day of his death, which happened on the 14th of May, in the 51ft year of his age. SIN, a breach Or tranfgreffion of fome divine law or command. SINAPI, mustard ; a genus of the filiquofa or¬ der, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants. The principal fpecies are, 1. The alba, or white muftard, which is generally cultivated as a falad-herb for win¬ ter and fpring ufe. This rifes with a branched hairy ftalk two feet high ; the leaves are deeply jagged on their edges and rough. The flowers are difpofed in loofe fpikes at the end of the branches, Handing upon horizontal footftalks ; they have four yellow petals ia form of a crofs, which are fucceeded by hairy pods that end with long, compreffed oblique beaks; the pods generally contain four white feeds. 2. The nigra, or common muftard, which is fre¬ quently found growing naturally in many parts of Britain, but is alfo cultivated in fields for the feed, of which the fauce called mujiard is made. This rifes with a branching ftalk four or five feet high ; the lower leaves are large, rough, and very like thofe of turnep ; the upper leaves are fmaller and lefs jagged. The flowers are fmall, yellow, and grow in fpiked clufters at the end of the branches ; they have four pe¬ tals placed in form of a crofs, and are fucceeded by fmooth four-cornered pods. 3. The arvenfis, grows naturally on arable land in many SIN [ 81 many parts of England. The feed of this is commonly ■J fold under the title of Durham muftard-feed; of this g’ng' there are two varieties, if not diftinft fpecies; one with cut, the other has entire leaves. The ftalks rife two feet high ; the leaves are rough, and in one they are jagged like turnep-leaves ; the other are long and en¬ tire. The flowers are yellow ; the pods are turgid, an¬ gular, and have long beaks. Mtiftard, by its acrimony and pungency, ftimulates the folids, and attenuates vifcid juices ; and hence Hands defervedly recommended for exciting appe¬ tite, affifting digeftion, promoting the fluid fecretions, and for the other purpofes of the acrid plants called antifcorlutic. It imparts its tafte and fmell in per¬ fection to aqueous liquors, whilll fpirit of wine ex¬ tracts very little of either: the whole of the pungency arifes with water in diftillation. By expreffion it yields a confiderable quantity of a foft infipid oil, perfectly void of acrimony : the cake left after the expreffion is more pungent than the muftard was at firft.—By diftillation with a violent fire, muftard yields a volatile alkali, empyreumatic oil, and a fmall quantity of phofphorus. SINAPISM, in pharmacy, an external medicine, in form of a cataplafm, compofed chiefly of muftard-feed pulverized and mixed with the pulp of figs, or with briony, garlic, onion, or the like. SINCERITY, honefty of intention, freedom from hypocrify. See Moral Philofophy, n° 157. SINCIPUT, in anatomy, the fore-part of the head, reaching from the forehead to the coronal future. SINE, or right Sine of an Arch, in trigonometry, is a right line drawn from one end of that arch, per¬ pendicular to the radius drawn to the other end of the arch ; being always equal to half the chord of twice the earch. See Trigonometry, and Geome¬ try. SINECURES, eccle'fiafticalbenefices without cure cf fouls. SINEW, denotes properly what we call a tho* in comrnon fpeech it is rather ufed for a tendon. SINGING, the affion of making divers inflexions of the voice, agreeable to the ear, and correfpondent to the notes of a fong, or piece of melody. See Me- LODY. The firft; thing to be done in learning to fing, is to raifea fcale of notes by tones and femi-tones to an oc¬ tave, and defcend by the fame notes; and then to rife- and fall by greater intervals, as a third, fourth, fifth, &c. and to do all this by notes ef different pitch. Then thefe notes are reprefented by lines and fpaces, to which the fyllables fa, fol, la, mi, are applied, and the pupil taught to name each line and fpace thereby ; whence this praftice is called folfaing, the nature, reafon, effefts, &c. whereof, fee under the-article Sol- vain g. Singing of Birds. It is worthy of obfervation, that the female of no fpecies of birds ever fings: with birds, it is the reverfe of what occurs in human kind. Among the feathered tribe, all the cares of life fall to the lot of the tender fex ; theirs is the fatigue of incu¬ bation ; and the principal (hare in nurfing the helplefs brood : to alleviate thefe fatigues, and to fupport her under them, nature hath given to the male the fong, with all the little blanddhments and Toothing arts; 75 1 SIN thefe h« fondly exerts (even after courtfliip) on fome Singular fpray contiguous to the neft, during th* time his mate H is performing her parental duties. But that ftte fhould inop e' be filent is alfo another wife provifion of nature, for her fong would difcover her neft ; as would a gaudinefs of plumage, which, for the fame reafon, feems to have been denied her. On the fong of birds feveral curious experiments and obfervations have been made by the Hon. Daines Bar¬ rington. See Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. Ixiii. SINGULAR number, in grammar, that number of nouns and verbs which Hands oppofed to plural ; and is ufed when we only fpeak of a fingle, or one perlon or thing. See Grammar. The Latins, French, Englilh, &c. have no num¬ bers but the Angular and plural ; but the Greeks and Hebrews have likewife a dual number, peculiar to two perfons. SINISTER, fomething on or towards the left hand. Hence fome derive the wordfinifer, a fnendo; bccaufe the gods, by fuch auguries, permit us to pro¬ ceed in our defigns. Sinister, is ordinarily ufed among us forunluckyj though, in the facred rites of divination, the Romans ufed it in an oppofite fenfe. Thus avis ftnifra, or a bird on the left hand, was efteemed a happy omen : whence, in the law of the 13 tables, Ave fnifra populi magifer efo. Sinister, in heraldry. The finifter fide of an efcutcheon is the left-hand fide; the finifter chief, the left angle of the chief; the finifter bafe, the left-hand part of the bafe. Sinister among aftrologers, is an'appear- ance of two planets happening according to the fuc- ceffion of the figns; as Saturn in Aries, and Mars in the fame degree of gemini. SINISTRI, a fed of ancient heretics, thus call¬ ed becaufe they held the left hand in abhorrence, and made it a point of religion not to receive any thing therewith. SINKING fund, a provifion made by parliament, confitting of the furplufage of other funds, intended to be appropriated to the payment of the national debt; on the credit of which very large fums have been borrowed for public ufes. See National Debt, and Revenue. SINOPICA terra, in natural hiftory, the name of a red earth of the ochre kind, called alfo rubricafi- nopica, and by fome authors ftnopis. It is a very clofe, compaA, and weighty earth, of a fine glowing purple colour. It is of a pure texture, but not very hard, and of an even but dully furface. It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfe&ly fine and fmooth to the touch, does not crumble ealily between the fingers, and ftains the hands. It melts very flowly in the mouth, is perfedlly pure and fine, of an auftere aftringent tafte,. and ferments violently with aqua-fortis. It was dug in Cappadocia, and carried for fale to a city in the neighbourhood called Sinope, whence it had its- name. It is now found in plenty in the New Jerfeya in America, and is called by the people there blood- fone. Its fine texture and body, with its high flo¬ rid colour, mu ft make it very valuable to painters; and its aftringency promifes it to be a powerful medicine. SINOPLE^. in heraldry, denotes vert, or green co- louri SIR [ 8176 ] SIS Sinuofity. lour in armories.—Sinople is ufed to fignify love, youth, Sirens '3cauty» rejoicing, and liberty; whence it is that letters ‘ of grace, ambition, legitimation, &c. are always ufed to be fealed with green wax. SINUOSITY, a feries of bends and turns in arches, or other irregular figures, fometimes jetting out, and fometimes falling in. SINUS, in anatomy, denotes a cavity in certain bones and other parts, the entrance whereof is very narrow, and the bottom wider and more fpacious. Sinus, in forgery, a little cavity or facculus, fre¬ quently formed by a wound or ulcer, wherein pus is colle&ed. SIPHON, in hydroftatics. See Hydrostatics, ii° 20. SIR, the title of a knight or baronet, which, for diftimStion’s fake, as it is now given indifcriminately to all men, is always prefixed to the knight’s Chri- ftian name, either in fpeaking or writing to them. SIRE, a title of honour in Prance, now given to thekingonly as a mark of fovereignty. SIRENS, in fabulous hiftory, certain celebrated fongftrtlfes who were ranked among the demi-gods of antiquity. Hyginus places their birth among the confequences of the rape of Proferpine. Others make them daughters of the river Acheloiis and one of the mufes. Ovid Met.Wb. v. The number of the Sirens was three; and their names were Parthenope, Lygea, and Leucofta. Some make them half women and half filh ; others, half women and half birds. There are antique reprefentations of them Rill fubfifting under both thefe forms. Paufanias tells us, that the Sirens, by the perfuafion of Juno, challenged the Mufes to a trial of ikill in fing- ing ; and thefe having vanquilhed them, plucked the golden feathers from the wings of the Sirens, and formed them into crowns, with which they adorned their own heads. The Argonauts are faid to have been diverted from the enchantment of their fongs by the fuperior ftrains of Orpheus : UlyfTts, however, bad great dif¬ ficulty in fecuring himfelf from fedudion. (See Odyf. lib. xii.) .Pope, in his notes to the twelfth book of the Odyfiey, obferves, the critics have greatly laboured to explain what was the foundation of this fi&ion of Sirens. We are told by fome, that the Sirens were queens of certain fmall iflands named Sirenufa:, that lie near Capraea in Italy, and chiefly inhabited the promontory of Minerva, upon the top of which that goddefs had a temple, as fome affirm, built by Ulyffes. Here there was a renowned academy, in the reign of the Sirens, famous for eloquence and the liberal fciences, which gave occafion to the invention of this fable of the fweetnefs of the voice, and attrading fongs of the Sirens. But why then are they fabled to be deftroyers, and painted in fuch dreadful colours? We are told, that at lad the ftudents abufed their knowledge, to the colouring of wrong, the corruption of manners, and the fubverfion of government: that is, in the language of poetry, they were feigned to be tranf- formed into monfters, and with their mufic to have enticed paffengers to their ruin, who there confumed Iheir patrimonies, and poifoned their virtues with riot and effeminacy. The place is now called Mafia. Some writers tell us of a certain bay, contraded within winding ftreights and broken cliffs, which, by the finging-of the winds and beating of the waters, returns a delightful ba+mony, that allures the paffen- ger to approach, who is immediately thrown againft the rocks, and fwallowed up by the violent eddies* Thus Horace, moralifing, calls idlenefs a Siren, Vilanda eft improha Siren Deftdia But fhe fable may be applied to all pleafures in general, which, if too eagerly purfued, betray the in¬ cautious into ruin; while wile men, like Ulyffes, making ufe of their reafon, flop their ears againft their infinuations. All ancient authors agree in telling us, that Sirens inhabited the coaft of Sicily. The name, according to Bochart, who derives it from the Phoenician lan¬ guage, implies a fongftrefs. Hence it is probable, fays Mr Burney, that in ancient times there may have been excellent fingers, but of corrupt morals, on the coaft of Sicily, who, by feducing voyagers, gave rife to this fable. And if this conjedure be well founded, he obferves, the Mufes are not the only pagan divinip ties who preferved their influence over mankind in modern times ; for every age has its Sirens, and every Siren her votaries ; when beauty and talents, both powerful in themfelves, are united, they become ftill more attradive. Siren in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The body is naked, and fur- nifhed with two unguiculated feet and a tail. It hag a great refeftiblance to a lizard, only it is larger. It is found in m'arfhy grounds in Carolina. SIRIUS, in aftronomy, a bright ftar in the con- ftellation Canis. See Astronomy, n° 206. SIRLET (Flavius), an eminent Roman engraver on precious ftones: his Lacoon, and reprefentations in miniature of antique ftatues at Rome, are almoft invaluable, and very fcarce. He died in 1737. SIRMOND (James), a famous Jefuit, and one of the moft learned men France has produced, was born at Rtom in 1559. He became well fkilled in ecclefi- aftical antiquities; and acquired great reputation throughout all Europe by his profound erudition and his works. He was invited to Rome in 1590 by father Aquaviva, to whom he was fecretary for above 16 years. The cardinals Baronins, d’Ofiat, and Bar- berino, had a particular efteem for him; and he was of fome fervice to the former in aflifting him in com- pofing his Annals^ In 1608 he returned to Paris; and from that time fcarcely ever let a year pafs with¬ out publilhing fome of his works. He at length be¬ came confeffor to Lewis XIII. and for a long time enjoyed that place. He died at Paris in 1651. He publifhed a great number of books; the principal of which are, Excellent Notes on the Councils of France, the Capitularies of Charles the Bald, and the Theodofian Code ; good editions of the Works of Theodoret and Hincmar of Rheims; and many Opufcula on different Subjefts, printed at Paris in 1696, in five vols folio. SISON, bastard parsxey, a genus of the di- gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There are fix fpecies, the moft remarkable of SlMLV Tlate CCIZXX r ^ ,/6 \ \ Bita giiu stl or. CaracdLv r /rv) Ciiitiefe SWAX I’AN SIT [ 8.77 ] SIX Siftrum of which is the amotmim, or common baftard-parflty. J This is a biennial plant about three feet high, growing k*”8’ wild in many places of Britain. Its feeds are fmall, ftriated, of an oval figure and brown colour. Their tatte is warm and aromatic. Their whole flavour is extracted by fpirit of wine, which elevates very little of it in dillillation ; and hence the fpirituous extraft has the flavour in great perfe&ion, while the watery extradt has very little. A tinAure drawn with pure fpirit is of a green colour. The feeds have been efteemed aperient, diuretic, and carminative ; but are little regardad in the prefent praftice. SISTRUM, or Cistrum, a kind of ancient mufi- cal inttrument, ufed by the priefts of Ifis and Ofiris. It is defcnbed by Spon as of an oval form, in manner of a racket, with three flicks traverfing it breadth- wife ; which playing freely by the agitation of the whole inftrument, yielded a kind of found which to them feemed melodious. Mr Malcolm takes the fiftrum to be no better than a kind of rattle. Oifeliue ob- ferves,, that the fiftrum is found reprefented on feveral medals and on talifmans. SISYMBRIUM, water-crsss ; a genus of the filiquola order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants. There arc 25 fpecies j the molt remarkable is the nafturtium, or common water-crefs. This grows naturally in rivulets and clear ftanding waters in this country. The leaves are a ftrong antifcorbutic, and the exprefled juice contains all their virtues. It is an ingredient in the fuccifcorbutici of the Ihops, and may be taken in the dofe of one or two ounces. SISYPHUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the de- fcendents of Eolus, married Merope, one of the Pleiades, who bore him Glaucus. He refided jat E- pyra in Peloponnefus, and was a very crafty man. Others fay, that he was a Trojan fecretary, who was punilhed for difcovering fecrets of ftate; and others again, that he was a notorious robber, killed by The- feus. However, all the poets agree that he was punifh- ed in Tartarus for his crimes, by rolling a great ftone to the top of an hill, which conftantly recoiled, and, rolling down inceffantly, renewed his labour. SITE, denotes the fituation of an houfe, &c. and fometimes the ground-plot or fpot of earth it (lands on. SITTA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of pica. The bill is fubulated, clyindrical, ftraight, andentire ; the fuperior mandible being longer than the inferior, and compreffed at the point. The tongue is lacerated, and the noftrils covered with hairs. There are three fperies, diftinguifhed by their colour. The Europaa, or nut-hatch, is in length near five inches three-quarters, breadth nine inches ; the bill is ftrpng and ftraight, about three quar¬ ters of an inch long; the upper mandible black, the lower white: the irides are hazel; the crown of the head, back, and coverts of the wings, of a fine bluifli grey: a black ftreak paffes over the eye from the mouth : the cheeks and chin are white ; the bread and belly of a dull orange-colour; the quill- feathers dulky ; the wings underneath are marked with two fpots, one white at the root of the exterior quills, the other black at the joint of the baftard-wing: the tail confifts of twelve feathers; the two middle arc grey, the two exterior feathers tipt with grey; then Vot. X. fucceeds a tranfverfe white fpot; beneath that the Shim reft is black : the legs are of a pale yellow ; the back- . B toe very ftrong, and the claws large. lxtus' The bird runs up and down the bodies of trees, like the woodpecker tribe; and feeds not only on in- feds, but nuts, of which it lays up a confiderable provifion in the hollows of trees : it is a pretty fight, fays Mr Willoughby, to fee her fetch a nut out of her hoard, place it faft in a chink, and then, ftanding above it with its head downwards, ftriking it with all its force, break the (hell, and^catch up the kernel. It breeds in the hollows of trees; if the entrance to its neft be too large, it Hops up part of it with clay, leaving only room enough for admiffion : in autumn it begins to make a chattering noife, being filent for the greateft part of the year. Dr Plott tells us, that this bird, by putting its bill into a crack in the bough of a tree, can make fuch a violent found as if it was rending afunder, fo that the noife may be heard at left twelve fcore yards. SIUM, kex ; a genus of the digynia order, be¬ longing to the pentandria clafs of plants. There are eight fpecies; the mod remarkable is the latifolium, or great water-parfnep, which grows fpontaneoufly in many places both of England and Scotland on the fides of lakes, ponds, and rivulets. The ftalk is ered and furrowed, a yard high or more. The leaves are pinnated with three or four pair of large-elliptic pinnse, with an odd one at the end, all ferrated on the edges. The ftalk and branches are terminated with ereft umbels, which is the chief charaderiftic of the fpecies. Cattle are faid to have run mad by feeding upon this plant. SIXTH, in mufic, one of the fimple original con¬ cords or harmonical intervals. See Interval, SIXTUS V. (pope), the moft extraordinary man of his time. His father, a poor vine-dreffer, unable to maintain him, put him out to a farmer, who made him keep his fheep, and afterwards his hogs. His real name is not known, but in this ftation he called himfelf Felix; and, from his earlieft youth, he feems to have had an unaccountable prepofleffion or impulfe of his future greatnefs. By degrees he rofe to be in- quifitor at Venice; but quarrelling with the fenate, he was obliged to quit the territories of the republic. Being rallied upon his precipitate retreat, he replied, that having made a vow to be pope at Rome, he did not think it right to (lay to be hanged at Venice. By his intrigues and addrefs he obtained a cardinal’s hat from pope Pius V. By an affedation of great humility, and the appearance of being loaded with bodily infirmities, he fo far deceived the conclave, after the death of pope Gregory XIII. that, being divided into fadions, in order to put an end to the hopes and cabals of each, they eleded him pope, ima¬ gining that he would not live long, and in the mean time that the fadions would be weakened, and render the choice of a fuccefibr lefs difficult. Sixtus was no fooner eleded, than he threw away his crutch, and with it all his affumed debility, to the great aftonifii- ment of the whole conclave. Nor was the changj in his manners remarkable than in his perfon Inftead of his former humility and complaifance, he treated every one with referve and haughtnefs; thofe parti¬ cularly who had been moft inftrumental in his exal- 40 X tatiou. S I Z [ 81 Sixfus, tatlon. The lenity of his predecefibr Gregory’s go* Jl e vernment had introduced a licentioufnefs among all lze' _ ranks of people : but the reformation of abufes both in church and date was the firft and principal care of Sixtus ; and this he fignified very early. It had been cuftomary with many preceding popes to order the prifon-doors to be fet open on the day of their coro¬ nation; and in expeftation of this aft of grace, many of the banditti and other delinquents were wont to furrender themfelves on the eleftion of a new pope. Sixtus, on the contrary, ordered that four of the moll notorious offenders Ihould be publicly executed at the very time of his coronation ; two by the axe, and two by the halter: and, in conformity to the refolution he had taken he put an early Hop to the profligacy of the people, he condufted himfelf with an unexampled feverity in the punifhment of offenders, without the lead refpeft to perfons ; of which many indances are recorded. He particularly direfted the legates and governors of the ecclefiadical date to be expeditious in their criminal proceffes; declaring, he had rather have the gibbets and galleys full than the prifons ; and had in view the Ihortening law-proceedings in general. At his acceffion to the papacy, he found the apodolic chamber not only exhauded, but in debt; he left it clear, and enriched with five millions of gold. To him the city of Rome was obliged for feveral of its greated embellilhments, particularly the Vatican library ; and to him its citizens were indebted for the introduftion of trade into the ecclefiadical date. This great man, who was alfo a patron of learning and of men of genius, died, not without the fufpicion of having been poifoned by the Spaniards, in 1590 ; having en¬ joyed the papacy little more than five years. A Latin verfion of the Bible, compiled by his order, appeared in the fame year, in three vols folio; but fo many faults were difcovered in it, that it was fup- preffed by his fucceffor Gregory XIV. Clement VIII. who fucceeded Gregory caufed a new edition to be printed, in which the errors of the fird are correftedj and this is very fcarce. SIYA-ghush, the caracal of Buffon, an animal of the cat kind. It has a lengthened face, and fmall head ; very long Ilender black ears, terminated with a long tuft of black hairs ; infide and bottom of the ears white; nofe white; eyes fmall: the upper part of the body is of a very pale reddifh brown, the tail rather darker; belly and bread whitilh: limbs drong, and pretty long: tail about half the length of the body. They inhabit Perfia, India, and Barbary ; where they are often brought up tame, and ufed in the chace of leffer quadrupeds, and of the larger fort of birds, fuch as cranes, pelecans, peacocks, &c. which they furprifewith great addrefs : when they feize their prey, they hold it fad with their mouth, and lie for a time motionlefs on it. They arefaid to attend the lion, and to feed on the remains of the prey that animal leaves. They are very fierce when provoked : Dr Charlcton fays, he faw one fall on a hound, which it killed'and tore to pieces in a moment, notwithftanding the dog defended itfelf to the utmod. The Arabian writers call it Anak el Ard: they fay that it hunts like the panther; jumps up at cranes as they fly; and covers its deps when hunting. SIZE, the name of an indrument ufed for finding ^he bignefs of fine round pearls. It confids of thin 78 ] SKI pieces or leaves, about two inches long, and half an inch broad, fadened together at one end by a rivet. In each of thefe are round holes drilled of different dia-« meters. Thofe in the firft leaf ferve for meafuring pearls from half a grain to feven grains ; thofe of the fecond, for pearls from eight grains or two carats to five carats,&c.; and thofe of the third, for pearls from fix carats and a half to eight carats and a half. Sue, is alfo a fort of paint, varnifh, or glue ufed by painters, &c. The flueds and parings of leather, parchment, or vellum, being boiled in water and drained, make fize. This fubdance is much ufed in many trades. —The manner of ufing fize is to melt fome of it over a gentle fire; and fcrapingas much whiting into it as may only colour it, let them be well incorporated together ; af¬ ter which you may whiten frames, &c. with it. After it dries, melt the fize again, and put more whiting, and whiten the frames, &c. feven or eight times, let¬ ting it dry between each time: but before it is quite dry, between each wafhing with fize, you mull fmoothe and wet it over with a clean brulh-pencil in fair water. To make gold-fize. Take gum animi and afphaf- tum, of each one ounce; minium, litharge of gold, and amber, of each half an ounce : reduce all ieto a very fine powder, and add to them four ounces of lin- feed-oil, and eight ounces of drying oil : digeft them over a gentle fire that does not flame, fo that the mixture may only fimmer, but not boilj for fear it fliculdrun over and fet the houfe on fire, keep it conftantly ftir - ring with a (lick till all the ingredients are diffolved and incorporated, and do not leave off ftirring till it becomes thick and ropy; and being boiled long enough, let it (land till it is almoft cold, and then drain it through a coarfe linen cloth, and keep it for ufe.—To prepare it for working, put what quantity you pleafe in a horfe-mufcle (hell, adding as much oil of turpentine as will diffolve it; and making it as thin as the bottom of your feed-lac varniflr, hold it over a candle, and then drain it through a linen-rag into ano¬ ther (hell; add to tbefe as much vermilion as will make it of a darkifh red : if it is too thick for drawing, you may thin it with fome oil of turpentine. The chief ufe of this fize is for laying on of metals. The bed gold-fize for burnifliing is made as follows. Take fine bole, what quantity you pleafe; grind it finely on a marble, then ferape into it a little beef- fuet; grind all well together; after which mix in a fmall proportion of parchment-fize with a double pro¬ portion of water, and it is done. To make filver-fize. Take tobacco-pipe clay in fine powder, into which ferape fome black-lead, and a little Genoa foap, and grind them all together with parch¬ ment fize as already direfted. SKELETON, in anatomy, the dried bones of any animal joined together by wires, or by the natural liga¬ ments dried, in fuch a manner as to (hpw their pofition when the creature was alive. SKIE, one of the greated of the Wedern Iflands of Scotland, fo called from Skianach, which in the Erfe dialeft fignifies >ke along with it. This is the manner in which fuliginous vapours are made to afeend in chimneys; and by attending to it, we may draw the following corollaries with regard to the conftru&ion of this ufefu) part of our habitations 1 ft, The higher the chimney, that is, the greater the diftance between the fire-place and the top of the chimney, the greater will be the difference between the weight of the column of heated air in the tube, and another column of the atmofphere of the fame di¬ ameter without the chimney ; and confequently the air will enter with the greater force at the opening AE, and carry up the fmoke more readily along with it: for as the warm air within the tube continues rarefied to a high degree till it iffues from the top of the chim¬ ney, and is, in every part of its length, lighter than the fame bulk of external air marked by the dotted line CD, it follows, that the longer thefe twp columns of unequal gravity are, the greater muft be the differ¬ ence of their weight. Hence it is that high chimneys (cateris paribus) have a greater fu&ion of air, and are lefs liable to vent ill, than low ones. A fmoky chim¬ ney may therefore fometimes be cured by raifing it higher. S M 0 [3 Smoke, higher. It is Hkewife obvious, that if any opening is ‘Tate made into the chimney, as at F, the air will enter XLXX1. with lefs force at E, and carry up the fmoke with left velocity, and by that means be in danger of producing fmoke in the room j for this opening, as it admits the frefh air into the tube, has nearly the fame effedt as Ihortening the tube fo much would have. 2d, As the fmoke is forced up the chimney merely by the rarefa&ion of the air in confequence of heat, it is evident, that the mord the air is heated, with the greater force (aeteris paribus) will it afeend, becaufe the difference between the weight of the external and internal air will be greater; and as the air will be the more heated the nearer it is made to pafs by the fire in its entry into the chimney, it is evident, that the fmallcr the opening at AE is, or, in other words, the lower the mantle of the chimney is, the air will be forced to pafs the nearer the fire, and therefore be more rarefied, and afeend with the greater velocity ; fo that lowering the mantle of the chimney will often cure fmoke. But it is frequently inconvenient to have the mantle of the chimney too low. However, the fame effe& may often be produced by another contrivance. For as the fire-place is ufually made wider than the length of the grate, a great deal of cool air paffes at the two fides of the grate, without being much heated. This greatly diminifhes the fudtion of the chimney; but it may eafiiy be prevented by building up the vacancies at each fide of the grate, fo as to allow no air to enter from below, except what comes immediately through or before the fire. For this purpofe, grates confifling of a neat hewed ftone at each end, with a bread and bottom of iron fitted to them, as reprefented at fig. 2. are extremely convenient. But the aperture of the chimney is often not fuddenly contrafted above the mantle, but goes up tapering flowly, as in the fame fig. 2. This ftruclure allows a quantity of cool air to enter at the two corners of the mantle, and deal up the tube without coming near the fire. The mod eafy and effe&ual method of remedying this defeft, is to place a fheet of milled iron within the mantle on each fide, as low down as poffible, making them Oant a little up¬ wards towards the middle of the chimney; as at A, fig. 2. the mantle being reprefented by the dotted line. By this contrivance, the air, which enters at the fide of the mantle, before it can afeend into the chimney, is forced to pafs very near the fire, and of courfe is much rarefied. The good effedfs of this would be dill more drongly felt if one of thefe plates were placed a little lower than the other, and made fo long that the ends (hould crofs each other, as at AB, fig. 2. by which means every particle of air that v/ent up the chimney behoved to pafs immediately above the fire. It is aimed unneceflary to obferve, that .thefe plates ought to be fo contrived as to be ta- .ken out at pleafure to allow the chimney to be cleaned. A chimney may not only be defective by having the mantle too high, or by being too wide from fide to ^ fide, but alfo by being too deep between the fore-fide aV.d the back, as is often the cafe in very old houfes. In this cafe, the didance between the fire and the mantle is fo great, that much air pafles up without being fuf- fkiently rarefied, as is reprefented at fig. 3. This may be fometimes cured by bringing the grate a little for- V«L. X. I 85 ] S M O ward, which, by making the fire adt more powerfully Smoke,. upon the mantle, rarefies the air more in its paflage. But this can feldom produce the defired effedf, and it often does harm : for when the gratf is brought for¬ ward, there is a great vacancy left between it and the back of the chimney, fo that the air pafles under the grate, and afeends behind it very little rarefied ; fo that if the feet of the grate are not very lew, there Will be as much lod in this way as will be gained in the other j and as there is not enough of heated air in the chimneys of this kind to make the vapour afeend with rapidity, they are often choaked with thick fuliginous vapours hanging in them, almofl in equilibrio with the red of the atmofphere, fo that the lead puff of wind beats them down the chimney, and pulhes the fmoke into the room ; whereas, when it is far back, it is driven down upon the hearth, and rifes upwards again when the gud is over, and a great deal of it is catch- ed within the mantle as it rifes, which in the other cafe would have been difperfed through the room. When this is the cafe, the mod effedual method of cure is, to bring the grate forward till the fore-part of it is immediately under the inner edge of the mantle; then build up the vacancy at the back of it the whole width of the fire-place from fide to fide, railing it per¬ pendicularly till it is as high as the back of the grate, and then bending it forward towards the mantle, as is reprefented at fig. 4. When it is as high as the work¬ man can reach, let it befuddenly turnedbackwardagain, floping a little upward, as in the figure; then fit a fheet of milled iron to the infide of the mantle, making it flant a little upward toward the back-part, at a fmall didance above the new-eredted mafonry, and extending within a few inches of the back-wall, as at A, fig. 4; By this condruction, all the air that enters into the chimney is made to pafs immediately above the fire, between it and the heated iron, upon which the flame afts with the greater force, as the back of the fire¬ place is bent a little forward above the grate, and the heat is likewife refle&ed into the room with the greater force: at the fame time, if the fmoke is at any time beat down the chimney by a fudden gud of wind, it will be catched by the Iheet of iron, and prevented from coming into the room. If the fire place be very wide between the one fide and the other, the new ma¬ fonry may be carried quite up to the Iheet of iron on each of the fides. 3d, As every fire requires a condant fucceflion of frefh air, the tube for conveying this rarefied air to the higher regions of the atmofphere mutt be of a fuffi- cient fize to contain the whole of it, and allow it a ready paflage ; otherwife a part of it will be forced to feek fome other pafiage ; by which means the apart¬ ment in which the fire is placed will be condantly fill¬ ed with fmoke. Every chimney-, therefore, ought to have a degree of widenefs fufficient to carry off the whole of the fmoke arifing from the fire ufually burnt in it, otherwife the apartment will be almod conti¬ nually filled with fmoke. This is a fault more com¬ mon at prefent than any of thofe already mentioned, efpecially in large towns, where the number of chim¬ neys in one wall is often fo great that it is difficult to get a fufficient fpace for each. The mod obvious cure, where the lituation admits of it, is to widen the chim¬ ney, by opening a hole a little above the grate thro’ 40 Y the S M O r 8186 1 S M O Smoke, the back-wall of the chimney, flantinga little upward, and building on the outfide of the wall a fmali chim- CCLXXI, ney open from that hole to the top of the building, as in fig. 5. where AB reprifents the new tube going through the wall at the opening at A, which will re¬ ceive the fuperfluous fmoke, and carry it off. This additional chimney muft always be carried as high as the other. But as there are many fituations in which this method of cure would be impradticable, we muft try every method for accelerating the afcent of the fmoke, (for the more quickly it afcends, the more nar¬ row may the tube be) ; and with that view the chim¬ ney may be heightened at top, and contra&ed at bot¬ tom, in any or all the various ways we have men¬ tioned. But if none of thefe methods prove effedtual. Jet the chimney be built quite clofe at the under part, leaving only as much room as is fufficient to contain the grate, having a cover of metal fitted to that open¬ ing, which can be taken off or put on at pleafure ; by which the whole air that enters into the chimney is made to pafs through the fire like a furnace, and car¬ ries the fmoke up it with great velocity. Thefe are well known in large towns by the name ftndke-chimneys: but as they occafion a prodigious wafte of fuel without warming the room, and, unlefs attended with very great care, are in danger of fetting the building on fire, they ought to he as much avoided as pofftble. But if neither this nor any of the other methods prove effec¬ tual, the wall muft either be taken down and rebuilt in a proper manner, or the chimney abandoned as in¬ curable. As this is a defied more difficult to be reme¬ died than any other, we would ftrongly recommend it to every builder to build his chimneys of a fufficient width throughout: there is no danger of erring on this extreme, as it is eafy to remedy any defed that might arife from it. 4th, As the air which afcends through the chimney continues nearly of an equal degree of heat to the top, the tube ffiould be of an equal degree of width at the top as at the bottom, as well as through the whole of its length. It ought not therefore to be made taper¬ ing gradually from the fire-place to the top, but to be fuddenly contraded above the grate, as in fig. 6. from which it ought to be continued of an equal widenefs throughout its whole length ; but if it is narrower at any one place than another, it ought to be at the under part, immediately above the fire, for a very fliort fpace ; becaufe, as this is within reach of the hand, the foot can be cleaned from it as often as is neceffary ; fo that when the other parts of the chim¬ ney are clogged with foot, they will not be narrower than this place is at that time. 5th, It feldom happens that a chimney can be car¬ ried quite ftraight upwards: and it is an advantage that it is fo, as they ought always to be bent a little. For if a chimney be ftraight, and of a proper width to tranfmit the whole of the fmoke and no more, it will not be fufficient for that purpofe, when there is a heavy fall of rain, or fnow, or hail, with little wind ; for the great drops will fall perpendicularly from the top to the bottom of the chimney: and as they oc¬ cupy a confiderable fpace, the fmoke will not have room to afcend, but muft be forced down with the ffiower, and difperfed in the apartment; whereas, if the chimney is bent, the rain falls upon fome of the fides, and glides gently down, without didurbing the Smoke..} afcent of the fmoke. The fame inconvenience will be “ felt in a ftraight chimney, where it is fo placed as to be expofed to winds, which fometimes enter the top, and blow down with a fudden puff: for if it be ftraight, the air meets with no interruption till it de- fcends into the chamber, and there difperfis the fmoke; but if it be crooked, the defcent of the wind will be obftrucied, its force broken, and the bad effefts of it in a great meafure prevented. Upon the whole, bent chimneys are always preferable to ftraight ones. How¬ ever, a perpendicular chimney may be eafily cured by fome of the contrivances after mentioned. Thefe are the moft general dcfedts arifing from the ftru&ure of the chimney itfelf, which are all reducible to the following caufes : 1. Too little height; 2. Too great widenefs of the bottom of the chimney ; 3. Too little width; 4. Unequal widenefs between the top and bottom ; and, 5. Straightnefs of the tube. We have pointed out the bed methods of curing each of thefe defeffs ; and, to finifh our remarks on this gene¬ ral head, and give the reader a more perfedt idea of the belt form of conftrudtion for a chimney, we have drawn two different fedtions of one conftrudted on the jufteft principles, in figures 6. and 7. the feveral parts of which appear fo plain from the figures, and the reafons forthisconftrudtion have beenabeady fo clearly affigned, that a very fhort explanation will be fufficient. Fig. 6. reprefents a front-view of the fire place ; fup- pofing the fore-part of the wall taken down, and the chimney laid bare from top to bottom ; AB and DC, reprefenting the two fidea of the fire-place; and BC, the mantle, being cut through, to (how the manner in which the aperture is fuddenly contradted, immediate¬ ly above the fire within the mantle. The tube from the point E to the top ought to be of an equal wide¬ nefs, and bent in any diredtion that may be conve¬ nient. The two planes FF, reprefent the two fides of the fire-place, which ought to be as much Hoped in¬ ward towards the l>ack as the form of the grate will admit of; for the more they are inclined, the more powerfully will they refledt the heat into the apart¬ ment. Fig. 7. reprefents a perpendicular fedtion of the wall, through the middle of the chimney, to dif- cover its fhape, if viewed from a fide. And here it is- to be obferved, that it ought ever to be a rule to bring the building at the under part of the chimney imme- roediately behind the grate, as far forward as poffible, becaufe this throws more heat into the chamber than if it were placed farther back : but as the fore-part of the grate ought never to projpdl beyond the inner edge of the mantle, care fhould be taken to have the under part of the mantle wrought as thin as the nature of the materials will admit of, making it thicker towards the upper part, fo as to fiope inwards above the fire, as reprefented at B, fig. 7. To throw the heat outward,, let the upper part of the back of the fire-place be a little inclined outward, asat C ; but after it is carried up in this manner a little higher than the mantle, let it be fuddenly turned back as in the figure, the pro- jedfion above the mantle inclining backward in the fame diredtion, being cagried up to the top at an equal widenefs the whole way. Although it is neceffary to have all chimneys pretty wide, v«t this on many occ&fions is attended with in- cojiy:? S M 0 [ 8] i Smoke. eon^Iences for aa they tranfmit a great quantity of “'heated air, too large a portion of that warm air which -CGLXXI. ought to heat the chamber is carried off; and as it is only when the fire is firft kindled that the great quan¬ tity of grofs vapour is exhaled, which fills the chim¬ ney, and maketh a large tube neceffary, if it were fo contrived as to contract or dilate at pleafure, we might have our chimney of a fufficient width to convey away the greateft quantity of fmoke that could ever have occafion to pafs throogh it, at the fame time that we might never allow more air to pafs off at other times than was neceffary to carry away the whole of the fmoke, by which means a much fmaller quantity of fuel would keep our apartment equally warm. This, we apprehend, might be accomplilhed by the follow¬ ing Ample apparatus. Let a (heet of milled iron be fixed at the upper part of the mantle, on the infide, at 33, in fuch a manner a« that, by means of a fmall wire de, palling through a fmall hole left for that pur- pofe in the fore-part of the chimney, it might be Jet down at pleafure towards C, or drawn up towards 33, fo as to apply quite clofe to the upper edge of the chimney between B and C. This would leave the tube of its full widenefs when neceffary, or clofe it to any degree at pleafure, with the greateft cafe (a.) It is unneceflary to add, that the plate at A, fig. 4. might be employed in the fame manner, when it Ihould be found convenient. So much for what relates to the conftrudfion of the chimney itfelf. We now proceed to confider the fecond general caufe of fmoke, viz. II. Of fmoky houfes proceeding from faults of other parts of the building, altogether independent of the ftrufture of the chimney itfelf. 1 ft, The firft we lhall mention is too great clofe- nefs of the room. Smoke, as (hown above, is impel¬ led up the chimney by the preffure of the air entering at the fire-place and afeending upwards; but if frefh air is not admitted into the apartment in fufficient quantities to fupply the confumption by the fire, the room will be quickly exhaufted, and the air in it be¬ come as light as the external air at the top of the chimney, fo that the fmoke will as readily be difperfed into the chamber as through the chimney. But if any door or window is opened fo as to admit plenty of free air, the fmoke will be quickly difpelled, and the proper circulation eftablifhed : the fame effedf will be produced by making a fmall hole in fome of the fides of the room ; but unlefs this be done with fome judg¬ ment, it may frequently add to the difeafe, as it may concur with fome of the other eaufes of fmoky houfes, to be afterwards mentioned. A better method of re¬ medying this evil would be to have a fmall hole made in the wall at the back of the chimney, and immedi¬ ately underneath it: or a fmall perforation, made in the wall in any other convenient manner ; the one 87 ] S M O end of which fliould communicate with the external Smoke, air, and the other communicate with the chamber in " any place near the grate, and as low down as pofiible, through which a conftant fupply of air would be ad- minifteredto the fire without the fmalldl inconvenience or trouble. If this were prasftifed, doors and windows might with fafety be made much clofer than at pre- fent, and our apartments rendered equally warm and comfortable with a much fmallcr quantity of fuel than we ufe at prefent. For as the fire, in the prefent mode of conftru&ing chambers, is kept alive by a con¬ ftant fucceffion of cold air from the doors, windows, and other crannies of the room, rufhing towards the chimney in all directions, the air of the room, which, if not cooled by this means, would be quickly heated to a great degree, is conftantly kept cold, in fpite of the ftrong heat of a blazing fire 5 which, at the fame time that it fcorches the parts of our body which are molt expofed to it, does not warm the parts which are turned from it ; and we experience at the fame time a burning heat and piercing cold, which is often produc¬ tive of the molt difagreeable effefts. But if the fire were fupplied with air in the manner above-mentioned, there would be lefs air drawn in through the crannies of the room, fo that the air within would be foon warmed, and continue long fo, even with a fmall de¬ gree of heat. However improper this might be for people in perfed health, it might furely be of great ufe for thofe who are in a weakly habit of body ; efpe- cially if care were taken to carry off the foul air, by having a fmall tube leading from the upper part of the room to the top of the houfe, through which the air, which bad been rendered noxious by the fmoke of candles or perfpiration, would be conveyed away, and a fuccefiion of frtfh air admitted from the tube near the fire-place, to fupply that want. That the reader may more readily comprehend what is here meant, we have reprefented in fig. 6. a view of two fmall tubes for this purpofe, fuppofed to be laid open by taking away the boxing or inner coating of the wall which ought to cover them. Thefe are of wood, and mull not be above one inch in diameter. One end, g gy goes quite through the outer wall of the houfe, and communicates with the open air, having a fmall grate upon it to prevent vermin from entering. The other end, h b, paffes behind the two flabs, at the fide of the fire-place, and open in the infide of the fire-place at i i, at which place they have each of them a fmall bit of brafs fixed to them, being clofed with two Aiding doors exadfly like thofe that are ufed to cover the end of telefcopes, by means of which more or kfs air may be admitted at pleafure. 2d, A fecond caufe of fmoke is the wrong pofition of doors and windows with refpeA to the fire-places. As the fmoke is impelled up the chimney by the 40 Y 2 preffure (a) If any one fhould think, that the wire d would be a difagreeable objeeft in the middle of a chimney-piece, it might eafily be-hid by a pitfure of any kind. The wire might be fixed to a fmall brafs handle, moving freely upward and downward like that for a bell; only this Ihould have a long flit in the middle of it, with notches on each fide, to receive a pin placed in the middle of the (lit, by means of which the wire might be lengthened or fhortened at pleaftire. The whole of this apparatus is reprefented at fig. 16. where {a) reprefent: the wire fattened to the brafs plate; {b) a piece of brafs, railed a little, toferve as a handle. The flit in the middle is reprefented by the dark line, having notches, c c c, at convenient diftances. The pin d is fixed into the wall, but left at liberty to turij. about with eafe ; and its head ftands up a little, fo as to be eafily turned with the finger and thumb. The body of this nail is made fo thin in one diredion, that when it is turned half round, it eafily paffes thro’ the flit in the plate ; but in the other direfftion its diameter is greater, fo that when the plate is brought fo as to have one of the notches, oppofite to the jiail, and it is then turned half round, it catches the plate fo that it cannot be moved till the nail is again turned about. S M O r 8188 1 S M o Smoke, pieffure of tbc air, if that air is driven away from the plate fire-place by any catife more powerful than the fu&ion CCLXXI. occafioned by the fire, the fmoke muft alfo be drawn away with it, and follow the fame dire&ions with that current of air; fo that whatever tends to draw a cur¬ rent of air from the under-part of the chimney, will alfo tend to produce fmoke in the honfe; from whence it is eafy to conceive how doors or windows may oc- cafion fmoke when the wind is in certain directions. Thus, fuppofe a chamber, A, B, C, D, fig. 8. having a door or window at E, another at F, and a fire-place at G ; when the wind is in the direction D A or C B, the general current of air will occafion a fort of fuCtion at the opening E, fo that the air will be drawn from the chimney G towards E : and if the current be ftrong, and the opening at E large, it will become more powerful than the fuCtion of the chimney, and produce fmoke in the apartment. If the window at F Ihould be opened in this cafe, it would not mend the matter; for any wind which Ihould enter at F, would be carried ftraight out at the opening E, and the cur¬ rent of air would be drawn from the chimney as ftrong as ever. If the window at E were fhut, and that at F left open, and the wind ftill continued in the fame di¬ rection as before, the current of air rufhing paft the window would have a tendency to draw the air of the room along with it, and occafion fmoke, but not fo powerfully as if the window at E were open ; but if the wind were in the direction D B, it would be very bad : but if it blew in the direction C A, the cafe would be very much altered ; for then a quantity of air being forced in at the opening F, and finding no ready jjaffage, it would be pent up in the chamber, and force itfelf up the chimney with violence. We omit men-, tioning what would be the effeCt if the wind were in other directions, as it is imagined thefe will be fuffi-. ciently obvious to every attentive obferver. It is only neceffary here to obferve, that as doors or windows are feldom fo exaCtly made, but they produce fome ef¬ feCt, as they always admit fome air even when fhut, and often occafion fmoke when the wind blows from a particular quarter; and as workmen and others gene¬ rally apprehend,, when houfes are troubled with fmoke in this manner, that it is occafioned by fome external caufe, and apply their attention to cure it by altering the top of the chimney, which never can produce the fmalleli fervice in this cafe; we would recommend a more particular attention to be paid to the fituation of doors and windows than is generally beftowed ; efpe- cially in fucb fituations where they are expofed to any .violent current of air in a particular dire&ion, as in narrow lanes, or defiles of any fort, where the wind, when in particular diredions, is hurried along with a prodigious rapidity. And, that the effeds of different pofitions may be itill more obvious, we (hall produce feveral other examples. Suppofe a chamber, fig. 9. having a door at A, and two windows B C, with a fire-place D. If the wind came in the direction D A, and if the door tranf- niitted as much or more air than was admitted at both the windows, a current of air would run from all parts of the chamber towards A, and therefore would have a tendency to occafion fmoke : but if as much or more air came in at the windows than could get out at the door, there could be no fuch current, but, on the contrary, it would be forced up the chimney, and carry Smoke, the fmoke along with it: wherefore, in this fituation, ” a room might fometiraes be cured of fmoke, by making the door as clofe as poffible; nothing could be more hurtful in this cafe than boring a hole in the door. But if the houfe was in fuch a lituation as to be more frequently expofed to a wind which came in thedirec-’ tion of A D, it would run little rifk of being troubled with fmoke. Suppofe a room, fig. to. having a door at A*.and’ two windows B and C, with a fire-place D, If the wind came in the dire&ion CB or BC, and both the windows were open, it is evident that the fmoke would be drawn from the chimney by the ftrong current of air pafiiug through the room ; or if the window upon which the wind came were clofed, and the oppofite one open, nearly the fame effe& would be produced : but if the window upon which the wind blew were open, and the oppofite one and the door fhut, the room would be immediately cleared of fmoke entirely. In this fituation, it is evident, that if the windows were badly made, fo as to admit much air, it would tend to oc¬ cafion fmoke, efpecially if the door were in the fame fituation ; it is therefore of confequence to attend to this circumftance in a fituation fimilar to this. Having premifed fo much with regard to Angle rooms, we fhall now proceed to confider a more com¬ pound ftru&ure. Thus, let fig. 11. reprefent a build¬ ing confiding of two chambers, KL, joined by a paf- fagei The chamber K having a door B communica¬ ting with the paffage, a window F, and fire-place G.; and that at L having a door C, another door or window D, the window E, and fire-place H, the en¬ try to the whole being by the door A. Let us now confider what would be the effect of the wind coming from different dire&tons upon this building. And firft* fuppofe the wind blew in the dire&ion AM: If all the doors and windows were clofe (hut, and very little air were admitted, there would be little rifle of fmoke ; but as there would furely be fome admitted through thefe different openings, there would be fome chance that the chamber L would be troubled with fmoke, becaufe fome of the air which forced its paffage thro’ the chinks of the door A would pafs through the doors C and D, which might produce fmoke in a fmall de¬ gree. There would be little chance that the chamber K would fmoke in this cafe; becaufe although there is a general fu&ion through the paffage from B to D> yet as it is in fome meafure interrupted by the clofe door at C, it will be but fmall ; and as the wind is interrupted in its courfe by the wall of the paffage, fome of it will be forced through the chinks of the window F, which would more than counterbalance the effe&s of the other fu&ion. But if the door D were open, both the chimneys would fraoke ; efpecially if the doors B and C were open alfo, as the current would be then very ftrong towards that point. But in alL cafes the fmoke of this houfe would be prevented by keeping the door at D flint, and that at A open ; but if the houfe was in fuch a fituation as to be more ex-, pofed to that wind than any other, it would be better to clofe up the door D altogether. If the wind more commonly came from M towards A, it is more than probable that a houfe fituated like this would be quite free of fmoke, as the general current of air would be to- Smoke, Plate CCLXXI. S M O [ 81 towards the chimneys ; but the chamber K would run greater rilk than L, as the fu&ion might fometimes be drawn towards the window F; but if the door A were in the oppofite fide of the paffage, that inconvenience would be avoided alfo. If the more general current of air were from K towards L, this houfe behoved to be troubled with fmoke, unlefs the windows were very clofe; but there would not be the fmalleft chance for that when it came from L towards K. We might now proceed to give more examples of this fort: but as it would be impoffible to enumerate all the variety of cafes that might occur, it is imagined that thefe will be fufficient to give the reader an idea of the manner in which any building ought to be exa¬ mined in this refpeA ; and he muft be left to his own diferetion to apply the principles above explained to all the variety of cafes that may occur. In large com¬ plicated buildings, it no doubt requires a greater ex¬ tent of thought to combine all the various circumftancea together, and draw a general conclufion, than in fmal- ler and more Ample ones; but if the following general rules are attended to, the complaints arifing from this caufe would be but few. ift, Avoid as much as may be long paffages leading to very diftant parts of a building, as there is often a ftrong current of air in thefe which helps to difturb the free circulation of air up the chimneys. 2d, Place the chimneys in general in that fide of the apartment towards which the wind which in general prevails moil in the fituation where the houfe is placed blows. And, 3d, make as many, if not more, doors and windows (efpecially fuch as have occafion to be moll frequently open) on that fide of the building frorn whence the moll prevalent wind does come. III. The third general caufe of fmoke in houfes is the wrong pofition of the houfe with regard to exter¬ nal objtfts, which, by interrupting the courfe of the air, makes it aflume various direftions, and wheel about in eddies, fo as to prevent it from afeending with eafe from the chimney-top, or beats it down into the room with violence. This is more feldom the caufe of fmoky houfes than either of the two before-mentioned ; al¬ though it feems to be almoll the only one attended to by the perfons who pretend to cure fmoky houfes at prefent, as mod of their remedies are adapted to re¬ move the diforders arifing from this caufe alone. We lhall briefly point out the feveral cafes in which this can occur, that every one may be enabled to judge for himfelf when thefe cures are proper or not. The air (as has been faid) is a fluid, and wind a current of that fluid ; which, when driven along the furface of the earth, flows with a fmooth and equal fheam, unlefs when oppofed by fome object which in¬ terrupts its courfe ; but when it meets with any objeft which direftly oppofes its courfe, it is in fome meafure pulhed back again, and made to fpread on every fide, till it meets with fome open fide, towards which it flows with great impetuofny. It is likewife a fluid of confiderable gravity, and therefore prefies upon the furface of the earth with great force ; fo that, when a current of it flows along the furface of our globe, it has a tendency to move forward and prefs downward at the fame time : from whence it happens, that when a current of air is forced over the top of any high ob - jedl, the fide of which defeends perpendicularly down- 89 ] S M O ward, the velocity of the current at firft overcomes the gravity, and it flies a Ihort way over in that direction; " but the power of gravity a&ing upon the under fur¬ face, draws it downward, and in a fliort time over¬ comes the impetus that it had to rulh forward, and occafions a fort of eddy nearly fimilar to what we fee among water behind a llone which interrupts the vio¬ lence of its currents. To illullrate this more plainly, let AB, fig. 12. re- prefent a part of a high building, near to which is a fmaller one CD; and let the dotted line EF reprefent a current of air flowing with confiderable force in the direflion FE. It is plain that it will flow ftraight forward over the top of the fmall building ; but when it meets with the large objedl, it will be interrupted in its courfe, and fpread itfelf on every fide, as reprefented by the dotted lines GG, &c. at laft it will flow towards that place through which it can efcapewith the great- eft eafe. If the oppofing objedl be large, and has no opening through which it can iflue near the ground, then it will afeend to the top-of it, and flow off in that dire&ion, carrying the fmok'e which afeends from the fmall chimney G along with it: but if there is any opening below, either a ftreet or lane, or any other paffage that will admit the wind to pafs, then will the natural gravity of the air draw the general current downward to flow off through the lower paffage ; in which cafe, the fmoke which ought to afeend through the chimney C, meeting with a current of air oppo- fing its paffage, will not be at liberty to iffue forth, but be forced back again into the room from whence it proceeded, unlefs fome contrivance is fallen upon to prevent it. ^ Again, let A, fig. 13. reprefent a fmall building at the fide of a great rock B, and the wind coming in the diredlion C D; when the current of air comes to the point D, being hurried forward with great velo- eity, it goes a little forward, but foon defeends down¬ ward, and gradually is refledled more and more in¬ ward, as reprefented by the dotted lines E E, & never could get reprefented on the ftage. He after- ledge that he was as graceful and handfome a man as any 3 M O any of the age he lived in; befides, there was a certain dignity in his air and manner which could not but in- fpire refpeft wherever he appeared. Perhaps he was too foon difcouraged; in all probability, had he per- fevered, a man of his great learning, profound faga- city, and intenfe application, befides being endued with every other external as well as internal accomplifhment, rouft have at laft fucceeded, and, had he attained to common old age, been at the head of his profefiion. Abandoning phyfic altogether as a profeffion, he [ 8192 ] S M U is, the Doftor did not feem to pofiefs the talents nc- Smollett ceffary for political altercation. He wanted temper S^ugg1* and coolnefs; and his friends aecufed his patron of ha- ~~ ving denied him the neceffary information, and even negle&ed the fulfilling of fume of his other engage¬ ments with him. Be that as it will, the Dodor is faid not to have forgotten him in his fubfequent perform- ences. His conftitution being at laft greatly impaired by a fedentary life and afiiduous application to ftudy, he fixed his refidence at Chelfea, and turned his thoughts went abroad for his health in the year 1763. entirely to writing. Yet, as an author, he was not near fo fuccefsful as his happy genius and acknowled¬ ged merit certainly deferved. He never acquired a patron among the great, who by his favour or benefi¬ cence relieved him from the neceffity of writing for a fubfiftence. The truth is, Dr Smollet poflefled a lofti- ^ ^ nefs and elevation of fentiment and charafter which curiofity, I fhall find fome amufement to beguile the appears to have difqualified him for currying favour tedious hours j which, without fome fuch employment, among thofe who were able to confer favours. It would be rendered infupportable by diftemper and dif- would be wrong to call this difpofition of his pride or quiet. You knew and pitied my fituation, traduced haughtinefs; for to his equals and inferiors he was ever by malice, perfecuted by faftion, abandoned by falfe . . He wrote an accouut of his travels in a Series of Letters to fome friends, which were afterwards publifhed in two volumes 8vo. During all that time he appears to have laboured under a conftant fit of chagrin. But the Hate of his mind will be bell learnt from himfelf. Thus he writes in his firft letter: “ In gratifying your polite, friendly, and generous. Bookfellers may there¬ fore be faid to have been his only patrons ; and from them he had conftant employment in tranflating, com¬ piling, and reviewing. He tranflated Gil Bias and patrons, and overwhelmed by the fenfe of a domellic calamity, which it was not in the power of fortune to repair.” By this domeftic calamity he means the lofs of his only child, a daughter, whom he loved with the Don Quixote, both fo happily, that all the former tendereft affedlion. The Dodlor lived to retura to his tranflations of thefe excellent productions of genius are native country : but his health continuing to decline, in a fair way of being fuperfeded by his. His name and meeting with frelh mortifications and difappoint- -likewife appears to a tranfiation of Voltaire’s Profe ments, he went back to Italy, where he died in OCto- Works : but little of it was done by his own hand; he her the 2ift 1771, having been born in the year 1720. ■only revifed it, and added a few notes. He was con- He was employed, during the laft years of his life, in cerned in a great variety of compilations. His Hi- abridging the Modern Univerfal Hiftory, great part ■fiory of England was the principal work of that kind, of which he had originally written himfelf, particular- -It had a moft extenfive fale; and the DoClor is faid to ly the hiftories of France, Italy, and Germany. have received 2000I. for writing it and the continua' •lion. In the year 1755 be fet on foot the Critical Review, «nd continued the principal manager of it till he went abroad for the firft time in the year 1763. To fpeak impartially, he was, perhaps, too acrimonious fome- times in the condudl of that work. Having, in par¬ ticular, made fome very fevere ftriCtures on a pamphlet publifhed by Admiral Knowles, as well as on the wri¬ ter’s character, the latter commenced a profecution It wotild be needlefs to expatiate on the character of a man fo well known as Dr Smollet, who has, be¬ fides, given fo many ftri&ures of his own chara&er and manner of living in his writings, particularly in Hum¬ phrey Clinker; where he appears under the appellation of Mr Serle, and has an interview with Mr Bramble; and his manner of living is deferibed in another letter, where young Melford is fuppofed to dine with him at his houfe in Chelfea. No doubt, he made a great deal of money by his connexions with the bookfellers; and pgainft the printer, declaring, it was faid, he only want- had he been a rigid oeconomift, orendued with the gift ed to know the author, that, if a gentleman, he might of retention, (an expreffion of his own), he might have obtain the fatisfaXion of a gentleman from him. In lived and died very independent. However, to do ju- this affair the DoXor behaved with great fpirit. Juft ftice to his memory, his difficulties, whatever they were, as fentence was going to be pronounced againft the proceeded not from extravagance or want of oeconomy. printer, he came into court, avowed hirofelf the author He was hofpitable, but not oftentatioufiy fo; and his of the ftriXures in queftion, and declared himfelf ready table was plentiful, but not extravagant. No doubt he to give the Admiral any fatisfaXion he chofe. Upon had his failings; but ftill it would be difficult to name this, the Admiral began a frefh aXion agaihft the Doc- a man who was fo refpeXable for the qualities of his tor, who was found guilty, fined tool, and condemned head, or more amiable for the virtues of his heart, to three months imprifonment in the King’s Bench. SMUGGLERS, in law, thofe perfons who conceal It is there he is faid to have written the Adventures of or run prohibited goods, or goods that have not paid Sir Lancelot Greaves ; in which he has deferibed fome his majefty’s cuftoms. remarkable charaXers, then his fellow-prifoners. When lord Bute was called to the chief adminiftra- tion of affairs, he was prevailed upon to write in de¬ fence of that nobleman’s meafures; which he did in a weekly paper, called the Briton. This gave rife to the famous North-Briton ; wherein, according to the ■opinion of the public, he was rather baffled. The truth Smuggling is reftrained by a great variety of fta- tutes, which infliX pecuniary penalties and feizure of the goods for clandeftine frauggling; and affix the guilt of felony, with tranfportation for feven years, upon more open, daring, and avowed praXices: but the laft of them, 19 Geo. II. c. 34. is for this pur- pofe ivftar omnium; for it makes all forcible ans of fmug- Smut, Smyrna S M Y [ 8193 ] & N I fmuggling, carried on in defiance of the laws, or even Armenians, and 200 Franks. The Turks have n in difguife to evade them, felony without benefit of clergy: ena&ing, that if three or more perfons (hall affemble, with fire-arms or other ofFenfive weapons, to affift in the illegal exportation or importation of goods, or in refeuing the fame after feizure, or in refeuing of¬ fenders in cullody for fuch offences; or fhall pafs with fuch goods in difguife; or fhall wound, fhoot at, or af- fault any officers of the revenue when in the execution of their duty; fuch perfons fhall be felons, without the "benefit of clergy. As to that branch of the ftatute which required any perfoir, charged upon oath as a fmuggler, under pain of death, to furrender himfelf upon proclamation, it feems to be expired; as the fub- fequent ftatutes, which concinue the original a& to the prefent time, do in terms continue only fo much of the faid aft as relates to the punifhment of the offenders, and not to the extraordinary method of apprehending or caufing them to furrender : and for offences of this po- fitive fpecies, where punifhment (though neceffary) is rendered fo by the laws themfelves, which, by impofing high duties on commodities, increafe the temptation to evade them, we cannot furely be too cautious in inflic¬ ting the penalty of death. SMUT, in hufbandry, a dtfeafe in corn, when the rains, inftead of being filled with flour, are full of a inking black powder. As to the caufe of this diftemperature, fome have attributed it to exceffive ranknefs, or fatnefs of the foil; to the manuring the land with rotten vegetables; and to the fowing fmutty feed. Mr Bradley thinks it is owing to the fame caufe with a blight, viz. to multi¬ tudes of infefts. But Mr Tull is convinced from expe¬ riment, that it is caufed by too much moitture; for planting feveral plants of corn in troughs of very moift earth, they all produced fmutty ears, while very few fuch were found in the field from whence thefe plants were taken. There are two remedies for the fmut, recommended by writers on hufbandry, viz. fteeping the feed in fait brine, and changing the feed. As to the fteeping of feed, when wheat is intended for drilling, it muft be foaked in a brine of pure fait, diffolved in water, fince urine is found to be highly pre¬ judicial. The moft expeditious way of bringing wheat for drilling, is to lay it in a heap, and wafh it with a ftrong brine fprinkled on it, ftirring it up with a fho- yel, that it may be all equally brined, or wetted with it ; after this, fift on fome fine lime all over the furface, and ftir it up, ftill lifting on more in the fame manner till the whole is dufted with lime, it will then be foon dry enough to be drilled without further trouble. It muft be quicklime in its full ftrength that is ufed on this occafion. The bread made of fmutty corn is very pernicious, afting as a narcotic, and occafioning not only fleepi- nefs, but vertigoes, and even Convulfions. SMYRNA, a fea-port town of Turkey in Afia, and one of the largeft and richeft cities of the Levant. The goodnefs of the harbour has caufed it to be re¬ built feveral times, after being deftroyed by earth¬ quakes. It is the rendezvous of merchants from al- moft all parts of the world, and the magazines of their merchandizes. Some time ago it was thought to con¬ tain 15,000 Turks, 10,000 Greeks, 1800 Jews, 200 Voi. X. mofques, the Greeks 2 churches, the Jews 8 fyna- gogues, the Armenians 1 church, and the Latins 3 convents. Ti er.- are three bifhops; one Greek, ano¬ ther Latin, and the third Armenian. The ftreets are more open, bett' f paved, and the houfes better built, than in other towns of the continent. The ftreet of the Franks is the fineft in Smyrna, and lies all along the harbour. It is 8 days journey from Conftantinople by land, 25 days from Aleppo by the caravans, 6 from Cogna, 7 from Cataya, and 6 from Satalia. The ca¬ ravans of Perfia often bring 2000 bales of filk in a year, befides drugs and cloths. The other commodi¬ ties brought here, are thread made of goats hair, cot¬ ton yarn, cotton in bags, nut galls, wax, fcammony, rhubarb, opium, aloes, tutty, galbanum, gum-arabic, gum-tragacanth, gum-ammoniac, frankincenfe, ze- doary, and all forts of carpets. All the trade paffea through the hands of the Jews, and they feem to have better capacities for trade than other merchants. The Englifh and Dutch faftories have Proteftant chapels, and taverns are as open here as in Europe. The for¬ tifications confift in a fort, a caftle, a mountain, and an old citadel. In the year 1778, it was almoft totally deftroyed by an earthquake and fire. SNAFFLE, in the manege, is a very flender bit- mouth without any branches, much ufed in England ; the true bridles being referved for war. SNAIL, in zoology. See Helix and Limax. SNAKE, in zoology. See Anguis. Method of Preferving Snakes. When the fnake is killed, it muft firft be waftied clean, and freed from all filth and naftinefs ; then it is to be put into a glafs of a proper fize, the tail firft, and afterwards the reft of the body, winding it in fpiral afeending circles, and difpofing the back, which is alway the moft beautiful, outwardly. A thread, connefted to a fmall glafs bead, is, by the help of a needle, to be pafftd thro’ the upper jaw from within outwardly, and then thro* the cork of the bottle, where it muft be faftened ; by this means the head will be drawn into a natural pofture, and the mouth kept open by the bead, whereby the teeth, &c. will be difeoveud: the glafs is then to be filled with rum, and the cork fealed down to prevent its exhalation. A label, containing the name and properties of -the foake, is then to be affixed to the wax over the cork ; and in this manner the fnake will make a beautiful appearance, and may be thus preferved a great number of years; nor will the fpirits impair or change the luftre of its colours. SNAKE-i?5tf/, in botany. See Polygala. S>xAK.t.-Weed, in botany. See Polygonum. SNAPEDRAGON, in botany. Ste Antirrhi¬ num. SNEEZING, a convulfive motion of the mufcles of the bread, whereby the air is expelled from the nofe with much vehemence and nolle. It is caufed by the irritation of the upper membrane of the nofe, oc- cafioned by acrid fubftances floating in the air, or by medicines called JUrnutatory. See Medicine, n° 220. SNIGGLING, a method of fifhing foreeis, chiefly ufed in the day-time, when they are found to ab- fcond themfelves near wears, mills, or flood-gates. It is performed thus : Take a ftrong line and hook, baited with a garden-worm, and obferving the holes 40 Z where Smyrna 11 Sniggling. Snipe II Snow. S N O [ 81 where the eels lie hid, thruft your bait into them by help of a ftick ; aud if there be any, you (hall be fure to have a bite; aud may, if your tackling hold, get the largeft of eels. SNIPE, in ornithology. See Scqlopax and Shooting. Thefe birds are eafily taken, by means of lime-twigs, in this manner. Take 50 or 60 birchen-twigs, and lime them all very well together; take thefe out into places where there are fnipes, and having found the places which they moll frequent, which may be feen by their dong, fet the twigs in thefe places, at about a yard diftance one from another. Other places, are thofe where the water lies open in hard frolty and fnowy weather: in thefe places alfo, and where-ever they are fufpefted to come to feed, let more lime- twigs be placed in the fame manner. The twigs are not to be placed perpendicularly in the ground, but Hoping, fome one way, fome another ; the fportfman is then to retire to a dillance, and watch the coming of the birds to thefe places. When they fly to them, they naturally take a fweep round the earth, and by this means they will almoft always be caught by one or other of the twigs. When a firlt fnipe is taken, the fportfman is not to run to take it up, for it will feed with the twig under its wings, and this will be a means of bringing down more of them to the place. When three or four are taken, they may be taken up, only leaving one fad to entice others: and thus the fport may be continued, as long as there are any birds of this kind about the-place. It may be very proper, when the twigs are planted, to go about, and beat all the open and watery places near, that they may be raifed from thence, and fly to thofe places where the twigs are placed to receive them. SNORING, in medicine, otherwife called rhenccx or Jiertor, is a found like that of the cerchnon, but greater and more manifeft. Jiertor is that found which is fuppofed to be made betwixt the palate and nollrils, by perfons afleep ; cerchon, or cerchnon, is that bubbling noife which is made in refpiration, from the larynx, or the afpera arteria. Thefe alfeftions are owing to a weaknefs of nature. SNOW, a well-known meteor, formed by the freez¬ ing of the vapours in the atmofphere.. It differs from hail and hoar-froft in being as it were cryflallized, which they are not. This appears on examination of a flake of fnow by a magnifying glafs; when the whole of it will appear to be compofed of fine fhining fpicula diverging like rays from a centre. As the flakes, fall down through the atmofphere, they are continually joined by more of thefe radiated fpicula, and thus increafe in bulk like the drops of rain or hailftones. Dr Grew, in a difcourfe of the nature of fnow, obferves, that many parts thereof are of a re- ular figure-,Tor the mod part fo many little jowels or ars of fix .points,, and are as perfeft and tranfparent ice as any we fee on a pond, &c. Upon each of thefe points are other collateral points, fet at the fame angles as the main points themfelves : among which there are divers other irregular, which are chiefly broken points, and fragments of the regular ones. Others alfo, by various winds, feero to have been thawed, and froze again into irregular clufters ; fo that it feems as if the whole body of 'fnow were aa infinite 94 ] S N O mafs of icicles irregularly figured. That is, a cloud Snow, of vapours being gathered into drops, the faid drops r" forthworth defcend; npon which defccnt, meeting with a freezing air as they pafs through a colder region, each drop is immediately frozen into an icicle, fhooting itfelf forth into feveral points ; but thefe ftiil continu¬ ing their defcent, and meeting with fome intermitting gales of warmer air, or in their continual waftage to and fro touching upon each other, fome of them are a little thawed, blunted, and again froze into clufters, or intangled fo as to fall down in what we call flakes. The lightnefs of fnow, although it is firm ice, is owing to the excefs of its furface, in comparifon to the matter contained under it ; as gold itfelf may be extended in furface, till it will ride upon the leaft breath of air. According to Signior Beccaria, clouds of fnow differ jn nothing from clouds of rain, but in the cir- cumftance of cold that freezes them. Both the re¬ gular dift'ufion of the fnow, and the regularity of the Itrufture of its parts (particularly fome figures of fnow or hail which fall about Turin, and which he calls rofette) (how that clouds of fnow are afted upon by fome uniform caufe like ele6lricity;,and he endeavour's to Ihow how elcftricity is capable of forming thefe figures. He was confirmed iq his conje&ures by ob- ferving, that his apparatus for obferving the ele&ricity of the atmofphere never failed to be elefirified by fnow as well as rain. Profeffor Winthrop fometimes found his apparatus eledlrified by fnow when driven about by the wind though it had not been affedted by it when the fnow itfelf was falling. A more intenfe ele&ricity, according to Beccaria, unites the particles of hail more clofely than the more moderate electricity does thofe of fnow, in the fame manner as we fee that the drops of rain which fall from thunder-clouds are larger than thofe which fall from others, thdugh the former defcend through a lefs fpace. In the northern countries, the ground is covered with fnow for feveral months ; which proves exceed- ingly favourable for vegetation,by preferving the plants from thofe intenfe frofts which are common in fucli countries, and which would certainly deftroy them. Bartholin afcribes great virtues to fnow-water, but experience does not feem to warrant his affertions. Snow or ice-water is always deprived of its fixed air ; and thofe nations who live among the Alps, and ufe it for their conftant drink, are fubjedt to affedlions of the throat, which are thought to beoccafioned by it. From fome late experiments on the quantity of wa¬ ter yielded by fnow, it appears that the latter gives only about one-tenth of its bulk. Snow, in fea-affairs, is generally the largeft of all two-mafted veflels employed by Europeans, and the moft convenient for navigation. The fails and rigging on the main-maft and fore* mail of a fnow are exaftly fimilar to thofe on the fame malls in a Ihip ; only that there is a fmall mail behind the main-maft of the former, which carries a fail near- Iy refembling the mizen of a Ihip. The foot of this maft is fixed on a block of yvood on the quarter-deck abaft the main-maft ; and the head of it is attached to the after-top of the main-top. The fail which is. called the try-fail is extended from its maft towards- the ftern of the veffd Whea S N O [ S195 ] S N O Snowdon. When the (loops of war are rigged as fnows, they r are furniftied with a horfe, which anfwers the purpofe of the try-fail maft, the fore-part of the fail being at¬ tached by rings to the faid horfe, in different places of its height. SNOWDON-hjll, the name of a mountain in Caernarvonfhirc in Wales, generally thought to be the liigheft in Britain ; though fome have been of opi¬ nion that its height is equalled, or even exceeded, by mountains in the Highlands of Scotland. The moun¬ tain is furrounded by many others, called in the Wcllh language Crib Cock, Crib y Dijiill, Lliweddy yr Ar¬ ran, 8cc. * Journey According to Mr Pennant #, this mountainous to Sno-wdon, trzSl yields fcarcely any corn. Its produce is cattle and fheep; which, during fummer, keep very high in the mountains, followed by their owners with their fa¬ milies, who refide during that feafon in havodtys, or “ fummer dairy-houfes,” as the farmers in the Swifs Alps do in their fennes. Thefe houfes confill of a long low room, with a hole at one end to let out the fmoke from the fire which is made beneath. Their furniture is very Ample; ftones are fubftituted for ftools, and their beds are of hay, ranged along the fides. They manufafture their own cloaths, and dye them with the lichen omphahides and lichen parictinus, moffes collec¬ ted from the rocks. During fummer the men pafs their time in tending their herds, or in making hay, &c. and the women in milking, or making butter and cheefe. For their own ufe they milk both ewes and goats, and make cheefe of the milk. Their diet confifts of milk, cheefe, and butter; and'their ordinary drink is whey, though they have, by way of referve, a few bottles of very ftrong beer, which they ufe as a cordial when fick. They are people of good underftanding, wary, and circumfpeft ; tall, thin, and of ftrong conftitu- tions. -In the winter-time they defcend into the hen dref, or “ old dwelling,” where they pafs their time in inadlivity. The view from the higheft peak of Snowdon is very extenfive. From henca Mr Pennant faw the county of Chefter, the high hills of Yorklhire, part of the north of England, Scotland, and Ireland; a plain view of the ifle of Man ; and that of Anglefea appeared like a map extended under his feet, with every rivulet vifible. Our author took much pains to have this view to advantage; fat up at a farm on the weft till about 12, and walked up the whole way.. The night was remarkably fine and ftarry; towards morning the ftars faded away, lea¬ ving an interval of darknefs, which, however, was foon difpelled by the dawn of day. The body of the fun appeared molt diftinft, with the roundnefs of the moon, before it appeared too brilliant to be looked at. The fea, which bounded the weftern part of the profpeft, appeared gilt with the fun-beams*firft in {lender ftreaks, and at length glowed with rednefs. The profpe& was difclofed like the gradual drawing up of a curtain in a theatre:; till at lalt the heat became fufficiently ftrong to raife milts from the various lakes, which in a flight degree obfcured the profped. The fhadow of the mountain extended many miles, and fhowed its bica- pitated form; theWyddfa making one head, and Crib y Diftil the other. At this time he counted between 20 and 30 lakes either in Caernarvon, or in Merionethfhire. In making another vifit, the Iky was obf;ured very foon after he got up. A vaft mift involved the whole SnowJon, circuit of the mountain, and the profpeft down was Snuff- horrible. It gave an idea of numbers of abyfles, con¬ cealed by a thick fmoke furioufly circulating around them. Very often a guft of wind made an opening in the clouds, which gave a fine and diftind vifto of lake and valley. Sometimes they opened in one place, at others in many at once; exhibiting a moft ftrange and perplexing fight of water, fields, rocks, and chafms. They then clofed again, and every thing was involved in darknefs; in a few minutes they would feparate again, and repeat the above-mentioned fcene with in¬ finite variety. From this profped our traveller de- fcended with great reludance; but before he had reach¬ ed the place where his horfes were left, he was over¬ taken by a thunder-ftorm. The rolling of the thunder¬ claps, being reiterated by the mountains, was inexpref- fibly awful; and after he had mounted, he was in great danger of being fwept away by the torrents which poured down in confeqaence of a very heavy rain. It is very rare (Mr Pennant obferves), that the tra¬ veller gets a proper day to afcend the hill: for it very often appears clear; but by the evident attradion of the clouds by this lofty mountain, it becomes fuddenly and unexpededly enveloped in mift, when the clouds have juft before appeared very high and very remote. At times he obferved them lower to half their height; and qotwithftanding they have been difperfed to the right and left, yet they have met from both fides, and united to involve the fummit in one great obfcurity. The height of Snowdon was meafured, in 1682, by one Mr CaTwcll, with inftruments made by Flamftead : according to his menfuration, the height is 3720 feet; but more modern computations make it only 3568, reckoning from the quay at Caernarvon to the higheft peak. The ftone that compofes this mountain is ex- ceffively hard. Large coarfe cryftais, and frequently cubic pyrites are found in the fiffures. An immenfe quantity of water rufbes down the fides of Snowdon and the neighbouring mountains, infomuch that Mr Pennant fuppofes, if colleded into one ftream, they would exceed the waters of the Thames. Snow-Z)™/, in botany. See Chionanthus. SNUFF, a powder chiefly made of tobacco, the ufe of which is too well known to need any defeription here. The many mifehiefs’ attending the praftice of taking this powder of tobacco at the noftrils, have been deferibed by the writers in general on thefe fub- jeds, fince this pernicious cuftom has reigned in the world ; but one of the moft remarkable accidents oc- cafioned by it, is related in the Atta Eruditorum. The cafe is this. A fatperfon, greatly addifted to the taking Spanifh fnuff, after many years continued ufe of it, complained one day of a mighty uneafinefs which it occafioned in the middle of his cefophagus, and foon after this he began to find his (wallowing difficult. He applied for relief to a phyfician; and naming nothing of the pain which had preceded this difficulty of fwallowing, it was treated as a complaint arifing from fome glutinous humour in the cefophagus. It is no wonder that the medicines in this intention had no effeft. The patient grew worfe; and, tired of this ^ dbftor, applied to another, who, fnppofing the com¬ plaint arole from fome (harp humour vellicating the 4c Z 2 parts, S O A [ 8196 ] S O A Snuff, parts, gave medicines in that intention, equally with- out fuccefs. After this a common quack tried the “0lip* moft violent medicines on him, but without fuccefs. Finally, he applied to the ufe of the cxcutia ventri- cult, an inftrument made to be thruft down the cefo- phagus into the ftomach: but this he could never get down ; and in the ufe of this inftrument he firft felt that there was abfolutely a lump of flefh, which flop¬ ped its paffage farther than the place where the feat of his complaint was. The diftemper after this increafed Upon him, till he could only fwallow liquids, and thofe at lad by no other means but by fucking them thro* a quill, by which means he could get down milk, wa¬ ter-gruel, and the like, by a little at a time. At length confulting another phyfician, and telling him of the immoderate quantity of Spanifh fnuff he had been ufed to take, and that it often happened to him on taking the dried fnuff of this kind, that it got into his cefo- phagus, and occafioned violent pain, coughing, and fpitting of blood, he foon concluded that a polypus had formed itfelf in the cefophagus, wounded by this fharp powder; and that there was no relief,but that the death ®f the patient was quickly approaching. The man, from a very corpulent habit, was fo extenuated, that he appeared a mere fkeleton ; he died fome little time after of abfolute hunger, the cefophagus being fo en¬ tirely filled up by this unnatural fwelling, that not the lead drop of a liquid could get down. After death the oefophagus was opened, and a flcfliy excrefcence, or polypus, was difcovered, of the bignefs of the cavity of the part; and, taking its origin about the middle, from the back-part of the oefophagus, it reached down to the pylorus. This was of a whitifh colour, and much refembled a large worm; and its fub- llance was fibrous, and very tender* SNYDERS (Francis), a Flemifh painter, born at Antwerp in 1579, and bred under his countryman Henry Van Balen. His genius firft difplayed itfelf in painting fruit: ,he afterwards attempted animals, hunt¬ ings, fifh, &c. in which he exceeded all his predecef- fors. He alfo painted kitchens, &c. and gave dignity to fubje&s that feemed incapable of it. He was made painter to Ferdinand and Ifabella, archduke and du- chefs, and became attached to the houfe of the cardi¬ nal infant of Spain. The king of Spain and the elec¬ tor Palatine adorned their palaces with huntings by this artift. Rubens, Jordaens, and Snyders, ufed to co-operate in the enriching of each other’s pi&ures ac¬ cording to their feveral talents; and thus they became more valuable than if finifhed by either of them fingly. Snyders died in 1657. SQAL-fish, in ichthyology. See Pleuronec- TES. SOAP, a compofition of cauftic, fixed alkaline fait, and oil, fometimes hard and dry, fometimes foft and liquid; much ufed in wafhing, whitening linens, and by dyers and fullers.—Soap may be made by feveral methods, which, however, all depend upon the fame principle. The foap which is ufed in medicine is made without heat; fee Chemistry, n° 326- In manufactures where large quantities of it are pre¬ pared, foap is made with heat. A lixivium of quicklime and foda is made, but is lefs concentrated than that above referred to, and only fo much that it can fuftain a (relh egg. A part of this lixivium is to be even di¬ luted, and mixed with an equal weight of oil of olives. Soap. The mixture is to be put on a gentle fire, and agi- ~ tated, that the union may be accelerated. When the mixture begins to unite well, the reft of the lixivium is to be added to it; and the whole is to be digefted with a very gentle heat, till the foap be completely made. A trial is to be made of it, to examine whe¬ ther the juft proportion of oil and alkali has been ob- ferved. Good foap of this kind ought to be firm, and very white when cold ; not fubjed to become moift by expofure to air, and entirely mifcible with pure water, to which it communicates a milky appearance, but without any drops of oil floating on the furface. When the foap has not thefe qualities, the combination has not been well made, or the quantity of fait or of oil is too great, which faults muft be corre&ed.. In foft or liquid foaps, green or black foaps, cheap¬ er oils are employed, as oil of nuts, of hemp, of fifh, &c. Thefe loaps, excepting in confiftence, are not effentially different from white foap. Any fixed alkalis are much difpofed to unite with oils that are not volatile, both vegetable and animal, fince this union can be made even without heat. The compound refulting from this union partakes at the fame time of the properties of oil and of alkali; but thefe properties are modified and tempered by each other, according to the general rule of combinations. Alkali formed into foap has not nearly the fame acri¬ mony as when it is pure ; it is even deprived of almoft all its caufticity, and its other faline alkaline proper¬ ties are almoft entirely aboliflied. The fame oil con¬ tained in foap is lefs combuftible than when pure, frona its union with the alkali, which is an uninflammable body. It is mifcible, or even foluble, in water, to a cer¬ tain degree, by means of the alkali. Soap is entirely foluble in fpirit of wine ; and ftill better in aqua-vitse fharpened by a little alkaline fait, according to an ob- fervation of Mr Geoffrey. When oil unites with alkali in the formation of foap, it is little altered in the connexion of its principles; for it may be feparated from the alkali by decompo- fing foap with any acid, and may be obtained nearly in its original ftate. Concerning the decompofition of foap by means of acids, we muft obferve, firft, that all acids, even the weakeft vegetable acids, may occafion this decompofi¬ tion, becaufe every one of them has a greater affinity than oil with fixed alkali. Secondly, thefe acids, even when united with any bafis, excepting a fixed alkali, or the inflammable principle, are capable of occafion- ing the fame decompofition; whence ail ammoniacal falts, all falts with bafis of earth, and all thofe with metallic bafes, arc capable of decompofing foap, in the fame manner as difengaged acids are ; with this dif¬ ference, that the oil 1'eparated from the fixed alkali, by the acid of thefe falls, may unite more or lefs inti¬ mately with the fubftance which was the bafis of the. neutral fait employed for the decompofition. Soap may alio be decompofed by diftillation, as Lemery has done. When firft expofed to fire, it yields a phlegm called by him a fpirit; which neverthelefs is neither acid nor alkaline, but fome water which enters into the compofition of foap. It becomes more and more coloured and empyreumatic as the fire is increa¬ fed, which fhows that it contains the moft fubtle part S O A [8: Soar, of the oil. It feems even to raife along with it, by l help of the oil and aftion of the fire, a fmall part of the alkali of the foap: for, as the fame chemift ob* ferves, it occafions a precipitate in a folution of cor- rofive fublimate. After this phlegm, the oil rifes al¬ tered, precifely as if it had been diftilled from quick¬ lime, that is, empyreumatic, foluble in fpirit of wine, at firft fufficiently fubtle and afterwards thicker. An alkaline refiduous coal remains in the retort, confifting Chi; fly of the mineral alkali contained in the foap, and which may be difengaged from the coal by calcination in an open fire, and obtained in its pure ftate. Alkaline foaps are very ufeful in many arts and trades, and alfo in chemiftry and medicine. Their principal utility confifts in a deterfive quality that they receive from their alkali, which, although it is in fome mea- fure faturated with oil, is yet capable of afting upon oily matters, and of rendering them faponaceous and mifcible with water. Hence foap is very ufeful to cleanfe any fubftances from all fat matters with which they happen to be foiled. Soap if therefore daily ufed for the wafhing and whitening of linen, for the clean- fing of woolen-cloths from oil, and for whitening filk and freeing it from the refinous varnifh with which it is naturally covered. Pure alkaline lixivium?, being capable of diffolving oils more effetftually than foap, might be employed for the fame purpofes ; but when this a&ivity is not mitigated by oil, as it is in foap, they are capable of altering, and even of deftroying en¬ tirely by their caufticity, mod fubftances, efpecially animal-matters, as filk, wool, and others: whereas foap cleanfes from oil almoft as effedtually as pure al¬ kali, without danger of altering or deftroying ; which renders it very ufeful. Soap furnifhes medicine with a very efficacious and valuable remedy. Till lately, that Mrs Stephens’s li- thontriptic remedy has been publifhed, phyficians at¬ tended little to the medicinal qualities of foap. They foon found that foap, which is the principal ingredient of this famous remedy, is alfo the only one which has any real efficacy. And although this remedy has been found to be infufficient to diffolve moft ftones of the bladder, yet experience and obfervation have fufficient- Jy evinced that it can prevent the enlargement, or even the formation, of ftones in perfons difpofed to that dif- eafe; that it can, in a word, attenuate, divide, and ex¬ pel, the ftony particles generated in the urinary paflages, and which are the firft materials of the ftone. And accordingly foap is frequently ufed fuccefsfully in thefe cafes. When foap was once difeovered to adtfenfibly on the glue or binding fubftance of that urinary fand, gravel, and even of fome ftones, it was naturally fup- pofed to be capable of adling more powerfully on other thickened matters, which are too frequent caufes of many obftinate difeafes. Thefe confiderations have induced the beft praftitioners to preferibe foap as a rtfolving, aperitive, and deobftrueht remedy ; and we are certain that it has been employed as fuch with great fuccefs. From the properties of foap we may know that it mull be a very effedlua] and convenient anti-acid. It abforbs acids as powerfully as pure alkalis and abfor- bent earths, without having the caufticity of the for¬ mer, and without opprtffing the ftoraach by its weight like the l$Her. '97 ] S O C Laftly, we may perceive that foap muft be one of the beft of all antidotes to flop quickly, and with the lead incovenience, the bad effe&s of acid corrofive poi-- fons, as aqua-fortis, corrofive fublimate, &c. Soap [Starieji’s.) See Chemistry, n° 327. 4cid Soap. This is formed by the addition of con¬ centrated acids to the expreffed oils. Thus the oil is rendered partially foluble in water ; but the union is not fufficiently complete to anfwer any valuable pur- pofe. SoAv-Earth. See Steatites. SOAPWORT. See Saponaria. SOC, (Sax.) fignifies power or liberty to minifter juftice or execute laws: alfo the circuit or territory wherein fuch power is exercifed. Whence our law- Latin word foca is ufed for a feigniory or lordfhip en- franchifed by the king, with the liberty of holding or keeping a court of his fockmen : And this kind of li¬ berty continues in divers parts of England to this day, and is known by the names of foke and foken. SOCAGE, in its moft general and extenfive figni- fication, feems to denote a tenure by any certain and determinate fervice. And in this fenfe it is by our ancient writers conftantly put in oppofition to chivalry, or knight-fervice, where the render was precarious and uncertain. The fervice muft therefore be certain, in order to denominate it focage; as to hold by fealty and 208. rent ; or, by homage, fealty, andaos. rent ; or, by homage and fealty without rent ; or, by fealty and certain corporal fervice, as ploughing the lord’s land for three days ; or by fealty only without any other fervice: for all thefe are tenures in focage. Socage is of two forts: free-focage, where the fer- vices are not only certain, but honourable; and vil- lein-focage, where the fervices, though certain, are of a bafer nature. See Villenage. Such as hold by the former tenure are called, in Glanvil and other fubfequent authors, by the name of liberi fokemanrii, or tenants in free-focage. The word is derived from the Saxon appellation foe, which fignifies liberty or privilege; and, being joined to a ufual termination, is called focage, in Lann focagium ; fignifying thereby a free or privi¬ leged tenure. It feems probable that the fbcage-tenures were the relics of Saxon liberty; retained by fuch perfons as had neither forfeited them to the king, nor been obliged to exchange their tenure for the more honourable, aa-' it was called,, but at the fame time more burthenfome, tenure of knight-fervice. This is peculiarly remark¬ able in the tenure which prevails in Kent, called ga¬ velkind, which is generally acknowledged to be a fpe- cies of focage-tenure ; the prefervation whereof invio¬ late from the innovations of the Norman conqueror is a fail univerfally known. And thofe who thus pre- ferved their liberties were faid to hold in free and com¬ mon foCage. As therefore the grand criterion and diftinguiffiing mark of this fpecies of tenure are the having its ren¬ ders or fervices afeertained, it will include under it all other methods of holding free lands by certain and invariable rents and duties; and in particular. Petit Serjeanty, Tenure in Burgage; and Gavelkind. See thele articles. SOCIETY, in general, denotes a number of per¬ fons united together for their mutt>al affiftance, fecu- Soap II Society. S O C [ 8: •Society, rity, intereft, or entertainment. Tbe focial principle in man is of fuch an expanfive nature, that it cannot be confined within the circuit of a family, of friends, of a neighbourhood : it fpreads into wider fyftems, and draws men into larger com¬ munities and commonwealths ; fince it is in thefe only that the more fublime powers of our nature attain the highell improvement and perfe&ion of which they are capable. Rnyal Society, an academy or college, eftablilhed by charter by king Charles II. for promoting natural knowledge and ufeful arts by experiments. It confifts of feveral hundred fellows or members, moftly Brkifh ; fome perfone of the higbeft rank, and many eminent gentlemen and learned men of other na¬ tions. Their meetings are held once a-week, at their boufe in Crane-court, Fleet-Street, London ; where they difcourfe upon the productions and rarities of na¬ ture and art, and confider how the fame may be im¬ proved for the good of mankind : here are alfo read •letters and other philofophical papers fent by inge¬ nious perfons both at home and abroad; upon which they difcourfe in the plained manner, without affeCting fludied fpeeches. This fociety, of which his Britannic majefty is per¬ petual patron, is governed by a council of twenty-one members, ten of whom are yearly chofen out of the fociety, on St Andrew’s day. The chief of the coun¬ cil bears the title of Prefident, whofe proper office is to call and di|Tolve the meetings ; to propofe the mat¬ ter to be debated ; call for experiments; and admit fuch members as (hall be elefted, which muft be by a majority of at lead twenty-one votes ; whereupon he is admitted, after paying 40s. and fubfcribing that he will endeavour to promote the good of the Royal So¬ ciety of London by the improvement of natural know¬ ledge ; and being thus admitted, he afterwards pays 13s. a-quarter, as long as he continues a member of the fociety. SociETY-J^wi/, the name of certain illands difeo- vered in the South Sea. They had this general name from Captain Cook in 1769. They are fix in num¬ ber, and lie very near to each other. The particular names which they bear'among the natives are, Ulietea or Raietea, Otaha, Balabola, Huahine, Tubai, and Mau- rua. They are fituated between the longitude of 150 57', and 1520 wed; and from latitude 160 to' to 160 55' fouth, the neared ifland being about 40 leagues to the wedward of Otaheitee. “Here,” fays Captain Cook, “ benevolent nature has fpread her luxuriant fweets with a lavifh hand; and the natives, copying the bounty of nature, are equally libe¬ ral, contributing plentifully and cheerfully to the wants of navigators.” And Mr Forder deferibes the inhabi¬ tants of thefe fruitful regions, as ready at all times to perform kind offices to their edeemed gueds; they would carry them in and out of the boats on their backs, to prevent the furf from wetting their feet; they often loaded themfelves with the curiofities which had been purchafed, and rarely refufed to go into the water for any bird which had been fhot. If the rain caught any of the (hip’s company on their excurfions into the country, or the heat of the fun and fatigue of the journey opprefled them, they were invited to i-epofe in their dwellings, and feaded on their bed 98 ] s o c provisions. Their friendly hod flood at a didance, Socimans, and never tailed of any thing till they intreated him ; Socimit. ; all the while fome one of the family was employed in fanning them with a leaf or the bough of a tree. Be¬ fore they left the houfe, they were commonly adopted according to their different ages, in the quality of fa¬ ther, brother, or fon : which circumdance took its rife from an opinion that all the gentlemen of the (hip were related. The chiefs of all the Society-Iflands are defeended from the fame family; the officers there¬ fore, and all who dined or meffed together, were by them confidered as relations. Their hofpitality was frequently quite difinterefted, and led their vifuors to form the mod favourable conclufions concerning their conduit towards each other.” In (hort, fays Mr For- fter, “ they are hofpitable without feeming to know it, and leave to drangers who vifit them the pleafing and grateful talk of recording their virtues.” SOCINIANS, in church-hidory, a feft of Chri- ftian heretics, fo called from their founder Faudus So- cinus. See Socinus—They maintain, “ That Jefus Chrid was a mere man, who had no exidence before the Virgin Mary; that the Holy Ghod is no diftinit perfon, but that the Father is truly and properly God. t They own that the name of God is given in the holy fcripturcs to Jefus Chrid ; but contend, that it is only a deputed title, which, however, inveds him with an abfolute fovereignty over all created beings, and ren¬ ders him an object of worfhip to men and angels. They deny the doftrines of fatiefa&ion and imputed righteoufnefs; and only fay that Chrid preached the truth to mankind, fet before them in himfelf an ex¬ ample of heroic virtue, and fealed his do&rines with his blood. Original fin and abfolute prededination they efteem fcholadic chimeras. They likewife main¬ tain the fleep of the foul, which they fay becomes in- fenfible at death, and is raifed again with the body at the refurre&ion, when the good will be edablifhed in the poffeffion of eternal felicity, while the wicked will be configned to a fire that will-not torment them eter¬ nally, but confume both their fouls and bodies for a certain duration proportioned to their demerits.” SOCINUS (Lselius), the fird author of the fe& of the Socinians, was born at Sienna, in 1525. Being de- figned by his father for the law, he began very early to fearch for the foundation of that fcience in the Word of God ; and, by that dudy, difeovered that the Romiffi religion taught many things contrary to revelation; when, being defirous of penetrating farther into the true fenfe of the feriptures, he dudied Greek, Hebrew, and even Arabic. In 1547, he left Italy, to go and converfe with the Proteliants; and fpent four years in travelling into France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, and Poland, and at length fettled at Zurich. He, by this means, became ac¬ quainted with the mod learned men of his time, who tedified, by their letters, the edeem they had for him: but as he difeovered to them his doubts, he was great¬ ly fufpedted of herefy. He, however, conduced him¬ felf with fuch addrefs, that he lived among the capital enemies of his opinions, without receiving the lead injury. He met with fome difciples, who heard his indrudlions with refpeft ; thefe were Italians who left their native country on account of religion, and pandered about in Germany and Poland. He commu¬ nicated S O C [ 8199 j s o c Pocinus nicated likewife his fentiments to his relations by his Socmal-s- writings, which he caufed to be conveyed to them at Sienna. He died at Zurich in 1562. Thofe who were of the oppofite fentiments to his, and were per- fonally acquainted with him, confefs that his outward behaviour was blamelefs. He wrote a Paraphrafe bn the firll Chapter of St John; and other works are afcribed to him. SOCINUS (Fauftus), nephew of the preceding, and principal founder of the Socinian fe&, was born at Sienna in 1539. The letters v/hich his uncle Las- Hus wrote to his relations, and which infufed into them many feeds of herefy, made an imprefiion upon him ; fo that, knowing himfelf not innocent, he fled as well as the red when the inquifition began to perfecute that family. He was at Lyon’s when he heard of his uncle’s death, and departed immediately to take pof- feffion of his writings. He returned to Italy ; and made himfelf fo agreeable to the grand duke, that the charms which he found in that court, and the honour¬ able ports he filled there, hindered him for twelve years from remembering that he had been confidered as the _ perfon who was to put the laft hand to the fyftem of famofateniart divinity, of which his uncle Ltelius had made a rough draught. At laft he went into Germa¬ ny in 1574, and paid no regard to the grand duke’s advices to return. He ftaid three years at Bafil, and ftudied divinity there ; and having fallen into a fet of principles very different from the fyftem of Proteft- ants, he refolved to maintain and propagate them ; for which purpofe he wrote a treatife De lefu Chrijlo Servatore. In 15791 Socinus retired into Poland, and defired to be admitted into the communion of the Uni¬ tarians ; but as he differed from them in fome points, and refufed to be filent upon them, he met with a re- pulfe. However, he did not ceafe to write in defence of their churches againft thofe who attacked them. At length his book againft James Paleologus furnifhed his enemies with a pretence to exafperate the king of Poland againft him ; but though the mere reading of it was fufficient to refute his accufers, Socinus thought proper to leave Cracow, after having reficled there four years. He then lived under the proteflion of fe- veral Polifh lords, and married a lady of a good fami¬ ly : but her death, which happened in 1587, fodeep- ly affli&ed him as to injure his health ; and to com¬ plete his forrow, he was deprived of his patrimony by the death of Francis de Medici’s great duke of Flo¬ rence. The confolation he found in feeing his fenti¬ ments at laft approved by feveral minifters, was greatly interrupted in 1598 ; for he met with a thoufand in- fults at Cracow, and was with great difficulty faved from the hands of the rabble. His houfe was plun¬ dered, and he loft his goods; but this lofs was not fo uneafy to him as that of fome manufcripts,_ which he extremely regretted. To deliver himfelf from fuch dangers, he retired to a village about nine miles diftant from Cracow, where he fpent the remainder of his days at the houfe of Abraham Blonde!, a Polifh gen¬ tleman, and died there in 1604. All Fauftus Soci- nus’s works are contained in the two firft volumes of the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum. SOCMANS, Sokemans, ox Socmen, (Socmanm), are fuch tenants as hold their lands and tenements by focage-tenure. See Socage, SOCOTORA, an ifland lying between Afia and Socrates. Arabia Felix.; about 150 miles in length, and 22 in breadth. It is particularly noted for its' fine aloes, known by the name of Socotrine aloes. The religion of the natives is a mixture of Mahometanifm and Pa- ganifm ; but they are civil to ftrangers who call there in their paffage to the Eaft Indies. It abounds in fruit and cattle; and they have a king of their own, who is dependent on Arabia. SOCRATES, the greateft of the ancient philifo- phers, “ the very founder of philofophy itfelf,” as the earl of Shaftefbury calls him, was born at Alopece, a final 1 village of Attica, in the fourth year of the 77th olympiad, or about 467 years before Chrift. His pa¬ rents were very mean; Sophronifcus his father being a ftatuary or carver of images in ftone, and Phcenareta his mother a midwife. However, he is obferved to have been fo far from being afhamed of his parents, that he often took occafion to mention them. Plutarch fays, that as foon as he was born, Sophronifcus his fa¬ ther, confulting the oracle, was advifed to fuffer his foil to do what he pleafed, neither compelling him to what he difliked, nor diverting him from what he was inclined to; in fhorl, to be nowife felicitous about him, fince he had one guide of life within him, meaning his Ge¬ nius, who was better than 500 mafters. But Sophro¬ nifcus, regardlefs of the oracle’s direftion, put him to his own trade of carving ftatues; which, though con¬ trary to the inclination of Socrates, yet afterwards flood him in good (lead : for his father dying, and his mo¬ ney and effedts being loft by being placed in bad hands, he was neceffitated to continue his trade for or¬ dinary fubfiftence. But being naturally averfe to this profeffion, he only followed it when neceffity compelled him; and upon getting a little before-hand, would for a while lay it entirely afide. Thefe intermiffions of his trade were beftowed upon philofophy, to which he was naturally addided ; and this being obferved by Crito, a rich philofopher of Athens, Socrates was at length taken from his (hop, and put into a condition of phi- lofophifing at his eafe and leifure. The firft mafter of Socrates was Anaxagoras, and then Archelaus: by the laft of whom he waa much beloved, and travelled with him to Samos, to Pytho; and to the Ifthmus. He was fcholar likewife of Da* mon, whom Plato calls a mojl pleajing teacher of muficy. and of all other things that he himfelf would teach to young men. He heard alfo Prodicus the fophift ; to which muft be added Diotyma and Afpafia, women excellently learned. Diotyma was fuppofed to have been infpired with a fpirit of prophecy ; and Afpafia taught him rhetoric. Of Euenus he learned poetry; of Ichomachus, hufbandry; ofTheodorus, geometry.. At length he began himfelf to teach ; and was fo eloquent, that he could lead the mind to approve or difapprove whatever he pleafed; but never ufed this talent for any other purpofe than to conduA his fellow- citizens into the path of virtue. As to his fchool, and the particular method of his teaching, Plato mentions the academy Lycaeum, and a pleafant meadow without, the city on the fide of the river Ilyffus, as places fre- quented by him and his auditors. Xenophon affirms, that he was continually abroad ; that in the morning he vifited the places of public walking and exercife when it was full, the forum ; and that the reft of the day- s o c Socrates, day he fought out the moft populous meetings, where he difpnted openly for every one to hear that would : and Plutarch relates, that he did not only teach when the benches were prepared, and himfelf in the chair, or in fet hours of reading and difcourfe, or at appoint¬ ments in walking with his friends ; but even when he played, or eat, or drank, or was in the camp or mar¬ ket, or finally when he was in prifon: thus making every place a fchool of virtue. His method of roufing the foul, and enabling her to recolleft her own original ideas, was twofold ; by irony, and indu&ion. He is faid to have exceeded all men living in irony. His way was, to leffen and detrad from himfelf in depu¬ tation, and to attribute fomewhat more to thofe he meant to confute ; fo that he always diffembled with much gravity his own opinions, till he had led others, by a feries of queftions, called induttion, to the point he aimed at. He profefled only to know this, “ That he knew nothing;5’ and ufed modeftly to fay, that his ikill refembled that of his mother, “ he being nothing more than a kind of midwife, who afiifted others in bringing forth what they had within themfelves.” However, he was, as Xenophon reprefents him, ex¬ cellent in all kinds of learning. Xenophon in-fiances only in arithmetic, geometry, and aftrology: Plato mentions natural pbilofophy ; Idomeneus, rhetoric ; JLaertius, medicine. Cicero affirms, that by the tefti- mony of all the learned, and the judgment of all Greece, he was, as well in wifdom, acutenefs, politenefs, and fubtlety, as in eloquence, variety, and richpefs, in what¬ ever he applied himfelf to, without exception, the prince of all. As to his philofophy, it may be necef- ifary to obferve, that having fearched into all kinds of fcience, he noted thefe inconveniences and imperfec¬ tions : firft, that it was wrong to negled thofe things which concern human life, for the fake of inquiring into thofe things which do not; fecondly, that the things men have ufually made the obje&s of their in¬ quiries, are above the reach of human underftanding, and the fource of all the difputes, errors, and fuperfti- tions, which have prevailed in the world ; and thirdly, that fuch divine royfteries cannot be made fubfervient to the ufes of human life. Thus efteeming fpeculative knowledge, fo far only as it conduces to pra&ice, he cut off in all the fciences what he conceived to be of leaft ufe. In fhort, remarking how little advantage fpeculation brought to mankind, he reduced her to aftion : and thus, fays Cicero, “ firft called philofophy away from things involved by nature in impenetrable fecrefy, which had yet employed all the philofophers till his time, and brought her to common life, to inquire after virtue and vice, good and evil.” See Socratic Philofophy. That Socrates had an attendant fpirit, genius, or daemon, which diverted from dangers, is teftified by Plato, Xenophon, and Aotifthenes, who were his con- temporaries, and confirmed by innumerable authors of antiquity ; but what this attendant fpirit, genius, or daemon was, or what we are to underftand by it, nei¬ ther ancient nor modern writers have been able to de¬ termine. There is fome difagreement concerning the name, and more concerning the nature of it: only it is agreed, that the advice it gave him was always dif- fuafive ; “ never impelling,” fays Cicero, “ but often reftraiaing hipa.” It is commonly named his damnt s o c by which title he himfelf owned it. Plato fometimes Socrate^.; calls it his guardian, and Apuleius his god; becaufe ‘ the name oidamon, as St Auftin tells us, at laft grew odious. As for the fign or manner in which this dae¬ mon or genius foretold, and by foretelling guarded him againft evils to come, nothing certain can be col¬ lected about it. Plutarch conjeCtured, .firft, that it might be fome apparition ; but at laft concludes, that it was his obfervation of fome inarticulate unaccuftom- ed found or voice, conveyed to him by fome extraor¬ dinary way, as we fee in dreams. Others confine this foreknowledge of evils within the foul of Socrates himfelf; and when he faid, that “ his genius advifed him,” interpret him as if he had faid, that “ his mind foreboded and fo inclined him.” But this is faid to be inconfiftent with the defcription which Socrates himfelf gives of a voice and figns from without. Laft- ly, fome conceive it to be one of thofe fpirits that have a particular care of men ; which Maximius Ty- rius and Apuleius defcribe in fuch a manner, that they want only the name of a good angel; and this LaClan- tius has fupplied, when having proved, that God fends angels to guard mankind, he adds, “ and Socrates affirmed, that there was a daemon conftantly near him, which had kept him company from a child, and by whofe beck and inftru&ion he guided his life.” It is obferved by many, that Socrates little affe&ed travel; his life being wholly fpent at home, excepting when he went out upon military fervices. In the Pe- loponnefian war, he was thrice perfonally engaged : firft, at the fiege of Potidaea ; fecondly, at Delium, a town in Baeotia, which the Athenians took ; and third¬ ly, at Amphipolis, when it was taken by Brafidas the Lacedemonian general. We are told in Plutarch’s Sympofium, and in the perfon of Alcibiades, that “ he outwent all the foldiers in hardinefs : and if at any time, (faith Alcibiades), as it often happens in war, the provifions failed, there were none who could bear the want of meat and drink like Socrates ; yet, on the other hand, in times of feafting, he alone feem- ed to enjoy them : and though of himfelf he would not drink, yet being invited, he far out-drank every body, and (which is moft ftrange) was never feen drunk.”— He forbore to accept any office in the commonwealth, except in his latter years that of fenator: either, as iElian faith, becaufe he faw the Athenian government approaching to a tyranny ; or, as himfdf profeffeth, becaufe he was diffuaded by bis daemon from meddling in public affairs. To this great philofopher Greece was principally obliged for her glory and fplendour; He formed the manners of the moft celebrated perfons of Greece, as Alcibiades, Xenophon, Plato, &c. But his fervices and the great qualities of his mind could not fecure him from envy, perfecution, and calumny. The 30 tyrants forbad his inftrudling youth ; and as he de¬ rided the plurality of the Pagan deities, he was charged with impiety. The day of trial being come, Socrates made his own defence, without procuring an advocate, as the cuftom was, to plead for him. He did not de¬ fend himfelf with the tone and language of a fuppliant or guilty perfon, but, as if he were mafter of the judges themfelves, with freedom, firmnefs, and fome degree of contumacy. Many of his friends alfo fpoke in h s behalf; ahd laftly, Plato went up into the chair, and [ 8200 ] S O C [ 8201 ] s o c gocrates. began a fpeecb in thefe words: “ Though I, Athe- "" nians, am the youngeft of thofe that come up into this place”—but they (topped him, crying out, “ of thofe that go down,” which he was thereupon conftrained to do ; and then proceeding to vote, they caft Socrates by 281 voices. It was the cuKom of Athens, as Ci¬ cero informs us, when any one was caft, if the fault were not capital, to impofe a pecuniary mulct; when the guilty perfon was aflted the higheft rate at which he eftimated his offence. This was propofed to Socra¬ tes, who told the judges, that to pay a penalty was to own an offence ; and that, inftead of being con¬ demned for what he flood accufed, he deferved to be maintained at the public charge out of the Prytanseum. This was the greateft honour the Grecians could con¬ fer : and the anfwer fo exafperated the judges,, that they condemned him to death by 80 votes more. The fentence being paffed, he was fe.nt to prifon : which, fays Seneca,, he entered with the fame refolu- tion and firmnefs with which he had oppo.fed the 30 tyrants; and took away all ignominy from the place, which could not be a prifon while he was there. He lay here in fetters 30 days; and was cpnftantly vifited by Crito, Plato, and other friends, with whom he paffed the time in difpute after his ufual manner. He was often folicited by them to an efcape ; which he not only refufed, but derided; afking, “ If they knew any place out of Attica whither death would not come The manner of his death is thus related by Plato, who was an eye-witnefs of it. ‘ Socrates, the day he was to die, had been difeourfing to his friends upon the im¬ mortality of the foul ; and “ when he had made an end of fpeaking, Crito afked him, if he had any di¬ rections to give concerning his fons or other things in which they could ferve him ? I defire no more of you, faith Socrates, than what I have always told you : if you take care of yourfelves, whatfoever you do will be acceptable to me and mine, though you promife no¬ thing ; if you negleft yourfelves and virtue, you can do nothing acceptable to us, though you promife ever fo much.” That, anfwered Crito, we will obferve ; but how will you be buried ? “ As you think good,” fays he, “ if you can catch me, and I do not give you the flip.” Then with a fmile applying himfelf to us, “ I cannot perfuade Crito,” fays he, “ that I am that Socrates who was haranguing juft now, or any thing more than the carcafs you will prefently behold ; and therefore he is taking all this care of my interment. It feems that what 1 juft now explained in a long dif- courfe, has made no impreffion at all upon him ; namely, that as foon as I (hall have drank the poifon, I (hall not remain longer with you, but depart imme¬ diately to the feats of the bleffed. Thefe things, with which >1 have been endeavouring to comfort you and myfelf, have been faid to no purpofe. As therefore Crito was bound to the judges for my appearance, fo you muft now be bound to Crito for my departure ; and when he fees my body burnt or buried, let him not fay, that Socrates fuffers any thing, or is any way concerned : for know, dear Crito, fuch a miftake were a wrong to my foul. I tell you, that my body is only buried; and let that be done as you (hall think fit, or as lhall be mod agreeable to the laws and cuftoms of the country.” This faid, he arofe and retired to an inner room, taking Crito with him, and leaving us, who like Voi. X. 1 orphans were to be deprived of fo dear a father, to Socrates difeourfe upon our own mifery. After his bathing, ' came his wife, and the other women of his family, with his fons, two of them children, one of them a youth ; and when he had given proper direftions about his domeftic affairs, he difmiffed them and came out to us. It was now near fun-fet, for he had (laid long within; when coining out he fat down, and did not fpeak much after. Then entered an officer, and approaching him faid, Socrates, I am perfuaded that I (hall have no reafon to blame yon,«for what I have been accuftomed to blame in others ; who have been angry at me and loaded me with curfes, for only doing what the magiftrate commands, when I have prefented the poifon to them. But I know you to be the moft: generous, the moft mild, the beft of all men that ever entered this place ; and am certain, that if you enter¬ tain any refentment upon this occafion, it will not be at me, but at the real authors of your misfortune. You know the meflage I bring: farewell ; and endea¬ vour to bear with patience what muft be borne. “ And 1 (faid Socrates to the officer, who went out weeping) fare thee well: I will. How civil is this man ! X have found him the fame all the time of my imprifon- ment: he would often vifit me, fometimes difeourfe with me, always ufed me kindly ; and now fee how generoufly he weeps for me. But come, Crito ; let us do as he bids us ; if the poifon be ready, let it be brought in ; if not, let fomebody prepare it.” The fun is yet among the mountains, and not fet, fays Crito ; I myfelf have feen others drink it later, who have even eat and drank freely with their friends after the fign has been given ; be not in hade, there is time enough. “ Why, yes, (fays Socrates) : they who do fo, think they gain fomething! but what (hall I gain by drinking it late ? Nothing, but to be laughed at for appearing too defirous of life ; pray, let it be as I fay.” Then Crito fent one of the attendants, who immediately returned, and with him the man who was to adminifter the poifon, bringing a cup in his hand ; to whom Socrates faid, “ Prithee, my good friend, for thou art verfed in thefe things, what muft I do ?” No¬ thing, faid the man, but walk about as foon as you (hall have drank, till you perceive your legs to fail ; and then fit down. Then he prefented the cup; which Socrates took without the lealt change of countenance, or any emotion whatever, and fwallowed the draught with the greateft eafe. Many of us, who till then had refrained from tears, when we faw him put the cup to his mouth and drink off the poifon, were not able to refrain any longer, but gave vent to our grief; which Socrates obferving, “ Friends, (faith he), what mean you ? I fent away the women for no other reafon but that they might not difturb us with this ; for I have heard, that we (hould die with gratulation and ap- plaufe: be quiet then, and behave yourfelves like men.” Thefe words made us with fhame fupprefs our tears. When he had walked a while, and perceived his legs to fail, he lay down on his back, as the executioner direfted ; who in a little time looking upon his feet, and pinching them pretty hard, afked him if he per¬ ceived it ? Socrates faid, “ No.” Then he did the fame by his legs; and fhowing us how every part fuc- celfively grew cold and (tiff, obferved, that when that chiilnefs reached his heart, he would die. After ly- 41 A ing S O C [ 8202 ] s o c Socraf*s. ;ng a while, he ftretched himfelf forth ; when the exe- cutioner uncovering; him found his eyes fixed, which were clofed by Cri!o. This, fays Plato, was the end of the bed, the wifeft, and the jufteft of men.’ And this account of it by Plato, Tully profefles, he could never read without tears. He died, according to Plato, when he was more than 70 years of age. He was buried with many tears and much folemnity by his friends, among whom the excefiive grief of Plato is obferved by Plutarch : yet as foon as they had performed that lall fervice, fear¬ ing the cruelty of the 30 tyrants, they dole out of the city ; the greater part to Megara, to Euclid, who -received them kindly ; the red to other places. Soon after, however, the Athenians were awakened to a fenfe of the injudice they had committed againd Socra¬ tes; and became fo exafperated, that nothing wouldferve them but that the authors of it diould be put to death ; as Melitus was, while Anytus was banidied. In far¬ ther tedimony of their penitence, they called home his friends to their former liberty of meeting; they for¬ bad public fpe&acles of games and wredlings for a time; they caufed his datue, made in brafs by Ly- fippus, to be fet up in the Pompeium ; and a plague enfuing, which they imputed to this unjud aft, they made an order that no man fhould mention Socrates publicly and on the theatre, in order to forget the fooner what they had done. As to his perfon, he was very homely ; was bald, had a dark complexion, a flat nofe, eyes flicking out, jand a fevere downcafl. look. In fhort, his counte¬ nance promifed fo ill, that Zopyrus a phyfiogno- mid pronounced him incident to various paffions, and given to many vices ; which when Alcibiades and others that were prefent laughed at, knowing him to be free from every thing of that kind, Socrates judi- fied the fliill of Zopyrus, by owning, that “ he was by nature prone to thofe vices, but fuppreffed his inclina¬ tion by reafon.” The defefts of his perfon were amply compenfated by the virtues and accomplifhments of his mind. The oracle at Delphi declared him the wifefl of all men, for profeifing only to know that he knew nothing : Apollo, as Tully fays, conceiving the only wifdom of mankind to confid in not thinking themfelves to know thofe things of which they are ig¬ norant. He was a man of all virtues ; and fo remark¬ ably frugal, that how little foever he had, it was al¬ ways enough. When he was amidfl a great variety of rich and expenfive objefts, he would often fay to himfslf, “ How many things are there which I do not want!” He had two wives, one of which was the noted Xantippe ; whom Aulus Gellius def.ribes as an ac- curfed frovvard woman, chiding and fcolding always, by day and by night. Several indancts ne recorded of her impatience and his iong-fuffering. One day before feme of his friends, die fell into the ufnal extravagan¬ ces of her paflipn ; when he, without anfwering a word, went abroad with them; but he was no fooner out of the door, than (he, running up into the chamber, threw water down upon his head ; upon which, turn¬ ing to his friends, “ D d not I tell you (fays he), that after fo much thund r we flipuld have rain?” Ano¬ ther time (he pulled his cloak from his (houlders in the open forum ; and fome of his friends advifing him to beat her, (t Yes, (fays he), that while we two fight, Socrafa#, you may all Rand by, and cry, Well done Socrates; to Socraticj him, Xantippe !” He chofe his wife, we are told, for the fame reafon that thofe who would excel in horfe- manflrip choofe the roughed and mod fpirited horfes ; fuppofing if they are able to manage them, they may be able to manage any other. It is doubtful whether Socrates ever convinced any one befide himfelf by this reafoning ; or whether he owes any part of his reputation for wifdom, to this rule for choofing a wife ! They who affirm that Socrates wrote nothing, as Cicero, Plutarch, and others, mean only in rcfpeft to his philofophy; for it is atteded and allowed, that he affided Euripides in compofing tragedies, and was the author of fome pieces of poetry. Dialogues alfo, and epidles, are afcribed to him. His philofophical dif- putations were committed to writing by his fcholars ; by Plato and Xenophon chiefly. Xenophon fet the example to the red in doing it firfl, and alfo with the greatefl punftuality ; as Plato did it with the mod li¬ berty, intermixing fo much of his own, that it is not eafy, if poffible, to diftinguifh the mafler from the fcholar. Hence Socrates, hearing him recite his Lyfis, cried out, “ How many things doth this young man feign of me!” Socrates, was alfo the name of an ecclefiaflical hidorian of the 5th century, born at Condantinople in the beginning of the reign of Theodofius: he pro- fefled the law, and pleaded at the bar, whence he ob¬ tained the name of Scholajlictu. He wrote an eccle- fiadical hiflory from the year 309, where Eufebius ended, down to 440; and wrote with great exaftnefs and judgment. An edition of Eufebius and Socrates, in Greek and Latin, with notes by Reading, waspub- liflied at London in 1720. SOCRATIC philosophy, the doftrines and opi¬ nions with regard to morality and religion, maintained and taught by Socrates. To him is afcribed the firfl introduftion of moral philofophy, which is what is meant by that ufual faying, “ That Socrates firfl called philofophy down from heaven to earth; that is, from the contemplation of the heavens and heavenly bodies, he led men to confider themfelves, their own paffions, opinions, faculties, duties, aftions, &c.”— Man, who was the foie fubjtft of his philofophy, ha¬ ving a twofold relation to things divine and human, his doftrines were with regard to the former metaphy- fical, to the latter moral. The morality of Socrates we (hall pafs over, as refembling in its general branches what others taught in common with him ; yet more pure, more exaft, more refined. His metaphyfical opinions are thus collefted out of Plato, Xenophon, Plutarch, and others. “ There are three principles of all things, God, matter, and ideas. God is the univerfal intelleft : matter the fubjeft of generation and corruption : idea, an incorporeal fubdance, the intelleft of God ; God the intelleft of the world God is one, perfeft in himfelf, giving the being and well-being of every creature : what he is, I know not j what he is not, I know.—That God, not chance, made the world and all creatures, is demondrable from the reafonable difpofition of their parts, as well for ufe as defence ; from their care to preferve themfclves, and continue their fpecies.—That he particularly re¬ gard#- Sod [ 8203 ] soi Kccratic, gards man in his body, appears from the noble up- I Socia‘ right form thereof, and from the gift of fpeech : in his foul, from the excellency thereof above others.-— That God takes care of all creatures, is demonllrable from the benefit he gives them of light, water, fire, and fruits of the earth in due feafon ; that he hath a particular regard of man, from the deftination of all plants and creatures for his fervice; from their fubjec- tion to man, though they exceeded him ever fo much in ftreugth; from the variety of man’s fenfe, accom¬ modated to the variety of obje&s, for neceffity, ufe, and pleafure ; from reafon, whereby he difeourfeth through reminifcencefrom fenfible objedls; from fpeech, whereby he communicates all he knows, gives laws, and governs dates : finally, that God, though invi- dble himfelf, is fuch and fo great, that he at once fees all, hears all, is everywhere, and orders all.” As to the other great objeft of roetaphyfical refearch, the foul, Socrates taught, that “ it is pre-exident to the body, endued with the knowledge of eternal ideas, which in her union to the body die lofeth, as fiupe- ■fied, until awakened by difeourfe from fenfible objefts; on which account all her learning is only reminifcence, a recovery of her fird knowledge: that the body being compounded is diflolved by death ; but that the foul being fimple paffeth into another life, incapable of corruption : that the fouls of men are divine : that the fouls of the good after death are in a happy edate, united to God in a blefled inacceffible place ; that the bad in convenient places fuffer condign punidiment : but that to define what thofe places are, is the attempt of a man who hath no underdanding ; whence, being once alked what things were in the other world? he anfwered, “ Neither was I ever there, nor ever did I fpeak with any that came from thence.” All the Grecian fefts of philifophers refer their ori¬ gin to the difeipline of Socrates ; particularly the Platonics, Peripatetics, Academics, Cyrenaics, Stoics, &c. but the greated part of his philofophy we have in the works of Plato. SODA (Salto/-), a name for the foffile alkali, or bafisof fea falt. In the eadern countries this alkali is found native, either in a pretty pure date, or mixed with earthy fubftances, from which it is eafily fepa- rated by means of water ; and Dr Heberden found it in confiderable plenty on the peak of Teneriffe. It is alfo obtained from the afhes of the plant kali, and from thofe of the alga marina, which lad form our kelp; but this is the mod impure date in which it ever is obtained. The bed fort of that artificially procured is made by burning the plant kali ; and is prepared at Alicanr in Spain, from an annual pro¬ cumbent kali with fhort leaves like thofe of horfeleek. Thefe afhes are caMeA foude or fade in France, where they are ufed as one of the common kinds of potafh. They are brought to this country under the name of Spanifb afhes, bariglia or barilla, in hard fpongy maffes, partly whitifh or grey, and partly blackifh. From thefe the faline part isextra&ed pure by powdering and didblving in water. This, how¬ ever, contains alfo a portion of vegetable alkali, and forae fea-falt. A work has lately been ertfted in England for decompofing fea-falt and extrafting the pure alkali from it, which is commonly fold in the (hops under the name of Er.glifh pearl-afhes; but it is much lefs pure than that which comes from AKcant; being mixed with a large quantity of fea-falt. The gjJ.j procefs for decompofing the fait in this work is faid to be mixing it with lime, and taking off the faline efflorefcence which appears on the furface. This mineral alkali will faturate fully as much acid as the vegetable, though its atraftion for acids is not fo great. It is certain, that if a quantity of vegetable alkali be added to a folution of Glauber’s fait, or to fea-falt, they will be decompofed, and the mineral alkali will be obtained in its pure form: but whether this would alfo take place if the vegetable alkali were deprived of its fixed air, has not been afeertained ; indeed it has been obferved, that the two alkalis when, rendered cauftic are much lefs eafily diftingmfhed than when combined with fixed air. The mineral alkali eafily then difiinguifhes itfelf by its fuperior mildnefs and readinefs to cryftalbze. For the combinations of the fait of foda, fee Chemistry, n° 124, 185, 231, 270, 275, 296. Soda is alfo a name for a heat in the ftomach, or heart-bum. See Medicine, n° 406. SODOM, formerly a town of Paleftine in Afia, famous in feripture for the wickednefs of its inhabi¬ tants, and their deftru&ion by fire from heaven on_ account of that wickednefs. The place where it flood is now covered by the waters of the Dead Sea, or the Lake Afphaltites. SODOMY, the unnatural crime of buggery, thus called from the city of Sodom, which was deftroyed by fire for the fame. See Buggery. The Levitical law adjudged thofe guilty of this ex¬ ecrable crime to death ; and the civil law affigns the fame punifhment to it. The law of England makes it felony. There is no ftatute in Scotland againft Sodomy ; the libel of the crime is therefore founded on the divine law, and practice makes its punifliment to be burned alive. SODOR, a little village in Columbkill, one of the weftern ides of Scotland, near that of Mull. It was formerly a bilhop’s fee, which comprehended all the iflands, together with the ifle of Man; for which reafon the bifhop is dill called the bifhop ofSodorand Man. SOFA, in the Turkifh cuftoms, a bench of wood raifed from the ground about a foot high, and placed round a hall or chamber for the people to fit do'wn upon or to lie along, and in that pollure to take a view of what paffes in the ftreets, See. for thefe benches are furrounded with windows 5 they are co¬ vered with fine Turky carpets ; and upon that are placed cufhions of fattin flowered with gold, or fome other rich fluff. SOFFITA, or Soffit, in architeflure, any pla¬ fond or ceiling formed of crofs beams of flying corniches, the fquare compartiments or pannels of which are en¬ riched with fculpture, painting, or gilding ; fuch are thofe in the palaces of Italy, and in the apartments of Luxembourg at Paris. SOFI, or Sophi. See Sophi. SOFTENING, in painting, the mixing and dilu¬ ting of colours with the brulh or pencil. SOIL, in agriculture and gardening, denotes earth or ground confidered with regard to the quality of its mould for the produflion and growth of vege¬ tables* See Earth. 41 A 2 SOIS. SOL Soiflbns I! Solanum. SOISSONS, an ancient, large, and confiderable town, in the ifle of France, and capital of the SoifTonnois, with a bifhop’s fee. The cathedral has one of the mod confiderable chapters in the kingdom; and the biihop, when the archbilhop of Rheims is abfent, has a right to confecrate the king. It has 12 parilhes, 6 abbeys, and a French academy, founded in 1694 ; is feated in a very pleafant and fertile valley, on the river Aifne, 30 miles weft of Rheiras, and 60 north-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 3. 24. N. Lat. 49. 23. The Soiflbnnois is bounded on the north by Laonnois; on the eaft by Champagne; on the fouth by La Brie; and on the weft by Valois. It bounds in corn, wood, and paftures. SOKE, or soc. See Socage. SOKEMANS. See Soc and Socage. SOL, in mufic, the fifth note of the gammut, lit, re, ?m, fa, fol, la. See Gammut. Sol, or Sou, a French coin made up of copper mix¬ ed with a little filver. See the article Coin. Sol, the Sun, in aftronomy, aftrology, &c. See Astronomy, pafim. Sol, in chcmiftry, is gold; thus called from an opi¬ nion that this metal is in a particular manner under the influence of the fun. Sol, i-n heraldry, denotes Or, the golden colour in the arms of fovereign princes. SOL-dSUS, or Solaris, in anatomy, one of the extenfor mufcles of the foot, rifing from the upper and hinder part of the tibia and fibula. SOLAND-goose, in ornithology. See Pelica- NUS. SOLANUM, nightshade, comprehending the love-apple and potato; a genus of the monogynia or¬ der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There are 30 fpecies ; the moft remarkable of which are, 1. The lycoperficon, wolPs peach, love-apple, or to- mentos, rifes with ftrong herbaceous procumbent ftalks branching cut to the length of fix or eight feet with large pinnated, rank-fcented leaves, with four or five pairs of cut lobes, and Ample racemous clufters of (mail yellow flowers at the axillas, fucceeded by large comprefled roundifli furrowed fruit, of a red colour and foft. The varieties are, the common large love- apple, with furrowed fruit; the cherry-fruited love- apple, having fmootlt round fruit of a red colour, the fize of large cherries ; yellow cherry-fruited; fcentlefs- leaved ; and burnet-leaved. It is a native of the hot parts of America. 2. The nigrum, or common black nightftiade, rifes witFupright herbaceous ftalks, branching two or three feet high ; oval, angular, in¬ dented leaves ; and, from the fides of the branches, roundilh nodding umbels of white flowers fucceeded by black and other coloured berries in the varieties. 3. The dulcamara, bitter fweet, or climbing woody night-lhade, rifes with long flexuous, inermous, woody ftalks, climbing by fupport many feet high ; oblong, pointed leaves, with the upper ones halbert-lhaped ; and cymofe clufters of fraall blue flowers, fucceeded by bunches of fmall, oval, red berries. The varieties are, the white flowered; the variegated white ftriped lea¬ ved ; gold ftriped leaved ; the African thick leaved, formerly confidered as a diftinift fpecies, but now found to be only a variety of this. 4.The tuberofum, tube¬ rous-rooted 34. 35- 39- SOLDER, sodder, orfoder, a metallic or mine¬ ral Solanum^fl Solder, in SOL [ 8205 ] SOL Soldering, ra! compofition ufcd in foldering or joining together Soldier. otfaer metalg. See the next article. Solders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, bif- mutb, and lead ; ufually obferving, that in the com¬ pofition there be fome of the metal that is to be fol- dered mixed with fome higher and finer metal?. Gold- fmitha ufually make four kinds of folder, viz. folder of eight, where to feven parts of filver there is one of brafs or copper; folder of fix, where only a fixth part is copper ; folder of four, and folder of three. It is the mixture of copper in the folder that makes raifed plate come always cheaper than flat. The folder ufed by plumbers is made of two pounds of lead to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by melting it and pouring the bignefs of a crown-piece upon a table ; for if good, there will arife little bright fhining ftars therein. The folder for copper is made, like that of the plumbers, only with copper and tin ; for very nice works, inftead of tin they fometimes ufe a quantity of filver. Solder for tin is made of two thirds of tin and one of lead ; but where the work is any thing delicate, as in organ-pipes, where the junfture is fcarce difcern- abl?, it is made of one part of bifmuth and three parts of pewter. SOLDERING, among mechanics, the joining and faftening together two pieces of the fame metal, or of two different metals, by the fufion and application of fome metallic compofition on the extremities of the me¬ tals to be joined. See the preceding article. To folder upon filver, brafs, or iron : Take filver, five pennyweight ; brafs, four pennyweight; melt them together for foft folder, which runs fooneft. Take filver, five pennyweight ; copper, three penny¬ weight; melt them together for hard folder. Beat the folder thin, and lay it on the place to be foldered, which mud be firft fitted and bound together with wire, as occafion requires ; then take borax in pow¬ der, and temper it like pap, and lay it upon the fol¬ der, letting it dry ; then cover it with quick coals, and blow, and it will run immediately ; take it pre- fently out of the fire, and it is done. It is to be ob- ferved, that if any thing is to be foldered in two pla¬ ces, which cannot well be done at one time, you muff firft folder with the harder folder, and then with the foft ; for if it be firft done with the foft, it will urn folder again before the other is faftened. Let it be obferved, that if you would not have your folder run about the piece that is to be foldered, you muft rub fuch places over with chalk.—In the foldering either of gold, filver, copper, or either of the metals above- mentioned, there is generally ufed borax in powder; and fometimes rofm. As to iron, it is fufficient that it be heated red hot, and the two extremities thus hammered together, by which means they will become incorporated with each other. For the finer kinds of iron and fteel inftruments, however, gold proves an excellent folder. This metal^Wfll diffolve. t wice or thrice its weight of iron in a degree of heat very far lefs than that in which iron itfelf melts; hence, if a final! plate of gold is, wrapped round the parts to be joined, and afterwards melted by a blow-pipe, it ftrongly unites the pieces together without any injury to the inftrument, however delicate. SOLDIER, a military man lifted to ferve a prince or date in confideration of a certain daily pay. SoLDitK-Crah. See Cancer. Soldier SOLE, in the manege, a nail or fort of born un- | der a horfe’s foot, which is much more tender than the olen• , other horn that encompafles the foot, and by reafon of its hardnefs is properly called the horn or hoof. Sole, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes. SOLEiE, among the Romans, a kind of fandals or flippers which covered only the foie of the feet, and bound on with thongs of leather; inftead of which the women and the effeminate ones of the other fex, tied them on with purple coloured ribbons, or fuch as were curioufly adorned with gold and filver. SOLECISM, in grammar, a falfe manner of fpeak- ing, contrary to the ufe of language and the rules of grammar, either in refpeft of declenfion, conjugation, or fyntax.—The word is Greek, roMiKto-y.®-, derived from the So/i, a people of Attica, who being tranf- planted to Cilicia, loft the purity of their ancient tongue, and became ridiculous to the Athenians for their improprieties therein. Solecifms, on fome occafions, are pardonable : /»/- fetratum ejl a rat tone ut peccare fuavitatis caufa liceret. Vaugelas is frequently repeating that of Quintilian^ jiliud eji Latine, aliud gravimatice loqui. SOLEMN, fomething performed with much pomp, ceremony, and expence. Thus we fay, folemn feafts, folemn funerals, fokmn games, &c.—In law, foletnn fignifies fomething authentic, or that is clothed in all its formalities. SOLEN, the razor-fish,a genusof infefts belong¬ ing to the order of vermes teftacea. The fhell is ob¬ long, bivalved, and opening at both fides ; the cardo has a fubulated refle&ed tooth, not inferted into the oppofite valve. There are eleven fpecies, diftinguifh- ed by peculiarities in their fhells. Three of them, viz. the filiqua, vagina, and enfis, are found on the Britilh coalts, and lurk in the fand near the low-water mark in a perpendicular dire&ion. When in want of food, they elevate one end a little above the fur- face, and protrude their bodies far out of the fliell. On the approach of danger they dart deep into the fand, fometimes two feet at leaft. Their place is known by a fmall dimple on the furface. Sometimes they arc- dog out with a fltovel; at other times they are ta¬ ken by ftriking a barbed dart fuddenly into them. When the fea is down, thefe fifli ufually run deep in¬ to the fand; and to bring them up, the common cu- ftom is to throw a little fait into the holes, on which the fifh raifes itfelf, and in a few minutes appears at- the mouth of its hole. When half the fliell is difeo- vered,.the filherman has nothing more to do than to take hold of it with his fingers and draw it out : but he muft be cautious not to lofe the occafion, for the creature does not continue a moment in that ftate ; and if by any means the tiflierman has touched it, and let it flip away, it is g.one for ever; for it will not be - decoyed again out of its bole by fait; fo that there is then no way of getting it but by digging under it, and throwing it up with the fand. The filh has two- pipes, each compofed of four or five rings or portions- of a hollow cylinder, of unequal lengths, joined one to another; and the places where they join are mark¬ ed by a number of fine ftreaks or rays. Now the rea¬ fon why the fait makes thefe creatures come up out of their holes,,is, that it gives them violent pain, and even > SOL [ 8206 ] SOL Solen. even corrodes thefe pipes. This Is fomewhat ttrange, as the creature is nourifhed by means of ialt-water ; but it is very evident, in that if a little fait be ftrewed upon thefe pipes in a fifh taken out of its habitation, it will corrode the joinings of the rings, and often make one or more joints drop off: the creature, to avoid this mifchief, arifes out of its hole, and throws off the fait, and then retires back again. The ufe of thefe pipes to the animal, is the fame with that of many other pipes of a like kind in other fhell-hfh; they all ferve to take in water : they are only a con¬ tinuation of the outer membrane of the filh, and ferve indifferently for the taking in and throwing out the water, one receiving, and the other difcharging it, and either anfwering equally well to their purpofe. When one of thefe filh is taken out of its hole, and laid upon the fand, if any thing touches it, it imme¬ diately gets in order for its progreffive motion. It throws out a long cylindric part, of half the length of the fhell, and of the fhape of a clapper of a bell; this is fufpendedto the middle of the animal by a ligament, but in all other parts it is loofe : this ferves as a leg to the creature. As it lies upon the fand, it extends this about an inch from the end of the fhell, and changes its cylindric figure to a flat one, which termi¬ nates in a point, flat and fh. rp at the edges ; with this it opens its paflage into the fand. When the opening is made, it extends this part Hill farther, and buries it deeper; and after this bends it back again in fuch a manner, that its point turns up towards the ihell : thus it gives this part the figure of a hook, and by this hook it draws its whole body and fhell down. In this attempt it brings the edges of the fhells every where clofe together; and inftead of lying flat upon the fand, it now by degrees gets into a vertical pofi- tion, and then there remains nothing to do but to draw it deeper into the fand. To effedl this, it now again extends its leg, which it eafily pafles into the fand in its flatted fhape ; and when it has thus pierced to its utmoft length, the creature inflates, and extends it by .-degrees to the fize of the fhell, and to a round or cy¬ lindric figure ; the confequence of which is, that there is now a hole made of the fhape of the fhell, and equal to its diameter, into which it can eafily fink: to faci¬ litate this, however, the creature fwells out the extre¬ mity of the leg into a fort of button, which holding fail in its place, nothing more is neceffary than to contradl the reft of the leg, in order to pull down the fhell after it. This operation is repeated as often as is neceffary, and the creature, at every movement of this kind, getting down half the length of its fhell, or thereabouts, is-very foon plunged as deep as its occa- fions require. When it has occafion to afeend out of its hole, the fame leg ferves for that purpofe ; nothing more being required, than the putting out the end of the leg, fweliing it, and thus thrufling itfelf up to the length of that leg ; then retracing it into the fhell again, and thrufting out and inflating its end for a fecond movement of the fame kind. Thefe motions may be all perceived in the creature when out of the fand, particularly that by which it buries itfelf; for if held up in the fingers, it thrufts out the leg, and performs all the motions as if in the fand, making a fruitlefs at¬ tempt to fave itlelf in its old way. Thefe fifh were;ufed as food by the ancients ; and Solfaing, Athenaeus, from Sophron, fpeaks of them as great de- Solfaterra. licacits, and particularly grateful to widows. They are often ufed as food at prefent, and arc brought up to table fried in eggs. SOLFAING, in mufic, the naming or pronoun¬ cing the feveral notes of a fong by the fyllables ut, re, mi, fa, fcl, &c. in learning to fing it. Of the (even notes in the French fcale tit, re, mi,fa, Jbl, Id, ft, only four are ufed among us in finging, as mi,fa, fol,la: their office is principally, in finging, that by applying them to every mote of the fcale, it may not only be pronounced with more eafe, but chiefly that by them the tones and femitones of the natural fcale may be better marked out and diftin- guiflied. This defign is obtained by the four fyllables fa, fol, la, mi. Thus from fa to fol is a tone, alfo from fol to la, and from la to mi, without diftinguifh- ing the greater or lefs tone ; but from la to fa, alfo from 77ii to fa, is only a femitone. If then thefe be applied in this order, fa, fol, la, fa, fol, la, mi, fa, &c. they exprefs the natural feries from C; and if that be repeated to a fecond or third odlave, we fee by them how to exprefs all the different orders of tones and femi-tones in the diatonic fcale ; and ftill above mi will ftand fa, fol, la, and below it the fame inverted la, fol, fa, and one mi is always diftant from another an o&ave ; which cannot be faid of any of the reft, be- caufe after mi afeending come always fa, fol, la, which are repeated invertedly defeending. To conceive the ufe of this, it is to be remembered, that the firft thing in learning to fing, is to make one raife a fcale of notes by tones and femi-tones to an oc¬ tave, and defeend again by the fame; and then to raife and fall by greater intervals at a leap, as thirds and fourths, &c. and to do all this by beginning at notes of different pitch. Then thofe notes are repre- fented by lines and fpaces, to which thefe fyllables are applied, and the learners taught to name each line-and fpace thereby, which makes what we call folfaing; the ufe whereof is, that while they are learning to tune the degrees and intervals of found, expreffed by notes on a line or fpace, or learning a fong to which no words are applied, they may not only do it the better by means of articulate founds, but chiefly, that by knowing the degrees and intervals expreffed by thofe fyllables, they may more readily know the places of the femi-tones, and the true diftance of the notes. See the article Singing. SOLFATERRA, a mountain of Italy in the king¬ dom of Naples, and Terra di Lavoro. This mountain appears evidently to have been a volcano in ancient times; and the foil is yet fo hot, that the workmen employed there in making alum need nothing elfe, be- fides the heat of the ground, for evaporating their li¬ quids f. Of this mountain we have the following ac- •)■ See count by SirWilliam Hamilton.—“Near Artruni (ano- Chemijlry, ther mountain, formerly a volcano likewife) rifes then0,34. Solfaterra, which not only retains its cone and crater, but much of its former heat. In the plain within the crater, fmoke iffues from many parts, as alfo from its fides: here, by means of ftones and tiles heaped over the crevices, through which the fmoke paffes, they colledl in an aukward manner what they call fale ar- vmiaco; and from the fand of the plain they extract fulphur S O L I 8207 ] SOL ^olfatfrra, fulphurand alum. Thisfpot, well attended to, might Solicitor. cer[ajnly produce a good revenue, whereas I doubt if they have hitherto ever cleared 2001. a-year by it. The hollow found produced by throwing a heavy ftone on the plain of the crater of the Solfaterra, feems to indicate that it is fupported by a fort of arched na¬ tural vault; and one is induced to think that there is a pool of water beneath this vault (which boils by the heat of a fubterraneous fire Hill deeper), by the very moiil dream that iflues from the cracks in the plain of the Solfaterra, which, like that of boiling water, runs off a fword or knife, prefemed to it, in great drops. On the outfide, and at the foot of the cone of the Sol¬ faterra, towards the lake of Agnano, water rufiies out of the rocks fo hot, as to raife the quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermometer to the degree of boiling wa¬ ter (a) ; a fad of which I was myfelf an eye-witnefs. This place, well worthy the obfervation of the curious, has been taken little notice of; it is called the Pifcia- relli. The common people of Naples have great faith in the efficacy of this water ; and make much of it in all cutaneous diforders, as well as for another diforder that prevails here. It feems to be impregnated chiefly with fulphur and alum. When you approach your ear to the rocks of the Pifciarelli, from whence this wa¬ ter ouzes, you hear a horrid boiling noife, which feems to proceed from the huge cauldron that may be fup- pofed to be under the plain of the Solfaterra. On the other fide of the Solfaterra, next the fea, there is a rock which has communicated with the fea, till part of it was cut away to make the'road to Puzzole ; this was undoubtedly a confiderable lava, that ran from the Solfaterra when it was an aftive volcano. Under this rock of lava, which is more than 70 feet high, there is a ftratum of pumice and afltts. This ancient lava is about a quarter of a mile broad ; ypu meet with it abruptly before you come in fight of Puzzole, and it finifhes as abruptly within about too paces of the town. The ancient name of the Soltaferra was Forum Vulcani ; a ftrong proof of its origin from fubterraneous fire. The degree of heat that'the Solfaterra has pre- ferved for fo many ages, feems to have calcined the ilones upon its cone and in its crater, as they are very white, and crumble ealily in the hotted parts. SOLICITOR, a perfon employed to take care of and manage fuits depending in the courts of law or equity ; and thofe of the lower fort, it is obferved, are too often made ufe of, to the damage of the people, and the increafe of champerty and maintenance. So¬ licitors are within the ftatute to be fworn, and admit¬ ted by the judges, before they are allowed to praftife hi our courts, in like manner as attorneys. There is alfo a great officer of the law, next to the attorney-general, who is flyled the king’s folicitor- general ; who holds his office by patent during the king’s pleafure, has the care and concern of managing the king’s affairs, and has fees for pleading, befides other fees arifmg by patents, &c. He hath his at¬ tendance on the privy-council ; and the attorney-ge¬ neral and he were anciently reckoned among the offi- «ers of the exchequerthey have their audience, and come within the bar in all other courts. SOLID, in philofophy, a body whofe parts are To Solid firmly connected together, as not to give way or flip from each other upon the fmalled impreflion ; in which L fenfe folid ftands oppofed to fluid. Geometricians define a folid to be the third fpectea of magnitude, or that which has three dimenfions, viz. length, breadth, and thicknefs or depth. Solids are commonly divided into regular and irre* gular. The regular folids are thofe terminated by re¬ gular and equal planes, and are only five in number, viz. the tetrahedron, which confids of four equal tri¬ angles ; the cube, or hexahedron, of fix equal fquares; the oftahedron, of eight equal triangles ; the dodeca¬ hedron, of twelve ; and the icofihedron, of twenty equal triangles. The irregular folkls are almoft infinite, comprehend¬ ing all fuch as do not come under the definition of re¬ gular folids; as the fphere, cylinder, cone, parallelo¬ gram, prifm, parallelepiped, &c. Solids, in anatomy, &c. denote the continent parts of the human body ; being a congeries of pipes, or veffels, which contain a liquor. The folid parts of the body, though equally corn- pofed of veffels, are different with regard to their con¬ fidence ; fome being hard, and others foft. The hard,, as the bones and cartilages, give firmnefs and attitude to the body, and fudain the other parts: the foft parts, either alone or together with the hard, ferve to execute the animal-fun&ions. See Anatomy. SOLIDITY, that property of matter, or body, by which it excludes all other bodies from the place which itfelf poffeffes; and as it would be ab- furd to fuppofe that two bodies could poflefs one. and the fame place at the fame time, it follows, that the fofted bodies are equally folid with the harded. Among geometricians, the folidity of a body de¬ notes the quantity or fpace contained in it, and is called alfo its folid content. SOLILOQUY, a reafoning or difeourfe which a man holds with himfelf; or, more properly, accor¬ ding to Papias, it is a difeourfe by way of anfwer to a quedion that a man propofes to himfelf. Soliloquies are become very common things on the modern dage ; yet can nothing be more inartificial, or more unnatural, than an aftor’s making long fpeeches to himfelf, to convey his intentions to the audience. Where fuch difeoveries are neceffary to be made, the poet fhould rather take care to give the dramatic perfons fuch confidants as may neceffarily fliare their inmod thoughts ; by which means they will be more naturally conveyed to the audience : yet i& even this a drift an accurate poet would not be found to have occafion for. The ufe and abufe of foliloquies is well delivered by the duke of Buckingham in the following lines: Soliloquies had need be .very few. Extremely (hort, and fpoke in palfion too. Our lovers talking to themfelves, for want Of others, make the pit their confidant: Nor. is the matter mended yet, if thus ■They tmft a friend, only to tell it us. SOLIS (Antonio de), an ingenious Spanifli writer, of an ancient and illudrious family, born at Piacenza- in ( a) I have remarked, that after a great fall of rain, the degree of heat in this water is much lefs; which will ac¬ count for what the Padre Torre fays, (in his book, intitled, Hifloire et Phencmenes du Vefuve), that^when he tried it in company with Monfieur de la Condamine, the degree of heat, upon Reaumur’s thermometer, was 65°. Solitary ' I! SoljtHce. SOL r 8208 I SOM in Old Caftile, in 1610. He was intended toftudy the law; but his inclination toward poetry prevailed, .and he cultivated it with great fuccefs. Philip IV. of Spain made him one of his fecretaries ; and after his death the queen-regent appointed him firft hiftoriogra- pher of the Indies, a place of great profit and honour: his Hiftory of the Conqueft of,kMexico fhows that fhe could not have named a fitter perfon. He is better known by this biftory abroad, than by his poetry and dramatic writings, though he was excellent in that way. He turned prieft at 57 years of age, and died in 1686. SOLITARY, fomething retired, or in private, remote from the company or commerce of others of the fame fpecies. SOLITARIES, a denomination of nuns of St Peter of Alcantara, inftituted in 1676, the defign of which is to imitate the fevere penitent life of that faint. Thus they are to keep a continual filence, never to open their mouths to any body but themfelves; employ their time wholly in fpiritual exercifes, and leave the temporal concerns to a number of maids, who have a particular fuperior in a feparate part of the monaftery: they always go bare-footed, without fandals ; gird themfelves with a thick cord, and wear no linen. SOLO, in mufic, a terra ufed in pieces confifting of feveral parts, to mark thofe that are to perform alone. SOLOMON, the fon of David king of Ifrael, renowned in feripture for his wifdom, riches, and magnificent temple and other buildings. Towards the end of his life he fullied all his former glory by his apoftacy from God ; from which caufe vengeance was denounced againfi. his houfe and nation. He died about 975 B. C. Solomon’s Seal, in botany; a fpecies of Conval- XARIA. SOLON, one of the feven wife men of Greece, was born at Athens about 369 B. C. His courage having procured him the government of his country, he abrogated Draco’s laws, and publifhed others more equitable. Pififtratus having made himfelf matter of Athens, Solon retired into Lydia, where, Crcefus having afited him on a time if he did not think him happy ? he anfwered, that none could be accounted fo before their laft breath ; which Croefus afterwards found fully verified. Solon died at the age of 80. SOLSTICE, in aftronomy, that time when the fun is in one of the folftitial points; that is, when he is at his greateft diflance from the equator; thus called becaufe he then appears to ftand ftill, and not to change his diftance from the equator for fome time; an appearance owing to the obliquity of our fphere, and which thofe living under the equator are ftran- gers to. The foiftices are two in each year; the asftival or fummer folftice, and the hyema! or winter foiftice. The fummer foiftice is when the fun feems to deferibe the tropic of cancer, which is on June 22. when he makes the longeft day: the winter foiftice is when the fun enters the firft degree, or feems to deferibe the tropic of capricorn, which is on December 22. when he makes the fhorteft day. This is to be underftood as in our northern hemifpherej for in the fouthern, the fun's entrafice into capricorn makes the fummer foiftice, Solution and that into cancer the winter foiftice. The two II points of the ecliptic, wherein the fun’s greateft afeent omer~c‘ above the equator, and his defeent below it, arc ter¬ minated, are called the foljlitialpoints; and a circle, fuppofed to pafs through the poles of the world and thefe points, is called the foljlitial colure. The fum¬ mer folftitial point is in the beginning of the firft de¬ gree of cancer, and is called the tejlivat-or fummer point; and the winter folftitial point is in the be¬ ginning of the firft degree of capricorn, and is called the •winter point. Thefc two points are diametrically oppofite to each other. SOLUTION, in chemiftry, denotes an intimate mixture of folid bodies with fluids, fo as feemingly to form one homogene liquo.i: the diffolving fluid is term¬ ed the dijfolvent or menjlruum. The moft celebrated chemifts have aflerted, that water is capable of diffolving a certain proportion of fait without having its bulk increafed thereby in the leaft ; but, from fome late experiments, this is contra- dided; and it is maintained, that all falts, in whatever proportion they may be added, do aftually increafe the bulk of the folution, though, when the fait is at firft thrown in, the bulk is conflantly diminifhed. From thefe experiments it is alfo affirmed, that when water is completely faturated with one kind of fait, it will not take up any more of another, without letting fall fome of the former. SOLVENT, the fame with diffolvent. See the article Dissolvent. SOLWAY moss. See Moving Moss. SOMBRERO., the name of an uninhabited ifland in the Weft Indies in the form of an hat, whence the name is derived. It is alfo the name of one of the Newbar iflatlds in the Eaft Indies. Sombrero, Wonderful Plant of, is a ftrange kindof fenfitive plant growing in the Eaft Indies, in fandy bays and in {hallow water. It appears like a {lender ftraight flick ; but when you attempt to touch it, im¬ mediately withdraws itfelf into the fand. Mr Miller gives an account of it in his defeription of Sumatra *. * Phil. He fays the Malays call it lalan lout, that is, fea-grafs. He never could obferve any tentacula; but, after many v0 ^g3, unfuccefsful attempts, drew out a broken piece about P‘ a foot long. It was perfe&ly ftraight and uniform, and refembled a worm drawn over a knitting needle. When dry it is a coral. SOMERS (John), lord high chancellor of Eng¬ land, was born at Worcefter in 1652. He was edu¬ cated at Oxford, and afterward entered bimfelf of the Middle-Temple, where he ftudied the law with great vigour. In 1688 he was of council for the Teven bifliops at their trial, and argued with great learning and eloquence againft the difpenfing power. In the convention which met by the prince of Orange’s fummons, January 22. 1689,-he reprefented Wor¬ cefter; and was one of the managers for the houfe of commons, at a conference with the houfe of lords upon the word abdicated. Soon after the acceffion of king William and queen Mary to the throne, he was appointed folicitor-general, and received the honour of knighthood. lu 1692 he was made attorney- general, and in 1603 advanced to the poll of lord keeper of the great feal of England. In 1695 he pro- SOM [ 8209 ] S O O 'Sotr.etrfot' propofed an expedient to prevent the pra&ice of , fhire. clipping the coin. In 1697 he was created lord ^ Somers, baron of Evelham, and made lord high chan¬ cellor of England. In the beginning of 1700 he was removed from his poll of lord chancellor, and the year after was impeached of high crimes and mifde- meanours by the houfe of commons, of which he was acquitted upon trial by the houle of lords. He then retired to a ftudious courfe of life, and was chofen prefident of the royal fociety. In 1706 he propofed a bill for the regulation of the hw ; and the fame year was one of the principal managers for the union between England and Scotland. In 1708 he was made lord prefident of the council; from which poll he was removed in 1710, upon the change of the minidry. In the latter end of queen’s Anne’s reign, his lordlhip grew very infirm in his health; which indifpofition is fnppofed to be the reafon that he held no other poft than a feat at the council-table, after the acceffion of king George I. He died of an apopledlic fit in 1716. Mr Addifon has drawn his pharafter very beautifully in the Freeholder. SOMERSETSHIRE, a county of England, ta¬ king its name from Somerton, once the capital. It is bounded on the weft by Devonlbire, on the fouth by Dorfetlhire, on the north by Briftol Channel or the Severn Sea, on the north-eaft by a final! part of Glou- cefterfhire, and on the eaft by Wiltlhire. It is one of the iargeft counties in England, extending in length from eaft to weft about 60 miles ; in breadth, where broadeft, from fouth to north, about 50 ; and 150 in circumference. It is divided into 42 hundreds, in which are 3 cities, 30 market-towns, 1700 villages, 385 parilhes, of which 132 are vicarages, containing more than 100,0000 of acres, and about 280,000 fouls. It fends 18 members to parliament, viz. two for Briftol, two for Bath, two for Wells, two for Taunton, two for Bridgewater, two for Ilchefter, two for Milbourn-port, and two for Minehead. The air of this county is very mild and wholefome, . efpecialiy that of the hilly part. The foil in general is exceeding rich, fo that fingle acres very commonly produce forty or fifty bulhels of wheat, and there have been inftances of fome producing fixty of barley. As there is very fine pafture both for fheep and black cat¬ tle, it abounds in both, which are as large as thofe of Lincolnfhire, and their flelh of a finer grain. In con- lequence of this abundance of black cattle, great quan¬ tities of cheefe are made in it, of which that of Ched¬ dar is thought equal to Parmefan. In the hilly parts are found coal, lead, copper, lapis calaminaris, and okre. Wood thrives in it as well as in any county of the kingdom. It abounds alfo in peafe, beans, beer, cyder, fruit, wild fowl, and falmon ; and its mineral waters are celebrated all over the world. The riches of this county, both natural and acqui¬ red, exceed thofe of any other in the kingdom, Mid- dlefex ai d Yorklhire excepted. The woollen manu- iafture in all its branches is carried on to a very great extent ; and in fome parts of the county great quanti¬ ties of linen are made. If to thefe the produce of va¬ rious other commodities in which it abounds is added, the amount of the whole muft undoubtedly be very great. Its foreign trade muft alfo be allowed to be very extenfive, when it is confidcred that it has a large trade for fea-coal, and poflefTes, befides other ports, Von. X. that of Brifto!, a town of the greateft trade in Eng- Samnam.- land, next to London. bull Befides leffer ftreams, it is well watered and fupplied s ^ . with filh by the rivers Severn, Avon, Parrel, Froome, Ax, Torre, and Tone. Its greateft hills are Mendip, Pouldon, and Quantock, of which the firft abounds in coal, lead, &c. The rivers Severn and Parrel breed very fine falmon. The chief town is Briftol. SOMNAMBULI, a name for perfons who walk in their fleep. See Noctambuli. SOMNER (William), an eminent Englilh anti¬ quary in the 17th century, was born in 1606. His firfl treatife was that on the Antiquities of Canter¬ bury (his native city), dedicated to archbilhop Laud. He then applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Saxon lan¬ guage ; and having made himfelf mailer of it, he per¬ ceived that the old glofiary prefixed to Sir Roger Twifden’s edition of the laws of king Henry I. print¬ ed in 1644, was faulty in many places ; he therefore wrote notes and obfervations, large and learned, on that edition, with a very ufeful gloflary. His Treatife of Gavelkind was finifhed about 1648, though not pub- lilhed till 1660. Our author was zealoufly attached to king Charles I. and in 1648 he publifhed a poem on his fufferings and death. His Ikill in the Saxon tongue led him to inquire into moll of the European languages ancient and modern. He afiifted Dugdale and Dodfworth in compiling the Monajiicon Anglican num. His Saxon Dictionary was printed at Oxford in 1659. He died in 1669. SON, an appellation given to a male child confi- dered in the relation he bears to his parents. See Pa¬ rent and Child. SONATA, in mufic, a piece or compofition, in¬ tended to be performed by inftruments only ; in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to cantata, or a piece defigned for the voice. See Cantata. There are fonatas from one to eight parts ; but ufually they are performed by a fingle violin, or with two violins and a thorough-bafs for the harpfi- chord, and frequently a more figured bafs for the bafs-viol. Sonatas, though extremely numerous, are reduced by the Italians to two kinds: 1. Thofe proper for church-mufic, which ufually begin with a grave and folemn motion, and afterwards ftrike into a brilker and gayer manner; thefe are what they more peculiarly call fonatas. 2. Thofe for the chamber, being little pieces for dancing. SONG, in poetry, a little compofition, confiding of eafy and natural verfes, fet to a tune in order to be fung. See Poetry, n° 54. Song, in mufic, is applied in general to a fingle piece of mufic, whether contrived for the voice or an infirument. See Air. SONNA, a book of Mahometan traditions, where¬ in all the orthodox muffulmen are required to believe. SONNET, in poetry, a compofnion contained in 14 verfes, viz. two ftanzas or meafures of four verfes each, and two of three, the eight firft verfes being all in three rhimes. SONNITES, among the Mahometans, an appella¬ tion given to the orthodox muffulmen or true belie¬ vers ; in oppofition to the feveral heretical fe£lsj par¬ ticularly the Shiites, or followers of Ali. SOOJU, or Soy. See DotiCHOS, 41 13 SOOT, S O R r 8210 1 S O R • Soot SOOT, a volatile matter arifing from wood and U other fuel along with the fmoke; or rather, it is the Sorbon‘ fmoke itfelf, fixed and gathered to the fides of the chimney. Though once volatile, however, foot can¬ not be again refolved into vapour ; but, if diftilled by a itrong fire, yields a volatile alkali and empyreumatic oil, a confiderable quantity of fixed matter remaining at the bottom of the diftilling veffel. If burnt in an open fire, it flames with a thick fmoke; from whence other foot is produced. It is ufed as a material for making fal ammoniac, and as a manure. S e Che¬ mistry, n° 231 ; and Agriculture, n° 21. Soot-Black. See Colour Making. SOPHI, or Son, a title givt n to the emperor of Periia ; importing as much as wife, fage, or philofo- pher. There is no prince in the world whofe autho¬ rity is more abfolute than that of the fophi of Perfia. SOPHISM, in logic, &c. an argument which carries much of the appearance of truth, and yet leads into error. SOPHIST, a perfon who ufes fophifms with a view to deceive thole he would perfuade or convince. SOPHISTICATION, the adulterating any thing with what is not good or genuine ; a pra&ice too common in the making up medicines for fale; as alfo among vintners, diftillers, and others, who are accu- fed of fophifticating their wines, fpirits, oils, &c. by mixing with them cheaper and coarfer materials ; and in many cafes the cheat is carried on fo artfully as to deceive the bcft judges. SOPHOCLES, the celebrated Greek tragic poet, was archon or chief magiitrate of Athens; in which ftation he commanded the forces of the republic, and fignalized himfelf by his valour on feveral occafions. Of too tragedies which he is fuppofed to have written, only (even have been preferved to our time : they are tranflated into Latin, with the Greek Scholia, by our countryman Johnfon, and into Englifh by Dr Franklin. Sophocles died about 406 B. C. aged 91. SOPORIFIC, or Soporiferous, a medicine that has the faculty of-procuring fleep. Such are opium, laudanum, &c. The word is formed from the Latin fcpory, deep. * The Greeks in lieu hereof ule the word hypnotic. SORBON, or Sorbonve, the houfe or college of the faculty of theology eftabliflicd in the univerfity of Paris. It was founded in 1252 by Si Louis, or rather by Robert de Sorbon his confcff ir and almoner, firll canon of Cambray, and afterwards of the church of Paris; who gave his own name to it, which he him¬ felf took from the village of Sorbon or Serbon, near Sens, where he was born. The foundation was laid in 12jo; queen Blanche, in the abftnce of her huf- band, furmlhing him with a houfe which had formerly been the palace of Julian the ap<.ftate, whereof fome remains are (till feen. Afterwards the king gave him all the houfes he had in the fame place, in exchange for fome others in another. The college has been fince magnificently rebuilt by the cardinal de Riche¬ lieu. The dcfign of its inttitution was for the ufe of poor Students in divinity. There are lodgings in it for 36 doftors, who are fat'd to be of the fociety of the Sorbonne; thofe admitted into it without bring oe- tors, are faid to be of the hofpitaliiy of the Sorbonne. Sis regent doftors hold leisures every day for an hour and half each ; three in the morning, and three in the Sorbus. afternoon. Sorbon, is alfo ufedin the general for the wholefacul- ty of theology at Paris; in regard the affemblirsof the whole body are held in the houfe of the Sorhon ; and that the bachelors of the other honfes of the faculty, aa the houfe of Navarre, &c. come here to hold their for- bonnique, or ad for being admitted doftor in divinity. SORBUS, the servicb tree ; a genus of the tri- gynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants. There are three fpecies. 1. The aucuparia, roountain- a(h, quicken tree, quick beam, or roan-tree, rifes with a (Iraight upright ftem and regular branching head, twenty or thirty feet high or more, covered with a fmooth grey.fh brown bark ; pinnated leaves of eight or ten pair of long, narrow, lerrated folioles, and an odd one, fmooth on both fides; and large um¬ bellate cluders of white flowers at the fides and ends of the branches, fucceeded by clutters of fine red ber¬ ries, ripe in autumn and winter. There is a variety- yellow ttriped leaved. This fpecies grows wild in many parts of this ifland, on mountainous places, woods, and hedge rows, often arriving to the growth of timber ; and is admitted in moft ornamental plan¬ tations, for the beauty of its growth, foliage, flowers, and fruit; the latter, in particular, being produced in numerous red large bunches all over the tree, exhi¬ bit a fine appearance in autumn and winter, till de¬ voured by the birds, efpecially the blackbird and thrufh, which are fo allured by thefe fruit as to flock from all parts and feed on them voracioufly. 2. The do- meftica, or cultivated fervice-tree, with eatable fruit, grows with an upright ftera, branching thirty or forty feet high or more, having a brownilh bark, and the young (hoots in fummer covered with a mealy down } pinnated leaves of eight or ten pair of broadifh deeply ferrated lobes and an odd one, downy underneath, and large umbellate clutters of white flowers at the fides and ends of the branches, fuc. ceded by bunches o£ large, fltfliy, edible red fruit, of various fhapes and fizes in the varieties. This tree is a native of the fouthern warm parts of Europe, where its fruit is in high efteem to ferve up in deffms, and is cultivated here in many of our gardens, both as a fruit-tree and to diverfify hardy plantations. 3. The hebrida, op mongrel (ervice-tree of Gothland, grows twenty op thirty feet high, it has half pinnated leaves, very downy underneath; and clutters of white flowers, fuc-- ceeded by bunches of round reddilh berries in autumn. As to the merit of thefe trees in gardening, they all demand culture in every eminent (hrubbery and other hardy plantations; being introduced as ilandards, ' they will eff< & a fine variety in affemblage, with their elegant pinnated leaves and clutters of flowers and fruit : the wild fervice particularly (hould be plente- oufly interfperfrd in all extei five (hrubberies, for the Angularity of their numerous clutters of berries in au-, tumn and winter, which alfo prove food to encourage’ plenty of finging birds in the plantations. But th& forbus aucuparia may alfo be introduced as a foreft-. tree in timber plantations; and being mottly all heart*, is valued for many purpofes. Tiiey are all eafily propagated* by feed, in the open ground ; alfo by layers, though the feedlings gene¬ rally make the handfomeft plants. SOR- Stores .Somers. S O R [82 SORCERY, (fortHegium), witchcraft, or divination by lots; a crime of which our ancient books are full, and of which we know not well what account to give. To deny the poffibility, nay aftual exiftence, of witch¬ craft and forcery, is at once flatly to contradid the re¬ vealed word of God, in various paflages both of the Old and New Teftament ; and the thing itfelf is a truth to which every nation in the world hath in its turn borne teftimony, either by examples feenrvingly well atteited, or by prohibitory laws, which at lead fup- pofc the poffibility of a commerce with evil fpirits. The civil law punifhes with death not only the force- rers themfelves, but alfo thofe who confult them; imi¬ tating in the former the exprefs law of God, “ Thou (halt not fuffer a witch to live.” And our own laws, both before and fmce the conqueft, have been equally penal ; ranking this crime in the fame clafs with he- refy, and condemning both to the flames. The Prefl- dent Montefquieu ranks them alfo both together, but with a very different view ; laying it down as an im¬ portant maxim, that we ought to be very circumfped in the profecution of magic and herefy ; becaufc the Bioft unexceptionable conduft, the pureft morals, and the conftant praftice of every duty in life, are not a fufficient fecurity againft the fuipicion of crimes like thefe. And indeed, the ridiculous ttories that are ge¬ nerally told, and the many impoftures and delufions that have been difcovered in all ages, are enough to demolifh all faith in fuch a dubious crime, if the con¬ trary evidence were not alfo extremely ftrong. Where¬ fore it feeras to be the molt eligible way to conclude, with an ingenious writer of our own, Tnat in general there has been fuch a thing as witchuaft, though one cannot give credit to any particular modern inftanceof it. Our forefathers were ftronger believers when they ena&ed, by flat. 33 Hen. VIII. c. 8. all witchcraft and forcery to be felony without benefit of clergy; and again, by flat. 1 Jac. I. c. 12. that all perfons invo¬ king any evil fpirit, or confulting, covenanting with, entertaining, employing, feeding, or rewarding any evil fpirit; or taking up dead bodies from their graves to be ufed in any witchcraft, forcery, charm, or in- chantment ; or killing or otherwife hurting any perfon by fuch infernal arts; fhould be guilty of felony with¬ out benefit of clergy, and fuffer deaih. And if any perfon Ihould attempt by forcery to difeover hidden treafure, or to reftore ftolen goods, or to provoke un¬ lawful love, or to hurt any man or beaft, though the fame were not effe&ed, he or Ihe fhould fuffer impri- fonment and pillory for the firft offence, and death for the fecond. Thefe afts continue^ in force till late¬ ly, to the terror of all ancient females in the king¬ dom ; and many poor wretches were facrificed thereby to the prejudice of their neighbours and their own il- lufions, not a few having by fome means or other con- feffed the fad at the gallows. But all executions for this dubious crime are now at an end ; our legiflature having at length followed the wife example of Louis XIV. in France, who thought proper by an edict to reftrain the tribunals of juftice from receiving informa¬ tions of witchcraft. And accordingly it is with us ena&ed, by ftatute 9 Geo. II. c. 5. that no profecu¬ tion fhall for the future be carried on againft any per¬ fon for conjuration, witchcraft, forcery, or inchant- njejU. But the mifdemeanor of perfons pretending to n 1 s o R ufe witchcraft, tell fortunes, or difeover ftolen goods, by (kill in the occult fcicncts, is ftdl defervedly pu¬ nched with a year’s imprifonment, and Handing four times in the pillory. SOREX, the Shrew mouse ; a genus of quadru¬ peds, belonging to the order ot glires. The moft re¬ markable fpecies are, 1. The araneus, or field fhrew- rooufe, with fhort rounded ears ; eyes fmall, and al- moft hid in the fur ; nofe long and flender, upper part the longeft; head and upper part of the body of a brownifh red ; belly of a dirty white ; length, from nofe to tail, two inches and a half; tail one and a half. Inhabits Europe : lives in old walls, heaps of ftones, or holes in the earth ; is frequently near hay¬ ricks, dunghills, and neceffary-houfes ; lives on corn, infe&s, and any filth ; is often obferved rooting in ordure, like a hog; from its food, or the places it frequents, has a diiagreeable fmell; cats will kill, but noteat it: it brings four or five young at a time. The ancients believed it was injurious to cattle; an error now detefted. There feems to be an annual mortality of thefe animals in Auguft, numbers being then found dead in the paths. 2. The fodiens, or water-ftirew, has a long flender nofe ; very minute ears ; very fmall eyes, hid in the fur ; colour of the head and upper part of the body black ; throat, bread, and belly, of alight afh-colour; beneath the tail, a triangular dufky fpot; much larger than the laft ; length, from nofe to tail, three inches three quarters; tail, two inches. Inhabits Eu¬ rope : long fince known in England, but loft till May 1768, when it was difcovered in the fens near Revefley Abbey, Lincolnfhire ; burrows in the banka near the water; is called by the fen-men the blind moufe. 3. The mmutus, or minute (brew, has a head near as big as the body : very flender nofe; broad fhort naked ears; whiflters reaching to the eyes; eyes fmall, and capable of being drawn in ; hair very fine and fhining; grey above, white beneath; no tail ; the leaf! of quadrupeds, according to Linnaeus. Inhabits Siberia ; lives in a neft made of lichens, in fome moill place beneath the roots of trees; feeds on feeds; it digs? runs fwiftly ; has the voice of a bat. 4. The tucan, or Mexican (brew, has a fliarp nofe ; fmall round ears; without fight; two long fore-teeth above and below ; thick, fat, and flefliy body ; Ihort legs, fo that the belly almoft touches the ground; long crooked claws ; tawny hair ; fhort tail; length, from nofe to tail, nine inches. Inhabits Mexico? burrows, and makes fuch a number of cavities, that travellers can fcarce tread with fafety ; if it gets out of its hole, does not know how to return, but begins to dig another ; grows very fat, and is eatable ; feeds on roots, kidney-beans, and other feeds. M. dc Buf- fon thinks it a mole; but by the ears, it fliould be claffed here. SORITES, in logic, a fpecies of reafoning in which a great number of propofitions are fo linked together, that the predicate of tne one becomes continually the fubjeft of the next following, till at lalt a conclulion is formed by bringing together the fubjeft of the firll propofition and the predicate of the laft. See Logic, n® 96, 97. SORNERS, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxxvi. 30. 41 B 2 SOR- Sorcery. S O V [82 Sorrel SORREL, in botany. See Rumex. 8 /^W-Sorrel, in botany. See Oxalis. 011 SoRREL-Cc/par, in the manege, is a reddifli colour, generally thought to be a fign of a good horte. SORTILEGE, (fortilcgium,) a fpecies of divination performed by by means fortes or lots. The fortes Prenejiinse, famous in antiquity, confided in putting a number of letters, or even whole words, into an urn ; and then, after (baking them together, they were thrown on the ground ; and whatever fen* tences could be made out from them, condituted the anfwer of the oracle. Another kind of fortes confided in taking fome celebrated poet, as Homer or Virgil, and opening the book, whatever preiented itfelf fird to the eye made the anfwer: and hence it got the name of fortes Homeric#^ fortes Virgi liana, &c. The fuperditious among the ancient Chridians prac- tifed a fimilar kind of divination, by opening the Old and New Tedament; whence it got the name of fortes fandorunt. SOTERIA, in antiquity, facrifices offered to the gods for delivering a perfon from danger; as alfo poe¬ tical pieces compofed for the fame purpofe. SOUBISE, a town of France, in the province of Guienne, and territory of Saintouge, with the title of a principality. It is feated on the river Gharente^ in W. Long. i. o. N. Lat. 45. 54. SOUGH,amongminers,denotes apafl'age dugunder ground, to convey off water from mines. See Mine. SOVEREIGN, in matters of government, is ap. plied to the fupreme magiftrate or magiltrates of an independent government or date 1 by reafon their au¬ thority is only bounded by the laws of God, of na¬ ture, and the fundamental laws of the date fuch are kings, princes, &c. Sovereign Power, or Sovereignty, in the Bri ti(h polity, is the power of making laws ; for where- ever that power refidcs, all others mud conform to it, and be direfted by it, whatever appearance the out¬ ward form and adminiltration of the government may put on. For it is at any time in the option of the !e- giflature to alter that form and adminiftration by a new edift or rule, and to put the execution of the laws into whatever hands itpleafes: and all the other powers of the date mud obey the leg’flative power in the exe¬ cution of their feveral funftions, or elfe the contlitu- tion is at an end. Blackft. Com. Vbl. I. p. 49. In our con- ditution the law aferibes to the king the attribute of fovereignty but that is to be underdood in a qualified fenfe, i. e. as fupreme magidrate, not as foie legifla- tor; as the legidative power is veiled in the king, lords, and commons, not in any of the three edates alone. SOUL, a fpiritual fubdance, which animates the bodies of living creatures ; it is the principle of life and activity within them. Various have been the opinions of philofophers con¬ cerning the fubdance of the human foul. The Carte- fians make thinking the eflence of the foul. Others again hold, that man is endowed with three kinds of fouls, viz. the rational, which is purely fpiritual, and infufed by the immediate infpiration of God ; the ir¬ rational, or fenfitive, which is common to man and brutes; and hdly, the vegetative foul, or principle of growth and nutrition. 12 ] S O V That the foul is an immaterial fubftance appears Son! from hence, that its primary operations of willing and . thinking have not only no connection with the known Soun(lin&» properties of body, but feem plainly inconfiftent with fome of its mod effential qualities. For the mind dif- covers no relation between thinking and the motion and arrangement of parts. As to the immortality of the human foul, the argu¬ ments to prove it may be reduced to the following heads: I. The nature of the foul itfelf, its defires, fenfe of moral good and evil, gradual increafe in know¬ ledge and perfection, &c. a. The moral attributes of : God. Under the former of thefe heads it is urged, that the foul, being an immaterial intelligent fubdance, does not depend on the body for its exigence ; and therefore may, nay, and mult,, exid after the diffolu- tion of the body, unlefs annihilated by-the fame power which gave it a being at fird.. This argument, efpe- cially if the tnfi ite capacity of the foul, its drong de¬ fire after immortality, its rational activity and advance¬ ment towards perfection, be likewife confidered, will appear perfectly conclufive to men of a philofophical turn; becaufc nature, or rather the God of nature, does nothing in vain.. But arguments drawn from the latter head, viz. the moral attributes of the Deity, are not only better adapted to convince men unacquainted with abftradt reafoning, but equally certain and conclulive with the former: for as the jultice of God can never fuffer the wicked to efcape unpunifhed, nor the good to remain always unrewarded ; therefore, arguments drawn from the manifed and conftant profperity of the wicked, and the frequent unhappinefs of good men in this life, mud convince every thinking perfon,. that there is a future (late wherein all will be fet right, and God’s attri¬ butes of wifdom, judice, and goodnefs, fully vindi¬ cated. We (hall only add, that had the virtuous and confcientious part of mankind no hopes of a future date, they would be of all men mod miferable : but as this is abfolutely inconfiftent with the moral cha- raCler of the Deity, the certainty of fuch a dare is clear to a demondralion. Sec Moral Pbilofopbjy.. n° 228—238. Soul of Brutes. See Brutes. SOUND, a fimple perception or idea, communica¬ ted to the foul by means of the ear, which is the pri¬ mary organ of hearing. See Acoustics. Sound, in geography, denotes in general any drait or inlet of the fea between two head-lands. Howe¬ ver, the name found is given by way of eminence, to the drait between Sweden and Denmark, joining the German ocean to the Baltic, being about four mileg ov r. See Denmark, n° 24. SOUNDING, the operation of trying the depth of the water, and the quality of the ground, by means of a plummet funk from a (hip to the bottom.. There are two plummets ufed for this purpofe in navigation ; one of which is called the hand-lead, weighing about eight or nine pounds ; and the other the deep fea-lead, which weighs from 2510 30 pounds; and both are (haped like the frutlum of a cone or py¬ ramid. The former is ufed in (hallow waters, and the latter at a great didance from the (hcrei particularly os SOU [ 8213 ] sou j.b„rj on approaching the land after a fea-voyage. Accor- Soxri’ dingly the lines employed for this purpofe are called ' tne deep-fea lead-line^ and the band lead-line. The hand-lead line, which is ufually 20 fathoms in length, is marked at every two or three fathoms ; fo that the depth of the water may be afcertained either in the day or night. At the depth of two and three fathoms, there are marks of black leather; at 5 fa¬ thom, there is a white rag ; at feven, a red rag ; at to, black leather; at 13, black leather; at 15, a white rag ; and at 17, a red ditto. Sounding with the hand-lead, which is called ving the lead'a-'j [t*xnzx\, is generally performed by a man who ttands in the main-chains to windward. Ha¬ ving the line all ready to run out without interrup¬ tion, he holds it nearly at the diftance of a fathom from the plummet ; and having fwung the latter back¬ wards and forwards three or four times, in order to acquire the greater velocity, he fwings it round his head, and thence as far forward as is neceflary ; fo that, by the lead’s finking whilft the Chip advances, the line may be almoft perpendicular when it reaches the bottom. The perfon founding then proclaims the depth of the water in a kind of fong refembling the cries of hawkers in a city. Thus, if the mark of five fathoms is clofe to the furface of the water, he calls, « By the mark five!’ and as there is no mark at four, fix, eight, &c. he eftimates thofe numbers, and calls, 4 By the dip four,’ &c. If he judges it to be a quar¬ ter or an half more than any particular number, he calls, ‘ And a quarter five ! and a half four,’ &c. If he conceives the depth to be three quarters more than a particular number, he calls it a quarter lefs than the next : thus, at four fathom and three fourths, he calls, 4 A quarter lefs five 1* and fo on. The deep fea lead is marked with two knots at 20 fathom, three at 30, four at 40, and fo on to the end. It is alfo marked with a fingle knot in the middle of each interval, as at 25, 35, 45 fathoms, &c. To ufe this lead more effe&ually at lea, or in deep water on the fea-coaft, it is ufual previoufly to bring to the fhip, in order to retard her courfe : the lead is then thrown as far as poffible from the fhip on the line of her drift, fo that, as it finks, the fhip drives more perpen¬ dicularly over it. The pilot, feeling the lead ilrike the bottom, readily difcovers the depth of the water by the mark on the line neareft its lurface. The bot¬ tom of the lead being alfo well rubed over with tallow, retains the diftinguifhing marks of the bottom, as fhells, ooze, gravel, &c. which naturally adhere to it. The depth of the water, and the nature of the ground, which is called the foundings, are carefully marked in the log-book, as well to determine the diftance of the place from the fhore, as to corretS the obfervations of former pilots. SOUR crout ; a preparation of cabbage, very ufeful at fea. See Means of Vrefirving the Health of Seamen. &e>vv.-Gourdr or African Calabajh-tree. See Adas- sonia and Baobab. SOUTH (Dr Robert), an eminent divine, was the fon of Mr William South a merchant of London, and was born at Hackney near that city in 1633. He ftudied at Weftminfter fchool, and afterwards in Cbrilt-church college, Oxford, In 1654 he wrote a copy of Latin verfes to congratulate Cromwell upon Sonth. the peace concluded with the Dutch 5 and the next year a Latin poem, intitled Mufca Incantans. In 1660 he was eledled public orator of the univerfity ; and the next year became domeftic chaplain to Ed¬ ward earl of Clarendon, lord high chancellor of Eng¬ land. In 1663 he was inftalled prebendary of Wdf- minfter, admitted to the degree of doftor of divinity, and had a finecure bellowed on him in Wales by his patron the earl of Clarendon; after whofe retirement into France in 1667 he became chaplain to the duke of York. In 1670 he was inftalled canon of Chrifl- church in Oxford ; and in 1676 attended as chaplain to Laurence Hyde, Efq; ambafiador extraordinary to the king of Poland. In 1678 he was prefented to the redory of Iflip in Oxfordfhire; and in 1680 rebuilt the chancel of that church, as he afterwards did the redory-houfe belonging to it. After the revolution he took the oath of allegiance to king William and queen Mary, though he excufed himfelf from accept- ing a great dignity in the church, vacated by the per- fonal refufal of that oath. His health began to de¬ cline feveral years before his death, which happened in 1716. He was interred in Weftminfter Abbey, where a monument is ereded to his memory. He publifhed, 1. Animadverfion on Dr Sherlock’s Vin¬ dication of the Holy and Ever Bleffed Trinity. 2. A Defence of his Animadverfions, 3. Sermons, 8 vols. 8vo. And after his deceafc were publifhed his Opera Pojlhuma Latina, and his pofthumous Englifh works. Dr South was remarkable for his wit, which abounds in all his writings, and particularly in hisfermons; but at the fame time they equally abound in ill-hu¬ mour, fpleen, and fatire. He was remarkable for be¬ ing a time-ferver. During the life of Cromwell he was a ftaunch Prefbyterian, and then railed againft the Independents:: at the Reftoration, he exerted his pulpit-eloquence again!! the Prefbyterians ; and in the reign of Queen Anne, was a warm advocate for Sa- cheverel. SOUTH, one of the four cardinal points from which the winds blow. See Navigation and Win®. South-Serf, or Pacific Ocean, is that vaft body of water interpofed between Alia and America. It does not, however, ftridtly fpeaking, reach quite to the continent of Afia, excepting to the northward of the peninfula of Malacca; for the water interpofed be¬ tween the eaftern coal! of Africa and the peninfula juft mentioned has the name of the Indian Ocean. The South-Sea, then, is bounded on one fide by the weflern coaft of America, through its whole extent, from the unknown regions in the north to the ftraits of Magel¬ lan and Terra del Fuego where it communicates with the fouthern part of the Atlantic. On the other fide,, it is bounded by the coaft of Afia, from the northera promontory of Tj'chufki Nofs, to the peninfula of Ma¬ lacca already mentioned. From thence it is bounded to the fouthward by the northern coalls of Borneo, Celebes, Macafiar, New Guinea, New Holland, and the other iflmds in that quarter, which divide it from the Indian Ocean. Then, wafhlng the eaftern coafl of the great ifland of New Holland, it communicates- with that vaft body of water encompaffing the whole fouthern part of the globe, and which has the general name of the Southern 0«v?«all round. Thus does this vaft SOU [ 8214 ] sou Sauth. vail ocean occupy almoft the femicircumference ” ““ of the globe, extending almoft from one pole to the other, and about the equatorial pans extending almott 180° in longitude, or 12,500 of our miles. The northern parts of the Pacific Ocean are entirely deftitute of land ; not a fingle ifland having yet been difeovered in it from the latitude of40° north and up¬ wards, excepting fuch as are very near the coafts either of Afia or America; but in the fouthern part there are a great number, the fituation and diftances of which will appear from the annexed map. A geo¬ graphical account of thefe iflands, together with the manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants, is given un¬ der the different articles as they occur in the alphabe¬ tical order.; and the plate (hows their figure and dreffes better than could be expreffed by any verbal defeription. Till very lately the South-Sea was in a great mea- fure unknown. From the great extent of ice which covers the fouthern part of the globe, it was imagined that much more land exifted there than in the northern legions : but that this could not be juftly inferred merely from that circumftance, is plain from what has been advanced under the article America, n° 3—24; and the fouthern continent, long known by the name of Terra Australis, has eluded the fearch of the mod expert navigators (ent out from Britain and France by royal authority. The firft of thefe voyages was made by commodore now admiral Byron, in the Dolphin, a man of war of the fixth rate, accompanied by the Tamar frigate, captain M>uat. He failed from Plymouth the 2ill of July 1764; and, paffing through the (trails of Magel¬ lan, difeovered feveral iflands in the fouthern hemif- phere. He then proceeded to the Ladrone iflands ; re- freftied his crew at Tinian, which is one of them; pro¬ ceeded to Batavia; and, returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, caff anchor in Plymouth Sound the gth of M y 1766. In the Auguft follow¬ ing, captain Wallis, in the Dolphin, failed on a fecond circumnavigation of the globe, accompanied by cap¬ tain Carteret in the Swallow (loop. Having paffed the (trails of Magellan, the two (hips parted compa¬ ny. Captain Wallis directed his courfe morewdtwardly than any former navigator within the tropics ; he dif¬ eovered feveral iflands, but particularly O-Taheitee, which he named King George’s IJland- Captain Car¬ teret, befides feveral iflands, dii'covered the (traits which divide New Britain from what is now called Nenu Ireland. Captain Wallis returned to England by the Eaft Indies in May 1768, and captain Carteret by the fame route in March 1769 In November 1766, com¬ modore Bougainville failed from France with a frigate and a (tore-(hip: he entered the Pacific Ocean by the Straits of Magellan; touched at O-Taheitee, the northern part of Tiera del Efperitu Santo ; refrefhed his crews in the very port which captain Carteret had not long left in New Ireland, touched at Batavia foon after the Swallow’s departure from thence, fell into company with that floop after leaving the Cape of Good Hope, and returmd to France much about the fame time. In 1766, the Royal Society .preferred a memorial to his majtffy, reprefenting the advantages that would be derived to fcience, if an accurate ob- fervation of the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which was to happen in June 1769, was taken in feme part of the South-Sea; in confequence of which, orders Southamp* were given for the Endeavour bark, of 3 70 tons, to be ton- fitted out for that purpofe, the command of which was given to lieutenant James Cook. This gentle¬ man, and Mr Charles Green, were appointed by that learned body to make obfervations on the tranfit. Mr Banks, a gentleman of large fortune, and zealoufly devoted to the acquifuion pf knowledge, accompanied by Dr Solander, a learned difciple of the great Lin¬ naeus, embarked on this expedition ; and captain Wal¬ lis returning juft as they were about to fail, the ifland of O-Taheitee, which be had difeovered, was pointed out as the mod eligible fpot for the purpofe of making the obfejvation. Lieutenant Cook failed in July 1768, and went round Cape Horn. With indefatigable zeal he traverfed the foutbern regions of the great Pacific Ocean, andminutelyexaminedthecoaftofNewZeeland: With undaunted courage he perlevertd amidft rocks and (hoals in tracing the eaftern coaft of New Holland ; and having found it to be feparattd from New Guinea by a (trait, he returned to England by the way of the Eaft Indies, and came to an anchor in the Downs on the 12th of July 1771. Soon after the return of the Endeavour, a voyage to determine, with precifion, the exiftence of a fouthern continent, was refolved upon under the fame royal aufpices which had given birth to the former expeditions. Two veffels, the Re- folution and Adventure, were fitted out as king’s (hips for that purpofe: captain Cook had the condixft of the expedition, and had the Refolution for his (hip; captain Furneaux, who had already failed round the world with captain Wallis as his firlt lieutenant, had the command of the Adventure. Dr Forfter, and his fon Mr George Fortier, were appointed to embark in this expedition, to colled, deferibe, and draw the ob- jeds of natural hiftory which (hould prefent themfelves ; Mr Wales was appointed aftronomeron board the Re- folmion, and Mr William Bayley on board the Ad¬ venture ; alfo Mr William Hodges, a very able artift, whofe department it was to take drawings of perfons and profpeds that were curious and important. On the 13th of July 1772, the two (hips failed on their voyage round the world, than which none was ever more produdive of valuable information, or more be¬ neficial to the advancement of fcience. The Adven¬ ture having twice parted company from the Refolu¬ tion, returned to England in 1774; but the Refolu¬ tion did not arrive till the 3d July 1775. Neither (hip touched at any of the Eaft India fettlcments. In 1776 Captain Cook was once more fent out to explore the Pacific Ocean; but was ordered to dired his chief at¬ tention to the northern part, efpecially where the con¬ tinents of Afia and America approach each other. This talk he executed with the fame intrepidity and fuccefs which have all along dittinguiflied him from other navigators : but his unfortunate death, and that of Capt. Clerk who fucceeded him, have undoubtedly rendered that voyage much lefs ufeful to fcience thaa otherwife it would have been ; and no authentic ac¬ count of the difeoveries adually yet made has ap¬ pear ed- SOUTHAMPTON, a fea-port town of Hamp- (hire in England. It is commodioufly feated on an arm of the fea; is a place ©f good trade, and well inhabited. It is furrouaded by walls and feveral watch- towers, South Sh^. Tiafe cclxxh. a M ap of the IfewDlSCOUEKUSS m. tke SotTTIf S &A,WU:K eke Tr;icks . of tli<- X A\rIt i A'I’ O R S. J£a&/!0rj£r//Asr% 7Ps>?/2trM jp/^O-Z&A&jy’) />w?t Zt*r .jVtM'C'. 'z'/Ai one Viriathus, oppofes the3 celebrated hunter, and afterwards the captain of a ‘.Roman gang °f banditti, took upon him the command of fome .power with nations who had been in alliance with Carthage, and :fuccefs. ventured to oppofe the Roman power in that part of Spain called Lufitania, now Portugal. The praetor, named Vetilius, who commanded in thofe parts, march¬ ed againft him with 10,000 men; but was defeated and killed, with the lofs of 4000 of his troops. The Romans immediatelydifpatched anotherpraetor with 10,000 foot and 1300 horfe : but Viriathus having firft cut off a de¬ tachment of 4000 of them, engaged the reft in a pitch¬ ed battle ; and having entirely defeated them, reduced great part ofthe country. Anoiherprsetor, wh® was fent with a new army, met with the fame fate ; fo that, after the deftru&ion of Carthage, the Romans thought pro¬ per to fend a conful named Shiintus Fabius, who defeated the Lufitanians in feveral battles, and regained two important places which had long been in the hands of the rebels- After the expiration of Fabius’s confulate, Viriathus continued the war with his ufual fuccefs, till the fenate thought proper to fend againft him the 5 conful Q^Ciecilius Metellus, an officer of great valour to^reat£<1 and experience. With him Viriathus did not choofe ftraits by to venture a pitched battle, but contented himfelf iVIetellus. with adfting on the defenfive ; in confequence of which the Romans recovered a great many cities, and the whole of Tarraconian Spain was obliged to fubmit to their yoke. The other conful, named Ssrvilianuf, met with quite different fpccefs; being entirely defeated, and having hi* camp in great danger of being taken by Viriathus. Notwithftanding all the fuccefs of Me- Spain. tellus, however, he could not vvithftand the intrigues — of his countrymen againft him, and he was not allowed to findh the war he had begun with fo much fnccefs. In refentment for this he took all imaginable pains to weaken the army under his command ; he difbanded the flower of his troops, exhaufted the magazines, let the elephants die, broke in pieces the arrows which had been provided for the Cretan archers, and threw them into a river. Yet, after all, the army which he gave up to his fuccefforQJPompeius, confifting of 30,000 foot and 2000 horie, was fufficient to have crufhed Viriathus if the general had known how to ufe it. But, inftead of oppofing Viriathus with fuccefs, 6 I the imprudent conful procured much more formidable War be- I enemies. The Termantians and Numantians, whoiween the ! had hitherto kept themfclves independent, offered very Romans j advantageous terms of peace and alliance with Rome;^1^.^’- but Pompeius infilled on their delivering up their * 'I arms. Upon this, war was immediately commenced. The conful with great confidence invelted Numantia ; but being repulfed with confiderable lofs, he fat down before Termantia, where he was attended with ftill worfe fuccefs. The very firft day, the Termantines killed 700 of his legionaries; took a great convoy which was coming to the Roman camp ; and having defeated a confiderable body of their horie, pulhed them from poll to poll till they came to the edge of a precipice, where they all tumbled down, and were dalhed to pieces. In the mean time Serviiian, who■ had been continued in his command with the title of mans Air- proconjul, managed matters fo ill, that Viriathu* fur-rounded on i rounded him on all Tides, and obliged him to fue for3*1 ' peace. The terms offered to the Romans were very 'condude moderate ; being only that Viriathus ftiould keep the a peace with country he at that time poffeffed, and the Romans Viriatbus. remain mailers of all the reft. This peace the pro- conful was very glad to fign, and afterwards got it figned by the fenate and people of Rome. The next year Pompeius was continued in his command againft the Numantines in Farther Spain, while Servilius Csepio, the new conful, had for his province Hither Spain, where Viriathus had eftablilh- ed hts new Hate. Pompeius undertook to reduce Nu¬ mantia by turning afide the ftream of the Durius, now the Douro, by which it was fupplied with water; but, in attempting this, fuch numbers of his men were cut off, that, finding himfelf unable to contend with the enemy, he was glad to make peace with them on much worfe terms than they had offered of their own accord. The peace, however, was ratified at Rome; but in the mean time Caepio, defirous of fhowing his prowefs .againft the renowned Viriathus, prevailed upon the Romans to declare war againft him without any provocation. As Gsepio command¬ ed an army greatly fuperior to the Lufitanians, Vi¬ riathus thought proper to fue for peace; but find¬ ing that Csepio would be fatisfied with nothing lefs than a furrender at diferetion, he refolved 10 Hand his ground. But in the mean time, tiie latter having bribed fome of the intimate companions of V riathus to murder him in his fleep, he by th^t infamous method put an end to a war which had viriaAiw lafttd fourteen years, very little to the honour of theireacbe- republic. roufly mur- Afterdercd- SPA After the death of Viriathus, the Romans with like treachery ordered their new conful Popilius to break the treaty with the Numantines. His infamous con¬ duct met with the reward it deferved ; the Numantines, Tallying out, put the whole Roman army to flight with fuch daughter, that they were in no condition to aft during the whole campaign, Mancinus, who fuc- ceeded Popilius, met with ftill worfe fuccefs; his great army, confifting of 30,000 men, was utterly defeated by 4000 Numantines, and 20,000 of them killed in the purfuit. The remaining 10,000, with their gene* ral, were pent up by the Numautines in fuch a man¬ ner that they could neither advance nor retreat, and would certainly have been all put to the fword or made prifoners, had not the Numantines, with a generofxty which their enemies never poffefied, offered to let them depart upon condition that a treaty was concluded with them upon very moderate terms. This the conful very willingly promifed, but found himfelf unable to perform. On the contrary, the people, not fatisfied with declaring his treaty null and void, or¬ dered him to be delivered up to the Numantines. The latter refufed to accept him, unlefs he had along with him the 10,000 men whom they had relieved as above related. At laft, after the conful had remained a whole day before the city, his fucceffor Furius, thinking this a fufficient recompence to the Numan¬ tines for breaking the treaty, ordered him to be re* ceived again into the camp. However, Furius did not choofe to engage with fuch a defperate and refolute enemy as the Nmnantines had fhowed themfelves; 9 and the war with them was difcontinued till the year i Scipio jE- 133 B* C. when Scipio iEmilianus, the dellroyer of I milianus Carthage, was fent againft them. Againft this re- I nowned commander the Numantines with all their ‘ 1 valour were not able to cope. Scipio, having with the utmoft care introduced ftrift difcipline among his troops, and reformed the abufes which his prede* ceffors had fuffered in their armies, by degrees brought the Romans to face their enemies, which at his arrival they had abfolutely refufed to dp. Having then ravaged all the country round about the town, it was foon blocked upon all fides, and the inhabitants began to fed the want of provifions. At laft they refolved to make one defperate attempt for their liberty, and either to break through their enemies, or perifh in the attempt. With this view they march¬ ed out in good order by two gates, and fell upon the works of the Romans with the utmoft fury. The Romans, unable to Hand this defperate fhock, were on the point of yielding; but Scipio, haftening to the places attacked, with no fewer than 20jOOO men, the unhappy Numantines were at laft driven into the city, where they fuftained for a little lotfger the miferies of famine. Finding at laft, however, that it was alto¬ gether impofiible to hold out, it was refolved by the majority to fubmit to the pleafure of the Roman 10 commander. But this refolution was not tiniverfally Miferable approved. Many fhut themfelves up in their houfes, end of the and died of hunger, while even thofe who had agreed people. t0 furrender repented their offer, and fetting fire to their houfes, perilbed in the flames with then- wives and children, fo fbat not a Angle Numantine was left alive to grace the triumph of the conqueror of Carthage. Vol. X. 1 SPA After the deftruftion of Numantia the whole of sPai" Spain fubmitted to the Roman yoke; and nothing re- ' markable happened till the times of the Cimbri, when a praetorian army was cut off in Spain by the Lufita- nians. From this time nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of Spain till the civil war between Marius and Sylla. The latter having crnfhed the Marian fac¬ tion, as related under the article Rome, profcribed ail thofe that had fided againft him whom he could not immediately deftroy. Among thefe was Sertorius, a n man of confummate valour and experience in war. He Sertorius had by Marius been appointed praetor of Spain; and, upon the overthrow of Marius, retired to thatt;0anr1;^ aC province. Sylla no fooner heard of his arrival in that Spain, country, than he fent thither one Caius Annius with a powerful army to drive him out. As Sertorius had but few troops along with him, he difpatched one Ju¬ lius Salinator with a body of 6coo men to guard the paffes of the Pyrenees, and prevent Annius from en¬ tering the country. But Salinator having been treach- eroufly murdered by affafiins hired by Annius for that purpofe, he no longer met with any obftacle ; and ^ Sertorius was obliged to embark for the coaft of A- js £or>es brought to the camp of fitania into Sertorius fuch a number of illulirious Roman citizens a republic, of the Marian faftion, that he formed a defign of erefting Lufitania into a republic, in oppofitio'n to that of Rome. Sylla was continually fending frefh fupplies to Metellus; but Sertorius with an handful of men, accuftomed to range about the mountains, to endure hunger and thirft, and live expofed to the in¬ clemencies of the weather, fo harraffcd the Roman army, that Metellus himfelf began to be quite difcou- raged. At laft, Sertorius, hearing that Metellus had fpoken difrefpeftfully of his courage, challenged his antagonift to end the war by fingle combat ; however, Metellus very prudently declined the combat, as being advanced in years ; yet this refufal brought upon him ,5 the contempt of the unthinking multitude, upon which ©bligesMe-Metellus refolved to retrieve his reputation by fome telhis to fignal exploit, and therefore laid fiege to Lacobriga, fieo^La a confiderable city in thofe parts. This he hoped to •obriga. 3*reduce in two days, as there was but one well in the place ; but Sertorius, having previoufly removed all thofe who could be of no fervice during the fiege, and conveyed 6000 fkins full of water into the city, Metellus continued a long time before it without ma¬ king any impreflion. At laft, his provifions being al- moft fpent, he fent out Aquinus at the head of 6000 men to procure a new fupply ; but Sertorius falling unexpeftedly upon them, cut in pieces or took the whole detachment; the commander himfelf being the only man who efcaped to carry the news of the dif- after; upon which Metellus was obliged to raife the fiege with difgrace. eivilizesthe And now Sertorids, having gained fome intervals of Lufitauians eafe in confequence of the many advantages he had obtained over the Romans, began to civilize his new fubjefts. Their favage and furious manner of fighting he changed for the regular order and difcipline of a well-formed army ; he bellowed liberally upon them gold and tilver to adorn their arms,, and by converfing familiarly with them, prevailed upon them to lay afide their own drefs for the Roman toga. He fent for all the children of the principal people, and placed them ia the great city of Ofca, now Heref«3 in. the king- 18 ] SPA dom of Arragon, where he appointed them mailers to Spaim \ tnft uft them in the Roman and Gr k learning, that "" "1"1 they might, as he pretended, be capable of (haring with him the government of the republic. Thus he made them really hoitages for the good behaviour of their parents; however, the latter were greatly pleafed with the care he took of their children, and all Lnfi- tania were in the higheft degree attached to their new foyereign. This attachment he took care to heighten by the power of fuperftition ; for having procured a young hind of a milk-white colour, he made it fo tame that it followed him wherever he went; and Sertorius gave out to the ignorant multitude, that this hind was infpired by Diana, and revealed.to hrm>the defigns of. his enemies, of which he always took care to be well informed by the great numbers of fpies he employed. While Sertorius was thus employed in eitablilhing his authority, the republic of Rome, alarmed at his fuccefs, refolved to crulh him at all events. Sylla was now dead, and all the eminent generals in Rome folicited this honourable though dangerous employ- ,9 merit. After much debate a decree was pafled in Pompey / favour of Pompey the Great, but without recalling,,ie Metellus. But in the mean time, the troops of a^ain^| Perpenna, or Perperna, had, in fpite of all that their general could do, abandoned him and taken the oath of allegiance to Sertorius. This was a moft fignaLad- vantage to Sertorius; for Perperna commanded an ar- my of 33,000 men, and had come into Spain with a defign to fettle there as Sertorips had done ; but as he was defeended from one of the firft families in Rome, he thought it below his dignity to ferve under any general, however eminent he might be. But the troops of Perperna were of a different opinion ; and therefore declaring that they would ferve none but a general who could defend himfelf, they to a man joined Ser¬ torius ; upon which Pcrperna himfelf, finding he could do no better, confemed to ferve alfo as a lubaltern. On the arrival of Pompey in Spain, feveral of the cities which had hitherto continued faithful to S.rto- rius, began to waver; upon which the latter relolved by fome fignal exploit, to convince them that Pompey Sertoriug. could no more fereen them from his refentment thanbefieges Meteltus. With this view he laid fiege to Lauron, Lauron. now Lirias, a place of confiderable ftrength.. Pom¬ pey, not doubting but he fhould be able to raife the fiege, marched quite up to the enemy’s lines, and found means to inform the garrifon that thofe who be- fieged them were themfelves befieged, and would foon be obliged to retire with lofs and difgrace, On hear¬ ing this meffage, “ I will teach Sylla’s difciple,” faid Sertorius, “ that it is the duty of a general to look behind as well as before him.” Having thus fpoken, he fent orders to a ^tachment of 6000 men., who lay concealed among the mountains, to come down and fall upon his rear if he Ihould offer to force the lines. Pompey, furpr led at their fudden appearance, durft not liir out of his camp; and in the mean time the Takes and befieged, defpairing of relief, furrendered at diferetion; |,urns ^ upon which Sertorius granted them their lives and li- pom'pCy° berty, but reduced their city to afhes. While Sertorius was thus fuectfsfully contending with Pompey, his quaeftor Hirtuleius was entirely de¬ feated by Metellus, with the lofs of 20,000 men ; upon yrhich Sertoriua advanced with the utmoft expedition to.) SPA r §210 1 SPA H Spain, to the banks of the Sucro in Tarraconian Spain, with Hr a defign to attack Pompey before he could be joined ■■©efears ^ Metellus. Pompey, on his part, did not decline the Kpompeyon combat; but, fearing that M.tellus might (hare the Ipthe banks g*ory °f the viftory, advanced with the greateft expe- |lpf the dition. Sertorius put off the battle till towards the jS$ucro. evening ; Pompey, tho’ he knew that the night would prove difadvantageous to him, whether vanquiflied or victorious, becaufe his-troops were unacquainted with the country, refolved to venture an engagement, etpe- cially as he feared that Metellus might arrive in the mean time, and rob him of part of the glory of con¬ quering fo great a commander. Pompey, who com¬ manded his own right wing, foon obliged Perperna, who commanded Sertorius's left, to give way. Here¬ upon Sertorius himfelf, taking upon him the com¬ mand of that wing, brought back the fugitives to the charge, and obliged Pompey to fly in his turn. In his flight he was overtaken by a gigantic African, who had already lifted'iip his hand to difeharge a blow at him with his broad fword ; but Pompey prevented him by cutting off his right hand at one blow. As he (fill continued his flight, he was wounded and thrown from his horfe; fo that he would certainly have been taken prifoner, had not the Africans who purfued him quar¬ relled about the rich furniture of his horfe. This gave an opportunity to the general to make his efcape; fo that at length he reached , his camp with much diffi- cu'ty. But in the mean time Afranius, who command¬ ed the left wing of the Roman army, had entirely de¬ feated the wing which Sertorius had left, and even purfued them (o clofe that he entered the camp along with them. Strtorius, returning fuddenly, found the Romans bufy in plundering the tents ; when, taking advantage of their fltuation, he drove them out with great flaughter, and retook his camp. Next day he offered battle a fecond time to Pompey; but Metellus then coming up with all his forces, he thought proper to decline an engagement with both commanders. In a few days, however, Pompey and Metellus agreed to attack the camp of Sertorius. Metellus attacked Per- Pompey de-perna, and Pompey fell upon Sertorius. The event feated a fe- was fimilar to that of the former battle ; Metell-us de- «ond tune. feated Perperna, and Sertorius routed Pompey. Be¬ ing then informed of Perperna’s misfortune, he ba¬ ttened to his relief; rallied the fugitives, and repulfed Metellus in his turn, wounded him with his lance, and would certainly have killed him, had not the Romans, afhamed to leave their general in dillrefs, haftened to his affiftance, and renewed the fight with great fury. At laft Sertorius was obliged to quit the field, and retire to the mountains. Pompey and Metellus ha¬ ftened to befiege him ; but while they were forming their camp, Sertorius broke through their lines, and efcaped into Lufitania. Here he foon railed fuch a powerful army, that the Roman generals, with their p 43 united forces, did not think proper to venture an en- snd Metel- gagement with him. They could not, however, rerfift lus driven the perpetual attacks of Sertorius, who now drove them out of Spam from place to place, till he obliged them to feparate, riusSertG' one into Gaul, and the other to the foot of the Py¬ renees. Thus did this celebrated commander triumph over all the power of the Romans; and there is little doubt that he would have eomioued to make head agaitift all the other generals whom the republic could have fent; Spaij** but, by the infamous treachery of Perperna, Sertorius was affaffinated at an entertainment, in 73 B. C. aftergert0^is he had made head againtl the Roman forces for almoft treacherouf- ten years. Pompey was no fooner informed of his *y marderei death, than, without waiting for any new fuccours, he marched againtt the traitor, whom he eafily defeat¬ ed and took prifoner; and having caufed him to be executed, thus put an end, with very little glory, to a moft dangerous war. Many of the Spanifh nations, however, ftill conti¬ nued to bear the Roman yoke with great impatience ; and as the civil wars which took place fiift between Ju¬ lius Csefar and Pompey, and afterwards between Oc- tavianus and Anthony, diverted the attention of the republic from Spain, by the time that Auguftus had become foie matter of the Roman empire, they were ^ again in a condition to aflert their liberty. The Can Spain cn- tabrians and Asturians were the moft powerful t-rely re- and valiant nations at that time in Spain; but, a^tcr^c^(^ir incredible efforts, they were obliged to lay down^^ their arms, or rather were almoft exterminated, by Agrippa, as is related under thefe articles. From this time the Spaniards continued in quiet fubje&ion to the Romans ; but on the decline of the empire they were attacked by the northern nations, who put an end to the Roman name in the weft. As the inhabi¬ tants had by that time entirely loft their ancient va¬ lour, the barbarians met with no reflftance but from one another. In the reign of the emperor Honorius, Seized by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevians, entered this conn- barbarous try ; and having made themfelves matters of it, divi- nat‘°ns p* ded the provinces among themfelves. In 444, the^j^J^ Romans made one effort more to recover their power tern empire.' in this part of the world ; but being utterly defeat¬ ed by the Suevians, the latter eftablifhed a kingdom there which lafted till the year 584, when it was utterly overthrown by theVifigoths under Leovigilde. The Gothic princes continued to reign over a confi- derable part of Spain till the beginning of the eighth century, when their empire was entirely overthrown by the Saracens. During this period, they had en¬ tirely expelled the eaftern emperors from what they poffeffed in Spain, and even made conftderable con- quefts in Barbary; but towards the end of the feventhTjie century the Saracens over-ran all that part of the world^gdonj with a rapidity which nothing could refill; and ha-overthrown ving foon pofleff-d themfelves of the Gothic dominionsby thc Sara- in Barhary, they made a defeentupon Spain about thecens* year 711 or 712. The king of the Goths at that time was called Roderic, and by his bad conduct had occafioned great difaffedlion among his fubjedte. He therefore determined to put all to the iffue of a battle, knowing that he could not depend upon the fidelity of his own people if he allowed the enemy time to tam¬ per with them. The two armies met in a plain near Xeres in Andalufia The Goths began the attack with great fury; but though they fought like men in defpair, they were at laft defeated with excefiive flaugh¬ ter, and their king himfelf was fuppofed to have pe~ rifhed in the battle, being never more heard of. By this battle the Moors in a fhort time rendered themfelves mafters of almoft all Spain. The poor re¬ mains of the Goths were obliged to retire into thc mountainoua part* of Afturias, Burgos, and Bifcay : 41 C 2 thc Spain. SPA [ 8220 the inhabitants of Arragon, Catalonia, and Navarre, " though they might have made a confiderable {land againft the enemy, chofe for the moft part to retire The power ^nt0 France* 7l8» however, the power of the of the Goths began again to revive under Don Pelagio Goths re- or Pelayo, a prince of the royal blood, who head- vives underej thofe that had retired to the mountains after the e a£10* fatal battle of Xeres. The place where he firft laid the foundation of his government was in the Afturias, in the province of Liebana, about nine leagues in length and four in breadth. This is the moft inland part of the country, full of mountains enormoufly high, and fo much fortified by nature, that its inha- ] SPA tes de Oca, Amaya, Alava, and all the country at the foot of the mountains. The year following he pnlhed - bis conquefts as far as the borders of Portugal, and the next campaign ravaged the country as far as Caftile. Being fenfible, however, that he was yet unable to defend the flat country which he had conquered, he laid the whole of it wafte, obliged the Chriftians to retire to the mountains, and carried off all the Moors for flaves. Thus fecured by a defert frontier, he met with no interruption for fome years; during which time, as his kingdom advanced in ftrengtb, he allowed bis fubjefts gradually to occupy part of the flat coun¬ try, and to rebuild Leon and Aflorgas, which he had bitants are capable of refilling almoft any number of demolifhtd. He died in 757, and was fucceeded. by lie gives the Sara¬ cens a dreadful •verthrow. invaders. Alakor the Saracen governor was no fooner informed of this revival of the Gothifti kingdom, than he fent a powerful army, under the command of one Alchaman, to crufli Don Pelagio before he had time to eftablifh his power. The king, though his forces were fufficiently numerous, (every one of his fubjt&s ar¬ rived at man’s eftate being a foldier), did not think pro¬ per to venture a general engagement in the open field; his fon Don Froila. In his time Abdelrahman^. theTjie ||ra-, khaliff’s viceroy in Spain, threw off the yoke, andcensin rendered himfelf independent, fixing the^-feat of hisSpain thror government at Cordova. Thus the inteftine divi6onsofft,ie Vo!l# among the Moors were compofed ;: yet their fuccefs!^tlie feems to have been little better than before : for, foon after, Froila encountered the Moors with fuch fuccefs, that 54,000 of them were killed on the fpot, and their but taking poll with part of them himfelf in a cavern genera) taken prifoner.. Soon after, he built the city in a very high mountain, he concealed the reft among of Oviedo, which he made the capital of his domi- precipices, giving orders to them to fall upon the nions. r— u- .- j.r j enemy as foon as they fliould perceive him attacked by them. Thefe orders were punftually executed, tho* indeed Don Pelagio himfelf had repulfed his enemies, but not without a miracle, as the Spanilh hiftorians pretend. The (laughter was dreadful ;, for the troops order to be in a better condition to defend the flat country, which he now determined to people. In the year 75.8 the power of the Saracens rccei- 34 . ved another blow by the rife of the kingdom of Na-the king- varre. This kingdom* we are told, took its origin dom of Na.- from an accidental meeting of gentlemen, to the num-,,■,"" who lay in ambufcade joining the reff, and rolling down ber of 600, at the tomb of an hermit named '^ohn^ huge (tones from the mountains upon the Moors, (the who had died among the Pyrenees. At this place, name by which the Saracens were known in Spain, no where they had met on account of the fuppofed fanc- fewer than 124,000 of thefe unhappy people perifhed in one day. The remainder fled till they were (lopped by a river, and beginning to coall it, part of a mountain fuddenly fell down, (lopped up the channel of the river, and either cruftied or drowned, by the fudden rifing of the water, almoft every one of that vaft army. tity of the deceafed, they took ocealion to converfe on the cruelty of the Moors, the miferies to which the country was expofed, and the glory that would refult from throwing off their yoke ; which, they fup¬ pofed, might eafily be done, by reafon of the llrength of their country. On mature deliberation, the pro- The Moors were not fo much difheartened by this je lh3t aH the valour and conduA of Al- feated and manzor could not prevent a defeat. Overcome with llarveshim-fhame and defpair at this misfortune, he defired his felf to followers to fhift for themfelves, while he himfelf re- death. tjrecj tQ Mecj;na Coeli, and put an end to his life by 3g abltinence, in the year 998. Hiflury of During this period a new Cbriftian principality ap- the king- peared in Spain, namely that of Caftile, which is now Gaftile^ diftinguiftied into the Old and New Caftile. The Old Caftile was recovered long before that called the iWnw. It was feparated from thekingdomof Leon on one fide by feme little rivers ; on the other it was bounded by the Afturias, Bifcay, and the province of Riojff. On the fouth, it had the mountains of Segovia and Avila; thus lying in the middle between the Chriftian king¬ dom of Leon and Oviedo, and the Moorifh kingdom of Cordova., Hence this diftridt foon became an ob- jedf of contention between the kings of Leon and thofe of Cordova ; and as the former were generally victo¬ rious, fome of the principal Caftilian nobility retained their independency under the protedtion of the Chri¬ ftian kings, even when the power of the Moors was at its greateft height. In 884 we firft hear of Don Ro¬ driguez affuming the title of count of Cajiile, though it does not appear that either his territory or title were given him by the king of Leon. Neverthelefs, this monarch having taken upon him to punifh fome of the Caftilian lords-as rebels, the inhabitants made a for¬ mal renunciation of their allegiance, and fet up a new kind of government. The fupreme power was now veiled in two perfons of quality, ftyled judges; how¬ ever,;this method did not long continue to give fatif- fadlion, and the fovereignty was once more veiled in Spain, a Angle perfon. By degrees Caftile fell entirely under ''' ’ the power of the kings of Leon and Oviedo ; and, in 1035, D°n Sanchez bellowed it on his eldeft fon Don Ferdinand, with the title of king; and thus the terri¬ tories of Caftile were firft firmly united to thofe of Leon and Oviedo, and the fovereigns were thenceforth ftyled kings of Leon and Cajlile. Befides all thefe, another Chrillian kingdom was fetHiftory o£: up in Spain about the beginning of the nth century.Arra£0B' This was the kingdom of Arragon. The inhabitants were very brave, and lovers of liberty, fo that it is probable they had in fome degree maintained their independency, even when the power of the Moors was at the greatell. The hiftory of Arragon, however, during its infancy, is much lefs known than that of any of the others hitherto mentioned. We are only affured, that about the year 1035, Don Sanchez, fur-S(ate40£ named the Great, king of Navarre, eredltd Arragon .Spain in the into a kingdom in favour of his fon Don Ramira, and beginning afterwards it became very powerful.. At this time, of tIie then, we may imagine the continent of Spain dividedC£ntury* into two unequal parts by a ftraight line drawn from call to weft, from the coafts of Valentia to a little be¬ low the mouth of the Duro. The country north of this belonged to the Chriftians, who, as yet, had the fmallell and lead valuable lhare, and all the reft to the Moors. In point of wealth and real power, both by land and fea, the Moors were greatly fuperior ; how¬ ever, their continual diffenfions greatly weakened them, and everyday facilitated the progrefs of the Chriftians. Indeed, had either of the parties been united, the other muft foon have yielded ; for though the Chri¬ ftians did not make war upon each other conftantly as the Moors did, their mutual feuds were yet fuffi- cient to have ruined them, had their adverfaries made the lead ufe of the advantages thus afforded them. But among the Moors almoft every city was a king¬ dom ; and as thefe petty fovereignties fupported one another very indifferently, they fell a prey one after another to their enemies. In 1080, the king of To¬ ledo was- engaged in a war with the king of Seville, another Moorilh potentate ; which being obferved by Alphonfo king of Caftile, he alfo invaded his territo- 4I ries ; and in four years made himfelf mailer of the cityToledo and of Toledo, with all the places of importance in its Madrid ta- neighbourhood ; from thenceforth making Toledo the ^hliftlgns6 capital of his dominions. In a fliort time the whole province of New Caflile fubmitted ; and Madrid, the prefent capital of Spain, fell into the hands of the Chriftians, being at that time but a fmall place. The Moors were fo much alarmed at thefe con- quefts, that they not only entered into a general con¬ federacy againft the Chriftians, but invited to their affiftance Mahomet Ben Jofeph the fovereign of Bar¬ bary. He accordingly came, attended by an incre- A j dible multitude; but was utterly defeated by theChri-vidtory Ilians in the defiles of the Black Mountain, or Sierra gained ovey- Morena, on the borders of Andalufia. This viftory the Moot5' happened on the 16th of July 1212, and the anniver- fary is dill celebrated at Toledo. This victory was not improved; theGhriftian army immediately dafper- fed themfelves, while the Moors of Andalufia were ftrengthened by the remains of the African army; yera SPA f 8222 ] S P A Spain, yet, inftead of being taught, by their pafl: misfortunes, “ to unite among tbemfelves, their diffenfions became worfe than ever, and the conquefts of the Chriltians became daily more rapid. In 1236, Don Ferdinand of Caftile and Leon took the" celebrated city of Cor¬ dova, the refidence of the firlt Moorilh kings; at the fame time that James I. of Arragon difpofTeffed them of the ifland of Majorca, and drove them out of Va- lentia. Two years after, Ferdinand made himfelf ma¬ iler of Murcia, and took the city of Seville j and in 1303 Ferdinand IV. reduced Gibraltar. Englandin- the time of Edward III. we find England, for terferes in the firft time, interfering in the affairs of Spain, on the Spanilhthe following occafion. In the year 1284 the king- atfairs. ^om Navarre had been united to that of France by the marriage of Donna Joanna queen of Navarre with Philip the Fair of France. In 1328, however, the kingdoms were again feparated, though the fovereigns of Navarre were ftill related to thofe of France. In •1350, Charles, furnamed the Wicked, afcended the throne of Navarre, and married the daughter of John king of France. Notwithftanding this alliance, and his efcape from prifon, and prefented a dangerous Spain; ] leader to the furious malcontents. He revived his ^ pretenfions to the crown of France: but in all hisEfcapcs.and] operations he a&ed more like a leader of banditti than ^,eacls^he one who afpired to be the head of a regular govern* ment, and who was engaged by his ftation to endea¬ vour the re-eftablifhment of order in the community. All the French, therefore, who wifhed to reftore peace to their country, turned their eyes towards the dau- phin$ who, though not remarkable,for his military talents, daily gained, by his prudence and vigilance, the afcendant over his enemies, Marcel, the fediiious provoftof Paris, was flain in attempting to deliver that city to the king of Navarre. The capital immediately returned to its duty,: the moft confiderable bodies of the mutihous peafams were difperfed or put to the fword ; fome bands of military robbers underwent the fame fate ; and France began once more to affume the appearance of civil government. John was fucceeded in the throne of France by his fon Charles V. a prince educated in the fchool of ad- rerfity, and well qualified, by his prudence and expe- that he himfelf was related to the royal family of rience, to repair the Ioffes which the kingdom had France, he fecretly entered into a negociation with England againft the French monarch, and even drew into his fchemes the dauphin Charles, afterwards fur- named the Wife. The young prince, however, was foon after made fully fenfible of the danger and folly of the connections into which he had entered ; and, by way of atonement, promifed to facrifice his afib- ciates. Accordingly be invited the king of Navarre, and fome of the principal nobility of the fame party, to a feaft at Rouen, where he betrayed them to his ■Thekhigoffatht;r- mofr obnoxious were executed, and the Navarreim king of Navarre was thrown into prifon. In this ex- prifoned bytremity, the party of the king of Navarre had recourfe fuftained from the errors of his predeceflbrs. Con¬ trary to the praftice of all the great princes of thofe times, who held nothing in eftimation but military courage, he feems to have laid it down as a maxim, never to appear at the head of his armies; and he was the firft European ttionarch that fhowed the advantage of policy and forefight over a rafh and precipitate va¬ lour. Before Charles could think of counterbalancing fo great a power as England, it was nectffary for him to remedy the many diforders to which his own kingdom 41? was expofed. He accordingly turned his arms againftIs defeated the king of Navarre, the great difturber of France ?,?7;. John king to England. The prince of Wales, furnamed the during that age ; and he defeated that prince, and re-the terms Black Prince, invaded France, defeated king John a duced him to terms, by the valour and condudl of preferred Bertrand du Guefclin, one of the moft accomplifhed by c*lar- of France. 4. SeeFnJt.crPoidtiers, and took him prifoner f ; which unfortu- ......— —^ ... .... - J1O44. nate event produced the moft violent difturbances in captains of thofe times, whom Charles had the dif-0 •l'rance* that kingdom. The dauphin, now about 19 years cernment to choofe as the inllrument of his vi&ories. of age, naturally aflumed the royal power during his He alfo fettled the affairs of Britanny, by acknow- father’s captivity ; but poffeffed neither experience nor ledging the title of Mountfort, and receiving homage authority fufficient to remedy the prevailing evils. In for his dominions. But much was yet to do. On the order to obtain fupplies, he affcmbled the ftates of the conclufion of the peace of Bretigni, the many military kingdom: but that affembly, inftead of fupporting adventurers who had followed the fortunes of Edward, his adminiftration, laid hold of the prefent opportu- being difperfed into the feveral provinces, and pof- nity to demand limitations of the prince’s power, the fcfftd of llrong-holds, refufed to lay down their arms, punifhment of pad malverfations, and the liberty of or relinquifh a courfe of life to which they were now the king of Navarre. Marcel provoft of the merchants accuftomed, and by which alone they could earn a of Paris, and firft magiftrate of that city, put himfelf fubfiftence. They affociated tbemfelves with the ban¬ al the head of the unruly populace, and pufhed them ditti, who were already inured to the habits of rapine to commit the moft criminal outrages againft the royal and violence ; and, under the name of companies and Account eT authority. They detained the dauphin in a kind of companions, became a terror to all the peaceable inha-the captivity, murdered in his prefence Robert de Cler- bitants. Some Englifh and Gafcon gentlemen ofcha- mont and John de Conflans, marefchals of France; rafter were not afiramed to take the command of thefe threatened all the other minitlers with the like fate ; ruffians, whofe number amounted to near 40,000, and and when Charles, who had been obliged to tempo- who bore the appearance of regular armies rather than '' ' ’ ' " • • • • bands of robbers. As Charles was not able by power to redrefs fo enormous a grievance, he was led by ne- celfity, as well as by the turn of his charafter, to cor- reft it by policy; to difeover fome method of difehar- ging into foreign countries this dangerous and inte- ftine evil; and an occafion now offered. Alphonfo XI. king of Caftile, who took the city of Algezira, rize and diffemble, made his efcape from their hands, they levied war againft him, and openly rebelled. The other cities of the kingdom, in imitation of the capital, fhook off the dauphin’s authority, took the government into their own hands, and fpread the con¬ tagion into every province. Amidft thefe diforders, the king of Navarre made SPA [ g223 ] SPA Spain. Alpezira From the Moors, after a famous fiege of two 'years, 'during which artillery are faid firft to have been 48 ufed by the befieged, had been fucceeded by his fon Pete"^ Peter I. furnamed f&e Cruel; a prince equally perfi- Cruel, king dious, debauched, and bloody. He began his reign «fCaible. with the murder of his father’s miftrefs Leonora de Gufman: his nobles fell every day the victims of his feverity : he put to death his coufin and one of his natural brothers, from groundlefs jealoufy ; and he caufed his queen Blanche de Bourbon, of the blood of France, to be thrown into prifon, and afterwards poi- foned, that he might enjoy in quiet the embraces of Mary de Padella, with whom he was violently ena¬ moured. Henry count of Traftamara, the king’s natural brother, alarmed at the fate of his family, and dread¬ ing his own, took arms againft the tyrant; but ha¬ ving failed in the attempt, he fled to France, where he found the minds of men much inflamed againil Pe- 49 ter, on account of the murder of the French princefs. 'The Com- He alked permilhon of Charles to enlilt the companies panics em- jn fervice> anc] to lead them into Callile againll his eaiuft him brother. The French king, charmed with the pro- K * jed, employed du Guefclin in negociating with the leaders of thefe banditti. The treaty was loon con¬ cluded ; and du Guefclin having completed his levies, led the army firft to Avignon, where the Pope then refided, and demanded, (word in hand, abfolution for his ruffian foidiers, who had been excommunicated, and the fum of 200,000 livres for their fubfiftence.. The firft was readily promifed him ; but fomedifficulty being made with regard to the fecond, du Guefclin replied, “ My fellows, I believe, may make a fhift to< do without your abfolution, but the money is abfo- lutely neceflary.” His Holinefs then extorted from the inhabitants of the city and its neighbourhood the fum of 100,000 livres, and offered it to du Guefclin. il It is not my purpofe,” cried that generous warrior, “ to opprefs the innocent people. The Pope and his cardinals can fpare me double the fum from their @wn pockets. I therefore infill, that this money be refto- ed to the owners ; and if I hear they are defrauded of it, I will myfelf return from the other fide of the Py¬ renees, and oblige you to make them rellitution.” The Pope found the neceffity of fubmitting, and paid from his own treafury the fum demanded. so A body of experienced and hardy foidiers, con- He is driven dufted by fo able a general, eafily prevailed over the cut, but af king of Caftile, whofe fubjedls were ready to join the Slack^**leenemy againft' their oppreffor. Peter fled from his Prince. dominions, took fhelter in Guienne, and craved the protedlion of the prince of Wales, whom his father had invefted with the fovereignty of the ceded provin¬ ces, under the title of the principality of Aquitaine,. The prince promifed his affittance to the dethroned monarch and having obta-ned his father’s confent, he levied an army, and fet out on his enterprife. The firft lofs which Henry of Traftamara fuffered from the iriterpofition of the prince of Wales, was the recalling of the companies from his fervice ; and fo much reverence did they pay to the name of Edward, that great numbers of them immediately withdrew from Spain, and inlifted under his ftandard. Henry, how¬ ever, beloved by his new fubjefts, and lupported by the king of Arragon, was able to meet the enemy with an army of 100,000 men, three times the number of Spain, thofe commanded by the Black Prince: yet du Guef- clin, and all his experienced officers, advifed him to delay a decifive action ; fo high was their opinion of the valour and conduit of the Engliffi hero! But Henry, trufting to his numbers, ventured to give Ed¬ ward battle on the banks of the Ebro, between Naja- gT ra and Navarette; where the French and Spaniards The Spa- were defeated, with the lofs of above 20,000 men, n'ards de- and du Guefclin and other officers of diftindion taken patcd an,tl prifoners. All Caftile fubmitted to the viilor ; PeterfeI °T was reuored to the throne, and Edward returned to Guienne with his ufual glory ; having not only, over* come the greateft general of his age, but retlrained the moll blood thirfty tyrant from executing vengeance on his prtfoners. This gallant warrior had foon reafon to repent of his connexions with a man like Peter, loft to all fenfe of virtue and honour. The ungrateful monfter refufed the ttipulated pay to the Englifh forces. Edward abandoned him : he treated his fubjeds with the ut- moft barbarity ; their animofity was roufed againft- him ; and du Guefclin having obtained his ranfom, returned to Caftile with the count of Traftamara, and fome forces levied anew in France. They werejoined by the Spanilh malcontents; and having m; longer the Black Prince to encounter, they gained a complete Is again dr?- vidory over Peter in the neighbourhood of Toledo.ven o"1, df-- The tyrant now took refuge in a caftle, where he wasfeated’ an* foon after befieged by the vidors, and taken prifoner death! ‘ in endeavouring to make his efcape. He was conduded to his brother Henry ; againft whom he is faid to have ruffled in a tranfportof rage, difarmed as he was. Henry flew him with his own hand, in refentment of his cruelties; and, though a baftard, was placed on the throne of Caftile, which he tranfmitted to his pofte- rity. After the death of Peter the Cruel, nothing re¬ markable happened in Spain for almeft a whole cen¬ tury ; but the debaucheries of Henry IV. of Caftile roufed the refentment of his nobles, and produced a Reign of moft lingular infurredion, which led to the aggran-Heiiry die difement of the Spanilh monarchy. Impotent.. This prince, furnamed the Impotent, though con¬ tinually furrounded with women, began his unhappy reign in 1454. He was totally enervated by his pleafures ; and every thing in his court confpired to fet the Callilians an example of the moft abjed flat¬ tery and moft abandoned licentioufnefs. The queen, a daughter of Portugal, lived as openly with her parafites and her gallants as the king did vyith his minions and his miftreffes. Pleafure was the only objed, and effeminacy, the only recommendation to favour; the affairs of the Hate went every day into dilorder; till the nobility, with the archbilhop of Toledo at their head, combining againft the weak and flagitious adminiftration of Henry, arrogated to themlelves, as one of the privileges of their order, the right of trying and palling fentence on their fovereign,. which they executed in a manner unprecedented in hiltory. s^. All the malcontent nobility were fummoned to meet^6 is for— at Avila: a fpacious theatre was ereded in a plain Sds'- without the walls of the town : an image, reprefenting p lc“ the king, was feated on a throne, clad in royal robes, with. SPA [ 8224 ] SPA Spain, with a crown on its bead, a fceptrc in its band, and '""the fword of jultice by its fide. The accnfation againft Henry was read, and the fentence of depofi- tion pronounced, in prefence of a numerous affembly. At the clofe of the firft article of the charge, the archbifhop of Toledo advanced, and tore the crown from the head of the image ; at the clofe of the fecond, the Conde de Placentia fnatched the fword of juftice from its fide ; at the clofe of the third, the Conde de Benavente wrefted the fceptre from its hand ; and at the clofe of the laft, Don Diego Lopez de Stuniga tumbled it headlong from the throne. At the fame inftant, Don Alphonfo, Henry’s brother, a boy of about twelve years of age, was proclaimed king of Caftile and Leon in his ftead. This extraordinary proceeding was followed by a civil war, which did not ceafe till fome time after the death of the young prince, on whom the nobles had beftovved the kingdom. The archbifttop and his party then continued to carry on war in the name of Ifabella, the king’s filler, to whom they gave the title of In¬ fanta; and Henry could not extricate himfelf out of SS thefe troubles, nor remain quiet upon his throne, till Ts obliged foe hac] figned one of the moll humiliating treaties ledge hi, Ion and Cerdagne were agreed to be reftored by Charles VIII. of France, before his expedition into Italy. The difcovery of America was foon followed by extenfive conquefts in that quarter, as is related Vex.. X. burden which he had fo long and fo ably fuftained. This letter proved fatal to the minifter ; for he ex¬ pired in a few hours after reading it. . gg While Charles was taking poffefiion of the throne of Maxim lian Spain, in confequence of the death of one grandfather, attemPts to another was endeavouring to obtain for him the impe- rial crown. With this view Maximilian affembled a r>- diet at Augfburg, where he cultivated the favour of1 the eledlors by many adfs of benificence, in order to engage them to choofe that young prince as his fuccef- for. But Maximilian himfelf never having been crowned by the pope, a ceremony deemed effeatial in that age, 41 D as Spain. «7 Francis I. afpires to the fame dignity. Speech of Frederic Saxony in favour of Charles. SPA [ 8226 ] SPA as well as in the preceding, he waa conGdered only as king of the Romans, or emperor eleft; and no ex¬ ample occurring in hiftory of any perfon being chofen fucceflbr to a king of the Romans, the Germans, al¬ ways tenacious of their forms, obftinately refufed to confer upon Charles a dignity for which their confti- tution knew no name. But though Maximilian could not prevail upon the German eledors to choofe his grandfon of Spain king of the Romans, he had difpofed their minds in favour of that prince ; and other circumftances, on the death of the emperor, confpired to the exaltation of Charles. The imperial crown had fo long continued in the Au- flrian line, that it began to be conGdered as heredi¬ tary in that family ; and Germany, torn by religious difputes, Hood in need of a powerful emperor, not only to preferve its own internal tranquillity, but alfo to proted it againfl the vidorious arms of the Turks, who under Selim I. threatened the liberties of Europe. This fierce and rapid conqueror had already fubdued the Mamalukes, and made himfelf mailer of Egypt and Syria. The power of Charles appeared necefiary to oppofe that of Selim. The extenfive dominions of the houfe of Autlria, which gave him an intereft in the prefervation of Germany; the rich fovereignty of the Netherlands and Franche-Compte ; the entire pof- feffion of the great and warlike kingdom of Spain, to¬ gether with that of Naples and Sicily, all united to bold him up to the firlt dignity among Chriftian prin¬ ces ; and the new world feemed only to be called into cxiftence that its treafures might enable him to defend Chriftendom againft the infidels. Such was the lan¬ guage of his partifans. Francis I. however, no fooner received intelligence of the death of Maximilian, than he declared himfelf a candidate for the empire; and with no lefs confidence of fuccefs than Charles. He trufted to his fuperior years and experience; his great reputation in arms; and it was farther urged in his favour, that the impe- tuofity of the French cavalry, added to the firmnefs of the German infantry, would prove irrefiftiblc, and not only be fufficient, under a warlike emperor, to fet li¬ mits to the ambition of Selim, but to break entirely the Ottoman power, and prevent it from ever beco¬ ming dangerous again to Germany. Both claims were plaufible. The dominions of Francis were lefs extenfive, but more united than thofe of Charles. His fubje&s were numerous, aflive, brave, lovers of glory, and lovers of their king.. Thefe were flrong arguments in favour of his power, fo necefiary at this jun&ure : but he had no natural intereft in the Germanic body ; and the eleilors, hearing fo much of military force on each fide, became more alarmed for their own privileges than the common fafety. They determined to rejeft both candidates, and offered the imperial crown to Frederic, furnained the Wife, duke of Saxony., But he, undazzled by the fplendour of an objeA courted with fo much cagernefs by two mighty monarchs, rrje&ed it with a magnanimity no lefs Angular than great. “ lu times of tranquillity,” faid Frederic, “ we with for an emperor who has no power to invade our liberties; times of danger demand one who is able to fecure our fafety. The Turkifh armies, led by a war¬ like and victorious monarch, are nowafleoabling; they are ready to pour in upon Germany with a violence Spain. unknown in former ages. New conjectures call for new expedients. The imperial feeptre mull be com¬ mitted to fome hand more powerful than mine or that of any other German prince. We poflefs neither do¬ minions, nor revenues, nor authority, which enable us to encounter fuch a formidable enemy. RecourCe muft be had, in this exigency, to one of the rival mo¬ narchs. Each of them can bring into the field forces fufficient for our defence. But as the king of Spain is of German extraction, as he is a member and prince of the empire by the territories which defeend to him from his grandfather, and as his dominions ftretch along that frontier which lies molt expofed to the enemy, his claim, in my opinion, is preferable to that of a ftrangec to our language, to our blood, and to Sp our country.” Charles was eleCted in confequence of He.is this fpeech, in the year 1520. _ The two candidates had hitherto conducted their (jjjsfpejxJu rtvalfliip with emulation, but without enmity. They had even mingled their competition with many expref- fioris of friendflup and regard. Francis in particular, declared with his ufual vivacity, that his brother Charles and he were fairly and openly fuitors 10 the fame miflrefs: “ The moll afliduous and fortunate,” added he, “ will win her; and the other muft reft contented.” But the preference was no fooner given to his rival, than Francis difeovered all the pafiions natural to difappointed ambition. He could not fup- prefs his chagrin and indignation at being baulked in his favourite purfuit, and rejeCted, in the face of all. ya Europe, for a youth yet unknown to fame. The fpi-a mutual rit of Charles refented fuch contempt : and from this hatred takes jealoufy, as much as from oppofition. of intertfts, arofe Placc be* that emulation between thofe two great monarchs^^g,. an(j which involved them in almoft perpetual hoftilities, and Francis, kept their whole age in movement. Charles and Francis had many interfering claims in Italy ; and the latter thought himfelf bound in honour to reftore the king of Navarre to his dominions, un- juftly feized by the crown of Spain. They imme- ?r diately began to negociate ; and as Henry VIII. of Jtnth court England was the third prince of the age in power and the friend- in dignity, his friendfliip was eagerly courted by each of the rivals. He was the natural guardian of the liber- jT. ^ ties of Europe. Senfible of the confequence which his fituation gave him, and proud of his pre-eminence, Henryknew it tobe his intereft to keep the balance even between the contending powers, and to refirain both, by not joining entirely with either; but he was feldom able to reduce his ideas to practice. Vanity and re- fentment were the great fprings of all his undertakings; and his neighbours, by touching thefe, found an eafy way to draw him into their meafures, and force him upon many rafh and inconfiderate enterprifes. All the impolitic fteps in Henry’s government muft not, however, be imputed to himfelf; many of them were oecafioned by the ambition and avarice of his prime minifltr and favourite cardinal Woltey. This man, who, by bis talents and accomplilhments, had ri- fen from one of the lowed conditions in life to the hig-heft employments both in church and date, enjoyed a greater degree of power and dignity than any Eng- lifh fubjeft ever poflefled, and governed the haughty, prefuropluous, and untraftable- fpirit of Henry with abfo- SPA [ Spain, abfolate authority. Francis was equally well acquai ed with the charafter of Henry and of his ramilter. He had fuccefsfully flattered Wolfey’s pride, by ho¬ nouring him with particular marks of his confidence^ and bellowing upon him the appellations of Father, Tutor, and Governor; and he had obtained the reiti- tution of Tournay, by adding a penfion to thofe re- fpefiful titles. He now foliated an interview with the An inter- k‘nK of England near Calais ; in hopes of being able, view pro- by familiar converfation, to attach him to his friendihip jetted be- and intereft, while he gratified the cardinal’s vanity, ciTandraU* by aff°rding him an opportunity of difplaying his Jiemy. magnificence in the prefence of two courts, and of difeovering to the two nations his influence over their monarchs. Charles dreaded the effedls of this pro- je&ed interview between two gallant princes, whofe # hearts were no lefs fufeeptible of friendlhip than their manners were of infpiring it. Finding it impoflible, however, to prevent a vifit, in which the vanity of all parties was fo much concerned, he endeavoured to de¬ feat its purpofe, and to pre-occupy the favour of the ^ Englilh monarch, and of his minifter, by an aft of Charles vi- cotnplaifance (liil more flattering and more uncommon, fits Henry Relying wholly upon Henry’s generofity for hisfafety, Id England/foe landed at Dover, in his way from Spam to the Low Countries. Toe king of England, who was on his way to France, charmed with luch an inltance of con¬ fidence, haftened to receive his royal gueft ; and Charles, during his fliort flay, had the addrefs not only to give Henry favourable impreflions of his charafter and in¬ tentions, but to detach Wolfey entirely from the in¬ tereft of Francis. The tiara had attrafted the eye of that ambitious prelate ; and as the emperor knew that the papacy was the foie point of elevation, beyond his prefent greatnefs, at which he could afpire, he made him an offer of his intereft on the firll vacancy. The day of Charles’s departure, Henry went over to Calais with his whole court, in order to meet Francis. Their interview was in an open plain be¬ tween Guifnes and Ardres ; where the two kings and their attendants difplayed their magnificence with fuch HenryVifits emulation and profufe expence, as procured it the Francis in name of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Here Henry France. erefted a fpacious houfe of wood and canvas, framed in London, on which, under the figure of an Englilh archer, was the following motto: “ He prevails whom I favour;” alluding to his own political fitua- tion, as holding in his hands the balance of power among the potentates of Europe. Feats of chivalry, however, parties of gallantry, and fuch exercifes as were in that age reckoned manly or elegant, rather than ferious bufinefs, occupied the two courts during the time that they continued together, which was x 8 days. After taking leave of this feene of diffipation, the king of England paid a vifit to the emperor and Mar¬ garet of Savoy at Gravelines, and engaged them to go along with him to Calais where the artful and politic Charles completed the impreffion which he had begun to make on Henry and his favourite, and effaced all the friendlhip to which the frank and gene¬ rous nature of Francis had given birth. He renewed bis affurances of affifting Wolfey in obtaining the pa¬ pacy; and he put him in prefent poff ffion of the re¬ venues belonging to the fees of Badajox and Palencia in Spain. He flattered Henry’s pride, by convincing S227 j SPA him of his own importance, and of the juftnefs of the Spain. motto which he had chofen ; offering to lubmit to his foie arbitration any difference that might arife be¬ tween him and Francis. This important point being fecured, Charles re-Charles in- paired to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he was folemnly verted with invefted with the crown and feeptre of Charlemagne,lmPe' in prefence of a more fplendid and numerous drably than had appeared on any former inauguration, chapelle. About the fame time Solyman the Magnificent, one of the mod accomplilhed, enterprifing, and viftorious of the Turkilh princes, and a conftant and formidable rival to the emperor, afeended the Ottoman throne. The firft aft of Charles’s adminiftration was, to appoint a diet of the empire, to be held at Worms, in order to concert with the princes proper meafures for checking the progrefs of “ thofe new and dangerous opinions which threatened to difturb the peace of Germany, and to overturn the religion of their an- ceftors.” The opinions propagated by Luther and his followers were here meant. But all his efforts for that purpofe were infufficient, as is related under the articles Luther and Reformation. In 1521 the Spaniards, diffatisfied with the de-War be- parture of their fovereign, whofe eleftion to the em- tween Fran- pire they forefaw would interfere with the adminiftra- tion of his own kingdom, and incenfed at the avarice'' at of’the Flemings, to whom the direftion of public affairs had been committed fince the death of cardinal Ximenes, feveral grandees, in order to (hake off this oppreflion, entered into an affociation, to which they gave the name of the Santta yunfla; and the fword was appealed to as the means of redrefs. This feemed to Francis a favourable junfture for reinftating the family of John d’Albret in the kingdom of Na¬ varre. Charles was at a diftance from that part of his dominions, and the troops ufually Rationed there had been called away to quell the commotions in Spain. A French army, under Andrew de Foix, fpeediiy conquered Navarre ; but that young and in¬ experienced nobleman, pulhed on by military ardour, ventured to enter Callile. The Spaniards, though divided among therolelves, united againft a foreign enemy, routed his forces, took him prifoner, and recovered Navarre in a (horter time than he had fpent in fubduing it. Hollilities thus begun in one quarter, between the rival monarchs, foon fpread to another. The king of France encouraged the duke of Bouillon to make war againft the emperor, and invade Luxembourg. Charles, after humbling the duke, attempted to enter France; but was repelled and worded before Mczieres, by the famous chevalier Bayard, diftinguifhed among his cotemporaries by the appellation of The Knight •without fear and •without reproach; and who united the talents of a great general to the punftilious honour and romantic gallantry of the heroes of chivalry. Francis broke into the Low Countries, where, by an excefs of caution, an error not natural to him, he loft an opportunity of cutting off the whole imperial army; and, what was of ftill more conffqiienee, he difgufted the conftable Bourbon, by giving the com¬ mand of the van to the duke of Alen$on. During tlrefe operations in the field, an unfuccefsfu! congrefa was held at Calais, under the mediation of /j-i D 2 Henry SPA [8-. Spain. Henry VIII. It ferved only to exafperate the parties which it was intended to reconcile. A league was loon after concluded, by the intrigues of Wolfey, be¬ tween the pope, Henry, and Charles, againft France. L.eo had already entered into a feparate league with the emperor, and the French were faff lofing ground in Italy. The infolence and exa&ions of Marefhal de Laiitrec, governor of Milan, had totally alienated the affe&ions of the Milanefe from France. They refolved to expel the troops of that nation, and put themfelves under the government of Francis Sforza, brother to Maxi¬ milian their late duke. In this refolution they were encouraged by the pope, who excommunicated JL.au- Rapid con- trec’ an<^ t0°^ *nto ^'s 3 conPlclerable body of quefts of Swifs. The papal army, commanded by Profper Charles. Colonna, an experienced general, was joined by fup- plies from Germany and Naples ; while Lautrec, ne- gle&ed by his court, and deferted by the Swifs in its pay, was unable to make head againft the enemy. The city of Milan was betrayed by the inhabitants to the confederates; Parma and Placentia were united to the eccltfiaftical ftate; and of their conquefts in .Lombardy, only the town of Cremona, the caftle of Milan, and a few inconfulerable forts, remained in the hands of the French. Leo X. received the accounts of this rapid fuccefs with fuch tranfports of joy, as are faid to have brought on a fever, which occafioned his death. The fpirit of the confederacy was broken, and its operations fufpended by this accident. The Swifs were recalled.; feme other mercenaries difbanded for want of pay ; and only the Spaniards, and a few Germans in the emperor’s fervice, remained to defend the duchy of Milan. But Lautrec, who with the remnant of his army had taken fhelter in the Venetian territories, deftitute both of men and money, was unable to im¬ prove this favourable opportunity as he wifhed. All his efforts were rendered ineffcdual by; the vigilance and ability of Colonna and his afibciates. Meantime much difcord prevailed in the conclave. Wolfey’s name, notwithftanding all the emperor’s magnificent promifes, was fcarcely mentioned there. Julio de Medici, Leo’s nephew, thought himfelf fure of the election ; when, by an unexpefted turn of for¬ tune, cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, Charles’s precep¬ tor, who at that time governed Spain in the em¬ peror’s name, was unanimoufly raifed to the papacy, to the aftonilhment of all Europe and the great dif- guft of the Italians. Francis, roufed by the rifing confequence of his Francis in r*v3^»'to exert himfelf with frefh vigour, in vadcsiuly* order to wreft from him his late conquefts in Lom¬ bardy. Lautrec received a fupply of money, and a recruit of 10,000 Swifs. With this reinforcement he was enabled once more to aft offenfively, and even to advance within a few miles of the city of Milan ; when money again failing him, and the Swifs grow¬ ing mutinous, he was obliged to attack the impe- rialifts in their camp at Bicocca, where he was re- pulfed with great flaughter, having loft his braveft officers and beft troops. Such of the Swifs ae fur- vived fet out immediately for their own country; and Lautrec, defpairing of being able to keep the field, mired into France. Genoa, which ftill remained 128 ] SPA fubjeft to Francis, and made it eafy to execute any Spain, fcheme for ihe recovery of Milan, was foon after taken * "’ ,1~' by Colonna : the authority of the emperor and his faftion was every where eftablilhtd in Italy. The citadel of Cremona was the folefortrefs which remain¬ ed in the hands of the French. The affliction of Francis for fuch a fucceffion of misfortunes was augmented by the unexpefted arri¬ val of an Englilh herald, who in the name of his fo- vereign declared war againft France. The courage of this excellent prince, however, did not forfake him ; tho’ his treafury was exhaufted by expenfive pleafures, no lefs than by hoftile enterprifes, he aflembled a confi- derable army, and put his kingdom in a pofture of defence for refilling this new enemy, without aban¬ doning any of the fchemes which he was forming againft the emperor. He was furprifed, but not alarm? • ed, at fuch a denunciation. Meanwhile Charles, willing to draw aa much ad-Charles vi- vantage as poffible from fo powerful an ally, paid fits England a fecond vifu to the court of England in his way toa/ec°ud Spain, where his prefence was. become neceflary.time* His fuccefs exceeded his moll fanguine expeftations. He not only gained the entire friendlhip of Henry, who publicly ratified, the treaty of Bruges; but dif- armed the refentment of Wolfey, by affuring him of the papacy on Adrian’s death ; an event feemingly,Vc not diftant, by real’on of his age and infirmities. In confequence of thefe negociations nn Englilh army invaded France, under the command of the earl of Surrey ;.who,.at the end of the campaign, was obliged to retire, with bis forces greatly reduced, without be¬ ing able to make himfelf mailer pf one place within the French frontier. Charles was more fortunate in Spain : he foon quelled the tumults which had there arifen in his abfence. While the Chriftian princes were thus wafting each other’s ftrength, Solyman the Magnificent entered Hungary, and made himfelf mailer of Belgrade, rec¬ koned the chief barrier of that kingdom againft the Turkifh power. Encouraged by this fuccefs, he turned his victorious arms againft the illand of Rhodes, at that time the feat of the knights of St 8o John of Jerufalem ; and though every prince in that Rhodes ta-> age acknowledged Rhodes to be the great bulwarkkeo by So- of Chriftendom in the call, fo violent was their aui-^)'man‘ mofity againft each other, that they fufftred Solyman without difturbance to carry on his operations againft that city and iftand. Lifle Adam, the grand-mafter, made a gallant defence; but, after incredible efforts of courage, patience, and military conduft, during a fiege of fix months, he was obliged to furrender the place, having obtained an honourable capitulation from the fultan, who admired and refpefted his heroic qualities. See Rhodes and Malta. Charles and Francis were equally alhamed of having occafioned fuch a lofs to Chriftendom by their contefts ; and the emperor, by way of reparation, granted to the knights of St John the fmall ifland of Malta, where they fixed their refidence, and continued long to retain their ancient Ipirir, though much diminifhcd in power and fpleudour. Adrian VI. though the creature of the emperor and devoted to his intereft, endeavoured to affume the impartiality which became the common father of Ghriften- SPA [ 8229 ] SPA Spain.- Chriftendom, and laboured to reconcile the contend¬ ing princes, that they might unite in a league againft Solyman, whofe conqueit of Rhodes rendered him more formidable than ever to Europe. The Italian Hates were no lefs defirous of peace than the pope : and fo much regard was paid by the hoftile powers to the exhortations of his holinefs, and to a bull which he iffued, requiring all Chriftian princes to confent to a truce for three years, that the imperial, the French, and the Englifh ambaffadors at Rome, were em¬ powered to treat of that matter; but while they wafted i 8l their time in fruitlefs negociations, their matters were A powerful continuing their preparations for war; and other ne- ;confederacy gociations foon took place. The confederacy againft againft France became more formidable than ever, raricis. The Venetians, who had hitherto adhered to the French intereft, formed engagements with the em¬ peror for fecuring Francis Sforza in the pofleffion of the duchy of Milan ; and the pope, from a per- fuafion that the ambition of the French monarch was the only obftacle to peace, acceded to the fame alli¬ ance. The Florentines, the dukes of Ferrara and Man¬ tua, and all the Italian powers, followed this example. Francis was left, without a Angle ally, to refill the efforts of a multitude of enemies, whofe armies every where threatened, and whofe territories encompafled his dominions. The emperor in perfon menaced France with an invation on the lide of Guienne ; the forces of England and the Netherlands hovered over Picardy, and a numerous body of Germans was preparing to ravage Burgundy. The dread of fo many and fuch powerful adverfa- ries, it was thought, would have obliged Francis to keep wholly on the defenfive, or at lead have pre¬ vented him from entertaining any thoughts of march¬ ing into Italy. But before his enemies were able to ftrike a blow, Francis had affembled a. great army, Francis with which he hoped to difconcert all the emperor’s marches to-fchemes, by marching it in perfon into Italy: and wards Italy, {juS bold meafure, the more formidable becaufe un- ged to°re-" expefted,. could fcarcely have failed of the defired ef- turn by a fe£t, had it been immediately carried into execmion. domeflic But the difcovery of a domeftic confpiracy, which confpiracy. threatened the deftruftion of his kingdom, obliged Francis to flop (hort at Lyons. Charles duke of Bourbon, lord high conftable of France, was a prince of the moft fhining merit: his great talents equally fitted him for the council or the field, while his eminent fervices to the crown entitled him to its firft favour. But unhappily Louifa duchefs of Angouleme, the king’s mother, had contra&ed a violent averfion againft the houfe of Bourbon, and had taught her fon, over whom (be had acquired an abfo-> lute afcendant, to view all the conftable’s actions with a.jealous eye. After repeated affronts he retired from court, and began to liften to.the advances of the em¬ peror’s minifters. Meantime the duchefs of Bourbon died ; and as the conftable was no lefs amiable than acr compiHhed, the duchefs of Angouleme, ftill fufcep- tible of the tender paffions, formed the fcheme of marr rying him. But Bourbon, who might have expe&ed every thing to which an ambitious mind can afpire, from the doating fondnefs of a woman who governed her fon and'the kingdom, incapable of imitating Lou¬ ifa in her fudden tranfuion from hate to love, or of meanly counterfeiting a paffion for one who had fo Spain. long purfued him with unprovoked malice, rejefted the match with difdain, and turned the propofal into ridicule. At once defpifed and infulted by the man whom love only could have made her ceafe to perfe- cute, Louifa was filled with all the rage of difappointed woman ; (he refolved to ruin, fince (he could not marry Bourbon. For this purpofe (he commenced an ini¬ quitous fuit againft him ; and by the chicanery of chancellor du Prat, the conftable was dripped of his whole family-eftate. Driven to defpair by fo many in¬ juries, he entered into a fecret correfpondence with the emperor and the king of England j and he propofed, as foon as Francis (bould have crofied the Alps, to raife an infurredion among his numerous vaffals, and introduce foreign enemies into the heart of France. Happily Francis got intimation of this confpiracy before he left the kingdom : but not being fufficiently convinced of the Conftable’s guilt, he fuffercd fo dan¬ gerous a foe to efcape ; and Bourbon, entering into the emperot’s fervice, employed all the force of his enter- prifing genius, and his great talents for war, to the prejudice of his prince and his native country. In confequence of the difcovery of this plot, and the efcape of the powerful confpirator, Francis relinquiflied his intention of leading his army in perfon into Italy. He was ignorant how far the infedion had fpread among his fubjeds, and afraid that his abfcnce might encourage them to make fome defperate attempt in fa- g , vour of a man fo much beloved. He did not, however, a French abandon his defign on the Milanefe, but fent forward army enters, an army of 30,000 men, under the command of admi-Iuly- ral Bonnivet. Colonna, who was entrufted with the defence of that duchy, was in no condition to refill fuch a force ; and the city of Milan, on which the whole territory depends, mull have fallen into the hands of the French, had not Bonnivet, who poflefled none of the talents of a general, wafted his time in frivolous enterprifes, till the inhabitants recovered from their confternation. The imperial army was reinfor¬ ced. Colonna died ; and Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, fucceeded him in the command: but the chief direc¬ tion of military operations was committed to Bourbon and the marquis de Pefcara, the greateft generals of their age. Bonnivet, deftitute of troops to oppofe this new army, and ftill more of the talents which could render him a match for its leaders, after various move¬ ments and encounters, was reduced to the neceffity of attempting a retreat into France. He was followed Defeated at by the imperial generals, and routed at Biagraffa, Biagruira. . where the famous chevalier Bayard was killed. . The emperor and his allies were lefs fuccefsful in their attempts upon France. They were baffled in every quarter : and Francis, though dripped of his Italian dominions, might ftiil have enjoyed in fafety the glory of having defended his native kingdom againft one.half of Europe, and have bid defiance to all his enemies; but underftanding that the king, of Engla.nd, difcouraged by his former fruitlefs enterprifes, and difgufted with the. emperor, was making no prepara-Franc's ^' . r r j e • ” • 1 tertnmes tions (or any attempt on Picardy, his ancient ardour to enter • feized him for the conqueft of Milan, and he deter-Italy in per-; mined, notwithftanding the advanced feafon, tomarchf°n» into Italy. The French army no fooner appeared in Piedmont, tbaa . 8(5 Ts defeated and taken pri loner at Pavia. ®7 Hypocriti- -cal conduft «f -Charles. 88 France af- fifted by Henry VIII SPA [ 8230 ] SPA tKan the whole Milanefe was thrown Into coBfternation. rity of the emperor’s promifes, while It extlnguilhed The capital opened its gates. The forces of the em- all his hopes of the papacy ; and he refolved on re- ~ peror and Sforza retired to Lodi : and had Francis venge. Charles, too, had fo ill fupported the ap- been fo fortunate as to purfue them, they mull have pearance of moderation which he affumed, when firft abandoned that port, and been totally difperfed; but informed of his good fortune, that he had already his evil genius led him to befiege Pavia, a town of changed his ufual tlyle to Henry; and inftead ofwri- confiderable ftrength, well garrifoned, and defended ting to him with his own hand, and fubferibing him- by Antonio de Leyva, one of the braveft officers in the Spanilh fervice; before which place he was de- felf “ your affeftionate fon and coufin,” he dictated his letters to a fecretary, and limply fubferibed him- feated and taken prifober, as related under the article felf “ Charles.” Influenced by all thefe motives, toge- France, n° 73 The captivity of Francis filled all Europe with alarm. Almoft the whole French army was cut off; Milan was immediately abandoned ; and in a few weeks not a Frenchman was left in Italy. The power of the emperor, and Hill more his ambition, became an ob- je6t of univerfal terror; and refolutions were every where taken to fet bounds to it. Meanwhile Francis, deeply imprefled with a fenfe of his misfortune, wrote to his mother Louifa, whom he had left regent of the ther with the glory of railing a fallen enemy, Henry liltened to the flattering fubmiflions of Louifa ; en¬ tered into a defenfive alliance with her as regent of France, and engaged to ufe his beft offices in order to procure the deliverance of her fon from a Hate of cap¬ tivity. Meanwhile Francis was rigoroufly confined ; and Francis fe- | 89 fevere conditions being propofed to him as the price verely ufed I r. C t. 1C 1 • .. t.A At*^iTr Kio *1 .-1 .■ 1 Mnititlnn. I. — ► by hlS COH— • of his liberty, he drew bis dagger, and, pointing it at his bread, cried, “ ’Twere better that a king lhouldqueror' kingdom, the following Ihort, but expreffive letter: die thus!” His hand was with-held; and flattering “AH, Madam, is lod but honour.” The fame cou¬ rier that carried this letter, carried alfo difpatches to Charles; who received the news of the fignal and un- expe&ed fuccefs which had crowned his arms with the moft hypocritical moderation. He would not fuffer any public rejoicings to be made on account of it ; and laid, he only valued it, as it would prove the oc- cafion of reftoring peace to Chriftendom. Louifa, however, did not trud to thofe appearances ; if die could not preferve what was yet left, Ihe determined at lead that nothing Ihould be lod through her negli¬ gence or weaknefs. Indead of giving herfelf up to fuch lamentations as were natural to a woman fo re¬ markable for maternal tendernefs, fhe difeovered all the forefight, and exerted all the activity of a confum- mate politician. She took every poflible meafure for putting the kingdom in a podure of defence, while ftc employed all her addrefs to appeafe the refemment himfelf, when he grew cool, that fuch propofttions could not come direftly from Charles, he defired that he might be removed to Spain, where the emperor then reftded. His requed was complied with ; but he languilhed long before he obtained a fight of his con¬ queror. At lalt he was favoured with a vifit; and the emperor dreading a general combination againd him, or that Francis, as he threatened, might, in the ob- dinacy of his heart, refign his crown to the dauphin, agreed to abate fomewhat of his former demands. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Madrid ; in con- fequence of which Francis obtained his liberty. The chief article in this treaty was, that Burgundy Ihould be redored to Charles as the rightful inheritance of his ancedors, and that Francis’s two elded fons (houldbeisat laft immediately delivered up as hodages for the perform-releafed, ance of the conditions dipulated. The exchange of the captive monarch for his children was made on the and to gain the friendfhip of England ; and a ray of borders between France and Spain. The moment comfort from that quarter foon broke in upon the French ar * that Francis entered his own dominions, he mounted a Turkilh horfe, and putting it to its fpeed, waved his hand, and cried aloud feveral times, “ I am yet a king! I am yet a king !” Francis never meant to execute the treaty of Ma- Refutes to" drid ; he had even left a proted in the hands of nota-execute the ries before he figned it, that his confent fhould be con-®°nh<1.1ttions lie beaded to be his peculiar office. By his alliance fidered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed nullj^. with the emperor, he hoped to recover fome part of and void. Accordingly, as foon as he arrived in thofe territories on the continent which had belonged France, he aflembled the dates of Burgundy, who protefted againd the article relative to their province ; Though Henry VIII. had net entered into the war againd France from any concerted political views, he had always retained fome imperfeft idea of that balance of power which it was neceflary to maintain between Charles and Francis; and the prefervation of which to his ancedors ; and therefore willingly contributed to give him the afcendency above his rival ; but having never dreamt of any event fo decifive and fatal as the vi&ory at Pavia, which feemed not only to have bro¬ ken, but to have annihilated the power of Francis, he now became fenfibleof his own danger, as well as that of all Europe, from the lofs of a proper counterpoife to the power of Charles. Inftead of taking advantage of the diftreded condition of France, Henry therefore determined to afiift her in her prefent calamities. Some •difgufts alfo had taken place between him and Charles, and dill more between Charles and Wolfey. The ele¬ vation of the cardinal of Medici to St Peter’s chair, on and Francis coldly replied to the imperial ambaffadors, who urged the immediate execution of the treaty, that he would religioufly perform the articles relative to himfelf, but in thofe affe&ing the French monarchy, he muft be dire&ed by the fenfe of the nation. He made the higheft acknowledgments to the king of England for his friendly interpofition, and offered to be entirely guided by his counfels. Charles and his minifters faw that they were over-reached in thofe very arts of negociation in which they fo much excelled, while the Italian ftates obferved with pleafurc, that Francis was refolved not to execute a treaty which the death of Adrian, under the name of Clement VII. they confidered as dangerous to the liberties of Eu- Lad made the Englifh minifter fenfible of the inlincc- rope. Clement abfolved him from the oath which he had SPA [ 823* ] SPA Spain, had taken at Madrid; and the kings of France and England, the Pope, the Swifs, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the duke of Milan, entered' into an alliance, to which thejt gave the name of the Holy League, becaufe his Holinefs was at the'head of it, in order to oblige the emperor to deliver up Francis’s two fons on the payment of a reafonable raniom, and to re-eftablifli Sforza in the quiet poffeffion of the Mi- lanefe. In confequence of this league, the confederate ar¬ my took the field, and Italy once more became the fcene of war. But Francis, who it was thought would have infufed fpirit and vigour into the whole body, had gone through fuch a fcene of diftrefs, that he was become diffident of himfelf, diftrullful of his fortune, and defirous of tranquillity. He flattered himfelf, that the dread alone of fuch a confederacy would induce Charles to liften to what was equitable, and therefore neglefted to fend due reinforcements to his allies in Italy. Meantime the duke of Bourbon, who com¬ manded the Imperialitts, had made himfelf maftcr of the whole Milantfe, of which the emperor had promi- 1 f:d him the iuvdliture; and his troops beginning to Home taken mutiny for want of pay, he led them to Rome, and by the m- promifed to enrich them with the ipoils of that city, fcerialifts. wa3 as gOOC| as word ; for though he himfelf was flain in planting a fcaling ladder againfl the walls, his foldiers, rather enraged than difeouraged by his death, mounted to the afiault with the utmofl ardour, animated by the greatnefs of the prize, and, entering the city fword in hand, plundered it for feveral days. Andnioft Never did Rome in any age fuffer fo many caiami- ^cruelly10 t'es> not even ^ron1 Barbarians, by whom fhe was pjundered. often fubdued, the Huns, Vandals, or Goths, as now from the fubjedts of a Chrittian and Catholic monarch. Whatever was rtfpedlable in modefly, or facred in re¬ ligion, feemed only the more to provoke the rage of the foldiery. Virgins fuffered violation in the arms of their parents, and uponthofe altars to which they had fled for fafety. Venerable prelates, after enduring every indignity and every torture, were thrown into dungeons, and menaced with the molt cruel death, in order to make them reveal their fecret treafures. Cle¬ ment himfelf, who had neglefted to make his efcape in time, was taken prifoner, and found that the fa- crednefs of his charadier could neither procure him li- The Pope nor refpedi. He was confined till he fhould pay sanfined. an enormous ranfom impofed by the vidtonous army, and furrender to the emperor all the places of llrength belonging to the church. Charles received the news of this extraordinary event 55 with equal: furprife and pleafure ; butinordertocon- bypoerifyofcea* k's j°y from his Spanilh fubjedls, who were filled Charles. with.horror at the infult offered to the fovereign pon¬ tiff, and to hfliti the indignation of the reft of Eu¬ rope, he expreffed the molt profound forrow for the fuccefs of his arms. He put himfelf and his court in¬ to mourning ; flopped the rejoicings for the birth of his fon Philip,, and ordered prayers to be put up in all the churches of Spain for the recovery of the Pope’s liberty, which he could immediately have pro¬ cured by a letter to his generals. The concern exprefftd by Henry and Francis for the calamity of their ally was more fincere. Alarm¬ ed at the grogrds of the imperial arms, they had, even before the taking of Rome, entered into a elofer Spain, alliance, and agreed to invade the Low-Countries with " a powerful army ; but no fooner did they hear of the Pope’s captivity, than they changed, by a new treaty, the fcene of the projected war from the Netherlands to Italy, and refolved to take the moft vigorous mea- fures for reftoring him to liberty. Henry, however,' contributed only money. A French army entered a French Italy, under the command of Marflial Lautrec ; C'e-army en- ment obtained his freedom : and war was for a time ters.Ita,y» carried on by the confederates with fuccefs ; but the ^”j”^tter,y death of Lautrec, and the revolt of Andrew Doria, a Genoefe admiral in the fervice of France, entirely changed the face of affairs. The French army was utterly ruined; and Francis, difeouraged and almofb exhaulted by fo many unfuccefsful enterprifes, began to think of peace, and of obtaining the releafe of his fons by conceflions, not by the terror of his arms. At the fame time Cnarles, rotwithftanding the ad¬ vantages he had gained, had many reafons to wifh for an accommodation. Sultan Solyman having over-run Hungary, was ready to break in upon the Auftrian territories with the whole force of the Eaft ; and the progrefs of the Reformation in Germany threatened the tranquillity of the empire. In confequence of this fituation of affairs, though pride made both parties conceal or diffemble their real fentiments, two ladies were permitted to reftore peace to Europe. Margaret 91 of Auftria, Charles’s aunt, and Louifa, Francis’s mo-Peace con- ther, met in 1529 at Cambray, and fettled the terms lt of accommodation between the French king and the0^^* emperor. Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns as the ranfom of his two fons, to refign the fo- vereignty of Flanders and Artois, and forego all his Italian claims; and Charles ceafed to demand the re- ftitution of Burgundy. All the fteps of, this negociation had been commu¬ nicated to the king of England ; and Henry was, on that occafion, fo generous to his friend and ally Fran¬ cis, that be fent him an acquittal of near fix hundred thoufand crowns, in order to enable him to fulfil hie agreement with Charles. But Francis’s Italian con¬ federates were lefsfatisfied with the treaty of Cambray. They were almoll wholly abandoned to the will of the emperor; and feemed to have no other means of fecu- rity left but his equity and moderation. Of thefe, from his pall conduCl, they had not formed the molt advantageous idea. But Charles’s prefent circumftan- ces, more efpecially in regard to the Turks, obliged him to behave with a generofity inconiiftent with his chara&er. The Florentines alone, whom he reduced under the dominion of the family of Medici, had rea- fon to complain of his feverity. Sforza obtained the invtftiture of Milan and his pardon ; and every other power experienced the lenity of the conqueror. 58 After having received the imperial crown from the.Charles goes hands of. the Pope at Bologna, Charles proceeded on'nto Ger' his journey to Germany, where his-prefence was be-imn^’ come highly neceffary ; for although the conduft and * valour of his brother Ferdinand, on whom he had con¬ ferred the hereditary dominions of the houfe of Au¬ ftria, and who had been eleded king of Hungary, had obliged Solyman to retire with infamy and lofs,. his return was to be feared, and the diforders of reli¬ gion were daily increafing ; an account of which, and ofc SPA ■Spain: of the emperor’s tranfaflions with the Proteftants, is given under the article Reformation. Charles having exerted himfelf as much as he could againft the reformers, undertook his firft expedition He under- againft the piratical ftates of Africa. Barbary, or takes an ex that part of the African continent lying along the ^ainfT'the coa^ Mediterranean fea, was then nearly in the llatcof Bar-fame condition which it is at prefent. Morocco, bary. Algiers, and Tunis, were its principal ftates ; and the two laft were nefts of pirates. Barbaroffa, a fa¬ mous Corfair, had fucceeded his brother in the king¬ dom of Algiers, which he had formerly affifted him to ufurp. He regulated with much prudence the in¬ terior police of his kingdom, carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended his conquefts on the continent of Africa ; but perceiving that the natives fnbmitted to his government with impatience, and fearing that his continual depredations would one day draw upon him a general combination of the Chriftian powers, he put his dominions under the pro- teftion of the grand feignor. Solyman, flattered by fuch an aft of fubmiflion, and charmed with the bold* nefs of the man, offered him the command of the Turkifh fleet. Proud of this diftinftion, Barbaroffa repaired to Conti an tinople, and made ufe of his in¬ fluence with the fultan to extend his own dominion. Partly by force, partly by treachery, he ufurped the kingdom of Tunis ; and being now pofleffed of greater power, he carried on his depredations againtl the Chriftian ftatee with more dcftruftive violente than ever. Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages com¬ mitted by the galleys of Barbaroffa were brought to the emperor by his fubjefts, both in Spain and Italy ; and all Chriftendom feemed to look up to him, as its greateft and moft fortunate prince, for relief from this new and odious fpecies of oppreflion. At the fame time Muley-Hafcen, the exiled king of Tunis, finding none of the African princes able or willing to fupport him in recovering his throne, applied to Charles for afliftance againft the ufurper. Equally dcftrous of delivering his dominions from the dangerous neighbourhood of Barbarofla, of appearing as the proteftor of an unfortunate prince, and of acquiring the glory annexed in that age to every expedition againft the Mahometans, the emperor readily con¬ cluded a treaty with Muley-Hafcen, and fet fail for Tunis with a formidable armament. The Goletta, a fea-port town, fortified with 300 pieces of cannon, was taken, together with all Barbaroffa’s fleet: he was defeated in a pitched battle; and 10,000 Chrifti- xeo an flaves, having knocked off their fetters, and made Tunis ta- themfelves matters of the citadel, Tunis was preparing the Inhabi- t0 furren^er» ^ut wl''le Charles was deliberating on tants cruelly the conditions, his troops fearing that they would be .xnaflacred. ” deprived of the booty which they had expefted, broke fuddenly into the town, and pillaged and maf- facred without diftinftion. Thirty thoufand. perfons periftied by the fword, and 10,000 were made pri- foners. The fceptre was reftored to Muley-Hafcen, on condition that he thould acknowledge himfelf a vaffal of the crown of Spain, put into the emperor’s hands all the fortified fea-ports in the kingdom of Tunis, and pay annually 12,000 crowns for the fub- ftftence of the Spanilh garrifoa in the Goletta. Thefe SPA points being fettled, and 20,000 Chriftian flaves freed Spain. ||; from bondage either by arms or by treaty, Charles “'I returned to Europe, where his preftnce was become neceffary; while Barbaroffa, who had retired to Bona, recovered new ftrcngth, and again became the tyrant of the ocean. lot The king of France took advantage of the empe-J7rancis.at''I? ror’s abfence to revive his pretenfions in Italy. The ya™P[o ^ E treaty of Cambray had covered up, but not extin- vive his 1 guithed, the flames of difcord. Francis in particular, pretcnijons ltii who waited only for a favourable opportunity of reco-t0 haly. k vering the territories and reputation which he had loft, continued to negociate againft his rival with different courts. But all his negociatiorts were difconcerted by unforefeen accidents. The death of Clement Vlf. (whom he had gained by marrying his fon the duke of Orleans, afterwards Hen. II. to Catharine of Me¬ dici, the niece of that pontiff), deprived him of all the fupport which he hoped to receive from the court of Rome. The king of England, occupied with do- meftic cares and projefts, declined engaging in the affairs of the continent ; and the Proteftant princes, affociated by the league of Smalkalde, to whom alfo Francis had applied, and who feemed difpofed at firft to liften to him, filled with indignation and refentment at the cruelty with which fome of their reformed bre¬ thren had been treated in France, refufed to have any conneftion with the enemy of their religion. Francis was neither cruel nor bigotted: he was too indolent to concern himfelf about religious difputes ; but his principles becoming fufpefted, at a time when the emperor was gaining immortal glory by his expe¬ dition againft the Infidels, he found it neceffary to j vindicate himfelf by fome extraordinary demonftration jj;, {,a,bar;. of reverence for the eftabliihed faith. The indifereet ty to the zeal of fome Proteftant converts furnifhed him with Proteftants.; the occafion. They had affixed to the gates of the Louvre, and other public places, papers containing in¬ decent refleftions on the rites ©f the Romifh church. Six of the perfons concerned in this rafh aftion were ftized ; and the king, pretending to be (truck with horror at their blafphemies, appointed a folemn pro- ceffion, in order to avert the wrath of heaven. The holy facrament was carried through the city of Paris in great pomp: Francis walked uncovered before it, bearing a torch in his hand ; the princes of the blood fupported the canopy over it ; the nobles walked be¬ hind. In prefence of this numerous affembly, the king declared, that if one of his hands were infefted with herefy,- he would cut ft off with the other; “ and I would facrifice,” added he, “ even my own children, if found guilty of that crime.” As an awful proof of his fincerity, the fix unhappy perfons who had been feized were publicly burnt, before the proerffion was finifhed, and in the moft cruel manner. They were fixed upon a machine which defeended into the flames, and retired alternately, until they expired.—Little wonder that the Proteftant princes were incenftd at fuch barbarity 1 IOj But Francis, though unfupported by any ally, com- Caufes an manded his army to advance towards the frontiers of»™y march Italy, under pretence of chaftifing the duke of Mi- lan for a breach of the law of nations, in putting to „ death his ambaffador. The operations of war, how¬ ever, foon took a new direftion. Inftead of marching direftiy [ 8231 ] SPA t 8233 ] SPA Spain, dire&ly to the Milanefe, Francis commenced hoflili ^ ties againft the duke of Savoy, with whom he had caufe to be diffatisfied, and on whom he had fome claims; and before the end of the campaign, that feeble prince fawhimfelr dripped of all his dominions, except the province of Piedmont. To complete his ,04 misfortunes, the city of Geneva, the fovereignty of Geneva which he claimed, and where the reformed opinions throws off had already got footing, threw off his yoke ; and its the yoke of revojt drew along w[th it the lofs of the adjacent ter- Savoy. ritory. Geneva was then an imperial city, and has ever fince remained entirely free. In this extremity, the duke of Savoy favv no te- fource but in the emperoPs protedUon ; and as his mif- fortunes were chiefly occafioned by his attachment to the imperial intereft, he had a title to immediate af- flftance. But Charles, who was juft returned from his African expedition, was not able to lend him the neceffary fupport. His treafury was entirely drained, and he was obliged to dilhand his army till he could raife new fupplies. Mean time the death of Sforza duke of Milan entirely changed the nature of the war, and afforded the emperor full leifure to prepare for ac¬ tion. The French monarches pretext for taking up arms was at once cut off 5 but as the duke died with¬ out iffue, all Francis’s fights to the duchy of Milan, which he had yielded only to Sforza and his defcend- cnts, returned to him in full force. He inftantly re¬ newed his claim to it; and if he had ordered his army immediately to advance, he might have made himfelf Charles matter of it. But he unfortunately wafted his time in takes pof- fruitlefs negociations, while his more politic rival took fedion of poffefiion of the duchy as a vacant fief of the empire { Milan. ancj though Charles feemed ftill to admit the equity of Francis’s claim, he delayed granting the inveftiture under various pretences, and was fecretly taking every I poflible meafure to prevent his regaining footing in Italy. During the time gained in this manner, Charles had recruited his finances, and of courfe his armies ; and finding himfelf in a condition for war, he at laft threw off the malk under which he had fo long con¬ cealed his defigns from the court of France. Entering Rome with great pomp, he pronounced before the pope and cardinals, affembled in full confiftory, a vio- to5 lent inveftive againft Francis, by way of reply to his Weaknefs propofitions concerning the inveftiture of Milan. Yet of Francis. Francis, by an unaccountable fatality, continued to negociate, as if it had been ftill poflible to terminate their differences in an amicable manner ; and Charles, finding him fo eager to run into the fnare, favoured the deception, and, by feeming to liften to his propo- fals, gained yet more time for the execution of his am¬ bitious projefts. | *°7 If misfortunes had rendered Francis too diffident, ■ fuccefs had made Charles too fanguine. He prefumed fubvertthe on nothing lefs than the fubverfion of the French mo- I French narchy ; nay, he conftdered it as an infallible event. 1 monarchy. Having chafed the forces of his rival out of Piedmont and Savoy, he pulhed forward at the head of 50,000 men, contrary to the advice of his moft experienced miniftefs and generals, to invade the fouthern provinces of France ; while other two armies were ordered to enter it, the one on the fide of Picardy, the other on the fide of Champagne. He thought it impofSble that Vol. X. 2 Francis could refift. fo many uneXpefled attacks on Sfrain. fuch different quarters; but he found himfelf miflaken. ~ ios' The French monarch fixed upon the moft effeftual But dlf* plan for defeating the invafion of a powerful enemy >fn'hiscte'* and he prudently perfevered in following it, though f1&ns> contrary to his own natural temper and to the genius of his people. He determined to remain altogether upon the defenfive, and to deprive the enemy of fub- fiftence by laying wafte the country before them. The execution of this plan was committed to the marefchal Montmorency its author, a man happily fitted for fuch a truft by the inflexible feverity of his difpofition. He made choice of a ftrong camp, under the walls of A- vignon, at the confluence of the Rhone and Durance, where he aflembled a confiderable army ; while the king, with another body of troops, encamped at Va¬ lence, higher up the Rhone. Marfeilles and Arles were the only towns he thought it neceffary to defend; and each of thefe he furnifhed with a numerous garri- fon of his beft troops. The inhabitants of the other towns were compelled to abandon their habitations j the fortifications of fuch places as might have afforded fhelter to the enemy were thrown down; Corn, forage, and provifions of every kind were carried off or de- ftroyed ; the mills and ovens were ruined, and the wells filled up or rendered ufelefs. This devaftation extended from the Alps to Mar¬ feilles, and from the fea to the confines of Dauphiny 5 fo that the emperor, when he arrived with the van of his army on the confines of Provence, inftead of that rich and populous country which he expe&ed to enter, beheld nothing but one vaft and defart folitude. He did not, however, defpair of fuccefs, though he faw that he would have many difficulties to encounter; and as an encouragement to his officers, he made them li¬ beral promifes of lands and honours in France. But all the land which any of them obtained was a grave, and their matter loft much honour by this rath and prefumptuous enterprife. After unfucccfsfully inveft- ing Marfeilles and Arles, after attempting in vain to draw Montmorency from his camp at Avignon, and not daring to attack it, Charles, having fpent two in¬ glorious months in Provence, and loft one half of his troops by difeafe or by famine, was under the neceflity of ordering a retreat 5 and though he was fome time in motion before the enemy fufpefted his intention, it was condmSted with fo much precipitation and difor- der, as to deferve the name of a flight, fince the light troops of France turned it into a perfeft rout. The invafion of Picardy was not more fuccefsful; the im¬ perial forces were obliged to retire without effedting any conqueft of importance. Charles had no fooner condu&ed the fhattered re¬ mains of his army to the frontiers of Milan, than he fet out for Genoa 5 and, unwilling to ekpofe himfelf to the fcorn of the Italians after fuch a reverfe of for¬ tune, he embarked diredly for Spain. JoJ Meanwhile Francis gave himfelf up to that vain re- violent anl= fentment which had formerly difgraced the profperity mofity be- of his rival. They had frequently, in the courfe oftween hin} their quarrels, given each other the lie, and mutual an<^rancis‘ challenges had been fent; which, though produdtive of no ferious confcquences between the parties, had a powerful tendency to encourage the pernicious prac¬ tice of duelling. Charles, in his invedtive pronounced 41 £ at SPA [ 8234 ] SPA Spain, at Rom?, bad publicly accufed Francis of perfidy and *— breach of faith; Francis now exceeded Charles in the indecency of his accufations. The Dauphin dying fuddenly, his death was imputed to poii’on : Montecu- culi his cup-bearer was put to the rack ; and that un¬ happy nobleman, in the agonies of torture, accufed the emperor’s generals, Gonzaga and de Leyva, of inftigating him to the deteftable ad!. The emperor himfelf was fufpe"d!ed ; nay, this extorted confefiion, and fome obfcure hints, were confidered as inconteft- able proofs of hia guilt; though it was evident to all mankind, that neither Charles nor his generals could have any inducement to perpetrate fuch a crime, as Francis was dill in the vigour of life himfelf, and had two fons befides the dauphin, grown up to a good age. But the incenfed monarch’s refentment did not Hop here. Francis was not fatisfied with endeavouring to blacken the charadler of his rival by an ambiguous te- llimony which led to the moft injurious fufpicions, and upon which the mod cruel condruftions had been put ; he was willing to add rebellion to murder. For this purpofe he went to the parliament of Paris ; where being feated with the ufual folemnities, the advocate- general appeared, and accufed Charles of Audria (fo he affefled to call the emperor) of having violated the treaty of Cambray, by which he was freed from the homage due to the crown of France for the counties of Artois and Flanders ; adding, that this treaty being now void, he was dill to be confidered as a vaflal of 110 France, and confequently had been guilty of rebellion ftimmoned ta^’nS arms aga>nft his fovcreign. The charge was to appear atfu^a‘ne^> anc^ Charles was fummoned to appear before Paris. the parliament of Paris at a day fixed. The term ex¬ pired 5 and no perfon appearing in the emperor’s name, the parliament gave judgment, that Charles of Au- ftria had forfeited, by rebellion and. contumacy, the counties of Flanders and Artois, and declared thefe fiefs reunited to the crown of France. Francis, foon after this vain difplay of his animo- fity, marched into the Low Countries, as if he had Intended to execute the fentence pronounced by his parliament; but a fufpenfion of arms took place, thro’ the interpofition of the queens of France and Hun¬ gary, before any thing of confequence was effefted ; and this ceflation of hoftilities was followed by a truce, concluded at Nice, through the mediation of the reign- ing pontiff Paul III. of the family of Farnefe, a man of a venerable charadler and pacific difpofition. Each of thefe rival princes had ftrong reafons to in¬ cline them to peace.. The finances of both were ex- haufted ; and the emperor, the moft powerful of the Trancis two* was deeply impreffed with the dread of the Tur- ieagueswith kifh arms, which Francis had drawn upon him by a the Turks, league with Solyman. In confequence of this league, Barbaroffa with a great fleet appeared on the coaft of Naples; filled that kingdom with confternation;.land¬ ed without refiftance near Taranto ; obliged Caftro, a place of fome ftrengtb, to furrender plundered the adjacent country ; and was taking meafures for feem- ring and extending his conquefts, when the unexpect¬ ed arrival of Doria, the famous Genoefe admiral, to¬ gether with the pope’s galleys and a fquadron of the Venetian fleet, made it prudent for him to retire. The fultan’s forces alfo invaded Hungary, where Mahmet Ute Turkifh general, after gaining feveral inferigr ad¬ vantages, defeated the Germans in a great battle at Spain,mit Eflek on the Drave. Happily for Charles and Eu- p’ rope, it was not in Francis’s power, at this jun&ure, either to join the Turks or afiemble an army flrong enough to penetrate into the Milanefe. The em¬ peror, however, was fenfible that he could not long refift the efforts of two fuch powerful confederates, T nor expert that the fameTortunate circumffances would § concur a fecond time in his favour; he therefore thought it neceffary, both for his fafety and reputa¬ tion, to give his confent to a truce: and FrancisA i chofe rather to run the rifle of difobliging his new ally conciU[je£jJ the fultan, than to draw on his head the indignation, and perhaps the arms of all Chriftendom, by cbdr- nately obftrufliog the re-eftablilhment of tranquillity, and contributing to the aggrandifement of the Infi¬ dels. Thefe confiderations inclined the contending roc- narchs to liften to the arguments of the holy father ’r but he found it impoffible to bring about a final ac¬ commodation between them, each inflexibly perfifting in afferting his own claims. Nor could he prevail oh them to fee one another, though both came to the place of rendezvous: fo great was the remains of dif- truft and rancour, or fuch the difficulty of adjufting I the ceremonial! Yet, improbable as it may feem, a interview ! few days after figning the truce, the emperor, in hisbeiween ! paffage to Barcelona, being driven on. the coaft of Pro- Francis andE vence, Francis invited him to come afhore; frankly ^121 es* vifited him on board his galley, and was received and entertained with the warmeft demonftrations of efteem and affedtion, Charles, with an equal degree of confi¬ dence, paid the king next day a vifit at Aigues-mor- tes; where thefe two hoftile rivals and vindidlive ene¬ mies, who bad accufed each other of every kind of bafenefs, converfing together with all the cordiality of brothers,, feemed to. vie with each other in expreffions of refpedl and friendfhip. 1J^ Befides the glory of having reftored tranquillity to Advantage i Europe, the pope gained a point of much confequence gained by ; to his family. He obtained for his grandfon Marga-t,ie P°Pe ret of Auftria, the emperor’s natural daughter, for-„J merly wife of Alexander de Medici, whom CharlesP had raifed to the fupreme power in Florence. Lo¬ renzo de Medici, the kinfman and intimate companion of Alexander, had affaflinated him by one of the blacked treafons recorded in hiftory. Under pretence of having fecured him an aflignation with a lady of the higheft rank and great beauty, he drew him into a fecret apartment of his houfe, and there ftabbed him as he lay carelefsly on a couch, expedHng the embrace of the lovely fair, whom he had often folicited in vain. Lorenzo, however, did not reap the fruits of his crime ; for though fome of his countrymen extolled him as a third Brutus, and endeavoured to feize this occafion for recovering their liberties, the government of Florence paffed into the hands of Cofmo II. ano¬ ther kinfnjan of Alexander. Cofmo was defirous of marrying the widow of his predeceffor; but the em¬ peror chofe rather to oblige the pope, by beftowing his daughter upon OAavio Farnefe, fon of the duke of Parma. Charles had foon farther caufe to be fenfible of his-_, II?‘ obligations to the holy father fpr bringing about the treaty of Nice. His troops.every where mutinied for want. SPA [ 8235 ] SPA want of pay, and the ability of his generals only could peror, well acqnainted with the weaknefs of his rival, Sp*’ "have prevented a total revolt. He had depended, as " .... .. 1 ' ' ' ' his chief refource for difcharging the arrears due to his foldiers, upon the fubfidies which he expefted from his Caftilian fubjedts. For this purpofe he affembled the cortez of Caftile at Toledo ; and having reprefent- ed to them the great expence of his military opera¬ tions, he propofed to levy Inch fupplies as the prefent flattered him in this apprehenfion, for his own felfifh" purpofes. His prefence being neceflary in the Nether- IJ9 lands, he demanded a paflage through France. It He allows was immediately granted him ; and Charles, to whom Charles to every moment was precious, fet out, notwithftanding the remonftrances of his council and the fears of his„ him with Itnoney. Spanifh lubjeQs, with a fmall but fplendid train of il5 exigency of affairs demanded, by a general excife on 100 perfons. He was met on the frontiers of France TheSpani- commodities; but the Spaniards, who already felt by the dauphin and the duke of Orleans, who offered arcU refufe themfclves oppreffed by a load of taxes unknown to to go into Spain, and remain there as hoftages, till he 2 ^ their anceftors, and who had often complained that fhould reach his own dominions; but Charles replied, their country was drained of its wealth and inhabi- that the king’s honour was fufficient for his fafety, and tants, in order to profecute quarrels in which they had profecuted his journey without any other fecurity. The no intereft, determined not to add voluntarily to their king entertained him with the utmoft magnificence at own burdens. The nobles, in particular, inveighed Paris, and the two young princes did not take leave with great vehemence againft the impofition propofed, of him till he entered the Low Countries; yet he ftill as an encroachment on the valuable and diftinguifhing found means to evade his promife, and Francis conti- privilege of their order, that of being exempted from nued to believe him fincere. I1(;> the-payment of any tax. After employing arguments The citizens of Ghent, alarmed at the approach of Severity of and promifes in vain, Charles difmilfed the affembly the emperor, who was joined by three armies, fent Charles to with indignation ; and from that period neither the ambaffadors to implore his mercy, and offered to throw nobles nor the prelates have been called to the Cortes, open their gates. Charles only condefcended to re- ien ’ on pretence that fuch as pay no part of the public ply, “ that he would appear among them as a fove- taxes fhould not claim a vote in laying them on. Thefe reign and a judge, with the fceptre and the fword.” affcmblies have fince confided merely of the procura- He accordingly entered the place of his nativity on tors or reprefentatives of eighteen cities, two from the anniverfary of his birth ; and inftead of that lenity each; in all thirty fix members, who are abfolutely which might have been expefted, exhibited an awful at the devotion of the crown. example of his feverity. Twenty-fix of the principal »i7 The citizens of Ghent, ftill more bold, broke out citizens were put to death; a greater number were iafGhent18 not ^onS a^ter 'nt0 °Pen rebe",on againft the empe- banifhed ; the city was declared to have forfeited its rebel. ro1’8 government, on account of a tax which they jud- privileges; a new fyftem of laws and political admini- ged contrary to their ancient privileges, and a decifion Uration was prefcribed ; and a large fine was impofed of the council of Mechlin in favour of the imperial au- on the inhabitants, in order to defray the expence of thority. Enraged at an unjuft impofition, and ren- erefting a citadel, together with an annual tax for the dered defperate on feeing their rights betrayed by that fupport of a garrifon. They were not only defpoiled very court which was bound to proteft them, they of their ancient immunities, but made to pay, like flew to arms, feized feveral of the emperor’s officers, conquered people, for the means of perpetuating their and drove fuch of the nobility as refided among them own flavery. out of the city. Senfible, however, of their inability Having thus re-eftablifhed his authority in the Low^*^ to fupport what their zeal bad prompted them to un- Countries, and being now under no neceffity of con- trcatment dertake, and defirous of fecuring a proteftor againft tinuing that fcene of falfehood and diffimulation with of Francis, the formidable forces with which they might expeft which he had amufed the French monarch, Charles foon to be attacked, they offered to acknowledge the began gradually to throw afide the veil under which king of France as their fovereign; to put him into he had concealed his intentions with refped to the immediate pofTcffion of their city, and.to affift him in Milanefe, and at laft peremptorily refufed to give up recovering thofe provinces in the Netherlands which a territory of fuch value, or voluntarily to make fuch had anciently belonged to his crown. True policy di- a liberal addition to the ftrength of an enemy by di- refted Francis to comply with this propofal. The minifhing his own power. He even denied that he counties of Flanders and Artois were more valuable had ever made any promife which could bind him to than the duchy of Milan, for which he had fo long an a&ion fo foolifli, and fo contrary to his own in- contended ; and their fituation in regard to France tereft. made it more eafy to conquer or to defend them. But This tranfaftion expofed the king of France to as Extreme Francis over-rated the Milanefe. He had lived in much fcorn as it did the emperor to cenfure. The credulity of fnendlhip with the emperor ever fince their interview credulous fimplicity of Francis feemed to merit no ot^ier Francis. at Aigues-mprtes, and Charles had promifed him the return, after experiencing fo often the duplicity and inveftiture of that duchy. Forgetting, therefore, all artifices of his rival. He remonftrated, however, and his paft injuries, and the deceitful promifes by which exclaimed as if this had been the firft circumftance in he had been fo often duped, the credulous, generous which the emperor had deceived him. The infult of- Francis, not only rejected the propofitions of the citi- fertd to his underftanding affected him even more fen- zens of Ghent, but communicated to the emperor his fibly than the injury done to his intereft ; and he dif- whole ncgociation with the malcontents. covered fuch refentment as made it obvious that he Judging of Charles’s heart by his own, Francis would feize on the firll opportunity of revenge, and hoped by this feemingly difinterefted proceeding to that a new war would foon defolate the European con-_ obtain at once the iimftiture of Milan.; and the em- tinent. 41 E 2 Mean-. Spvn. in He is ob¬ liged to make con- eeffions to the Protc- ftants. SPA [ 8236 1 SPA Meanwhile Charles was obliged to turn his attention towards the affairs of Germany- The Proteftants ha¬ ving in vain demanded a general council, preffed him earneftly to appoint a conference between a feleft num¬ ber of divines of each party, in order to examine the points in difpute. For this purpofe a diet was affem- bled at Ratifbon : and fuch a conference, notwith- flanding the oppofnion of the pope, was held with great folemnity in the prefence of the emperor. But the divines chofen to manage the controverfy, though men of learning and moderation, were only able to fettle a few fpeculative opinions, all points relative to worfhip and jurifdidlion ferving only to inflame the minds of the difputants. Charles, therefore, finding his endeavours to bring about an accommodation in- effe&ual, and being impatient to clofe the diet, pre¬ vailed on a majority of the members to approve of the following edi& of recefs ; viz. That the articles con¬ cerning which the divines had agreed, fliould be held as points decided ; that thofe about which they had differed, fliould be referred to the determination of a general council, or if that could not be obtained, to a national fynod ; and Ihould it prove impradlicable alfo to affemble a fynod of Germany, that a general diet of the empire ihould be called within 18 months, in order to give final judgment on the whole contro¬ verfy ; that, in the mean time, no innovations fliould be attempted, nor any endeavours employed to gain profelyt.es. This diet gave great offence to the pope. The bare mention of allowing a diet, compofed chiefly of lay¬ men, to pafs judgment in regard to articles of faith, appeared to him no lefs criminal and profane than the worft of thofe herefies which the emperor feemed fo zealous to fupprefs. The Proteftants alfo were diffa- tisfied with it, as it confiderably abridged the liberty which they at that time enjoyed. They murmured loudly againft it ; and Charles, unwilling to leave any feeds of difcontent in the empire, granted them a pri¬ vate declaration, exempting them from whatever they thought injurious or oppreffive in the recefs, and afcer- taining to them the full poffeffion of all their former privileges. The fituation of the emperor’s affairs at this junc¬ ture made thefe extraordinary conceffions neceflary. He forefaw a rupture with France to be unavoidable, and he was alarmed at the rapid progrefs of the Turks in Hungary. A great revolution had happened in that kingdom. John Zapol Scaepus, by the afliftance of Solyman, had wrefted from the king of the Romans a confiderable part of the country. John died, and left an infant fon. Ferdinand attempted to take advan¬ tage of the minority, in order to repoffefs himfelf of the whole kingdom ; but his ambition was difappoint- ed by the a&ivity and addrefs of George Martinuzzi, bilhop of Waradin, who ftiared the regency with the queen. Senfible that he was unable to oppofe the king of the Romans in the field, Martinuzzi fatisfied himfelf with holding out the fortified towns, all of which he provided with every thing neceffary for defence : and at the fame time he fent ambaffadors to Solyman, be- feeching him to extend towards the fon that imperial proteftion which had fo generoufly maintained the fa¬ ther on his throne. Ferdinand ufed his utmoft endea¬ vours to thwart this negociation, and even meanly of¬ fered to hold the Hungarian crown on the fame igno- Spain. minious condition by which John had held it, that of * paying tribute to the porte. But the fultan faw fuch advantages from efpoufing the intereft of the young king, that he inftantly marched into Hungary ; and the Germans, having formed the fiege of Buda, were defeated with great flaughter before that city. Soly¬ man, however, inftead of becoming the prote&or of the infant-fovereign whom he had relieved, made ufe of this fuccefs to extend his own dominions : he fcnt the queen and her fon into Tranlilvania, which pro¬ vince he allotted them, and added Hungary to the Ottoman empire. Happily for the Proteftants, Charles received intel¬ ligence of this revolution foon after the diet at Ratif¬ bon ; and by the conceflions which he made them, he obtained fuch liberal fupplies, both of men and mo¬ ney, as left him under little anxiety about the fecu- it 3 rity of Germany. He therefore haftened to join hisUntlfrtakes: fleet and army in Italy, in order to carry into execu- ! tion a great and favourite enterprife which he had con- p^;, certed againft Algiers ; though it would certainly have againft Al- been more confident with his dignity to have con- dufted the whole force of the empire againft Solyman, the common enemy of Chriftendom, who was ready to enter his Auftrian dominions. But many reafons induced Charles to prefer the African expedition : he wanted ftrength, or at leaft money, to combat the Turks in fo diftant a country as Hungary ; and the glory which he had formerly acquired in Barbary led him to hope for the like fuccefs, while the cries of his Spanifli fubjefts roufed him to take vengeance on their ravagers. But the unfortunate event of this expedi¬ tion has already been related under the article Al¬ giers, n° 14—20. I24 The lofs which the emperor fuffered in this cala-War be- mitous expedition encouraged the king of France totwcen Frau* i begin hoftilities, on which he had been for fome time^1r’aill1 refolved ; and an aflion difhonourable to civil fociety ares‘ furniflied him with too good a pretext for taking arms. The marquis del Guafto, governor of the Milanefe, having got intelligence of the motions and deftination of two ambaffadors, Rincon and Fergofo, whom Fran¬ cis had difpatched, the one to the Ottoman porte, the other to the republic of Venice ; knowing how much his matter wifli.d to difcover the intentions of the French monarch, and of what confequence it was to retard the execution of his meaftires, he employed fome foldiers belonging to the garrifon of Pavia to lie in wait for thefe ambaffadors as they failed down the Po, who murdered them and moft of their attendants, and feized their papers. Francis immediately demanded reparation for this barbarous outrage ; and as Charles endeavoured to put him off with an evafive anfwer, he appealed to all the courts of Europe, fetting forth the heinoufnefs of the injury, the iniquity of the emperor in difregarding his juft requeft, and the neceflity of vengeance. But Charles, who was a more profound negociator, defeated in a great meafure the effeds of thefe reprefentations: he fecured the fidelity of the Proteftant princes in Germany, by granting them new concefiions; and he engaged the king of England to efpoufe his caufe, under pretence of defending Europe againft the Infidels ; while Francis was only able to form an alliance with the kings of Denmark and Swe¬ den, SPA r S237 ] SPA Spain, den, (who for the firft time interefted themfelves in the quarrels of the more potent monarchs of the fouth), and to renew his treaty with Solyman, which drew on him the indignation of Chriftendom. But the adivity of Francis fopplied all the defe&s of his negociation. Five armies were foon ready to take the field, under different generals, and with different deftinations. Nor was Charles wanting in his preparations. He and Henry a fecond time made an ideal divifion of the kingdom of France. But as the hoftilities which followed terminated in nothing decifive, and were diftinguifhed by no remarkable event, except the battle of Cerifoles (gained by count d’Enguien over the imperialifts, and in which 10,000' of the emperor’s beft troops fell), at laft Francis and Charles, mutually tired of harraffing each other, concluded at Crefpy a treaty of peace, in which the _ ,1J king of England was not mentioned; and from being eluded at implacable enemies, became once more, to appear- Crefpy. ance, cordial friends, and even allies by the ties of blood. % The chief articles of this treaty were, that all the conquefts which either party had made fince the truce of Nice fhould be reftored ; that the emperor fhould give in marriage to the duke of Orleans, either his own elded daughter, with the Low Countries, or the fecond daughter of his brother Ferdinand, with the inveftiture of the Milanefe; that Francis fhould re¬ nounce all pretenfions to the kingdom of Naples, as well as to the fovereignty of Flanckrs and Artois,- and Charles give up his claim to the duchy of Bur¬ gundy ; and that both fhould unite in- making war againft the Turks. The emperor was chiefly induced to grant condi¬ tions fty advantageous to France, by a deitre of hum¬ bling the Proteftant princes in Germany. With the papal’ jtirifdidlion, be forefaw they would endeavour to throw-’ off the imperial authority ; and he deter¬ mined to make his zeal for the former a pretence for enforcing and extending the latter. However, the death of the duke of Orleans before the confummation of his marriage, difentangled the emperor from the moft troublefome ftipulation in the treaty o-f Crefpay ; and that the French monarch, being dill engaged in hoflilities with England, was unable to obtain any reparation for the lofs which he differed by this un- forefeen event. Thefe boflilities, like thoCe between Charles and Francis, terminated in nothing decifive. Equally tired of a ftruggle attended with no glory or advantage to either, the contending princes con¬ cluded, at Campe, near Ardies, a treaty of peace ; in which it was lilpulated, that France fhould pay the arrears due by former treaties to England; But theft arrears did not exceed one-third of the fums ex¬ pended by Henry on his military operations; and Francis being in no condition to difeharge them ; Boulogne (a chargeable pledge) was left in the hands tt6 of the Englifh as a fecurity for the debt. Charles ol>- 1° confequence of the emperor’s refolution to hum- liged to ble the Proteftant princes, he concluded a difhonour- conclude a peace with the Poite, ftipulating that his brother geems"peace Ferdinand fnould pay tribute for that part of Hun- vvith the gaT which he ft ill pofleffed ; while the fultsm enjoyed Turks and the imperial and undifturbed poffeffion of all the reft, rroteftants. the fame time he entered into a leage with pope Paul III. for the extirpation of herefy; but in reality Spain, with a view to opprefs the liberties of Germany. ~ Here, however, his ambition met with a fevere check; for though he was fuccefsful at firft, he was obliged, in 1552, to conclude a peace with the Proteftants on their own terms; as has been related under the article Reformation, n° 26—32. By the peace concluded on this occafion the empe- Attempts ror loft Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had formed to recover the barrier of the empire on that quarter; and there-fo,T’e.of fore foon after put himfelf at the head of an army, {nProVlnces• order to recover thefe three bifhoprics. In order to conceal the deftination of his army, he gave out, that he intended to lead it into Hungary, to fecond Maurice in his operations againft the Infidels; and as that pretext failed him, when he began to advance towards the Rhine, he propagated a report that he was marching firft to chaftife Albert of Brandenburgh, who Had refufedto be included in the treaty of Paffau, and whofe cruel exaftions in that part of Germany called loudly for redrefs. The French, however, were not deceived by thefe arts, Henry immediately gutfled the true object of Charles’s armament, and refolved to defend his con- 11g quefts with vigour. The defence of Metz, againft Is obliged which it was forefeen the whole weight of the warraife ,hef would be turned, was committed to Francis of Lor- rain, duke of Guife, who poffefTed in an eminent de¬ gree all the qualities-that render men great in military command-. He repaired with joy to the dangerous ftation ; and many of the French nobility, and even princes of the blood, eager to diftinguifti themfelves under fueh a leader, entered Metz as volunteers. The city was of great extent, ill fortified, and the fuburbs large. For all thefe dcfcfls the duke en¬ deavoured to provide a remedy. He repaired the old fortifications with all poflible expedition, labour¬ ing with his own hands; the ofheers imitated his ex¬ ample ; and the foidiers, thus encouraged, cheerfully fubmitted to the moft fevere* toils; he eredted new works, and he levelled the fuburbs with the ground. At the fame time he filled the magazines with provi- fions and military ftores, compelled all ufelefs perfons- to leave the place, and laid wafte the neighbouring country ; yet inch were his popular talents, as well as his arts of acquiring an afeendent over the minds of men, that the citizens-not only refrained from mur¬ muring*, but feconded him with no lefs ardour than the foidiers in all his operations—in the ruin of their eftates, and in the havoc of their public and private buildings. Meanwhile the emperor continued his march to¬ wards Lorrain, at the head of 6o,ooC> men. On his- approach, Albert of Brandenburgh, whofe army did not exceed ZGbOOQ, withdrew into that principality,, as if he intended to join the French king; and Charles, notwithft,anding the advanced feafon, it be¬ ing towards the end of Odlober, laid fiege to Metz,, contrary to the advice of his moft experienced officers. The attention of both the btliegers and the be- fieged was turned for fome time towards the motions of Albert, who Hill hovered in the neighbourhood, undetermined which fide to take, though refolved to- fell his fervice. Charles at laft came up to his price* and he joined the imperial army. The emperor now flat- SPA [ 82 Spain, flattered himfelf that nothing could relift his force ; ~ but he found himfelf deceived. After a fiege of almoft 60 days, during which he had attempted all that was thought poffible for art or valour to effed, and had loft upwards of 30,000 men by the inclemency of the weather, difeafes, or the fword of the enemy, he was obliged to abandon the enterprife. Mifernble When the French fallied out to attack the enemy’s condition of rear> t}je imperial camp was filled with the fick and his army. woun(je£jj wj(h the deaci and the dying. All the roads by which the army retired were ttrewed with the fame miferable objeds; who, having made an effort beyond their ftrength to efcape, and not being able to proceed, were left to perilh without affiltance. Happily that, and all the kind offices which their friends had not the power to perform, they received from their enemies. The duke of Guife ordered them all to be taken care of, and fupplied with every ne- ceffary; he appointed phyficians to attend, and dired what treatment was proper for the fick and wounded, and what refrelhments for the feeble; and fuch as re¬ covered he Cent home, under an efcort of foldiers, and with money to bear their charges. By thefe ads of humanity, lefs common in that age, the duke of Guife completed that heroic charader which he had iuftly acquired by his brave and fuccefsful defence of Metz. ... V6, The emperoFs misfortunes were not confined to .misfortunes Germany. During his refidence at Villach, he had been obliged to borrow 200,000 crowns of Cofmo de Medici; and fo low was his credit, that he was obliged to put Cofmo in poffeffion of the principality of Piombino as a fecurity for that inconfiderable fum; by which means he loft the footing he had hitherto maintained in Tufcany. Much about the fame time he loft Siena. The citizens, who had long enjoyed a republican government, rofe againft the Spanilh garrifon, which they had admitted as a check upon the tyranny of the nobility, but which they found was meant to enflave them ; forgetting their domeftic animofities, they recalled the exiled nobles; they de- molifhed the citadel, and put themfelves under the proteftion of France. To thefe unfortunate events one ftill more fatal had almoft fucceeded. The fevere adminiftration of the viceroy of Naples had filled that kingdom with murmuring and diffatiefadiion. The prince of Salerno, the head of the malcontents, fled to the court of France. The French monarch, after the example of his father, applied to the grand feignior; and Solyman, at that time highly incenfed againft the houfe of Auftria on account of the proceedings in Hungary, fent a power¬ ful fleet into the Mediterranean, under the command of the corfair Dragut, an officer trained up under Barbaroffa, and fcarce inferior to his mafter in courage, talents, or in good fortune. Dragut appeared on the coaft of Calabria at the time appointed .; but not being joined by the French fleet according to con¬ cert, he returned to Conftantinople, after plundering and burning feveral places, and filling Naples with confternation. *3» Highly mortified by fo many difafters, Charles Is fuccefs- ret;red into the l0w Countries, breathing vengeance ■LowTcoun* again ft France: and here the war was carried on tries. with confiderable vigour. Impatient to efface the 38. 1. . .. S P A (lain which his military reputation had received be- Spain, fore Metz, Charles laid fiege to Terouane ; and the " “ fortifications being in difrepair, that important place was carried by affault. Hefdin alfo was in veiled, and carried in the fame manner. The king of France was too late in affembling his forces, to afford relief to either of thefe places; and the emperor afterwards cautioufly avoided an engagement. J^t The imperial arms were lefs fuccefsful in Italy. But not f« The viceroy of Naples failed in an attempt to recover'11 ot!ler Siena ; and the French not only eftabliflied themfelvesplaces' more firmly in Tufcany, but conquered part of the ifland of Corfica. Nor did the affairs of the houfe of Auftria go on better in Hungary during the courfe of this year. Ifabella and her fon appeared once more in Tranfylvania, at a time when the people were ready for revolt, in order to revenge the death of Marti- nuzzi, whofe lofs they had feverely felt. Some noble¬ men of eminence declared in favour of the young king; and the bafliaw of Belgrade, by Solyman’s order, efpoufing his caufe, in oppofition to Ferdinand, Ca- ftaldo, the Auftrian general, was obliged to abandon Tranfylvania to Ifabella and the Turks. In order to counterbalance thefe and other Ioffes, M the emperor, in 1554, concerted a marriage between between his fon Philip and Mary of England, in hopes of add- Philip of ing that kingdom to his other dominions. Meanwhile sPain and the war between Henry and Charles was carried on °j with various faccefs in the Low Countries, and in S Italy much to the difadvantage of France. The French, under the command of Strozzi, were defeated in the battle of Mercian©; Siena was reduced by Me¬ dicine, the Florentine general, after a fiege of ten months ; and the gallant Sienefe were fubjeded to the Spanifh yoke. Much about the fame time a plot was formed by the Francifcans, but happily difeovered be¬ fore it could be carried into execution, to betray Metz to the Imperialifts. The father-guardian, and twenty other monks, received fentence of death on account of this confpiracy; but the guardian, before the time appointed for his execution, was murdered by his in¬ cenfed accomplices, whom he had feduced; and fix of the youngeft were pardoned. While war thus raged in Italy and the Low Coun¬ tries, Germany enjoyed fuch profound tranquillity, as afforded the diet full leifure to confirm and perfeft the plan of religious pacification agreed upon at Paffau, and referred to the confideration of the next meeting of the Germanic body. During the negociation of this treaty, an event happened which aftoniflied all Europe, and confounded the reafonings of the wifeft politicians. The emperor Charles V. though no more Charles re- than 56, an age when obje&s of ambition operate figns his with full force on the mind, and are generally purfued with the greateft ardour, had for fome time formed phi/ip °n the refolution of refigning his hereditary dominions to to his fon Philip. He now determined to put it in execution. Various have been the opinions of hifto- rians concerning a refolution fo Angular and unexpedl- ed ; but the moll probable feem to be, the difappoint- ments which Charles had met with in his ambitious hopes, and the daily decline of his health. He had early in life been attacked with the gout; and the fits were now become fo frequent and fevere, that not only the vigour of his couftitution was broken, but the fa¬ culties SPA [ 8239 ] , SPA Spain, culties of his mind were fenfibly impaired. He there- ' forejudged it more decent to conceal his infirmities in fome folitude, than to expofe them any longer to the public eye ; and as he was unwilling to forfeit the fame, or lofe the acquifitions of his better years, by attempting to guide the reins of government when he was no longer able to hold them with fteadinefs, he prudently determined to feek in the tranquillity of re¬ tirement, that happinefs- which he had in vain pur- fued amid the tumults of war and the intrigues of ftate. In confequence of this refolution, Charles, who had already ceded to his fon Philip the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of Milan, affembled the ftates of the Low Countries at Bruffels ; and feating himfelf for the laft time in the chair of itate, he explained to his fubje&s the reafons of his refignation, and folemniy de¬ volved his authority upon Philip. He recounted with dignity, but without oilentation, all the great things which he had undertaken and performed fince the com¬ mencement of his adminillration. “ I have dedica¬ ted,” obferved he, “ from the 17th year of my age, all my thoughts and attention to public objedis, re- ferving no portion of my time forjthe indulgence of eafe, and very little for the enjoyment of private plea- fure. Either in a pacific or hollile manner, I have vifited Germany nine times, Spain fix times, France four times, Italy feven times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice, Africa as often ; and while my health permitted me todifcharge the duty ofafo- vereign, and the vigour of my conllitution was equal in any degree to the arduous office of governing fuch extenfive dominions, I never (hunned labour, nor re¬ pined under fatigue ; but how, when my healt his bro¬ ken, and my vigour exhaufted by the rage of an incu¬ rable ditlemper, my growing infirmities admoni/h me to retire ; nor am 1 fo fond of reigning, as to retain the fceptre in an impotent hand, which is no longer able to protedl my fubjedls. Inltead of a fovereign worn out with difeafes,” continued he, “ and Icarce half alive, I give you one in the prime of life,, already accuftomed to govern, and who adds to the vigour of youth all the attention and fagacity of maturer years.” Then turning towards Philip, who fell on his knees, and kifled his father’s hand, “ It is in your power,” faid Charles, “ by a wife and virtuous adminiftrationj to juftify the extraordinary proof which I give this day of my paternal affe&ion, and to demonftrate that you are worthy of the extraordinary confidence which I repofe in you. Preferve,” added he, “ an inviolable regard for religion ; maintain the catholic faith in its purity ; let the laws of your country be facred in your eyes; encroach not on the rights of your people ; and if the time ftiould ever come when you lhall wilh to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a fon to whom you can refign your feeptre with as much fatisfadion as I give up mine to you,” A few weeks after, he refigned to Philip the fovereignty of Spain and America ; referving nothing to himfelf out of all thefe vaft poffeffions but an annual penfion of 100,000 crowns. Charles was now impatient to embark for Spain, where he had fixed on a place of retreat ; but by the advice of his phyficians, he put off his voyage for fome naooths, ,oa account of the feverity of the feafon; and, by yielding to their judgment, he had the fatif- fadion, before he left the Low Countries, of taking a eonfiderable ftep towards a peace with France. This he ardently longed for; not only on his fon’s ac¬ count, whofe adrainiftration he wifiied to commence in quietnefs, but that he might have the glory, when quitting the world, of rdloring to Europe that tran¬ quillity which his ambition had baniflied out of it, ai¬ med from the time that he affumed the reins of go¬ vernment. The great bar to fuch a pacification, on the part of France, was the treaty which Plenry had concluded with the Pope;- and the emperor’s claims were too t ? numerous to hope for adjuding them fuddenly. A a truce of truce of five years was therefore propofed by Charles; five years during which term, without difeufiing their refpedive^"ch'ded pretenfions, each fhould retain what was in his pof^Wlth F^r.ee- fefiion ; and Henry, through the perfuafion of the condable Montmorency, who reprefented the impru¬ dence of facrificing the true intereds of his kingdom to the rafh engagements that he had come under with Paul, authorifed his ambafladors to fign at Vaucelles a treaty, which would infure to him, for fo confider- able a period, the important conqued which he had made on the German frontier, together with the greater part of the duke of Savoy’s dominions. The Pope, when informed of this tranfa&ion, was no lefs filled with terror and adonifhment than rage and indignation. But he took equal care to conceal his fear and his anger. He affe&ed to approve highly of the truce; and he offered his mediation, as the com¬ mon father of Chridendom, in order to bring about a definitive peace. Under this pretext, he appointed cardinal Rebibo his nuncio to the court of Bruffels, and his nephew cardinal Caraffa to that of Paris. The public indrudlions of both were the fame; but Ca¬ raffa, befides thefe, received a private' commiffion, to fpare neither intreaties, promifes, nor bribes, in or¬ der to induce the French monarch to renounce the truce and renew his ‘engagements with the holy fee. He flattered Henry with the conqued of Naples ; he gained by his addrefs the Guifes, the queen, and even the famous.Diana of Poi&iers, duchefs of Valentinois, the king’s midrefs; and they eafily fwayed the king bimfelf, who already leaned to that fide towards which they wifhed to incline him. Ail Montmoren¬ cy’s prudent remondrances were difregarded ; the nun¬ cio (by powers from- Rome) abfolved Henry from his oath of truce ; and that weak prince figned a new treaty with the Pope; which rekindled with frefh vio¬ lence the flames of war,, both in Italy and the Low Countries. No fooner was Paul made acquainted with the fuc- Quarrelbe- cefs of this negociation, than he proceeded to the mofltwixt the indecent extremities againd Philip. He ordered theP?Pear>d Spanifh ambaffador to be imprifoned ; he excommuni- ^‘nST‘>ll'^P»‘ cated the Colonnas,..becaufe of their attachment to the imperial houfe ; and he confidered Philip as guilty of high-treafon, and to have forfeited his right to the kingdom of Naples, which he was fuppofed to hold of the holy fee, for afterward affording them a retreat in h:s dominions. Alarmed at a quarrel with the pope, whom he had been taught to regard with the mod fuperdilious ve¬ neration, as the vicegerent of Chrift and the com¬ mon- I SPA [ 8240 ] SPA Spain, mon father of Chriftendom, Philip tried every gentle method before he made ufe of force. He even con* fulted fomeSpanilh divines on the lawfulnefsof taking arms againft a perfon fo facred. They decided in his favour ; and Paul continuing inexorable, the duke of Alva, to whom the negociations as well as the war had been committed, entered the ecclefialtical ftate at the head of 10,00© veterans, and carried terror to the gates of Rome. The haughty pontiff, though ftill inflexible and un¬ daunted inhimfelf, was forced to give way to the fears of the cardinals, and a truce was concluded for 40 days. Meantime the duke of Guife arriving With a fupply of 20,000 French troops, Paul became more arrogant than ever, and banifhed all thoughts from his mind but thofe of war and revenge. The duke of Guife, however, who had precipitated his country in¬ to this war, chiefly from a defire of gaining a field where he might difplay his own talenes, was able to perform nothing in Italy worthy of his former fame. He was obliged to abandon the fiege of Civetella ; he could not bring the duke of Alva to a general engage¬ ment ; his army perifhed by difeafes ; and the Pope neglefted to furnifh the neceflary reinforcements. He begged to be recalled ; and France flood in need of his abilities. Philip, though willing to have avoided a rupture, was no fooner informed that Henry had violated the truce of Vaucelles, than he determined to aft with fuch vigour, as fhould convince Europe that his fa¬ ther had not erred in refigning to him the reins of go¬ vernment. He immediately alfembled in the Low Countries a body of 50,000 men, and obtained a fup¬ ply of 10,000 from England, which he had engaged in his quarrel ; and as he was not ambitious of military fame, he gave the command of his army to Ema¬ nuel Philibert duke of Savoy, one of the greateft ge¬ nerals of that warlike age. The duke of Savoy kept the enemy for fome time in fufpence with regard to his deftination ; at laft he feemed to threaten Champagne; towards which the French drew all their troops ; then turning fuddenly to the right, he advanced by rapid marches into Pi- The French cardy> and laid fiege to St Quintin. It was deemed entirely de- in thofe times a town of confiderable ftrength ; but the letted at fortifications had been much neglefted, aud the garri- St Quintin. fon ^id not amount to a fifth part of the number re- quifite for its defence : it mud therefore have furren* dered in a few days, if the admiral de Coligny had not taken the gallant refolution of throwing himfelf into it with fuch a body of men as could be collefted on a fudden. This he effefted in fpite of the enemy, breaking through their main body. The place, how¬ ever, was clofely invefted ; and theconftable Montmo¬ rency, anxious to extricate his nephew out of that pe¬ rilous lituation, in which his zeal for the public had engaged him, as well as to fave a town of fuch im¬ portance, ralhly advanced to its relief with forces one half inferior to thofe of the enemy. Hi* army was cut in pieces, and he himfelf made prifoner. The cautious temper of Philip on this occafton faved France from devallation, if not ruin. The duke of Savoy propofed to overlook all inferior ob- jefts, and march fpeedily to Paris, which, in it* prefent confternation, he could not have failed to make himfelf mailer of; but Philip, afraid of the confequen* Spain. ;,a ces of fuch a bold enterprife, defired him to continue the fiege of St Quintin, in order to fecure a fafe re¬ treat in cafe of any difaftrous event. The town, long and gallantly defended by Coligny, was at laft taken by ftortn j but not till France was in a ftate of de¬ fence. Philip was now fenfible that he had loft an oppor¬ tunity which could never be recalled, of diftrefitng his enemy, and contented himfelf with reducing Horn and Catelet; which petty towns, together with St Quin¬ tin, were the foie fruits of one of the moft decifive viftories gained in the 16th century. The Catholic king, however, continued in high exultation on ac¬ count of his fuccefs; and as all his paffions were tinged with fuperftition, he vowed to build a church, a mo- naftery, and a palace, in honour of St Laurence, on the day facred to whofe memory the battle of St Qmn- tin had been fought. He accordingly laid the foun¬ dation of an edifice, in which all thefe were included, and which he continued to forward at vaft expence, for 2 2 years. The fame principle which diftated the vow direfted the building. It was fo formed as to refemble a gridiron—-on which culinary inftrument, according to the legendary tale, St Laurence had fuffered mar* tyrdom. Such is the origin of the famous efeurial near Madrid, the royal refidence of the kings of, Spain. The firft account of that fatal blow which France had received at St Qpintin, was carried to Rome by the courier whom Henry had fent to recal the duke of Guife. Paul remonftrated warmly againft the depar¬ ture of the French army ; but Guife’s orders were per¬ emptory. The arrogant pontiff therefore found it neceflary to accommodate his conduft to the exigency of his affairs, and to employ the mediation of the Ve¬ netians, and of Cofmo de Medici, in order to obtain peace. The firft overtures of this nature were eagerly liftened to by the Catholic king, who ftill doubted the juftice of his caufe, and confidered it as his greateft 138 misfortune to be obliged to contend with the pope. p«ce con- Paul agreed to renounce his league with France; andcludcd‘ Philip ftipulated on his part, that the duke of Alva fhould repair in perfon to Rome, and after afking par¬ don of the holy father in his own name and in that of his matter, for having invaded the patrimony of the church, fhould receive abfolution from that crime.—* Thus Paul, through the fuperftitious timidity of Phi¬ lip, only finiflied an unpropitious war not without any detriment to the apoftolic fee, but faw his conqueror humbled at his feet : and fo excefiive was the venera* tion of the Spaniards in that age for the papal cha- rafter, that the duke of Alva, the proudeft man per¬ haps of his time, and accuftomed from his infancy to converfe with princes, acknowledged, that when he approached Paul, he was fo much overawed, that his voice failed, and his prefence of mind forfook him. But though this war, which at its commencement 139 threatened mighty revolutions, was terminated with*^^^*11': out occafioning any alteration in thofe ftates which warjn were its immediate objeft, it produced effefts of con¬ fiderable confequence in other parts of Italy. In or¬ der to detach Oftavio Farnefe, duke of Parma, from the French intereft, Philip reftored to him the city of Placentia and its territory, which had been feized by Charles V. and he granted to Cofmo de Medici the SPA Spain. Jnveftitufe of Sienna, as an equivalent far the fuma due * to him. By tbefe treaties, the balance of power among the Italian ftates was poifed with more equality, and rendered lefs variable than it had been fince it received the Srft violent (hock from the invafion of Charles VIIL and Italy henceforth ceafed to be the theatre on which the monarchs of Spain, France, and Germany, con¬ tended for fame and dominion. Their hoftilities, ex¬ cited by new objedts, (lained other regions of Europe with blood, and made other dates feel, in their turn, j40 the miferies of war. The French The duke of Guife, who left Rome the fame day pinfuccefsful (hat his adverfary the duke of Alva made his humili- [ Si4t 1 SPA trigues confpired with thefe public and avowed mo- Spain. lives to batten the negociation, and the abbey of Cer- camp was 6xcd on as the place of congrefe. While Philip and Henry were making thefe advan¬ ces towards a treaty which redored tranquillity to Eu¬ rope, Charles V. whofe ambition had fo longdidurbed it, but who bad been for fome time dead to the world, ended his days in the monaftery of St Judus in Edre Dead?of madura, which he had chofen as the place of his re-Charles V. treat, as is particularly related under the article Charles V. Atur the death of Charles, the kingdom of Spain foon lod great part of its confequence. Though Countries*Wfobndfii011 to the pope, was received in France Charles had ufed all his intered to get his fon Philip ’as the p-nardian-ansrel of the kingdom. He was an- dt&ed emneror of Germany, he had been totallv dif. as the guardian-angel of the kingdom. He was ap¬ pointed lieutenant-general in chief, with a jurifdi£tion almod unlimited ; and, eager to judify the extraordi¬ nary confidence which the king had repofed in him, as well as to perform fomething fuitable to the high expedfations of his countrymen, he undertook, in win¬ ter, the fiege of Calais. Having taken that place, he next inveded Thionville in the duchy of Luxembourg, one of the dronged towns on the frontiers of the Ne¬ therlands ; and forced it to capitulate, after a fiege of three weeks. But the advantages on this quarter were more than balanced by an event which happened in another part of the Low Countries. The marefchal de Termes governor of Calais, who had penetrated in¬ to Flanders and taken Dunkirk, was totally routed near Gravelines, and taken prifoner by count Egmont. This difader obliged the duke of Guife to reiinquifh all his other fchemes, and haden towards the frontiers eh&ed emperor of Germany, he had been totally dif- appointed ; and thus the grandeur of Philip II. never equalled that of his father. His dominions were alfo confiderably abridged by his tyrannical behaviour in the Netherlands. In confequence of this, the United Revolt of Provinces revolted ; and after a long and bloody warlhe United obtained their liberty *. In this quarrel Elizabeth of * ^ee UbjW England took part againd Philip, which brought on Evinces, a war with Spain. The great Ioffes he fudained in thefe wars exhauded the kingdom both of men and money, nowithdanding the great fums imported from America. Indeed, the difcovery and conqued of that country hath much impoverifhed, indead of enriching, Spain; for thus the inhabitants have been rendered lazy and averfe from every kind of manufa&ure or traffic, which only can be a durable fource of riches T44 and drength to any nation. The ruin of the kingdom Expulfioa in this refpe6f, however, was completed by Philip III.of 'he of Picardy, that he might there oppofe the progrefs of who, at the indigation of the inquifition, and by the^10®1’'’ antl advice of his prime minider the duke of Lerma, ex-'^^ccs to pelled from the kingdom all the Morefcoes or Moors,Spain, defcendents of the ancient conquerors of Spain. Thirty vidfory always attended, and in whofe conduft as well days only were allowed them to prepare for their de- the enemy. The eyes of all France were now turned towards the duke of Guife, as the only general on whofe arms ‘dfory always attended, and in whofe conduct as well good fortune they could confide in every danger. His drength was nearly equal to the duke of Savoy’s, each commanding about 40,000 men. They encamped at the didance of a few leagues from one another; and the French and Spanilh monarchs having joined their refpeflive armies, it was expedfed that, after the vi- ciffitudes of war, a decifive battle w’ould at lad deter¬ mine which of the rivals fhould take the afcendant for the future in the affairs of Europe. But both mo¬ narchs, as if by agreement, dood on the defenfivc ; neither of them difcovering any inclination, though each had it in his power, to red the decifion of a point of fuch importance on the iffue of a (ingle battle. Peace con- During this date of iriaftion, peace began to be eluded be- mentioned in each camp, and both Henry and Philip tween Hen-^JfcoVered an equal.difpofition to liden to any overture Philip, parturc, and it was death to remain beyond that time. The reafon for this barbarous decree was, that thefe people were dill Mahometans in their hearts, though they conformed externally to the rites of Chriftianity, and thus might corrupt the true faith. The Moref¬ coes, however, chofe themfelves a king, and attempt¬ ed to oppbte the royal mandate ; but, being almoil entirely unprovided with arms, they were foon obliged to ftjbmit, and all banilhed the kingdom. By this violent and impolitic meafure, Spain lod almod a million of indudrious inhabitants 5 and as the kingdom was already depopulated by bloody wars, by repeated emigrations to America, and enervated by luxury, it now funk into a date of languor from whence it has never recovered. _ In confeqpcnce of this languor and the mal-admi-Revolt of that tended to re-edablifn it. The private inclinations niftration of the Spanifh governors, Portugal, which Portugal, of both kings concurred with their political imereds had been reduced by Philip II. revolted, and has ever5^' and the wilhes of their people. Philip languifhed to fince been an independent kingdom f. However, thet SecP«;-- retunrto Spain, the place of his nativity ; and peace memory of what Spain once was, remained for a con-u018, only could enable him, either with decency or fafety, fiderable time, and the power of that kingdom longf/ ^* to quit the Low Countries. Henry was now dtfirous continued to be feared after ithad ceafedto be powerful. In the time of queen Anne, a Britifh army was feen for the fird time in Spain,in order to fupportCharles of Au- dria againd Philip the grandfon of Louis XIV. The ill fuccefsofthat attempt is related undertheartieje Britain n° 353—359 ; and thus the crown of Spain fell to a bracch of the koufe of Bourbon, ia conftquence of 4* F which of being freed from the avocations of war, that he might have leifure to turn the whole force of his go¬ vernment towards fupprtfling the opinions of the re¬ formers, which were fpreading with fuch rapidity in Paris and the other great towns, that they began to grow formidable to the edablifhed'-church. Court-in- Vol. X. SPA [ 8241 ] SPA Spain, which the courts of France and Spain have ever fince " a&ed in concert. Their wars with Britain are related under that article, ii°398. etfeq; and thefe, with a late unfucccfsful attempt on Algiers, conftitute the moll important part of the Spanilh hiftory to the prefent i4tf Air and cli- The air of Spain, during the months of June, July, mate of and Aoguft, is exceffively hot in the day-time ; but the Spain. reft Qf year it is pleafant and temperate. Even during the above months it is very coo) in the (hade ; and fo cold in the night, that it makes a traveller Ihi- ver ; and in the day-time the violent heat continues only for about four or five hours. In the north, on the mountains, and near the fea-coaft, the air is much lefs fultry in fummer than in the fouth, efpecially in the lower parts of the country, and at a dittance from the fea. It feldom rains here, except about the equi¬ noxes : the frofta are very gentle towards the fouth but on the mountains in the north and north-eaft, the 147 air is very fharp in winter. Soil and Though there are fome fandy barren defarts in the *>r c ' fouth, and many barren mountains in the north, yet in the greater part of the country, particularly in the valleys and plains, the foil is good, producing a great variety of rich wines, oil, and fruits; fuch as oranges, lemons, prunes, citrons, almonds, raifins, dates, figs, chcfnuts, pomegranates, capers, pears, and peaches; but not a fufficiency of grain, which is chiefly owing to the negleft of tillage. Wheat and barley are the moll common grain; the former of which is faid by fome to be the bell in Europe. There is not much flax, hemp, oats, or hay, in Spain : but there is plenty of ho¬ ney, fait, fine wool, filk, and cotton ; and, in fome places, of rice and fugar-canes. Here alfo are abun¬ dance of mules, andj in fome provinces, of horfes, to¬ gether with deer, wild-fowl, and other game, cha¬ mois and other goats, but few horned cattle. Wolves are almoft the only wild beads in the country. The herb kali, which is ufed in making fait, foap, and glafs, grows in great plenty on the fea-lhore. The wild bulls, ufed in their bull fights, are bred in An- delufia. The feas about Spain are well ftored with fifli; among which is the anchovy, in the Mediterra¬ nean. We may guefsat the number of fheep here by that of the fliepherds,. which is faid to be about forty thoufand. The ftieep that bear the fine wool move regularly, every fummer, from fouth to north, along the mountains, which yield a great variety of fweet- herbs and plants,, and return again towards winter. During this progrefs,. large, quantities of fait are di- ftributed among them, and all poffible care is taken both of their health and fleeces. Mountains The chief mountains are the Pyrenees, which ftretch minerals, from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, but &c* not in a direft line, for near 200 miles : their breadth is, in fome places,, not lefs than 80. That called the Pic de Midi is of a prodigious height. Over thefe mountains there are only about five paflages out of Spain into France, and thefe alfo narrow even the valleys between the mountains are covered with thick and lofty woods. The other chains in Spain are the Sierra d’Occa, Sierra Molino,. Sierra Moreno, and Sierra Nova-la or the fnowy mountains. Near Gib¬ raltar, oppofite to Mount Abyla in Africa, (lands the •ckbrated Mount Calpe; thefe were anciently called Hercules's pillars. Tik mountains yield great quan- Spain.' titled of timber for (hipping, which are conveyed by ' '' the Ebro and other rivers to the Mediterranean. Ac¬ cording to the ancient and modern writers, they abound alfo with gold, filver, iron, lead, tin, cinnabar, quick- filver, alum, vitriol, copperas, lapis calaminaris, &c. befides gems, and mineral waters both hot and cold. The gold and filver mines are not worked at prefent, but thofe of iron are. The negledt of the former is owing partly to the indolence of the Spaniards, and partly to the gold and filver imported from America. Befides the rivers Minho, Douro, Tagus, Monda, Lima, and Guadiana, mentioned in Portugal, but which have their fources in Spain, the mod confider- able are the Ebro, Olim Iberus, Guadalavier or Tu* rio, Guadalqmver, Olim Perea Bcetis and Tarteffus, Segura, and Zucar. 149 The Spaniards are jealous Romanifts. Nowhere Re'i£,0,h is there more pomp, farce, and parade, in what re¬ gards religion ; and no where lefs true. Chriftianity. Their zeal and their fuperftition exceed that of any other Roman-Catholic country, unlefs perhaps we fhould except Portugal. Nowhere did the inquifition reign with greater terror; tht re being no fubje6l who was not liable to be profecuted by the holy office , as it is called ; however, the powers of that tribunal are now greatly diminiflied even in Spain. There are eight archbifliops in Spain, feven in America, and one in Afia, at Manilla; each of which has his fuffragan b (hops. The archbiftiop of Toledo is primate, chan¬ cellor of Caftile, and, by virtue of his office, privy- counfellor. He is faid to have a revenue of 100,0001. Sterling per annutn, or more. The king nominates all archbilhops and bifliops; and, fince 1753, all fmall benefices are alfo in his gift. He has alfo lately ob¬ tained a power to tax ecclefiaftical poffcffions, accor¬ ding to his pleafure and the exigency of affairs. Though the reft of the nation is poor, the clergy are immenfely rich, and their revenues of all kinds ama- ztngly great. Mod of the towns and eftates belong to them, and are exempt from all public burdens ; yet their avarice is infatiable, efptcially that of the Men¬ dicant friars, though they .profefs poverty. Their commerce, which is free from all duties and impofts* is alfo a rich fund to them. Though the Spaniards are naturally men of wit and an elevated genius, yet little progrefs in the fciences is to be expe&ed from them, while the clergy ufe their utmoft efforts to keep them in ignorance, branding all literary refearchea^ with the name of herefy, and inveighing againft the feats of the mufes, as the fchools of hell, where the devil teaches forcery. There are 22 univerfities, and feveral academies, in Spain ; but fo conftituted, and under fuch reftridlions, that they can never attain to any meafure of true learning. There are few print¬ ing-houfes in Spain, and mod of the books in that language are publiftied in other countries. ,i0 In regard to trade and manufadures, the Spaniards Trade and are far from making fueh a figure as might be exped-suanufac* ed. Mod of the laborious work in their hulbandry,101®5’ manufactures, and handicrafts, is performed by the French, efpecially in the two Cadiles and the midland provinces, the natives being either too lazy or too proud to (loop to fuch employments. By thefe means,- the French ufually return with large fortunes to their awe. SPA [ metl country. The chief tnanufa&ures of Spain are “ thofe of G+k, wool, iron, copper, and other hard¬ wares ; but thefe fail far fhort of the flpurifhing con¬ dition they might be brought to : hence a great part of the treafures of America go to the foreign merch¬ ants, who fupply them with goods for that part of the world. However, it is certain, that Spain, fince it hath had princes of the houfe of Bourbon upon the throne, hath improved its revenues, increafed its for¬ ces by fea and land, and applied itfelf more than it did before to manufa&ures and hufbandry ; having ftiaken off, in fome meafure, that idle indolent dilpo- fition which rendered it fo contemptible in the eyes of other nations; but it will be a long time before they will be able to fupply the wants of their own country, and thofe of America, in any great degree. Spain is extremely well fituated for trade: but moft of its produce is exported by foreigners, except what is car¬ ried to the Indies; and even with regard to that trade, they arc little better than faftors to the Englifh, French, Dutch, and Italians. Smuggling, which was formerly carried to a great height, is now in a great meafure fuppreffed. Since the year 1750, the exportation of filver hath been allowed on the payment of 3 per cent. From 1735 almoft to 1756, the flotas and galleons were difeontinued, and the trade to A- merica carried on in regilter-fhips, which any mer¬ chant might fend, on permiffion obtained from the council of the Indies : but then the flotas and galleons were reftored. The Affogue fhips are two veffels which carry quickfilver on the king’s account to Vera Cruz. There is a company which has an exclufive grant for trading to the Caraccas; and another for trading to Porto Rico, the Bay of Honduras, the province of Guatipiala and Hifpaniola ; but the Spanifh part of the laft, it is faid, hath been lately ceded to the French. One fliip, and fometimes two, fails annually from Manilla, in the ifland of Luconia, one of the Philippines, for Acapulco, in Mexico: her cargo, which belongs to the convents, confifts of the princi¬ pal commodities of that part of the world ; but the return from Acapulco is, for the moft part, made in money, and amounts to a vaft fum, as appeared from the treafure found on board the Acapulco (hip taken by Lord Anfon. In return for the manufadtures fent to America, the Spaniards receive gold, filver, co¬ chineal, indigo, the cocoa or chocolate nut, logwood and other dyeing woods, fugar, tobacco, fnuff, and other produdfions of that part of the world ; fupplying moft part of Europe and Afia with the filver they bring from thence in their galleons. In the time of the Moors and Goths, this kingdom was exceedingly populous. It is faid to have then contained between twenty and thirty millions; whereas now it does not contain above feven or eight: and this, among other eaufes, is owing to the pride and lazinefs of the inha¬ bitants, want of manufadtures and good regulations, negledl of the mines and agriculture, the expulfion of the Moors, the peopling of America, heavy taxes, the great number of convents, exceffive venery, and the confequent infecundity of both fexes. Their de¬ bauchery and fterility are partly occafioned by their way of living ; for they make great ufc of fpices, and drink a great deal of chocolate, and ftrong wine mixed with brandy. The caufes afligned for the want of 8443 ] SPA people in Spain will account, in fome meafure, for its Spain, poverty; notwithftanding it is computed that it re-'*"’ ceives one year with another, felting alide other fums, ■hove twenty-fix millions of pieces of eight, in regi- ftered gold and filver. As moft of the manufadfurea that are fent to America are furniflied by Britain, France, Italy, and Holland, fo a great part of the treafure brought home by the galleons is paid to the merchants of thofe nations. The conllitution of Spain is at prefent an abfolute hereditary monarchy, where the females inherit in de- tion and go- fault of the males. The king, in his title, enume-vernment. rates molt of the provinces and particular parts of the dominions he has been or is pofflffed of. In fpeak- ing of him, he is commonly called his Catholic Maje- fty, or the Catholic King. The hereditary prince is commonly ftyled Prince of dfturias, and the other royal children Infants. The kings of Spain are never crowned; they feem to have a power to difpofe of the crown to what branch of the royal family they pleafe. For the adminiftration of the government and ofjuftice, here are feveral councils and tribunals; as the junto or cabinet-council, the privy-council, the council of war, the council of Caftile, the council of the inquifition, the council of the Indies, the feven courts of royal audiences, &c. Since the beginning of the 17th century, and the reign of Philip III. the cortes, or parliaments of this kingdom, have been difeontinued. The higher nobility here confift of counts, marquiffes, and dukes. The grandees, who have precedence of all others, next the king and prin¬ ces of the blood, are named out of thefe. They have the privilege of being covered in the king’s prefence, who ftyles them in his letters Illufrious ; and in fpeak- ing to them or of them, their Eminences : but there are others befide the grandees who are covered in the king’s prefence ; as cardinals, nuncios, archbifhops, the grand prior of Caftile and the grand prior of Malta, the generals of the orders of St Dominic and St Francis, ambaffadors of crowned heads, the knights of the golden-fleece, and of the three military orders of St James, Calatrava, and Alcantara, when the king afiilts at their refpedtrve chapters in quality of grand- mafter. No grandee can be apprehended for any crime but by the exprefs order of the king ; and they have many other privileges befides thde. The infe¬ rior nobility ftyle themlelves Cavalleros and Hidalgos. Of the orders in Spain, that of the golden fleece is lja the principal; which was inftituted in 1430 by Philip orders of the Good duke of Burgundy, and is common now to knighthood the kings of Spain and the houfe of Auftria. The order of St Jago de Compoftella was irftituted in the year 1175 by Ferdinand II. king of Leon. The or¬ der of Calatrava was founded by Sancho HI. of Ca¬ ftile. The order of Alcantara owes its inftitution to Ferdinand II. king of Leon. The three laft orders have large commanderies or eftates annexed to them. The mailers of them were once fo powerful, that they difputed the king’s authority over them ; whereupon the king procured thofe mafterihips to be conferred on himfelf by the Pope, that they might no longer affume an independency of the date. The knights of thefe three orders are efteemed noblemen. In the laft century, the revenues of Spain amounted Rev’f^es' 1032 or 33 millions of livres; but afterwards they miie* 1 41 F 2 ' were SPA [ £244 ] SPA Span, vver€ fo fedluced, that they did not exceed feven or Spanhcim. millions. At prefent, the revenues of the crown arifing in Spain are computed at five millions Sterling per annum, befides what arifes from America. The filver mines there are inexhaultible ; and of the pro¬ duce of thefe a fifth belongs to the king. The taxes in Spain are numerous and heavy. The land-forces, in time of peace, are computed at about 80,000 ; an n° 10§—1^5* I1 ended mod ians‘ unfortunately for the Athenians; their city being taken and difmantled, as related in the article above men¬ tioned. Thus were the Spartans raifed to the highed pitch of glory ; and, in the reign of Agefilaus, they ftemed to be on the point of fubverting the Perfian empire, as related under the article Persia, n° 30. But here their good fortune and their views of em¬ pire were fuddenly checked. Agefilaus had carried on the war in Afia with the greated fuccefs ; and as he would hearken to no terms of accommodation, a Per¬ fian governor named Tithraujies, having fird attempt¬ ed in vain to bribe the king, difpatched Timocrates the Rhodian with 50 talents into Greece, in order to try whether he could there meet with any perfons lefs incorruptible than the Spartan monarch. This agent found many who inclined to accept his offers; parti¬ cularly in Thebes, Corinth, and Argos. By diftribu* ting the money In a proper manner, he Inflamed the Spart*.1 inhabitants of thefe three cities againft the Spartans; — and of all others the Thebans came into his terms with a general the greased readinefs. They faw that their antago- combina- nids would not of their own accord break with anytl0u a2aind of the dates of Greece, and did not choofe to begin Sparta‘ the war themfelves, becaufe the chiefs of the Perfian faction were unwilling to be accountable for the event. For this reafon they perfuaded the Locrians to invade a fmall didridl which lay in difpute betwixt the Pho- cians and themfelves. On this the Phocians invaded Locris ; the Locrians applied to the Thebans, and the Phocians to the Spartans. The latter were glad of an opportunity of breaking with the Thebans ; but met with a much warmer reception than they expeift- ■* ed. Their old general Lyfander, who had reduced Athens, was defeated and killed, with the lofa of 1000 men : on which difader Agefilaus was recalled, and obliged to relinquidi all hopes of conquering the Per- fians. His return changed the fortune of the war fo much, that all the datesbegan to grow weary of a conteft from which nobody derived any advantage except the king of Perfia. In a (hort time a treaty was cooclu- I0 ded, known in hidory by the name of the peace o/Peaceof Antaleidas. The terms of this treaty were highly dif- Antaleidas. advantageous and diflionourable to the Greeks f ; forjl 8ee JOiT~. even the Spartans, though fuccefsful in Greece, had^3’ n S3’ lod a great battle at fea with the Perfian fleet under Conon the Athenian, which entirely broke their power in Afia. By the peace of Antaleidas, the government of Bce- otia was taken from the Thebans, which they had for a long time enjoyed ; and by this they were fo much provoked, that at fird they abfolutely refufed to ac¬ cede to the treaty; but as Agefilaus made great pre¬ parations to invade them, they thought proper at lad to comply. However, it was not long before a new H0Qj*;*jes war commenced, which threatened the total fubverfion rec0mm£j>. of the Spartan (late. As, by the peace of Antaleidas, ced. the king of Perfia had in a manner guaranteed the fo- vereignty of Greece to Sparta, this republic very foon began to exercife its power to^he utmod extent. The Mantineans were the fird who felt the weight of their refentment, although they had been their allies and confederates. In order to have a pretence for making war againd them, they commanded them to quit their city, and to retire into five old villages which, they faid, had ferved their forefathers, and where they would live in peace themfelves, and give no umbrage to their neighbours. This being refufed, an army was feat againd them to befiege their city. The fiege was con¬ tinued through the fummer with very little fuccefs on the part of the Spartans; but having during the win¬ ter feafon dammed up the river on which the city dood, the water rofe to fuch an height, as either to overflow or throw down the houfes ; which compelled the Mantineans to fubmit to the terms preferibed to them, and to retire into the old villages. The Spartan vengeance fell next on the Phliafians and Olynthians, whom they forced to come into fuch meafures as they thought proper. After this they fell on the Thebans; and, by attempting to feize on the Piraeum, drew the Athenians alfo into the quarrel. But here their car¬ reer was flopped : the Thebans had been taught the art of war by Chabrias the Athenian; fo that even Age- The power Ipf Sparta entirely fcroken. SPA [ 8247 ] SPA ’Sparta. Agefilaus himfelf took the command of the Spartan The inftitutions of Lycurgus were divided into 12 Sparta. " -- army in vain. At fea they were defeated by Timo- twelve tables.—The firtt comprehended fuch of the ' ~ “ theus the fon of Conon ; and by land the battle of Spartan laws as regarded religion. The ftatues of all His laws Leuftra put an end to the foperiority which Sparta had the gods and goddefles were reprefented in armour, con«rning. held over Greece for near 500 years. See Leucera. even to Venus herfelf; the reafon of which was, thatrel‘2ion• After this dreadful defeat, the Spartans had occafion the people might conceive a military life the moft noble to exert all their courage and refolution. The women, and honourable, and not attribute, as other nations and neareft relations of thofe who were killed in battle, did, flotb and luxury to the gods. As to facrifices, inltead of fpending their time in lamentations, fhook each they confided of things of very fmall value; for which other by the hand, while the relations of thofe who had Lycurgus himfelf gave this reafon, Tliat want might cfcapedfrom the battle hid themfelvesamongthe women; never hinder them from worfliipping the gods. They or if they were obliged to go abroad, they appeared were forbidden to make long or ra(h prayers to the in tattered cloaths, with their arms folded, and their heavenly powers, and were enjoined to afle no more eyes fixed on the ground. It was a law among the than that they might live honeltly and difeharge their Spartans, that fuch as fled from battle (hould be de- duty. Graves were permitted to be made within the graded from their honours, Ihould be conftrained to bounds of the city, contrary to the cuftom qf moft of appear in garments patched with divers colours, to the Greek nations; nay, they buried clofe by their wear their beards half-fhaved, and to fuffer any to beat temples, that all degrees of people might be made fa- them who pleafed, without refiftance. At prefent, miliar with death, and not conceive it fuch a dreadful however, this law was difpenfed with ; and Agefilaus thing as it was generally efteemed elfewhere : on the by his prudent cqnduft kept up the fpirits of the fame account the touching of dead bodies, or affixing people, at the fame time that by his Ikill in military at funerals, made none unclean, but were held to be affairs he checked the progrefs of the enemy. Yet, as innocent and honourable duties as any other. There during the lifetime of Epaminondas the Theban ge- was nothing thrown into the grave with the dead body; neral, the war went on greatly to the difadvantage of magnificent fepulchres were forbidden ; neither was the Spartans ; but he being killed at the battle of there fo much as an infeription, however plain or mo- Mantinaea, all parties became quickly defirous of peace, deft, permitted. Tears, fighs, outcries, were not al- Agefilaus did not long furvive; and with him, we may lowed in public, becaufe they were thought dilhonour- fay, perifhed the glory of Sparta. Soon after this all able in Spartans, whom their lawgiver would have to the ftates of Greece fell under the power of Alexander bear all things with equanimity. Mournings were the Great; and the Spartans, as well as the reft, ha- ftinted to 11 days; on the 12th the mourner facrificed ving become corrupt, and loft their martial fpirit, be- to Ceres, and threw afide his or her weeds. In favour came a prey to domeftic tyrants, and to foreign in- of fuch as were flain in the wars, however, and of wo- vaders. They maintained their ground, however, men who devoted themfelves to a religious life, there with great refolution againft the celebrated Pyrrhus was an exception allowed as to the rules before- king of Epirus ; whom they repulfed for three days mentioned ; for fuch had a Ihort and decent infeription fucceffively, though not without afiiftance from one of on their tombs. When a number of Spartans fell in the captains of Antigonus. Soon after this one of the battle, at a diftance from their country, many of them kings of Sparta named j4gis, perceiving the univerfal were buried together under one common tomb ; but degeneracy that had taken place, made an attempt to if they fell on the frontiers of their own (late, then reftore the laws and difeipline of Lycurgus, by which their bodies were carefully carried back to Sparta, he fuppofed the ftatc would be reftored to its former and interred in their family-fepuichres. .gis and g'ory* But though at firft he met with fome appear- II. Lycurgus divided all the country of Laconia Concerning • leomenes ance of fuccefs, he was in a fliort time tried and con- into 30,000 equal fhares: the city of Sparta he divi- (h; divifion* tempt in demned by the ephori as a traitor to his country.— ded into 9,000, as fome fay ; into 6000, as others fay;of *ao<1’ orek ^ Cleomenes, however, who afeended the throne in 2 16 and, as a third party will have it, 10104500. The B. C. accompliftied the reformation which Agis-had intent of the legiflator was, that property fliould be attempted in vain. He fupprefled the ephori ; can- equally divided amongft his citizens, fo that none celled all debts ; divided the lands equally, as they might be powerful enough to opprefs his fellows, or had been in the time of Lycurgus; and put an end to- any be in fuch neceflity, as to be therefrom in danger the luxury which prevailed among the citizens. But of corruption. With the fame view he forbad the at lad he was overborne by the number of enemies buying or felling thefe poffefiions. If a ftranger ac- which furrounded him ; and being defeated in battle quired a right to any of thefe fliares, he might quietly by Antigonus, he fled to Egypt, where he put an end enjoy it, provided he fubmitted to the laws of the re- to his own life. With him periftied every hope of re- public. The city of Sparta was unwalled ; Lycurgus trieving the affairs of Sparta: the city for the pre- trufting it rather to the virtue of its citizens than ^to fent fell into the hands of Antigonus ; after which a the art of mafons. As to the houfes, they were very fucceflion of tyrants took place; till at laft all dif- plain; for their cielings could only be wrought by the turbances were ended by the Romans, who reduced ax, and their gates and doors only by the faw; and Macedon and Greece to provinces of their empire, their utenfils were to be of a like (lamp, that luxury as has been related under thefe articles. might have no inftruments among them, iftiuitior.s It remains now only to fay fomething concerning III. The citizens were to be neither more nor lefs Of the ciii* . fLycur- the charafter, manners, and cuftoms of the Spartans, than the number of city-lots 5 and if at any time there zens> rhil- which, as they were founded on the laws of Lycur- happened to be more, they were to be led out in co- VI. As the poor eat as well as the rich, fo the rich Of their could wear nothing better than the poor: they nei-^’et’ ther changed their falhion nor the materials of their.11’2, &c* garments ; they were made for warmth and drength, not for gallantry and (how: and to this cudom even their kings conformed, who wore nothing gaudy in right of their dignity, but were contented that their virtue (hould dittinguilh them rather than robes. The young lads wore a tunic till they were twelve years old; afterwards they had a cloke given them, which was to ferve them a year: and their clothing was, in genera], fo thin, that ft Lacedaemonian ved became proverbial. Boys were always ufed to go without (hoes; but when they grew up, they were indulged to them, if the manner of life they led required it; but they were always inured to run without them, as alfo to climb up and flip down deep places with bare feet: nay, the very (hoe they ufed was of a particular form, plain and drong, and from the place of its in¬ vention, Laconic. Boys were not permitted to wear -their hair; but when they grew up, they did not cut - it. Baths and anointing were not much in ufe among the Lacedaemonians; the river Euroras fupplied the former, and txercife the latter. In the field, however, their fumptuary laws did not take place fo, driflly as in the city; for when they went to war,, they wore purple . habits; Sparta. Obedience to their fu periors. SPA [ B240 ] SPA habits; they put on crowns when they were about to ' engage the enemy ; they had alfo rings, but they were of iron; which metal was mail efteemed by this na¬ tion. Young women wore their vefts or jerkins only to their knees, or, as fome think, not quite fo low; a cuftom which both Greek and Roman authors cen- fure as indecent. Gold, precious (tones, and other coftly ornaments, were permitted only to common wo¬ men ; which permiffion was the (trongeft prohibition to women of virtue, or who affedted to be thought virtuous. Virgins went abroad without veils, with which married women, on the contrary, were always covered. In certain public exercifes, in which girls were admitted as well as boys, they were both obliged to perform naked. Plutarch apologizes for this cu¬ ftom, urging, that there could be no danger from na- kednefs to the morals of youth whofe minds were for¬ tified by and habituated to virtue. One of Lycur- gus’s principal views in his inilitutions, was to eradi¬ cate the very feeds of civil difienfions in his republic. Hence proceeded the equal divifions of eftates enjoined by him ; hence the contempt of wealth, and the ne- gleft of other diftinftions, as particularly birth, he confidering the people of his whole date as one great family; diftinftions which, in other commonwealths, frequently produce tumults and confufions that (hake their very foundation. VII. Though the Spartans were always free, yet it was with this reftri6tion, that they were fubfervient to their own laws, which,bound them as ftriftly in the city as foldiers, in other dates, were bound by the rules of war in the camp. In the firft place, drift obedience to their fuperiors was the great thing re¬ quired in Sparta. This they looked upon as the very bafis of government; without which neither laws nor magiftrates availed much. Old age was an indubitable title to honour in Sparta : to the old men the youth rofe up whenever they came into any public place; they gave way to them when they met them in the ftreets, and were •filent whenever their elders fpoke. As all children were looked upon as the children of the date, fo all the old men had the authority of pa¬ rents : they reprehended whatever they faw amifs, not only in their own, but in other peoples children ; and by this method Lycurgus provided, that as youth are every where apt to offend, they might be, nowhere without a monitor. The laws went dill further : if an old man was prefent where a young one committed a fault, and did not reprove him, he was punifived equally with the delinquent. Amongft the youths there was one of their own body, or at mod two years older than the red, who was dyled iren : he had au¬ thority to quedion all their aftions, to look driftly to their behaviour, and to puniih them if they did amtfs,; ‘neither were their punifhments light, but, on the ^contrary, very fevere; whereby the youth were made hardy, and accudomed to bear dripes and rough ufage. Silence was a thing highly commended at Sparta, where modedy was held to be a mod beco¬ ming virtue in young people ; nor was it redrained only to their words and aftions, but to their very looks and gedures ; Lycurgus having particularly direfted, that they fhould look forward, or on the ground, and that they (hould always ke'ep theirbands within their robes. A dupid inconfiderate perfon, one who would Vq,l. X. not liden to indruftion, but was carelefs of whatever , Spart*. the world might fay of him, the Lacedsemonians treated as a fcandal to human nature ; with fuch an one they would not converfe, but threw him off as a rotten branch and worthlefs member of fociety. ax VIII. The plainnefs of their manners, and theirLcarninS* being fo very much addifted to war, made the Lace- dasmonians lefs fond of the fciences than the red of the Greeks. A foldier was the only reputable profeffion in Sparta ; a mechanic or hufbandman was thought a low fellow. The reafon of this 'was, that they ima¬ gined profefiions which required much labour, fome condant podure, being continually in the houfe, or always about a fire, weakened the body and depreffed the mind: whereas a man brought up hardily, was equally fit to attend the fervice of the republic in time of peace, and to fight its battles when engaged in war. Such occupations as were neceffary to be followed for the benefit of the whole, as hufbandry, agriculture, and the like, were left to their (laves the Helotes ; but for curious arts, and fuch as ferved only to luxury, they would not fo much as fuffer them to be introduced in their city ; in confequence of which* rhetoricians, augurs, bankers, and dealers in money, were (hut out. The Spartans admitted no.t any of the theatrical diverfions among them ; they would not bear the reprefentation of evil even to produce good ; but other kinds of poetry were admitted, provided the magiftrates had the perufal of .pieces before they were handed to the public. Above all things, they affefted brevity of fpeech, and accuftomed their children, from their very infancy, never to exprefs themfelves in more words than were ftriftly neceffary ; whence a concife and fententious oratory is to this day (tyled Laconic. In writing they ufed the fame concifenefs ; of which we have a fignal inftance in a letter of Archidamus to theEIeans, when he underftood that they had fome thoughts of affifting the Arcadians. It ran thus : “ Arcbidamus to the Eleans-: It is good to be quiet.” And therefore Epaminondas thought that he had reafon to glory in having forced the Spartans to abandon their monofyl- lables and to lengthen their difeourfes. The greateft part of their education confided in giving their youth right ideas of men and things : the iren or mafter propofed queftions, and either com¬ mended the anfwers that were made him, or reproved fuch as anfwered weakly. In thefe queftions, all matters, either of a trivial or abftrufe nature, were equally avoided; and they were confined to fuch points as were of the higheft importance in civil life ; fuch as, Who was the bed man in the city ? Wherein lay the merit of 'fuch an aftion ? and, Whether this or that hero?s fame was well founded ? Harmlefs raillery was greatly encouraged j and this, joined to their Ihort manner of fpeaking, rendered laconic re¬ plies univerfally admired. Mufic was much encouraged ; but in this, as in other things, they adhered to that which had been in favour with their anceftors; nay, they were fo drift therein, that they would not permit their (laves to learn either the tune or the words of their mod admi¬ red odes; or, which is all one, they would not per¬ mit them to fing them if they had learned them. Tho* the youth of the male fex were much cheridied and be- 41 G loved* SPA [ 8250 ] SPA Sparta, loved, as thofe that were to buildup and continue the future glory of the ftate, yet in Sparta it was a vir¬ tuous and modeft affe&ion, untinged with that fenfua- lity which was fo fcandalous at Athens. The good effe&s of this part of Lycurgus’s inftitutions were feen in the union that reigned among his citizens ; and which was fo extraordinary, that even in cafes of com¬ petition, it was hardly known that rivals bore ill-will to each other; but, on the contrary, their love to the fame perfon begat a fecondary friendfhip among them- felves, and united them in all things which might be for the benefit of the perfpn beloved. Some authors have accufed this great lawgiver of encouraging theft in his inftitutions; which, they fay, was not held fcandalous among the Spartans, if it were fo dexteroufly managed as that the perfon was not dete&ed in it. But this is certain, and feems to be a ftrong contradiftion of the heinous charge, that when a theft was difcovered, it was punifhed with the utmoft feverity : a perfon even fufpe&ed of it would endure the heavieft punifhmcnts rather than acknow- ledge it, and be branded with fo bafe a crime. Sxerciies. IX. The exercifes inftituted by law fall under the ninth table. In thefe all the Greeks were extremely careful ; but the Lacedaemonians in a degree beyond the reft : for if a youth, by bis corpulence, or any other means, became unfit for thefe exercifes, he un¬ derwent public contempt at leaft, if not banifliment. Hunting was the ufual diverfionof their children ; nay, it was made a part of their education, becaufe it had a tendency to ftrengthen their limbs, and to render thofe who pra&ifed it fupple and fleet : they likewife bred up dogs for hunting with great care. They had a kind of public dances, in which they exceedingly delighted, and which were common alike to virgins and young men: indeed, in all their {ports, girls were allowed to divert themfelves with the youths ; in- fomuch that, at darting, throwing the quoit, pitch¬ ing the bar, and fuch-like robuft diverfions, the wo¬ men were as dexterous as the men. For the manifeft oddity of this proceeding, Lycurgus affigned no other reafon, than that he fought to render women, as well as men, ftrong and healthy, that the children they brought forth might be fo too. Violent exercifes, and a laborious kind of life, were only enjoined the youth; for when they were grown up to mens eftate, that is, were upwards of 30 years old, they were exempted from all kinds of labour, and employed themfelves wholly either in affairs of ftate or in war. They had a method of whipping, at a certain time, young lads in the temple of Diana, and about her altar ; which, however palliated, was certainly unnatural and cruel. It was efteemed a great honour for lads to fuftain thefe flagellations without weeping, groaning, or fhowing any fenfe of pain ; and the thirft of glory was fo llrong in thefe young minds, that they very frequently fuffered death without (bedding a tear or breathing a figh. A defire of overcoming all the weaknefles of human nature, and thereby rendering his Spartans not only fuperior to their neighbours, but to their fpe- cies, runs through many of the inftitutions of Lycur- gus; which principle, if well attended to, thoroughly explains them, and without attending to which it is a3 iropoffible to give any account of them at all. asfoneyj&c, X. Gold and. filver were,, by the conftitutions of Lycurgus, made of no value in Sparta. He was fo Sparta, well apprifed of the danger of riches, that he made the very pofieffion of them venal ; but as there was no living without fome fort of money, that is, fome common meafure or ftandard of the worth of things, he dire&ed an iron coinage, whereby the Spartans were fupplied with the ufeful money, and at the fame time had no temptation to covetoufnefs afforded them ; for a very fmall fum was fuffieient to load a couple of horfes, and a great one muft have been kept in a barn or warehoufe. The coming in of all foreign money was alfo prohibited, that corruption might not enter under the name of commerce. The molt ancient me¬ thod of dealing, viz. by barter, or exchange of one commodity for another, was preferred by law in Sparta long after it had been out of date every where elfe. Intereft was a thing forbid in the Spartan com¬ monwealth; where they had alfo a law againft aliena¬ tion of lands, accepting prefents from foreigners, even without the limits of their own country, and when their authority and character might well feem to ex- cufe them. XL Such of the laws of Sparta as related to courts of Courts oi juftice may be brought under the 1 ith table. Thirty jnftice. years muft have pafled over the head of him who bad a right to concern himfelf in juridical proceedings. Young men were thought unfit for them ; and it was even held indecent, and of ill report, for a man to have any fondnefs for law-fuits, or to be bufying him¬ felf at the tribunals, when he had no affairs there of his own. By thefe rules Lycurgus thought to fhut out litigioufnefs, and to prevent that multiplicity of fuits which is always fcandalous in a ftate. As young, people were not permitted to inquire about the laws of other countries, and as they were hindered from hearing judicial proceedings in their courts, fo they were likewife forbidden to afk any queftions about, or to endeavour to difeover, the reafons of the laws by which themfelves were governed. Obedience was their duty ; and to that alone they would have them kept. Men of abandoned chara&ers, or who were notorjouffy of ill fame, loft all right of giving their votes in refpeft of public affairs, or of fpeaking in public affemblies ; for they would not believe that an ill man in private life could mean his country better than he did his neighbour. XII. Till a man was 30 years old, he was not ca-Military pable of ferving in the army, as the heft authors agree jfsrvice. though fome think that the military age is not well afeertained by ancient writers. They were forbidden to march at any time before the full-moon; the rea¬ fon of which law is very hard to be difcovered, if in¬ deed it had any reafon at all, or was not rather founded on fome fuperftitious opinion, that this was a more lucky conjun&ure than any other. They were like¬ wife forbidden to fight often againft the fame enemy ; which was one of the wifeft maxims in the political fyftem of Lycurgus : and Agefilaus, by offending againft it, deftroyed the power of his country, and loft her that authority which for many ages (he maintain^ ed over the reft of Greece ; for, by continually war- ring againft the Thebans, to whom he had an inve¬ terate hatred, he at laft beat them into the knowledge of the art of war, and enabled them, under the com- maud of LpaminoQdas;, to maintain for a time the SPA [ 8*51 1 SPA \ Sparta, principality of Greece. Maritime affairs they were r^' "J ■' forbidden to meddle with; though the necefficy of things compelled them, in procefs of time, to tranfgrefs this inftitution, and by degrees to transfer to them* felves as well the dominion at fea as land : but, after .the Peloponnefian war they again negle&ed naval af¬ fairs, from a perfuafion that failors and ftrangers cor¬ rupted thofe with whom they converfed. As they never fortified Sparta, they were not ready to under¬ take fieges : fighting in the field was their proper pro- Ivinoe, and, while they could overcome their enemies there, they rightly conceived, that nothing could hurt them at home. In time of war, they relaxed fome- what of their ftrift manner of living, in which they were fingular. The true reafon for this was, in all probability, that war might be lefs burdenfome to 1 them ; for, as we have more than once obferved, a ftrong defire to render them bold and warlike was the reigning pafiion of their legiflator. They were forbidden to remain long encamped in the fame place, as well to hinder their being furprifed, as that they might be more troublefome to their enemies, by wafting every corner of their country. They flept all night in their armour; but their outguards were not allowed their Ihields, that, being unprovided of de¬ fence, they might not dare to lleep. In all expeditions they were careful in the performance of religious rites ; and, after their evening-meal was over, the foldiers fung together hymns to their gods. When they were about to engage, the king facrificed to the mufes, that, by their affiftance, they might be enabled to perform deeds worthy of being recorded to lateft times. Then the army advanced in order to the found of flutes, which played the hymn of Caftor. The king himfelf fung the paean, which was the fignal to charge. This was done with all the folemnity imaginable ; and the foldiers were fure either to die or conquer: indeed they had noother choice; for if they fled they were infamous, and in danger of being flain, even by their own mo¬ thers, for difgracing their families. In this confifted all the excellency of the Spartan women, who, if pof- fible, exceeded in bravery the men, never lamenting over hufbands or fons, if they died honourably in the field ; but deploring the (hame brought on their houfe, if either the one or the oiher efcaped by flight. The throwing away a fhield alfo induced infamy ; and, with refpeft to this, mothers, when they embraced their departing fons, were wont to'caution them, that they Ihould either return armed as they were, or be brought back fo when they were dead ; for, as we have obferved, fuch as were flain in battle were never- tbelefs buried in their own country. When they made their enemies fly, they purfued no longer than till viftory was certain ; becaufe they would feem to fight rather for the honour of conquering, than of putting their enemies to death. According to their ancient rules of war, they were bound not to fpoil the dead bodies of their enemies; but in procefs of time, this, and indeed many other of their moft excellent regula¬ tions, fell into defuetucle. He who overcame by ftra- tagem, offered up an ox to Mars ; whereas he who conquered by force, offered up only a cock ; the for¬ mer being efteemed more manly than the latter. Af¬ ter 40 years fervice, a man was, by law, no longer required to go into the field ; and confcquently if the military age wa« 30, the Spartans were not held in- Spartianus valids till they were 70. II SPARTIANUS (iEKus), a Latin hiftorian, who_fE^L. wrote the lives of Adrian, Caracalla, and four other Roman emperors. He lived under the reign of Dio- clefian, about the year 290. SPARTIUM, broom ; a genus of the decandria order, belonging to the' diadelphia clafs of plants. There are 10 fpecies, all of them of flirubby growth. Of thefe one is the common broom, which grows na¬ turally in this country ; the reft are exotics, chiefly from Spain, Portugal, Italy, and other fouthern parts of Europe, and the Levant. Three of thefe, viz. the fcoparium, Or common broom; the junCeum, or yel¬ low Spanifh broom; and the radiatum, or ftarry Italian broom, are hardy : but all the reft require the fhelter of a green-houfe in fevere winters—They are all pro¬ pagated by feeds.—The young flowers of the common broom are fometirnes preferved as pickles ; and the plant when burnt affords a tolerably pure alkaline fait. Dr Mead relates, that a dropfical patient, who had taken the ufual remedies, and been tapped three times without effedl, was cured by taking half a pint of the deco&ion of green broom tops, with a fpoonful of whole muftard-feed every morning and evening. “ An infufion of the feeds drank freely (fays Mr Wither¬ ing) has been known to produce fimilar happy effeQs; but whoever expe&s thefe effedls to follow in every dropfical cafe, will be greatly deceived. I knew them fucceed in one cafe that was truly deplorable ; but out of a great number of cafes in which the medicine had a fair trial, this proved a Angle inflance. The branches or ftalks of common broom being dried in the fun, and treated like hemp, produce threads which may be fpun, and worked into a coarfe linen-cloth. The wood of a Weft Indian fpecies of broom, called by Millar the fpartium arborefcens, and frequently known by the name of American ebony, is of a fine greenifti brown colour, hard, durable, and takes an exceeding fine polifti. SPARUS, the gilthead ; a genus of fifties be¬ longing to the order of thoracic!. The fore-teeth and dog-teeth are very ftrong ; the grinders are obtufe and thick fet ; the lips are folded over ; there are five rays in the gill membrane; and the opercula are fcaly: the body is compreffed; the lateral line is crooked be¬ hind ; and the pe&oral fins are roundirti. There are 26 fpecies, three of which are natives of the Britifh feas. The lunulated gilthead grows to the weight of ten pounds, and takes its name from the predominant colour; that of the fore-head and Tides being as if gilt; but the latter are tinged with brown. It is one of the pifces faxatiles, or fifli that haunts deep waters on bold rocky (bores. They feed chiefly on (hell-fifti, which they comminute with their teeth, before they fwallow ; the teeth of this genus in parti¬ cular being adapted for that purpofe : the grinder* are flat and ftrong, like thofe of certain quadrupeds ; befides which, there are certain bones in the lower part of the mouth that afllft in grinding their food. They are but a coarfe fifti : they were known to the Ro- mans, who did not efteem them unlefs they were fed with Lucrine oyfters, as Martial informs us, Non omnU laudem preliumque A u R A T A mefetur Scd cut folui-erit concha Lacrina cibits. Lib. xiii. Ep. r>d. In the account of captain Cook’s voyage publiihed 41 G 2 by Spafm II Specifics. S P E [ 8254 ] S P E by Mr Forfter, we are informed, that the giltheads are fometimes poifonous, owing to their feeding on certain fpecies of the raja, which have an extremely acrid and ftimulating property. SPASM, aconvulfion. See Medicine, n° 135,191. SPATHA, in botany, a (heath ; a fpecies of ca- lix which burfts lengthwife, and protrudes a ftallc fupporting one or more flowers, which commonly have no perianthium or flower-cup. SPATHACEiE, (from fpatha, a “ (heath”), the name of the ninth order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, confifting of plants whofe flowers are protruded from a fpatha or (heath. See Botany, p. 1306. SPAWN, in natural hiftory, the eggs of fi(hes or frogs. See Fish, and Rana. SPAVIN, in the manege, a difeafe in horfes, being a fwelling or ftiffhefs, ufualiy in the ham, occafioning alamenefs. See Farriery, § xxvii. and xxxii. 2, 3. SPAYING, or Spading, the operation of caftra- ting the females of feveral kinds of animals, as fows, bitches, &c. to prevent any further conception, and promote their fattening. It is performed by cutting them in the mid flank, on the left fide, with a (harp knife or lancet, taking out the uterus and cutting it off, and fo ditching up the wound, anointing the part with tar, and keeping the animal warm for two or three days. The ufual way is to make the incifion aflope, two inches and a4half long; that the fore-finger may be put in towards the back, to feel for the ovaries, which are two kernels as big as acorns on both Tides of the uterus, one of which is drawn to the wound, and thus both taken out. SPEAKER of the Houfe of Commonr,, a member of the houfe elefled by a majority of votes thereof to aft as chairman or prefident in putting queftions, reading briefs, or bills, keeping order, reprimanding the re- fraftory, adjourning the houfe, &c. See Parlia¬ ment. SPEAKING, the art or aft of expreffing one’s jthoughts in articulate founds or words. See Gram¬ mar, Language, Reading, n° vi. vii. and Oratory, part iv. Speaking-See Acoustics, n° 26. SPECIAL, fomething. that is particular, or has a particular defignation from the Latin fpeciest in op- pofition to the general, from genus* SPECIES; in logic, a relative term exprefiing an idea, which iscomprifed under fome general one called genus. See Logic,.n° 18. &c. Species,* in commerce, are the feveral pieces of gold, filver, copper, &c. which having paffed their full preparation and coinage, are current in public. See Money. SPECIFIC, in philofophy^ that which is peculiar to any thing, and diftinguifhes it from all others. Specifics, in medicine. By fpecifics is not meant fuch as infallibly and in all patients produce falutary effefts. Such medicines are not to be expefted, be- caufe the operations and effefts of remedies are not formally inherent in them, but depend upon the mu¬ tual aftion and reaftion of the body and medicine upon each other; hence the various effefts of the fame medicine in the fame kind of diforders in different patienta, and in the £amc patient at different times. By fpecific medicines we underftand fuch medicines as are more infallible than any other in any particular diforder. SPECTACLES, in dioptrics, a machine confiding of two lenfes fet in filver, horn, &c. to affift the defefts of the organ of fight. Old people, and others who have flat eyes, ufe convex fpeftacles, which caufe the rays of light converge fo as to fall upon the retina ; whereas myopes, or (hort-fighted people, ufe concave lenfes for fpeftacles, which caufes the rays to diverge, and prevent their meeting ere they reach the retina. See Optics, n° 66.. SPECULARIS lapis, in natural hiftory, a genus of talcs, compofed of large plates vifibly feparatc, and of extreme thinnefs; and each fiflile again fepa- rated into a number of plates (till finer. See Talc. Of this genus there are three fpecies: 1. The white (hining fpecularis, with large and broad leaves, com¬ monly called iftnglafs and jfufcovy-glafs: its lamellae, or leaves, are extremely thin, elaftic, and tranfparant it makes not the lead effervefcence with aqua-fortis, and is not eafily calcined in the fire. It is imported in great quantities ; the miniature-painters cover their piftures with it ; the lantern-makers fometimes ufe it inftead of horn ; and minute objefts are ufualiy pre- ferved between two plates of it, for examination by the microfcope. 2. The bright brown fpecularis, with broad leaves ; ,a very valuable fpecies, though in¬ ferior to the former. 3. The purple.bright fpecularis, with braod leaves; which is the moft elegant of all the talcs, and not lefs beautifully tranfparent than the firfl kind. SPECULATIVE, fomething relating to the the¬ ory of fome artor fcience, in contradiffinftion to prac¬ tical; SPECULUM, a looking-glass, or Mirrourt capable of reflefting the rays of the fun, &c. See Optics, n° 160, 161. p. 5575. 5576.- Speculum, in furgery, an inftrument for dilating a wound, or the like, in order to examine it attentively. See Surgery. Speculums, for reflefting telefcopes. See Optics, p. 5603, 5619. SPEECH, in genera], the art or aft of exprefiing a perfon’s thoughts by means of articulate founds, which we call words. See Language, Grammar, Reading, n° vi. vii. and Oratory, part iv. SPEED (John), an eminent Englifh hiftorian, was born at Farington, in Cheffiire, in 1552. He was by profeflion a taylor, and free of the company of merchant-taylors in the city of London. In 1606, he publilhed his Theatre of Great Britain, which was afterwards reprinted in folio, under the title of the Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine. His Ge¬ nealogies of Scripture were firft bound up with the Bible in 1611, which was the firft edition of the pre- fent tranflation. In 1614, appeared his Hiftory of Great Britaine, which has been tranflated into Latinj and in 1616 he publilhed his Cloud of Witnejfes, in oftavo. He lived in marriage 57 years with his wife, by whom he had twelve fons and fix daughters; and died in 1629. He was interred in the church of St Giles’s, Cripplegate, London, where a monument was erefted to his memory. SPEEDWELL, in botany. See Veronica. SPELL, SpcfhclMiL II I Speed wellap S P E [ 8253 ] S P E ipell SPELL, in general, denotes the fame with Charm II or Amulet. ^ ■spelman.^ SPELLING, in grammar, that part of orthogra- ghy which teaches the true manner of refolving words into their fyllables. All words are either Ample or compound, as ufe, difufe; done, undone; and the rules for dividing each, mult be fuch as are derived from the analogy of lan¬ guage in general, or from the eftablilhed caftom of fpeaking; which, for the Englilh language, are re¬ duced to the following rules : 1. A confonant between two vowels mult be joined with the latter in fpelling, as na ture, ve-ri-ly, ge-ne-r'ous: except, however, the letter x, which is joined to the firft, as in flax-en, ox¬ en, &c. and compound words, as in up-on, un-ufed, &c. 2. A double confonant mull be divided, as in let-ter, man ner. See. 3. Thofe confonants which can begin a word, mult not be parted in fpelling, as in de¬ fraud, re-prove, di-flinft: however, this rule is found fometimes to fail ; for though gn begins a word, as gnaw gnat, &c. yet it mult be divided in fpelling, as in cog-ni-zance, ma-lig-ni-ty, &c. 4. Thofe confo* rants which cannot begin a word mult be divided, as Id in fed-dom. It in niul-ti tude, mp in tem-per, rd in ar-dent; but in final fyllables there are exceptions, as tl in ti-tle, dlia ban-die. See. 5. When two vowels come together, and are both of them diftin&ly founded, they mull be fepavated in fpelling, as in co-e-val, mu- tu-al, See. 6. The grammatical terminations or end¬ ings, mult be Separated in fpelling, as in ed in wing¬ ed, edji in de-li-ver-edjl, ing in hear-ing, ance m de-li¬ ver-ance, Sec. 7. Compound words mull be refolved into their fimple or component words, as up-on, in-to, never-the-lefs, not-with-Jland-ing, Sec. SPELMAN, (Sir Henry) an eminant Engltlh an¬ tiquarian, was defeended from an ancient family, and born at Cengham, near Lynn in Norfolk, about the year 1561. He was knighted by king James I. who bad a particular efteem for him on account of his known capacity for bufinefs; and he employed him feveral times in~ Ireland on public affairs. When he was about 50 years of age, he went to refide in London ; where falling into a ftudy to which his own genius had always inclined him, he colledted all fuch books and Mfs. as concerned the fubjedt af antiquities, either foreign or domeftic. In 1626, he publilhed the firft part of his well-known Gloffary, which he never car¬ ried beyond the letter L ; becaufe, as fome have fug- gefted, he had faid things under “ Magna charta,” and “ Maximum confilium,” that could not then have appeared without giving offence. Upon his death all his papers came into the hands of his fon Sir John Spelman, a gentleman who had abilities to have com¬ pleted his father’s defign, if death had not prevented him. The fecond part was afterwards publilhed by Sir William Dugdale ; but with all the marks of a feanty unfinilhed performance. The next work he entered upon, was an edition of the Englilh Council^, of which he publilhed the firft volume about two years before his death ; leaving the fecond volume, as well of this as of his Gloffary, to be publtfiied by Sir William Dugdale. Sir Henry wrote feveral other things, all relating to ancient laws and cultoms; and died in 1641. His Pofthumous Works were publilh- gd in folio, 1698, under the infpeftion of Mr Qibfon, afterwards bilhop of London. Spelter, SPELTER, in metallurgy, tbe fame with Zinc. Spenfcr. SPENSER (Edmund), was born in London, in the year 1553, and defeended from an ancient family of the Spenfers in Northamptonlhire. All we know concerning his education is, that he was admitted a fizer of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and matricula¬ ted in 1569. At this time began his intimacy with Mr Gabriel Harvey, a man of genius and a poet. In 1576, having completed his degrees in arts, he left the univerfity, as it is conjectured, for want of fub- fiftence, and retired to the north of England. Here he had the misfortune to become enamoured of his Rofalind, who, after flattering his pafiion for a time, at length preferred his happier rival. Spenfer con¬ tinued in the country till the year 1578, when, at the perfuafion of his friend Mr Harvey, he remo¬ ved to London, where that gentleman introduced him to Mr Sidney, (afterward Sir Philip). Concern¬ ing his firft introduftion to Sir Philip, there is indeed a different ftory, which was firft told by the writer of his life, prefixed to his works in 1679, and tranferibed by Hughes, Cibber, and feveral others; which, ne- verthelefs, is certainly not true. The purport of it is, that Spenfer, being unknown to this Meccenas of the age, went to Leicefter houfe, and fent in the 9th canto of the firft book of the Fairy Queen ; that, on reading part of it, Sir Philip ordered his fteward to give the bearer 501.; on reading a little farther, 50I. more ; then 2001. bidding him to make hafte and pay the money, left he Ihould give the poet his whole eftate. The ftory tells prettily enough ; but it is very certain, that the Fairy Queen was begun long after his ac¬ quaintance with Sir Philip. By this univerfal patron of genius, however, he was prefented to queen Eliza¬ beth, who honoured him with the place of poet-laureat. About this time he iinilhed his Shepherd’s Calendar, which was firft printed in 1579 5 and in the following; year, being recommended by his patron to the earl of Leicefter, he went to Ireland as fecretary to the lord Grey of Wilton, then appointed lord lieutenant of that kingdom. Lord Grey was recalled in 1582, and with him Spenfer returned to London, where he con¬ tinued till after the death of Sir Philip Sidney in 1586 ; a lofs which he bewailed to the end of his life. The following year, our poet, having obtained a royal grant of 3000 acres of forfeited lands in tbe. county of Cork in Ireland, fet out for that kingdom, took pof- fefiion of his eftate, and fixed his refidence in the callle- of Kilcolman, which had belonged to the earl of Def- mond. In this retirement he refumed his great work of the Fairy Queen, and continued in Ireland till, be-- ing vifited by his old friend Sir Walter Raleigh in 1589, he came over with him to England; but re¬ turned to Ireland the year following, where he fell in love with a country-girl, and married her. Soon after his marriage, he paid another vifit to his native coun¬ try, where we alfo find him in 1596. In the follow¬ ing year he returned once more to Kilcolman ; but on the rebellion of Lord Tyrone, who ravaged the whole, county of Cork, he was obliged to fly for fafety with his family to England, where, in the year 1599, he died in extreme poverty. He was buried in Weitmin- fter Abbey, according to his requdl, near Chaucer. A monument was ereded to his memory by Ann coun- tefa S P E [ 8*54 ] S P H Spenfer tefs of Dorfet. We know but little of his charafter wafted or dilfipated in the procefs. The oil is not Spermatic | tl as a man ; as a poet, confidering the age in which he a brown or black fetid empyrcumatic one, like thofe II Spermaceti. ]jvetji he deferves our utmoft veneration. He wrote of other animal fubftances, but clear, yellowifh, of a sPhaStnim»: various pieces befides thofe above-mentioned. His butyraceous confidence, in fmell like oil of wax, like whole works, with his life by Hughes, were publifhed which alfo it coagulates in the cold. Re&ified fpirit in fix volumes i 2mo, in 1715 and 1750. of wine, digefted and boiled with fpermaceti, takes Spenser (Dr John), a very ingenious and learned up about half a dram out of half an ounce: greateft; Englifh divine, born in Kent in 1630; who became part fettles to the bottom, and the finer particles float mafter of Corpus Chrifti College, Cambridge, and af- in the liquor, in appearance like flowers of benzoine. terwards dean of Ely. He publifhed a Difcourfe on Water long digelled or boiled with it extrafts no- Prodigies, which is a truly pbilofophical and learned thing. By grinding it with fugar or almonds, it be- work; and another famous work De legibus Hebraorum comes mifcibie with water, but not near fo perfe&ly ritualibus, et eorum rationibus: and after a life fpent as the vegetable refins do by the fame treatment: on in the clofeft application to his ftudies, died in 1695. (landing for a little time, the fpermaceti feparates and SPERGULA, spurrey ; a genus of the pentagy- floats on the furface. Yolks of eggs unite it more nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants, thoroughly with watery liquors ; but when difiblved There are five fpecies ; of which the moft remarkable by thefe alfo, it foon feparates and falls to the bottom, is the arvenfia, or corn-fpurrey, which grows in this Even cauftic alkaline ley does not diflblve nor unite country in gravelly foil and corn-fields. In Holland with it into foap, as it does with all other fats ; and it is cultivated as food for cattle, and has the advan- hence the ufe of this ley in its preparation and purifi- tage of growing on the very pooreft foils; but does cation. It mingles fufficienriy with oils, fats, bal- not afford a great deal of food. Poultry are fond of fams, refins, butter, wax, &c. the feeds ; and the inhabitants of Finland and Norway SPERMATIC, in anatomy, fomething belonging make bread of them when their crops of corn fail, to the fperm or feed. Horfes, (keep, goats, and fwine, eat it. Cows re- SPEY, a river of Scotland, rifing from a lake of fufe it. the fame name in Badenoch, and, after a ferpentine SPERM, the feed whereof an animal is formed, courfe of 76 miles, paffes by Rothes cattle, and falls See Semen. into the German fea at Garnoch near Elgin. Mr SPERMACETI, a white flaky fubftance, prepared Pennant tells us, that the Spey is a dangerous neigh- from the brain of a fpecies of whale called phyfetermi- hour to Cattle Gordon, overflowing frequently in a crops. See Physeter. dreadful manner, as appears by its ravages far beyond One of thefe tithes affords fome tuns of brains; its banks. The bed of the river is wide and full of which are firft grofsly freed from the oil by draining gravel, and the channel very thifting. In 1746 the and preffing, and afterwards more perfectly purified duke of Cumberland paffed this river at Belly church, by tteeping them in a ley of alkaline fait and quick- near Cattle Gordon, when the channel was fo deep as lime, which diffolves the remains of the oily matter to take an officer, from whom Mr Pennant had the into a faponac*eous liquid. The brains being then account, and who was fix feet four inches high, up to waflied with water, appear of a filver whitenefs; and the breaft. The banks are here very high and tteep ; nothing more is required to complete the preparation fo that had not the,rebels been infatuated in fuch a than to cut them in fliivers with wooden knives, and manner as to negledl :oppofition, the paffage muft fpreading them abroad to dry. Such is the fimple have been attended with confiderable lofs. On this procefs by which this profitable commodity is prepa- river there is a great falmon-fifiiery ; about 1700 bar¬ red. It has been faid that fpermaceti is a natural con- rels full are caught in the feafon, and the fhore is Crete, found floating on the furface of the northern rented for about izoo\. per annum. feas ; but this is plainly a falfe report, perhaps calcu- SPHACELUS, in forgery and medicine, an ab¬ lated to prevent inquiry into the manner of its prepa- folute and perfeft corruption or death of the parts, ration. Good fpermaceti is in fine white flakes, gloffy SPHAGNUM, Bog-moss ; a genus of the order and femitranfparent, foft and unftuous to the touch, of mufci belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants, yet dry and eafily friable ; in tafte fomewhat like but- There are three fpecies ; the moft remarkable of which ter; of a faint fmell like that of tallow. It is apt, in is the paluftra, or comftion bog-mofs, which grows on keeping, if not carefully fecured from the air, to grow our bogs in wide patches, fo that it frequently covers yellowifh, and contraft a rancid fifhy fmell. The a large portion of their furface. The (talks are from more perfeflly it has been purified at firft, the lefs fuf- two inches to two feet long, irregularly furrounded ceptible it is of thefe alterations; and after it has been with numerous, conical, pendant branches, and ter- changed, it may be rendered white and fweet again, by minated with a rofaceous clufter of ereft fhort ones, fteeping it afrefh in a ley of alkaline fait and quick-lime. It is generally believed, that the roots and decayed It melts in a fmall degree of heat, and congeals again ftalks of this mofs conftiujte a principal part of that as it cools. Laid on burning coals, it emits a fetid ufeful bituminous fubftance called peat, which is the fmell like that of the fnuff of a candle. The contaft chief fuel of the northern regions.—The Lapland ma- of flame does not fet it on fire, but with a wick it Irons are well acquainted with this mofa. They dry burns equally with common tallow-candles. In diftil- and lay it in their cradle, to fupply the place of bed, lation it totally arifes, leaying no coal or caput ?nor- bolder, and every covering ; and, being changed night tuusn behind. From four ounces were obtained three and morning, it keeps the infant remarkably clean, ounces and a half of oil, and a dram and a half of dry, and warm. It is fufficiently foft of itfelf; but phlegm ; the other two drams and a half having been the tender mother, not fatisfied with this, frequently S P I [ 8255 ] S P I Splienoides covers the mofs with the downy hairs of the rein- II deer; and by that means makes a moft delicate neft "pi *' for the young babe.- Os SPHENOIDES, the feventh bone of the cra¬ nium or fkull. See Anatomy, n° 15. SPHERE, is a folid contained under one uniform round furface, fuch as would be formed by the revo- rution of a circle about one of its own diameters as an laxis. See Geometry. Projefrwn of the Sphere. See Projection. Sphere, in agronomy, that concave orb or ex- panfe which invefts our globe, and in which the hea¬ venly bodies appear to be fixed, and at an equal di- ftance from the eye. The better to determine the places of the heavenly bodies in the fphere, feveral circles are fuppofed to be deferibed on the furface thereof, hence called the circles of the fphere : of thefe fotne are called great circles', as the equinoctial, ecliptic, meridian, &c. and others fvtall circles, as the tropics, parallels, See, See Geo¬ graphy and Astronomy, Armillary Sphere. See Geography, feft. ii. Sphere of Attivity of a Body, is that determinate fpace or extent to which, and no farther, the effluvia continually emitted from that body reach ; and where they operate according to their nature. SPHERES, in optics, the fame with metalline mirrors for telefcopes or other purpofes. See Op¬ tics, p. 5613, 5619. SPHEROID, in geometry, a folid approaching to the figure of a fphere. It is generated by the entire revolution of a femi-ellipfis about its axis. SPHINCTER, in anatomy, a term applied to a kind of circular mufcles, or mufcles in form of rings, which ferve to clofe and draw up feveral orifices of the body, and prevent the excretion of the contents. SPHINX, in fculpture, &c. A figure or reprefen- tation of a monfter of that name, famed among the ancients, now moftly ufed as an ornament in gardens, terraces, &c. It is reprefented with the head and breafts of a woman, the wings of a bird, the claws of a lion, and the reft of the body like a dog. It is fup¬ pofed to have been engendered by Typhon, and fent by Juno to be revenged on the Thebans. Its office, they fay, was to propofe dark enigmatical queftions to all pafiers-by; and if they did not give the explication* thereof, to devour them. It made horrible ravages, as the ftory goes, on a mountain near Thebes; and could not by any means be deftroyed, till after Oedi¬ pus had folved the following riddle, “ What animal is it that in the morning walks on four legs, at noon on two, and at night on three ?” The anfwer was “ Man.” Among the Egyptians, the fphinx was the fymbol of religion, by reafon of the obfeurity of its myfteries: and on the fame account the Romans placed a fphinx in the porch of their temples. SPICE,, any kind of aromatic drug that has hot and pungent qualities : fuch are pepper, nutmeg, gin¬ ger, cinnamon, cloves, &c. Svict-Iflands,. in the Eaft Indies. See Banda, Molucca Ijlands, and Ceylon. SPIDER, in zoology. See Arane-a. SPIDERWO-Rf, in botany. See Phalangium. SPIRE, or Oil o/'Spike, a name given to an effen- tial oil diftilled from lavender, and much ufed by the Spikenard varniffi-makers and the painters in enamel. II SPIKENARD, in botany. See Nardus. sPlnef- SPINA VENTOSA, in furgery, that fpecies of cor¬ ruption of the bones which takes its rife in the inter¬ nal parts, and by degrees enlarges the bone, andraifes it into a tumour. See Surgery. SPINACHIA, spinach ; a genus of the pentan- dria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants.. There are two fpecies. The common fpecies intended for winter ufe (hould be fown on an open fpot of ground in the latter end of July ; obferving to do it if poffible when the weather is rainy. When the young plants are come up, the weeds muft be deftroyed, and the plants left at about five inches afunder. The ground being kept clear of weeds, the fpinach will be fit for ufe in Oftober. The way of gathering it to advantage is only to take off the longeft leaves, leaving thofe in the centre to grow bigger; and at this rate a bed of fpi¬ nach will furnilh the table for a whole winter, till the fpinach fown in fpring is become fit for ufe, which is common in April. SPINAGE, or Spinach. See Spinachia. SPINiE, in botany, thorns, rigid prickles: a fpe¬ cies of arma, growing on various parts of certain plants for their defence ; fpinee ramorum arcent pecora. On the branches we find examples in the pyrus, pru- nus, citrus, hippophaes, gmelina, rhamnus, lycium, &c.; on the leaves in the aloe, agave, yucca, ilex, hippomane, theophrafta, carlina, &c.; on the calyx, in the carduus, cnicus, centauria, moluccella, galeop- fis, &c.; on the fruit, in the trapa, tribulus, murex, fpinacia, agremonia, datura, &c. SPINAI* marrow. See Anatomy, n°5. 396— 399- SPINALIS, in anatomy, the name of feveral mul- cles, &c. of the fpine. SPINE, Spina Dorsi. See Anatomy, n° 29. Spine, in botany. See Spinae. SPINELLO, a Tufcan painter, of great repute in his time. He painted a pidfure of the fallen angels, in which he drew fo horrid a pidfure of Lucifer, that it frightened him fo much as to affedl his'fenfes ever after. He ftouriihed about the year 1380. SPINET, or Spin net, a mufical inftrument rank¬ ed in the fecond or third place among harmonious in- ftruments. It confifts of a cheft or belly made of the. moft porous and refinous wood to be found, and a table of fir glued on flips of wood called yawwenv which bear on the fides. On the table is raifed two little prominences or bridges, wherein are placed fo many pins as there are chords or ftrings to the inftru¬ ment. It is played on by two ranges of continued keys, the former range being the order of the diatonic fcale, and that behind the order of the artificial notes or femi-tones. The keys are fo many flat pieces of wood, which, touched and preffed down at the end, make the other raife a jack which ftrike and found the ftrings by means of the end of a crow’s quill, where¬ with it is armed. The 30 firft ftrings are of brafs, the other more delicate ones of fteel or iron-wire ; they are all ftretched over the two bridges already mention¬ ed. The figure of the fpinet is a long fquare or pa¬ rallelogram ; fome call it an harp-couched, and the harp an inverted fpinet. See the article Harp. 1 This Spinning Spinozifm. s p i r S256 ] s p 1 This inffirument is generally tuned by the ear, which method of the pra&ical muficians is founded on a fup- Lpofition that the ear is a perfeA judge of an odfave and a fifth. The general rule is to begin at a certain note, as C, taken towards the middle of the inftru- ment, and tuning all the oftaves up and down, and alfo the fifths, reckoning feven femi-tones to each fifth, by which means the whole is tuned. Sometimes to the common or fundamental play of the fpinet is added another fimilar one in unifon, and a third in oftave to the firft, to make the harmony the fuller ; they are either played feparately or together by means of a (top; thefe are called double or triple fpinets }■ fome- times a play of violins is added, by means of a bow, or a few wheels parallel to the keys, which prefs the firings and make the found laft as long as the mufician pleafes, and heighten and foften them more or lefs, as they are more or lefs prefled. The barpfichord is a kind of fpinet, only with another difpofition of the keys. See the article Harpsichord. The inftru- ment takes its name from the fmall quill ends which touch the firings, refembling^>/«^, or thorns. SPINNING, in commerce, the aft or art of redu¬ cing filk, flax, hemp, wool, hair, or other matters, in¬ to thread. Spinning is either performed on the wheel with a diftaff and fpindle, or with other machines pro¬ per for the feveral kinds of working. Hemp, flax, nettle-thread, and the like vegetable matters, are to be wetted in fpinning.; filks, wools, &c. are to be fpun dry, and do not need water ; but there is a way of fpinning filk as it comes off the cafes or balls, where hot and even boiling water is to be ufed. See the ar¬ ticles Silk, Thread, &c. SPINOSUS caulis, in botany; a ftem covered with ffrong woody prickles, whofe roots are not fuperficial, but proceeding from the body of the ftem. When applied to a leaf, fpinofum folium, it indicates the mar¬ gin running out into rigid points or prickles, quod mar- gine exit in acumina duriora, rigida, pungentia. SPINOUS, in botany. Sec Spinosus. Spinous Fifloes, fuch as have fome of the rays of the back-fins running out into thorns or prickles, as the perch, &c. SPINOZA (Benedift de), the fon of a Portuguefe Jew fettled at Amfterdam, where he was born in 1633. He commenced philofopher early in life ; publicly embraced Chriftianity, for which the Jews attempted to affaflinate him ; and in the end made a great noife in the world by his atheiftical principles and writings. He was probably the firft who reduced Atheifm to a fyftem ; but in other refpefts his doftrine was the fame with that of feveral philofophers both ancient and modern. He retired into the country that he might not be interrupted in his fpeculations, and was fome- times three months without going out of his lodgings. This retired life did not hinder his name from fpread- ing. The free-thinkers came to him from all parts. The palatine count offered him the place of profeffor of philofophy at Heidelberg; but he refufed jt. He died at the Hague in' 1677, aged about 44 years. He is faid to have been honeft, obliging, and very regu¬ lar in his morals ; which we need not be more fur- prifed at than to fee people live an irregular life tho’ fully perfuaded of the truths of the Gofpel. SPINOZ1SM, or Spinosism, the doftrine of Spi¬ noza, or Atheifm and Pantheifm propofed after the Spiras manner of Spinoza. See Spinoza. H , The great principle of Spinozifm is, That there is Spirc* nothing properly and abfolutely exifting befides mat¬ ter and the modifications of matter ; among which are even comprehended thought, abftraft and general ideas, comparifons, relations, combinations of rela¬ tions, &c. The chief articles in Spinoza’s fyftem are reducible to thefe. That there is but one fubftance in nature, and that this only fubftance is endued with an infinite number of attributes, among which are extenfion and cogitation : that all the bodies in the univerfe are mo¬ difications of this fubftance confidered as it is extend¬ ed ; and that all the fouls of men are modifications of the fame fubftance confidered as cogitative : that God is a neceffary and infinitely perfedt being, and is the caufe of all things that exift, but not a different being from them : that there is but one being and one na¬ ture, and that this nature produces within itfelf, by an immanent aft, all thofe which we call creatures; and that this being is at the fame time both agent and patient, efficient caufe and fubjeft; but that he pro¬ duces nothing but modifications of himfelf. SPIRAEA, in botany, a genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants There are 12 fpecies; of which the moft remarkable are, 1. The falicifolia, or common fpirsea frutex, rifes with feveral fhrubby ftalks, to the height of fix or eight feet. The branches are terminated by fpikes of pale- red flowers, the lower parts of the fpikes are branched out into fmall fpikes, but the upper parts are clofe and obtufe. When the flowers are paft, the germen changes to pointed capfulee ; but they fddom come to perfeftion. 2. The filipendula, or common drop- wort, grows in mountainous paftures in feveral parts of England and Scotland. It rifes about a foot and an half high, with an ereft ftalk, and but few leaves upon it; terminated with a loofe umbel of white flowers often tinged with red. 3. The ulmaria, or meadow fweet; grows naturally on thefidesof waters, and in low moift meadows, in moft. of the northern counties of Europe. The ftalks are angular, red, and rife three or four feet high; garniihed with winged leaves, and terminated by large Toofe bunches of white flowers.—The firft fpecies is propagated by fuckers, which are fent forth in plenty from the roots of the old ftems, or by laying down the tender branches. The fecond and third fpecies are not cultivated. However, the tuberous pea-likfe roots of the fe¬ cond, dried and reduced to powder, make a kind of bread which in times of fcarcity is not to be defpifed. Hogs are very fond of thefe roots. Cows, goats, (heep, and fwine, eat the plant; but horfes refufe it. The flowers of the ulmaria have a fragrant feent, which rifes in diftillation. The whole plant indeed is ex¬ tremely fragrant, fo that the common people of Swe¬ den drew their floors with it on holidays. It has alfo an aftringent quality, and thus has been found ufeful in dyfenteries, ruptures, and in tanning of leather. Goats are extremely fond of it ; cows and horfes re¬ fufe it. SPIRAL, in geometry, a curve line of the circu¬ lar kind, which in its progrefs recedes from its centre. SPIRE, in architefture) was ufed by the ancients for S P L [ 8257 ] S P O k Spirit for the bafe of a column, and fometimes for the aftra- II gal or tore ; but among the moderns it denotes a fteeple that continually diminifties as it afcends, whe¬ ther conically or pyramidally. SPIRIT, in metaphyfics, an incorporeal being or intelligence ; in which fenfe God is faid to be a fpirit, as are angels and the human foul. See Metaphysics, n° 5, 106, 109. Spirit, in chemiftry and pharmacy, a name applied to every volatile liquid which is not infipid like phlegm or water ; and hence the diftindtion into acid, alkaline, and vinous fpirits. See [Index to) Pharmacy. Sv\vl\t of Wine. See Distillation j and Phar¬ macy, n° 446, 682. SPIRITS, or Animal Spirits; in phyfiology. See Anatomy, n° 400. Spirits. See Pharmacy, p. 6078. Alkaline Spirits, folutions of volatile alkaline fait in water, fometimes with a portion of cmpyreumatic oil ; in which cafe they receive different appellations, as fpirit of hartjhorn, of urine, &c. If the volatile al¬ kali contained in thefe folutions be united with a con- fiderable quantity of fixed air, the fpirit effervefces with an acid, and is called a mild fpirit; but if the al¬ kali is deprived of its fixed air, the fpirit is faid to be caujlic, and raifes no tffervefcence. The mild fpirits, though to the fmell they appear much weaker than the caullic, are in reality ftronger, as containing a larger proportion of alkali than the latter commonly do. However, there is no alkaline fpirit perfedtly mild, or it would be entirely neutralifed by the fixed air, fo that no alkaline fmell or tafte could be perceived. AH mild fpirits therefore are partly cauftic, to which they owe that ddgree of fmell and pungent tafte which they retain. However, being already partly neutralized, they are much lefs apt to imbibe fixed air than fuch as have none at all; the folution of the neutral fait com- pofed of volatile alkali and fixed air alfo is much more apt to retain the alkaline air or cauftic fait than pure water; and hence the mild alkaline fpirits preferve a much more equable degree of ftrength than the cauftic ones, which partly by the attradtion of fixed air, and partly by evaporation, unlefs very firmly fecured, very foon become fenfibly weaker both in tafte and fmell than when originally made. SPIRITUAL, in general, fomething belonging to or partaking of the nature of fpirit. See Spirit. SPIRITUALITIES of a Bishop, are the profits he receives as a biftiop, and not as a baron of parlia¬ ment; fuch are the duties of his vifitation, prefentation- money, what arifes from the inftitution and ordination of priefts, the income of his jurifdiftion, &c. SPITHEAD, a road between Portfmouth and the Ifle of Wight, where the royal navy of Great Britain frequently rendezvous. SPITTLE, in phyfiology. See Saliva. SPITZBERGEN. See Groenland. SPLEEN, in anatomy. See there, n° 360. Spleen-/Tor/. See Asplenium. SPLENETIC, a perfon affli&ed with an obftruc- tion of the fpleen. SPLENT, or Splint, among farriers, a callous infenfible excrefcence, breeding on the fhank-bone of horfes. See Farriery, $ xxix. SPLICING, in the fta-language, is the untwifting Vol. X. the ends of two cables or ropes, and working the fe- [Spoils veral ftrands into one another by a fidd, fo that they d become as ftrong as if they were but one rope. spon' SPOILS, whatever is taken from the enemy in time of war. Among the ancient Greeks, the fpoils were divided among the whole army ; only the gene¬ ral’s (hare was largett : but, among the Romans, the fpoils belonged to the republic. SPOLETO, a duchy of Italy, bounded on the north by the Marche of Ancona and duchy of Ur- bino, on the eaft by Farther Abruzzo, on the fouth by Sabina and the patrimony of St Peter, and on the weft by Orvietano and Perrugino. It is about 55 miles in length and 40 in breadth. It was anciently a part of Umbria, and now belongs to the Pope The name of the capital city is alfo Spoleto. It was formerly a large place, but in 1703 was ruined by an earthquake; from whence it has never recovered itfelf. SPOLIATION, in ecclefiaftical law, is an injury done by one clerk or incumbent to another, in taking the fruits of his benefice without any right thereunto, but under a pretended title. It is remedied by a de¬ cree to account for the profits fo taken. This injury, when theya/ patronatus, or right of advowfon, doth not come in debate, is cognizable in the fpiritual court: as if a patron firft prefents A to a benefice, who is inftituted and indufted thereto ; and then, upon pre¬ tence of a vacancy, the fame patron prefents B to the fame living, and he alfo obtains inftitution and induc¬ tion. Now if A difputes the faft of the vacancy, then that clerk who is kept out of the profits of the living, whichever it be, may fue the other in the fpi¬ ritual court for fpoliation, or taking the profits of his benefice. And it ftiall there be tried, whether the living were or were not vacant; upon which the vali¬ dity of the fecond clerk’s pretenfions muft depend. But if the right of patronage comes at ail into difpute, as if one patron prefented A, and another patron pre- fented B, there the ecclefiaftical court hath no cogni¬ zance, provided the tithes fued for amount to a fourth part of the value of the living, but may be prohibited at the inftance of the patron by the king’s writ of in- dicavit. So alfo if a clerk, without any colour of title, ejefts another from his parfonage, this injury muft be redrefled in the temporal courts; for it de¬ pends upon no queftion determinable by the fpiritual law, (as plurality of benefices or no plurality, vacancy or no vacancy), but is merely a civil injury. SPON (James), was the fon of Charles Spon, aa eminent French phyfician, and born at Lyons in 1647. After an education of great care, he was admitted a do&or of phyfic at Montpelier in 1667, and a mem¬ ber of the college of phyficians at Lyons in 1669. Mr Vaiiant, the king’s antiquary, paffing through Lyons to Italy in queft of medals and other antiquities, Mr Spon accompanied him. He afterward, in the years 1675 and 1676, made a voyage to Dalmatia, Greece, and the Levant, in company with Sir George Wheeler an Englifh gentleman : but whether his conftitutioa was naturally weak, orhe had hurt himfelfin this tour, does not appear, but he never after enjoyed his health. Being of the reformed religion, he was forced to leave France on the revocation of the ediift of Nantz ; and died at Vevay, a town on the lake Leman, in 1686. He was the author of many valuable works which 41 H were S P O [ Spondanus were printed at Lyons; the principal of which are, ,,11 i. His travels into Italy, Dalmatia, Greece, and the ^poun' Levant. 2. An anfwer to M. Guillet’s Criticifms on his Travels.. 3. Curious antiquities, in quarto. 4. A hiftory of Geneva ; all the above are in French. 5. Mifcellanea erudit# antiquatis, folio, &c. SPONDANUS (Henricus), or Henry de Sponde, was born in 1568, and educated at Ortez, where the reformed had a college, and where he diftinguiflied 8258 ] S P R SPOONING, in the fea-languagf, is faid of a fliip, which being under fail in a ftorm at fea, is un¬ able to bear it, and confequently forced to go right before the wind. SPORADES, among ancient aftronomers, a name given to fuch ftars as were not included in any con- itellation. SPORADIC diseases, among phyficians, are fuch as feize particular perfons at any time or feafon. bimfelf early by his facility in acquiring the Latin and and in any place ; in which fenfe they are diftinguifhed Greek languages. He applied hirafelf to the.ftudy of from epidemical and endemical difeafes. the civii and canon law ; and in the mean time read the controverfial works of Bellarmine and Perron with fuch eagernefs, that, after the example of his brother John, he forfook the Proteftant religion. He made his abjuration at Paris in 1595, tookpriefts orders at Rome in 1606, and was made bifhop of Pamiers by Lewis XIII. in 1626. His intimacy with Baronius while he was in Italy, fuggefted to him the defign of abridging his Annales ecclefiajlici ; which he executed SPOTS, in aftronomy, certain places of the fun’s or moon’s difli, obferved to be either more bright or dark than the reft ; and accordingly called pecuU or macula. See Astronomy, n° 33—39. SPOTSWOOD (John), archbifhop of St An¬ drew’s in Scotland, was defeended from the lairds, of Spotfwood in the Merfe, and was born in the year 1565. He was educated in the univerfity of Glafgow, andiucceeded his father intheparfonage ofCalder when with the author’s confent, and continued them from but 18 years of age. In 1601 he attended Lodowick the year 1197, where Baronius left off, to the year duke of Lenox as his chaplain, in an embaffy to the 1640- He publifhed alfo, in folio, Annales facri a court of France for confirming the ancient amity be- mundi creatione ad ejufdem redetnptionem; with fome tween the two nations, and returned in the ambaffa- fmaller works; and died in 1643. dor’s retinue through England. When he entered SPONDEE, in ancient poetry, a foot confiding of into the archbilhopric of Glafgow, he found there was two long fyllables, as omnes. not too 1. Sterling of yearly revenue left; yet fuch SPONDIAS, the Jamaica Plum ; a genus of the was bis care for his fucceffors, that he greatly impro- pentagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of ved it, and much to the fatisfa&ion of his dioctfe. plants. There are two fpecies : 1. The purpurea, or After having filled this fee eleven years, he was railed purple myrabolin plum, is a native of the Weft In¬ dies, where it rifes to the height of 12 or 14 feet, but in this country is feldom found more than half that height. The flowers terminate the branches in : to that of St Andrew’s in 1615, and made primate and metropolitan of all Scotland. He prefided in fe- veral affemblies forreftoring the ancient difeipline, and bringing the church of Scotland to fome fort of u cemus, and are of a whitifh yellow colour. Some of formity with that of England. He continued in high them are fucceeded by oblong flefliy berries of a pale yellow colour, covered with a mealy farina ; the flefh of which is thin, but of a fweet lufeious tafte. The inclofed nut appears as if compofed of many ligneous fibres. 2. The lutea, with neat leaves and yellow fruit, is a native of the warmed parts in America, where it rifes to the height of 30 feet, fending out many irregular branches, which are deftitute of leaves for fome months. The flowers come out before the efteem with king James I. nor was he lefs valued by king Charles I. who was crowned by him in 1633, in the abbey-church of Holyroodhoufe. In 1635, upon the death of the earl of Kinnoul chancellor of Scotland, our abbot was advanced to that poll; but had fcarcely held it four years, when the confufions beginning in Scotland, he was obliged to retire into England; and being broken with age, grief, and ficknefs, died at London in 1639, and was interred leaves appear, and are fucceeded by yellow plums in Weftminfter-abbey. He wrote a hiftory of the an inch and an half long. Both thefe fpecies are pro¬ pagated by fruit or by cuttings. The fruit is much efteemed, but the plums yield little meat; however, the wild hogs are very fond of them, and they are their principal food during the feafon of their ripen¬ ing. SPONGIA, Spunge ; a genus belonging to thi church of Scotland, from the year 203 to the reign of king James VI. in folio. SPOUT, or Water-SvovT. See Water-»S/> prey, he has power of ere&ing them by the help of a fet of mijfcles that join them to the jaw. The mouth is placed far beneath ; for which reafon thefe, as well as thei reft of the kind, are faid to be obliged to turn on their backs to feize their prey; which is an obfervation as ancient as the days of Pliny. The eyes are large; the back broad, flat, and fhorter than that of other fharks. The tail is of a femilunar form, but the upper part is longer than the lower. It has vaft ftrength in the tail, and can ftrike with great force; fo that the failors inftantly cut it off with an axe as foon as they draw one on board. The pe&oral fins are very large, which enables it to fwim with great fwiftnefs. The colour of the whole body and fins is a light afh. The ancients were acquainted with this fifh ; and Oppian gives a long and entertaining account of its capture. Their flefh is fometimes eaten, but is efteemed coarfe and rank.—They are the dread of the failors in all hot climates, where they conftantly attend the fhips in expedation of what may drop over¬ board : a man that has that misfortune perifhes with¬ out redemption ; they have been feen. to dart at him like gudgeons to a worm. A mafter of a Guinea fhip informed Mr Pennant, that a rage of fuicide prevailed among his new-bought Haves, from a notion the un¬ happy creatures had, that after death they Ihould be reftored again to their families, friends, and country. To convince them at leaft that they fhould not reani¬ mate their bodies, he ordered one of their corpfes to be tied by the heels to a rope and lowered into the fea ; and though it was drawn up again as faft as the united force of the crew could be exerted, yet in that fhort fpace the fharks had devoured every part but the feet, which were fecured at the end of the cord. Swimmers very often perifh by them; fometimes SqUafu?. they lofe an arm or leg, and fometimes are bit quite" afunder, ferving but for two morfels for this ravenous animal : a melancholy tale of this kind is related in a Weft-India ballad, preferved in Dr Percy’s Relics of ancient Englifh Poetry. 5. The glaucus, or blue fhark, is of an oblong form : the nofe extends far beyond the mouth : it wants the orifices behind the eyes, which are ufual in this genus: the noftrils are long, and placed tranf- verfely. Artedi remarks a triangular dent in the lower part of the back. The fkin is fmoother than that of other fharks: the back is of a fine blue colour; the belly of a filvery white. Linnaeus fays, that its teeth are granulated. Rondeletius fays he was an eye-wit- nefs to its fondnefs for human flefh : that thefe fifh are lefs deftruftive in our feas, is owing to the coolnefs of the climate, which is well known to abate the fierce- nefs of fome, as well as the venom of other animals. 6. The long-tailed fhark, or fea-fox, is moft re¬ markable for the great length of the tail : the whole meafure of one examined by Mr Pennant being 13 feet, of which the tail alone was more than fix, the upper lobe extending greatly beyond the lower, almoffc in a ftraight line. The body was round and fhort: the nofe fhort, but fharp-pointed : the eyes large, and placed immediately over the corners of the mouth, which was fmall, and not very diftant from the end of the nofe. The teeth triangular, fmall for the fize of the fifh, and placed in three rows. The back afh- colour; the belly white ; the fkin univerfally fraooth. The ancients ftyled this fifh and vulpts, from its fuppofed cunning. They believed, that when it had the misfortune to have taken a bait, it fwallowed the hook till it got at the cord, which it bit off, and fo efcaped. They are fometimes taken in our feas, and have been imagined to be the fifh called the threjher, from its attacking and beating the grampus with its long tail, whenever that fpecies of whale rifes to the furface to breathe. 7. The canicula, or fpotted fhark.—The weight of one examined by Mr Pennant was fix pounds three ounces, and yet it meafured three feet eight inches in length ; fo light are the cartilaginous fifh in refpeft to their fize. The nofe was fhort and very blunt, not extending above an inch and an half beyond the mouth. The noftrils were large, placed near the mouth, and covered with a large angular flap: the head very flat. The eyes were oblong, behind each a large orifice opening to the infide of the mouth. The teeth fmall, fharp, fmooth at their fides, ftraight, and difpofed in four rows. The tail was finned, and below extended into a fharp angle. The colour of the whole upper part of the body and the fins was brown, marked with numbers of large diftindt black fpots: fome parts of the fkin were tinged with red ; the belly was white. The whole was remarkably round, and had a ftrong fmell. The tendrils that iffue from each end of the purfe of this fifh are much more delicate and flender than thofe of any other ; are as fine as Indian grafs, and very much referable it. The female of this fpe¬ cies, and we believe of other fharks, is greatly fupe- rior in fize to the male ; fo that in this refpeft there is an agreement between the fifh and the birds of prey. They bring about 19 young at a time : the fifhermen bdievs s cl u [ 8264 ] s cl u Squamaria believe that they breed at all times of the year, as they c , j[. fcarce ever take any but what are with young. - ln^' 8. The catulus, orleffer fpotted lhark.—The weight of one that was brought to Mr Pennant by a tifherman was only one pound twelve ounces; the length two feet two inches: it is of a flender make in all part*. The head was flat; the noftrils covered with a long flap ; the nofe blunt, and marked beneath with nume¬ rous fmall pun&ures; behind each eye was a fmall ori¬ fice ; the back-fins, like thofe of the former, placed far behind. The ventral fins are united, forming as if it were but one, which is a fure mark of this fpecies. The tail finned like that of the greater dog-fifli. The colour is cinereous, ftreaked in ffome parts with red, and generally marked with numbers of fmall black fpots; but in fome they are very faint and obfeure. The belly is white. This fpecies breeds from 9 to 13 young at a time ; is very numerous on fome of our coafts, and very injurious to the fifheries. SQUAMARIA, in botany. See LATHRiEd. SQUAMOUS, in anatomy, a name given to the fpurious orfalfe futures of the Ikull, becaufe compofed of fquamje, or feales like thofe of fifties. SQUARE, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure both equilateral and equiangular. See Geometry. SquARE-iJo^. See Algebra, n° 8. and Arith¬ metic, n°33. Hollow Square, in the military art, a body of foot drawn up with an empty fpace in the middle, for the colours, drums, and baggage, faced and covered by ■the pikes every way, to keep off the horfe- Sqy a re, among mechanics, an inftrument confid¬ ing of two rules or branches, faftened perpendicularly at one end of their extremities, fo as to form a right angle. It is of great ufe in the defeription and men- furation of right angles, and laying down perpendi¬ culars. SquARE-fJrjr^y, an epithet applied to a ftiip whofe yards are very long. It is alfo ufed in contradiftinc- tion to all vefiels whofe fails are extended by flays or lateen-yards, or by booms and gaffs; the ufual Si¬ tuation of which is nearly in the plane of the keel; and hence, SqyARE &z/7, is a fail extended to a yard which hangs parallel to the horizon, as diftinguilhed from the other fails which are extended by booms and flays placed obliquely. This fail is only ufed in fair winds, or to feud under in a tempeft. In the former cafe, it is furniftied with a large additional part called the bonnet, which is then attached to its bottom, and re¬ moved when it is neceffary to scud. Sec that article. SQUATINA. See SquAuus. SQUILL, in botany. See Scilla. SQUILLA, the name of a fpecies of cancer. See Cancer, n° 5, 6. SQUINTING. See Medicine, n° 476. SQUIRREL, in zoology. See Sciurus. STABBING, in law. The offence of mortally ftabbing another, though done upon fudden provoca¬ tion, is puniftied as murder ; the benefit of clergy be¬ ing taken away from it by ftatute. (See Murder). For by Ja. I. c. 8. when one thrufts or ftabs another, not then having a weapon drawn, or who hath not then firft ftricken the party ftabbing, fo that he dies thereof within fix months after, the offender fhaff not have the benefit of clergy, though he did it not of Stadium, malice aforethought. This ftatute was made on ac- II count of the frequent quarrels and (tabbings with fhort Sta^ daggers between the Scotch and the Englifti at the ~ ' acceffion of James I. ; and being therefore of a tem porary nature, ought to have expired with the mif- chief which it meant to remedy. For, in point of fo- lid and fubltantial juftice, it cannot be faid that the mode of killing, whether by ftabbing, ftrangling, or (hooting, can either extenuate or enhance the guilt; unlels where, as in the cafe of poifoning, it carries with it an internal evidence of cool and deliberate ma¬ lice. But the benignity of the law hath conftrued the ftatute fo favourably in behalf of the fubjeft, and fo ftridly when againft him, that the offence of ftabbing now (lands almoft upon the fame footing as it did at the common law. Thus, (not to repeat the cafes mentioned under Manslaughter, of ftabbing an adulterefs, &c. which are barely manflaughter, as at common law), in the ■conftruftion of this ftatute it hath been doubted, whether, if the deceafed had ftruck at all before the mortal blow given, this does not take it out of the ftatute, though in the preceding quarrel the ftabber had given the firft blow; and it feems to be the better opinion, that this is not within the fta¬ tute. Alfo it hath been refolved, that the killing a man, by throwing a hammer or other weapon, is not within tbe ftatute ; and whether a (hot with a piftol be fo or not, is doubted. But if the party flain had a cudgel in his hand, or had thrown a pot or a bottle, or difeharged a piftol at the party ftabbing, this is a fufficient reafon for having a weapon drown on his fide within the words of the llatute. STADIUM, an ancient Greek long meafure, con¬ taining 125 geometrical paces, or 625 Roman feet, correfponding to our furlong. The word is formed from tbe Greek sw/f, ftation ; and it is faid, on this occafion, that Hercules, after running fo far at one breath, flood dill. The Greeks meafured all their diftances by ftadia, which they call raJiaf/v.—Stadium was alfo the courfe or career where¬ in the Greeks ran their races. STADTHOLDER, tbe principal magiftrate or governor of the United provinces. The Stadtholder feems to be empowered, either direftly, or by bis in¬ fluence, to change both the deputies, magiftrates, and officers in every province and city. He is prefident in the dates of every province, though he has not fomuch as a Hate or vote in the ftates-general; but as he in¬ fluences the dates of each province to fend what de¬ puties he pleafes to the affembly, he has in fad the appointing of the perfons that conftitute it, and may be deemed fovereign of the United Provinces. The ftadtholders bad once a very great power; fo that we find one of them appointing what towns (hould fend deputies to the affembly of the dates of Holland: but the ftadtholderfliip was never hereditary till the year 1747, when it was made fo in the family of Orange. It is obferved, thatthe States pafled by the ftadthol- dtr’a eldeft fon, and appointed his younger fon prince Maurice of Orange their ftadtholder. At other times they have fuppreffed the ftadtbolderlhip entirely. The ftadtholder always in the council, where there hap¬ pens to be an equality of votes, has a decifive voice. STAFF, an inftrument ordinarily ufed to reft on in walking. S T A [ 8265 ] S T A walking. The ftaff is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of natural weapon both of offence and defence; and for feveral other purpofes. Staff, a light pole ere&ed in different parts of a fhip, whereon to hoilt and display the colours. The principal of thefe is reared immediately over the flern, to difplay the enfign ; another is fixed on the bowfprit, to extend the jack ; three more are erefted at the three mail-heads, or formed by their upper ends, to fhow the flag or pendant of the refpedlive fquadron ordivifion to which the fhip is appropriated. See Ensign, Mast, Jack, and Pendant. Staff, in military matters, confifts of a quarter- mafter-general, adjutant-general, and majors of bri¬ gade. The flaff properly exifts only in time of war. See Q_uAR.TER-.Ma/fer General, &c. Regimental Staff, confifts in the adjutant, quarter- mailer, chaplain, furgeon, &c. Staff, in muiic, five lines, on which, with the in¬ termediate fpaces, the notes of a fong or piece ofmu- ficare marked. STAFFA, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern Iflands of Scotland, remarkable for its bafaltic pillars. It was lately vifited by Mr Jofeph Banks, who commu¬ nicated the following account of it to Mr Pennant. “ The little ifland of Staffa lies on the weft coaft of Mull, about three leagues N. E. from Jona, or the Columb Kill: its greateft length is about an Engliih mile, and its breadth about half a one. On the weft fide of the ifland, is a fmall bay where boats generally land ; a little to the fouthward of which, the firft ap¬ pearance of pillars are to be obferved : they are fmall; and inftead of being placed upright, lie down on their fides, each forming a fegment of a circle. From thence you pafs a fmall cave, above which the pillars, now grown a little larger, are inclining in all dire&ions : in one place in particular, a fmall mafs of them very much refemble the ribs of a fhip. From hence having paffed the cave, which, if it is not low water, you muft do in a boat, you come to the firft ranges of pillars, which are ftill not above half as large as thofea little beyond. Over-againft this place is a fmall ifland, called in Erfe Boo-Jha-la, feparated from the main by a channel not many fathoms wide. This whole ifland is compofed of pillars without any ftratum above them 5 they are ftill fmall, but by much the neatefl formed of any about the place. “ The firft divifion of the ifland, for at high water it is divided into two, makes a kind of a cone, the pil¬ lars converging together towards the centre : on the other they are in general laid down flat; and in the front next to the main, you fee how beautifully they are packed together, their ends coming out fquare with the bank which they form. All thefe have their tranfverfe fe&ions exa£t, and their furfaces fmootb; which is by no means the cafe with the large ones, which are.cracked in all diredlions. I much queftion, liowever, if any one of this whole ifland of Boo fha-la is two feet in diameter. “ The main ifland oppofite to Boo-fha-la, and farther towards the N. W. is fupported by ranges of pillars pretty eredl, and, though not tall, (as they are not uncovered to the bafe), of large diameters ; and at their feet is an irregular pavement, by the upper fides of fuch as have been broken off, which extends as Vol. X. far under water as the eye can reach. Here the forms of the pillars are. apparent: thefe are of three, four, five, fix, and feven fides ; but the number of five and fix are by much the moft prevalent. The largeft I meafured was of feven ; it was four feet five inches in diameter. “The furfaces of thefe large pillars, in general, are rough and uneven, full of cracks in all directions; the tranfverfe figures in the upright ones never fail to run in their true directions. The furfaces upon which we walked were often flat, having neither concavity nor convexity ; the larger number, however, were con¬ cave, though fome were very evidently convex. In fome places, the interfiices within the perpendicular figures were filled up with a yellow fpar : in one place, a vein palled in among the mafs of pillars, carrying here and there fmall threads of fpar. Though they were broken and cracked through and through in all directions, yet their perpendicular figures might eafily be traced : from whence it is eafy to infer, that what¬ ever the accident might have been that caufed the dif- location, it happened after the formation of the pil¬ lars. “ From hence proceeding along fhore, you arrive at Fingal’s cave. Its dimenfions I have given in the form of a table : Length of the cave from the rock without, From the pitch of the arch, Breadth of ditto at the mouth, At the farther end, Height of the arch at the mouth, At the end. Height of an outfide pillar, Of one at the N. W. corner. Depth of water at the mouth, At the bottom, Feet. 371 250 53 20 117 70 39 9 In. 6 o 7 o 6 o 6 o 6 o “ The cave runs into the rock in the direClion of N. E. by E. by the compafs. “ Proceeding farther to the north-weft, you meet with the higheft ranges of pillars; the magnificent appear¬ ance of which is pafl all defcription. Here they are bare to their very bafis, and the ftratum below them is alfo vifible : in a fhort time, it rifes many feet above the water, and gives an opportunity of examining its quality. Its furface is rough, and has often large lumps of ftone flicking in it as if half immerfed : itfelf, when broken, is compofed of a thoufand heterogeneous parts, which together have very much the appearance of a lava; and the more fo, as many of the lumps appear to be of the very fame ftone of which the pillars are formed. This whole ftratum lies in an inclined pofi- tion, dipping gradually towards the fouth-eaft. As hereabouts is the fituation of the higheft pillars, I fhall mention my meafurements of them and the dif¬ ferent ftrata in this place, premifing, that the mea¬ furements were made with a line, held in the hand of a perfon who flood at the top of the cliff, and reaching to the bottom ; to the lower end of which was tied a white mark, which was obferved by one who ftaid be¬ low for the purpofe : when this mark was fet off from the water, the perfon below noted it down, and made fignal to him above, who made then a mark in his rope : whenever this mark paffed a notable place, the fame fignal was made, and the name of the place no- 4l I ted Stalls. S T A f 8266 ] S T A StafFa. ted down as before : the line being all hauled up, and ’ the diftances between the marka meafured and noted down, gave, when compared with the book kept be¬ low, the dittances, as for inftance in the cave : “ N° x. in the book below, was called from the wa¬ ter to the foot of the firft pillar in the book above ; n® 1 • gave 36 feet 8 inches, thehighcll of that afcent, which was compofed of broken pillars. “N° 1. Pillar at the weft corner of Fingal’s cave. Feet. In. 1 From the water to the foot of the pillar, 12 10 3 Height of the pillar, - - 37 3 3 Stratum above the pillar, - 66 9 “ N° 2. Fingal’s cave. X From the water to the foot of the pillar, 36 8 2 Height of the pillar, - * 39 6 3 From the top of the pillar to the top of the arch, - - 3t 4 4 Thicknefe of the ftratum above, - 34 4 By adding together the three firft meafurements, we got the height of the arch from the wa¬ ter, - - - 117 6 “ N° 3. Corner pillar to the weft ward of FingaPs cave. Stratum below the pillar of lava-like matter, xi o Length of pillar, - - 54 o Stratum above the pillar, - 6r 6 “ N° 4. Another pillar to the weftward. Stratum below the pillar, . - - 1 Height of the pillar, - - 50 o Stratum above, - - 5l 1 “ N° 5. Another pillar farther to the weftward. Stratum below the pillar, - - 198 Height of the pillar, - - 55 1 Stratum above, - - 54 7 “ The ftratum above the pillars, which is here men¬ tioned, is uniformly the fame, confifting of nnmber- lefs fmall pillars, bending and inclining in all direc¬ tions, fometimes fo irregularly that the ftones can only be faid to have an inclination to aflume a co¬ lumnar form ; in others more regular, but never break¬ ing into or difturbing the ftratum of large pillars, whofe tops every where keep an uniform and regular line. “ Proceeding now along the Ihore round the north end of the ifland, you arrive at Oua na fcarve, or the Corvorant’s Cave. Here the ftratum under the pillars is lifted up very high; the pillars above it are confi- derably lefs than thofc at the north-weft end of the ifland, but ftill very confiderable. Beyond is a bay, which cuts deep into the ifland, rendering it in that place not more than a quarter of a mile over. On the fides of this bay, efpecially beyond a little valley, which almoft cuts the ifland into two, are two ftages of pillars, but fmall; however, having a ftratum be¬ tween them exa&ly the fame as that above them, formed of innumerable little pillars, lhaken out of their places, and leaning in all dire&ions. “ Having paffed this bay, the pillars totally ceafe; the rock is of a dark-brown ftone, and no figns of re¬ gularity occur till you have palled round the fouth- eaft end of the ifland (a fpace almoft as large as that occupied by the pillars), which you meet again on the weft fide, beginning to form themfelves irregu¬ larly, as if the ftratum had an inclination to that form, and foon arrive at the bending pillars where I began. “ The ftone of which the pillars are formed, is a Stafford, coarfe kind of bafaltes, very much refejnbling the Staffordshire; Giant’s Caufeway in Ireland, though none of them are near fo neat as the fpecimens of the latter which I have feen at the Britilh Mufeum ; owing chiefly to the colour, which in ours is a dirty brown, in the Irifh a fine black : indeed the whole produ&ion feems very much to referable the Giant’s Caufeway.” STAFFORD, the capital of a county of England of the fame name, in W. Long. 2. 6. N. Lat. 52. 20. It Hands on the river Sow, over which it has a ftone- bridge. It is well built and paved, and had formerly a caftle and walls. It has a flouriihing cloth-manufac¬ ture, and gives the title of earl to a Popiftx branch of the family of Howard. STAFFORDSHIRE, a county of England, bound¬ ed on the fouth by Worcefterftiire, by Chefhire and Der- byfhire on the north, by Warwickfliire and Derby- fhire on the eaft, and Shroplhire and Cheftiire on the weft. The length is reckoned at 40 miles, the breadth at 26, and the circumference at 141. It contains 5 hundreds, 150 parifhes, 8xo,ooo acres, 1 city, and 18 market-towns. The air, except in thofe parts that are called the Moorlands and Wood¬ lands, and about the mines, is good, cfpecially upon the hills, where it is accounted very fine : but the foil in the northern mountainous part is not fo fertile. In the middle, where it is watered by the Trent, the third river in England, it is both fruitful and pleafant, be¬ ing a mixture of arable and meadow grounds. In the fouth, it abounds not only with corn, but with mines of iron and pits of coal. The other rivers of this country, befides the Trent, which runs almoft through, the middle of it, and abounds with falmon, are the Dove and Tame, both which are well ftored withfilh. In this county are alfo a great many lakes, or meres and pools, as they are called ; which, having dreams either running into them or from them, cannot be fup- pofed to be of any great prejudice to the air, and yield plenty of fiflx. In divers parts of the county are me¬ dicinal waters, impregnated with different forts of minerals, and confequently of different qualities and virtues; as thofe at Hynts and Brefsford-houfe, which are mixed with bitumen ; thofe at Ingeftre, Codfal- wood, and Willough-bridge park, which are fulphu- reous. Of the faline kind are the Brine-pits at Chertley, Epfon, Penfnet-clofe, of which very good fait is made. There is a well at Newcaftle Under- Line that is faid to cure the king’s-evil; another called Elder •'well near Blemhill, faid to be good for fore eyes ; and a third called the S.pa, near Wolverhampton. Great flocks of flieep are bred in this county, efpe¬ cially in the moor-lands, or mountains of the northern part of it; but the wool is faid to be fomewhat coarfer than that of many other counties. Of this wool, how¬ ever, they make a variety of manufactures, particu¬ larly felts. In the low grounds along the rivers, are rich paftures for black cattle; and vaft quantities of butter and cheefe are made there. In the middle and . fouthern parts not only grain of all kinds, but a great deal of hemp and flax, are raifed. This county pro¬ duces alfo lead, copper, iron ; marble, alabafter, mill- ftones, limeftone ; coal, fait, and marles of feveral forts and colours; brick-earth, fullers-earth, and potters- clay, particularly a fort ufed in the glafs-manufaCture at Amble- S T A [ 8267 ] S T A ‘ Stag Amblecot, and fold at feven-pence a bulhel; tobacco- li. pipe-clay; a fort of reddilb earth called flip, ufed in - tamil13- .painting divers vtffels; red and yellow okers; fire- ftones for hearths of iron furnaces, ovens, &c.; iron- ftones of feveral forts ; blood-ftones, or haematites, found in the brook Tent, which, when wet a little, will draw red lines like ruddle ; quarry-ftones, and grind-ftones. For fuel the county is well fupplied with turf, peat, and coal of feveral forts, as cannel- coal, peacock-coal, and pit-coal. The peacock-coal is fo called, becaufe, when turned to the light, it dif- plays all the colours of the peacock’s tail; but it is fit¬ ter for the forge than the kitchen. Of the pit-coal there is an inexhauftible ftore : its burns into white allies, and leaves no fuch cinder as that of the New- caftle coal. It is not ufed for malting till it is charred, and in that ftate it makes admirable winter-fuel for a chamber. This county is in the diocefe of Litchfield and Co¬ ventry, and the Oxford circuit. It fends eight mem¬ bers to parliament; namely, two for the county, two for the city of Litchfield, two for Stafford, and two for Newcaftle-Under-Line. STAG, in zoology. See Cervus. STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of ac¬ tion and reprefentation, included between the pit and the fcenes, and anfwering to the profcenium or pulpi- tum of the ancients. STAGGERS. See Farriery, $ ix. STAHL (George Ernelt), an eminent German chemift, born *n Franconia in the year 1660. He wrote upon almoft all parts of chemiftry; and his works, fome of which are in German, and fome in Latin, are highly efteemed. STAINING of Bone, Ivory, Marble, Paper, Wood, &c. See thefe articles. STAIRCASE, in archite&ure, an afcent inclofed between walls, or a balluftrade confiding of flairs or fteps, with landing places and rails, ferving to make a communication between the feveral dories of a houfe. See Architecture, n° 94, &c. STALACTITvE, in natural hidory, crydalline fpars formed into oblong, conical, round, or irregular bodies, compofed of various cruds, and ufually found hanging in form of icicles from the roofs of grottos, &c. STALE, among fportfmen, a living fowl put in a place to allure and bring others where they may be taken. For want of thefe, a bird Ihot, his entrails taken out, and dried in an oven in bis feathers, with a dick thrud through to keep it in a convenient po- dure, may-ferve as well as a live one. Stale is alfo a name for the urine of cattle. STALLION, or Stone-horse, in the manege, an ungelt horfe, defigned for the covering oi mares, in order to propagate the fpecies. See Ectuus. STAMFORD, an ancient town of Lincolnfliire in England ; feated on the river Walland, on the edge of Northamptonlhire. It is a large handfome place, containing fix parifh-churches, feveral good dreels, and fine buildings. It had formerly a college, the ;(Indents of which removed to Brazen-Nofe college in Oxford. It has no confiderable manufa&ories, but deals chiefly in malt. W. Long. o. 27. N. Lat. 52. 39. STAMINA, in botany, are thofe upright filaments which, on opening a flower, we find within the co¬ rolla furrounding the pidillum. According to Lin- Stamina naeus, they are the male organs of generation, whofe , | office it is to prepare the pollen. Each flamen confifts btan ar of two didinft parts, viz. the filamentum and the anthera. Stamina, in the animal body, are defined to be thofe fimple original parts which exided fird in the embryo, or even in the feed ; and by whofe didindlion, augmentation, and accretion, by additional juices, the animal body, at its utmod bulk, is fuppofed to be formed. STAMP-duties, a branch of the perpetual re* venue. See Revenue. There is a tax impofed upon all parchment and paper whereon any legal proceedings, or private in- druments of almod any nature whatfoever, are written; and alfo upon licences for retailing wines, of all deno¬ minations ; upon all almanacks, newfpapers, adver- tifements, cards, dice, &c. Thefe impods are very va¬ rious, according to the nature of the things damped, rifing gradually from a penny to ten pounds. This is alfo a tax which, though in fome indances it may be heavily felt, by greatly increafing the expence of all mercantile as well as legal proceedings, yet (if mode¬ rately impofed) is of fervice to the public in general, by authenticating inftruments, and rendering it much more difficult than formerly to forge deeds of any danding; fince, as the officers of this branch of the revenue vary their damps frequently, by marks per¬ ceptible to none but themfelves, a man that would forge a deed of king William’s time, mud know and be able to counterfeit the damp of that date alfo. In France and fome other countries the duty is laid on the contraft itfelf, not on the indrument in which it is con¬ tained; as, with us too in England,(befides the damps on the indentures), a tax is laid, by datute 8 Ann. c. 9. on every apprentice-fee; of 6d. in the pound if it be 50!. or under, and is. in the pound if a greater fum : but this tends to draw the fubjed into a thoufand nice dif- quifitions and difputes concerning the nature of his contrail, and whether taxable or not; in which the farmers of the revenue are fure to have the advantage,, Our general method anfwers the purpofes of the date as well, and confults the eafe of the fubjeil much bet¬ ter. The fird inditution of the damp-duties was by datute 5 and 6 W. and M. c. 21. and they have finer, in many indances, been increafed to five times their original amount. STANCHION, or Stanchions, a fort of fmall pillars of wood or iron ufed for various purpofes in a (hip ; as to fupport the decks, the quarter-rails, the nettings, the awnings, &c. The fird of thefe are two ranges of fmall columnsfixed under the beams, through¬ out the diip’s length between decks; one range being on the darboard and the other on the larboard fide of the hatchways. They are chiefly intended to fupport the weight of the artillery. STAND, in commerce, a weight from two hundred and an half to three hundred of pitch. STANDARD, in war, a fort of banner or flag, borne as a fignal for the joining together of the feve¬ ral troops belonging to the fame body. Standard, in commerce, the original of a weight, meafure, or coin, committed to the keeping of a ma- gidrate, or depofited in fome public place, 10 regulate, 41 I 2 adjufl, S T A [ 8268 ] S T A Stanhope, adjuft, and try the weights ufed by particular pcrfons in traffic. See Money. STANHOPE (Philip Dormer,earl of Chefierfield), was born in 1695, and educated in Trinity-hall, Cam¬ bridge ; which place he left in 1714, when, by his own account, he was an abfolute pedant. In this cha¬ racter he wTent abroad, where a familiarity with good company foon convinced him he was totally miftaken in almoft all his notions : and an attentive ftudy of the air, manner, and addrefs of people of fafhion, foon polifhed a man whofc predominant defire was to pleafe; and who, as it afterward appeared, valued exterior accomplifhents beyond any other human acquirement. While lord Stanhope, he got an early feat in parlia¬ ment ; and in 1722, fucceeded to his father’s eftate and titles. In 1728, and in 1745, was appointed ambaffador extroardinary and plenipotentiary to Hol¬ land, which high character he fupported with the greateft dignity ; ferving his own country, and gain¬ ing the efteem of the ftates-general. Upon his return from Holland, he was fent lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; and during his adminiftration there, gave general fa- tisfaCtion to all parties. He left Dublin in 1746, and in October fucceeded the earl of Harrington as fecre- tary of ftate, in which port he officiated until Feb. 6th 1748. Being feized with a deafnefs in 1752 that incapacitated him for the pleafures of fociety, he from that time led a private and retired life, amufing him- felf with books and his pen ; in particular, he engaged largely as a volunteer in a periodical mifcellaneous pa¬ per called The World, in which his contributions have a diftinguifhed degree of excellence. He died in 1773, leaving a character for wit and abilities that had few equals. He diftinguifhed himfelf by his eloquence in parliament on many important occafions ; of which ■we have a chara&eriftic inftance, of his own re¬ lating. He was an adive promoter of the bill for al¬ tering the ftyle; on which occafion, as he himfelf writes in one of his letters to his fon, he made fo eloquent a fpeech in the houfe, that every one was pleafed, and laid he had made the whole very clear to them; “ when (fays he), God knows, I had not even attempted it. “ I could juft; as foon have talked Celtic or Sclavo- “ nian to them, as aftronomy; and they would have un- “ derftood me full as well.” Lord Macclesfield, one of the greateft mathematicians in Europe, and who had a principal hand in framing the bill, fpoke afterward, with all the clearnefs that thorough knowledge of the fubjeCt could diftate ; but not having a flow of words equal to lord Chefterfield, the latter gained the ap- plaufe from the former, to the equal credit of the fpeaker and the auditors. The high chara&er lord Chefterfield fupported during life, received no fmall injury foon after his death, from a fuller difplay of it by his own hand. He left no iflue by his lady, but had a natural fon, Philip Stanhope, Efq; whofe edu¬ cation was for many years a clofe objedi of his atten¬ tion, and who was afterward envoy extraordinary at the court of Drefden, but died before him. When lord Chefterfield died, Mr Stanhope’s widow publifhed a courfe of letters, written by the father to the fon, filled with inftruftions fuitable to the different grada¬ tions of the young man’s life to whom they were ad- dreffed. Thefe letters contain many fine obfervations on mankind, and ruks of conduft : but it is obfervable that he lays a greater ftrefs on exterior accomplifli- Staniflaus ments and addrefs, than on intellcftual qualifications li f and fincerity ; and allows greater latitude to fafhion- Stannai>;; able pleafures than good morals will juftify, efpecially in paternal inftru&ions. Hence it is that a celebrated writerf, of manners fomewhat different from thofe off Dr the polite earl of Chefterfield, is laid to have obl"erved/^'’^• ' of thefe Letters, that “ they inculcate only the mo¬ rals ofa whore, with the manners ofa dancing.mailer.” STANISLAUS I. king of Poland and ele&or of Saxony, a Ihoft unfortunate but virtuous prince. He was driven from his dominions by his competitor, who was fupported by the czar Peter the Great, in oppo- fition to Charles XII. king of Sweden. He was obliged, by a treaty of peace in 1736, to content him¬ felf with the empty title of king, and the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, in which he led a retired life ; di- ftinguifhing himfelf, however, in thisobfeure fituation, by public and private a£tsof humanity and benevolence; particularly by fupplying a fund, under the diredion of the magiftrates of Bar, for purchafing corn, to be fold at a cheap price to the poor, whenever it becomes dear. At the age of 90 he came to a fatal end, ha¬ ving fet fire to his night-gown in fmoking his pipe : he was burnt almoft to death before he could get af- fiftance ; and died foon after, in 1766. He wrote fe- veral philofophical, political, and moral trads, which, were publifhtd under the title of The Works of the JBe- nificent Philcfopher, in 4 vols 8vo. Paris, 1673. STANLEY (Thomas), a very learned Engllfh writer in the 17th century, was the fon of Sir Tho¬ mas Stanley of Cumberlow-Green in Herefordfhire, knight. He was born at Cumberlow, and educated in his father’s houfe, whence he removed to the uni- verfity of Cambridge. He afterwards travelled; and, upon his return to England, profecuted his ftudies in- the Middle Temple. He married, when young, Do¬ rothy, the eldeft daughter of Sir John Enyon of Flowne, in Northamptonfhire, baronet. He wrote, 1. A volume of Poems. 2. Hiftory of Philofophy, and Lives of the Philofophers. 3. A Tranflation of and Commentary on Efchylus j and feveral other works. He died in 1678. STANNARIES, the mines and works where tin is dug and purified; as in Cornwall, Devonftiire, &c. . STANNARY courts, in Devonfhire and Corn¬ wall,for the adminiftration of juftice among the tinners therein. They are held before the lord-warden and his fubftitutes, in virtue of a privilege granted to the workers in the tin-mines there, to fue and be fued only in their own Courts, that they may not be drawn from their bufinefs, which is highly profitable to the public, by attending their law-fuits in other courts. The privileges of the tinners are confirmed by a char¬ ter 33 Edw. I. and fully expounded by a private ftatute, 50 Edw. III. which has fince been explained by a public aft, 16 Car. I. c. 15. What relates tou our prefent purpofe is only this: That all tinners and labourers in and about the ftannaries {hall, during the time of their working therein, bona fide, be privileged, from fuits of other courts, and be only pleaded in the ftannary court in all matters, excepting pleas of land, life, and member. No writ of error lies from hence to any court in Weltminfter-hall; as was agreed by all' the judges, in 4jac. I. But an appeal lies from the ft?ward , S T A [ 8269 ] S T A Starsntom ftewanl of the court to the under-'wardeti; and from ^ him to the lord-warden ; and thence to the privy- • ar‘ council of the prince of Walts, as duke of Cornwall, when he hath had livery or inveftiture of the fame. And from thence the appeal lies to the king himfelf, in the laft refort. STANNUM, tin. See Chemistry, n° 150, 203, 246, 285, 406. STANZA, in poetry, a certain dated number of verfes, generally containing a perfedl fenfe, that ought to end with fome lively and ingenious thought, or juft and pertinent reflection. 'STAPLE, primarily fignifies a public place or mar¬ ket, whither merchants, &c. are obliged to bring their goods to be bought by the people ; as the Greve, or the places along the Seine, for fale of wines and corn, at Paris, whither the merchants of other parts are obliged to bring thofe commodities. Formerly, the merchants of England were obliged to carry their wool, cloth, lead, and other like ftaple commodities of this realm, in order to utter the fame by wholefale ; and thefe ftaples were appointed to be conftantly kept at York, Lincoln, Newcaftle upon Tyne, Norwich, Weftminfter, Canterbury, Chichefter, Winchefter, Exeter, and Briftol; in each whereof a public mart was appointed to be kept, and each of them had a court of the mayor of the ftaple, for de¬ ciding differences, held according to the law-merchant, in a fummary way. STAR, in aftronomy, a general name for all the heavenly bodies, which, like fo many brilliant ftuds, are difperfed throughout the whole heavens. The ftars are diftinguiflied, from the phaenomena of their motion, &c. into fixed, and erratic or wander¬ ing ftars: thefe laft are again diftinguiflied into the greater luminaries, viz. the fun and moon; the planets, or wandering ftars, properly fo called; and^the comets; which have been all fully confidered and explained under the article Astronomy. As to the fixed ftars, or Amply ftars, they are fo called, becaufe they feem to be fixed, or perfectly'at reft, and confequently appear always at the fame di- ftance from each other. Falling Stars, in meteorology, fiery meteors which dart through the Iky in form of a ftar. See Electri¬ city, n° 39. and Meteor. twinkling of the Stars. ' See Optics, n° 20. etfeq. Star, is alfo a badge of honour, worn by the knights of the garter, bath, thiftle. See Garter. Star of Bethlehem, in botany. See Ornitho- g.alum. £tf«r/tf/'STAR-CH amber, (camerafellata ^1, a famous, or rather infamous, Englifti tribunal, faid to have been fo called either from a Saxon word fignifying to Jleer or govern ; or from its punifhing the crimenJlellionatus, or cofenage ; or becaufe the room wherein it fat, the old council-chamber of the palace of Weftminfter, (Lamb. 148.) which is now converted into the lottery- office, and forms the.eaftern fide of new palace-yard, was full of windows; or, (to which Sir Edward Coke, 4. Inft. 66. accedes), becaufe haply the roof thereof was at the firft garnilhed with gilded fan. As all thefe are merely conjectures, (for no ftars are now in thereof, nor are any faid to have remained there fa late as the reign of queen Elizabeth), it may be allow¬ able to propofe another conje&ural etymology, as plaufible perhaps as any of them. It is well known, that, before the banifhment of the Jews under Ed¬ ward I. their contradts and obligations were denomi¬ nated in our ancient records farra or Jlarrs, from a corruption of the Hebrew word, fhetar, a covenant. (Tovey’s Angl. Judaic. 32. Selden. tit. of hon. ii. 34. • Uxor Ebraic. i. 14.) Thefe ftarrs, by an ordinance of Richard the firft, preferved by Hoveden, were com¬ manded to be enrolled and depofited in chefts under three keys in certain places; one, and the moft con- fiderable, of which was in the king’s exchequer at Weftminfter : and no ftarr was allowed to be valid,, unlefs it were found in fome of the faid repofitories. (Memorand, in Scad P. 6 Ednu. /. prefixed to May¬ nard’s year-book of Edw. II. fob 8. Madox hilt, exch. c. vii. § 4, 3, 6.) The room at the exchequer, where the chefts containing thefe ftarrs were kept, was probably called the Jlar~chamber; and, when the. Jews were expelled the kingdom, was applied to the ufe of the king’s council, fitting in their judicial ca¬ pacity. To confirm this, the firft time the ftar cham¬ ber is mentioned in any record, it is faid to have been fituated near the receipt of the exchequer at Weft¬ minfter : (the king’s council, his chancellor, treafurer, juftices, and other fages, were affembled en la chaum- bre des ejleilles pres la refeeipt al Wejlminjler. Clauf. 41 Ednxs. III. sn. 13.)" For in procefs of time, when the meaning of the Jewilh Jlarrs were forgotten, the word far-chamber was naturally rendered in law- Freneh, la chambre des efeilles, and in law-Latin cameraJlellata; which continued to be the ftyle in Latin till the diffolution of that court. This was a court of very ancient original ; but new-modelled by ftatutes 3 Hen. VII. c. 1. and 21 Hen J VIII. c. 20, confifting of divers lords fpiritual and temporal, being privy counfellors, together with. two judges of the courts of common-law, without the intervention of any jury. Their jurifdiftion extended legally over riots, perjury, mifbehaviour of ftieriffs and other notorious mifdemeanors, contrary to the laws of the land. Yet this was afterwards (as lord Claren¬ don informs us) ftretched “ to the afferting of all proclamations and orders of ftate ; to the vindicating of illegal commiffions, and grants of monopolies; holding for honourable that which pleafed, and for. juft that which profited ; and becoming both a court of law to determine civil rights, and a court of revenue to enrich the treafury : the council-table by procla¬ mations enjoining to the people that which was not enjoined by the laws, and prohibiting that which was not prohibited.; and the ftar-chamber, which confid¬ ed of the fame perfons in different rooms, cenfuring, the breach and difobedience to thofe proclamations by very great fines, imprifonments, and corporal feveri-. ties : fo that any difrefpeft to any a&s of ftate, or to, the perfons of ftatefmen, was in no time more penal, and the foundations of right never more in danger to be deftroyed.” For which reafons, it was finally, abolilhed by ftatute 16 Car. I. c. 10. to the general joy of the whole nation. See King’s Bench. There is in the Britilh Mufeum (Harl. MSS.' Vol. I. .n° l2'6.) a very full, methodical, and accurate account of the conftitution and courfe of this court, compiled S T A [ 8270 ] S T A Star, by William Hudfon of Gray’s Inn, an eminent prac- Stard). titioner therein ; a fliort account of the fame, with copies of all its procefs, may alfo be found in 18 Rym. Foed. 192, &c. STAR-fieard, the right fide of the fhip when the eye of the fpeftator is diredied forward. STAR-FiJb. See Asterias. Star Shot, a gelatinous fubftance fre^uently^foand in fields, and fuppofed by the vulgar to have been produced from the meteor called z failing-Jiar: but, in reality, is the half-digeftedfood of herons, fea-mews, and the like birds; for thefe birds, when fliot, have been found, when dying, to difgorge a fubftance of the fame kind. StAR-Stone, in natural hiftory, a name given to certain extraneous foffile ftones, in form of fhort, and commonly fomewhat crooked, columns, compofed of feveral joints, each refembling the figure of a radiated Aar, with a greater or fmaller number of rays in the different fpecies : they are ufually found of about an inch in length, and of the thicknefs of a goofe-quill. Some of them have five angles or rays, and others only four; and in fome the angles are equi-diftant, while in others they are irregularly fo: in fome alfo they are fhort and blunt, while in others they are long, narrow, and pointed; and fome have their angles very fliort and obtufe. The feveral joints in the fame fpecimen are ufually all of the fame thicknefs; this, however, is not always the cafe ; but in fome they are larger at one end, and in others at the middle, than in any other part of the body ; and fomc fpecies have one of the rays bifid, fo as to emulate the ap¬ pearance of a fix-rayed kind. STARCH, a fecula or fediment, found at the bot¬ tom of veffels wherein wheat has been fteeped in water, of which fecula, after feparating the bran from it, by pafiing it through fieves, they form a kind of loaves, which being dried in the fun or an oven, is afterwards cut into little pieces, and fo fold. The beft ftarch is white, foft, and friable, and eafily broken into powder. Such as require fine ftarch, do do not content themfelves, like the ftarchmen, with refufe wheat, but ufe the finefl grain. The procefs is as follows: The grain being well cleaned, is put to ferment in veffels full of water, which they expofe to the fun while in its greatefl heat ; changing the water twice a-day, for the fpace of eight or twelve days, ac¬ cording to the feafon. When the grain burfts eafily under the finger, they judge it fufficiently fermented. The fermentation perfeAed, and the grain thusfoftened, it is put, handful by handful, into a canvas-bag, to feparate the flour from the hufks; which is done by rubbing and beating it on a plank laid acrofs the mouth of an empty veffel that is to receive the flour. As the veffels are filled with this liquid flour, there is feen fwimmingat top a reddifh water, which is to be carefully feummed off from time to time, and clean water is to be put in its place, which, after ftirring the whole together, is alfo to be drained through a cloth or fieve, and what is left behind put into the vtffel with new water, and expofed to the fun for fome time. As the fediment thickens at the bottom, they drain off the water four or five times, by incli¬ ning the veffel, but without pafiing it through the fieve. What remains at bottom is the ftarch, which they cut in pieces to get out, and leave it to dry in the Stare fun. When dry, it is laid up for ufe. II STARE, or Starling. See Sturnus. at”c STATE of a Controversy. See Oratory, ri° 20, &c. STATES, or Estates, a term applied to feveral orders or clafies of people affembled to confolt of mat¬ ters for the public good. Thus ftates-general is the name of an aflembly con¬ fining of the deputies of the feven United Provinces. Thefe are ufually 30 in number, fome provinces fend¬ ing two, others more ; and whatever refolution the ftates-general take, muft be confirmed by every pro¬ vince, and by every city and republic in that pro* vince, before it has the force of a law. The deputies of each province, of what number foever they be, have only one voice, and are efteemed as but one perfon, the votes being given by provinces. Each province prefides in the afl'embly in its turn, according to the order fettled among them. Guelderland prefides firft, then Holland, &c. Slates of Holland are the deputies of eighteen ci¬ ties, and one reprefentative of the nobility, conftitu- ting the ftates of the province of Holland : the other provinces have likewife their ftates, reprefenting their fovereignty ; deputies from which make what they call the ftates-general. In an afiembly of the ftates of a particular province, one difienting voice prevents their coming to any refolution. STATIUS, (Publius Papinius), a celebrated La¬ tin poet of the firft century, was born at Naples, and was the fon of Statius, a native of Epirus, who went to Rome to teach poetry and eloquence, and had Do- mitian for his fcholar. Statius the poet alfo obtained the favour and friendfliip of that prince; and dedica¬ ted to him his Thebais and Achilleis ; the firft in twelve books, and the laft in two. He died at Naples about the year 100. Befides the above poems, there are alfo ftill extant his Sylvce, in five books; the ftyle of which is purer, more agreeable, and more natural, than that of his Thebais and Achilleis. STATUARY, a branch of fculpture, employed in the making of ftatues. See Sculpture and the next article. Statuary is one of thofe arts wherein the ancients furpafied the moderns; and indeed it was much more popular, and more cultivated, among the former than the latter. It is difputed between ftatuary and paint¬ ing, which of the two is the molt difficult and the moft artful. Statuary is alfo ufed for the artificer who makes ftatues. Phidias was the greateft ftatuary among the ancients, and Michael Angelo among the moderns. STATUE, is defined to be a piece of fculpture in full relievo, reprefenting a human figure. Daviler more fcientifically defines ftatuc a reprefentation, in high relievo and infulate, of fome perfon diftinguifhed by his birth, merit, or great a&ions, placed as an ornament in a fine building, or expofed in a public place, to preferve the memory of his worth. In ftri&nefs, the term ftatue is only applied to figures on foot, the word being formed from Jiatura, the fize of the body. Statues are formed with the chifel, of feveral mat¬ ters, as (lone, marble, plafter, &c. They are alfo caft S T A [ 8271 ] S T A Statue, caft of various kinds of metal, particularly gold, filver, ” brafs, and lead. For the method of catting ftatues, fee the article Foundery of Statues. Statues are ufually diftinguittied into four general kinds. The firft are thofe lefs than the life j of which kind we have feveral ilatues of great men, of kings, and of gods themfdves.. The fecond are thofe equal to the life; in which manner it was that the ancients, at the public expence, ufed to make ftatues of perfons eminent for virtue, learning, or the fervices they had done. The third are thofe that exceed the life 5 among which thofe that furpafled the life once and a half were for kings and emperors ; and thofe double the life, for heroes. The fourth kind were thofe that ex- ceeded the life twice, thrice, and even more, and were gv\\c& colojfufes. See Colossus. Every ttatue refembling the perfon it is intended to reprefent, is called Jiatua iconica. Statues acquire various other denominations. 1. Thus, allegorical ftatue is that which, under a human figure, or other fymbol, reprefents fomething of another kind; as a part of the earth, a feafon, age, dement, tempera¬ ment, hour, &c. 2. Curule ftatues, are thofe which are reprefented in chariots drawn by bigas or quadri¬ gae, that is, by two or four horfes ; of which kind there were feveral in the circufes, hippodromes, <&c. or in cars, as we fee fome, with triumphal arches on antique medals. 3. Equeftrian ftatue, that which re¬ prefents fome illuttrious perfon on horfeback, as that famous one of Marcus Aurelius at Rome ; that of king Charles I. at Charing-crofs ; King George II. in Lei- cefter-Square, &c. 4. Greek ftatue, denotes a figure that is naked and antique ; it being in this manner the Greeks reprefented their deities, athletas of the Olympic games, and heroes: the flatues of heroes were particularly called Achillean Jlatues, by reafon of the great number of figures of Achilles in moft of the cities of Greece. 5. Hydraulic ftatue, is any figure placed as an ornament of a fountain or grotto, or that does the office of a jet d’eau, a cock, fpout, or the like, by any of its parts, or by any attribute it holds: the like is to be underftood of any animal ferving for the fame ufe. 6. Pedeftrian ftatue, a ftatue Handing on foot; as that of king Charles 1L in the Royal- Exchange, and of king James II. in the Privy-Gar¬ dens. 7. Roman ftatue, is an appellation given to fuchas’are clothed, and which receive various names from their various drdfes. Thofe of emperors, with long gowns over their armour, were called Jlatua pa- ludata; thofe of captains and cavaliers, with coats of arms, thot aeatce ; thofe of foldiers with cuiraffes, lo- ricatx ; thofe of fcnators and augurs, trabeatee ; thofe of magiftrates with long robes, togata; thofe of the people with a plain tunica, tunicatce ; and, laftly, thofe of women with long trains, Jlolatx. In repairing a ftatue caft in a mould, they touch it up with a chifel, graver, or other inftrument, to finifh the places which have not come well off: they alfo clear off the barb, and what is redundant in the joints and projeftures. STATUTE, in its general fenfe, fignifies a law, ordinance, decree, &c. See Law, &c. Statute, in our laws and cuftoms, more imme¬ diately fignifies an aft of parliament made by the three eftates of the realm j and fuck ftatutes are either ge¬ neral, of which the courts at Weftminfter muft take Stay notice without pleading them ; or they are fpecial and H private, which laft muft be pleaded. Steani‘ STAY, a large ftrong rope employed to fupport the maft on the fore-part, by extending from its up¬ per end towards the fore-part of the fhip, as the ffirouds are extended to the right and left, and behind it. See Mast, Rigging, and Shroud. The flay of the fore-maft a, fig. 3. Plate CCLXXVI. which is called the fore jlay, reaches from the maft- head towards the bowfprit-end : the main-flay b ex¬ tends over the forecaftlc to the fhip’s ftem ; and the mizen-ftay c is ftretched down to that part of the main-maft which lies immediately above the quarter¬ deck : the fore-top-maft ftay d comes alfo to the end of the bowfprit, a little beyond the fore-ftay : the main-top-maft ftay e is attached to the head or hounds of the fore-maft ; and the mizen-top-maft ftay comes alfo to the hounds of the main-maft : the fore-top¬ gallant ftay comes to the outer end of the jib-boom ; and the main-top-gallant ftay is extendtd to the head of the fore-top-maft. Stay-aSW, a fort of triangular fail extended upon a ftay. See Sail. STEAM, the fmoke arifing from water, or any other liquid, when confiderably heated. Engine, an engine for railing water by means of fire. The earlieft account to be met with of the inven-Hiftory. tion of this engine is in a book publilhed by the marquis of Worcefter in the year 1663, where he pro- pofed the raifing of great quantities of water by the force of fire, or by turning water into fleam ; and mentions an engine of that kind of his own contrivance which could raife a continual ftream like a fountain 40 feet high, by the means of two cocks which were al¬ ternately and fucceffively turned by a man to admit the fteam, and to re-fill the veffel with cold water, the fire being continually kept up : for which reafon this nobleman is generally looked upon as the firft inventor of this engine; and though his method of applying the force of fteam was certainly much different from the prefent, yet the water was railed by the fame original power, which is the expanfion of water into ftearn by fire. However, this invention not meeting with en¬ couragement, probably owing to the confufed ftate in which the public affairs were about that time, it was neglefted, and lay dormant feveral years until one cap¬ tain Savery having read the marquis of Worcefter’s books, feveral years afterwards, tried many experi¬ ments upon the force and power of fteam ; and at laft luckily hit upon a method of applying it to raife water. This he had no fooner done, than he bought up and dettroyed all the marquis's books that could be got, and then claimed the honour of this invention to himfelf, and obtained a patent for it, pretending to have difeovered this fecret of nature by fuch an accident as by experiment was found could not give him any fuch idea. He contrived an engii.e which, after many experiments, he brought to fome de . gree of perfeftion, fo as to raife water in fmall quan¬ tities : but he could not fucceed in raifing water a great height and in large quantities for the draining of mines; to efft& which by his method, the fteam re¬ quired to be boiled to fuch a ftrength as would have buefe - S T E [ 8272 1 S T E Sieam. burft all hia vefiels; fo that he was obliged to be con- ' tent with raifing water a fmall height or in fmall quan¬ tities. The largeft engine that he ever erefted, was for the York-buildings company in London, for the fupplying the inhabitants of the Strand and that neigh¬ bourhood with water. A draught and defcription of one of thefe engines is in Harris’s Lexicon Technicum. At the fame time that captain Savery was employed in perfe&ing his engine, Dr Papinus of Marburg was contriving one on the fame principles, which he de- feribes in a fmall book publilhed in 1707, intitled nova ad aquam ignis adminiculo efficaciflime elevandum. Captain Savery’s engine, however, was much completer than that propofed by Dr Papinus. About the fame time alfo one Monfieur Amontons of Paris was engaged in the fame purfuit: but his method of applying the force of fleam was different from thofe before-mentioned ; for he intended it to drive or turn a wheel, which he called a fire-mill, which was to work pumps for raifing water: but he never brought it to perfeftion. Each of thefe three gentlemen claimed the originality of the invention but it-is more than probable they all took the hint from the book publifhed by the marquis of Worcefter many years before. In this imperfeft Rate it continued without farther improvements until the year 1705, when Mr New- common and MrCalley of Dartmouth in Southampton- fliire made feveral experiments to bring it to work with a pifton and beam, as now-ufed ; in which, after much pains taken, they fucceeded, and obtained a patent for the foie ufe of this invention, for 14 years. The firft propofal they made for draining of mines by this engine was in the year 1711 ; but they were very coldly received by many perfons in the fouth of Eng¬ land, who did not underftand the nature of it. In 1712, they came to an agreement with the owners of a colliery at Griff in Warwicklhire, where they ereded an engine with a cylinder of 22 inches diameter. At firft they were under great difficulties in many things; but by the affiftance of fome good workmen they got all the parts put together in fuch a manner as to an- fwer their intention tolerably well: and this was the firft engine of the kind ereded in England. There was at firft one man to attend the fteam-cock, and another to attend the injedion-cock; but they after¬ wards contrived a method of opening and (hutting them by fome fmall machinery conneded with the working-beam. The next engine ereded by thefe patentees was at a colliery in the county of Durham, about the year 1718, where one Mr Beighton was concerned; who, not approving of the intricate manner of opening and (hutting the cocks by firings and catches as in the former engine, fubftituted the hanging-beam for that purpofe as at prefent ufed, and likewife made fome improvement in the pipes, valves, and fome other parts of the engine. In a few years afterwards thefe engines came to be better underftood than they had been ; and their ad¬ vantages, efpecially in draining of mines, became more apparent: and from the great number of them ereded, they received additional improvements from different hands, until they arrived at their prefent de¬ gree of perfedion. This engine, as now improved, is the mod curious Steam; and compound machine of all thofe inventions which have been owing to modern philofophy ; and is not only applicable to the raifing of large quantities of water out of mines, and for the fupplying of towns, &c. but to many other of the moft neceffary purpofes for mankind. The principles on which it ads are truly philofophi- cal ; and when all the parts of the machine are propor¬ tioned to each other agreeable to thefe principles, it never fails anfwering the intention of the engineer. 1. It has been proved in Pneumatics, that thepref- fure of the atmofphere upon a fquare inch at the earth’s furface, is about 14.8 pounds avoirdupoife at a mean. And, 2. If a vacuum is made by any means in a cylinder,Theory; which has a moveable pifton fufpended at one end of a lever equally divided, the air will endeavour to ruffi in, and will prefs down the pifton, with a force pro¬ portionable to the area of the furface, and will raife an equal weight at the other end of the lever. 3. Water may be rarefied near 14,000 times by be¬ ing reduced into fleam, the particles whereof are fo ftrongly repellent, as to drive away air of the common denfity, only by a heat fufficient to keep the water in a boiling date : by increafing the heat, the fleam may be rendered much ftronger; but this requires great ftrength in the veffels to fupport it. This (team may again be condenfed into its former ftate by a jet of cold water difparfed among it 5 fo that 14,000 cu¬ bic inches of fleam admitted into a cylinder, may be reduced into the fpace of one cubic inch of water only, by which means a vacuum is partly obtained. 4. Though the preffure of the atmofphere be about I4t8o pounds upon every fquare inch, yet on account of the friiftion of the feveral parts, the refiftance from fome air which is unavoidably admitted with the jet of cold water, and from fome remainder of (team in the cylinder, the vacuum is very imperfed, and the piftou does not defeend with a force exceeding eight or nine pounds upon every fquare inch of its furface. 5. The gallon of water of 282 cubic inches weighs ic.2 pounds averdupoife, or a cubic foot 62.5 pounds. The pifton being preffed by the atmofphere with a force proportionable to its area in inches, multiplied by about eight or nine pounds, depreffeth that end of the lever, and raifeth a column of water in the pumps of equal weight at the other end,by means of the pump- rods fufpended to it. When the fleam is again ad¬ mitted, the pifton rifes and the pump-rods fink; and when that (team is condenfed, the pump-rods again lift; and fo alternately as long as the engine works. It has been obferved above, that the pifton does not defeend with a force exceeding eight or nine pounds upon every fquare inch of its furface ; but by reafon of accidental friftions and alterations in the denfity of the air, it will be the fafeft method, in calculating the power of the cylinder, to allow fomething lefs than eight pounds for the preffure of the atmofphere upon every fquare inch, viz. feven pounds ten ounces ; and it being allowed that the gallon of water of 282 cubic inches weighs 10 2 pounds averdupoife, from thefc premiffes the dimenfions of the cylinder, pumps, &c. for any fire-engine, may be deduced as follows: Steam- Engine. S T E [ 8273 ] S T E Suppofe c=the cylinder’s diameter in inches. In this Table there are four particular values of each Steam- ^=the pump’s ditto. letter, which render it more extenfively ufeful than it Eng'ne' yi=the depth of the pit in fathoms. would have been upon a lefs fcale, becaufc fometimes ^=the gallons drawn by a ftroke of fix feet one value is more convenient for finding the unknown or one fathom. letter or quantity than another: as will be feen in the /Snthe hogfiieads drawn per hour. following examples, in which, to avoid repetitions, it jrrthe number of ftrokes per minute. is fuppofed that the preffitre of the atmofphere is fix Then c*X.7854=area of the cylinder, which multiplied pounds upon a circular inch of the pifton, and that the by 7.6+pound, the air’s preffure on a fquare inch, we engine goes at the rate of 12 ftrokes, 6 feet long each, have 6c* for the power of any cylinder in pounds aver- in a minute. Examples of the ufe of the Table. . Required the fize of the cylinder to work a pump of 12 inches diameter, 30 fathoms deep. Per theo- 1. c=therefore 38 dupoife. And, p ^7^54^7 ^ ^ g,a]]on3 contained in one 282 * 6 . fathom of any pump=.2005/>* ; which multiplied by /■fathoms, we have .2005/>y'for the gallons contained in any namber of fathoms of any pump. Alfo, .2005/yXi0.2 pound, the weight of one gal¬ lon, we have 2.045 i/>y=the we'g^t ‘n P°umb of the inches, column of water which is‘to be railed by the power of 2. Required the fize of the pump that a cylinder the cylinder. °f 3^ inches diameter can work at 30 fathoms deep. But as a fufficient allowance was made in the power p /i!?- therefore /HESlEP of the cylinder, by eftimating it at 7.64 pound only, ‘ ^ V / ’ V 30 inftead of 8 pound, the fra&ionof .0451 in the weight —12 inches. of the column of water may be fafely omitted ; whence - ^ Required the depth that a 36-Inch cylinder will we ftiall have 6c*—2pzJ'hy the latter equation; and by worjc a pump of 10 inches diameter. Per theorem 3. the fame mode .26*=—=? by the former. /=— ; therefore ^^^l=y=39 fathoms. Or if, inftead of fix pounds for the preuure of the ^ Required the number of gallons drawn at a fix- air on each circular inch of the cylinder, it be fuppofed feet ftroke la{t_mentioned cylinder and pumps, a pound, we (hall then have acl—2pzf\ and fubftitu- .z 10X10 tuting $g in the place of /*, it will be, ac^iogf. Per theorem 4. therefore =20 gal.=£. And farther, 63^ . whence 1 5. Required the preflure of the atmofphere on a 60/ * ’ r 5 cylinder 0136 inches, which works a pump 10 inches From a comparifon of thefe equations, the follow- 2**/". ing theorems are derived, which will determine the diameter, 39 fathoms deep. Per theorem 5* * fize of the cylinder and pumps of any fteam-engine ca- 10X10X20X2 pable of drawing a certain quantity of water from any therefore y- y-—=tf=6 pounds. afiigned depth, with the preffure of the atmofphere on each circular inch of the cylinder’s area. A Table of Theorems for the readier computing of the Powers of a Fire-engine. yr= /= y?= /r= 2£f_ *p' _ 5.25 •7?y_ y^= yiL V 2/ 3_£_ Sg 31* _ 5/~ x2il- g* _ 1.05 - 1 of 5gf— '5C* U05/) g c's ''lSb i.O$h *0-^/ 10.5/ io.5/y_ 36X36 6. Required the hoglheads delivered per hour by a pump of 16 inches diameter, at 12 ftrokes per minute. Per theorem 6. therefore =^=585 5.25 5.25 hogfheads. 7. Required the number of ftrokes per minute an engine rauft make to raife 585 hogiheads per hour by a 16-inch pump. Per theorem 7- j=^v~ > therefore 585><5^=/=12 ftrokes. 16X16 By thefe examples it is evident that the quantity fought is difcoverable (by the help of the theorems) by one operation only, which without them might have taken feveral. But it often happens in praftice, that an engine has to draw feveral pumps of different diameters from different depths ; in which cafe the operations will be fomewhat different from thofe above, as will be feen in the following example. 8. Let it be required to find the diameters of the cylinder and pumps to draw 520 hogfheads per hour from 30 fathoms deep, 450 hogfheads per hour from 20 fathoms deep, and 80 hogfheads per hour for the jackhead from 10 fathoms deep, allowing the engine to make 12 fix-feet ftrokes per minute, and the air’s pref¬ fure 6 pounds upon each circular inch of the pifton. 41 K Per Vol. X. Steam- Engine. S T E [ 8274 ] S T E Per tbeor 2. y^; therefore JSal'll =15, the firtl putnp=x. Per ditto, ti,e 2d pump==y. Per ditto, =6, the 3d pump=z. Then, per theor. 1. -y? if the water was to beraifed inonecolumnfromacertain depth; but itbeing in three columns of various dimenfions, it is evident from thequeftion, that the power of thecylinder mull be a coun- terpoife to the weight of all thefe columns; and putting x,ji, z, for the three pumps, inftead of p, the equation will be c—y x /X-^X2/ which is ^/i-L°J£=:6o.6 inches, the cylinder’s diameter. If there had been a greater number of pumps, the fize of the cylinder might have been found in the fame manner, by fubfti- tuting the fum of their fquares inftead of />’ in the the¬ orem. It is the praftice of fome engineers to allow a longer ftroke than fix feet; and, although the advantages of it are rather problematical, if that be fuppofed, for inftance, a 2 feet ftroke; then, inftead of pzd'S^g'' and z=£- in the table of theorems, we (hall have On the following page is given a Table, calculated from the foregoing theorems, of the powers of cylinders from 30 to 70 inches diameter; and the diameter and lengths of pumps which thofe cylinders are capable of work¬ ing, from a fix-inch bore to that of 20 inches, toge¬ ther with the quantity of water drawn per ftroke and per hour, allowing the engine to make 12 ftrokes of 6 feet per minute. Explanation of the Table. The fir ft column on the left is the diameter of the cylinders from 30 inches to 70. The firft line of num¬ bers at the top is the diameters of pumps from 6 to 20 inches ; and the numbers in the common angle of meet¬ ing are the fathoms in depth which the cylinder is ca¬ pable of working with any of thefe pumps. The right-hand column gives the power of the cylinder in pounds, to which it (lands oppofite, likewife the weight of the columns of water in the fame line. Thus the firft fum, 5400 pounds, is the power of a 30-inch cylinder; it is alfo the weight of water contained in 75 fathoms of 6-inch pumps, 55 fathoms of 7 inches diameter, 42 fathoms of 8 inches, 33 fathoms of 9 inches, &c. The quantity in gallons drawn by a fix-feet ftroke, or the quantity contained in one fathom of any of the Steam- pumps, is expreffed in the lowed line but one; any Engine» quantity in this line multiplied by 10.2 will give the weight in pounds of one fathom, if wanted. The lowed line of figures is the number of hoglheads drawn in an hour by eachs pump refpedlively, when the en¬ gine goes 12 ftrokes per minute. Examples of the Ufe of the Table. 1. Required the fize of the cylinder to work a pump of 12 inches diameter 30 fathom deep. Under 12 inches, the diameter of the pump, find the fathoms 30, (or the neared number to it) ; and on the fame line in the firft column is 38 inches, the dia¬ meter of the cylinder. 2. Required the fize of the pump that a cylinder of 38 inches diameter can work at 30 fathoms deep. Find 38, the cylinder’s diameter in the firft column; then in the line from it look for 30 fathoms, or the neared number to it ; and where that is found, the diameter of the pump will be found above : thus 30 fathoms has 12 inches for the pump’s diameter. 3. Required the depth that a 36-inch cylinder will work a pump of 10 inches diameter. Find 36 in the fide-column, and to in the upper line ; and in the common angle of meeting is 39, the fathoms required. 4. Required the number of gallons drawn per ftroke by the laft-mentioned cylinder and pumps. Under the diameter 10 of the pump, and in the loweft line but one, is 20, the number of gallons drawn per ftroke. 5. Required the hogfheads delivered per hour by a 12-inch pump. Under 12, the pump’s diameter, in the loweft line of figures, is 328, the hogftieads delivered per hour. 6. Required the diameter of the cylinder and pumps to draw 520 hogflieads per hour from 30 fathoms deep, 450 hogflieads per hour from 20 fathoms deep, and 80 hogflieads per hour from 10 fathoms deep. In this queftion take the neareft numbers in the Table : thus 513 hogflieads per hour is the neareft to 520, and above it find the fathoms 29, which is near¬ eft to 30 ; then at the head of that column is 15 inches for the fize of the larged pump, and in the right-hand column, oppofite 29, is 12,696 lb. the weight of that water; viz. Pump, 15 inches, Weight, 12,696 In the fame manner find pump 14 inch. 7776 Alfo pump 6 inch. 800 The fum is the weight of the whole, 21272 Then, by looking in the laft column amongft the powers of cylinders, the neareft number to 21,272 is 21,600 ; and oppofite to it, in the firft column, is 60 inches, the diameter of a cylinder capable of working thofe three pumps. TABLE Steam- Engine. S T E [ 8275 } S T E TABLE of the Power and Effe&s of Steam-Engines, allowing 12 flrokes of 6 feet long each /Vr minute, and the Preffurc of the Air 71b. tooz. per fquare Inch. Steam- Engine. The Diameters of the Pumps in Inches. 718 | 9 | 10 | n 1 12 | 13 14 | 15 1 16 | 17 | 18 19 | 20 55 58 42 64 33 48 22 19 16 90 56 77 96 82 86 75 12 10 — 64 29 I 26 48 42 50 45 38 34 40 36 Power of the cylin¬ ders, and weight of pounds TToo" 5766 6144 6534 6936 7350 7776 8214 8664 9126 9600 10584 11616 12696 13824 15000 6224 i7496 18816 20184 21600 „ 23064 24546 26676 27744 [29400 Quantity 11 drawn at H oneftroke j(| inEallonsV»' 20 24.2I28.8I33.8 3*92 j 45 5i.2j57.8j64.8j72.2j 80 | Quantity s .drawn in 1 one hour in f hogtheads, J \ I 14 148 184 228 276 I 328 3851 447 J 5*3 | 583| 659 J 738| 823 | 912 |j 10 11 12 13 14 41 K 2 15 16 17 18 19 20 S T E [ 8276 ] S T E Steam- We fliall now defcrlbe the feveral parts of an en- Eng‘ne‘ gine, and exemplify the application of the foregoing Pratt ice. principles in the conftruftion of one of the completed of the modern engines. See Plate CCLXXIII. fig. 1. A, Reprefents the fire-place under the boiler, for the boiling of the water, and the alh-hole below it. B, The boiler, filled with water about three feet above the bottom, made of iron plates. C, The fteam-pipe through which the fleam pafles from the boiler into the receiver. D, The receiver, a clofe iron veffcl, in which is the regulator or fteam-cock, which opens and (huts the hole of communication each ftroke. E, The communication-pipe betwixt the receiver and the cylinder ; it rifes 5 or 6 inches up, in the in- fide of the cylinder bottom, to prevent the injedted water from defcending into the receiver. F, The cylinder, of call iron, about 10 feet long, bored fmooth in the infide ; it has a broad flanch in the middle on the outfide, by which it is fupported when hung in the cylinder-beams. G, The pifton, made to fit the cylinder exadtly : it has a flanch rifing 4 or 5 inches upon its upper fur- face, betwixt which and the fide of the cylinder a quantity of junk or oakham is fluffed, and kept down by weights, to prevent the entrance of air or water and the efcaping of fleam. H, The chain and pifton (hank by which it is con- nedted to the working-beam. II, The working-beam or lever: it is made of two or more large logs of timber, bent together at each end, and kept at the diftance of 8 or 9 inches from each other in the middle by the gudgeon, as reprefent- ed in the Plate. The arch-heads, II, at the ends, are for giving a perpendicular dirediion to the chains of the pifton and pump-rods. K, The pump-rod which works in the fucking- pump L, and draws the water from the bottom of the pit to the furface. M, A ciftern, into which the water drawn out of the pit is condudled by a trough, fo as to keep it al¬ ways full; and the fuperfluous water is carried off by another trough. N, The jack-head pump, which is a fucking-pump wrought by a fmall lever or working-beam, by means of a chain connedled to the great beam or lever near the arch g at the inner end, and the pump-rod at the outer end. This pump commonly (lands near the cor¬ ner of the front of the houfe, and raifes the column of water up to the ciflern O, into which it is condudl¬ ed by a trough. O, The jack-head ciftern for fupplying the injec¬ tion, which is always kept full by the pump N: it ia fixed fo high as to give thejet a fufficient velocity into the cylinder when the cock is opened. This cittern has a pipe on the oppofite fide for conveying away the fuper¬ fluous water. PP, The injedtion-pipe, of 3 or 4 inches diameter, which turns up in a curve at the lower end, and enters the cylinder bottom : it has a thin plate of iron upon the end a, with 3 or 4 adjutage holes in it, to permit tl;e jet of cold water from the jack-head ciftern to fly up againft the pifton and condenfe the fleam each flroke, when the injedlion-cock is open, e, A valve upon the upper end of the injedlion-pipe within the ciftern, which is (hut when the engine is not working, to Steam- prevent any wafte of the water, f, A fmall pipe which Engin». branches off from the injedlion-pipe, and has a fmall cock to fupply the pifton with a little water to keep it air-tight. The working plug, fufpended by a chain to the arch g of the working-beam. It is ufually a heavy piece of timber, with a flit vertically down its middle, and holes bored horizontally through it, to receive pins for the purpofe of opening and (hutting the injedtion and (learn cocks as it afeends and defeends by the mo¬ tion of the working-beam. b. The handle of the fteam-cock or regulator. It is fixed to the regulator by a fpindle which comes up through the top of the receiver. The regulator is a circular plate of brafs or call iron, which is moved horizontally by the handle ht and opens or (huts the communication at the lower end of the pipe E within the receiver. It is reprefented in the Plate by a cir¬ cular dotted line. i i, The fpanner, which is a long rod or plate of iron for communicating motion to the handle of the regulator; to which it is fixed by means of a flit in the latter, and fome pins put through to fatten it. kl, The vibrating lever, called the T, having the weight k at one end and two legs at the other end. It is fixed to an horizontal axis, moveable about its centre-pins or pivots m n, by means of the two (hanks op fixed to the fame axis, which are alternately thrown backwards and forwards by means of two pins in the working plug ; one pin on the outfide deprefling the (hank 0, throws the loaded end k of the Y from the cylinder into the pofition reprefented in the plate, and caufes the leg / to ftrike againft the end of the fpan¬ ner ; which forcing back the handle of the regulator or fleam cock, opens the communication, and permits the fleam to fly into the cylinder. The pifton imme¬ diately rifing by the admiffion of the fleam, the work¬ ing-beam 11 rifes; which alfo raifes the working-plug, and another pin which goes through the flit raifes the (hank p, which throws the end k of the Z towards the cylinder, and, ftriking the end of the fpanner, forces it forward, and (huts the regulator or fteam-cock. q r, The lever for opening and (hutting the injec¬ tion-cock, called the F. It has two toes from its centre, which take betwixt them the key of the injeflion- cock. When the working-plug has afeended nearly to its greateft height, and (hut the regulator, a pin catches the end j of the F and raifes it up, which opens the injedlion-cock, admits a jet of cold water to fly into the cylinder, and, condenfing the fteam, makes a vacuum ; then the preffure of the atmofphere bring¬ ing down the pifton in the cylinder, and alfo the plug- frame, another pin fixed therein catches the end of the lever in its defeent, and, by prefiing it down, (huts the injedtion-cock,, at the fame thne the regulator is opened to admit fteam, and fo on alternately; when the regulator is (hut the injedtion is open, and when the former is open the latter is (hut. R, The hot well-. A fmall ciftern made of planks, which receives all the wafte water from the cylinder. S, The fink-pit, to convey away the water which is injedted into the cylinder each flroke. Its upper end is even with the infide of the cylinder bottom, its lower cad has a lid or cover moveable on a binge, wiich. £ T E [ 8277 ] S T E Steam- which ferves as a valve to let out the inje&ed water, ^ngine- and ftiuts clofe each ftroke of the engine, to prevent the water being forced up again when the vacuum is made. T, The feeding pipe, to fupply the boiler with wa¬ ter from the hot well. It has a cock to let in a large or fmall quantity of water as occafion requires, to make up for what is evaporated ; it goes nearly down to the boiler bottom. U, Two gage-cocks, the one larger than the other, to try when a proper quantity of water is in the boiler: upon opening the cocks, if one give fleam and the other water, it is right; if they both give fteam, there is too little water in the boiler; and if they both give water, there is too much. W, A plate which is fcretfed on to a hole in the fide of the boiler, to allow a paflage into the boiler for the convenience of cleaning or repairing it. X, The fleam-clack or puppet-valve, which is a brafs valve on the top of a pipe opening into the boil¬ er, to let off the fteam when it is too ftrong. It is loaded with lead, at the rate of one pound to an inch fquare; and when the fteam is nearly ftrong enough to keep it open, it will do for the working of the en- g'ne- f. The fnifting valve, by which the air is difchar- ged from the cylinder each ftroke which was admitted with the inje&ion, and would otherwife obftruift the due operation of the engine. tt, The cylinder-beams; which are ftrong joifts going through the houfe for fupporting the cylinder. v, The cylinder-cap of lead, foldered on the top of the cylinder, to prevent the water upon the pifton from flafhing over when it rifes too high. , and the diameter of the adjutage a, then and im*" roved* J*mes ^att Birmingham having lately ob- engine!6 tained a patent for an improvement of the fteam-engine above-defcribed, we {hall give an account of this im¬ provement, and point out in what the advantage of it confifts. The cylinder, or fteam-veftel, A, of this engine, (fee Plate CCLXXIII. fig. 2.) is fhut at bottom and open at top, as ufual ; and is included in an outer cylinder or cafe BB, of wood or metal, covered with materials which tranfmit heat flowly. This cafe is at a little diftance from the cylinder, and is fhut at both ends; the cover C has a hole in it through which the pifton- rod E Aides; and near the bottom is another hole F, by which the fteam from the boiler has always free entrance into this cafe or outer cylinder, and by the interface GG between the two cylinders has accefs to the upper fide of the pifton HH. To the bottom of the inner cylinder A is joined a pipe I, with a cock or valve K, which is opened and ftiut when neceflary, and forms a pafiage to another vcfiel L called a con- Jenfer, made of thin metal. This veflel is immerfed in a ciftern M full of cold water, and is contrived in fuch a manner as to expofe a very great furface externally to the water, and internally to the fteam. It is alfo made air-tight, and has pumps N wrought by the en¬ gine, which keep it always exhaufted of air and water. Both the cylinders A and B B being filled with fteam, the paflage K is opened from the inner one to L the condenfer, into which the fteam rufties with violence by its elafticity, becaufe that veflel is exhauft¬ ed;; but it no fooner enters it, than coming into con¬ tact with the cold matter of the condenfer, it is re¬ duced to water, and the vacuum ftill remaining, the fteam continues to rufh in until the inner cylinder A below the pifton is left empty. The fteam which is above the pifton teafing to be countera&ed by that which was below it, afts upon the pifton HH, and forces it to defcend to the bottom of the cylinder, and fo raifes the bucket of the pump by means of the le¬ ver. The paflage K between the inner cylinder and the condenfer is then ftiut, and another paflage O is opened, which permits the fteam to pafs from the outer cylinder, or from the boiler into the inner cy¬ linder under the pifton; and then the fuperior weight of the bucket and pump-rods pulls down the outer end Steatites.' of the lever or great beam, and raifes the pifton, which ~ is fufpended to the inner end of the fame beam. The advantages that accrue from this conftruftion are, firft, that the cylinder being furrounded with the fteam from the boiler, is kept always uniformly as hot as the fteam itfelf, and is therefore incapable of de- ftroying any part of the fteam which fliould fill it, as the common engines do. Secondly, the condenfer being kept always as cold as water can be procured, and colder than the point at which it boils in vacuo, the fteam is perfe&ly condenfed and does not oppofe the defcent of the pifton ; which is therefore forced down by the full power of the fteam from the boiler, which is fomcwhat greater than that of the atmo- fphere. In the common fire-engines, when they are loaded to feven pounds upon the inch, and are of a middle fize, the quantity of fteam which is condenfed in rc« ftoring to the cylinder the heat which it had been de¬ prived of by the former inje&ion of cold water, is about one full of the cylinder, befides what really it required to fill that veflel ; fo that twice the full of the cylinder is employed to make it raife a column of wa¬ ter equal to about feven pounds for each fquare inch of the pifton : or, to take it more Amply, a cubic foot of fteam raifes a cubic foot of water about eight feet high, befides overcoming the friftion of the en¬ gine, and the refiftance of the water to motion. In the improved engine, about one full and a fourth of the cylinder is required to fill it, becaufe the fteam is one-fourth more denfe than in the common engine. This engine raifes a load equal to 12 pounds and a half upon the fquare inch of the pifton; and each cu¬ bic foot of fteam of the denfity of the atmofphere, raifes one cubic foot of water 22 feet high. STEATITES, in the hiftory of foflils, a name given by late authors to a fubftance called in Eng- lilh foap earth. Dr Woodward much recommends it as a fubftance for making porcelain ; and repeated trials of it have been made fince his time, and fome of them very lately ; in all which it has afforded the fined earthen-ware ever was made with us, and pro- mifes fair, with good management, for the equalling any in the world. It is dug in many parts of Devon- fhire and Cornwall, and the neighbouring counties; the cliff of the Lizard-point is almoft wholly compofed of it, and the adjacent little iflands abound with it; and from all theie places it might be brought, at a fmall expence, in any quantities. It is known from all other ^earths by thefe chara&ers : it is compofed of extremely fine particles ; and is of a firm, equal, and regular texture, and a great weight. It is very firm and hard as it lies in the earth ; but when it has been fome time expofed to the air, it becomes almoft of a ftony hardnefs. It is of a perfeflly fine, fmooth, and gloffy furface, fofter to the touch than any other fpecies of earth, and does not at all adhere to the tongue, or ftain the fingers in handling ; but, drawn along a rough furface, as a piece of cloth, or the like, it marks it with a fine and even white line. In colour it is a dear white, veined and variegated very beauti¬ fully with purple of different degrees of deepnefs; and is of fo fine a ftru&ure of parts, that when cut into thin pieces it is in feme degree tranfparent. It makes S T E r 8279 ] S T E Steatoma, no effervefcence with acids; and burns to a pure white, Steel- even in its purple parts. This fubftance is found to contain in great quantity the fine white earth called magnefia alba. STEATOMA, a kind of encyfted tumour, con- fifting of a matter like fuel or lard, foft, without pain, and without difcolouring the fkin. STEEL, a very hard and fufible kind of iron. Stahl, Cramer, and all good chemifts, juftly confider fteel as an improved iron, which is pofleffed of a larger quantity of inflammable principle, fo neceflary to all metals, and which really contains fewer hetero¬ geneous, and more metallic, parts than an equal bulk of iron. We fhall be convinced of this truth by a defcription and explanation of the methods of convert¬ ing iron into fteel, and by examining the charac- teriftic properties of fteel. Steel may be made by fufion or by cementation. The firft method is ufed to convert iron into fteel im¬ mediately from the ore. All ores of iron are not ufed indifferently for this purpofe; becaufe fome of thefe, which are therefore called ores of Jleel, are much fitter than others to furnifh good fteel; and the fteel extract¬ ed from them is called naturalJleel (a). The other method of making fteel confifts in choofing the btft forged iron, or that which is moft malleable, whether it be hot or cold; and impregnating this iron with a larger portion of inflammable principle, by ce¬ mentation alone, without fufion. To underftand well thefe methods of making fteel, we muft attend to twoeffential properties of iron. The firft is, that of all metals it is the moft difficultly fufible; and that therefore, although, in the fmelting of its ores, its fufion be much affifted by the fulphureous parts of the ore itfelf; yet, as thefe parts are always expelled as much as is poffible, iron never enters into fo thin and perfeft a fufion as the other metals. The fecond property of iron to which we ought to attend is, that the earth of this metal is capable of combining with the inflammable principle, and of be- ing metallifed without fufion. Thefe things being premifed, it happens, in eonfe- quence of the former property, that, in the firft fufion of ores of iron, we obtained only a hard and brittle iron, both from the fulphureous parts from which this iron is not entirely difengaged, and from the prefence of a greater or lefs quantity of earthy matters, which are either unmetallic; or which, if they be ferrugi¬ nous, have not been metallifed, from want of immedi¬ ate conta& with the phlogifton of the fuel. We may eafily perceive that thefe earthy parts, un* metallic or not metallifed, cannot be entirely feparated from the perfeft iron, becaufe the fufion is not fuffici- ently thin for that purpofe: but in proportion as the iron is deprived of fulphur, its fufion becomes more and more difficult, and we are obliged to have re- courfe to another expedient than fufion to difengage it from its earthy parts, which in the firft fmelting remain intercepted betwixt the metallic parts. This expedient is the forge. The impure iron intended to be rendered malleable is to be heated red-hot, and {truck by a very heavy hammer. This percuffion, that iron foftened by heat fuftains, preffes ftrongly, and folders or welds together the me¬ tallic parts, which alone are capable of uniting toge¬ ther ; and obliges the unmetallic parts, which are incapable of uniting with the metal, to feparate. By this operation thefe unmetallic parts are prefled be¬ tween the parts of the iron, and driven by degrees to the farface of the metal, from which they are detached in form of dull and fcales. This treatment, which is a kind of kneading of the iron, is to be repeated till •it has acquired the proper degree of purity and duc¬ tility. The operations by which fteel is to be extradfed from its ores are effentially the fame as thofe employed for iron ; but they differ from them in being much more exaft ; that an iron ftill purer, more filled with phlo- gifton. (a) Steel is made fometimes diredtly from the ore, but more frequently from crude or caft iron. Thefe methods of mtking fteel are not known in England; but are pradtifed in Sweden and other parts of Europe. The procefs for. making fteel from caft-iron is thus defcribed by Swedenborgius, as it is performed in Dalecarlia. The ore from which the crude iron to be converted into fteel is obtained is of a good kind. It is black, friable,, and compofed of many fmall grains; and it produces very tough iron. The converlion into fteel is made upon a forge-hearth, fomething fmaller than common. The fides and bottom are made of caft-iron. The tuyere is placed^ with very little inclination, on one of the fide-plates. The breadth of the fire-place is 14 inches;, its length is- greater The lower part of the tuyere is fix one half inches above the bottom. In the interior part of the fire¬ place, there is an oblong opening for the flowing of the fuperfluous fcoria. The workmen firft put fcor'ta on the. bottom, then charcoal and powder of charcoal, and upon thefe the caft-iron run or cut into fmall pieces. They co¬ ver the iron with more charcoal, and excite the fire. When the pieces of iron are of a re^-white, and before they begin to melt, they flop the bellows, and cary the mafs under a large hammer, where they break it into pieces of three or four pounds each. The pieces are again brought to the hearth, and laid within reach of the workman, who plunges fome of them into the fire, and covers them with coal. The bellows are made to blow flowly till the iron is liquified. Then the fire is increafed; and when, the fufion has been long enough continued, the icoria are allowed to flow out; and at that time the iron hardens. The workman adds more of the pieces of crude iron, which he treats in the fame manner, and fo on a third and a fourth time, till he obtains a mafs of fteel of about a hundred pounds, which is generally done in about four hours. This mafs is raifed and. carried to the hammer,, where it is forged, and cut into four pieces, which are further beat into fquare bars four or five feet long. When the fteel is thus forged, it is thrown into water, that it may be eafily broken ; for it is yet curde and eoarfe-grained,. The fteel is now carried to another hearth fimilar to the former, and there broken in pieces. Thefe pieces are laid- regularly in the fire-place, firft two parallel, upon which ieven or eight others are placed acrofs, then a third row acrofs the fecond, in fuch a manner that there is fpace left between thofe of the fame row. The whole.is then co¬ vered with charcoal, and the fire is excited. In about half or three quarters of an hour the pieces are made hot. enough, and are then taken from the fire, one by one, to the hammer, to be forged into little bars from half a foot , to two feetlong, and while hot, are thrown into water to be hardened. Of thefe pieces 16 or zo are put together lb as to mSce a bundle, which is heated and welded, and afterwards forged into bars four inches thick, which , are; then broken into pieces of convenient length for ufe.. S T E r 82S0 1 S T E Steel, gifton, and better difengaged from its earthy parts, may be obtained. To fucceed in this intention, much fmaller quanti¬ ties muft be fufed at once than when iron is to be ex- traced from its ore. Pieces of the firft fulion are to be put into crucibles filled and covered with charcoal, and expofed to a violent heat excited by ftrong bellows. Thefe pieces arc to be well fufed, and kept in fufion a longer or fhorter time, according to the nature of the ore} after which they are to be forged, as iron is; but always in much fmaller pieces, and till they are become perfe&ly du&ile both when hot and when cold. Nothing then remains but to temper the fteel, of which we fhall prefently fpeak. In tbefe operations, which are to be feveral times repeated, the iron that is changed into fteel muft evi¬ dently be much better purified, and furnifhed with a much greater quantity of inflammable principle, than in the fmeltings and fufions of large quantities of iron. As the mafles of metal are fmall in thefe operations for the procuring o>f fteel, and as they are furrounded with a much larger proportion of charcoal, the fufion is not only more complete, by which the feparation of the earthy unmetallic parts is much promoted ; but alfo a greater number of ferruginous parts are well metallifed; and as all thefe parts of iron are in more intimate contaft with the charcoal, which is capable of fupplying them with inflammable principle, they Teceive the whole quantity of this principle with which they can unite. The fame obfervation may be applied to the opera¬ tion of the forge praftifed upon fmaller maffes; for the heterogeneous parts are much more eafily and co- pioufly preffed out of fmall maifes than great. This exaft purification of iron, by which it is con¬ verted into fteel, muft evidently be attended with con- fiderable lofs, or diminution, from the feparation of all its heterogeneous parts. This diminution amounts to nearly one half of the weight of the iron. This great lofs does not proceed altogether from the fepa¬ ration of heterogeneous parts; for in all the operations ufed for this feparation, fome part of the metal is always deftroyed and burnt, although all poffible pre¬ cautions are taken to diminifh this inconvenience, by fecuring the melted or red-hot metal from the contaft of external air as much as is poffible. Artificial fteel is made without fufion from iron ready forged. The chief point to be attended to in the making of the beft artificial fteel, is to choofe the iron which is mpft perfe£t and rooft malleable either when it is hot or cold ; whicfi quality always (hows that the iron is well purified. It is firft to be forged into plates or bars, rather fmall than large, according to the works for which it is intended; and it is then to be cemented with matters capable of giving to it much inflammable principle. The matters which compofe this cement vary according to the ufes of different manufaflurers. They are all good, provided they contain no fulphur, or vitriolic acid, which might form fulphur during the operation ; becaufe fulphur, having much affinity with iron, would certainly unite with this metal, would entirely or partly fufe it, and would, by reducing it to a mineral or pyritous ftate, give to it qualities very different from thofe which good fteel ought to have. The matters which enter into the corapofition of Steel, the cement for fteel, are the coals of animal or vege¬ table fubftances, mixed with afhes, calcined bones, and other matters of this kind. Mr Cramer propofes thefe two following receipts of. cements for fteel, which ap¬ pear to be very good. Take one part of powder of charcoal, half a part of wood-afires, and mix them very well together. Or, Take two parts of charcoal, moderately pulverifed : one part of bones, horns, hair or Ikins of animals, burnt in clofe veffels to blacknefs, and powdered ; half a part of wood-afhes; and mix them well together. When fteel is to be made, the bars of iron are to be placed vertically in a cylindrical crucible, which ought to be three inches higher than the bars, and into which a ftratum of the cement of about the thicknefs of a finger has been previoufly put and prefled down. The bars ought to be about an inch diflant from each other, and from the fides of the crucible. The interftices and crucible are then to be filled with cement, fo that the bars (hall be covered with about the thicknefs of two inches at lead. The crucible, previoufly covered with a lid which fits it exaftly, and which muft be carefully luted with clay mixed with fand, is to be placed in a furnace where an equal fire is to be kept, fo that the crucible (hall be red-hot during eight or ten hours: the iron will then be found to be converted into fteel, which will be fo much better as the iron employed was of a bet¬ ter quality : it then only requires to be tempered. We may obferve, that in this operation the iron fuffers no diminution of weight, and no fcoria appear upon its furface, as Mr Cramer remarks. By the foie ad¬ dition, therefore, of a new quantity of phlogifton, the iron acquires the quality of fteel. Thus, if this iron contained fome parts of martial earth which was not metallifed, by the cementation they are metallifed, and the iron or fteel are thereby improved : but if the iron contained fome earthy unmetallic parts, they are not feparated by this operation, becaufe the metal has not been fufed : and as the beft forged iron which is ufuafly fold, is never fo well purified from thefe ex¬ traneous matters, as that which is converted into fteel in the great works for procuring fteel from the ore of iron; hence, in general, artificial fteel made by ce¬ mentation is not fo perfetft as that made by fufion. We may obferve, that, in the cementation above de- fcribed, the iron combines with a part of the phlogifton of the cement, without fufion; which effeft proceeds from a peculiar property of the earth of iron, by which it is capable of combining with the inflammable principle, and of being metallifed without fufion, which is, neverthelefs, neceffary for the reduction of all other metallic earths. The fteel which has received only the above-men¬ tioned preparations differs from iron in its colour, which is more dark and brown ; in its grain, which is finer and clofer ; in poffeffing a greater duftility, flexibility, and foftnefs; but the great difference of fteel from iron, which renders it more valuable for many purpofes and arts, is the extreme hardnefs it ac¬ quires by being tempered. This operation is very Ample. It confifts in making fteel red-hot, and then in plunging it fuddenly in cold water. In an inftant all the qualities of this fteel 1 are iHiaiKi r$0, ■//>,// s T E [ 8281 ] S T E _are changed by this tempering; fo that from being pears and leaves a water-colour, if the fteel has been heated too much or too long. very duftile and foft, it becomes fo hard and fo ftiff, that it is no longer capable of being cut by the file; but is itfelf capable of cutting or piercing very hard bodies: that it does not yield to the hammer; but may be fooner broken in pieces like a flint, than be extended. It is fonorous, brittle, Very elaftic, and capable of acquiring the moft lively and moft beauti¬ ful polifli, as we fee in finely-wrought toys of fleel. The ufe of this metal is very extenfive for number- From what has been faid, we may judge that fteel is lefs convenient and neceflary utenfils of all forts, of much better purified iron than any other, impregnated which without it we Ihould absolutely be deprived: with a larger quantity of inflammable principle, and ^ Thefe different (hades - mark the degree of heat or of annealing applied to different tools or utenfils. The moft generally ufed fuade is the blue, fuch as that given to fteel-fprings. One of the moft important properties of fteel is the magnetic quality, which it is capable of acquiring much better than iron. Good mariners compaffes cannot be made without needles of fteel. but what renders its ufe ftill more general is, that we can diverfify at pleafure its hardnefs and du&ility, by varying the temper. The hotter the fteel is when tempered, and the colder the water into which it is plunged, the greater hardnefs it acquires; but, at the fame time, it becomes fo much more brittle. This very hard temper is neceffary for certain tools deftgned hardened by the temper. Some celebrated* natural philofophers, but who were not chemifts, have advan¬ ced, that fteel was only iron which ftill retained fome- thing of its mineral nature, and that its ftate was in¬ termediate betwixt that of caft-iron and foft forged iron. But this opinion is manifeftly erroneous. They have been deceived by the hardnefs and brittlenefs of to cut very hard bodies. On the contrary, the lefs caft-iron, which are nearly as great as in fteel. But hot the fteel is when tempered, and the hotter the thefe qnalities proceed from a remaining part of the water is in which it is tempered, the lefs hard it be- mineralifingAibftances, which leave it a pyritouscharac- comes, and alfo the greater duflility it retains ; and ter, very different from that of true fteel; fince this can hence many tools may be made of it fit for cutting only be hardened by the temper, and fince in the pre¬ bodies moderately hard, which tools are lefs liable to paration of it all fulphureous matter muft be carefully have their points broken or their edges notched, than avoided. The miftake of thefe authors proceeded from if tliey were made of a harder fteel. their ignorance of the inflammable principle, the pro- . other general rule can be given for the temper- perties of which have been fo well explained by the ,nm k J rr.. Uluftrious Stahl, and from their being led into an error by the old chemifts, who perpetually confounded phlogifton, or the the pureft and fimpleft inflammable principle of all bodies, with fulphur, with fulphu¬ reous matters, and with moft other inflammable com¬ pounds. Steel may be unmade, or reduced to the ftate of iron, by a management fimilar to that by which it is made, that is, by cementation. But the cement ufed for this purpofe muft be compofed of fubftances en- ing of fteel than that we have mentioned. The pro¬ per degree of heat is always relative to the ufe to which the tools to be made of this fteel are to be applied. Another very convenient property of fteel is, that after it has been tempered, it may be again un¬ tempered and foftened to any dsgree that we think proper ; for which purpofe we have only to heat it more or lefs, and to let it cool (lowly. By this method we may foften the hardeft-tempered fleel. As the temper is a very effential point with regard tirely free from inflammable matter, and rather ca- to fteel, and that the heft is in general that which gives the greateft hardnefs, and deftroys the lead of the duftility of the metal, various fubftances are ufed into which fteel to be tempered is plunged. Such are fuet, oil, urine ; water impregnated with foot, with fal ammoniac, or with other falts. Thefe particular methods are the bafes of many fecrets in different manufaftures; their advantages cannot be afcertained without a very accurate and continued examination. Very interefting refearches remain to be made on this fubjeQ. Steel is ufually fold tempered, becaufe, in many manafaflures of it, the cultom is to temper it as foon pable of abforbing it, as calcareous earth ahd quicklime are. By a cementation then with thefe matters, con¬ tinued during eight or ten hours, fteel is reduced to the ftate of iron. Stahl confiders it as an undecided queftion, whe* ther fteel be more fufible than iron, and fays, that the workmen cannot decide it from the violence of fire neceffary to melt either of them. He believed, with reafon, that this queftion might be decided by melting thefe metals in the focus of a burning fpeculum. Mr Macquer fays, that by this method be found fteel much more fufible than iron. This greater fufibility of fteel can be only attributed to the greater quantity , til * v.«n Ol Li tuuicu IU Lite yrce jw it is made, probably that the purchafers of it may of phlogifton united with it, as phlocrifton is in general be the better able to judge of its quality. When this the ca-ufe of the fufibility of metals. fteel is to be ufed, it muft; be untempered, that it may be extended, filed, and receive the form intended to be given to it ; after which each workman tempers it again in his manner. But we alfo find amongft merchants Englifti fteel in fmall bars, which is not tempered, and which is very good. Well-polifhed plates of fteel, put on a gentle fire of charcoal, acquire different colours on their furface, and pafs fucceffively through feveral (hades, as they By converfion of iron into lied, this metal acquiresa- clofer,more compadl, and finer grained texture, greater hardnefs, elafticity, tenacity, denfity, fonoroufnefs, and difpofition to receive the magnetic property ; and, as fome fay, an increafe of weight. It is aifo rendered lefs liable to ruft by expofure to air ; and lefs liable to emit fparkles when heated. The colours or irifes which fteel acquires by expofure to heat, and which marks by which workmen know when any ac« become hotter, in the following order : white, yellow, quired heat is given, are not peculiar to flee! and iron, orange, purpie, violet, and laftly blue, which difajs- but may alfo be produced by the fame means on ail 41 L other S T E [ 8282 Steel, other calcinable metals. Thefe colours proceed from a calcination gradually advancing on that part of the metals which is expofed to air. And as the particles of metals in their different degrees of calcination are pof- fibly of different fizes, fo they muft acquire (according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s theory, which fhuws that the colours of bodies depend on the fize of their integrant parts) different refiedlive powers, and exhibit changes of colours. Steel may be made by fufion from the ore, or by cementation of forged iron with inflammable matters. Anciently, fteel is laid to have been made by immer- fing forged iron during fome time in melted crude iron. Forged iron may alfo be changed into fteel, as Wal- lerius affirms, by immerfing in melted fcoria ; or by fufion with black flux, glafs-gall, or borax ; or by ftrewing fea-falt upon heated iron, and extinguifhing it in dung. Various opinions are formed concerning the caufe of the difference between iron and fteel. The mod general opinion attributes this difference to the pre- fence of a larger quantity of phlogifton in the latter than in the former. Some authors, attending chiefly to the method of converfion by fufion, confider that operation only as a purification of the iron from earthy and heterogeneous particles, and fteel merely as a more pure and perfed iron. Others, obferving fome fimilitude in the texture of fteel to certain kinds of caft-iron, and the hardnefs of both thefe, without at¬ tending to their effential differences, have imagined that the date of fteel was intermediate betwixt that of call and that of forged iron. Laftly, fome metallur- gifts maintain, that the converfion of iron into fteel is effe&ed, not by abforption of phlogifton, but by ex- pulfion of fulphureous or acid particles. To fupport this opinion, they obferve, 1. That fteel is lefs dif- pofed than iron to ruft ; the caufe of ruft being, as they think, an acid contained in iron. 2. That fteel emits fewer fparkles under the hammer than iron, which fparkles are found to be moft frequent in irom abounding with fulphur, as in red-lhort iron. 3. That iron may be converted into fteel by cementation with alkaline falls, capable of attrading the acid and ful¬ phur. 4. That in the preparation of fteel by fufion, the metal is rather expofed to a dilfipation of its in¬ flammable parts and burnt, than further phlogifticated; and that this operation is accordingly called by work¬ men the burning ef fleet. In the preparation of fteel by fufiorr, probably much of the earthy matters contained in the iron may be feparated, and any contained acid or fulphur may be burnt or diffipated. But the converfion of fteel into iron by cementation with abforbent earths, in which operation no acid or fulphur can be abforbcd by the metal, (hows that the difference between iron and fteel does not confift in the prefence of an acid or of ful¬ phur in the iron, but rather in the prefence of fome fubftance in the fteel, which the inflammable cement¬ ing fubftance can give to it, and of which abforbent earths can deprive it. This fubftance has been gene¬ rally believed to be phlogifton : by the addition of which the metal acquires a newtexture,together withthehard- nefs, elafticity, and other peculiar properties of fteel. The affinities and medicinal virtues of fteel are the fame as thofe of iron. See Ikon. ] S T E Saltof&rrzi.. See Chemistry, n° /46. Stcet, SrEEL-Tbr*/. See Balance. Steele. STEELE (Sir Richard), was born about the year 1676 in Ireland ; in which kingdom one branch of the family was poffeffed of a confiderable eftate in the county of Wexford.—His father, a eounfellor at law in Dublin, was private fecretary to James Duke of Ormond : but he v/as of Englilh extradtion ; and his fon, while very young, being carried to London, he put him to fchool at the Charter-houfe, whence he was removed to Merton College in Oxford. Our author left the univerfity, which he did without taking any degree, ill the full refolution to enter into the army. This ftep was highly difpleafing to his friends; buc the ardour of his paffion for a military life rendered him deaf to any other propofal. Not being able to procure a better ftation, he entered as a private gen¬ tleman in the horfe-guards, notwithftanding he there¬ by loft the fucceffion to his Irifh eftate. However, as he had a flow of good-nature, a generous opennefs and franknefs of fpirit, and a fparkling vivacity of wit, thefe qualities rendered him the delight of the foldiery, and procured him an enfign’s commiffion in the guards. In the mean time, as he had made choice of a pro- feffion which fet him free from all the ordinary re- ftraints in youth, he fpared not to indulge his inclina¬ tions in the wildeft exceffes. Yet his* gaieties and re¬ vels did not pafs without fome cool hours of refleflion and in thefe it was that he drew up his little treatife intitled The ChriJHan Hera, with a defign, if we may believe himfelf, to be a check upon his palfions. For this ufe and purpofe it had lain fome time by him, when he printed it in 1701, with a dedication to Lord Gutts, who had' not only appointed him his private fecretary, but procured for him a company in Lord Lu¬ cas’s regiment of Fufiliers. The above religious piece injuring his reputation among his gay companions, he endeavoured to enliven his character by writing that excellent comedy the Funeral. This play procured him the regard of King William, who refolved to give him fome effential marks of his favour; and though, upon that prince’s deaths his hopes were difappointed, yet, in the beginning of Queen Anne’s reign, he was appointed to the profi¬ table place of Gazetteer. He owed this poll to the friendfhip of Lord Halifax and the Earl of Sunderland, to whom he had been recommended by his fchool- fellow Mr Addifon. That gentleman alfo lent him an helping hand in promoting the comedy called The Tender Hnjband, tfhich was aded in 1704 with greaf fuccefs. But his next play, The Lying Lover, found a very different fate. Upon this rebuff from the ftage, he turned the fame humorous current into another channel; and early in the year 1709, he began to publift) the Tatler ; which admirable paper was under¬ taken in concert with Dr Swift. His reputation was perfedtly eftablifhed by this work ; and,, during the courfe of it, he was made a commiffioner of theftamp- duties in tyro. Upon the change of the minittry the fame year, he fided with the duke of Marlborough, who had feveral years entertained a friendlhip for him; and upon his Grace’s difmilfion from all employments in 1711, Mr Steele addreffed a letter of thanks to him. for the fervices done to his country. However, as ovtr author ftill continued to hold his place in the ftamp- officR S T E [ 8283 ] S T E Steele, office under the new adminiftrau'on, he forbore enter- " ing with his pen upon political fubjefls; but, adher¬ ing more clofely to Mr Addifon, he dropt the Tatler, and afterwards, by the affiftance chiefly of that fteady friend, he carried on the fame plan, under the title of The Speftator. The fuccefs of this paper was equal to that of the former; which encouraged him, before the clofe of it, to proceed upon the fame defign in the chara&er of the Guardian. This was opened in the beginning of the year 1713, and was laid down in Oftober the fame year. But in the courfe of it his thoughts took a ftronger turn to politics : he engaged with great warmth againft the miniftry 5 and being determined to profecute his views that way by pro¬ curing a feat in the houfe of commons, he immediately removed all obftacles thereto. For that purpofe, he took care to prevent a forcible difmilfion from his poft in the (lamp-office, by a timely refignation of it to the Earl of Oxford ; and at the fame time gave up a pen- fion, which had been till this time paid him by the queen as a fervant to the late prince George of Den¬ mark. This done, he wrote the famous Guardian upon the demolition of Dunkirk, which was publifhed Aug. 7. 1713 ; and the parliament being diffolved the next day, the Guardian was foon followed by feveral other warm political trafls againft the adminiftration,, Upon the meeting of the new parliament, Mr Steele having been returned a member for the borough of Stockbridge in Dorfetlhire, took his feat accordingly in the houfe of commons; but was expelled thence in a few days after, for writing the clofe of the paper called the Englijhman, and one of his political pieces intitled the Crifu. Prefently after his expulfion, he publifhed propofals for writing the hiftory of the duke of Marlborough : at the fame time he alfo wrote the Spifijler; and, in oppofuion to the Examiner, he fet up a paper called the Reader, and continued publifh- ing feveral other things in the fame fpirit till the death of the queen. Immediately after which, as a reward for thefe fervices, he was taken into favour by her fuc- cefibr to the throne king George I. He was ap¬ pointed furveyor of the royal (tables at Hampton- Court, governor of the royal company of comedians, put into the commiffion of the peace for the county of Middlefex, and in 1715 received the honour of knighthood. In the firft parliament of that king, he was chofen member for Boroughbridge in Yorkfttire j and, after the fuppreffion of the rebellion in the north, was appointed one of the commiffioners of the forfeited eftates in Scotland. In 1718, he buried his fecond wife, who had brought him a handfomc fortune and a good eftate in Wales ; but neither that, nor the ample additions lately made to his income, were fuffigient to anfwer his demrnds. The thoughtlefs vivacity of his fpirit often reduced him to little (hifts of wit for its fupport; and the projeA of the Fifh-pool this year owed its birth chiefly to the proje&or’s neceffities. The following year he oppofed the remarkable peer¬ age bill in the houfe of commons ; and, during the courfe of this oppofuion to the court, his licence for adling plays was revoked, and his patent rendered in- effe&ual, at the inftance of the lord chamberlain. He did his utmoft to prevent fo great a lofs ; and finding every diredl avenue of approach to his royal mafter effeftually barred againft him by his powerful advcr- fary, he had recourfe to the method of applying to Steele, the public, in hopes that his complaints would reach Steeple' the ear of his fovereign, though in an indireft courfe, by that canal. In this fpirit he formed the plan of a periodical paper, to be publilhed twice a-week, un¬ der the title of the Theatre ; the firft number of which came out on the 2d of January 1719-20. In the mean time, the misfortune of being out of favour at court, like other misfortunes, drew after it a train of more. During the courfe of this paper, in which he had aflumed the feigned name of Sir John Edgar, he was outrageoufly attacked by Mr Dennis, the noted critic, in a very abufive pamphlet, intitled The Cha¬ racter and Conduit of Sir John Edgar. To this infult our author made a proper reply in the Theatre. While he was ftruggling with all his might to fave himfelf from ruin, he found time to turn his pen againft: the mifchievous South-Sea fcheme, which had nearly brought the nation to ruin in 1720 ; and the next year he was reftored to his office and authority in the play- houfe in Drury-Lane. Of this it was not long before he made an additional advantage, by bringing his celebrated comedy called the Confcious Lovers upon that ftage, where it was afled with prodigious fuccefs; fo that the receipt there muft have been very confider- able, befides the profits accruing by the fale of the copy, and a purfe of 300 1. given to him by the king, to whom he dedicated it. Yet notwithftanding thefe ample recruits, about the year following, being redu¬ ced to the utmoft extremity, he fold his fhare in the play-houfe; and foon after commenced a law-fuit with the managers, which in 1726 was determined to hi* difadvantage. Having now again, for the laft time, brought his fortune, by the moft heedlefs profufion, into a defperate condition, he was rendered altogether incapable of retrieving the lofs, by being feized with a paralytic diforder, which greatly impaired his un- derftanding. In thefe unhappy circumftances, he re¬ tired to his feat at Languanor near Caermarthen in Wales, where he paid the laft debt to nature on the 21 ft of September 1729, and was privately interred, according to his own defire, in the church of Caer¬ marthen. Among his papers were found the manu- fcripts of two plays, one called The Gentlemen, found¬ ed upon the eunuch of Terence, and the other intitled The School of Aftion, both nearly finiffied. Sir Richard was a man of undiflembled and exten- five benevolence, a friend to the friendlefs, and, as far as bis circumftances would permit, the father of every orphan. His works are chafte and manly. He was a (Iranger to the moft diftant appearance of envy or malevolence; never jealous of any man’s growing re¬ putation ; and fo far from arrogating any praife to himfelf from his conjundlion with Mr Addifon, that he was the firft who defired him to diftinguifti his pa¬ pers. His greateft error was want of ceconomy : how¬ ever, he was certainly the moft agreeable, and (if we may be allowed theexpreffion) the moft innocent, rake that ever trod the rounds of indulgence. STEEPLE, an appendage erefted generally on the weftern end of churches, to hold the bells. Steeples are denominated from their form, either fpires or towers : the firft are fuch as afcend continually dimi- nifhing either conically or pyramidally ; the latter are mere parallellopipeds, and are covered a-top platform- 41 L 2 like. S T E [ 8284 ] S T E Steerage, STEERAGE, on board a {hip, that part of the Steerwp. ^-p next below the quarter-deck, before the bulk¬ head of the great cabin where the fteerfman Hands, in moft ftu’ps of war* See Steering. STEERING, in navigation, the art of diredHng the {hip’s way by the movements of the helm ; or of applying its efforts to regulate her courfe when fhe advances. The perfection of {leering confifts in a vigilant at¬ tention to the motion of the {hip’s head, fo as to check every deviation from the line of her courfe in the firft inftant of its motion ; and in applying as little of the power of the helm as poffible. By this {he will run more uniformly in a ftraight path, as declining lefs to the right and-left ; whereas, if a greater effort of the helm is employed, it will produce a greater declination from the courfe, and not only increafe the difficulty of fteering, but alfo make a crooked and irregular tra& through the water. See Helm.—Thehelmfman fhould diligently watch the movements of the head by the land? clouds, moon, or ftars ; becaufe, although the courfe is in general regulated by the compafs, yet the vibrations of the needle are not fo quickly per¬ ceived, as the failles of the {hip’s head to the right or left, which, if not immediately reftrained, will acquire additional velocity in every inftant of their motion, and demand a more powerful impulfe of the helm to reduce them ; the application of which will operate to turn her head as far on the contrary fide of her courfe.—The phrafes ufed in fteering a fliip vary ac¬ cording to the relation of the wind to her courfe. Thus, if the wind is fair or large, the phrafes ufed by the pilot or officer who fuperintends the fteerage, are forty ftarbaard, znA Jieddy. The firft is intended to dired the {hip’s courfe farther to the right; the fecond is to guide her farther to the left ; and the laft is de- figned to keep her exaftly in the line whereon {he ad¬ vances, according to the courfe preferibed. The ex- cefs of the firft and fecond movement is called hard-a- fort, and hard-a-Jlarboard; the former of which gives her the greateft poffible inclination to the right, and the latter an equal tendency to the left.—If, on, the contrary, the wind is foul or fcant, the phrafes are luff, thus, and no nearer: the firft of which is the or¬ der to keep her clofe to the wind ; the fecond, to re¬ tain her in her prefent fituation ; and the third, to keep her fails full. In a {fiip of war, the exercife of fteering the {hip is ufually divided amongft a number of the moft expert failors,. who attend the helm in 6-heir turns; and are accordingly called timoneers, from the French term SteganiuM timonier, which fignifies “ helmfman.” The fteerage II is conftantly fupervifed by the quarter-mafters, who Stem' alfo attend the helm by rotation. In merchant-fhips * every feaman takes his turn in this fervice, being di¬ rected therein by the mate of the watch, or feme other officer.—As the fafety of a fhip, and all contained therein, depend in a great meafure on the fteerage or effeds of the helm, the apparatus by which it is ma¬ naged fhould often be diligently examined by the pro¬ per officers. Indeed, a negligence in this important duty appears almoft unpardonable, when the fatal ef¬ fects which may refult from it are duly confidered. . STEGANIUM. See Slate. STEGANOGRAPHY, the art of fecret writing, or of writing in ciphers, known only to the perfons correfponding. See Cipher. STELLATE, among botanifts, expreffes leaves which grow not lefs than fix at a joint, and are ar¬ ranged like the rays of a liar. STELLIONATE, in the civil law, a kind of crime committed by a fradulent bargain, where one of the parties fells a thing for what it is not ; as if I fell an eftate for my own which belongs to another, or convey a thing as free and clear which is already en¬ gaged to another, or put off copper for gold, &c. STEM, in botany, that part of a plant arifing out of the root, and which fuftains the leaves, flowers, fruits, &c. By walking and rubbing the ftems of trees their annual increafe is promoted ; for the me¬ thod of doing which, fee the article Tree. Stem of a Ship, a circular piece of timber into which the two Tides of a fhip are united at the fore-end: the lower end of it is fcarfed to the keel, and the bowfprit refts upon its upper end. The Item is form¬ ed of one or two pieces, according to the fize of the veffel ; and as it terminates the Ihip forward, the ends of the wales and planks oi the fides apd bottom are let into a groove or channel, in the middle of its furface^ from the top to the bottom ; which operation is called raltting* The outfide of the ftem is ufually marked with a fcale, or divifion of feet, according to its perpendicular height from the keel. The intention of this is to afeertain the draught of water at the fore- part, when the ftu’p is in preparation for a fea-voyage, &c. The {tern at its lower end is of equal breadth and thicknefs with the keel, but it grows proportionally broader and thicker towards its upper extremity^ See: Shiv-Building.. S T E N O G Or, Short-Hai Flatc HPHE moft effential properties of fhort-hand are ex- eCLXXV. pedition and legibility. Any fcheme which does not poffefs a fufficient degree of the firft has no title to the name of SBort'hand; and if the laft is wanting, let the method in other refpedls be what it will, it is good for nothing. The febeme here propofed has a very confiderable degree of both, and is alfo more re¬ gular and beautiful than any other. The charafters are all fuppofed to. be written in a R A P H Y ^ id Writing. fpace between two parallel lines. Such letters as arep^.g perpendicular or diagonal are intended to fill the whole cCLXXV. fpace; but the natural place of horizontal charafters is at the top of the fpace, except when it is otherwife directed by the following rules. Qn Plate CCLXXIV. N° 1. you have the letters of the alphabet, and words expreffed by them when they {land alone. Thus the firft b fignifies be or by ; the fecond;, but or put* Horizontal characters, or fuch as belong S T E N CM Plate belong to that clafs, as d, m, n> 8cc. are double; the CCLXXV. firft ftanding at the top of the fpace, as d, which then fignifies do or doings ; the other d is fet at the bottom of the fpace, and Hands For mould or doing, m, n, s, and x, have three places in the fpace, at the top, in the middle, and at the bottom. Example : nt at the top is them, me, my, or am; the connection will readily diftjnguifh which of thefe words is meant. The fe- cond k being a horizontal character, has one place at the top of the fpace, when it expreffes can, cotfie, or comings; and another at the bottom, when it is put for common or commonly. N. B. The firft column con¬ tains all the characters ufed in this fhort-hand; thofe in N° 4. being no more than natural and obvious con¬ tractions of fome of them. Where two characters are employed to exprefs one letter, that one is to be cho- fen occafionally which will make the moft eafy and na¬ tural joining. Beginners will be ready to choofe that character which does not join eafily ; but let not this difcourage them, for a little. praCtice will remove this difficulty. The firft / mult always be begun at the bottom ; but r either at the top or bottom of the fpace, as occafion may require. N° 2. is a lift of prepofitions, and N° 3. is a lift of terminations; of which afterwards. N04. contains fome double and Jriple confonants, which are contrafted ac¬ cording to the rules afterwards laid down. AH unneceffary angles muft be avoided in joining the characters, as in N°5. The horizontal k muft not fol¬ low a charader drawn upward^ nor x one that is drawn downward, as in No <5. Many of the letters may be contraded as in N° 7. In, gm, gn, gr, hr, inv; and double letters are wrote as in No 8. lb, dd, kk^ mm, nn, fs. N. B. No letter is to be confidered as doubled unlefs a vowel intervenes ; as manmion, write rmnon; labile, bbl; candid, candd. N° 9. contains another method of doubling letters, by dividing them with a fmall ftroke behind ; as ff, rr, tt, br, It, kf. It, fir, chf. Confonants may be alfo doubled by making one of them only half the ufual fize, as in N° 10. btr, brr, ffl, fir, jfr, frr, Irr, Itr, ttl, rrb, rrt, rtt, ; oo- by u. m is never a vowel, for it is always dropt at the end of words. The following rules (how when vowels ought to be exprefled, and when not. In general, no more than one vowel onght to be written in any word, excepting in fuch words as idea, ide.- rft, The initial vowel of a monofyllable mult be exprefFed as in add, apt, elf, ill. zdly, The final vowel (if there is no initial) mult be wrote in mqnofyllables ; firw, bom, pay,, write fit, bo, pa. 3dly, No ftiort vowel is to be expitfled in any word whatever. 4thly, A long vowel mud be wrote in a monofyllable, except ia fuch common words as both, life, fake. 5thly, A word of more than one fyllable mutt have its final vowel ex- prtfled thus, aptly, empty, concifely, ptly, empy, knssly. 6thly, A word of more than one fyllable mult have its long vowel expreffed (if it has no final), as fpusl for efpoufal, dmir for admire, ythly, A word of two fyl¬ lables, having no final nor long vowel, muft have its initial vowel wrote, as a km for acorn, img for image. 8thly, If a word have three or more fyliables without either long or final vowel, write no vowel at all : thus* mblsh, embellifih. When the prepofitions in, im, are followed by n, m, the initial vowel muft be expreffed* irndfil, immodefil, untrl, unnatural. When the plural ot 8286 STENOGRAPHY. Plate or pofTeflive s follows a final vowel, the vowel muft not CCLXXIV. jje om{tted ; as follies, rallies, No 25. In writing af¬ ter a fpeaker, though you fiiould leave out more vowels than the above rules direfl, they may be inferted af¬ terwards when you have more leifure. Of Prepositions.—They are always to be wrote feparate from the reft of the word. Such as are hori¬ zontal may be placed in the middle or at the bottom of the fpace, but never at the top. The perpendicu¬ lar and horizontal are made fhorter by one-third than their ufi al length, and are placed at the bottom of the fpace. No vowel muft at any time be joined to a pre- pofition, but muft always be prefixed to the following confonant; as connive. No 26. If s follows a prepofi- tion, and is ufed as a dividing ftroke, the prepofition may be joined to itf zs infnlt, No 29. Such letters as are not employed as prepofitions may be made pre- .pofitions at large ; as gentleman, gentleoxioman, ginger¬ bread, landlord, No 27. Compound words may be joined or disjoined at pleafure ; as coachjnan. In the lift of prepofitions No 2. the firft n fignifying &c. is placed in the middle of the fpace j and the other, iignifying un, &c. at the bottom, s has three places ; when it fignifies fatis, fuper, it Hands at the top of the fpace, and is the only prepofition which has a place at the top. (^Terminations.—They may be made the ufual lize, and may therefore fill the whole fpace: the ter¬ mination i?igs is always placed at the top, and ing at the bottom, fon, tion, in N° 3. has five places, ac¬ cording to the vowel which goes before it ; as ation, etion. Sec.: but if a confonant goes before it, that con¬ fonant is left out, and sion, tion, is put in the prece¬ ding vowel’s place ; as for invention, we 'nx'w.t invetion; tranfaftion, tranfation; dijlinftion, diflition; adoption, adotion ; prefionption, prefution. Let fwn, tion, be put in the preceding vowel’s place, to horizontal as well as perpendicular chara&ers: example, afcenfion, N° 30. If one termination follows another, the Jaft muft be written at length, as pofibility; with or without the dividing ftroke, tef anientary, N°3i. If a prepofition and termination compofe the whole of a word, one of them muft be wrote at length, whichfoever the writer pleafes. Comical, tranfition, are wrote both ways in No 32. N. B. Prepofitions and terminations muft never be ufed in writing monofyllables. Plate CCLXXV. N° 33. contains the compound prepofitions conconi, contradis, decom, N° 34. difcom or difeon, difin or difmter, dijfatis, incon or incom, indis or undis, No 35. infigni, impro, infuper or unfatis, un- pro, intrans or untrans, No 36. incircum or uncircum, incontro or uncontro, mifinter or mifunder, tnifcom or mifeon, mifrspre. N° 37. recom or recon, repre, uninter, interpre, mifinterpre. The reader will obferve, that thefe compoundprepofitionsare all made up of fuchas aremore fimple, and are fuch as any perfon would naturally be led to form for his own ufe ; on which account they can be no burden to the memory. N. B. In thefe ex¬ amples, and every where elfe, where two or more words are coupled together by the conjunftion or, there is but one charafter to exprefs them in the Plate. No 38. contains examples of prepofitions and termi¬ nations in their formation of words, contraditt, circum- fance, external, recompenfe. No 39. felfijhnefs, remem¬ ber, blameable, repetition, N° 40. difcontentmnt) un¬ comfortable, comical, omnipotent. N° 41. Antichrif, Plate interpreter, undermine, covtradifinftion. N° 42. compe- CO-XXV. tent; fuper-eminently, magnitude, property. N°43. tranf- ~~r ” finable., 'witbfland, difeompofe, difinterejied. Abbreviating Rules, ift, Such words as are ufually abbreviated in long hand may be abbreviated •in fhort : as Dr, Doflor; admnr, admini/lrator; e'er, ever; o'er, over; e'en, even; e'entide, eventide; o'er- take, overtake; e'ery, every ; as in N° 44. Poetic con-- tradtions may alfo be ufed : as morn, mornings trump, trumpet; e'en, evening; N° 45. But there are fome contractions in long-hand, which are not to be imi¬ tated in fhort: we write he ’will, not he’ll; will not, not won't; cannot, not can't. 2d, A dot varioufly applied to a character, fo as not to interfere with the vowels places, may be made a mark of abbreviation : thus, if it is placed where the character terminates, it may be the mark of a fubftantive lingular or verb ; as t, d, s, and w, in N°47. If it is placed at the be¬ ginning of the character, it will denote the fubftantive- plural; as in N° 48. The adjeCtive has a mark above the character towards the left-hand ; and the participle- perfeCt a fmall perpendicular ftroke towards the right- hand of the character : both thefe are exemplified in N° 49. The adverb is a dot towards the left-hand below ; as in N° 50. The participle in ing is an ob¬ lique ftroke, like the third part of our r, placed to¬ wards the right-hand below, N°5i. The participle in ings, is the fame ftroke placed at the top of the fpace, N° 52. In N° 53. thefe marks of abbreviation are illuftrated, where d with the fubftantive-dot denotes advice or advife; with the plural-dot, advices; with the participle-perfeft dot, advifed; with the adverb-dot, ad- vifedly; with the participle in ing, advifng ; its plural advifmgs, and the adjeftive advifable. N° 54. exem¬ plifies the fame thing with letter s; which, with the fubftantive-mark, fignifies fervice or ferve; and, with the other dots, fervices, ferved, ferviceably, ferving, fer- vings, ferviceable : and in N®55. t with the fubftantive or verb mark exprefles triumph; and, with the other dots, triumphs, triumphed, triumphantly, triumphing, triumphings, triumphant. This ufe of the dot is only intended to abbreviate fuch words in a fentence as the conneCUon will readily fugged by this hint; that is, in fuch cafes as, if a perfon were writing long-hand, he would contraft fome word in a fentence by writing only the firft letter of the word with a dafh after it, as a fuffieient expreffion for the word: and in every fubjeft there are fome leading words which cannot be miftaken though they are thus contracted, for the connection wilt immediately decipher them. In fol¬ lowing a fpeaker, it may be fufficient to ufe the fub¬ ftantive mark only ; but if time will permit, it is bet¬ ter to ufe them ail. In order that thefe marks may be eafily applied, let it be obferved, that if a word ends in /, the fubftantive-plural mark may be ufed. If it ends in ed, ufe the participle-perfcCt mark : if in ly, ufe The adverb mark : if in ing or ings, ufe thefe marks refpeCtively ; only ing and ings are not to be ufed in writing monofyllables. If a word ends in none of thefe, ufe the fubftantive or adjeCtive mark at pleafure. A lift of words may be formed by the help of this mark, and committed to memory ; each individual may adapt the lift to his own profeffion, by making choice of fuch words as frequently occur, and would STENOGRAPHY. 8287 Plate be too long if wrote by any other rule. From N° j6. CCLXXV. t0 No 61. a lift is given of fuch words as may fuit the divine; the lawyer or phyfician may eafily change thefe for others more fuited to their refpe&ive profef- fions. N° 56. contains lUft or blejjing, believe ox be¬ lief, difficulty, doctrine, advantage, divide or divifion. N° $1. frequent or frequency, godlinefs, jufice, glory or glorify, goodnefs, humanize or humanity. N°58. covet or covetoufnefi, confider or confederation, confcquence, li¬ berality, lament or lamentation, mortality, member. N° 59. nature, engage or engagement, prefent or pre¬ fence, part, qualify ox qualification, repent ox repentance, fpirit. N° 60. fenfe, temper, world, exemplify or ex¬ ample, except or exception, youthfulnefs, cheerfulnefs. N° 6i. change, fhame, thank, charity, cheat, grace, Chrifiian, thoughtfulnefs. In completing this lift, that adjective, adverb, &c. (hould be chofen which bears the greateft refemblance to the fubftantive in its con- fonants. Nos 62. 63. 64. and 65. exemplify the man¬ ner of completing the lift in the word divide. N° 62. contains divide, dividing, dividing!, divided, divifible, divifibly. N° 63. divider, dividend. No 64. indivifible, undivided, individual, individuality. N° 65. divifibility, indivijibility, indiviftblenefs. Where there is no angle at which the dot may be placed, a fmall line is drawn through the chara&er at the part where the dot (hould Hand, as in dividend in N° 63. In thefe examples both prepofitions and terminations are applied, which makes the method of carrying this lift to a great ex¬ tent fufficiently plain. 3d, Some words may be ab¬ breviated by writing the prepofition with the follow¬ ing confonant and mark of contradlion ; as, She ruined her comp with rouge. He prefents comp s, and thanks for your favours. They are fo alike that it is difficult to difl between them, N° 66. 4th, Other words may be contra&ed by writing the vowel follow¬ ing the confonant, inftead of the mark of contraftion. As competition or Ji, as circumjlance in N° 67. But if the word is plural, the plural mark muft not be omit¬ ted. 5th, Words of more than one confonant may have their termination exprefled by the mark of con¬ traction ; as, reafonablenefs, hardnefs, different, fairly, as in N°68. If the termination of a plural fubftan¬ tive is dropt, the plural mark muft be fet at the be¬ ginning of a word ; as exhortations. No 69. But the termination muft never be omitted if a long vowel goes before it, as employment. In many cafes the termina¬ tion is fo evident, that no (xpreflion need be made for it, as in thefe examples: He was very clofely engage in bulinefs ; We had entertain them very elegantly ; They were walk in the fields. The terminations of the fecond and third perfons of verbs may be always omitted ; as, fpeak for fpeakefi, teach for teacheth. 6th, Many words may be exprefled by their firft vowel and confonant following ; as in No 70. Abroad, about,, after. No 71. often, a (lion, according ox accordingly, occafion. No 72. Almojl, always, immediately, impof- ffible. No 73. Into, only, unto, apart. No 74. Open, acquaint, qfide, thefe. No 75. This, tbofe, thus, utmofi. N> 76. Extremely, exceffively. Obferve that thefe and this are wrote in the middle of the fpace, thofe and thus at the bottom. This lift of words, contained in N s 70, 71, &c. may be increafed as the learner im¬ proves in the writing ; and leading words may be wrote, by this rule as-well as by the mark of contrac¬ tion, always taking care that they be fuch as the con- Plate neftion will readily difeover. Other words may be CCLXXV. exprefied by their firft confonant and vowel following; as in No 77. Before, become, hardly, likewife. N° 78. Likely, many, perpetual or perpetually, peculiar or pecu¬ liarly, real or really or reality. N° 79. Every, fono¬ thing, fometimes, ftnee. Something is wrote in the middle of the fpace; fometimes and fince are both placed at the bottom.—7th, The beginnings and endings of fome words will be fufficient to exprefs them ; as in No 80. Univerfity, banijhment, curiofsty, arbitrary: And if the firft charader is horizontal, it may be placed at the bottom; as in No 81, Univerfity, civility. In thefe two ]aft numbers univerfity is differently exprefled} that in No 80. may be put for the word unity.—8th, The firft confonant and termination of a word may often be a fufficient expreffion for it; as in No %2. pu- nifhment.—9th, The firft and laft confonant may fig- nify a whole word in thefe cafes following. If the charaders are both horizontal, place them at the bot¬ tom of the fpace ; as, certain, concern, No 83.: or join them by an angle, as, dottor, majler, N° 83. : or join them in an unufual manner; former, proper ox plea- fure, ebarafter, harbour : or, laftly, write them fe- parately the one above the other; as, between, return^ retreat, in No 85. And words wrote by this 9th rule may have any neceflary augment joined to them ; as. Returns, delivered, murdering, in N° 86. Many com¬ mon words may be abbreviated by writing the firft and laft confonants, the one above the other : thus, between, former, neither, unlefs, in No 87.; and perhaps, feldom, further, in No 88.— 10th, Repetition is to be expref- fed by placing fo many dots at the bottom of the word, to jbe repeated as there are repetitions of it; thus. Holy, holy, holy. No 89. Or if a whole fentence is re¬ peated, draw a line under the whole repetition, and place dots at the end for as many times as it is re¬ peated. The temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, N° 90. Thefe rules ought to be ufed fparingly at firft ; as they grow familiar,- they may be ufed more exten- fively. No 91. contains charaders for figures, diftinguifhed from other charaders by a fmall oblique tlroke placed before them. N092. isan illuftration of the joining of fuch charaders, in the various combinations of figures; but if the learner choofes, he may make ufe of common figures. N«93. fhows how dots maybe placed for the comma, femicolon, colon, and period but proportional fpaces may be left in the writing in¬ ftead of them. No 94. are marks of reference, which the reader may vary at his pleafure. General Specimen, (Plate CCLXXV.) “ How frequently is the honefty and integrity of a man dif-* pofed of by a fmile or a Ihrug ?—How many good and generous adions have been funk into oblivion a diftruftful look, or ftamped with the imputation of proceeding from bad motives,, by a myfterious and feafonable whifper ? “ Look into compames of thofe whofe gentle natures- Ihould difarm them,—we ffnll find no better account. How large a portion of chatlity is fent out of the world by diftant hints, nodded away, and cruelly* winked into fufpicion by the envy or thofe who are gaffe.d i $288 S T E N O ( Plate pafled all temptation of It themfelves? How often CCLXXV. (joeg t})e rCpUtation of a helplefs creature bleed by a report which the party who is at the pains to pro¬ pagate it, beholds with much pity and fellow-feeling, that (he is heartily forry for it, hopes in God it is not true ? however, as archbithop Tillotfon wit¬ tily obferves upon it, is refolved, in the mean time, to give the report her pafs, that at lead it may have fair play to take its fortune in the world to be be¬ lieved or not, according to the charity of thofe into whofe hands it (hall happen to fall ? “ So fruitful is this vice in variety of expedients, to fatiate as well as difguife itfelf. But if thefe fmoother weapons cut fo fore what (hall we fay of open and unbluOiing fcandal fubje&ed to no caution—tied down to noreftraints? If the one, like an arrow (hot in the dark, does neverthelefs fo much fecret mifehief ■ this, like the peftilence which rageth at noon¬ day, fweeps all before it, levelling without didinftion the good and the bad ; a thoufand fall befide it, and ten thoufand on its right hand they fall fo rent and torn in this tender part of them, fo unmerci¬ fully butchered, as fometimes never to recover either the wounds or the anguilh of heart which they have occafioned.— “ But there is nothing fo bad which will not admit of fomething to be faid in its defence. “ And here it may be alked—Whether the incon¬ veniences and ill effefts which the world feels—from the licentioufnefs of this pradlice—are not fufficiently counterbalanced by the real influence it has upon mens lives and conduft ?—That if there was no evil-fpeaking in the world, thoufands would be encouraged to do ill, and would rufh into many indecorums, like a horfe in¬ to the battle, were they fure to efcape the tongues of men. “ That if we take a general view of the world—we (hall find, that a great deal of virtue—at lead of the outward appearance of it, is not fp much from any fixed principle, as the terror of what the world will S T E S'entoro- STENTOROPHONIC tube, a fpeaking-trum- phonic pet. thus called from Stentor, a perfon mentioned by Stephens Homer. See Acoustics, n° 26. - 11 STEPHANUS (Byzantinus), an able grammarian, who lived in the 5th or 6th century. He wrote a Did ionary, in which he made a great number of obfer- vations, borrowed from mythology and hiftory, which • fliowed the origin of cities and colonies, of which we have nothing remaining but a mean abridgment, by Htrmolaus the grammarian; but from that work the learned have received great light; and Sigonius, Ca- faubon, Scaliger, Salmafius, &c. have employed them- fclves in illuftrating it. STEPHEN, king of England. See England, n° 107, &c. Stephen, or St Stephen's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church, obferved on the 26th of December, in memory of the firft martyi' St Stephen. STEPHENS, the name of a family of printers to whom the world is obliged for the mod correft and beautiful editions of the bed claffic authors, the Greek ones particularly. Henry Stephens, the firll diftinguifhed perfon of 1 R A P H Y. fay, and the liberty it will take upon the occafions we Pbte (hall give. CCL™« “ That if we defeend to particulars, numbers are every day taking more care to be well fpoken of, than what would a&ually enable them to live fo as to de¬ fer ve it. “ That there are many of both fexes who can fup- port life well enough without honour or chadity, who, without reputation (which is but the opinion which the world has of the matter), would hide their heads in (hame, and fink down in utter defpair of happinefs. “ Nodoubt thetongue is a weapon which does chadife many indecorums which the laws of men will not reach, —and keeps many in awe, whom confcience will not; and where the cafe is indifputably flagrant, the fpeak- ing of it in fuch words as it deferves, fcarce comes within the prohibition.—In many cafes it is hard to exprefs ourfelves id as to fix a difiin&ian betwixt op- polite chara&ers—and fometimes it may be as much a debt we owe to virtue, and as great a piece of judice, to expofe a vicious charatder, and paint it in its pro¬ per colours, as it is to fpeak well of the deferving, and deferibe his particular virtues. And indeed, when we inflift this puniftiment upon the bad, merely out of principle, and without indulgences to any private pafiion of our own ’tis a cafe which happens fo ieldom, that one might venture to except it. “ However, to thofe who in this objeftion are really concerned for the caufe of virtue, I cannot help re¬ commending what would much more effe&ually ferve her intered, and be a fure token of their zeal and at¬ tachment to her. And that is—in all fuch plain in- dances where it feems to be duty to fix a didinftion betwixt the good and the bad—to let their a&ions fpeak it indead of their words, or at lead to let them both fpeak one language. We all of us talk fo loud againd vicious characters, and are fo unanimous in our cry againd them—that an unexperienced man, who only traded his ears, would imagine the whole world was in an uproar about it.” S T E his name, was a Frenchman, and pne of the bed prin- Stephen*, ters of his time. He died in 1520. Robert Stephens, his fecond fon, was dill more eminent in this art than his father. He was born at Paris in 1503 ; and applied fo affiduoufly to letters in his youth, that he very early acquired a perfect knowledge in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew tongues. In 1521, the year after his father’s death, his mother was married to Simon de Colines, in Latin Colineeus; who by this means came into the poffeffion of Henry Stephens’s printing-houfe, carried on the bufi- nefs till his death in 1547, and is well known for the neatuefs and beamy of his Italic chara&er. In 1522, when Robert was 19 years of age, he was charged with the management of his father-in-law’s prels: and the fame year came out, under his infpe&ion, a New Tedament in Latin ; which gave fuch offence to the Paris divines, that they threatened to have it burnt and him bani(hed. He appears to have fet up for himfelf foon after, for there are books of his printing fo early as 1526. He married Perette, the daughter of Batidius, another eminent printer: (he was a learn¬ ed woman, and of great ufe to her hufband in correCt- Plate CCI/XXTV IV r \/'\ n /' n ' i - Ar./’y f'/yj. (//jy// ss-J ?iSry// St/, /«,/ ■s/tys/s/y/'. dy/sv^ /■A'f’ try/try// • /r.yrtr/yc vt'c. /?/, Qot/,j/ /4 yytb t?// <9 .j/'tyy.t/y.r/ Ayy.yAyyAy?' ryts/tA: ry////, /// cs/yy, cys//t <' , c0my//zd£*J rys/rty/ry/st . ty/nty??/ <> // /// ~ . jtr/t.s y/tAy?' r,//.„y,// ^ .tAtsAA, fsJ/Ay^s’/'//.ey' /Ayy// , /rry , nty.. tr/my /r/yy//. Ayy/ ry. sY/'/ryyA? / /t/y./Z. tyr/y.r/. rzytyA yyy. t?/ .tZeytyA YiY>Z. y, YV' , . . rs/s ssY/ ,/r y t /r rs// tr A=A// "A ■-A^A, • Aet vA rtAA V - yy/y.iyy/ g - om // /. ///t/t/y/r ' try///. ///. /yi/fy' s //// , /s /itAy - . y^y — c/ycMytityuA l Anzyry ) /yt/A etc/yt/y. eyyy \ aAAA 'uzrA.ayA P >-> y/ry/t/ ^ yyyy‘ : tY?/\ zte^y j l eA.ecA.tA^y ) tyyytytA 9 j y/r v yA o pA f j^- 'AsyAZ Ayy yyAy r yrr-A, rAyyA -yAyy, Ary. ZAz/Ayy . Vui1 Z3 r Ay cAtttn. cAyiyr/ey'' P cAesrA cS yyttrAyy A An AAytAyA' V AAr / /AyyZ, AAyyyAA A/A* Aayrey.Ajus. Atz^A7 1 y/'A y/'AyyA' A yy yoe/y, yeyyy JfiAy v 6M A o—' yyzzA qY' ir\^ / V r'-/ : t- — 7_/ ~ ^ ^ ^ ^\0 ^ V” X A/^ A < - A3> ^ ^ 7 /5^y j o i /AAM -r r-r{-A^ -t : ^ 1 A'Z. dr/'J.S r/VAy JATVJIZyS */ yyy/ ayyyfyb' . y/ryZ' / " ? yt y> yy yy/y/y kit^ yy~\ y~r^\ y~\—> y/ty y~)— sr*— sTj— ^—tr‘. _^ . ArA Y-y yy' Y^y y-y ^y /t?A r_l 'V V V // A~ V- A~ ^ 71-- V V A A A f 'A V V V • S yA y v k v' v ^ P-N U-, 1^ -yAy>2,'AA*. '~n '—1 f P P / f 'K’ yL Z-AA ,— j) yry/Y y-t ) AS! A —c-^ ^-c— V/." - ^ v v, 2^1, ^'5' //^N -V r 4.4- *? / •/ ^ -k -/I- /^/ ^ •V': Mfrl* ; z^''^i ^/: <32: i ^ St > - r-^S \ C '■ ^ r _ ^ ^ > ^ r I <5^. i- > j^T' , 1 t-^r \ 1 ^ 9, ( / r'^/: / ~ ^ r ^Z. /P i(3 y/ ,) r c. P /■r — \ ) ? ,? 1 / f. ✓ / V -rT ^rtl- 6^r- 6-/' , f/.s-'* * fi t/ • l 2S7 A ZOdX C 1^14.^ (tICXICKAL ^rKC'IMF’vN . O- STA’/fAyt’s z /yv/ttvY^j 1W.2. Sr/\ //. 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C/ ^ V V. r 9 — °Vl 7'- -I : — 0— .| — W (/• ; ‘V!' - <; J-U_ 1 ^ c •» : - /T - \ ~ 1 1 «- I A *s/ (_ r 7 ; h \ ^ \ 'Y tf I t— •!_ \ '-' I .) : l Y [/ ^ . :— | I /* \ ^ ^ if Pi V : m - — i_ — v 1 \ '-/-; i M - 7K ~ «A 1 y ; r \ — ~A 'Lr "l ~ 7 : 1 r Y ^ \ ; A : A1 Z ^ ^ : *• ^ 1 ^ ? \ l A As /? r» «-A ~ '■’j -.n ~ — A’ r \ a 1 ^ ^ t -I A3 ? ^{ / ^- ^ | A : >P - V' I ^ y*" J A /\je^ : T V -:' ^ I ^ ^ — Ul^z- f \ ; " A2_ 31 ~ — y 1 sS 'iz / / 1 vjy \ ^ -V- w* V ^ I I .) /• | su> Y: ^ ^ I ^ - y A V- ^ / ^ : ) 1 7 I -a: I \j— \ — : r \ )• P- • °7 ). \ | ); V 7 r • ^ ^ \ M. -I s \ 1 .1) Y \ -I : - ^ - A V- ^ N T. I A \ 1 l.'iA-- :^I<^IIAAC/'^)<1 o- : r \ ) "P 1 ^ V /,—<_— 1 /Z >- r - s Y- 7 ^ x -( ^ i r —r — \ yt? \ : r ip / ^ \ f ^~ _/i r y •'~9 9 V / n : . 9 t : c — r 1 C <“ 1.) 3 \ 1 "V •'«^ Vz ^ ^ ^ — a *>y \ x ; v-< «-3 r U- - • ^ e ci A“ \ -— a ^ A »^y-r ^ '-z • . ^ ^-- y ^ : w V' 1 - — v^r vV; l ‘y-/ \ -i ^ y ') — -i P7_y-,— >^ 1 if. ^ ^ -=— L 1 y: - 1 v— • ^1 r, .< : \ -y A • M > . I VI. : ^ — -- • c_ \ ■a_.' | -zl^ ' V_ A^z — H I ^ A V K 1 -> >- \ 1 A7 ^ tsA — ^ Vu '. ^ — 3- >• -\ — ^" \ C- ( I A -H- 4 \ C. w ? -zoH I'-" z \ V ) : / I y- ^ JL ; ) A \ __ P— A ^ : : wz P-| — A ^ "^z » "A .) > —■ T I:' Cr//;,// YAY S T E [ §289 ] S T E Stephens, ting Latin works. He had, befides, in his houfe ten ‘ or twelve correftors of different nations; and nothing but Latin wasfpoken in his family. In 1539, Fran¬ cis I. named him his printer; and'ordered ancient manufcripts to be fought after for him. The averfion which the doftors of the Sorbonne had conceived againft him on account of the Latin New Teftament in 1522, revived in 1532, when he printed his great Latin Bibld. Francis protefied him: but this king dying in 1547, he withdrew to Geneva; where he embraced Calvinifm. Here he lived in intimacy with Calvin, Beza, Rivet, and others, whofe works he printed; and died in 1559- This eminent artift valued bimfelf fo much upon the accuracy of his Latin im- preflions, that he offered a reward to the difcoverer of any fault in them. Robert, like the reft of his family, was not only a printer, but aifo a writer: b.\%Tbefaurus Lingua Latina is a work of immenfe learning, and in high repute. Charles Stephens, younger brother of the prece¬ ding, wrote and printed many ufeful and valuable works. He was born aboiit the year 1504, and be¬ came perfe&ly {killed in Greek and Latin literature. He ftudied phyfic, and took a doftor’s degree at Paris; but this did not hinder him from following the pro- feffion of his father, and being printer to the king. He was, however, more eminent as an author than a printer ; having written upwards of thifty works upon various fubje&s. He died at Paris in 1564; leaving behind him a very learned daughter. Henry Stephens, eldeft fon of Robert, was born at Paris in 1528, and became the moft learned of all his learned family. He was efteemed, after the death of Budteus, the beft Greek fcholar of his time. It feems to have been about the year 1546 when his father took him into bufinefs ; yet, before he could think of fixing, he refolved to travel into foreign countries, to examine libraries, and to conneft him- fclf with learned men. He went into Italy in 1547, and ftaid there two years; and returned to Paris in 1549, when he fubjoined fome Greek verfes, made in his youth, to a folio edition of the New Teftament in Greek, which his father had juft finiftied. In 1550, he went over to England; and in 1551 to Flanders, where he learned the Spanifti tongue of the Spaniards, who then poffeffed thofe countries, as he had before learned the Italian in Italy. On his re¬ turn to Paris, he found his father preparing to leave France : it is not known whether he accompanied him to Geneva ; but if he did, it is certain that he re¬ turned immediately after to Paris, and fet up a print- inghoufe. In 1554, he went to Rome, viiiting his father at Geneva as he went ; and the year after, to Naples. He returned to Paris, by the way of Venice, in 1556. This was upon bufinefs, committed to him by tne government. Then he fettled to printing in good earneft, and gave the world moft beautiful and corredt editions of all the ancient Greek and other valuable writers. He called himfelf at firft Printer of Paris; but, in 1558, took the title of Printer to Ulric Fugger, a very rich German, who allowed him acon- fiderable penfion. He was at Geneva in 1558, to fee his father, who died the year after; and he mar¬ ried in 1560. Henry III. of France was very fond of Stephens, fent him to Switzerland in fearch of ma- Vol. X. 2 nufcripts, and gave him a penfion. He took him to Stephens court, and made him great promifes: but the troubles !L which accompanied the latter part of this king’s reign, ,StCrllltr- not only occafioned Stephens to be difappointed, but made his fituation in France fo dangerous, that he thought it prudent to remove, as his father had done before him, to Geneva. He bellowed great labour and expence on compiling his Thefaurus Lin. gua Graca, to the empoveriftiment of his family: for though the work is highly efteemed to this day by the learned, yet thefe being but few; the demand from them did not reimburfe him ; and, to add to his mif- fortune, Scapula hisfervant treacheroufly extradled the moft ufeful parts, and publiftied an epitome, which deftroyed the fale of the Thefaurus. He died in 1598; leaving a fon, Paul, and two daughters, one of whom had efpoufed the learned Cafaubon in 1586. Paul Stephens, the fon of Henry, was well {killed in the Greek and Latin tongues. He carried on the bufinefs of printing for fome time at Geneva : but his prefs had greatly degenerated from the beauty of that at Paris; and he afterwards fold his types to Chouet, another printer. He died at Geneva in 1627, aged 60 years ; leaving a fon, Anthony; who, quitting the religion of his father for that of his anceftors, quitted alfo Geneva, and re¬ turned to Paris the place of their original. Here he was fome time printer to the king; but managing his affairs ill, he was obliged to give all up, and to have recourfe to an hofpital, where he died blind in 1674, aged 80.—-In him terminated the family of eminent printers, after it had flourifhed for five generations^ and it fh^uld be obferved, that there were other fons in the three firft generations, who followed the art, and acquired great, though inferior, reputation. STEREOGRAPHIC projection, is the pro- je&ion of the circles of the fphere on the plane of fome one great circle, the eye being placed in the pole of that circle. See Projection. STERILITY, the quality of a thing that is bar¬ ren, in oppofition to fertility. It has been afferted by many authors, ^hat all monfters produced by a mixture of different fpecies of animals, fuch as mule's, are barren; but this does not hold univerfally, even with the mule, which is the inftance moft generally adduced. See Mule. Sterility in women fometimes happens from a mif- carriage, or violent labour injuring fbme of the geni¬ tal parts ; but one of the moft frequent caufes is the fupprefiion of the menftrual flux.—There are other caufes, arifing from various difeafes incident to thofe parts; by which the uterus may be unfit to receive or retain the male feed;.—from the tubs fallopians being too ftiort, or having loft their ere&ive power; in either of which cafes no conception can take place : —from univerfal debility and relaxation : or a local debility of the genital fyftem; by which means, the parts having loft their tone or contradfile power, the femen is thrown off immediately pojl coitum:—from imperforation of the vagina, the uterus, or the tuba ; or from difeafed ovas, &c. Hence medical treatment can only avail in cafes arifing from topical or univerfal debility ; in corre&ing irregularities of the menftruaf flux, or in removing tumours, cicatrices, or conftric- tions of the paflage, by the art of furgery. 41 M STER- S T E [ 8290 ] S T E Sterling. STERLING, (Sterlingum)■, was the epithet for ' filver money current within this kingdom, and took name from this : That there was a pure coin (lamped firft in England by the Eafterlings, or merchants of Eafl Germany, by the command of king John ; and Hoveden writes it Efterlings. Intlead of the pound Sterling, we now fay fo many pounds of lawful Eng- lifh money : but the word is not wholly difufed, for though we ordinarily fay lawful money of England, yet in the mint they call it Sterling money, which is meant to denote the certain degree of finenefs which ought to be retained in the refpe&ive coins. STERN, the pofterior face of a (hip; or that part which is reprefented to the view of a fpeftator, placed on the continuation of the keel behind, as exhibited in Plate CCLXXVII. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4. The (lern, fig. 1. is terminated above by the taffarel, and below by the counters : It is limited on the fides by the quarter-pieces; and the intermediate fpace com¬ prehends the galleries and windows of the different cabins. This figure exhibits the (tern of a 74-gun (hip. A, the keel, with a the falfe keel beneath it. A B, the ftern-poft. C, the rail which determines theheight of the counters. D D, the upper and lower quarter-galleries, with their baluftrades and windows* E, the quarter-pieces: and PEP, the taffarel. KGK, the lower counter, with H H, its gun-ports. G, the rail which feparates the lower counter from the fecond or upper counter; which la(l is included between G and C. K K, the wing-tranfom. I* L, the deck-tranfom. M, N, O, firft, fecond, and third tranfoms; the 4th, 5th, and 6th tranfoms are placed immediately under thefe: and that which lies between the wing and deck-tranfoms, is called the filling tranfom. OMLKP, the diredion of the fafhion-piece, whole upper part is expreffed by the dotted lines K P. the cove, a fort of arched canopy, ferving as a roof to the ftern-gallery. R QJl, the fereen bulk-bead, or partition, con¬ taining the cabin-windows. R S S R, the balyftrade of the ftern-gallery, with S S, the foot-pace-rail, which determines the height of its floor, or platform. S C S, the ward-room windows. T, tjie lower finifhing of the quarter gallery. Eig. 2. exhibits a ftern-view of a 60 gun (hip, with the curve of the frame-timbers on one fide, and the dif- pofition of all the planks of the bottom on the other lide. Fig. 3. reprefents a ftern view of a French man of war of 70 guns. Fig. 4. is a ftern for a firft or fecond rateaccord¬ ingly it is furniftied with a middle apartment between the ward-room and the captain’s cabin.. This apart • nient is alfo furniftied with galleries on the Hern and quarter. The other parts of it are deferibed in the ex¬ planation of fig. i- See alfo the article Quarter. Stern - Fajl, a rope ufed to confine the ftern of a ftiip or boat to any wharf or jetty-head, &c. Stern-Po/?, along ftraight piece of timber ereded on the extremity of the keel, to fuftain the rudder Stern* 'i and terminate the (hip behind. i This piece, which is exprefled by B in the pieces of the hull, Plate CCLXV. fig. 3. ought to be well fe- cured and fupported; becaufe the ends of all the lower planks of the (hip’s bottom are fixed in a channel, cut on its furface; and the whole weight of the rudder is fuftained by it. The dimenfions of the (lern-poft, or the propor¬ tional breadth and thicknefs in the different parts of its height, are geometrically delineated in the quarter and ftern of a 74 gun (hip, Plate CCL1V. fig. 1. and CCLXXVII. fig. 1. being expreffed in both by AB. It isufually marked like the ftern, with a fcale of feet from the keel upwards, in order to afeertain the draught of water at that part of the vefleL The difficulty of procuring a ftern-poft of fufficient breadth in one piece, has introduced the praftice of fixing an additional piece behind it, which is ftrongly bolted to the former. The hinges, which fupport the rudder, are accordingly fixed to this latter, which is alfo tenanted into the keel, and denominated the back of the pofl. It is half the breadth of the ftern-poft at the keel, but diminifties gragually towards the upper end, where it is one-third narrower. The ftern-poft: is ftrongly attached to the keel by a knee, G, Plate CCLXV. fig. 3. of which one branch extends along the keel, being fcarfed and bolted to the dead-wood, and fore-locked under the keel; whilft the other branch inclines upwards, and correfponds with the infide, or fore part of the ftern-poft; to which it is alfo bolted in the fame manner. Stern-S^?//, that part of a boat which is con¬ tained between the ftern and the aftmoft, or hindmoft, feat of the rowers. It is generally furniftied with benches to accommodate the paflengers. See Boat. STERNA, a genus ofbirds, of theorderof anferes. There are feven fpecies, three of which are Britift), viz. J. The hirundo, or great tern, weighs fourounces one-quarter: the length is fourteen inches; the breadth thirty: the bill and feet are of a fine crimfon ; the former tipt with black, ftraight, (lender, and (harp- pointed: the crown, and hind part of the head, black: the throat, and whole underfide of the body, white: the upper part, and the coverts of the wings, a fine pale grey: the tail confifts of twelve feathers; the exterior edges of the three outmoft are grey, the reft white : the exterior, on each fide, is two inches longer than the others: in flying, the bird frequently clofes them together, fo as to make them appear one (lender feather. Thefe birds frequent the fea-fliores, banks of lakes and rivers: they feed on fmall fi(h, and water- infedts; hovering over the water, and fuddenly darting into it, catch up, their prey. They breed among fmall tufts of rufties; and lay three or four eggs, of a dull olive colour, fpotted with black. All the birds of this genus are very clamorous. 2. The leffer tern, called by Linnaeus/«/•«/ minuta, weighs only two ounces five grains; length eight inches and a half; the breadth nineteen and a half. The bill ia yellow, tipt with black : the forehead and cheeks white: from the eyes to the bill is a black line: the top of the head and hind part black : the bread, and under fide of the body cloathed with feathers fo clofely fet together, and of fuch an e^quifitc rich gl«fs, and fo fine a white. Stern S T E r 8291 ] S T E Sttmo tliat no Tatin can be compared to it i tlie back and II. wings of a pale grey : the tail fliort, lefs forked than Stetin~ that of the former, and white! the legs yellow: the irides du£ky.—Thefe two fpecies are very delicate, and feem unable to bear the inclemency of the weather on our ftiores during winter; for we obferve they quit their breeding places at the approach of it, and do not return till fpring. The manners, haunts and food of this are the fame with thofe of the former ; but thefe are far lefs numerous. 3. The fiffipes, or black tern, is of a middle fize between the firft and fecond fpecies. The ufual length is ten inches; the breadth twenty-four; the weight two ounces and a half. The head, neck, bread, and belly, as far as the vent, are black ; beyond is white; the male has a white fpot under its chin : the back and wings are of a deep afh-colour : the tail is fhort and forked ; the exterior feather on each fide is white; the others afh-coloured ; the legs and feet of a dufky red. Mr Ray calls this a cltven-footed gull; as the webs are deprefled in the middle, and form a crefcent. Thefe birds frequent freih waters ; breed on their banks, and lay three fmall eggs of a deep olive-colour, much fpotted with black. They are found during fpring and fummer in vaft numbers in the Fens of Lincolnfliire; make an inceflant noife, and feed as welt on flies as water-infedts and fmall fifh. Birds of this fpecies are feen very remote from land. Kalrn favv flocks of hundreds in the Atlantic Ocean, midway between England and America ; and a later voyager faw one 240 leagues from the Lizard, in the fame ocean. STERNO-hyoid^us, in anatomy. See there, Table of the Mufcles. STERNUM, in anatomy. See there, n°36. STERNUTATIVE, or Sternutatory, a me¬ dicine proper to produce fneezing. Sternutatives are of two kinds, gentle and violent. Of the firll kind are betony, fage, maqoram, tobacco, and the whole fafliionable tribe of fnuffs. Of the latter kind are eu- phorbium, white hellebore, pellitory, &c. Sternntatives operate by their fharp pungent parts vellicatjng the inner membrane of the nofe, which is exceeding fen- fible, and occafioning the ferous matter contained in the glands of the nofe, and in feveral finufes fituated in the bafe of the cranium and of the os frontis, to be expelled, STETIN, or Stettin, a fea-port town of Ger¬ many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and capital of Hither Pomerania, with the title of a duchy, and a cattle. It had long a famous fchool, which the wars of Germany never difturbed. The ancient dukes of Pomerania refided here ; and it was taken by the elec¬ tor of Brandenborgh in 1676, but given to Sweden by the treaty of Nimeguen. In 1713, it fubmitted to the allies ; and then the faid ele&or was put in poflef- fion again of this important place, which is a bulwark to the Marche of Brandenburg : and the fortifications have been greatly improved. It is now a flourifhing place, and carries on a confiderable trade. It is leated on the river Oder, 80 miles north of Francfort, and 70 north by eaft of Berlin. E. Lon. 14. 58. N. Lat. 53. 27. The duchy is 125 miles in length; and borders upon Mecklenburg, and partly upon Branden- burg. The breadth is from 17 to 25 miles, and it is divided by the river Oder into two parts. Stew STEW, a fmall kind of fifli-pond, the peculiar ^If ^ office of which is to maintain fifli, and keep them in e"3r readinefs for the daily ufe of the family, &c. Stews, (from the French ejluves, i. e. therms, balneum), are thofe places which were permitted in England to women of profefied incontinency, and that for hire would proftitute their bodies to all comers; fo called, becaufe diffolute perfons are wont to prepare themfelves for venereous adls by bathing; and hot baths were by Homer reckoned among the effeminate fort of pleafures. Thefe flews were fuppreffed by King Henry VIII. about the year 1546. STEWARD, (fenefcallus, compounded of the Saxon Jleda, i. e. “ room \>> or Jlead and mieard, “ a ward” or “keeper,”) an officer appointed in ano¬ ther’s (lead or place, and always taken for a principal officer within his jurifdidtion. Of thefe there are va¬ rious kinds. The greateft officer under the crown is the lord high-fleward of England, an office that was anciently the inheritance of the earls of Leicefler, till forfeited by Simon de Mountfort to king Henry III. But the power of this officer is fo very great, that it has not been judged fafe to truft it any longer in the hands of a fubjedt, excepting only pro hac vice, occa- fionally : as to officiate at a coronation, at the arraign* ment of a nobleman for high-treafon, or the like. Du¬ ring his office, the fteward bears a white ftaffin his hand ; and the trial, &c. ended, he breaks tlfe .ftafF, and with it his commiffion expires. There is likewife a lord-fteward of the king’s houfehold, who is thechief officer of the king’s court, has the care of the king’s houfe, and authority over all the officers and fervants of the houfehold, except fuch as belong to the chapel, chamber, and ftable. Steward, an officer in a fhip of war, ap¬ pointed by the purfer to diftribute the different fpe¬ cies of provifions to the officers and crew ; for which purpofe he is furniflied with a mate and proper aflUt- ants. Court of the Lord High Steward of Great Britain, is a court inflituted for the trial of peers indi&ed for treafon or felony, or for mifprifion of either. The office of this great magiftrate is very ancient, and was formerly hereditary, or at lead held for life, or dum beneJegejferit: but now it is ufually, and hath been for many centuries paft, granted pro hac vice only ; and it hath been the confttnt pradtice (and therefore feems now to have become neceffary) to grant it to a lord of parliament, elfe he is incapable to try fuch de¬ linquent peer. When fuch an indidlment is therefore found by a grand jury of freeholders in the Kiug’s- bench, or at the affizes before the juftices of oyer and terminer, it is to be removed by a wrd of certiorari into the court of the lord high-fteward, which has the only power to determine it. A peer may plead a pardon before the court of King’s bench, and the judges have power to allow it, in order to prevent the trouble of appointing an high-fteward merely for the purpofe of receiving fuch plea : but he may not plead in that inferior court any other plea, as guilty or not guilty of the indictment, but only in this court; becaufe, in confequence of fuch plea, it is poffible that judgment of death might be awarded againft him. The king, therefore, in cafe a peer be indidted of treafon, fe- 41 M 2 lony, S T E [ 8292 ] S T E Steward, lony, or mifprifioo, creates a lord high-fteward pro hoc vice by commiffion under the great feal ; which recites the indi&ment fo found, and gives his Grace power to receive and try it fecundum legem et confuetn- dinem Anglia. Then when the indi&ment is regularly removed by writ of certiorari, commanding the infe¬ rior court to certify it up to him, the lord high- iteward dire&s a precept to a ferjeant at arms, tofum- mon the lords to attend and try the indi&ed peer. This precept vvas formerly iffued to fummon only 18 or 20 felefted from the body of the peers ; then the number came to be indefinite ; and the cudom was for the lord high-lteward to fummon as many as he thought proper, (but of late years not lefs than 23), and that thofe lords only fhould fit upon the trial; which threw a monftrous weight of power into the bands of the crown, and this its great officer, of fe- lefting only fuch peers as the then predominant party fhould moft approve of. And accordingly, when the earl of Clarendon fell into difgrace with Charles II. there was a defign formed to prorogue the parliament, in order to try him by a feleft number of peers ; it being doubted whether the whole houfe could be in¬ duced to fall in with the views of the court. But now, by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. upon all trials of peers for treafon or mifprifion, all the peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament fhall be fummoned at lead 20 days before fuch trial, to appear and vote therein ; and every lord appearing fhall vote in the trial of fuch peer, fird taking the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy, and fubfcribing the declaration againd popery. • During the feffion of parliament,-the trial of an in- didted peer is not properly in the court of the lord high-deward, but before the court lad mentioned of our lord the king in parliament. It is true, a lord high-deward is always appointed in that cafe to regu¬ late and add weight to the proceedings: but he is ra¬ ther in the nature of a fpeaker pro tempore, or chair¬ man of the court, than the judge of it; for the col- kdlive body of the peers are therein the judges both of law and fa£t, andnhe high-deward has a vote with the red in right of his peerage.. But in the court of the lord high-deward, which is held in the recefs of parliament, he is the foie judge of matters of law, as the lords triors are in matters of faft ; and as they may not interfere with him in regulating the proceedings of the court, fo he has no right to intermix with them in giving any vote upon the trial. Therefore, upon the convi&ion and attainder of a peer for murder in full parliament, it hath been holden by the judges, that in cafe the day appointed in the judgment for execution fhould lapfe before execution done, a new time of execution may be appointed by either the high court of parliament during its fitting, though nohigh- iteward be exiding, or, in the rccefs of parliament, by the court of kingVbench, the record being removed into that court. It has been a point of fome controverfy, whether the bifhops have now a right to fit in the court of the lord high-fteward to try indidments of treafon and mifprifion. Some incline to imagine them included under the general words of the ftatute of king Wiil- liam, “ all peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament t’* but the expreffion had been much clear¬ er, if it had been (< all lords,” and not tl all peersSteward for though bifhops, on account of the baronies an- . H nexed to their biffioprics, are clearly lords of parlia- tl^mata‘ ment, yet their blood not being ennobled, they are not univerfaUy allowed to be peers with the temporal nobility : and perhaps this word might be inferted purpofely with a view to exclude them. However, there is no inftance of their fitting on trials for capital offences, even upon impeachments or indictments in full parliament, much lefs in the court we are now treating of; for indeed they ufually withdraw volun¬ tarily, but enter a proteft, declaring their right to flay. It is obfervable, that,,in the nth chapter of the conftitutions of Clarendon, made in parliament nth Hen. II. they are exprefsly excufed, rather than excluded, from fitting and voting in trials, when they come to concern life or limb : epifcopi, Jicut cteteri la~ rones, debent interejfe judiciis cum baronibus, quoufque perveniatur ad dim\nutionem membrorum, vel ad mor¬ tem. And Becket’s quarrel with the king hereupon was not on account of the exception, (which was agreeable to the canon law), but of the general rule, that compelled the bifhops to attend at all. And the determination of the houfe of lords in the earl of Danby’s cafe, which hath ever fince been adhered to, is confonant to thefe conftitutions; that the lords fpiritual have a right to flay and fit in court in capital cafes, till the court proceeds to the vote of guilty or not guilty.” It muft be noted, that this refolution extends only to trials in full parliament; for to the court of the lord high-fteward (in which no vote can be given, but merely that of guilty or not guilty) no bifhop, as fuch, ever was or could be fummoned ; and though the ftatute of king William regulates the pro¬ ceedings in that court, as well as in the court of par¬ liament, yet it never intended to new-model or alter its conftitution ; and confequently does not give the lords fpiritual any right, in cafes of blood, which they had not before. And what makes their exclufion more reafonable is, that they have no right to be tried them- felves in the court of the lord high-fteward, and there-, fore furely ought not to be judges there. For the privilege of being thus tried depends upon nobility of blood rather than a feat in the houfe, as appears from the trials of popifh lords, of lords under age, and (fince the Union) of the Scots nobility, though not in the number of the fixteen ; and from the trials of fe¬ males, fuch as the queen confort or dowager, and of all peerefles by birth ; and peerelfes by marriage alfo, unlefs they have, when dowagers, difparaged tbem- felves by taking a commoner to their fecond hufband.' STEWART in Scots law. See Law, N° clviii. 5. STIBIUM, a name for Antimony. STIGMA, a brand, or impreffion with a hot iron; a mark of infamy. See Stigmatizing. Stigma, inbotany, the fummit or top of the ftyle, ac¬ counted by the fexualifts the female organ of genera¬ tion in plants, which receives the fecundating duft of the tops of the {lamina, and tranfmits its vapour or effluvia through the ftyle into the heart of the feed- bud, for the purpofe of impregnating the feeds. STIGMATA, the apertures in different parts of the bodies of infcdls, communicating with the tra¬ cheae of air-veffels, and ferving for the office of refpi- ratiom. Stic- S T I [ 8293 ] S T I Stigmata Stigmata, in antiquity, certain marks imprefled II on the ieft (houiders of the foldiers when lifted. Stnlingtleet. STIGMATIZING, among the ancients, was in- Aided upon Haves as a puniftiment, but more fre¬ quently as a mark to know them by: in which cafe, it was done by applying a red-hot iron marked with certain letters to their foreheads, till a fair imprefiion was made ; and then pouring ink inter their furrows, that the infeription might be the more.confpicuous. Stigmatizing, among fome nations, was, however, looked upon as a diftinguifhing mark of honour and nobility. STILE. See Style. STILL-bottoms, in the diftillery, a name given by the traders to what remains in the ftiil after work¬ ing the waftl into low wines. Thefe bottoms are pro¬ cured in the greateft quantity from the malt-wafti, and are of fo much value to the diftiller in the fattening of hogs, &c. that he often finds them one of the moft valuable articles of the bufinefs. STILLINGFLEET (Edward), bifhop ofWor- cefter, was the fon of Samuel Stillingfleet gentleman, and was born at Cranborn in Dorfetfhire in 1635. He was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge ; and having received holy orders, was, in 1657, prefented to the redory of Sutton in Nottinghamrtiire. By publifhing his Origines Sacra, and other works, he foon acquired fuch reputation, that he was appointed preacher of the Rolls Chapel ; and in January 1665 was prefented to the redory of St Andrew’s, Hoi- born. He was afterwards chofen ledurer at the Temple, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to king Charles II. In 1668, he took the degree of dodor of divinity; and was foon after engaged in a difpiue with thofe of the Romifh religion, by publilhing his difeourfe concerning the idolatry and fanaticifm of the church of Rome, which he afterwards defended againft feveral antagonifts. In 1680 he preached at Guild¬ hall chapel a fermon on Phil. iii. 16. which he pub- liflied under the title of The Mtfchief of Separation / and this being immediately attacked by feveral writers, he in 1683 publifhed his UnreafonaMenefs of Separa¬ tion. In 1685 appeared his Origines Britannic#, or the Antiquities of the Britilh Church, in folio. Du¬ ring the reign of king James II. he wrote feveral trads againft popery, and was prolocutor of the con¬ vocation, as he had likewife been under king Cha. II. After the Revolution he was advanced to the bifhopric of Worcefter, and was engaged in a difpute with the Socinians, and alfo with Mr Locke ; in which laft con- teft he' is generally thought to have been unfuccefsful. He died atWeftminfter in ifiqp, and was interred in the cathedral of Worcefter, where a tnonument was ereded to his memory by his fon. Dr Stillingfleet wrote other works befides thofe here mentioned, which, with the above, have been reprinted in 6 vols. folio. Stillingfleet (Benjamin), an ingenious natura- lift, was grandfon of the preceding'.. His father Ed¬ ward was fellow of St John’s College in Cambridge, F. R. S. M. D. and Greiham profeffor of phyfic : hut marrying in 1692,, he loft his lucrative offices and his father’s favour; a misfortune that affeded both him- felf and his pofterity. However, going into orders, he obtained, by his father’s means, the living of New- ington-Butts, which he immediately exchanged, for thofe of Wood-Norton and Swanton in Norfolk. He StilUhgfleefv died in 1708. Benjamin, his only fon, was educated at Norwich fchool; which he left in X720, with the charader of an excellent fcbolar. He then went to Trinity-Col¬ lege in Cambridge, at the requeft of Dr Bentley, the mafter, who had been private tutor to his father, do- meftic chaplain to his grandfather,, and much indebted to the family. Here he was a candidate for a feliow- fhip, but was rejeded by the matter’s influence. This was a fevere and unexpeded difappointment, and but little alleviated afterwards by the Dodor’s apology, that it was a pity that a gentleman of Mr Stillingfleet’a parts fliould be Buried within the walls of a college. Perhaps, however, this ingratitude of Dr Bentley was not of any real difiervice to Mr Stillingfleet. By being thrown into the world, he formed many ho¬ nourable and valuable connedions. He dedicated fome tranflations of Linnasus to the late lord Lyttelton, partly, he fays, from motives of private refped and honour. The prefent lord Barrington gave him, in a very polite manner, the place of the mafter of the barracks at Kenfington ; a favour to which Mr Stil¬ lingfleet, in the dedication of his Calendar of Flora to that nobleman, alludes with equal politenefs, as well as with the warmeft gratitude. His Calendar of Flora was formed at Stratton in Norfolk in the year 1755, at the hofpitable feat of his very worthy and ingenious friend Mr Marlham, who had made feveral obferva- tions of that kind, and had communicated to the public his curious obfervations on the growth of trees. Bui: it was to Mr Wyndham of Feibrig in Norfolk that he appears to have had the greateft obligations » he travelled abroad with him, fpent much of his time at his houfe, and was appointed one of/his executors- (,Mr Garrick was another), with a confiderable addi¬ tion to an annuity Which that gentleman had fettled upon him in his lifetime. Mr Stillingfleei’s genius- feems, if we may judge from his works, to have led him principally to the ftudy of natural hiftory ; which he profecuted as an ingenious philofopher, an ufeful citizen, and a good man. In this walk of learning he mentions, as his friends, Dr Watfon, Mr (.now Dr), Solander, Mr Hudfon, Mr Price of Foxley, and fome others; to whom may be added the ingenious Mr Pennant. Nor can we omit the flattering mention which the late Mr Gray makes of him in one of his letters, dated from London in 1761 : “ I have lateljrmade an acquaint¬ ance with this philofopher, who lives in a garret here in the winter, that he may fupport fome near relations who depend upon him. He is always employed, con- fequently (according to my old maxim) al ways happy, always cheerful, and feems to me a very worthy honeft man. His prefent fcheme is to fend fome perfons,.. properly qualified,, to refide a year or two in Attica, to make themfelves acquainted with the climate, pro- dudions^ and natural hiftory of the country, that we may underftand Ariftotle, TFieophraftus, &c. who have been Heathen Greek to us for fo many ages; and this he has got propofed to lord Bute, no un¬ likely perfon to put it in execution, as he is himfelf a botanift.” Mr Stillingfleet publiftred a volume of mifcel- taneous tradts, which is in much efteem,, and doea- greati S T I [ 8294 ] S T I Stimulatinggreat honour to his head and heart. They are chiefly !j tranflations of fome effays in the Amxnitates Academi- npu ai.on.^ publifliedby Linnaeus, interfperfed with fome ob- fervations and additions of his own. In this volume he fliows alfo a tafte for claffical learning, and enter¬ tains us with fome elegant poetical effufions of his own. But his Effay on Converfation, publifhed in the firft volume of Dodfley’s Colleftion of Poems, entitles him to a diftinguiflied rank among our Englifli poets. This poem is addreffed to Mr Wyndham, with all that warmth of friendfhip which diftinguiflres Mr Stilling- fleet. As it is chiefly dida&ic, it does not admit of fo many ornaments as fome compofuions of other kinds. However, it contains much good fenfe, (hows ~d confiderable knowledge of mankind, and has feveral paffages that in point of harmony and eafy verfifica- tion would not difgrace the writings of our moll ad¬ mired poets. Here more than once Mr Stillingfleet fhows himfelf ftill fore for Dr Bentley’s cruel treat¬ ment of him ; and towards the beautiful and moral .clofe of it (where it is fuppofed he gives us a Iketch of himfelf), feems to hint at a mortification of a more delicate nature, which he ia faid to have fuffered from -the other fex. To thefe difappointments it was perhaps owing that Mr Stillingfleet neither married nor went into orders. His London refidence was at a fadler’s in Piccadilly ; where he died in 1771, aged above 70, leaving feveral valuable papers behind him. He was buried in St James’s church, without the flighted monument of his having exifted. STIMULATING, a property in bodies by which they vellicate, and caufe vibrations and infleftions of the fibres of the nerves, and a greater derivation of nervous fluid into the parts affe&ed* Stimulants pro¬ duce pain, heat, rednefs, &c. STIMULI, in botany, a fpecies of armature or offenfive weapon, with which fome plants, as nettle, caflada, acalypha, and tragia, are furniffied. Their ufe, fays Linnaeus, is by their venomous punc¬ tures to keep off naked animals that would approach to hurt them. STING, an apparatus in the bodies of certain in¬ fers, in form of a little fpear, ferving them as a wea¬ pon of offence. Sting-/?<77, in ichthyology. See Raia. STINK- pot, an earthen jar or (hell, charged with powder, grenadoes, and other materials of an offen- live and fuffocating fmell. It is frequently ufed by privateers, in the weflern occean, in the attack of an enemy whom he defigns to board ; for which purpofe it is furnilhed with a lighted fufe, at the opening or touch-hole. See Boarding. STIPEND, among the Romans, fignifies the fame with tribute; and hence JUpendarii were the fame with tnhutdrii. Stipend, in Scots law. See Law, N°c]ix. 12, 13. STIPULA, in botany, one of the fulcra or props of plants, defined by Linnseus to be a fcale, or fmall leaf, flationed on each fide the bafe of the foot-llalks of the flower and leaves, at their firft appearance, for the purpofe of fupport. Elmgren reftridls it to the foot- ffalks of the leaves only. STIPULATION, in the civil law, the aft of fti- puiatiog, that is, of treating and concluding terms and conditions to be inferted in a contraft. Stipula- StinV lions were anciently performed at Rome, with abun- Stiriil|g‘ dance of ceremonies; the firft whereof was, that one party fhould interrogate, and the other anfwer, to give bis confent, and oblige himfelf. By the ancient Ro¬ man law, nobody could ftipulate but for himfelf; but as the Tabelliones were public fervants, they were al¬ lowed to ftipulate for their mafters; and the notaries fucceeding the Tabelliones, have inherited the fame privilege. STIRIA, a province of Germany, in the circle of Auftria, with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the north by the archduchy of Auttria, on the eaft by Hungary, on the fouth by Carniola, and on the weft by Carinthia and the archbiftiopric of Saltzburg; being 125 miles in length, and 17 in breadth. It is faid to contain 22 cities, 95 towns, 338-caftles, 15 convents, and 200,000 inhabitants. Though it is a mountainous country, yet there is a great deal of land fit for tillage, and the foil is fo good, that the inha¬ bitants never were in want of corn. It contains mines of very .good iron ; whence the arms made here are in great efteem. The women differ greatly from the Auftrians, and are very plain and downright. They have all fuellings on their throats, called Ironchocdes. The men are alfo very fimple, and are very zealous worfhippers of the Virgin Mary. They delight to fit at home in the chimney-corner, never troubling their heads about foreign affairs. The chief town is Gratz. STIRLING, a town of Scotland, lituated on the river Forth, thirty miles north-weft of Edinburgh, in W. Long. 3. 5c. N. Lat. 56. 12. It is alfo called Ster¬ ling, and Striveling; from the former of which Boethius falfely derives the name Sterling money ; becaufe, fays he, Ofbeit, a Saxon prince, after the overthrow of the Scots, eftablifhed here a mint. The name of Striveling is faid to have been derived from the frequency of ftrifes or confli&s in the neighbourhood. The town contains about 4000-inhabitants. It has a manufadiure of tartans and flialioons, and employs about 30 looms in that of carpets. The great ftreet is very broad. In it is the tolbooth, where is kept the ftandard for the wet meafures of Scotland. The other ftreets are nar¬ row and irregular.—Stirling is in miniature a re- femblance of Edinbufgh ; being built on a rock of the fame form, with a fortrefs on the fummit. The ori¬ gin of the caftle is unknown. The rock of Stirling was ftrongly fortified by the Pi£ls, amongft whom ar- chitedlure and feveral other ufeful arts had made a confiderable progrefs. As it lay in the extremities of their kingdom, the poffeffion of it was the occafion of frequent contefts betwixt them and their neighbours the Scots an^ Northumbrians ; each of whofe domi¬ nions did, for fome time, terminate near it. When the Scots, under Kenneth II. overthrew the Pidlifh empire near the middle of the ninth century, they endeavoured to obliterate every memorial of that people. They not only gave new names to provinces and towns, but, with all the rage of barbarians, de- moliftied many magnificent and ufeful edifices which had been reared up by them, and this fortrefs among the reft. It was, however, foon rebuilt, though upon an occafion not very honourable to the Scots. Upon the death of Kenneth II. in 855, his brother Donald V. mounted the throne of Scotland. In the begin- S T I [ 8295 ] S T I Stirling, beginning of his reign the kingdom was invaded by • Ofbrecht and Ella, two Northumbrian princes, who, uniting their forces with the Cumbrian Britons, and a number of Pids, who upon their expulfion from their native country had taken refuge in England, advanced to Jedburgh, where Donald encountered them ; and, after a fierce and bloody battle, obtained a com¬ plete vi&ory : but, having taken up his Ration in Berwick, in fupine fecurity, the Northumbrians, informed of the carelefs pofture in which the Scot- tifh army lay, furprifed them by a hafty march, difperfed them, and made a prifoner of the king. Pur- fuing the advantage they had gained, they marched northward, and fubdued all before them to the Frith of Forth and the town of Stirling. But the forlorn fituation of the Scots, without a king and without an army, obliging them to fue for peace, they obtain¬ ed it, upon condition that they fhould pay a fum of money for the ranfom of the king, and yield up all their dominions upon the fouth fide of the Forth to the conquerors. The Northumbrians taking pofieffion of the territo¬ ries ceded to them by this treaty, rebuilt the caftle of Stirling, and planted it with a ftrong garrifon,. in or¬ der to preferve their new conquefts, upon the frontiers of which it was lituated. Our authorities alfo inform us, that they ere&ed a ftone-bridge over the Forth, upon the fummit of which a crofs was raifed, with the following infcription in monkifh rhyme. Anglos a Scolis feparat crux ifta remotis; Armis hie ftant Bruti, Scpti Jlant hie, cruet tuti. Which is thus tranflated by Bellenden. I am free marche, as paffengeris may ken, To Scottis, to Britonis, and to Inglifmen. None of the ancient Englifh hiflorians mention this conqueft. The whole ftory, as well as the infcription, wears much of a monkifh garb ; yet its authenticity is not a little confirmed by the arms of the town of Stir¬ ling, upon which is a bridge, with a crofs, and the lad line of the above Latin diflich is the motto a- round it. We mull not, however, imagine, that in thofe times that fortrefs bore any refemblance to theprefeht ftruc- ture, which is adapted to the ufe of fire-arms. Its fize and form probably refembled thofe caRles which, under the feudal conftitution, the Englifh and Scottifh. barons ufed to ereft upon their eftates for dwelling- houfes; and' which, in thofe barbarous ages, they found neceffary to fortify for their defence, not only againft. foreign invaders, but often againft the attacks of their own neighbours. It is direftly fuch a Gothic figure as this which repreftnts the Cajlrum Sirivelenfe upon the arms of Stirling. This fortrefs, after it had continued in the poflef- fion of the Northumbrian Saxons about 20 years, was, together with the whole country upon the fouth fide of the Forth, reftored to the Scots, upon condition of their afiifting the Saxons againft their turbulent inva¬ ders the Danes. Upon the arms of Stirling are two branches of a tree, to reprefent the Netnus Strivelenfe but the fituation and boundaries of that foreft, which was probably a wing of the Caledonian, cannot be afeertained. Upon the fouth of Stirling, veftiges of a foreft are ftill difcernible for feveral miles. Banks ef natural limber ftill remain in the caftle-park, at Murray’s wood, and near Nether Bannockburn; and Stirling. flumps of trees, with much brufhwood, are to be feen in all the adjacent fields. When Kenneth III. received intelligence of the Danes having invaded his dominions, he appointed the caftle of Stirling to be the place of rendezvous for his army ; and he marched from thence to the battle of Loncarty, where he obtained a victory over thofe ro¬ vers, in the end of the 10th century. In the 12th century, this caftle is fpoken of as a place of great importance, and one of the ftrongeft fortreffes in the kingdom. In 1174, a calamity, not unufual amongft the Scottifh monarchs, befel William, who at that time occupied the throne. He was taken prifoner in an unfuccefsful expedition which he made into England; and, after having been detained 12 months in captivity, was releafed, upon ftipulaling t<» pay a large fum of money for his ranfom ; and, until payment thereof, delivering, into the hands of the Englifh the four principal fortrefles in the kingdom, which in thofe days were Stirling, Edinburgh, Rox¬ burgh, and Berwick. This was the ftrft great afeen- dant that England obtained over Scotland-; and in¬ deed, the moft important tranfaftion which had pafled between thefe kingdoms fince the Norman conquelt. Though the Scottifh monarchs, in their frequenfc perambulations thro’ the kingdom, often vifited Stir¬ ling, and held their courts for fome time in the caftle; yet it did not become a royal refidence till the family of Stuart mounted the throne, and it was from dif¬ ferent princes of this family that it received its prefent form. It was the place of the nativity of James II. ; and, when raifed to the throne, he frequently kept his court in it. It is well known to have been the place where that prince perpetrated an atrocious deed, the mur¬ der ofWilliamearlof Douglas, whom he ftabbed with his own hand. The royal apartments were at that time in the north-weft corner of the caftle, and are now the refidence of the major.. The room where the murder was committed ftill goes by the name of Douglas’r room. See Scotland, n° 304, 305. James III. contra&ing a fondnefs for the caftle on account of its pleafant fituation, made it the chief place of his refidence,. and added feveral embellifh- ments to it. He built within it a magnificent hall, which in thofe days was deemed a noble ftrudture, and.- is ftill entire. It now goes by the name of the parlia¬ ment houfe, having been defigned for the accommo¬ dation of that fupreme court. It is covered with an oaken roof of exquifite workmanftiip, which is very- little decayed,, though it hath ftood near 300 years. James alfo ere&ed a college of fecular priefts in the caftle, which he called the chapel-royal, and which proved one caufe of his own ruin. As the expences neceffary for maintaining the numerous officers of fuch an inftitution were confiderable, he annexed to it the revenues of the rich priory of Coldingham in the Merfe, which at that time happened to become va¬ cant. This priory had for a long time been holdtn by perfons conne£Led with the family of Hume; and that family,, confidering it as belonging to them, ftrongly oppofed the annexation. The difpute feems- to have lafted feveral years; for one parliament had paffed a vote, annexing the priory to the chapel-royal^, and a fubfequent ope enafted a ftatute prohibiting: every. S T I [ 8296 1 S T I rtlng. er ctnL at pleafure. However, the real value of one ftock above another, Stocks, on account of its being more profitable to the pro- 1 prietors, or any thing that will really, or only in imagination, affed the credit of company, or endanger the government, by which that credit is fecurcd, muft naturally have a confiderable effed on the (locks. Thus, with refped to the intereft of the proprietors, a (hare in the ftock of a trading company which pro¬ duces 5 1. or 61. per cent, per anr.um muft be more valuable than an annuity with government-fecurity, that produces no more than jl. or 4I. per cent, per annum ; and confequently fuch ftock muft fell at a higher price than fuch an annuity. Though it muft be obferved, that a (hare in the ftock of a trading- company producing 5 1. or 61. per. cent, per annum, will not fetch fo much money at market as a govern¬ ment annuity producing the fame fum; becaufe the fecurity of the company is not reckoned equal to that of the government, and the continuance of their pay¬ ing fo much per annum is more precarious, as their dividend is, or ought to be, always in proportion to the profits of their trade. As the prices of the different (locks are continually fluduating above and below par; fo, when a perfon who is not acquainted with tranfadions of that nature, reads in the papers the prices of (locks, where bank- dock is marked perhaps 127 1. India ditto 134 a 134.^, Sojith-Sea ditto 974-, &c. he is to underftand that a tool, of thofe refpedive (locks fell at fuch a time for thofe feveral fums. In comparing the prices of the different flocks one with another, it muft be remembered, that the intcrcft due on them from the time of the laft payment, is ta¬ ken into the current price ; and the feller never re¬ ceives any feparate confideration for it, except in the cafe of India bonds, where the intereft due is calcula¬ ted to the day of the fale, and paid by the purchafer over and above the premium agreed for. But as the intereft on the different (locks is paid at different times, this, if not rightly underftood, would lead a perfon, not well acquainted with them, into confiderable mif- takes in bis computation of their value ; fome always having a quarter’s intereft due on them more than others, which makes an appearance of a confiderable difference in the price, when in reality there is none at all. Thus, for inftance, old South Sea annuities fell at prefent for 85^ 1. or 85 1. 10 s. while new South- Sea annuities fetch only 84! 1. or 84 1. 15 s. though each of them produce the fame annual fum of 1. 3 per cent, but the old annuities have a quarter’s interelt more due on them than the new annuities, which amounts to 15 s. the exacft difference. There is, how¬ ever, one or two caufes that will always make one fpe- cies of annuities fell fomewhat lower than another, though pf the fame real value; one of which is, the annuities making but a fmall capital, and there not being for that reafon fo many people at all times ready to buy into it as into others, where the quantity is larger ,; becaufe it is apprehended, that whenever the government pays off the national debt, they will begin with that particular fpecies of annuity the capital of which is the fmalleft. A (lock may likewife be affefled by the court of chancery ; for if that court (hould order the money, which is under iheir diredion, to be laid out in any 41 N 55 parti- S T O [ 8300 T S T O Stocks, particular flock, that flock, by having more purcha- St0!cs^ fers, will be raifed to a higher price than any other of the like value. By w'iat has been faid, the reader will perceive how much the credit and intereft of the nation depends on the fupport of the public funds. While the annuities and intereft for money advanced is there regularly paid, and the principal infured by both prince and people (a fecurity not to be had in other nations), foreigners will lend us their property, and all Europe be inte- vefted in our welfare; the paper of the companies will be converted into money and merchandife, and Great Britain can never want calh to carry her fchemes into execution. In other' nations* credit is founded on the word of the prince, if a monarchy; or that of the people, if a republic : but here, it is eftablifhed on the interefts of both prince and people ; which is the ftrongeft fe¬ curity : for however lovely and engaging honefty may be in other refpeds, intereft, in money-matters, will always obtain confidence; becaufe many people pay great regard to their intereft, who have but little ve¬ neration for virtue. See the article Funds. Stocks, a frame ere&ed on the (bore of a river or harbour, whereon to build (hipping. It generally confifts of a number of wooden blocks, ranged paral¬ lel to each other, at convenient diftances, and with a gradual declity towards the water. Stocks, a wooden machine to put the legs of of¬ fenders in, for the fecuring of diforderly perfons, and by way of punifhment in divers cafes, ordained by fta- tute, &c. STOICS, a fe& of ancient philofophers, the fol¬ lowers of Zeno, thus called from the Greek stoa, which fignifies a “ porch or portico,” in regard Zeno ufed to teach under a portico or piazza. To the praife of the Stoics in general, it muft be confeffed, that, lefs intent than other philofophers upon frivolous and often dangerous fpeculations, they de¬ voted their ftudies to the clearing up of thofe great principles of morality which were the firmeft fupports of fociety ; but the drinefs and ftlffnefs that prevailed in their writings, as well as in their manners, difgufted rooft of their readers, and abundantly leffened their utility. Zeno’s chief followers, among the Greeks, were Lucippus, Cleanthes, Chryfippus, Diogenes Ba- bylonius, Antipater, Pansetius, Poffidonius, and E- piftetus ; among the Romans, Cato, Varro, Cicero, Seneca, the emperor Antoninus, &c. The Stoics cul¬ tivated logic, pbyfics, metaphyfics, See. but efpecially ethics. The principles of their dogmata of the for¬ mer kinds, are, That there are certain catalepfias or comprehenfions, called innate ideas or principles, na¬ turally found in the mind ; that God is the feminal caufe of the univerfe ; and, with the Platonifts, that the world is an animal, by reafon of God’s inhabiting and informing every part thereof; that nature is an artificial fire tending to generation; and that the world is at laft to be deftroyed by a conflagration. As for the morality of the Stoics, it was couched much in paradoxes; as, that a wife man is void of all pafiions or perturbation of mind ; that pain is no real evil, but that a wife man is happy in the midft of torture, is always the fame, and is always joyful; that there is none dfe free; that none elfe ought to be efteemed king, roagiftrate, poet, or philofopher; that all wife Stolberf men are great men ; that they are the only friends or II lovers; that nothing can happen to them beyond their Stone5‘ expedations ; that all virtues are infenbfibly conneded together; that all good things are equal, and equally to be defired; that goodnefs admits of no increafe or diminution. They own but one God, whom they however call by various names, as Fate, 'Jupiter, Sec. by which they did not mean various things, but va¬ rious powers and relations of the fame thing. Provi¬ dence they exprefled under the name Fate, which Chry¬ fippus defines to be a natural feries or compofition of things mutually following each other, by an immutable nexus or tie, fixed from all eternity. They held the immortality of the foul. STOLBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony,, and territory of Thuringia, of which it is the capital place. It is feated among the mountains, 58 miles north-weft of Leipfic. E. Long. 11. is. N. Lat. 51. 46. STOLE, a facerdotal ornament wore by the Ro- mifh parifli-pritfts over their furplice, as a mark of fuperiority in their refpedive churches; and by other priefts over the alb, at celebrating of mafs, in which cafe it goes acrofs the ftomach ; and by deacons, over the left-(boulder, fcarf-wife : when the pried reads the gofpel for any one, he lays the bottom of his dole on his head. The dole is a broad fwath, or flip of fluff, hanging from the neck to the feet, with three croffes thereon. Groom of the Stole, the eldeft gentleman of his Majefty’s bed-chamber, whofe office and honour it is to prefent and put on his majefty’s firft garment, or (hirt, every morning, and to order the things in the chamber. STOMACH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 352. STOMACHIC, medicines that (Lengthen the fto¬ mach and promote digeftion, &c. Stomachic corroboratives are fuch as (Lengthen the tone of the ftomach and inteftines; among which are carminatives, as the roots of galangals, red gentian, zedoary, pimpinella, calamus aromaticus, and arum. Of barks and rinds, thofe of canella alba, faffafras, citrons, Seville and China oranges, &c. Of fpices, pepper, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamoms, and mace. STONEHIVE, or Stonehaven, a fmall town in the county of Merns, in Scotland, 12 computed miles fouth from Aberdeen. It was built in the time of Charles II. and (lands at the foot of fome high cliffs, in a fmall bay, with a rocky bottom, opening a little in one part, fo that fmall veffvls may find ad¬ mittance but only at high water. A pier laps ovef this harbour from the north fide to fecure them after their entrance. The town contains about 806 inhabi¬ tants. The manufactures are fail-cloths and Ofna- burghs, knit worded and thread (lockings. STONES, in natural hiftory, are defined to be ef- fentially compound foffils, not inflammable, nor fo- luble in water or oil, nor at all dudlile : found in con¬ tinued ftrata, or beds, of great extent : formed either of a congeries of fmall particles, in fome degree refem- bling fand, and lodged in a fmoother cementitious matter; or elfe of this cementitious matter, and the gritt or fand-like particles, running together into ond fmooth S T O [ 8301 } S T O Stones, fmooth mafs; or, finally, of granules cohering by con- —taft, without any cementitious matter among them ; or compofed of cryftal or fpar, ufually debafed by earth, and often mixed with talc and other extraneous particles. Of this clafs of foffils there are three orders; and under tbefe, eight genera. The firft order comprehends all the coarfe, harfh, and rough ftones, of a lax texture, and compofed of a vifible gritt, refembling fand in form, and ufually im- merfed in a cementitious matter, and of little natural brightnefs; fcarce capable of any polilh, and naturally mouldering away in form of powder from the tools of the workmen. The genera of this order are two, viz. the ammochifta and pfaduria ; the former of which conftitute our grey and rough flates; and the latter comprehends mod of the ftones ufed in building, par¬ ticularly Portland done. The fecond order confifts of ftones moderately fine, of a more compaft and even texture, fcarce diftinguifh- able conftru&ion, and affording no fand-like particles to the view ; of fome natural brightnefs, capable of a tolerable polifli, and flying off from the tools of the workmen in form of fmall chips. Under this order are comprehended the fymptxia and ftegania. The third order confifts of ftones of a very fine fub- ftance and elegant ftru&ure, naturally of a great bright¬ nefs, and capable of an elegant polilh ; compdfed of granules of various lhapes and fizts, but ufually flat- tilh, fometimes more fometirties lefs diftinft ; and, in fome fpecies, running together into uniform malfes, but never lodged in any cementitious fubftance. Of this order are the marbles, alabafters, porphyries, and granites. For the Origin and Formation c/'Stones, M. Tour- nefort, on his return from the eaft in the year 1702, propofed to the Royal Academy a new theory.—On a curious furvey of the famous labyrinth of Crete, he obferved, that feveral people had engraven their names in the living rock whereof its walls are formed ; and, what was very extraordinary, the letters whereof they confilted, inftead of being hollow, as they muft have been at firft (being all cut with knife-points), were prominent, and ftood out from the furface of the rock like fo many baffo-relievo’s. This is a phe¬ nomenon no otherwife accountable for than byfup- pofing the cavities of the letters filled infenfibly with a matter iffuing from out of the fubftance of the rock, and which even iffued in greater abundance than was neceffary for filling the cavity. Thus is the wound made by the knife healed up, much as the fradure of a broken bone is confolidated by a callus formed of the extravafated nutritious juice which rifes above the furfacc of-the bone ; and this refemblance is the more juft, as the matter of the letters was found whitifh, and the rock itfelf greyilh. Something very like it is ob¬ ferved in the harks of trees, wherein letters have been cut with the knife ; fo that the poet had reafon to fay, that the charaflers grew as the trees themfelves grew: Cvefcent ilia, ertfeetis amores.—M. Tournefort fup- ports his opinion by fimilar calufes apparently formed in feveral other ftones, which had reunited after by accident they had been broken.—From thefe obferva- lions it follows, that there are ftones which grow in the quarries, and of coufequeace that are fed j that the fame juice which nourilhes them ferves to rejoin Stonf. their parts when broken, juft as in the bones of animals and the branches of trees when kept up by bandages; and in a word,- that they vegetate. M. Tournefort examines feveral kinds of ftones, and finds them under the fame necelfity of feed. The im- menfe quantity of flints wherewith the Crau of Arles is covered, he ufes as an argument in behalf of this theory. The country there, for 20 miles round, is full of roundifli flints, which are ftill found in equal abun¬ dance to whatever depth you dig. M. Pcirefc, who firft propofed the generation of ftones by means of feeds, (though he took the word feed in a very different fenfe from M. Tournefort), firft brought this extraor¬ dinary caropagne as a proof thereof. In effeeft, how could fo many fimilar flints be formed ? There is no faying they are coeval with the world, without affert- ing at the fame time that all the ftones in the earth were produced at once ; which were to go dire&ly contrary to the obfervations above-mentioned. Among the feeds of ftones, M. Tournefort obferves, there are fome which do not only grow foft by the juices of the earth, but even become liquid. Thefe, then, if they penetrate the pores of certain bodies, grow hard, petrify, and affume the figure or tmpref- fion of the.body : thus what we call peftinites, con^ chites, mytulites, ejlracites, nautilites, echinites. See. are real ftones, the liquid feeds whereof have infinuated into the cavities of the (hells called peften, concha,, my- tulus{ oflrea, nautilus, echinus. On the contrary, if thole liquid feeds fall on flints, on (hells, fand, &c. they inclofe thofe feveral bodies, and fixing between them, form a kind of cement, which yet grows like other* ftones. Xtis highly probable,bethinks,thatfuch rocks as are only an aflemblage of mafticated flints, have been- formed by a number of thefe liquid feeds, in like man¬ ner as the quarries full of fhelis; unlefs the rocks have enveloped thefe bodies in their growth. He adds, that there are feeds of real ftones inclofed in the fpawn of certain fhell-fifh, as well as that hard folid matter deftined to the forming their (hells. There is a particular kind of fhell-fifh called pholasy which is never found anywhere but in the cavities of flints, which are always found exaftly fitted to receive them. Now it is highly improbable the fifh fhould come and dig fuch a nitch to fpawn in ; it is much more likely the ftones they are found inclofed in were at firft foft, and that the matter they are formed of was originally found in the fpawn, in like manner ar the matter which forms the egg-ftiell is really found in- the feed thereof. See Pholas, From the whole, he concludes, that the feed of ftones, and even of metals, is a kind of dufl which probably falls from them while they are alive, /. them together at the top by tenons and mortifes. Thefe trilithons are not all of the fame height, but each of them raifed its head or impoft fomewhat higher as it drew neared to that before which the altar is judged to have ftood, and which appears to have been not only the higheft, but fineft, both for the fmooth- nefs and beauty of the ftones. The height of thefe trilithons, with their architraves or cornices, is com¬ puted, at .a medium, to be 24 feet, for Ihere is no coming at an exafl dimenfion in a wmrk fo decayed by time and weather; the uprights being between 20 and 21 feet high, and leffening a little upwards to the top, and the cornice computed about three feet and an half, making up the complement of 24 feet. Thefe im¬ ports, on the outward face, bore the fame fweep with the oval which they compofed; but on the infide with¬ in a ftraight line. They feem likewife to have been fomewhat broader on the top than at the bottom, fo that their fides bear a little flant downwards, whether to preferve them the better from the weather, or to make up the (hortening which is caufed by their ele¬ vation from the fight. The gradual afeent of thefe three orders, as they may be termed, of trilithons, is 13, 14, and 15 druidifn cubits. The breadth of each trilithon is computed, in a medium, about 10 cubits of the fame meafure, and is confequently the length at leaft of the impoft. Each upright is about 3 feet 9 nine inches thick, and twice that, i. e. 7 feet and an half in breadth, or 4 cubits and an half drui- di(h. Each trilithon which compofes this ovel cell {lands at fuch convenient diftance from the other, as to yield a beautiful profpedl into it; which is not a little heightened by the {pace which {lands between the two uprights, and which widens upwards as thefe leffen in their breadth, and form an oval from its two centres, whofe longed radius is 13, and (horteft 12, druidifli cubits ; fo that the elliplis is formed by a line of 60 cubits, which being joined at the two ends,'and turned round the two centres, give a diameter of 30 cubits at the longed, and 25 at the (horteft, 3 cubits being the fuppofed diftance between the two centres. Within this grand oval is another, of much leffer tho’ harder and finer ftones. This circle (together with the long ftone now broken, which is fuppofed to have been the altar, and is of a darkiih-blue marble, fuch as is often fet upon common altar-tombs, and about 16 feet in length) confifts of 20 ftones, the greateft part of which are broken and mangled ; but not fo much as to hinder a curious obferver from reco¬ vering the order in which they ftood, though their ufe and defign is hard to be gueffed at. Another circle or oval of 40 ftones furrounded the cell or adytum at a proper diftance. Thefe were likewife of a much leffer fize; after which one comes out to the greattft or outer circle, compofed of 30 ftones, likewife harder, and fomewhat of a pyramidal form. It fee ms as if the founders had wifely provided, that their leffer bulk ffiould S T O [ 8jo3 ] S T O Stonehenge fliould be compenfated by their folidity. The difference menfe labour it mud have been to rear Hones of that vaft Stonehenge between this outward circle and that of the cell or ady- bulk and weight, to place them in their proper places, II turn confided in this, that the architraves of the trill - and at fuch due diftances, that the architraves or impofts Storax. thons of the latter did not touch one another, but pre- that locked them to each other at the top fhould fall ferved the fame diftance with the two uprights on fo exadtly every mortifc upon its own tenon, as we which they were locked; whereas, in the former or find they a&ually do to this day: for it is plain to- outward circle, the ftanders were joined by a conti- every eye that views them carefully, that each of thefe nued cornice. Each dander or upright here had two tenons are fo exaftly fitted to its rr.ortife, that if either tenons, at equal diftances on the top, by which the of the ftanding ftones had been fet ever fo little out of its two imports were locked by their mortifes, and fo place, and perpendicular, they could never have locked continued quite round in the form of a crown or one in the other till they were reduced to their due cornice. The whole was furrounded by a vallum or diftance and pofition; efpecially confidering that there deep ditch at a proportionate diftance, as we have were a-t leaft 15 in number of this large fort, fet up hinted above : and this, with the grand avenue and two and two, the whole in a beautiful oval, neareft to the gradual albent up to the fabric, afforded a noble a circle, and exa&ly locked each to the other by ar- profpeft, both as you advanced towards it, and much chitraves of proportionable bignefs. Each tenon is more when you viewed from it all the champaign coun- a druidilh cubit, fomewha.t above 20 inches in diame- try round it. ter on the broadeft fide ; for they are of an oval fi- According to the unthinking vulgar, thefe ftones gure, and the mortifes exaftly anfwerable to it. By were brought hither by magic, by the help of demons, this contrivance the impofts or architraves lie firm or by giants, either of which were readily enough locked upon the uprights, and thefe are kept firm to fuppofed able to bring them upon their backs from each other. Where the impofts are heavieft, the te- Africa ; whilft the wifer fort rather imagined them to nons are fhorteft ; and where thofe are lighted, and be factitious, and caft from fome fuch compofition as confequently more in danger to be fhaken, as in thofet fand and mortar and the like, and hardened by the of the outward circle, thefe are made longeft, and the weather. This notion, however, has been difproved, mortifes deeper accordingly. If the bottom face of though to the great detriment and disfiguring of the the impoft be divided into three fquares, the two mor~ ftones themfelves, and the endangering of the ftru&ure. tifes will be found in the middle of the two outward Thefe ftones, rough and battered as they have been ones: draw diagonal lines from corner to corner, and by thefe pretended curiofis, as well as by a long fe- where they interfed is the centre of the mortife; which ries of ages, appear to have been originally fmoothed central diftance from one to the other is feven druidifh by the chifel, at leaft as far as they ftand above- cubits, or about eight of ours» Some other particulars ground; for as to that part which lies buried in the earth, it fhows itfelf, upon digging round it, to be ii its primitive roughnefs ; and as it was digged up out of the quarry, or, more probably, as they were found lying On the furface of the ground in great numbers and various dimenfions, perhaps ever fince the creation of the world, and as they are to be feen ftill in vaft quantities upon Marlborough Downs near A bury, at a place called from thence the Grey Wethers, and are of the fame kind, to wit, a baftard white marble. The difficulty is, to conceive how ftones of that ini' menfe weight, one of which, though neither the largeft nor heavieft, has been computed By proper judges to (how the whole to have been done geometrically, and from fuch plain and dimple principles as would beft an- fwer every purpofe of the grand defign. And hence we may frame an idea of the curioufnefs as well as ardu- oufnefs of the work, which muft be owned to outvie all that we read of fingle obelifks, pillars, and ftatues,. how gigantic foever, if we except the pyramids of E- gypt and the Rhodian coloffus. The firft account of this ftru&ure we meet with is* in Geoffrey of Monmouth, who, in the reign of king Stephen, wrote the biftory of the Britons in Latin, He tells us, that it was eredied by the counfel of Mer¬ lin the Britifh inchanter, at the command of Aurelius weigh between 30 and 40 tons, and confequently Ambrofius the laft Britifti king, in memory of 460- would have required about 150 oxen to have drawn it, Britons who were murdered by Hengift the Saxon, could be conveyed from their original feat to Stone- The next account is that of Polydore Virgil, who fays henge, which is 16 computed miles, and along fuch that the Britons erefted this as a fepulchral monument- uneven grounds and in fach quantities as coropofe the of Aurelius Ambrofius. Others fuppofe it to have been fabric. Sure it is, that no carriage can be conceived which would not have been funk into theground by fuch monftrous weight, unlefs it be that of rollers: but even this muft appear a more than Herculean labour; the arduoufnefs of which cannot be extenuated, but by the fuppofition that the whole, or at leaft the greateft a fepulchral monument of Boadicea the famous Britiftt Queen. Inigo Jones is of opinion that it was a Roman, temple; from a ftone 16 feet long and 4 broad, placed in an exadt pofition to the eaftward, altar-fafhion. However, the opinion of Dr Stukely is the molt pro¬ bable, who thinks that it was the chief temple of the part, of the nation contributed their help towards it Druids in Britain ; of which a very ftrong proof is. n their turns. The rearing of them afterwards in fuch form and fituation was a work of no lefs difficulty ; for though we may reafonably fuppofe that they were all pecked and chifled, had their mortifes and tenons wrought, and every thing done that could lighten and fit them for the defign, at the place where they were brought from ; yet every man will eafily perceive what an im- that it can be meafured only by the cubit ufed by the; Druids. STOOL, in medicine, an evacuation or difeharge of the faeces by the anus. STOPS. See Points and Punctuation. STORAX, or Styrax, an odoriferous refinous; fubftance, exuding, in the warmer climates, from 5 tree called by C. Bauhine Jlyrax folio mail colonel- It baa S T O t 8304 1 S T O •Storax has been cuftomary to diftinguifh three forts of ftorax, ter, b«aufe they require an artificial warmth. Stoy«- ' II though only one is ufually met with in tha (hops. Stoves are of two kinds, dillinguilhed by the names loves* 1. Styrax calamita, or ftorax in the cane, fo called of the dry and the lark /loves* from its having been formerly brought inclofed in reeds Ti he dry ftove has the dues, in which the fmoke is from Pamphylia : it is either in fmall diftind tears, of is carried, either laid under the pavement of the floor, a whitifli or reddifh colour, or in larger maffes com- or eredled in the back-part of the houfe over each pofed of fuch. other, and returned fix or eight times all along the 2. Storax in the lump, or red ftorax. This is in ftove. Jn thefe (loves the plants are placed on fcaf- mafles of an uniform texture, and yellowilh red or folds and benches of boards, railed above one another ; brownilh colour, though fometimes likewife interfper- and the plants principally preferved in thefe, are the fed with a few whitilh grains. Of this fort there has aloes, cereufes, euphorbiums, tithymals, and other been fome lately to be met with in the (hops, under fucculent plants, which are impatient of moifture in the name of ftorax in the tear. winter ; and therefore are not to be kept among trees 3. The common ftorax of the (hops is in large tnaf- or herbaceous plants, which perfpire freely. fes, confiderably lighter and lefs compaa than the The bark-(loves are made with a large pit, nearly- foregoing : it appears upon examination to be com- of the length of the houfe, which is three feet deep, pofed of a fine refinous juice, mixed with a quantity and fix or (even feet wide. This pit is to be filled of faw-duft. For what purpofe this addition is made with fre(h tanner’s bark to make a hot-bed ; and in we (hall not here inquire ; obferving only, that it can this the pots, containing the tender plants, are to be fcarcc be fuppofed to be done with any fraudulent plunged. view, fince the faw-duft appears at fight. This com- Sto\is for heating Rooms. The mod Ample contri- mon ftorax is much lefs efteemed than the two firft vance of tbis kind is that deferibed by Dr Lewis in forts; though, when freed from the woody matter, it his Cemtturcium Philofaphico-teehnicutn. He there re¬ proves foperior in point of fragrancy to either of them. commends the two crucibles which he makes ufe of fte&ifkd fpirit, the common men-ftruum of refins, dif- fora chemical furnace*, the one inverted over the * See 0^- folves the ftorax, leaving the wood behind ; nor does other, and the joining fecured by a hoop. Thefe 110P# this tindure lofe confiderably of its valuable parts, in furnaces, fays he, may be ufed likewUe as a common being infpiffated to a folid confidence ; whilft aqueous ftove, for keeping a room warm with a little quantity liquors elevate almoft all the fragfancy of the ftorax. of fuel.—There are three general intentions which Storax is one of the mod agreeable of the odorife- have been purfued in contrivances for this purpofe ; rous refins, and may be exhibited to great advantage Making the fuel take fire by degrees, and confume in langours and debilities of the nervous fyftem : it is flowly ; 2. conducing its heat, or the air warmed by not, however, much ufed in common pradlice, unlefs it, through a number of pafiages or circumvolutions, as an ingredient in the traumatic balfam, the com- that the heat, inftead of being carried up the chimney pound powder and eleAuary of fcordium, the ftorax and thus loft, may be detained in thefe paflages, and pill, confedio Paulina, mithridate, and theriaca. thence communicated to the air of the room to which Liquid Storax. What is mod commonly met with they lie expofed ; and, 3. applying to the fire a quan- ■under this name, is a foft refinous fubftance, of a grey tity of folid matter, which, being once heated, pre¬ colour, a weak foie!), fimiiar to that of the foregoing ferves its heat long. Some ingenious furnaces, on folid ftorax : it is Cuppofed to be compounded of folid thefe principles, are deferibed in the Tranfaftions of florax, refin, wine, and oil, beaten up together into the Swedifh academy, and in the fecond edition of a proper confidence,. The genuine liquid ftorax, ac- Reaumur’s Art of hatching Birds. All thefe contri- cording to Petiver’s account, {Phil. TranfaS, n0 313), vances are united in the following combination of the is obtained from a tree growing in the ifland Cobros two pots and the hoop. in the Red Sea. The preparers of this commodity The undermoft pot has the fmall grate introduced yearly clear oft the bark of the trees, and boil it in into its lower part, the fire-place door clofed, and the fea-water to the confidence of bird-lime : the refinous afli-pit door or the bottomhole open for admitting matter which floats upon the furface is taken off, li- air. Being then charged with fmall pieces of charcoal, -quefied again in boiling water, and pafled-through a and fome lighted coals thrown above them, its top is itrainer. The purer part which pafles through, and covered by the larged of the grates; and on this is the more impure which remains on the drainer, and placed tfie hoop and dome, filled with balls of baked ■contains a confiderable portion of the fubftance of the earth, or with pieces of bricks, fo difpofed as to leave Bark, are both fent to Mocca, from whence they are fmall vacuities between them. If the ftove is placed fometimes, though very rarely, brought to us. The in the middle of a room, its injurious burnt air may fnft is of the confidence of honey, tenacious, of a be carried off by a pipe inferted laterally into the lar- reddifh or afh-brown colour, an acrid unftuous tafte, ger door of the dome, and communicating at the other approaching in (null to the folid ftorax, but fo ftrong end, which (hould be raifed eight or ten inches, with as to be difagreeable ; the other is full of woody mat- the chimney of the room ; all the other aperture* of ter, and much weaker in fmell. Liquid ftorax among the dome being clofed. •us is fcarce ever made ufe of in medicine, and not The furnace thus charged, will keep up a moderate often, found in the (hops. and nearly equal warmth for many hours, without STORK, in ornithology. See Ardea. injury or offence ; the charcoal burning down exceed- STOVES, in gardening, are buildings ere&ed for *ing flowly, and the heated balls or bricks continuing the prefervation of tender exotic plants, which, with- the warmth for a confiderable time after the fuel is that alfillance, will not bear the cold of our win- confumed. Frefh charcoal may be occafionaily fup- plied S T O [ g30? ] S T R Stourbridge plied through the door above the grate : the check Stow> which the balls give to the motion of the air through the furnace renders the confumption of this alfo flow; and it may ftiil be made more fo at pleafure, by flop¬ ping a part of the aperture which admits the air, or of the pipe or chimney which carries it off, STOURBRIDGE, or Sturbich, the name of a field near Cambridge, noted for its famous fair kept annually on the 7th of September, and which conti¬ nues for a fortnight. The commodities are, horfes, hops, iron, wool, leather, cheefe, &c. This place is alfo noted for an excellent fpecies of clay capable of refilling an intenfe heat. It is ufed in making pots for glafshoufes, fire-bricks, &c. and is fold at an high price. STOW, the name of a market-town in Glocefter- fliire in England, fituated in W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 51. 50. It is alfo the name of a fine feat of the earl of Temple in Buckinghamlhire. Here are the beft gardens in England, adorned with bulls, llatues, obe- lilks, pavilions, and temples. It is two miles from the town of Buckingham. STOW (John), the induftrious hiftorian, fon of Thomas Stow merchant-taylor of St Michael’s, Corn- hill, in London, was born about the year 1525. Of the early part of his life we know very little, except that he was bred to his father’s bufinefs, which in the year 1560 he relinquilhed, devoting himfelf entirely to the tludy of our ancient hiftorians, chronicles, an¬ nals, charters, regiflers, and records. Of thefe he made a confiderable colledlion, travelling for that pur- pofe to different parts of the kingdom, and tranferi- bing fuch manuferipts as he cotuld not purchafe. But this profeflion of an antiquary being attended with no prefent emolument, he was obliged for fubfiftence to return to his trade. It happened, however, that his talents and neceffities were made known to Dr Parker archbilhop of Canterbury ; who being himfelf an an¬ tiquary, encouraged and enabled Mr Stow to profe- cute his darling ftudy. In thefe times of perfecution, though Elizabeth was then upon the throne, honert John Stow did not efcape danger. His colleflion of Popilh records were deemed caufe of fufpicion. His younger brother Thomas preferred no lefs than 140 articles againft him before the ecclefiaftical commif- fion ; but the proof being infufficient, he was acquit¬ ted. In 1565 he firft publilhed his Summary of the Chronicles of England. About the year 1584 he began his Survey of London. In 1585 he was one of the two colledors for a great muller of Limellreet ward: in the fame year he petitioned the corporation of London to bellow on him the benefit of two free¬ men, to enable him to publilh his furvey ; and in 1589 he petitioned again for a penfion. Whether he fuc- ceeded, is not known. He was principally concerned in the fecond edition of Holinlhed’s chronicle, pub¬ lilhed in 1587. He alfo corre£led, and twice aug¬ mented, Chaucer’s works, publilhed in 1561 and in 1597. His furvey of London was firft publilhed in 1598. To thefe laborious works he would gladly have added his large Chronicle, or Hillory.of England ^ but he lived only to publilh an abftradl of it, under the Flores Hijioriamm. The folio volume, which was printed after his death, with the title of Stow’s Chronicle, was taken from his papers by-Edmund Vol. X. -2 Howes. Having thus fpent his life and fortune in thefe Stow laborious purfuits, he was at lall obliged to folicit the “iarkct charitable and well-difpofed for relief. For this pur- pofe, king James I. granted him, in 1603, a brief, which was renewed in 1604, authorifing him tocolleft in churches the benefactions of his fellow-citizens. He died in April 1605, aged 80 ; and was buried in his parilh-church of St Andrew’s Underlhaft, where his widow eredled a decent monument to his memory. John Stow was a moll indefatigable antiquarian, a faithful hiftorian, and an honeft man. STOWMARKET, a town of Suffolk in England, li- tuated in E. Long. 1. 10.N. Lat. 52. 20. It is a large handfome place, fituated between the branches of the rivers Gyppe and Orwell, and is remarkable for ha¬ ving the bed cherries in England. STOWAGE, the general difpofition of the feveral materials contained in a fliip’s hold, with regard to their figure, magnitude, or folidity. In the llowage of different articles, as balaft, calks, cafes, bales, and boxes, there are feveral general rules to be obferved, according to the circumftances or qua¬ lities of thofe materials. The calks which contain any liquid, are, according to the fea-phrafe, to be hurg-- up and bilge-free, i. e. clofely wedged up in an hori¬ zontal pofnion, and relling on their quarters : fothat the bilges, where they are thickeft, being entirely free all round, cannot rub againft each other by the mo¬ tion of theveffel. Dry goods, or fuch as may be da¬ maged by the water, are to be carefully inclofed in calks, bales, cafes, or wrappers ; and wedged off from the bottom and fides of the Ihip, as well as from the bow, mafts, and pump-wel'. Due attention mmt likewife be had to their difpofition with regard to -each other, and to the trim and centre of gravity of the Ihip ; fo that the heavieft may always be neareft the keel, and the lighted gradually above them. STRABISMUS, fquinting. See Medicine, n6 476. STRABO, a celebrated Greek geographer, philo- fopher, and hiilorian, was born at Amafia, and wast defeended from a family fettled at Gnoffus in Crete. He was the difciple of Xenarchus, a Peripatetic philo- fopher, and at length attached himfelf to the Stoics. He contradled a ftriA friendfhip with Cornelius Gal- lus, governor of Egypt; and travelled into feveral countries to obferve the fituation of places, and the cuftoms of nations. He flourilhed under Auguftus; and died under Tiberius about the year 25, in a very advanced age. He compofed feveral works; all of which are loft, except his Geography in 17 books; which are juftly etleemed very precious remains of an¬ tiquity. The two firft books are employed in Ihow* ing, that the ftudy of geography is not only worthy of, but even neceffary to, a philofopher j the third de- feribes Spain ; the fourth, Gaul and the Britannic ifles ; the fifth and fixth, Italy and the adjacent ifles; the feventh, which is imperfedt at the end, Germany, the countries of the Getss and Illyrii, Taurica, Cher- fonefus, and Epirus; the eighth, ninth, and tenth, Greece with the neighbouring ifles ; the four follow¬ ing, Afia within Mount Taurus; the fifteenth and fixteenth, Afia without Taurus, India, Perfia, Syria, Arabia; and the feventeenth, Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Car¬ thage, .and other places of Africa. Strabo’s work 41 0 was Strada, Strand. S T R [83 was publifhed with a Latin verfion by Xylander, and notes by Ifaac Cafaubon, at Paris, 1620, in .folio; but the befl edition is that of Amfterdam in 1707, in two volumes folio, by the learned Theo¬ dore Janfonius ab Alrnelooveen, with the entire notes of Xylander, Cafaubon, Meurfius, Cluver, Hol- ftenius, Salmafius, Bochart, Ez. Spanheim, Cellarius, and others. To this edition is fubjoined the Chrejia- 7natbi dicine, n° 234. STRASBURG, an ancient, large, handfome,-,po- pulous, and ftrong city of France in Alface. It con¬ tains about 200 ftreets, part of which are very nar¬ row, and moft of the houfes are built after the ancient tafte. However, there are a great number of hand- fome buildings, fuch as the hotel of the marflial of France, who is commander of the city ; the hotel of the cardinal of Rouen, the bifhop’s palace, the Jefuita college, the royal hofpital, the hotel of Heffe-Darm- ftadt, the arfenal,. the town-houfe, and the cathedral. It has a wooden bridge over the Rhine, which is thought to be one of the fineft in Europe ; as is like- wife the cathedral church, whofe tower is the handfo- meft in Germany, and the clock is greatly admired by all travellers. Some look upon it as one of the won¬ ders of the world, and the fteeple is allowed to be the higheft in Europe. The clock not only fhows the hours of the day, but the motion of the fun, moon, and ftars. Among other things there is an angel, which turns an hour-glafs every hour; and the twelve apoftles proclaim noon, by each of them ftriking a blow with a hammer on a bell. There is likewife a cock, which is a piece of clock-work, that crows every hour. There are 700 fteps up to the tower or fteeple, it being 500 feet high. It was a free and im¬ perial city ; but the king of France became mafter of it in 1681, and greatly augmented the fortifications, though before it had as many cannon as there are days in the year. The inhabitants were formerly Prote- ftants, and carried on a great trade ; but moft of them have been obliged to embrace the Romiffi fuperftition, though there is ftill a fort of toleration. It is feated on the river 111, 55 miles N. of Bafil, 112 S. W. of Mentz, and 255 E. of Paris. E. Lon. 7. 51. N. Lat. 34- 35- STRATA, in natural hiftory, the feveral beds or layers of different matters whereof the earth is com- pofed. The ftrata whereof the earth is compofed are fo very different in different countries, that it is impof- fible to fay any thing concerning them that may ba generally applicable : and indeed the depths to which we can penetrate are fo fmall, that only a very few can be known to us at any rate ; thofe that lie neas the centre, or even a great way from it, being for ever hid. The reafon why we cannot penetrate to any great depth is, that as we go down, the air becomes foul, loaded with pernicious vapours, inflammable air, fixed air, &c. which deftroy the miners, and there is no poffibility of going on. In many places, however, thefe vapours become pernicious much fooner than others, particularly where, fulphureous minerals abound, as in mines of metal, coal, &c. But however great differences there may be among the Stranded I! Strat?. S T R [ 8307 ] S T R Strata, the under ftrata, the upper one is in fome refpeds the “ "Vl fame all over the globe, at leaft in this refpe&, that ' it is fit for the fupport of vegetables, which the others are not, wi hout long expofure to the air. Properly fpeaking, indeed, the upper ftratum of the earth all round, is compofed of the pure vegetable mold, tho’ in many places it is mixed with large quantities of other ftrata, as clay, fand, gravel, &c. ; and hence proceed the differences of foils fo well known to thofe who praftife agriculture. It has been fuppofed, by fome naturalifts, that the different ftrata of which the earth is compofed were originally formed at the creation, and have continued in a manner immutable ever fince: but this cannot podibly have been the cafe, fince we find that many of the ftrata are ftrangely intermixed with each other ; the bones of animals both marine and terreftrial are frequently found at great depths in the earth ; beds of oyfter-fhells are found of immenfe extent in feveral countries ; and concerning thefe and other fhell-fifh, it is remarkable, that they are generally found much farther from the furface than the bones or teeth either of marine or terreftrial animals. Neither are the fhells or other remains of fifh found in thofe countries ad¬ joining to the feas where they grow naturally, but in the moft diftant regions. Mr Whitehurft, in his In¬ quiry into the original ftate and formation of the earth, has given the following account of many different kinds of animals, whofe fhells and other remains or exuviae are found in England; though at prefent the the living animals are not to be found except in the Eaft and Weft Indies. Nothing has more perplexed thofe who undertake Sfrata. to form theories of the earth than thefe appearances. Some have at once boldly afferted, from thefe and other phenomena, that the world is eternal. Others have had recourfe to the univerfal deluge. Some, among whom is the Count de Buffon, endeavour to prove that the ocean and dry land are perpetually changing places; that for many ages the higheft mountains have been covered with water, in confe- quence of which the marine animals juft mentioned were generated inTuch vaft quantities, that the waters will again cover thefe mountains, the habitable part of the earth become fea, and the fea become dry land as before, &c. -Others have imagined that they might be occafioned by volcanoes, earthquakes, &c. which confound the different ftrata, and often intermix the productions of the fea with thofe of the dry land. Thefe fubje&s have been difcuffed under the article Earth, to which therefore we refer the reader ; and (hall conclude with fome account of the ftrata in thofe places where they have been moft particularly obferved. Under the article Natural History, SeCt. I. it is obferved, that the upper ftrata of the earth and moun¬ tains generally confift of rag-ftonc, the next of flate, the third of marble filled with petrifactions, the fourth again of Hate; and the next of free-ftone. But we are far from confidering this as a rule which holds univerfally. The ftrata differ exceedingly in a great number of places; fome inftances of which we (hall give from Mr Whitehurft.—At Alfrcton Common in Derby- fhire, the ftrata are, 'fi^aJlandWtJiln- A Catalogue e/" Extraneous Fossils, •where they JVeJl Indies. fpecies. Sheppy Ifland, - J MangroveTreeOysters. Shep-1 jss a j j- py Ifland, - - j ^ tes’ Coxcomb Tree Oysters. Ox-T fordfhire, Gloucefterfbire, Dor- > CoaJ} of Guinea. fetfhire,and Hanover, - J VeRTRBR-S: tfHt/PALATEStf/V^ORO - „ jiirnr ,3Es. Sheppy Iflands, and many > aflan 'ft n’ other parts of England, - J ,eu Crocodile. Germany, Derby (hire, i Nottingbamfhire, Oxfordfliire, > and Yorkfhire, - - J Alligator’s Teeth. Ox.for&-\EaJiandWeJlIfr (hire, Sheppy Ifland, - 3 dies. The Banded Buccinum. Oxford-1 Tir n r j- fhire, and the Alps, - Indies. The Dipping Snail, and Star Fish. Sheppy Ifland, Tail Buccinum. Sheppy Ifland,? r n t j- Hordd Cliff, Haropfhire, . M'* [■ IVefl Indies. A Table ofthe&TiA.TA. at Alfreton-CommOn. Numb. Feet. Inch. 1 Clay . - - . - 70 2 Ratchell, fragments of/lone - 90 3 Bind, indurated clay - - 13 4 4 Stone argillaceous, or concreted clay -60 5 Bind - - - - - 8 8 6 Bind - - - 25 o 7 Stone, * Hack colour - - 5 0 8 Bind - - - • 2 o 9 Stone .... - 20 10 Bind - - - - 5 o 11 Bind - - * 5 0 12 Coal - ---16 13 Bind ... - - 16 14 Stone 15 Stone 16 Bind 17 Smutt, a blackfulfattce, refembling a 1 ftratum of coal-dufl - 3 18 Bind 19 Stone 20 Bind 21 Coal 23 '4 7 3 3 7 4 184 4 ^Table of the Strata at West-Hallam. Numb. Feet. Inch. 1 Clay - - - 7 6 2 Bind ... 48 o 3 Smutt - - - 16 4 Crunch, or indurated clay - 4 ^ 41 0 2 Carried over 61 o Strata. S T R Numb. Brought over 5 Bind - 6 Stone - - - - 7 Bind ... 8 Stone 9 Bind - 10 Stone . - - . 11 Bind - 12 Shale - 13 Bind - 14 Shale - - - 15 Clunch, flone andfemetimes catik 16 Soft Coal - 17 Clay - - - 18 Soft Coal - - * 19 Clunch Bind — 20 Coal - 21 Bind- - ... 22 Strong, broad Bind 23 Coal . - - 222 3 Mr Forfter has given an account of fome of the ftrata of the South-Sea iflands, the fubftance of which may be feen in the following table. South Georgia.. 1. No foil, except in a few crevices of the rocks. 2. Ponderous (late, with fome irony particles, in ho¬ rizontal ftrata, perpendicularly interfered with veins of quartz. Southirn IJle c/'New Zealand. l; Fine light black mould, in fome places nine inches deep, but generally not fo much. 2. An argillaceous fubftance, nearly related to the clafs of Talcons, turned into earth by the adion of the air. 3, The fame fubftance farther indurated, in oblique ftrata, generally dipping to the fouth. Easter Island. 3. Reddiih-brown dufty mould, looking as if it had been burnt. 3. Burnt rocks, refembling flags or drofs and other volcanic matters. Marqijesas. Is Clay mixed with mould, 3. An earthy argillaceous fubftance mixed with tarras and puzzolana. O-Taheitee. The fhores are coral rock, extending from the reef encircling thefe ifles to the very high water-mark. There begins the fand, formed in foftie places from ftnall {hells and rubbed pieces of coral; but in others the fhores are covered with blackifh fand, confiding of the former fort mixed with black, fometimes glitter¬ ing,particksof mica, and hereand there fome particles of the refradory iron ores called in England Skim, the fcrrtim micaceuvi' of Linnaeus, and Kall the molybdenumfpuma lupi of the fame author. The plains from the fhores to the foot of the hills are covered with a very fine thick ftratum of black mould, mixed with the above-mentioned fand, which the natives manure with fhells. The firft and lower range of hills are formed of a red ochreoua-earth, S T R fometimes fo intenfely red, that the native* ufe it to Strata. paint their canoes and cloth. The higher hills con- fift of a hard, compad, and ftiff clayey fubftance, hardening into done when out of the reach of the fun and air. At the top of the valleys, along the banks of the rivers, are large mafles of coarfe gra¬ nite (tones of various mixtures ; in one place are pil¬ lars of a grey, folid bafaltes ; and, in feveral others, fragments of black bafaltes. Friendly Islands and New Hebrides. The fame with the above. Mallicollo. Yellowifh clay mixed with common fand. Tanna, a Volcanic IJland. The chief ftrata here are clay mixed with aluminous earth, interfperfed with lumps of pure chalk. The ftrata of the clay are about fix inches, deviating very little from the horizontal line. New Caledonia and the adjacent IJles. The fhores confift of fhell-fand, and particles of quartz; the foil in the plains a black mould mixed with this fand. The fides of the hills compofed of a yel¬ low ochreous clay, richly fpangled with fraall par¬ ticles of cat-filver, or a whitifh kind of daze, the mica argentea of Linnaeus. The higher parts of the hills confill of a ftone called by the German miners gejlelftsin, compofed of quartz and great lumps of the above cat-filver. The latter is fometimes of an intenfely red or orange colour, by means of an iron ochre. “ From the above account, “ fays Mr Forfter,” it appears, I think, evidently, that all the high tropical ifles of the South Sea have been fubjed to the adion of volcanoes. Pyritical and fulphureous fubftances, together with a few iron-ftones, and fome veftiges of copper, are no doubt found in feveral of them : but the mountains of New Caledonia are the raoft likely to contain the rtcheft metallic veins ; and the fame opinion, I fufped, may be formed of the mountains in New Zealand.” In the city of Modena in Italy, and for fome miles round that place, there is the moft Angular arrange¬ ment of ftrata perhaps in the whole world. From the furface of the ground to the depth of 14 feet, they meet with nothing but the ruins of an ancient city. Being come to that depth, they find paved ftreets, artificers fhops, floors of houfes, and feveral pieces of inlaid work. After thefe ruins they find a very folid earth, which one would think had never been removed; but a little lower they find it black and marfhy, and fall of briars. Signior Ramazzini in one place found a heap of wheat entire at the depth of 24 feet; in another, he found filbert-trees with their nuts. At the depth of about 28 feet, they find a bed of chalk, about 11 feet deep, which cuts very eafily; after this a bed of marfhy earth of about two feet, mixed with ruflies, leaves, and branches. After this bed comes another of chalk, nearly of the fame thicknefs ; and which ends at the depth of 42 feet.. This is followed by another bed of marfhy earth like the former; after which comes a new chalk-bed, but thinner, which alfo has a marfhy bed underneath it- This ends at the depth of 63 feet ; after which they find fand mingled with fmall gravel, and feveral marine fhells. This ftratum [ 8308 ] Feet. inch. 6l O 3 ° 2 3 1 o 1 o 3 o 1 o 16 o 2 O 12 O 3 ° 54 o 4 o o 6 4 6 21 o I o I o 25 o 6 o S T R f S309 ] S T R Strafagem ftratum is ufually about five feet deep, and underneath S. it is a vaft refervoir of water. It is on account of this trlx‘ water that the foil is fo frequently dug, and the ftrata fo well known in this part of the world. After coming to the Tandy bottom above-mentioned, the workmen pierce the ground with a tcrebra or au¬ ger, when the water immediatelyfprings up with great force, and fills the well to the brim. The flow is per¬ petual, and neither .increafes by rain, nor decreafes by drought. Sometimes the auger meets with great trees, which give the workmen much trouble ; they alfo fometimes fee at the bottom of tbefe wells, great bones, coals, flints, and pieces of iron. It has been afferted by fome, that the fpecific gra¬ vity of the ftrata conftantly increafed with the depth from the furface. But Dr Leigh, in his Natural Hi- flory of Lancaftiire, fpeaking of the coal-pits, denies the ftrata to lie according to the laws of gravitation : obferving, that the ftrata there are firft a bed of marie, then free-ftone, next iro.n-ftone, then coal, or channel mire, then fome other ftrata, then coal again, &c. This determined Mr Durham to make a nicer inquiry into the matter; accordingly, in 1712, he caufed di¬ vers places to be bored, laying the feveral ftra'ta by themfclves; and afterwards determined very carefully their fpecific gravity. The refult was, that in his yard the ftrata were gradually fpecifically heavier and heavier, the lower and lower they went ; but in ano¬ ther place in his fields, he could not perceive any dif¬ ference in the fpecific gravities. Acquainting the Royal Society therewith, their ope¬ rator Mr Haukfbee was ordered to try the ftrata of a coal-pit, which he did to the depth of 30 ftrata : the thicknefs and fpecific gravity of each whereof he gives us in a table in the Philofophical Traofaflions ; and from the whole makes this inference, that it evidently appears the gravities of the feveral ftrata are in no manner of order, but purely cafual, as if mixed by chance. STRATAGEM, in the art of war, any device for deceiving and furprifing an enemy. STRATH, in the Scottifti language, fignifies a long narrow valley, with a river running along the bottom. STRATHNAVER, a fubdivifion or diftrift of the county of Sutherland in Scotland ; bounded on the north by the ocean, on the eaft by Caithnefs> on the foutb by Sutherland properly fo called, and on the weft partly by Rofs and partly-by the ocean. STRAWBERRY, in botany. See Frjvgaru.. Strawberry-Tmv See Arbutus. STRENGTH, in phyfiology, the fame with force er power. STRENGTHENERS, or Corroborants, fuch medicines as add to the bulk and firmnefs of thefolids; and fufh are all agglutinant and aftringent medicines. See Materia Medica,. n° 30. 36. STRIATED 1 eaf, among botanifts, one that has a number of longitudinal furrows on its furface. STRIKE, a meafure of capacity, containing four bufhels. STRIX, the owl ; in ornithology, a genus belong¬ ing to the order of accipitres. The bill is hooked, but has no cere or wax ; the noftrils are covered with fetaceous feathers; the head is very large, as are alfo the ears and eyesand the tongue is bifid. There are 12 fpecies; the moft remarkable are, 1. The bubo, or eagle-owl, in fize is almoft equal to an eagle. Irides bright yellow ; head and whole body finely varied with lines, fpots and fpecks of black, brown, cinereous, and ferruginous. Wings long; tail fhort, marked with dulky bars. Legs thick, covered to the very end of the toes with a clofe and full down of a teftaceous colour. Claws great, much hooked,, and dulky.—It has been Ihot in Scotland and in York- Ihire. It inhabits inacceffible rocks and defert places; and preys on hares and feathered game. Its appear¬ ance in cities was deemed an unlucky omen ; Rome itfelf once underwent a luftration becaufe one of them ftrayed into the capitol. The ancients had them in the utmoft abhorrence; and thought them, like the fcreech-owls, the meffengers of death. Pliny ftyles it bubo funebris, and nattis monjlrurn^ Salnque culminihus ferali carmine bub® Seepe queri el longas in ftelum due ere voce:. Virgil. Perch’d on the roof, the bird of night complains. In lengthen’d fhrieks and dire funeral ftrains. 2. The otus, or long-eared owl, is found, though- not frequently, in the north of England, in Chelhire, and in Wales. Mr HafTelquift has feen it alive in Cairo, and it is not unfrequent all over Egypt. The weight of the female, according to Mr Willughby, is io ounces; the length 14, and a half; the breadth 3 feet 4 inches ; the irides are of a bright yellow ; the bill black; the breaft and belly are of a dull yellow, marked with flender brown ftrokes pointing down¬ wards ; the thighs and vent-feathers of the fame co¬ lour, but unfpotted. The back and coverts of the wings are varied with deep browiv and yellow; the quill-feathers of the fame colour, but near the ends of the outmoft is a broad bar of red ; the tail is marked with dulky and reddifh bars, but beneath appears afh- coloured ; the horns or ears are about an .inch long, and confift of fix feathers variegated with yellow aud-: black ; the feet are feathered down to the claws. 3. The Ihort-eared owl, is 14 inches ; extent three feet; the head is fmall and hawk-like ; the bill is duf- ky ; weight 14 ounces ; the circle of feathers that immediately furrounds the eyes is black-; the larger circle white, terminated with tawny and black ; the feathers on the head, back, and coverts of the wings, are brown, edged with pa-’e dull yellow ; the breaft and belly are of the fame colour, marked with a few long narrow ftreaks of brown pointing downwards; the quill-feathers are dulky, barred with red ; the tail is of a very deep brown, adorned on each fide the fhaft of the four middle feathers with a yellow circle which contains a brown fpot; the tip of the tail is white. The horns of this fpecies are very fmall, and each confifts of only a fingle feather ; thefe it can raife or deprefs at pleafure; and in a dead bird they are with difficulty difeovered, - This kind is fcareer than the former; both are folitary birds, avoiding inhabi¬ ted places. THefe fpecies may be called long-nvingedi owls; the wings when clofed reaching beyond the end of the tail; whereas in the common kinds they fall Ihort of it.—This is a bird of paflage, and has been ^ obferved to vifit LincolnfKire in the beginning of Oc¬ tober, and to retire early in the fpring ; fo probably, - as it performs its migrations with the woodcock, .its fummer-retreat is Norway.- During day it lies bid in Stiix. S T R [ 83x0 ] S T R long old grafe; when difturbed, it feldotn flies far, but " will light, and fit looking at one, at which time the horns may be feen very diftinftly. It has not been ob- ferved to perch on trees like other owls ; it will alfo fly- in fearch of prey in cloudy hazy weather. Farmers are fond of feeing thefe birds in the fields, as they dear them from mice. It is found frequently on the hill of Hoy in rhe Orkneys, where it flies about and preys by day like a hawk. It is found alfo in Lanca- fhire, which is a hilly and wooded country ; and in New-England and Newfoundland. 4. The flammea, or common white owl. The ele¬ gant plumage of this bird makes amends for the un- couthnefs of its form : a circle of foft white feathers furround the eyes. The upper part of the body, the coverts, and fecondary feathers of the wings, are of a fine pale yellow : on each fide the (hafts are two grey and two white fpots placed alternate: the exterior Tides of the quill-feathers are yellow; the interior white, marked on each fide with four black fpots: the lower fide of the body is wholly white; the interior fides of the feathers of the tail are white ; the ex¬ terior marked with fome obfcure dufky bars ; the legs are feathered to the feet: the feet are covered with fhort hairs : the edge of the middle claw is ferra- ted. The ufual weight is 11 ounces; its length 14 inches; its breadth 3 feet.—This ipecies is almoft do- meftic ; inhabiting, for the greateft part of the year, barns, hay-lofts, and other out-houfes; and is as ufe- ful in clearing thofe places from mice as the congenial cat: towards twilight it quits its perch, and takes a regular circuit round the fields, fkimming along the ground in queft of field-mice, and then returns to its ufual refidence : in the breeding-feafon it takes to the caves of churches, holes in lofty buildings, or hollows of trees. During the time the young are in the neft, the male and female alternately fally out in queft of food, make their circuit, beat the fields with the re¬ gularity of a fpaniel, and drop inftantly on their prey in the grafs. They very feldom ftay out above five minutes; return with their prey in their claws ; but as it is neceffary to fhift it into their bill, they always alight for that purpofe on the roof, before they at¬ tempt to enter their neft. This fpecies does not hoot; but fnores and hiflesin a violent manner; and while it flies along will often fcream moft tremendoufly. Its only food is mice. As the young of thefe birds keep their neft for a great length of time, and are fed even Jong after they can fly, many hundreds of mice will fcarcely fuffice to fupply them with food. Owls caft up the bones, fur, or feathers of their prey, in form of fmall pellets, after they have devoured it, in the fame manner as hawks do. A gentleman, on grub¬ bing up an old pollard-afh that had been the habita¬ tion of owls for many generations, found at the bottom many bufhels of this reje&ed fluff. Some owls will, when they are fatisfied, like dogs, bide the remainder of their meat. 5. The ulula, or tawny owl. The female of this fpecies weighs 19 ounces; the length is 14 ounces; the breadth 2 feet 8 inches; the irides are dufky : the ears in this, as in all owls, very large ; and their fenfe of hearing very exquifite. The colour of this kind is fufHcient to diftinguifh it from every other: that of the back, head, coverts of the wings, and on the fcapular feathers, being a fine tawny red, el egahtly fpotted and powdered with black or dufky fpots of va¬ rious fizes: on the coverts of the wings, and on the fcapulars, are feveral large white fpots: the coverts of the tail are tawny, and quite free from any marks : the tail is varioufly blotched, barred and fpotted with, pale red and black ; in the two middle feathers the red predominates: the breaft and belly are yellowifh, mix¬ ed with white, and marked with narrow black ftrokea pointing downwards: the legs are covered with fea¬ thers down to the toes.—This is a hardier fpecies than the former; and the young will feed on any dead thing, whereas thofe of the white owl muft have a con- ftant fupply of frefh meat. It is the ftrix of Aldro- vandus, and what we call the fcreech-o or are feparable from the flak.ed lime by fifting it immediately through a lieve. Stucco. S T U Let the lime chofen according to thefe important rules, be put in a brafs-wired fieve to the quantity of 14 pounds. Let the fieve be finer than either of the foregoing ; the finer, the better it will be i let the lime be flaked (d) by plunging it in a butt filled with foft water, and raifing tt out quickly and fufFering it to heat and fume, and by repeating this plunging and raifing alternately, and agitating the lime, until it be made to pafa through the fieve into the water; and let the part of the lime which does not eafily pafs through the fieve be reje&ed : and let freftt portions of the lime be thus ufed, until as many (e) ounces of lime have palled through the fieve as there are quarts of water in the butt. Let the water thus impregnated (land in the butt clofely covered (f) until it becomes clear; and through wooden (g) cocks placed at different t 83*6 ] S T U pafles through the fieve I call purified lime. ** Let bone-afh be prepared in the ufual manner by ' grinding the whiteft burnt bones, but let it be fifted to be much finer than the bone-afh commonly fold for making cupels. “ The moft eligible materials for making my ce¬ ment being thus prepared, take 56 pounds of the coarfe fand and 42 pounds of the fine fand ; mix them on a large plank of hard wood placed horizontally ; then fpread the fand fo that it may ftand to the height of fix inches with a flat furface on the plank ; wet it with the cementing liquor ; and let any fuperfluous quantity of the liquor, which the fand in the condi¬ tion deferibed cannot retain, flow away off the plank. To the wetteft fand add 14 pounds of the putrefied lime in feveral fucceflive portions, mixing and beating heights in the butt, let the clear liquor be drawn off them up together in the mean time with the inftru- 3 faft (h) and as low as the lime fubfides, for ufe. This clear liquor I call the cementing liquor (1). The freer the water is from faline matter, the better will be the cementing liquor made with it. “ Let 56 pounds of the aforefaid chofen lime be flaked, by gradually fprinkling on it, and efpecially on the unflaked pieces, the cementing liquor, in a clofe (k) clean place. Let the flaked part be imme¬ diately (l) fifted thro’ the laft-mentioned fine brafs- ■wired fieve : Let the lime which pafles be ufed la¬ ments generally ufed in making fine mortar: then add 14 pounds of the bone-afh in fucceflive portions, mixing and beating all together. The quicker and the more perfeftly thefe materials are mixed and beaten together, and the fooner the cement thus formed is ufed, the better (n) it will be. This I call the «n'a- ter-cement coarfe-grained, which is to be applied in building, pointing, plaflering, fluccoing, or other work, as mortar and ftucco now are ; with this dif¬ ference chiefly, that as this cement is fhorter than ftantly or kept in air-tight veflels, and let the part of mortar or common ftucco, and dries fooner, it ought the lime which does not pafs through the fieve be re- jt&ed (m).—This finer richer part of the lime which to be worked expeditioufly in all cafes ; and in ftuc- coing, it ought to be laid on by Aiding the trowel upwards (d) " This method of impregnating the water with lime is not the only one which may be adopted. It is how¬ ever preferred before others, becaufe the water clears the fooner in confequence of its being warmed by the flaking lime ; and the gypfeous part of the lime does not diffufe itfelf in the water fo freely in this way as it does when the lime is flaked to fine powder in the common method, and is then blended with the water ; for the gypfeous part of the lime flakes at firft into grains rather than into fine powder, and will remain on the fieve after the pure lime has paired through, long enough to admit of the intended feparation; but when the lime is otherwife flaked, the gyp¬ feous grains have time to flake to a finer powder, and palling through the fieve, diflfolve in the water along with the lime. I have imagined that other advantages attended this method of preparing the lime-water, but I cannot yet fpeak of them with precifion. (e) “ If the water contains no more acidulous gas thanis ufually found in river or rain water, a fourth-part of this quantity of lime, or lefe, will be fufficient. (f) “ The calcareous cruft which forms on the furface of the water ought not to be broke, for it aflifts in excluding the air, and preventing the abforption of acidulous gas whereby the lime-water is fpoiled. (g) “ Brafs-cocks are apt to colour a part of the liquor. (h) “ Lime-water cannot be kept many days unimpaired, in any veflels that are not perfedtly air-tight. If the li¬ quor be drawn off before it clears, it will contain whiting, which is injurious; and if it be not inftantly ufed after it is drawn limpid from the butt into open veffels, it will grow turbid again, and depofit the lime changed to whit¬ ing by the gas abforbed from the air. The calcareous matter which fubfides in the butt refembles whiting the more nearly as the lime has been more fparingly employed ; in the contrary circumftances, it approaches to the nature of lime ; and in the intermediate ftate, it is fit for the common compofition of the plafterers for infide ftucco. (1) “ At the time of writing this fpecification, I preferred this term before that of lime-water, on grounds which I had not fufficiently examined. (k) “ The vapour which arifes in the flaking of lime contributes greatly to the flaking of thefe pieces which lie in its way ; and an unneceflary wafte of the liquor is prevented, by applying it to the lime heaped in a pit or in a vefiel, which may reftrain the iffue of the vapour, and direeft it through the mafs. If more of the liquor be ufed than is neceffary to flake the iime, it will create error in weighing the flaked powder,, and will prevent a part of it from paf- f ng. freely through the fieve. The liquid is therefore to be ufed fparingly, and the lime which has efcaped its action is to be fprinkled apart with frelh liquor. (l) “ When the aggregation of the lumps of lime is thus broken, it is impaired much fooner than it is in the for¬ mer ftate, becaufe the air more freely pervades it. (m) “ Becaufe it confifts of heterogeneous matter or of ill-burnt lime; which laft will flake and pafs through the fieve, if the lime be not immediately fifted after the flaking, agreeable to the text. (n) “ Thefe proportions are intended for a cement made with lharp fand, for incruftation in expofed fituations, where it is necelfary to guard againft the effedts of hot weather and rain- In general, half this quantity of bonc-aflies will be found fufficient; and although the incruftation in this latter cafe will not harden deeply fo foon, it will be ultimately flronger, provided the weather be favourable. “ The injuries which lime and mortar fuftain by expofure to the air, before the cement is finally placed in a quiefeent ftate, are great; and therefore our cement is the worfe for being long beaten, but the better as it is quickly beaten until the mixture is effefted, and no longer. S T U [ 8317 ] S T U upwards on it; that the materials ufed along with this cement in building, or the ground on which it is to be laid in ftuccoing, ought to be well wetted with the cementing liquor in the inftant of laying on the ce¬ ment ; and that the cementing liquor is to be ufed when it is neceflary to moiften the cement, or when a liquid is required to facilitate the floating of the ce¬ ment. “ When fuch cement is required to be of a finer tex¬ ture, take 98 pounds of the fine fand, wet it with the cementing liquor, and mix it with the purified lime and the bone-afh in the quantities and in the manner above defcribed ; with this difference only, that 15 pounds of lime, or (o) thereabouts, are to be ufed inftead of 14 pounds, if the greater part of the fand be as fine as Lynn fand. This I call ‘water-cement Jine-grained. It is to be ufed in giving the lafl coat¬ ing, or the finilh to any work intended to imitate the finer-grained (tones or ftucco. But it may be applied to all the ufes of the water-cement coarfe-grained, and in the fame manner. “ When for any of the foregoing purpofes of point¬ ing, building, &c. fuch a cement is required much cheaper and coarfer-grained, then much coanfer clean fand than the foregoing coarfe fand, or well-wafhed fine rubble, is to be provided. Of this coarfeft fand or rubble take 56 pounds, of the foregoing coarfe fand 28 pounds, and of the fine fand 14 pounds; and after mixing thefe, and wetting them with the ce¬ menting liquor in the foregoing manner, add 14 pounds, or fomewhat lefs, of the (p) purified lime, and then 14 pounds, or fomewhat lefs, of the bone- afh, mixing them together in the manner already de¬ fcribed. When my cement is required to be white, white fand, white time, and the whiteft. bone-afh, are to be chofen. Grey fand, and grey bone-afh formed of half-burnt bones, are to be chofen to make the cement grey; and any other colour of the cement is obtained, either by choofing coloured fand, or by the admixture of the neceffary quantity of coloured talc in powder, or of coloured vitreous or metallic pow¬ ders, or other durable colouring ingredients commonly ufed in paint. “ To the end that fuch a water-cement as I have defcribed may be made as ufeful as it is poffible in all circumftances; and that no perfon may imagine that' my claim and right under thefe letters-patent may be eluded by divers variations which may be made in the foregoing procefs without producing any notable de- fed in the cement; and to the end that the principles of this art, as well as the art itfelf, of making my cement, may be gathered from this fpecification and perpetuated to the public ; I ftiall add the following obfervations. “ This my water-cement, whether the coarfe or fine grained, is applicable in forming artificial (lone, by making alternate layers of the cement and of flint, hard ftone, or brick, in moulds of the figure of the intended ftone, and by expofing the maffes fo formed to the open (qJ air to harden. “• When fuch cement is required for water(R) fences, two-thirds of the prefcribed quantity ofbone-afhes are to be omitted ; and in the place thereof an equal meafure of powdered terras is to be ufed and it the fand employed be not of the coarfeft fort, more terras muft be added, fo that the terras (hall be by weight one-fixth part of the weight of the fand. “ When fuch a cement is required of the fineft grain (a) or in a fluid form, fo that it may be applied with a brufh, flint-powder, or the powder of any quartofe or hard earthy fubftance, may be ufed in the place of fand; but in a quantity fmaller as the flint or other powder is finer; lothat the flint-powder, or other fuch powder, (hall not be more than fix'timea the weight of the lime, nor lefs than four times its weight. The greater the quantity of lime within thefe limits, the more will the cement be liable to crack by quick dry¬ ing, and vice verfa. “ Where fuch fand as I prefer cannotbeconveniently procured, or where the fand cannot be conveniently wafhed and forted, that fand which moft refembles the mixture of coarfe and fine fan.d above prefcribed, may be ufed as I have dire&ed, provided due attention is- paid to the quantity of the lime, which is to be the greater (t) as the fand is the finer, and vice verfa. “ Where fand cannot be eafily procured, any du¬ rable ftony body, or baked earth grofsly powdered (u) and forted nearly to the fixes above prefcribed for fand* (o) “ The quantity of bone-afhesis not to be increafed with that of the lime; but it is to be lefiened as the expo- fure and purpofes of the work will admit. (p) “ Becaufe lefs lime is neceffary,. as the fhnd is coarfer* (qJ “ But they muft not be expofed to the rain until they are almoft as ftrong as frefh Portland ftone; and even then they ought to be ftieltered from it as much as the circumftances will admit. Thefe ftones may be made very hard and beautiful, with a fmall expence of bone-afh, by foaking them, after they have dried thoroughly and hardened, in the lime-liquor, and repeating this procefs twice or thrice, at diftant intervals of time. The like effedt was experienced in incruftations. (r) “ In my experiments, mortar made with terras-powder, in the ufual method, does not appear to form fo ftrong a cement for water-fences as that made, according to the fpecification, with coarfe fand ; and I fee no more- reafon for avoiding the ufe of fand in terras-mortar, than there would be for reje<5ting ftone from the embankment. The bone-afhes meant in this place are the dark grey or black fort. I am not yet fully fatisfied about the operatioa- of them in this inftance. (s) “ The qualities and ufes of fuch fine calcareous cement are recommended chiefly for the purpofe of fmoothing: and finifhing the ftronger cruftaceous works, or for wafhing walls to a lively and uniform colour. For this laft in¬ tention, the mixture muft be as thin as new cream, and laid on brifkly with a brufh, in dry weather ; and a thick, and durable coat is to be made by repeated wafhing; but is not to be attempted by ufing a thicker liquor; forthe coat made with this laft is apt to fcale, whilft the former endures the weather much longer than any other thin cal^ careous covering that has been applied in this way. Fine yellow ochre is the cheapeft colouring-ingredient for fuch wafh, when it is required to imitate Bath-ftone, or the warm-white ftones. (t) “ If fea-faud be well waflied in frefh water, it is as good as any other round fand. (u) “ The cement made with thefe and the proper quantities of purified lime and lime-water* are inferior to the beft> Stucco- S T U Stucco} fan<3, may be ufed in the place of fand, meafore for II meafure, but not weight for weight, unkfs fuchgrofs powder be as heavy fpecifically as fand. “ Sand may be cleanfed from every fofter, lighter, and lefs durable matter, and from that part of the fand which is too fine, by various methods preferable (x), in certain circumftances, to that which I have defcribed. “ Water may be found naturally free from fixable gas, felenite, or clay : fuch water may, without any notable inconvenience, be ufed in the place of the cementing liquor; and water approaching this fiate will not require fo much lime as I have ordered to make the cementing liquor; and a cementing liquor fufficiently ul'eful may be made by various methods of mixing lime and water in the defcribed proportions, or nearly fo. “ When ftone-lime cannot be procured, chalk-lime or fhell-lime, which beft refembles itone-lime, in the charafters above written of lime, may be ufed in the manner defcribed, except that fourteen pounds and a half of chalk-lime will be required in the place of fourteen pounds of ftone-lime. The proportion of lime which I have prefcribed above may be increafed without inconvenience, when the cement or ftucco is to be applied where it is not liable to dry quickly ; and in the contrary circumftance this proportion may be diminifhed; and the defeft of lime in quantity or quality may be very advantageoufly fupplied (v), by caufing a confiderable quantity of the cementing liquor to foak into the work, in fucceffive portions and at diftant intervals of time, fo that the calcareous matter of the cementing liquor, and the matter attrafted from the open air, may fill and ftrengthenthe work. “ The powder of almoft every well-dried or burnt animal-fubftance may be ufed inftead of bone-afh; and feveral earthy powders, efpecially the micaceous and the metallic; and the elixated afhes of divers ve¬ getables whofe earth will not burn to lime; and the alhes of mineral fuel, which are of the calcareous kind, but will not burn to lime, will anfwer the ends of bone- afh in fome degree. “ The quantity of bone-afti defcribed may be leffened without injuring the cement, in thofe circum¬ ftances efpecially which admit the quantity of lime to be lelfened, and in thofe wherein the cement is not liable to dry quickly. And the art of remedying the defe&s of lime may be advantageoufly pra&ifed to fupply the deficiency of bone-afh, efpecially in build¬ ing and in making artificial ftone with this cement. STUDDING sails, certain light fails extended, in moderate and fteady breezes, beyond the fkirts of the principal fails, where they appear as wings upon the yard arms. STUFF, in commerce, a general name for all kinds of fabrics of gold, filver, filk, wool, hair, cotton, or thread, manufactured on the loom ; of which number S T U are velvets, brocades, mohairs, fatins, teffeties, cloths, ferges, &c. STUICELY (Dr William), a celebrated antiqua¬ rian, defeended from an ancient family in Lincoln- fhire, was born at Holbech in t68?, and educated in Bennet college, Cambridge. While an under-gra¬ duate, he often indulged a ftrong propenfity to draw¬ ing and defigning; but made phyfic his principal ftudy, and firft began to pradtife at Bofton in his na¬ tive country. In 1717, he removed to London; where, on the recommendation of Dr Mead, he was foon after eledted a fellow of the royal fociety : he was one of the firft who revived that of the antiquari¬ ans in 1718, and was their fecretary for many years during his refidence in town. In 1729, he took holy orders by the encouragement of archbifhop Wake; and was Toon after prefented by lord chancellor King with the living of All-Saints in Stamford. In tyqr, he became one of the founders of the Egyptian fociety, which brought him acquainted with the benevolent duke of Montague, one of the members; wjjo pre¬ vailed oft him to leave Stamford, and prefented him to the living; of St George the Martyr, Queen Square. He died of a ftroke of the palfy in 1765. In his phy- fical capacity, his Dijfertation on the Spleen was well received ; and his Itinerttrium Curiofum, the firft-fruit of his juvenile excurfions, was a good fpecimen of what was to be expe&ed from his riper age. His great learning and profound refearches into the dark remains of antiquity, enabled him to publifh many ela¬ borate and curious works : his friends ufed local! him the arch-druid of his age. His difeourfes, intitled Palcedgraphia Sacra, on the vegetable creation, be- fpeak him a botanift, philofopher, and divine. STUM, in the wine-trade, denotes the unferment¬ ed juice of the grape after it has been feveral times racked off and feparated from its fediment. The calks are for this purpofe well matched or fumigated with brimftone every time, to prevent the liquor from fermenting, as it would Otherwife readily do* and be¬ come wine. STUPIDITY. The Greek word nopaate corre- fpondsmoft with our Englilhword Jiupidity0rfoolijhnefs, (in the common acceptation of it), which is, when reafon is rendered fomewhat defe&ive. The immedi¬ ate caufes are, a deficiency of vital heat, or a deftft in the brain. Stupid children fometimes become fprightly youths; but if ftupidity continues to the age of puberty, is is hardly ever removed. If ftupidity follows upon a violent paflion, an injury done to the head, or other evident caufe, if it continues long, it becomes incurable. But the ftupidity which confifta in a lofs of memory, and fucceeds a lethargy, fpon- taneoufiy ceafes when the lethargy is cured. STUPOR, a numbnefs in any part of the body, whether occafioned by ligatures obftrudting the blood^s motion, by the palfy, or the like. STUPPA, f 8;i8 ] beft, as the grains of thefe powders are more perilhable and brittle than thofe of fand. They will not therefore be employed, unlefs for the fake of evafion, or for want of fand: in this latter cafe, the finer powder ought to be walh- ed away. (x) “ This and the next'paragraph is inferted with a view to evafions, as well as to fuggeft the eafier and cheaper methods which may be adopted in certain circumftances, by artifts who underftand the principles which I endeavour¬ ed to teach. . , (y) “ This practice is noticed, as the remedy which may be ufed for the defeats arifing from evafive meafures, and as the method of giving fpongy incruftations containing bone-allies the greateft degree of hardnefs.” Sltikcly :!| 11 ■; Stupor. S T U [83 Stuppa STUFF A, or Stupe, in medicine, is a piece of II cloth dipped in fome proper liquor, and applied to an Sturnus- affc-aed part. STURGEON. See Accipenser. STURMLUS (John), a learned pbilologer and rhetorician, was born at Sleida in Eifel near Cologne in 1507. He ftudied at firft in his native country with the fons of count de Manderfcheid, whofe re¬ ceiver his father was. He afterward purfued his ftudy at Liege in the college of St Jerom, and then went to Louvain in 1524. Five years he fpent there, three in learning and two in teaching. He fet up a printing-prefs with Rudger Refcius profeffor of the Greek tongue, and printed feveral Greek authors. He went to Paris in 1529, where he was highly tfteemed, and read public ledures on the Greek and Latin writers, and on logic. He married there, and kept a great number of boarders: but as he liked what were called the new opinions, he was more than once in danger; and this undoubtedly was the reafon why he removed to Strafburg in 1537, in order to take pofleffion of the place offered him by the magi- ftrates. The year following he opened a fchool, which became famous, and by his means obtained of Maximilian II. the title of an univerfity in 1566. He was very well fkilled in polite literature, wrote Latin with great purity, and was a good teacher. His talents were not confined to the fchool; for he was frequently intruded wnh deputations in Germany and foreign countries, and difcharged thefe employments with great honour and diligence. He fhowed extreme charity to the refugees on account of religion: He not only laboured to aflift them by his advice and re¬ commendations; but he even impoveridied himfelf for them. He died in his 82d year, after he had been for fome time blind. He publifhed many books ; the prin¬ cipal of which are, 1. Partitiones Dialeftica. 2. De Educations Principum. 3. De Nobilitate Anglicana. 4. Lingua: Latince refolvendce Ratio. 5. Excellent Notes on Aridotle’s and Hermogeneus’s Rhetoric, &c. He ought not to be confounded with yohn Sturmius* a native of Mechlin, and phyfician and profeffor of mathematics at Louvain, who alfo wrote feveral works. STURNUS, the starling; a genus belonging to the order of pafferes. The beak is Tubulated, depreffed, and fomewhat blunt ; the fuperior mandible is entire, 'and fomewhat open at the edges; the noftrils are mar- ginated above ; and the tongue is fliarp and emarginat- ed. There are five fpecies, the principal of which are, 1. The vulgaris, or ftare. The weight of the male of this fpecies is about three-ounces; that of the female rather lefs. The length is eight inches three quarters : the breadth fourteen inches. Bill, in old birds, yellow. The whole plumage is black, very re- fplendent, with changeable blue, purple, and copper : each feather marked with a pale yellow fpot. The lefler coverts are edged with yellow, and flightly gloffed with green. The quill-feathers and tail dulky the former edged with yellow on the exterior fide; the laft with dirty white. The legs of a reddiff brown— The ftare breeds in hollow trees, eaves of-houfes, towers, ruins cliffs, and often in high rocks over the fea, fuch as that of the ifle of Wight. It lays four or five eggs, of a pale-greenifh alh-colour; and makes its neft of ftraw, fmall fibres of roots, and the like. 2 19 ] Sty In winter, ftaresjtffemoJe in vaft flocks: they colleft Sturnua in myriads in the fens of Lincolnfhire, and do great P damage to the fen-men, by roofting on the reeds, and Stylft‘ breaking them down by their weight; for reeds are the thatch of the country, and are hrtrvefted with great care. Thefe birds feed on worms and infedls ; and it is faid that they will get into pigeon-houfes, for the fake of fucking the eggs. Their flefh is fo bitter as to be fcarce eatable. They are very docile, and may be taught to fpeak. 2. The cinclus, or water-ouzel, weighs two ounces and a half: the length feven inches one quarter: the breadth eleven : the bill is narrow, and compreffed Tideways: the eyelids are white ; the head, cheeks^ and hinder part of the neck, are duflty, mixed with ruft-colour : the back, coverts of the wings, and of. the tail, alfo duflty, edged with bluifh afh-colour: the throat and breaft white r the belly ferruginous, vent- feathers a deep afli-colour: the legs are of a pale blue before, black behind : the tail fhort and black, which it often flirts up as it is fitting.—This bird frequents- fmall brooks, particularly thofe with fteep banks, or that run through a rocky country. It is of a very retired nature, and never feen but Tingle or with its mate. It breeds in holes in the ' banks, and lays five white eggs adorned with a fine bluff of red. It feeds on infers and fmall fiff ; and, as Mr Willughby obferves, though not web-footed, will dart itfelf after them quite under water. The neft is conftrudfed in a curious manner, of hay and fibres of roots, and lined with dead oak-leaves,.having a portico or grand entrance made with green mofs. STYE, or Stythe, in the eye.. See Crithe. STYLE, a word of various fignifications, originally deduced from Jiylos, a kind of bodkin wherewith the ancients wrote on plates of lead, or on wax, &c. and which is ftill ufed to write on ivory-leaves and paper prepared for that purpofe, &c. Style, in dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a- dial raifed on the plane thereof to project a ffadow. Style, in botany.. See there, p. 1296. Style, in matters of language, a particular man¬ ner of expreffing one’s thoughts agreeably to the rules of fyntax ; or, as F.Buffier more accurately defines it, the manner wherein the words are arranged among themfelves fuitably to the genius of the language. See Oratory, n° 99—lit. Style, in jurifprudence; the particular form or manner of proceeding in each court of jurifdiction, agreeable to the rules and orders eftabliffed therein : thus we fay, the ftyle of the court of Rome, of chan¬ cery, of parliament, of the privy.council, &c; Style, in mufic, denotes a peculiar manner of Ting¬ ing,, playing, or compofing ; being properly the man¬ ner that each perfon has of playing, Tinging, or teach¬ ing; which is very different both in refpeft of different geniufes, of countries, nations, and of the different matters, places, times, fubjedls, paffions, exprefiions, &c. Thus we fay, the ftyle of Paleftrina, of Lully,, of Corelli, of Handel, &c. ; the ftyle of the Italians, French, Spaniards, &c.. Old Style, the Julian method ofcomputing time, as the New Style is the Gregorian method of computa¬ tion.. See Astronomy, n° 295. STYLET, a. fmall dangerous kind of poniard- which: SUB [ 8320 ] SUB Stylites which may be concealed in the band, chiefly ufed in of a fovereign prince or date. Subjefl c lj treacherous affaflinations. The blade is ufually triangu- Subject is alfo ufed for the matter of an art or •II lar, and fo fmall that the wound it makes is almoft fcience, or that which it confiders, or whereon it is 11 l a:l3a, imperceptible. employed : thus the human body is the fubjeft of me- STYLITES, or pillar saints, an appellation dicine. given to a kind of folitaries who fpent their lives the tops of columns, to be, as they imagined, the bet¬ ter difpofed for meditation, &c. See Ecclesiastical History, n° 79. The extremity of thefe columns were only three feet in diameter, with a kind of rail or ledge about it, that reached almoft to the girdle, fome- what refembling a pulpit. The faquirs, or devout SUBINFEUDATION, was where the inferior lords, in imitation of their fuperiors, began to carve out and grant to others minuter eftates than their own, to be held of themfelves; and were fo proceeding downwards in infinitum, till~the fuperior lords obferved, that by this method of fubinfeudation they loft all their feodal profits, of wardfhips, marriages, and eftreats, people of the eaft, imitate this extraordinary kind of which fell into the hands of thefe mefne or middle lords, life even to this day. STYLO Glossus, The names of different StTY^o-Hyoidaus, t mufcles in the human SiVLO-Pharyngaus, \ body. See Anatomy, STYLO IDES, J Table of the Mufcles. _ STYPTIC, in pharmacy, medicines which by their aftringency ftap hsemorrhages, &c. STYRAX, the storax-tree ; a genus of the mo- who were the immediate fuperiors of the terretenant, or him who occupied the land. This occafioned the ftat. of Weftm. 3. or quia emptores, 18 Ed. 1. to be made ; which direds, that, upon all fales or feoffments of lands, the feoffee fhall hold the fame, not of his immediate feoffer, but of the chief lord of the fee of whom fuch feoffer himfelf held it. And from hence it is held, that all manors exifting at this day muft have nogynia order, belonging to the dodccandria clafs of exifted by immemorial prefcription ; or at leaft ever plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the officinalis. n‘t7J ~ ' - •' - n-- -- r It is a native of Paleftine, Syria, the iftands of the Archipelago, and alfo grows plentifully in the neigh¬ bourhood of R.ome. It rifes with a woody ftalk 12 or 14 feet high, fpnding out many ligneous branches covered with a greyiftt bark. The flowers come out from the tides of the branches upon footftalks, which fuftain five or fix flowers in a bunch; thefe have one very white petal, which is funnel-fhsped, the lower part being tubulous and cylindrical, and the upper divided into five obtufe fegments which fpread open, not flat, but rather inclining to an angle.—It maybe propagated by fowing the feeds in pots plunged in a moderate hot-bed, towards the latter end of fummer. The gum of this tree is very fragrant, and is ufed ia medicine. See Storax. STYX, (anc. geog.J, a fountain dropping a dead¬ ly water, accounted facred, between Monacris and Pheneus in Arcadia.—-5/yx, a lake of Theffaly, from which the river Titareffus ran, (Pliny).—A river of hell, (Homer, Hefiod, Virgil, Ovid) ; held in fuch veneration by the gods, that an oath of any god by it was inviolable ; and whatever god prefumed to break it was ftript of divinity, and debarred nedlar for 100 years. SUBALTERN, a fubordinate officer, or one who difcharges his poft under the command and fubjeft to the dire&ion of another ; fuch are lieutenants, fub- lieutenants, coronets, and enfigns, who ferve under the captain. SUBCLAVIAN, in anatomy, is applied to any thing under the arm-pit or fhoulder, whether artery, nerve,, vein, or mufcle. SUBDOMINANT, in raufic, a name given by M. Rameau to the fourth note of the tone, which of con- fequence is the fame interval from the tonic when de- fcendiog as the dominant in rifing. This denomina¬ tion arifes from the affinity which this author finds by inverfion between the minor mode of the fubdomirmnt aud the major mode of the tonic. SUBER, the cork-tree, in botany. See Quer- £us. SUBJECT, a perfon under the rule and dominion fince the 18 Ed. t. when the ftatute of quia emptoret was made. SUBJUNCTIVE, in grammar. See Grammar. SUBLIMATE, a chemical preparation, confifting of quickfilver united with the marine acid. See Che¬ mistry, n° 251. SUBLIMATION, in chemiftry, the condenfing and collefting, in a folid form, by means of veffels aptly conftrufted, the fumes of bodies railed from, them by the application of a proper heat. See Che¬ mistry, n° 82. SUBLIME, or Sublimity. See Grandeur, and Oratory, n° i i i, 112. SUBORDINATION, a relative term, expreffing the degree of inferiority betwixt one thing and another, SUBORNATION,inlaw,a fecret, underhand, pre¬ paring,inftrudtingorbringinginafalfewitnefs; and from hence fubornation of perjury is the preparing or corrupt alluring to perjuty. Subornation of witneffes we read of in the 32 Hen. 8. c. 9. And in procuring orfuborn- ing a witnefs to give falfe teftimony in any court of record concerning lands or goods, the offender ffail forfeit 40 1. or fuffer imprifonment for half a year, Hand on the pillory, &c. by 6th Eliz. c. 9. SUBPCENA, in law, a writ whereby common per- fons are called into chancery, in fuch cafes where the common law hath provided no ordinary remedy ; and the name of it proceeds from the words therein, which charge the party called to appear at the day and place affigned,ya5 poena centum librarum, &c. The fubpoena is the leading procefs in the courts of equity ; and by ftatute, when a bill is filed againft any perfon, procefs of fubposna fiiall be taken out to oblige the defendant to appear and anfwer the bill, &c. Subpoena ad teflificandum, a writ or procefs, to bring in witneffes to give their teftimony. If a wit¬ nefs on being ferved with this procefs does not appear, the court will iffue an attachment againft him; or a party, plaintiff or defendant, injured by his non-atten¬ dance, may maintain an aflion againft the witnefs. See Blackfi. Co?n. vol. III. p. 369. Subpoena in Equity, a procefs in equity, calling on a defendant to appear and anfwer to the complain¬ ant’s Surrepti¬ tious - II Subulated. SUB ant’s bill. See ftat. 5th Geo. II. c. that where the party cannot be found to be ferved with a fubpeena, and abfconds (as believed) to avoid being ferved, a day (hall be appointed him to appear to the bill of the plaintiff; which is to be inferted in the London Gazette, read in the parifh-church where the defendant lall lived, and fixed up at the Royal Ex¬ change : and if the defendant doth not appear upon that day, the bill fhall be taken pro confejfo. SUBREPTITIOLJS, a term applied to a letter, licence, patent, or other aft, fraudulently obtained of a fuperior, by concealing fome truth which, had it been known, would have prevented the conceffion or grant. SUBSCRIPTION, in general, fignifies the figna- ture put at the bottom of a letter, writing, or inftru- ruent. In commerce, it is ufed for the (hare or intereft which particular perfons take in a public dock or a trading-company, by writing their names, and the fhares they require, in the books or regifter thereof. Subscription, in the commerce of books, fignifies an engagement to take a certain number of copies of a book intended to be printed, and a reciprocal obli¬ gation of the bookfeller or publifher to deliver the laid copies, on certain terms.—Thefe fubfcriptions, which had their rife in England about the middle of the laft century, are now become frequent in France and Holland, but exceedingly more fo of late among ourfelves. SUBSEQUENT, fomething that comes after ano¬ ther, particularly with regard to the order of time. SUBSIDY, in law, fignifies an aid or tax granted to the king by parliament, for the necefiary oecafions ef the kingdom ; and is to be levied on every fubjeft ef ability, according to the rate or value of his lands or goods : but this word, in fome of our ftatutes, is confounded with that of cuftoms. See Tax. SUBSTANCE, fomething that we conceive to fubfift of itfelf, independently of any created being, or any particular mode or accident. See Metaphysics, n°5o, 52, 87—93, 137> HS, &c. SUBSTANTIAL, in the fchools, fomething be¬ longing to the nature of fubftance. SUBSTANTIVE, in grammar. See Grammar. SUBSTITUTE, a perfon appointed to officiate for another, in cafe of abfence or other legal impedi¬ ment. SUBSTITUTION, in the civil law, a difpofition of a teftament, whereby the teflator fubftitutes one heir for another, who has only the ufufruit, andnot the property, of the thing left him. SUBSTRACTION, or Subtraction, in arith¬ metic, the fecond rule, or- rather operation, in arith¬ metic, whereby we deduft a lefs number from a great¬ er, to learn their precife difference. See Arithmetic- Subs tract 1 on, in algebra. See Algebra. SUBTERRANEOUS, whatever is underground: thus naturalills fpeak of fubterraneous fires, fubterra- neous damps, &c. SUBTILE, in phyfics, an appellation given to whatever is extremely fmall, fine, and delicate ; fuch as the animal-fpirits, the effluvia of odorous bodies, &c. are fuppofed to be. SUBULATED, fomething fhaped like an awl. Vox., X. i [ 8321 ] sue which enafts, SUCCEDANEUM, in pharmacy, denotes a drug Succeda- fubllituted in the place of another, in medical compo- Su"^’n fition. ! SUCCESSION, in philofophy, an idea which we get by reflefting on that train of ideas conllanlly fol¬ lowing one another in our minds when awake. See Metaphysics, n° 61. Succession, in law. See Descent. , Succession/o See Hereditary/?/^/. —From the days of Egbert, the firil foie monarch of England, even to the prefent, the four cardinal ma¬ xims mentioned in that article have ever been held conftitutional canons of fucceffion. It is true, as Sic William Blackitone obferves, this fucceffion, through fraud or force, or fometimes through neceffity, when in hoftile times the crown defeended on a minor or the like, has been very frequently fufpended ; but has ge¬ nerally at laft returned back into the old hereditary channel, though fometimes a very confiderable period' has intervened. And, even in thofe inftances where the fucceffion has been violated, the crown has ever been looked upon as hereditary in the wearer of it. Of which the ufurpers themfelves were fo fenfible, that they for the mod part endeavoured to vamp up fome feeble fhow of a title by defeent, in order to amufe the people, while they gained the poffeffion of the king¬ dom. And, when poffeffion was once gained, they confidered it as the purchafe or acquifition of a new eftate of inheritance, and tranfmitted or endeavoured to tranfmit it to their own pofterity, by a kind of he¬ reditary right of ufurpation. See Blackji. Com. v. i. 197—216. From the hiftorical view there given, it appears, that the title to the crown is at pre¬ fent hereditary, though not quite fo abfolutely here¬ ditary as formerly : and the common ftock, or ancef- tor, from whom the defeent muff; be derived, is alfo different. Formerly, the common ftock was king Eg¬ bert ; then William the conqueror; afterwards, in James I.’s time, the two common docks united ; and fo continued till the vacancy of the throne in 1688 : now it is the princefs Sophia, in whom the inheritance was veiled by the new king and parliament. Formerly, the defeent was abfolute, and the crown went to the next heir without any reftriftion : but now, upon the new fettlement, the inheritance is conditional; being limited to fuch heirs only, of the body of the princefs Sophia, as are Proteftant members of the church o£ England, and are married to none but Proteftants. And in this due medium confifts the true conflitu- tional notion of the right of fucceffion to the imperial crown of thefe kingdoms. The extremes between which it deers are each of them equally deftruftive o£ thofe ends for which focieties were formed and are kept on foot. Where the magiftrate,'upon every fucceffion, is elefted by the people, and may by the exprtfs pro- vifion of the laws be depofed (if not punilhed) by his fubjefts, this may found like the perfeftion of liberty, and look well enough when delineated on paper ; but in praftice will be ever produftive of tumult, conten¬ tion, and anarchy. And, on the other hand, divine indefeafible hereditary right, when coupled with the doftrine t>f unlimited paffive obedience, is furely of all conftitutions the mod thoroughly flavilh and dreadful. But when fuch an hereditary right as our laws have created and veiled in the royal ftock, is clofely inter- 41 Q_ woven SUE [ 8322 ] SUE Surcory woven with thofe liberties which are equally the in- Sueffiones heritance of the fubjeft ; this union will form a con- |.ftitution, in theory the moft beautiful of any, in prac¬ tice the moft approved, and, wc truft, in duration the jiioft permanent. SUCCORY, in botany. See Cichorjum. SUCCOTH, (anc. geog.); a place beyond Jordan, over-againft Zortan on this fide ; fo called from Ja¬ cob’s fixing his tents there—Another Succath, the firft manfion of the Ifraelites after their departure from Ramefes towards the Red Sea. SUCCUBUS, a term ufed by fome writers for a daemon who afiumes the fhape of a woman, andasfuch lies with a man ; in which fenfe it (lands oppofed to incubur, which was a daemon in form of a man, that lies with a woman. But the truth is, the fuccubus is only a fpecies of the night-mare. See Medicihe, ii° 430. SUCKER, in ichthyology. See Cyclopterus. SUCKERS, in gardening, the fame with Offsets. SUCKING-fish. See Echeneis. SUCKLING (Sir John), an Englifti poet and dra¬ matic writer, was the fon of Sir John Suckling, comp¬ troller of the houfehold to king Charles I. and born at Witham in Effex in 1613. He difeovered an un¬ common propenfity to the acquiring of languages, in- fomuch that he is reported to have fpoken Latin at five years of age, and to have wrote it at nine. When he was grown up, he travelled; but feems to have af- fefted nothing more than the character of a courtier and fine gentleman ; which he fo far attained, that he was allowed to have the peculiar happinefs of making every thing he did become him. In his travels he made a campaign under the great Guftavus Adolphus; and his loyalty, if not his valour, appeared in the be¬ ginning of our civil wars: for, after his return to Eng¬ land, he raifed a troop of horfe for the king’s fervice, entirely at his own charge; and mounted them fo completely and richly, that they are faid to have cod him 1 2,0001. This troop, with Sir John at its head, behaved fo ill in the engagement with the Scots, upon the Englifti borders, in 1639, as to occafion the fa¬ mous lampoon compofed by Sir John Mennis ; “ Sir John he got him an ambling nag, &c.” This ballad, which was fet to a bri(k tune, was much fung by the parliamentarrans, and continues to be fung to this day. This difaftrous expedition, and the ridicule that at¬ tended it, was fuppofed to have haftened his death ; being feized by a fever, of which he died, at 28 years of age. He was a fprightly wit, and an eafy verfifier, but no great poet. His works, confiding of a few poems, letters, and plays, have neverthelefs gone thro* feveral editions. SUCTION, the aft of fucking or drawing up a fluid, as air, water, milk, or the like, by means of the mouth and lungs; or, in a fimilar manner, by ar¬ tificial means. See Pneumatics and Hydrostatics. SUDATORY, a name given by the ancient Ro¬ mans to their hot or fweating rooms; fometimes alfo called Laconica. SUDORIFIC, an appellation given to any medi¬ cine that caufes or promotes fweat. SUESSIONES, a branch of the Rerai, a people of Gallia Belgica, (Pliny); called fometimes SueJfoncj, in the lower age Sue ft; fuuated between the Remi to the eaft, the Nerv’d to the north, the Veromandui to Suet the weft, and the Meldae to the fouth, in the traft now H called leSoiJJbnois.—Suejfiones, Suejfonet, and Suejfcruc, the uez* name of their city in the lower age; thought to have been formerly called Noviodunutn, (Caefar.) Now Soijfons. SUET, Sevum, or Sebum, in anatomy, the folid fat found in feveral animals, as (beep, oxen, &c. but not in the human fpecies. See the article Fat.—It is of the fevum that tallow is made. See Taliow. SUETONIUS tranquillus (Caius), a famous Latin hiftorian, was born at Rome, and became fecre- tary to the emperor Adrian about the 118th year of the Chriftian sera ; but that poft was taken from him three years after, when feveral perfons fell under that prince’s difpleafure for not (bowing the emprefs Sabina all the refpeft (he deferved. During his difgrace he compofed many works, which are loft. Thofe now extant are his Hiftory of the XII firft Emperors, and a part of his Treatife of the illuftrious Grammarians and Rhetoricians. Pliny the Younger was his inti¬ mate friend, and perfuaded him to publifh his books. His Hiftory of the XII Roman Emperors is very much commended by moft of our learned humanifts. He reprefents, in a continued feries of choice and curious particulars, without any digreffions or refleftions, the aftions of the emperors, without omitting their vices, which he expofes with all their deformity, and with the fame freedom mentions the good qualities of the very fame perfons; but the horrid diffolutenefs and obfeene aftions he relatesof Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, &c. have made fome fay, that he wrote the lives of the emperors with the fame licentioufnefs with which they lived. The edition of this hiftory procured by Grse- vius at Utrecht in 1672, with the excellent Com¬ mentaries of Torrentius and Cafaubon, and the notes of fome other learned critics, is much efteemed. That edition was reprinted in 1691. SUEVI, the Catti or Chatti of Csefar, (Strabo) ; placed on the Rhine : the reafon of Caefar’s calling them thus does not appear, though confiderably di- ftant from the proper Suevi or Aiemanni. Suevi, (Tacitus); a common name of the people fituated between the Elbe and the Viftula, diftinguifti- ed otherwile by particular names; as in Ptolemy, Suevi Angeli, Suevi Sennones. SUEVUS, (anc. geog.) a river of Germany; thought to be the fame with the Viadrus or Oder, emptying itfelf at three mouths into the Baltic, the middlemoft of which is called Swine or Swene ; which lad comes nearer the name Suevur. SUEZ, a fmall city, from which the ifthmus that joins Africa with Afia hath its name. It (lands about 30 hours eaft from Cairo, by the road called Tauricbe Beni Ifrael, i. e. the road of the children of Ifrael, at the bottom of the Heroopolitan Gulph, or weftern branch of the Red Sea ; and has about 200 houfes, and an old caftle. Here alfo is a fmall haven, but fo fhallow that (hips of any burden cannot get into it; however, there is a good road by it, where they can ride fafely and at cafe. The greateft inconvenience of the place is, that it has no Tweet water nearer than four or five miles. We are even told, that there are not above half a dozen wells betwixt Cairo and Mecca, at Uaft ia the road the pilgrims go, which lies to the northward, S U F [ 8223 ] S U G Sust northward of this, and even tbefe are bitterifli and sJolK. brackifh. Suez was formerly a place of great trade ; —L_but fince the way to the Eaft Indies by the Cape of of Good Hope hath been difcovered, it hath been up¬ on the decline. The place on the weft coaft of the gulph, where the children of Ifrael are fuppofed to have entered it, is called Badea, about fix miles to the north of Cape Korondel, on the other fide of the gulph, as we are informed in a letter from the ingeni- nious Edward Wortley Montague, F. R. S. to Dr Watfon, containing an account of his journey from Cairo to the Written Mountains in the defert of Si¬ nai. Oppofite to Badeah is a ftrong current, which fets to the oppofite fhore, about fouth-eaft, with a whirlpool called Birque Pharaone, the well or peel of Pharaoh, being the place where his hoft is faid to have been deftroyed. We are told by the fame gentleman, that the Egyptian ftiore from Suez to Badea is fo rocky and fteep, that there was no entering upon the gulph but at one of thefe two places; that it is high water in the gulph always when the moon is at her meridian height; that at Suez it flows fix feet; that the fpring-tides are nine feet, and in the variable months, from the beginning of November to the end of April, fometimes twelve; that, from the beginning of May to the beginning of Oftober, a northerly wind generally rifes and goes down with the fun, which is often very ftrong; that this wind never fails in thefe months, unlefs there be fome violent ftorm ; that the reft of the year the winds are variable, and when they blow hard at fouth fouth-eaft, fet up the fea through the narrow ftrait of Babel-Mandei, and up this weftern branch or gulph, through its'mouth, be¬ tween Gebel El-Zait on the weft, and the fouthern- moft point of the Bay of Tor on the eaft, where it is not above 12 or 14 miles over. This wind, it is pro¬ bable, hindering the water from going out, is the oc- cafion of the extraordinary increafe in the fpring-tides. The Egyptian, Weftern, or Thebaic Ihore, from Ba¬ dea fouthward to oppofite Tor on the eaftern (bore, is all mountainous and ftcep ; and at Elim, the north- ernmoft point of the bay of Tor, ends the ridge of mountains which begin on the eaftern ftiore of this weftern branch at Korondel. SUFFOCATION, in medicine, the privation of refpiration or breathing. See the articles Drowning, Hanging, &c. SUFFOLK, a county of England. Its name is contra&ed from Southfolk, fo called from its fituation in regard to Norfolk. It is bounded on the weft by Cambridgeftitre; on the fouth by Effex, from which it is parted by the river Stour; on the eaft, by the German ocean ; and on the north by Norfolk, fepara- ted from it by the lefler Oufe and the Waverley. It is upwards of 40 miles in length ; about 25, at a medium, in breadth; and 156 in circumference. It contains 22 hundreds, 32 market-towns, 275 pariihes, upwards of 34,000 houfes, and more than 200,000 inhabitants. The whole is divided into two parts; viz. the liberty of St Edmund, and the Geldable ; the former of which contain the weft parts of the county, and the other the eaft ; and there is a grand jury for each at the aflizes. The air is reckoned as wholefome and pleafant as any in the kingdom ; nor is it otherwife upon the fea coaft, which is dry and fandy, and free from falt-marfiies. The foil, except to the weft and Suffragan upon the fea-coaft, is very rich, being a compound of II clay and marie. Towards the fea there are large Sugar. heaths and trads of fand ; but thefe produce hemp, rye, and peafe, and feed great flocks of ftieep. About Newmarket, the foil is much the fame; but in high Suffolk or the woodlands, befidcs wood, there are very rich paftures, where abundance of cattle are fed. In other parts of the county, as about Bury, there is plenty of corn. As this county is noted for the rich- nefs of its paftures, fo is it for butter and cheefe, efpe- eially the former, which is faid to be extraordinary fine ; fo that being packed up in firkins, it is fold for all ufes both by fea and land, and conveyed to many parts of England, efpecially to London. The inland parts of the county are well fupplied with wood for fuel, and thofe upon the fea-coaft with coals from Newcaftle. The manufadures of the county are chiefly woollen and linen cloth. It lies in the diocefe of Nor¬ wich ; has two archdeacons, viz. of Sedbury and Suf¬ folk ; gives title of earl to a branch of the Howards ; fends two members to parliament for the county; and two for each of the following places, Ipfwicb, Dun- wich, Grford, Aldborough, Sudbury, Eye, and St Edmund’s-Bury. The county is extremely well wa¬ tered by the following rivers, which either traverfe its borders or run acrofs into the German ocean, viz. the LefTer Onfe, the Waverley, the Blithe, the Deben, the Orwell or Gripping, and the Stour. SUFFRAGAN, an appellation given to Ample bi- fhops with regard to archbilhops, on whom they de¬ pend, and to whom appeals He from the bifliops courts. SUFFRAGE, denotes a vote given in an affembly, where fomething is deliberated on, or where a perfon is ele&ed to an office or benefice. SUFFRUTEX, among botanifts, denotes an under- fhrub, or the lowed kind of woody plants, as lavender. SUGAR, in natural hiftory, is properly the effen- tial part of the fugar-cane. The fugar-cane grows naturally in both Indies; where it islikewife cultivated for its juice. In the manner of their growth, form of their leaves, and make of their panicle, the fugar-canes refemble the reeds which grow in wet mavfhy grounds in Eng¬ land or elfewhere; except that the canes are far larger, and, inftead of being hollow as the reeds, are filled with a white pith, containing the fweet juice or liquid, which (lamps fuch an amazing value upon thefe plants. The intermediate diftance between each joint of a cane is of different lengths, according to the nature of the foil, richuefs of the manure, and different temperature of the weather during its growth ; it feldom exceeds, however, four inches in length and an inch in diame¬ ter. The length of the whole cane like wife depends upon the above crrcumftances. It generally grows to perfeflion in about fourteen months, when its height, at a medium, is about fix feet, fometimes more, fome¬ times lefs. The body of the cane is ftrong, but brit¬ tle ; of a fine draw-colour, inclining to a yellow. The extremity of each is covered, for a confiderable length, with many long graffy leaves or blades, ftiarply and finely fawed on their edges; the middle longitudinal rib being high and prominent. The bottom part of the fugar-cane top is about the thicknefs of one’s finger; and as it contains a good 41 deal S U G [ 8324 ] S U G deal of the natural fweetnefs of the plant, it is ufually cut into pieces of an inch and a half long, and given to the faddle-horfes in the Weft Indies. It is very nourifhing food, and fatten* them apace. The mill- horfes, mules, and affes, are likewife fed, during crop¬ time, on fugar cane tops and the Ikimming of the fugar-coppers; which laft muft be adminiftered fpa- l ingly at firft, for fear of griping, and perhaps killing them. The canes, when ripe, are fqueezed between the iron-cafed rollers of wind-mills or cattle-mills. The juice thus prtfled out, is boiled firft in a very large copper or cauldron, being mixed with a very fmall quantity of lime. In default of lime, a ftrong ley of allies will anfwer the fame purpofe, and was in¬ deed originally ufed, though the firft is generally thought to have greater efficacy. The benefits arifing from either fubftance are probably to be attributed, in great meafure, to their alkaline qualities. The fugar¬ cane, when ripe, is of all plants the fweeteft ; there is, however, a latent acid ftill lurking in the juice, as is manifeft by its turning four if fuffered to remain un¬ boiled any confiderable time after expreffion. The ad¬ dition, therefore, of white lime, which the planters call temper, is necelfary to dellroy, in a great meafure, the remaining acid, and to form a neutral fait. Lime, or the ftrong ley juft mentioned, likewife ferves to carry off all impurities from the liquor. When the quantity of temper is duly proportioned, if the li¬ quor is put into a glafs, the immediate reparation will follow; the fordes fettle at the bottom, and the juice remains tranfparent at top. On the other hand, if there is a deficiency of temper, the feparation will be im¬ peded ; and if there is a fuperfluity, there will be no i'eparation at all. After the lime is mixed with the juice io the copper or cauldron, the impurities in queftion being no longer intimately united with the boiling liquor, and being forced about with the heat of the fire, are eafily en¬ tangled in a vifeous tough fubftance, naturally in the cane-juice, with which they rife to the top of the copper, forming a thick tough feum. Ttie clarification of the liquor, as far as is done in the fiift copper, is perfe&ed after the more grofs feum is taken off; the remaining impurity, as the liquor boils, is Ikimmed off from the four or five remaining coppers, into which the liquor is fucceffively poured ; each of the coppers being gradually lefs, as containing a lefs quantity of liquor. In its paffage to the fourth copper, the liquor is {trained through a thick woolen cloth, where it leaves all the remaining impurities that had efcaped the fum- mer. After this a light white feum is taken off; and when this ceafes to arife in any confiderable quan¬ tity, and the liquor, by long boiling, becomes more of a fyrup than a thin liquid, it is then poured in¬ to the firft tache, and from this to a leffer, till it is conveyed to the laft. When it has here attain¬ ed the due confiftence neceffary to become fugar, it may be afferted, fays Hughes, from whom this ac¬ count is chiefly extraded, that no more than a feventh part of the whole remains ; which diminution is occar fioned by the impurities being feummed off, and the Sugar, watery particles evaporated. ————— From this laft ftage it is conveyed, whilft of the confiftency of a thick granulated fyrup, into a large brafs cooler, where it (hoots into cryftals, which are the genuine and effential falts of the plant ; tbefe are forwarded by gently ftirring the whole mafs, by which means the air is admitted to every part, and the par¬ ticles of fugar difengage themfclves from the clammy fubftance, which is termed melajfes. When it has grained or cryftaUized, it is removed from the cooler into pots or moulds, which are earthen, and of a pyramidal form, containing from eight to thirteen gallons. About twenty-four hours after the fugar is potted, the fmall round hole in the bottom of each pot is un- ftopped, and the pots put upon earthen jars, contain¬ ing about four gallons each : into thefe veffels the me- laffes drain from the fugar; which, in this degree of perfedion, is called mufeavado, and is fit for exporta¬ tion in a month,, or fooner. From the abovementioned Ikimmings, mixed with a quantity of water and melaffes, and fermented, is ex- traded that fpirituous liquor called rum; and from the great quantity of oil in the cane-juice, which is tranfmitted in abundance to the rum, proceeds the ex¬ cellency of that fpirit, compared with brandy. The latter wanting this oilinefs, llimulates and lacerates the coats of the ftomach ; whereas the former, if meliora¬ ted by age and drank moderately, ferves, by its oili¬ nefs, to lubricate and preferve the bowels. See Rum. The moft natural, and perhaps the only proper, method of producing canes, is by fuckers, or with the tender tops of old canes. Thefe being cut into pieces of about a foot long, planted in holes of about fix inches deep and two feet wide, and covered with good manure, each piece will produce from its roots a great number of canes. But it may not be unacceptable to give a more par¬ ticular account both of the cultivation of the plant, and the procefs of fugar-making, according to the moft approved methods. I. Beji Method of cultivating Sugar-canes. — In ft iff Martin r foils where canes require moft age, half the quan- on„. tity of land intended for the crop (hould be plantedP in September; but in hot loofe foils in O&ober, and November ; and the whole planting-feafon Ihould con¬ clude with the month of January or February (a), when the tops of the firft canes cut may furnifli the laft pieces planted- By ftri& obfervance of this method, the canes will be at full maturity in the proper feafon for yielding moft fugar, which is from the ift of January (if the weather permits) to the 29th of July. But by grinding later, we hazard not only the deftruftion of our wind-mills by hurricanes, but make bad fugar, at infinite expence of time and labour, both of negroes and cattle, when the juice of the canes becomes weak and waterifli. There is not therefore a greater error in the whole pra&ice of planterftnp, than to make fugar or to plant canes at improper feafons of the year ; for, by mifmanagements of this kind, every fucceeding crop is put out of regular order. The land being well manured and mellowed by fal¬ lowing. (a) In light luxuriant foils, canes planted in April or May often produce largely f but it feems not prudent to de¬ lay fo leng, for fear of a difappointment by drought. S U G Sugar, lowing, let it be lined into fpaces of four feet diftance, and then holed either backwards or fidewife (b) as the manager thinks beft ; taking particular care that the cane-holes be made fquare at the bottom, and heaping the banks high, fo as to take up little ipace. After holing, the land fhould lie in that pofture until every little lump crumbles into fine mould, and then be planted before weeds fpring up in any great abund¬ ance i for if planting in due time is negletted, the foil fubfides, grows compadt again, and defeats much of all the former tillage. The land being thus holed and mellowed by fallowing, let two good plants be put in¬ to each hole at equal diftance from the centre; for if many plants be put into an hole, the fprouts will rife too plentifully, fo as to hinder each other’s growth, and produce very fmall fpindling canes, which can yield but little fugar ; for fugar-canes require more air and fun-fhine than moft other vegetables. The plants being thus placed in each hole, with the eyes horiiontally, mull be covered, in loofe dry foils, not above two inches deep; but in ftiff ground one inch is fufficient, leaving the banks to be added by fmall acceffions at every weeding, and the one-third to be referved for covering the ftools of the rattoons, which will much forward their growth : but let the common cuftom of drawing mould into hillocks round each ftool of young canes be avoided ; becaufe that praftice breaks the young fuperficial fibres, and leaves them bare to perifh by the fcorching fun. Siiff or clay-foils, if well drained in the manner before di¬ rected, may be planted hollow, as the lighteft, to the fame advantage ; for covering the ftools of rattoons with one-third of the bank left for that purpofe, is preferable to hoe-ploughing alone. As fuch level ftiff foils, free from ftones, are moft improveable by the plough, the hufbandman’s chief care fhould be to plough the land into ridges, rifing gradually from the fides to the centres: for then the rain-water will pafs off with eafe through the furrows, and fave all the hand-labour of draining, except fmall trenches round each field, through which the water may pafs gently without waffling away the mould: for where all pre¬ ceding arts are praftifed to pulverife the foil, peculiar care muff be taken to prevent its wafhing away by floods of rain, or the land will foon become barren. It has been fuggefted before, that two good plants are fufficient for an hole of the dimenfions above-men¬ tioned ; but in fmaller holes, one only is ufed by fome judicious planters with good fuccefs. Drawn plants from rattoon-fprouts of fix or eight months old are very good; and in fome refpe&s preferable to the tops of old canes, as having fliort joints, and ofcourfe more eyes, and plumper than the others. It is, how¬ ever, generally obferved, that the tops of old canes arc the hardieft plants, capable of bearing the extre¬ mity of dry or wet weather better than any other; but if the fibrous roots of drawn plants are cut off, no man will have reafon to complain. To ufe the tops of grown canes for the laft pieces planted, from Ja¬ nuary to May, is very good managementbut drawn S U G plants will anfwer perfe&ly well at all other feafons of Sugan. the year ; and of thefe an abundance may be provided " “ by a right forecaft, if unfeafonable droughts do not prevent; a nd good aliowanceamuftbe made for fuch events. By that the planter divides his plantation into three, four, or five equal parts, in proportion to his ftrength of hands and cattle, allowing one third, fourth, or fifth part to be planted every year: and if he contrives to cut plants always from a contiguous field, much cartage in wet weather will be prevented ; much of his negroes time faved in paffing from one diflant field to another, and ftill more if mules are employed to carry- plants. But after all this care in the preceding procefs, fure difappointment will attend the planter who negle£ts timely weeding his young canes; which, by once be¬ ing over-run by weeds, will be fo ftinted as never to become very good by any fubfequent helps: let there¬ fore every manager be as careful and nice in preferving his canes clean from all weeds, as the florift is of his parterre ; poftponing every other work when that calls for his labour. And if inftead of feraping up thefe weeds with common hoes, according to the prefent pra&ice, he could employ the Kentifli hoe-plough, infinite hand-labour may be faved : or if the nature of his foil be ftiff or ftony, fo that the hoe-plough can¬ not be ufed, it is very probable, that by digging all weeds into the foil with fpades or hoes, and loofening it by that means, as gardeners do in England, the fugar-canes would be fo invigorated, as to recompenfe the labour beyond our prefent conception. No deva- ftation by that pernicious in fed! called the blaji could then take place. All the fchemes hitherto propofed for curing that evil are vain impradticable fpeculations, or a wafte of time and labour to little purpofe. But if it be a fadl, that the blaft commits molt ravage in poor land, and affc&s not the luxuriant fugar-canes of a rich foil, the cure of the evil is certain and obvious. Manure and cultivate your lands fo as to render them rich andfruitful,andyou will preventtheblaft(c) ; more efpeciallyif (according to the Engliffi huffiandry) the produce is changed, by planting potatoes, yams, or corn, in dry foils, and eddoes or potatoes in ftiff lands: for by thefe arts the planter may be fure (if favoured by natural feafons) of canes that will reward his la¬ bour by plentiful crops of fugar ; and it muft then be his intereft, by Ikill and care, to make it as good as poffible ; which (hall be the fubjeft of the following fe&ion, after having given fome new dirtdious for the cultivation of rattoons. It has been obferved above, that the ftools or roots from whence canes are cut, are apt to corrupt at the parts left above ground, and thefe of couife canker the whole ftool: beuce it is that rattoons, or cane* fpringjng from thofe ftools, are feldom very good, except in very rich foils ; and. therefore fome good planters, to prevent thofe ftubs above ground, draw their canes for fugar from the roots, which we believe effectual, but very laborious : but by a late experi¬ ment, it is found a lefs laborious method, after unco¬ vering. t ] (b) If the holes are made four feet wide one way, and five feet from bank to bank, the bottom of the hole wilt be a true fquare. (c) It is, however, certainly a miftake to fay, that the blaft infeds not the canes|of a rich foil. The contrary is - known to be true by experience: and therefore the beft and only effedual cure is wiping the blades by wet cloths* . until wet weather completes the cure- Sugar. S U G [ 8326 ] S U G vering the {tools, by taking off the trafli, fo foon as the canes are carried out of the field, to cut by a fharp hoe all the heads of the cane-ftools, three inches below the furface of the foil, and then fill the hole with fine mould; by which means all the fprouts rifing from below derive more nutriment, and grow with vigour far beyond expeftation. 2. Bejl Method of making Sugar. In making good fugar, there is a great variety of incidents, of which if any one fails, the end is abfolutely fruftrated: the wife planter, therefore, mud be very atten¬ tive to every minute ftep throughout the whole pro* cefs. It mud be his fird care to keep his mill in perfeft good order, fo that common accidents may not retard his crop in the feafon when canes yield the mod and bed fugar : every part of his works mud be very clean, and his coppers hung fo judicioufly, as to boil perfectly well with little fuel; for nothing contributes more to the making of good fugar than quick boiling, after the cane-juice is well clarified. To this end, therefore, the great coppers, or fird cla¬ rifiers, fhould be hung fingly, or to feparate fires, and pinned about 10 or 12 inches from the bottom, that the feum may be feparated by flow degrees, and kept floating upon the furface long enough to be taken off perfeftly: for if the liquor be fuffered to boil with violence, the feum will incorporate again with it, and never after be feparable but by the refining-pan ; and thus dark foul fugar is made of that cane-juice which might have produced, by good management, fine bright fugar of much greater value at the market. This is a point of great importance to every planter, whofe profit depends much upon the goodnefs of his fugar; for the word pays the fame freight, duty, and charges, as the very bed. The cane-juice, therefore, after being drained at the mill through a brafs-wire fieve, ought to run down to the boiling-houfe in fpouts lined with lead, to pre- ferve it from tainting (d) ; and being let into the fird clarifier, mud be there boiled over a moderate fire un¬ til perfe&ly freed from all feum ; afterwards it mud be drained through a thick coarfe blanket, and then boiled to fugar with all polfible celerity. But let the coppers be ever fo judicioufly hung, the liquor cannot be boiled with due quicknefs, unlefs the manager takes peculiar care to provide great plenty of dry fuel or mill-tralh. The good planter, therefore, will lay up a dock of brufh-wood cut from the hedges of his boundary before the crop begins; or, if he has plenty of wood, enough to ferve the ufes of his dill-houfe ; by which means he may foon lay up a large fund of mill- trad), and pack it either in ricks or in a large trafh- boufe, that the progrefs of his crop may not be hin¬ dered by every {bower, or his fugar fpoiled by dull fires. The judicious boiler’s next care is to provide quick¬ lime of the bed fort to temper his liquor; for other- wife the fugar will be clammy, than which it cannot have a worfe quality. That defeft in fugar arifes from two very different caufes ; for flow boiling and bad temper-lime have the very fame effed. The lime made from marble, or any other land lime dones, is the ftronged, and preferable to that made from white fea- coral; and the newer it is from the kiln, the better: for by keeping it in the lighted calks for any long Sugar. duration, fome of its good qualities evaporate; and therefore, in the daily ufe of it, the air mud be exclu¬ ded. It is impofiible to preferibe exadly the quantity of lime neceffary for every fort of cane-juice. It has, however, been obferved, that five ounces of the bed quick-lime are fufficient for too gallons of good cane- juice- Indead of increafing the quantity of lime, Mr Martin advifes the ufe of powdered alum ; one quar¬ ter of of an ounce of which, or lefs, to a drike of fa- gar, will give both firmefs and largenefs of grain : ex¬ periment will foon determine whether more or lefs alum will be requifite. It is a good rule in general to give a full quantity, which can only be determined precifely by the fird fugar made ; but by dipping a fkimmer into the tach when the liquor is boiled to near a fyrup height, and by giving it two or three quick twirls, and then hanging the edges of it downward, an obferving eye will difeern the liquor falling from the fkimmer in glaffy flakes. If thefe hang long, the liquor is not fufficiently tempered ; but if fliort, break¬ ing near to the edge of the fkimmer, it is tempered enough. When cane-juice is tainted by exedfive drought, fo as to make foxy bad fugar, there are va¬ rious methods in ufe of extra&ing the taint. Among thefe, Mr Martin never found any fo effeftual as by high tempering the liquor; and, when it is boiled to a thick fyrup, throwing into the tach two or three gallons of fair water, which, by fudden folution, throws up the taint or vifeous feum (confiding of the lighted par¬ ticles) upon the furface; from whence it mutt befkim- med off with all expedition, and referved for didilla- tion. This is a very effcdtual method of making drong bright fugar from cane-juice very much tainted, pro¬ vided it be rich or at full maturity ; but if the fugar- canes are much tainted while the juice is waterifh, all attempts to make good fugar of it are vain and fruit- lefs: for then it is fit only for didillation. Indeed a ftrong'or large-grained fugar cannot by any art be made from waterifh juice, even though untainted by drought; and therefore, when the planter finds his cane-juice of that fort, let him drip his canes from all the trafti, fuffering them to dand for fix weeks expo- fed to the air and fun ; and he will find that labour amply recompenfed by a large produdl of very good fugar, as experience has often evinced. After duly tempering the cane-juice with the drong- ed quicklime, clarifying it over a moderate fire, and draining it as before deferibed, let it be boiled with the utmod quicknefs to a middling fugar-height, which will give it a large grain, and a fair colour, never-failing qualities to procure the bed price at market. This art of boiling fugar, though of the greated importance to every planter, is generally lead underdood either by overfeers or their mafters; but that point of greated confequence is truded wholly to the fkill of negro-boilers, who indeed arrive by long habit to fome degree of judgment by the eye only. To that eye-art Mr Martin fays he has attended with all diligence, but could never acquire a critical exa&nefs: for the fight, of all the other fenfes, is mod fallible and fubjed to deception : a little more or lefs butter thrown (d) Mill cifterns, and all receivers through which cane juce pa fifes, fliould be lined with lead: becaufe wood foon taints it; and the greateft artift cannot make the beft fugar with tainted juice. S U G [ 8327 ] S U G Sugar, thrown into the tach will alter the whole appearance, — —and often deceive the moft attentive and experienced eye ; and no doubt there are other caufes lefs obfer- vable, which produce the like effeft ; and therefore he recommends boiling by the touch alfo, which is abundantly more certain, as two witneffes are better than one. This art of boiling by the touch is called taking a proof; but to impart by words the knowledge of it is as;impoffible as to teach any other mechanic art, which can be attained by pra&ice only. However, the method of doing it is by a pan-ftick, of four feet and an half long, eighteen inches of which is made rounding for the grafp of the left hand, and three feet flatwife, about two inches broad, and an inch thick : by im- merging this pan-ftick into the liquor when boiled to a pretty thick confiftence, it will be fmeared ; upon which the boiler puts bis right thumb, taking up a fufScient quantity, and touching then the thumb with the fore-finger, draws the liquid fugar like a thread at the inftant when the heat is going off: this thread, when broken, will Ihrink from the thumb to the fuf- pended fore-finger in feveral lengths, as the boiler in¬ tends ; for the different lengths at which this thread hangs to the fore-finger determine precifely the dif¬ ferent degrees of boiling fugar ; and thefe degrees are propotioned to the feveral fizes of moulds, or fugar- pots, in which it is cured. The denominations by which thefe degrees are determined by refiners, are, piece, lump, and loaf-height. Piece-height is the high- eft degree, and fuited to the moulds of the largeft lize, which contain about nine gallons: the thread of piece-height is about three inches long: that of lump- height, luitable to moulds of half the former fizes, is when the thread Hands at about an inch from the fuf- pended fore-finger: and loaf-height, fuitable to the fmalleft moulds, is determined by the thread of a quar¬ ter of an inch long from the fufpended finger: and this latter proof is generally moft fuitable to the plan¬ ter’s purpofes of making mufeovado-fugar; which ought to be of a large grain, well feparated from melaffes. It has been faid above, that the boiler muft take a fufficient quantity of the liquid'fugar upon his thumb, to make an exaft proof. That fufficiency cannot be expreffed in words precifely j but ruuft be juft enough to allow the drawing of a thread, and not more ; for that will occafion fome deception. In like manner, if the thread is drawn any other time than at the critical moment when the heat of the liquid fugar goes off the thumb, the boiler will be deceived •, for, if the liquid fugar is either too hot or too cold when drawn into a firing, it will vary the appear¬ ance. In taking proof, the young learner muft expeft to blifter his thumb ; but, to gave him as little pain as poffible, when he takes up the liquid fugar, let him obferve to keep his finger and thumb nimbly moving from and to each other in gentle contaft, and then draw the firing at that inftant when the intenfe heat is going off; by which means he will fave his thumb from bliflering, and obtain an exaft proof, ac¬ cording to the rules above preferibed. The method of boiling mufeovado-fugar is below Sugar, loaf-height (e); and if then it is cooled with quicknefs * in a broad fuperficies, and in a wooden cooler, the fugar will be of a larger grain than if cooled in a deep or copper veffcl. But if the fugar is intended to be cured in pots or earthen moulds, it muft be. cooled in copper or deep wooden coolers, that it may be conveyed from thence into the pots while in the ftatc iof a thick liquid. This will occafion the grain of fugar to be fmailer, (and more efpecially if judicioufly ftirred while in the cooler), which is an ad¬ vantage to the colour of clayed fugar: for a multitude of furfaces will refleft more rays of light, and confe- quently appear whiter, than larger particles, which, have fewer furfaces. For that reafon the moft expert planters of Barbadoes generally boil their fugar higher than moft other people ; but whether to fo much, profit, muft be determined by future experience : for if a much lefs quantity of very white fugar is obtained by boiling high, then, by the contrary method, the queftion is, whether the greater price is an adequate recompence for fo great a lofs of weight. In Mr Martin’s opinion, it is not: however, it is worth the trouble to determine that point by exaft weight and meafure. In fuch computations the refined Barbodoes managers exceed all our iflanders. The quantity and thinnefs of the clay-batter muft be exadtly proportioned, not to the quantity of fugar fo much as to the degree of height to which it is boiled, which the face or furface of the fugar in each pot muft: determine : for if the cruft breaks near the centre, the fugar is high-boiled, and will require a thinner batter; and fo, vice verfa, the nearer to the edge of the pot the furface cracks, the thicker muft be the clay : for clay-batter is only the means of filtering the water through the fugar by eafy degrees, fo as to wa/h the grains from all the yellowness, or tinge of melaffes, without diffolving the fmalleft par¬ ticles. In this proportion, therefore, confifts chiefly the art of claying, not to fink the pot of fugar by a double clay lower from the brim than five inches, and yet to whiten the whole mafs alike to the bottom. But this cannot be effe&ed without great judgment in boiling equallyj and in feparating the pots into feve¬ ral claffes, fo as to clay each parcel in a manner fuit¬ able to the degree of boiling: for want of this art it is that a planter may grow poorer by claying his fugar, than if he makes only plain mufeovado : for the lofs of fugar diffoived into melaffes by claying injudicioufly, cannot be compenfated by converting it into . rum. He therefore who propofes to clay fogar to advantage, muft firft learn the art of boiling by the touch, as the only criterion of boiling to a degree of exa&nefs: he muft learn alfo all the other procefs of hailing and ftirring the fugar after it is filled into the pots, by which fmali errors in boiling may be in fome meafure reftified. The fame fltill is requifite to boil fugar which is intended to be cured in pots, nuithout being clayed} and therefore that pra&ice is very un¬ profitable : for though fugar properly boiled will cure beft in pots, yet if there be the leaft error in boiling> (e) That is the greateft height for rich cane-juice; but when waterifh, it will be high enough when a thread can be drawn.—It is a general maxim, that the weak cane-juice muft be tempered very high and boiled low. The former kabfolutely falfe; for a due temper muft be obferved: to boil it very low, is right, and that is a candy height. S U G [ 8328 ] S U G gggar. boiling, it will occafiun the fugar to be of a very, fmall grain, as is generally the cafe of Jaraaica-fugar. For if the fame fugar, which is of a fmall grain, had, by being put into pots, been cooled with quicknefs in a broad wooden cooler, and cured in hogfheads, the grain would have been much larger, as a Angle ex¬ periment will evince. But if, in conformity to old cullotns, a manager will choofe to cure in pots, let him cool his fugar in a (hallow broad cooler, till it be¬ comes very thick, and only liquid enough to be taken up with a ladle, and put into the pots: for by that means he will have a much larger-grained fugar, than by the practice of putting it hot into pots. It is a common praftice to ftir hot fugar once or twice after being put into the coolers ; which is a fure means of breaking the grain, at the very inftant while the fugar -is granulating. 3. Refining of Sugar.—Sugar is afterwards refined from the coarfe ftate in which it generally comes from abroad, to various degrees of purity by new folu- tions, and is fold at different prices, and under dif¬ ferent names, according to the degree of purity it is brought to. Our fugar-refiners firft diffolve it in wa¬ ter, then clarify the Solution by boiling with whites of eggs and defpumation ; and after due evaporation pour it into moulds; where the fluid part being drain¬ ed off, and the fugar concreted, its furface is covered with moift clay as before. The fugar thus once re¬ fined, by repetition of the procefs, becomes the double- refined fugar of the (hops. The candy fugar, or that in cryflals, is prepared by boiling down folutions of fugar to a certain pitch, and then removing them into a hot room, with flicks placed aprofs the veflel for the fugar to (hoot upon : and thefe cryftals prove of a white or brown colour, according as the fugar ufed in the procefs was pure or impure. Sugar from different Plants. In fome parts of North America, particularly in Canada, a kind of fugar is prepared from the juice which iflues up¬ on wounding or boring certain fpecies of the maple- tree, one of which is named from hence the fugar- maple; as alfo from the wild or black birch, the honey-locufl, and the hickery. The maple is mod commonly made ufe of for this purpofe, as being the richeft, and as bed enduring the long and fevere win¬ ters of that climate. The juice is boiled down, with¬ out any addition, to a thick confiftence; then taken off from the fire, kept ftirring bill its heat is abated, and fet in a cold place ; where the fugar quickly concretes in¬ to grains, relembling common brown powder-fugar. The trees are tapped early in the fpring, about the time that the fnow begins to melt. It is obfervable, that when the weather begins to grow warm, they bleed no more ; and that, after the bleeding has ftopt, they begin to run again upon covering the roots with fnow. The more fevere the winter has been, the juice is found to be richer and in greater quantity. The trees which grow on hills or high land yield a richer juice than thofe which are produced in low countries; and the middle-aged than the young or the old. Mr Kalm informs us, in the Swedifh Tranfaftions for the year 1751, that one tree, if the fummer does not come on haftily, will yield about forty-two gallons of juice (Englifh wine-meafure), and that the quan¬ tity which iffues in one day is from three to fix gal- Stig»fv Ions: that eleven gallons of juice of middling quality II. give a pound of fugar, and that fometimes a pound has been gained from three gallons and a half: that two perfons can in one fpring prepare commodioufly 200 pounds. He obferves, that this fugar is weaker than that from the fugar-cane ; but that for fome pur- pofes it anfwers better, as for chocolate and preferves. It is likewife efteemed more medicinal. Confiderable quantities are brought annually into Europe, particu¬ larly France, and there employed in diforders of the breaft. It is reckoned that a pound of common fu¬ gar goes as far in fweeteningas two pounds of maple- fugar. The large maple, commonly called fycamore tree, bleeds alfo in Europe a fweet juice, from which an aftual fugar has been prepared. In the Tranfa&ions above-mentioned, for the year 1754, there is an ac¬ count of fome experiments made in this view upon the Swediflr maple. Eight trees, none of them under thirty years, bled in four days fourteen gallons of juice ; which, infpifiated,gave two pounds and a half of brown-fngar. Another time, the fame eight trees bled in three days ten gallons and a half; which yielded one pound four ounces of fugar, with half a pound of fyrup. It is the faccharine juice of the maple-tree, which, exuding upon the leaves, renders them fo apt to be preyed upon by infefts. The common birch bleeds alfo a large quantity of a fweetifh juice, which yields, on being infpifiated, a fweet faline concrete, not however perfefily of the faccharine kind, but feeming to approach more to the nature of manna. There are fundry other vegetables, raifed in our own country, which afford faccbarine concretes; as beet-roots, (kirrets, parfneps, potatoes, ccleri, red- cabbage (talks, the young (hoots of Indian wheat. The fugar is mod readily obtained from thefe, by making a tin&ure of the fuUjedt in re&ified fpirit of wine ; which, when faturated by heat, will depofit the fugar upon (landing in the cold. Acids/' Sugar. See Chemistry, n0 300. * SUGILLATION, in medicine, an extravafation of blood in the coats of the eye, which at firft appears of a reddifti colour, and afterwards livid or black. If the diforder is great, bleeding and purging are pro* per, as are alfo difeutients. SUICIDE. See SELF-Murder. SUIDAS, a Greek writer, according to fome, flou- rifhed in the 11 th century, under the reign of the empe¬ ror Alexius Comnenus ; according to others, before the 10th century. He wrote in Greek an Hiftorical and Geographical Diftionary or Lexicon; a work which, though not always ftriftly accurate, is never- thelefs of great importance, as it contains many things taken from the ancients that are nowhere elfe to be found. The beft edition of Suidas is that of Kuifter, in Greek and Latin, with notes, printed in 3 vols fol. SUIT, is ufed in different fenfes; as, 1. Suit of court, or fuit fervice, which is an attendance the tenant owes to his lord’s court. 2. Suit-covenant, where a perfon has covenanted to do fervice in the court of the lord. 3. Suit-cuftom, which is where one and his anceftors have owed fuit time out of mind. 4. It is ufed for a petition to the king or any perfon S U I [ 8329 ] SUL Suit, of dignity, where a lord diftrainj his tenant for fuit, an(j none j8 £jue> jn cafej (fog party may have an attachment againft him to appear in the king’s court. Suit, in law, the fame with a&ion. The Romans introduced pretty early fet forms for a&ions and fuits in their law, after the example of the Greeks ; and made it a rule, that each injury fhould be redreffed by its proper remedy only. Afliones, fay the Pande&s, “ compofitx font quibus inter fe homines difceptarent, “ quas attioncs ne populus prout vellet injiitueret, cert as ** folennefque ej]e voluerunt." The forms of thefe ac¬ tions were originally preferved in the books of the pontifical college as choice and ineftimable fecrets, till one Cneius Flavius, the fecretary of Appius Claudius, ftole a copy and publilhed them to the people. The concealment was ridiculous: but the eft'ablifhment of fome ftandard was undoubtedly neceffary to fix the true ftate of a queftion of right; left, in a long and arbitrary procefs, it might be fhifted continually, and be at length no longer difcernible. Or, as Cicero ex- preffes it, funt jura, funt formula, de omnibus rebus “ conjlituta, ne quis aut in genere injuria, aut in ra- ,t tione aclionis, errare pc fit. Exprejfa enim funt ex “ uniufcujufque damno, dolore, incommode, calamitate, “ injuria, publica a pratore formula, ad quas privata “ Us accommodatur.',, And in the fame maimer our Brafton, fpeaking of the original writs upon which all our aftions are founded, declares them to be fixed and immutable, unlefs by authority of parliament. And all the modern legiflators of Europe have found it ex¬ pedient, from the fame reafons, to fall into the fame or afimilar method. In England, the feveral fuits, or remedial inftruments ofjuftice, are, from the fubjeft of them, diftinguifhed into three kinds; adtions perfonal, real, and mixed. Perfonal adtions are fuch whereby a man claims a « debt, or perfonal duty, or damages in lieu thereof; and likewife whereby a man claims a fatisfadlion in da¬ mages for fome injury done to his perfon or property. The former are faid to be founded upon contradts, the latter upon torts or wrongs : and they are the fame which the civil law calls “ afliones in perfonam, qua “ adverfus own intenduntur qui ex contrattu vel delifio “ obligatus ejl aliquid dare vel concedere.” Of the for¬ mer nature are all adtions upon debt or promifes ; of the latter are all adtions for trefpafles, nuifances, af- faults, defamatory words, and the like. Real adtions, (or, as they are called in the Mirror, feodal attions') which concern real property only, are fuch whereby the plaintiff, here called the demandant, claims title to have any lands or tenements, rents, commons, or other hereditaments, in fee-fimple, fee- tail, or for term of life. By thefe adtions formerly all difputes concerning real eftates were decided ; but they are now pretty generally laid afide in pradtice, upon account of the great nicety required in their manage¬ ment, and the inconvenient length of their procefs : a much more expeditious method of trying titles being fince introduced, by other adtions perfonal and mixed. Mixed adtions are fuits partaking of the nature of the other two, wherein fome real property is demand¬ ed, and alfo perfonal damages for a wrong fuftained. As for inftance, an adtion of wafte: which is brought by him who hath the inheritance, in remainder or re- verfion, againft the tenant for life, who bath com¬ mitted wafte therein, to recover not only the land Vot. X. wafted, which would make it merely a real adtion ; Sully, but alfo treble damages, in purfuance of the ftatute of Sulphur. Glacerter, which is a perfonal recompence ; and fo both, being joined together, denominate it a mixed attion. The orderly parts of a fuit are thefe ; 1. The ori¬ ginal writ. 2. The procefs. 3. The pleadings. 4. The iffue or demurrer. 5. The trial. 6. This judgment, and its incidents. 7. The proceedings in nature of appeals. 8. The execution. See thefe articles. SULLY. See Bethune. SULPHUR, an inflammable fubftance of a yellow colour, confiding of the vitriolic acid and principle of inflammability united. For its properties. See Che¬ mistry, n° 50, 114, 123, 165, 321, 334, 469. Sulphur is found naturally formed in vaft. quantity about volcanoes, and in fome kinds of minerals. It is extradted from its ores either by melting or fubli- ming. What we ufe is all brought from other countries; but it is certain that the metallic ores in this country contain a very confiderable quantity of fulphur, which, in the common way of working, is diflipated in the air. Dr Watfon has fhown, in a paper on lead-ore, in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, that the quantity thus diflipated amounts to not lefs than 700 tons an¬ nually in the various lead-mines in England. Volca¬ noes, earthquakes, &c. have been thought to take their rife from large beds of fulphur fuppofed to lie under¬ ground; but it is much more probable that fulphur is the effedt rather than the caufe of thefe phenomena. See Volcano. Sulphur unites eafily with all metallic matters, ex¬ cepting gold, platina, and zinc ; at leaft we have not found the means of uniting it with thefe, diredtly, and without fome intermediate fubftance. The degrees of affinity with which fulphur combines with thofe me¬ tals to which it may be readily united, are different; for it not only unites more eafily and abundantly with fome than with others, but it alfo quits thofe with which it has a lefs affinity, to unite with others to which it has a ftronger affinity. The affinities of fulphur, according to Mr Geoffrey’s table, are, fixed alkali, iron, copper, lead, filver, re¬ gains of antimony, mercury, and gold ; and, according to Mr Gellert’s table, they are, iron, copper, tin, lead, filver, bifmuth, regulus of antimony, mercury, arfenic, and cobalt: gold and zinc are marked in this table as being incapable of uniting with fulphur. The compounds formed by fulphur with different metals, are different; but all of them poffefs a metal¬ lic luftre, without any duftility : thefe combinations of fulphur and of metals are very frequently found in a natural ftate. Almoft all the- metals which we dig from the earth are naturally found combined with fulphur, forming moft of the ores and metallic mi¬ nerals. The properties of the combinations of fulphur with metallic matters have been little examined, becaufe thefe combinations are not of any ufe ; but, on the contrary, when they are found, they mull be decom- pofed, that the metals may be obtained feparately from the fulphur. Neverthelefs, we know, not only that metals have different degrees of affinity with fulphur ; in confequence of which property, ful¬ phur may be, and aftually is, in many metallurgical operations, feparated from fome metals by means of 41 R others SUL [ 8330 ] SUM Sulphur, others to which it is more difpofed to unite ; but we " ~ alfo kuow that fulphur facilitates the fufion of hard and difficultly fufible metals, fueh as copper and iron; and .hat, on the contrary, it renders the foft and fu¬ fible metals, as tin and lead, lefs eafily fufible. Thefe Angular effe&s feem to proceed from the difference of the affinity of fulpbur to the feveral metals. Sulphur may be feparated from metallic matters by feveral methods. Firft, as fulphur is volatile, and as thefe metallic matters are fixed, or at leaft lefs volatile than fulphur, the mere action of fire is fnfficient to feparate fulphur from moft metals. As this method is Ample, and not expenfive, it is generaly employed to feparate fulphur from ores; which effedt is produced by the torrefaftion orroaflingof thefe ores. We muft, however, except the ore of mercury, or native cinna¬ bar, and alfo the combinations of arfenic with fulphur, which cannot be decompofed without an intermediate fubflance, from the great volatility of mercury and of arfenic : although perhaps it would not be impoffible to feparate the fulphur from thefe compounds, without an intermediate fubftance, by a heat carefully applied, long continued, and with accefs of air. Secondly, feveral combinations of fulphur with me¬ tals may be decompofed by means of acids; whichdif- folve the metallic matter, without attacking the ful¬ phur. But in feveral of thefe compounds, the fulphur defends the metal from the aftion of the acids; and this reparation by acids does frequently not fucceed, or fucceeds only imperfe&ly. Crude antimony is one of the fulphurated metallic fubftances from which ful¬ phur may mod eafily be feparated by means of aqua regia. This menftruum feizes readily the regulus of antimony contained in mineral antimony, and feparates from it the fulphur, which then appears in form of a white powder. Laftly, we may, as we have already faid, feparate feveral metals from fulphur by means of other metals, to which the fulphur has a greater affinity. This re¬ paration is praftifed in feveral operations, as in the dry parting, the purification of gold by antimony, the decompofition of cinnabar, of orpiment, and of crude antimony. The ufes of fulphur are confiderably extenfive in chemiftry, in medicine, and in arts. The liver of ful¬ phur is employed in chemiftry for feveral folutions. Sulphur is alfo ufeCul for feveral fufions, precipitations, and reparations of metals and minerals, as we have al¬ ready mentioned. Laftly, as fulphur contains a very large quantity of vitriolic acid, a method has been found, and is now praflifed, of extrafting from it this acid, by burning fulphur in clofe vefiels, with the ad¬ dition of fome nitre, and by an operation fimilar to that of the clyflus. Sulphur is employed in medicine, both internally and externally, for afthmatic difeafes of the breaft, and for feveral difeafes of the fltin of the nature of the itch. The internal preparations of fulphur are, flowers of fulphur, waflied fulphur, magiftery of fulphur, tablets, balfams, livers of fulphur, and others; in fame of which this fubftance is not altered, but only purified and divided ; and in others, is combined and affociated with other fubftances; without reckoning the fulphu- reous combinations of antimony and of mercury. Some phyficians and chemifts, confidering that ful¬ phur is unfoluble in water, and capable of refilling Sulphur the aftion of naoft menftruums, have advanced, that it Su]]jn can produce no effeft when taken internally, Angle and a unaltered : but this affertion fee ms to be without foun¬ dation ; for we are certain that the fweat and perfpi- ration of thofe who take fulphur internally, have a fmell evidently fulphureous. Befides, fulphur is much more foluble than is generally believed. It is attacked by all oily and faponaceous fubftances, and confs- quently by almoft all animal liquors. We cannot eafily form a very diftinft and clear idea of the manner in which fulphur afts internally upon our bodies; but, from obfervations made upon its ef- fefts, it appears to be dividing, ftimulating, and fomewhat heating : it principally ads upon the perfpi- rable parts of the body, the chief of which are the flein and lungs; and from this property it is particu¬ larly ufeful in fome difeafes of thefe parts. Sulphur is alfo a powerful repellent ; as appears from its curing feveral kinds of itch, merely by external ap¬ plication in form of ointments and pomatums. Several mineral waters, which are drank or ufed as baths for fome difeafes, owe their good qualities to fulphur contained in them. Sulphur is alfo ufed in feveral arts. By means of it fine impreflionsof engraved ftones are taken *. Matches * See the are formed of it; and its utility as an ingredient in art>c!e the preparation of gun-powder and fire-works is weH^ASTS* known. Laftly, it is ufed for whitening wool, filk, and many other matters expofed to its vapour during itscombuftion ; the colours andrednefsof which could not be deftroyed by any other fubftance, but are quickly effaced by this acid vapour. SULPICIA, an ancient Roman poetefs, who lived under the reign of Domitian, and has been fo much admired as to be termed the Roman Sappho. We have nothing, however, left of her writing, but a fa- » tire, or rather the fragment of one, againft Domitian, who publifhed a decree for the banifhraent of philofo- phers from Rome : which fatireis to be found in Sca- liger’s Appendix Virgiliana. She is mentioned by Mar¬ tial and Sidonius Apollinaris ; and is faid to have ad- dreffed a poem on conjugal love to her hufband Cale- nus, a Roman knight. SULPICIUS (Severus), an ecclefiaftical writer who flourifhed about the beginning of the 5th century,, and was cotemporary with Rufinus andSt Jerom. He was the difciple of St Martin of Tours, whofe life he has written; and the friend of Paulinus bifhopof Nola,- with whom he held an intimate correfpondence. The principal of his works is his Hijloria Sacra, from the creation of the world to the confulate of Stilicho and Aurelian, about the year 400; in which his ftyle is elegant beyond the age he lived in. SULTAN, or Soldan, a title or appellation gi¬ ven the emperor of the Turks. Vattier will have the word Turkifh, and to fignify king of kings ; adding, that it was firft given the Turk¬ ifh princes Angrolipex and Mafgud, about the year 1055 ; others will have it originally Perfian, alleging, in proof hereof, an ancient medal of Gofroe; others derive it from foldanus, quaji folus dominus; others from the Hebrew tsbre, fchalat, “ to rule, reign.” It had its rife under Mahmoud, fon of Sebe&eghin, the firft emperor of the dynafty of the Gaznevides, to¬ wards-. Sum Summit SUN [ 8331 ] SUP wards the clofe of the fourth century of the aera of the Hegira : when that prince going to Segeftan to re- _duce Kalaf governor of that province, who affefted the fovereignty, Kalaf was no fooner advertifed of his coming, than he went out to meet him, delivered the keys or his fortrefs, and owned him his fultcm, that is, his lord or commander. The title pleafed Mahmoud fo well, that he affumed it ever afterwards; and from him it pafled to his defcendents, and to other Maho¬ metan princes. SUM, fignifies the quantity that arifes from the ad¬ dition of two or more magnitudes, numbers, or quan¬ tities together. SUMACH, in botany. See Rhus. SUMATR A, the largeft, excepting Borneo, of the Sunda iflaads in the Eaft Indies. It extends it- felf north-weft and fduth-eaft ; having Malacca on the north, Borneo on the eaft, and Java on the fouth-eaft, from which it is parted by the ftraits of Sunda. It is di¬ vided by the equino&ial nearly into two equal parts} extending to 6° of latitude, north and fouth. It is about 250 leagues in length, 60 in breadth, and 500 in circumference. It is very rich and fertile ; yielding not only fulphur, rice, ginger, pepper, camphire, caffia, fandal, and other woods and drugs; but alfo fine tin, iron, copper, fllver, gold, and diamonds. It is fo rich in gold, that it is fuppofed to be the Ophir and golden Cherfonefe of the ancients; but what the Eu¬ ropeans trade with them for chiefly is their pepper. The camphire of Sumatra is looked upon as the very fineft in the Indies, and, as Mr Charles Miller aflures us, is worth 2001. per hundred weight on the fpot. •It bears a great price in China, where they make ufe of it as a kind of leaven, mixing it with their own which is a coarfer kind, to which they think it gives -odour-and fpirit. Tdth the Englifli and Dutch have feveral colonies -and fettlements here. The chief of the Britifh fettle- Hient* are thofe of Bencoolen and Fort Marlborough, on the weft coaft; from whence the Eaft India com¬ pany import more pepper than from any country in India. There are alfo great quantities of the heft walking-canes imported from thence. The natives are of a very dark fwarthy complexion, but not black. According to Mr Miller’s account, they are canibals. The coafts are pofieffed by, Moham¬ medan princes, of whom the king of Achen, at the north end of the ifland, is the moft confiderable. The inland country is in pofleffion of feveral Pagan princes, who have little correfpcmdence with foreigners. The animals here are much the fame as thofe on the neigh¬ bouring continent ofMalacca. SUMMARY, in matters of literature. See A- BRIDGEMENT. SUMMER, one of the feafons of the year, com¬ mencing in tbefe northern regions on the day the fun enters Cancer, and ending when he quits Virgo: or, more ftridly and univerfally, the fummer begins on the day when the fun’s meridian diftance from the zenith is the leaft, and ends on the day when his diftance is a mean betwixt the greateft and fmalleft. The end of fummer coincides with the beginning of winter. See Seasons. SuuiwivK-IJlands. See Bermudas. SUMMIT, the top or vertex of any ^pdy or figure, as of a triangle, cone, pyramid, &c. SUMMONS, in law, a citing or calling a perfon to any court, to anfwer a complafnt, or even to give in his evidence. SUMPTUARY Laws, are laws made to reftrain excefs in apparel, and prohibit coftly clothes, of which heretofore we had many in England; but they are all repealed by 1 Jac. 1. 3 Inft. 199. SUN, Sol, ©, in aftronomy, the great luminary which enlightens the world, and by its prefence con- ftitutes day. See Astronomy, pafnn. -Afsci-SuN. See Parhelion. Svx-Fijh of the Irijh, See Squalus. Svn-Flo'wer, in botany. See Helianthus. SUNDA islands, a general name for a clufter of i(lands in the India Ocean, between 930 and 120° of E. Longitude, and between 8° North and 8° South Latitude. The particular names of the iflands are, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bally, La’wboe, and Banco. See thefe articles. SUNDAY, or the Lord’s-day, a folemn feftival obferved by Chriftians on the firft day of every week, in memory of our Saviour’s refurreftion. This is the principal and moft noted of the Chri- ftian feftivals, and was obferved with great veneration in the ancient church, from the time of the apoftles, who themfelves are often faid to have met on that day for divine fervice. It is like wife called the Sabbath- day, as being fubftituted in the room of the Jewiflt fabbath. See the article Sabbath. The ancients retained the name Sunday, or dies foils, in compliance with the ordinary forms of fpeech, the firft day of the week being fo called by the Ro¬ mans, becaufe it was dedicated to the worfliip of the fun. SUOVETAURILIA, an ancient Roman facri- fice, fo called becaufe it confiftcd of a pig {fus), a fheep, or rather ram (ovis), and a bull (taurus). They were all males, to denote the mafeuline courage of the Roman people. It was likewife called folitaurilia, becaufe the animals offered up were always folidat whole or uncut. SUPERCARGO, a perfon employed by mer¬ chants to go a voyage, and overfee their cargo or la¬ ding, and difpofe of it to the heft advantage. SUPERCILIUM, in anatomy, the eye-brow See Anatomy, n° 406. SUPEREROGATION, in theology, what a man does beyond his duty, or more than he was commanded to do. The Romanifts ftand up ftrenuoufly for works of fupererogation, and maintain that the obfervance of evangelical councils is fuch. By means hereof, a (lock of merit is laid up, which the church has the difpofal of, and which (he diftributes in indulgences to fuch as need. The reformed church do not allow of any work of fupererogation. SUPERFETATION, in medicine, a fecond or after-conception, happening when the mother, already pregnant, conceives of a latter coition ; fo that (he bears at once two foetufes of unequal age and bulk, and is delivered of them at different times. We meet with inftances of fuperfetations in Hippocrates, Ari- ftotle, Du Laurens, &c.: but they are faid to be much more frequent in hares and fows. Naturalifts hold, that female rats are frequently born with young rats in their wombs; and we are told of extraordinary inftances of this kind in the female part of the human 41 R 2 fpecies, Summons II Superfeta-' lion. Superficies Supporters. SUP t 8332 fpecies, by Bartholine, Mentzeltus, and in the biftory of the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences. SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in geometry, a magnitude confidcred as having two dimenftons ; or extended in length and breadth, but without thick- nefs or depth. SUPERFINE, in the manufa&ories, a term ufed to exprefs the fuperlative finenefs of 3 ftuff: thus a cloth, a camblet, &c. are faid to be fuperfine when made of the fioeft wool, &c. or when they are the ftneft that can be made. SUPERINTENDANT, in the French cuftoms, an officer who has the prime management and direc¬ tion of the finances or revenues of the king. SUPERIOR, fomething railed above another ; of feme perfon that has a right to command another. Superior, in Scots law. See Law, N° cclxiv. 3. clxv. 2. & clxvi, ] SUP SUPPOSITION, in mufic, according to Rouffeau, Suppofition has two fenfes. —* 1. When feveral notes rife or defeend diatonically in one part upon the fame found in another, then thefe diatonick notes cannot all form a harmony, nor enter at once into the fame chord: there are fome of them, therefore, which mud be reckoned as nothing ; and it is thefe notes foreign to the harmony which are called notes by fuppofition. The general rule is, when the notes are equal, that all thofe which arc (truck in the perfed time fhould carry harmony ; thofe which pafs during the imperfed time are notes of fuppofition, which are only placed there on account of the melody, and to form grada¬ tions conjoined. The reader will fee what is meant by conjoined or disjoined gradations, by confulting Music, art. 50. But, to render the matter perfpicu- ous, let it be undeftood, that, in gradations conjoined. SUPERLATIVE, in grammar, one of the three the higheft found of the inferior degree forms likewife degrees of comparifon, being that infledion of nouns the lowed of the fuperior ; whereas, in fuch as are dif- adjedive that ferves to augment and heighten their joined, the feries from beginning to end continually fignification, and (hows the quality of the Thing deno¬ ted to be in the higheft degree. See Grammar. SUPERNUMERARY, fomething over and above a fixed number. In feveral of the offices are fupernu- merary clerks, to be ready on extraordinary occafions. SUPERSTITION, extravagant devotion ; or re¬ ligion wrong direded or conduded. SUPERVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer. SUPINATION, in anatomy, the adion of a fu- pinator mufcle, or the motion whereby it turns the hand fo as that the palm is lifted up towards heaven. rifes or defeends by fome one interval or another ; and in this cafe the higheft note of the lowed degree will not begin the fucceeding feries, which muft commence at lead a tone or femitone above it. Let it be obfer- ved, that by perfed and imperfed times we would be lefs underftopd to mean the principal divifions of the bar, than even the aliquot parts of each divifion. Thus, if there were two equal notes in the fame time, or, in other words, two aliquot parts in the fame prin¬ cipal divifion of the bar, it is the firft of thefe notes or parts which carries the harmony ; the fecond is a note SUPINE, in Latin grammar, part of tbeconjuga- of fuppofition. If the time confifts of four equal notes, tion of a verb, being a verbal fubftantive of the the firft and third carry harmony, the fecond and lingular number, and the fourth declenfion. There are two kinds of fupines. One, called the firji fupine, ending in um of the accufative cafe, is always of an adive fignification, and marks amotion; as, abut deambulatum. The other, called the lajifupine, fourth are notes of fuppofition, &c. Sometimes this order is reverfed ; the firft note is paffed over by fuppofition, and the fecond carries har¬ mony : but in that cafe the duration of the fecond note is generally increafed by a point, at the expence and ending in u of the ablative cafe, is of a paffive of the firft. fignification, and is governed by fubftantives or adjec- All this conftantly fuppofes a diatonick procedure by iwes \ zs, facile di&u, he, conjoined gradations; for when the degrees are dif- SUPPER, the evening repaft.—Suppers that are joined, there is no fuch thing as fuppofition, and all heavy (hould be avoided, becaufe the ftomach is more the notes ought to enter into the chord, opprefled with, the fame quantity of food in an hori- 2. Thofe are alfo called chords by fuppofition in zontal pofture than in an ereft one, and becaufe di- which the continued bafs adds or fuppofes fome geftion goes on more (lowly when we deep than when we are awake. They (hould be eaten long enough before bed-time, that they may be nearly digefted be¬ fore going to deep ; and then a draught of pure water will dilute that which remains in the ftomach. founds beneath the fundamental bafs; which occadons fuch chords always to occupy a larger compafs than the extent of the odtave. The difibnances of chords by fuppofition (honld always be prepared by fyncopations, and refolved in SUPPLEMENT, in matters of literature, an appen- defeending diatonically upon fome found of a chord dage to a book, to fupply what is wanting therein. under which the fuppofed bafs may be recognized as SUPPORTED, in heraldry, a term applied to the a fundamental, or at lead as a continued bafs. Forthis uppermoft quarters of a (hield when divided into feve- reafon, chords by fuppofition, if thoroughly examined, ral quarters, thefe feeming as it were fupported or may all of them pafs for mere fufpenffis. fuftained by thofe below. The chief is faid to be fup- There are three kinds of chords by fuppofition ; all ported when it is of two colours, and the upper colour of them are chords of the feventh. The firft, when takes up two-thirds of it. In this cafe it is fupported the fupperadded found is a third below the funda- by the colour underneath. mental ; fuch is the chord of the ninth : if the chord SUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figures in an at- of the ninth is formed by the mediant fuperadded be- chievement placed by the fide of the (hield, and feem¬ ing to fupport or hold up the fame. Supporters are chiefly figures of beads : figures of human creatures for the like purpofe are called tenants. neath the chord containing the fenfible note in the minor mode, in that cafe the chord takes the name of the fifth redundant. The fecond kind is, when the found fupjpofed is. a fifth beneath the fundamental. s u R [ 8333 ] S U R !Suppofitory as in the chord of the fourth, otherwife called the jjrat eleventh; if the chord contains the fenfible note, and ura ‘ the tonic be fuppofed, the chord takes the name of feventh redundant. The third kind is that where the fitppofed found is beneath a chord of the feventh di- minifhed : if it is a third below, that is to fay, if the found fuppofed be the dominant, the chord is called a chord of the fetond minor and third major ; it is very little in pradice: if the found fuperadded be a fifth below, or if that found be the mediant, the chord is called a chord of the fourth and fifth redundant; and if it is a feventh below, that is to fay the tonic itfelf, the chord takes the name of the fxth minor, and feventh redundant. With refped to the inverfion of thefe different chords, where the fuppofed found is transferred to the higher parts, as it is only admitted by a licence, it fhould not be pradifed without choice and circumfpedion. At the word Accord, in Rouf- feau’s Mufical Didiionary, will be found all thofe which are tolerable. SUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone or ball, which is introduced into the anus for opening of the belly. Suppofitories are ufually made of foap, fu- gar, alum, or a piece of tallow-candle about the length of a man’s thumb and the breadth of a finger ; though they may be made fmaller for children, and fometimes a little thicker for adults. SUPPRESSION, in medicine, is generally ufed to fignify a retention of urine or of the menfes. SUPPURATION, the fecond way wherein an in¬ flammation terminates; being a converfion of the in- fpiffated blood and the firft adjacent parts, as the vef- fels and fat, into pus or matter ; which diforder, when it has not yet found an opening, is generally called an SUPRASPINATUS, in anatomy. See there. Table of the Mufcles. SUPREMACY, the fuperiority or fovereignty of the king. See Sovereignty. SUR, or shur, (anc. geog.) a defart of Arabia Petrea, extending between Paleftine and the Arabian CJulph ; into which the Ifraelites, on their landing out of the Red Sea, firft came, Exod. xv. 22. Again, Numb, xxxiii. 8. it is faid, that from the fea they went three days journey into the Wildernefs of Etham; whence fome conclude that Etham and Shur are the fame wildernefs •, or only differ as a part from the whole, Shur being the general name, and Etham that part of it lying neareft to Eihara ; thus contending, that the paffage through the fea was ftraigbt forwards. Others, on the contrary, from the intent of the paf¬ fage through the fta, namely, the drowning of the Egyptians, maintain, that they only took a circuit or compafs in the fea,. which as they entered into they alfo came out of, in the Wildernefs of Etham. Now called Corondel, (Thevenot.) SURAT, a fea-port town of Alia, in the province of Guzarat, and in the peninfula on this fide the Gan¬ ges. It was built in the year 1660, on the banks of the river Tapa, the then mart-town being in another place : and when the Engliftr removed from it to this, others followed their example; and in a few years it became a large place, and is now faid to have 200,000 inhabitants. Its trade is very confiderable ; for from 1.690 to 170^, the revenues arifing from the cuftom- houfe and other things amounted to 162,500 pounds. Snrat In this city there are as many different religions as in II Amfterdam ; for there are Mahometans of feveral feds, ur tlf' and many forts of Gentoos, of which the Banyan# are the moft numerous. Thefe are either merchants, ban¬ kers, brokers, accountants, colledors, or furveyors ; but there are very few handicraftfmen, except taylors and barbers. It is faid that there are 85 different feds among them, who never eat with each other. There are alfo Talapoins, who are great enemies to the Papifts, and preach up morality to be the beft guide of human life. They live upon alms, feldom fpeak in the ftreets, and extend their charity even to birds and beafts. Of Perfees there are a great number about Surat and the adjacent countries. They were banilhed from Perfia in the 7th century, becaufe they would not change their religion. They never marry into any other religion, which keeps their complexion almoft as fair as that of the Europeans. Befides thofe, there are Jews and Armenian Chriftians, who are all great merchants. The fields about Surat are all plain ; and the foil is fertile, except towards the fea, which is fandy and barren. All forts of provifions are very cheap, and they have as good wheat as in Europe. They have various forts of fowls ; and plenty of ante¬ lopes in their forefts, though but few deer. There are no fine buildings, but many of the houfes are large; and there are caravanfaries and mofques. The French have a little church near the old Englifh fadory, where they keep a few capuchins, who pradife fur- gery without a reward. The Englifh and Dutch agents make a good figure here, and they always.main- tain a good underftanding with the officers of ftate and juftice. The affairs of the Eaft India company are managed by a prefident and council; and the former lives in great fplendor. The Mahometan women are always veiled when they appear abroad, and their drefs is much the fame as the men. The Gentoo wo¬ men are bare-faced, and their legs are bare up to the knee. They have feveral gold and filver rings on their nofes, ears, legs, and toes. Surat, together with the citadel, was taken by the Englifh in April 1759, and afterwards ceded to them by the Great Mogul. It is 160 miles north of Bombay, and 375 fouth-weft of Agra. E. Long. 72. 25. N. Lat. 21. 10. SURD, in arithmetic and Algebra, denotes any number or quantity that is incommenfurable to unity : otherwife called an irrational number or quantity. See Algebra, n° to, 11. SURETY, in law, generally fignifies the fame with Bail. SURFACE. See Superficies. SURFEIT, in medicine, a ficknefs with a fenfa- tion of a load at the ftomach, ufually proceeding from fome error in diet, either with regard to the quantity or quality of the food taken. Sometimes, however, a forfeit is only a plethora from indolence and full but. improper feeding ; in which cafe perforation is de¬ fective, and eruption# form themfelves on the fkin. A forfeit from animal-food, as mufcles, putrid fltfh, &c. is beft remedied by the ufe of vegetable acids, which may be taken diluted with water, a vomit being premifed, and this even though a vomiting and purging both attend. When an excels of feeding is jhe caufe, the primse- S U R [ 8334 ] S U R Surfeit vis being evacuated, and the nature of the plethora II attended to, that the load may be properly evacuated, Surgeon. ^ indication of cure will be, to recover the perfpira- tory difcharge, confident with which diuretics may be ufed in preference to medicines which produce any other evacuation. Surfeit, in farriery. See there, $ x'x. SURGE, in the fea-language, the fame with a wave. See Wave. SURGEON, or Chirurgeon, one that profefles the art of Surgery. In England there are two diftindf companies of furgeons now occupying the fcience or faculty of fur- gery ; the one company called barbers, the other fur¬ geons, which latter are not incorporated.—The two are united to fue, and be fued, by the name of mailers or governors and commonalty of the myftery of bar¬ bers and furgeons of Londoa. 32 H. VIII. c, 42. No perfon ufing any barbery Or fhaving in Lon¬ don, fhall occupy any furgery, letting of blood, or other matter ; drawing of teeth only excepted.—And no perfon ufing the myftery or craft of furgery fhall ■occupy or exercife the feat or craft of barbery, or S U R G OURGERY, a branch of medicine, including the ^ knowledge of all thofe difeafes wherein the ap¬ plication of the hand is neccffary, whether fuch difeafes are occafioned by external injuries, or take their rife Part I. HI ST OR Hlflory. '"T'HAT furgery was coeval with the other branches of medicine, or perhaps antecedent to any of them, 1 wlllnotadmitof doubt. The wars andcontentions which Origin of have taken place among mankind almoft ever fince the art. their creation, neceffarily imply that there would be occafion for furgeons at a very early period; and pro¬ bably thefe external injuries would for fome time be the only difeafes for which a cure would be attempted, or perhaps thought practicable.—In the facred wri¬ tings we find much mention of balfams, particularly the balm of Gilead, as excellent in the cure of wounds: though at the fame time we are informed that there were fome wounds which this balfam could not heal; as indeed we know, at this day, there are many wounds which, though curable by internal medicines, will re¬ fill the mod powerful external applications. Concerning the furgery pra&ifed among the Egyp¬ tians, Jews, and Afiatic nations, we know little or nothing. The Greeks were thofe from whom the art defcended to us, though they confeffedly received it Of the fur- ^rom ^ eafterD nations. The firft Greek furgeons on gery of the record are iEfculapiu?, and his fons Podalirius and ancient Machaon. ^Efculapius flourilhed about 50 years be- Greeks. f0re the Trojan war; and his two fons diftinguifhed themfelves in that war both by their valour and fkill in curing wounds. This indeed is the whole of the medical fkill attributed to them by Homer; for in the plague which broke out in the Grecian camp, he does not mention their being at all confulted. Nay, what is [till more flrange, though he fometimes mentions his heroes having their bones broke, he never takes [having; neither by himfelf, nor any other for his Surgeon: ufe. 32 VIII. 8. c. 42. * By the fame flatute, furgeons are obliged to have figns at their doors. The French chirurgeons being refufed to be admit¬ ted into the univerfities, (notwithflanding that their art makes a branch of medicine,) on pretence of its bordering a little on butchery or cruelty, affociated themfelves into a brotherhood, under the protedion of S. Cofmus and S. Damian : on which account, accord¬ ing to the laws of their inflitution, they are obliged to drefs and look to vioxxnfa gratis the firft Monday of each month. They diftinguifh between a chirurgeon of the long robe, and a barber-chirurgeon. The firft has ftudied phyfic, and is allowed to wear a gown. The fkill of the other, befides what relates to the management of the beard, is fuppofed to be confined to the more fimple and eafy operations in chirurgery; as bleeding, tooth-drawing, &c. They were formerly diftinguifhed by badges: thofe of the long gown bore a cafe of inftruments; the bar¬ ber, a bafon. E R Y from internal caufes, with the method of performing all mannual operations which may be neceffary in fuch cafes. Y OF SURGERY. notice of their being reduced or cured by any other Hiflory. than fupernatural means; as in the cafe of ^Eneas, whofe thigh-bone was broken by a flone caft at him by Diomed. The methods which thefe two famous furgeons ufed in curing the wounds of their fellow- foldiers feems to have been the extrading or cutting out the dart which inflided it, and applying emollient fomentations or ftyptics, when neceffary, to the wound: and to thefe they undoubtedly attributed much more virtue than they could poffibly poffefs; as appears from the following lines, where Homer defcribes Eurypylus as wounded and under the hands of Pa- troclus, who would certainly pradife according to the diredions of the furgeons. Patroclus cut the farky fteel away; Then in his hands a bitter root he bruis’d. The wound he wafh’d, the ftyptic juice infus’d. The clofingflejh that inftant ceas’d to glow; The wound to torture, and the blood to flow. Till the days of Hippocrates we know very little of„ 3f , what was the pradice of the Greek furgeons. Fronigrt^ndie * him, however, wc learn, that the pradice of blood-time of Hip¬ letting,^cupping, and fcarification, was know to them; pocrates. alfo the ufe of warm and emollient fomentations, ifiues made with hot irons, peffaries, injedions, fumigations, &c. Hippocrates alfo gives diredions with regard to fradures, luxations, ulcers, fiftulas, He direds the extenfion, redudion, bandages, and fplints, pro¬ per to be ufed in fradures and luxations of dif¬ ferent bones, with feveral machines to incresfe the extenfion when necefiary. He direds the laxity and Part I. SURGERY. Hiftcry. and tightnefs of the bandages; the intervals for un- loofing and binding them on again; the pofition and repofeof the fra&ured member, the regimen and diet; and he mentions the timewhen acallusis ufually formed. He treats alfo of fradures of the fkull, and the me¬ thod of applying the trepan. In his treatment of ulcers, he fpeaks of reducing fungous flefh by means of efcharotics, fome of which are alum, nitre, verdi- 4 greafe, quicklime, &c. (Surgery be- in jjjg t;me 0f P{0)emy Philopater of Egypt, me- dicine, all the branches of which had hitherto been branch. pradifed by the fame perfon, was now divided into three, viz. the dietetic, pharmaceutic, andfurgical; from which time to the prefent, furgery has continued to be reckoned a diftind profeffion from medicine, though very improperly, in the opinion of the beft s authors. fArchaga- Surgery appears not to have exifted in Rome, not- ®!oStahn£furftwithftanding ^ war^^c gen>us of the people, for teeon*cx-Ur*more l^an 5°° years. Archagathus, a Greek, was tptlled the the firft profeffor of that art in the city; and fo fre- icity. quently employed the knife, hot irons, and other cruel methods of cure, that he was branded with the opprobrious title of hangman, and expelled the city, where no phyfician or furgeon of eminence again made bis appearance for 180 years. At this time Afcle- piades undertook the profeffion of medicine; but feems to have dealt little in furgery. Neither have we any thing of importance on that fubjed till the time 6 of Celfus, who flourifned during the reigns of Auguflus State °f and Tiberius.—In his furgery, all the improvements ihenme'of ^rom Hippocrates to his own days are colleded; the Celfus. moft minute and trifling difeafes are not omitted. An eminent furgeon, of the moderns, emphathically exhorts every perfon in that profeffion “ to keep Celfus in his hands by day and by night.” He de- feribes the figns of a fradured fkuli, the method of examining for the fradure, of laying the fkull bare by an incifion in the form of the latter X, and after¬ wards of cutting away the angles, and of applying the trepan, with the figns of danger and of recovery. He obferved, that fometimes, though very rarely, a fatal eoncuffion of the brain might happen, the blood- veflels within the fkull being burft, yet the bone re¬ maining entire. After the opperation of the trepan, fponges and cloths wet in vinegar, and feveral other applications, were made to the head; and, throughout, fevere abftinence was enjoined. In violent fradures of the ribs, he ordered venefedion; low diet; to avoid paffions of mind, loud fpeaking, motion, and every thing that might excite coughing or fneezing; cloths wet in wine, rofes and oil, and other applica¬ tions, were laid over the fradure. The cure of frac¬ tures, in the upper and lower extremities, he faid were nearly alike; that fradures differ in degree of violence and danger, in being timple or compound, that is, with or without a wound of the flefh, and in being near to the joint. He direds the extenfion of the member by affiftants; the redudion, by the fur- geon’s hands, of the fradured bones into their natural fituation; and to bind the fradured part with band¬ ages of different lengths, previoufly dipped in wine and oil: on the third day frefh bandages are to be ap¬ plied, and the fradured member fomented with warm vapour,, efpecially during the inflammation. Splints, if neceffary, are to be applied, to retain the bones in a fixed pofition. The fradured arm is to be fufpended in a broad fling hung round the neck : the fraflured leg is to be inclofed in a kind of cafe, reaching above the ham, and accommodated likewife with a fupport to the foot, and with ftraps at the fide, to keep the leg fteady: in the fradured thigh-bone, the cafe is to extend from the top of the hip to the foot. He de- feribes the method of treating compound fradures, and of removing fmall fragments of fplinters of bones; and the manner of extrading darts. In luxations of the fhoulder, he mentions feveral methods of giving force to the extenfion, and of replacing the diflocated bone. One method fimilar to Hippocrates was, to fufpend the patient by the arm; the fore-part of the fhoulder, at the fame time, reftiug upon the top of a door, or any other fuch firm fulcrum. Another me¬ thod was to lay the patient fupine, fome affiflants re¬ taining the body in a fixed pofition, and others ex¬ tending the arm in the contrary diredion; the furgeon, in the mean time, attempting, by his hands, forcibly to reduce the bone into its former place. If a large inflammation was expeded to enfue after a wound, it was fuffered to bleed for fome time, and blood was drawn from the arm. To wounds accom¬ panied with confiderable hEemorrhage, he applied a fponge wet in vinegar, and conftant preffure: if neceffary, for the violence of the haemorrhage, liga¬ tures were made round the veffels, and fometimes the bleeding orifice was feared up with the point of a hot iron. On the third day frefh dreffings were applied. In confiderable contufions, with a fmall wound of the flefh, if neither nerves nor blood veffel prevented, the wound was to be enlarged. Abftinence and low diet, in all fuch accidents, was preferibed; cloths wet with, vinegar, and feveral other applications, were direfted to the inflamed part. He obferves, that frtfb wounds may be healed without compound applications: Hip¬ pocrates ufed a piece of dry fponge, and condemned greafy ingredients. In external gangrene, Gelfus cut into the found flefh; and when the difeafe, in fpite of every effort, fpread, he advifed extirpation of the member. After cutting to the bone, the fiefh was then feparated from it, and drawn back, in order to fave as much flefh as poffible to cover the extremity of of the bone. Celfus, though extremely diffufe in the defeription of furgical difeafes, and of various remedies and external applications, yet is nearly filent on the method and procefs of extirpating members ; from which, comparing his treatife w-ith the modern fyftems, we might infer, that the operation was then feldomer pradifed than at prefent. He deferibes the fymptoms of that dangerous inflammation the carbuncle, and direfted immediately to burn or to corrode the gan¬ grened part. To promote the fuppuration of abfctffes, he ordered poultices of barley-meal, or of marfli- mallows, or the feeds of linfeed and fenugreek.- He alfo mentions the compofitions of feveral repellent ca- taplafms. In that fuperficial inflammation called the eryfipclas, he applied cerufs, mixed with the juice of folanum or nightfhade. Sal ammoniac was fometimes mixed with his plafters. He is very minute in deferibing difeafes of the eyes, ears, and teeth, and in preferibing a multitude of re¬ medies and applications. In inflammation; of the .eyes, he. 8335 liiitory. 8336 SURGERY. Parti. Hiftory. the enjoined abftlnence and low diet, reft, and a dark ' room: if the inflammation waa violent, with great pain, he ordered venefedtion and a purgative ; a fmall poultice of fine flower, faffron, and the white of an egg, to be laid to the forehead to fupprefs the flow of pituita ; the foft infide of warm white bread dipped in wine, to be laid to the eye; poppy and rofes were alfo added to bis collyriums, and various ingredients too tedious to enumerate. In chronic watery deflu¬ xions of the eyes, he applied aftringents, cupped the temples, and burnt the veins over the temple and fore¬ head. He couched cataradls by depreffing the cry- fialline lens to the bottom of the orbit. Teeth, loofen- ed by any accident, he direfts, after the example of Hippocrates, to be faftened with a gold thread to thofe adjoining on each fide. Previous to drawing a tooth, he ordered the gum to be cut round its neck ; and if the tooth was hollow, it was to be filled with lead before extra&ion, to prevent its breaking by the forceps. Pie deferibes not only the inflammation, but likewife the elongation, of the uvula : he alfo deferibes the polypus, and fome other difeafes affefting the nofe. He deferibes feveral fpeciea of herniae or ruptures, and alfo the hydrocele or dropfy of the ferotum, and the manual affiftance required in thofe complaints. After the return of the inteftines into the abdomen, a firm comprefs was applied to that part of the groin through which they protruded, and was fecured by a bandage round the loins. In fome cafes, after the re¬ turn of inteftinal ruptures, he diminiflied the quantity of loofe flein, and formed a cicatrix, fo as to contraft over the part, to render it more rigid and capable of refifting. He deferibes various difeafes of the genital parts, a difficulty of urine, and the manner of draw¬ ing off the water by a catheter ; the figns of ftone in the bladder, and the method of founding or feeling for that ftone. Lithotomy was at that time performed by introducing two fingers into the anus ; the ftone was then preffed forward to the perina:um, and a cut made into the bladder; and by a crooked inftrument, made in a particular form, the ftone was extra&ed, He deferibes the manner of performing this operation on both the fexes, of treating the patient, and the figns of recovery and of danger. Hippocrates had even ventured to cut into the kidney, either to give a difeharge to abfeeffes or to extrad ftones. Celfus direded various corrofive applications and in- jedions to fiftulas'; and, in the laft extremity, opened them to the bottom with a knife, cutting upon a grooved inftrument or condudor. In old callous ul¬ cers, he made a new wound, by either cutting away the hard edges, or corroding them with verdigreafe, quick-lime, alum, nitre, and with fome vegetable ef- charotics. He mentions the fymptoms of caries in the bone; direds the bone to be laid bare, and to be pier¬ ced with feveral holes, or with the trepan, or to be burnt or rafped, in order to promote an exfoliation of the corrupted part; afterwards to apply nitre and fe¬ veral other ingredients. One of his applications to a cancer was auripigmentum or arfenic. He direds the manner of tapping the abdomen in the afeites, and of drawing blood by the lancet and cupping-glaffes. His cupping-glaffes feem not to have been fo convenient as the modern : they were made either of brafs or horn, and were unprovided with a pump. He cured vari- cofe veins by uftion or by incifion. He gives di- Hiftory. redions for extrading the dead foetus from the womb, in whatever pofnion it Ihould prefent ; and, af¬ ter delivery, applied to the private parts foft cloths wet in an infufion of vinegar and rofes. In Celfus’a works there is a great redundance and fuperfluity of plafters, ointments, efcharotics, collyriums, of fuppu- rating and difeutient cataplafms, and external applica¬ tions of every kind, both Ample and compound : per¬ haps, amongft the multitude, there are a few ufeful remedies now laid afide and negleded. The laft writer of confequence who flourilhed at Surgery of; Rome was Galen, phyfician to the emperor Marcus G^enr Aurelius. His works are for the moft part purely me¬ dicinal ; however, he wrote alfo on furgery, and made Commentaries on the Surgery of Hippocrates. He opened the jugular veins, and performed arteriotomy at the temples; dire&ed leeches, fcarification, and cupping-glaffes, to draw blood. He alfo deferibed with accuracy the different fpecies of hernias or rup¬ tures. 9 In the year 500 flouriflied Aetius, in whofe works ofAetim we meet with many obfervations omitted by Celfus and and Paulus . Galen, particularly on the furgical operations, theESincta* difeafes of women, the caufes of difficult labours, and modes of delivery. He alfo takes notice of the dra- cunculus, or worm under the /kin, a difeafe at prefent common in Africa. Aetius, however, is greatly ex¬ celled by Paulus Egineta, who flouriftied in 640 ; and whofe treatife on furgery is fuperior to that of Celfus or all the other ancients. He dire£ts how to extract darts ; to perform the operation fometimes required in dangerous ruptures or hernias, where the inteftinea cannot by any other means be returned back; he di- refts alfo to tie up punftured arteries in the operation for the aneurifm. Galen, Paulus, and all the ancients, fpeak only of one fpecies of aneurifm, and define it to be “ a tumour arifing from arterial blood, extravafated from a ruptured artery.” The aneurifm from a dila¬ tation of the artery is a difeovery of the moderns. In violent inflammations of the throat, where immediate danger of fuffocation was threatened, Paulus perform¬ ed the operation of bronchotomy. In obftinate de¬ fluxions upon the eyes, he opened the jugular veins. He deferibes the manner of opening the arteries be¬ hind the ears in chronic pains of the head. He wrote alfo upon obftetrics, on difficult labours, and other fe¬ male difeafes. Fabricius ab Aquapendente, a celebra¬ ted furgeon of the 16th century, has followed Celfus and Paulus as text-books. From the time of Paulus Egineta to the year 900, no writer of any confequence, either on medicine or 9 furgery, appeared. At this time the Arabian phyfi-The art re- | cians Rhazes and Avicenna revived in the Fall the me-vives a* dical art, which as well as others wasalmoft all entirely ironS.the | extinguiflied in the Weft. Avicenna’s Canon Medicinxt ra ians« | or General Syftem of Medicine and Surgery, was for many ages celebrated through all the fcbools of phy- fic. It was principally compiled from the writings of Galen and Rhazes. The latter had corre&ly deferi¬ bed the fpina ventofa, accompanied with an enlarge¬ ment of the bone, caries, and acute pain. In difficult labours he recommends the fillet to affift in the extrac¬ tion of the foetus ; and for the fame purpofe Avicenna recommends the forceps. He deferibes the compofi* tion Part I. S U R Ijiftory. tion of feveral cofmetics to polifh the fkin and make the hair grow or fall off. Albucafis NotwithHanding this, however, it was not till the brings fur- time of Albucafis, who flourifited in the year , that gery in re* furgery came into repute among the Arabians. Rha- Pute^”°.n8 zes complains of their grofs ignorance, and that the i ic ra i- maniia| 0perat;ons were performed by the phyficians fervants. Albucafis enumerates a tremendous lift of operations, fufficient to fill us with horror. The hot iron and cauteries were favourite remedies of the Ara¬ bians ; and, in inveterate pains, they repofed, like the Egyptians and eaftern Afiatics, great confidence in burning the part. He defcribts accurately the man¬ ner of tapping in the afcites ; mentions feveral kinds of inftruments for drawing blood; and has left a more ample and correft delineation of furgical inftruments than any of the ancients. He gives various obftetrical diredions for extrading the foetus in cafes of difficult labours. He mentions the bronchocele, or prominent tumour on the neck, which, he tells us, was mod fre¬ quent among the female fex. We are alfo informed by this writer, that the delicacy of the Arabian wo¬ men did not permit male furgeons to perform litho¬ tomy on females; but, when neceffary, it was execu¬ ted by one of their own fex. From the x ith century to the middle of the 14th, the hiftory of furgery affords nothing remarkable except the importation of that naufeous difeafe the leprofy into Europe. St Lewis king of France had caught the le¬ profy in the Crufades; and in order to a cure, was prefcribed the blood of young children, as a potion, by the Jewifh phyficians. It does not appear that ei¬ ther external or internal remedies were of any avail in curing it, or indeed thought to be fo; but, by taking proper precautions to feparate the infeded from the Introduc- found, it gradually difappeared. The difcovery of A- tion of the merica introduced a new and more terrible difeafe than the leprofy, namely, the venereal; which at its ori¬ gin appeared in loathfome ulcers affeding the genitals, and by degrees the palate and uvula. Swellings and bu¬ boes arofe in the groin: in its more advanced Itages, ex¬ cruciating pains were felt in the bones, efpecially at night; fcabs and (mall running fores covered the fkin ; nodes or protuberances appeared in the forehead ; the bones became at length carious, enlarged, and rotten: many, after lingering for months under fuch Wretched cala¬ mities, others, for a year or more, loft their palate, nofe, eyes, lips, teeth, genitals; and, before death, prefented a cadaverous fpedacle of deformity and cor¬ ruption. Even at this day, when the difeafe has be¬ come much milder, venereal ulcers will fometimes ap¬ pear with fuch inveteracy as to give no fmall trouble to the furgeon who attempts to remove them. Soon after this the fcurvy, with all its train of dire¬ ful, and for a long time incurable, ulcers, rigid muf- c!es, and rotten gums, made its appearance. The ftate of medical knowledge did not, in thofe ages, ad¬ mit of a certain and eafy cure cither for the venereal difeafe or fcurvy, nor was the true cure of th£ latter known till within thefe few years. At the beginning of the 16th century furgery was held in contempt in this ifiand, and was praSifed :n- difcriminately by barbers, farriers, and fow-gelders: the barbers and furgeons company continued for 200 years after to be incorporated, both in London and Vol. X. uftentury. G E R Y. 8337 Paris. In Holland and fome parts of Germany, even Hiftory. at this day, barbers exercife the razor and lancet al- ternately. The furgeons company in London, how¬ ever, have now difengaged themfelves from that diffio- nourableconnedtion : they are now likewife authorifed to examine and to grant certificates to young furgeons, which qualify them to purchafe or to be appointed to a medical commiffion in the army or navy. Even yet,Too jreat however, the diltindtion between phyficians and fur-diftinftion geons is by far too great, and their reciprocal igno-^etween ranee of thefe different branches of the fame fficncCanTphyfi- frequently embarraffes both phyfician and furgeon,eians. often to the great danger of the patient, as will ap¬ pear in the fequel of this article. Surgery, in the ftridi limitation of the word *, is* Slack's principally confined to wounds, fra&ures, luxations, Hiftoncal tumours, ulcers, and to the different manual opera- tions, inft'ruments, and bandages. Thefe are the themes of general fyftems of furgery. On this fei- ence and art, amongft the ancient furviving writers,. Hippocrates, Celfus, Galen, P. iEgineta, andAlbu- cafis, alone poffefs any intrinfic excellence. It is within the laft three centuries that we have any original improvement in furgery, from the aera of the Arabians; nor do we know of any eminent Britiih furgical writers until within the laft 130 years. “ In Germany,” fays Hcifter, “ all the different furgical operations, at the beginning even of the 18th cen¬ tury, were left to empirics; the reft were contented to cure a wound, open a vein or an abfeefs, return a fra&ured or luxated bone ; but they feldom or never ventured to perform any of the difficult operations : he alfo fpeaks of their grofs ignorance of the Latin lan¬ guage.” . is The firft furgical work of the 16th century, entitled Writer* on to any pre-eminence or criticifm, is that of J. Carpus; i[’rSery >'» but in the effulgence of later writers his light is fcarce1"6.12111 perceptible. F. ab Aquapendente, an Italian, pub- liffied a fyftem of Surgery,* containing a defeription of the various difeafes, accidents, and operations. Boer- baave pays this author the following compliment: llle fuperavit ernnes, et nemo Mi hanc difputat gloriam ; omnibus potius quam hocce carere pojfutnus. About the fame period, A. Parey, a Frenchman, made feveral im¬ portant additions to furgery, particularly in his collec¬ tion of cafes of wounds, fradures, and other accidents which occur during war. The ancients, who were ignorant of powder and fire-arms, are defeftive in this part of military furgery. Parey pretends to have firft invented the method of tying, with a needle and ftrong filk-thread waxed, the extremities of large arteries, after the amputation of a member. The ligature of the blood veffels is, however, merely a revival of the ancient praftice, which had fallen into difufe: through¬ out the dark ages, the hot iron, cauteries, and ftrong aftringents, were fubftituted in its place* B. Maggius and L. Botallus wrote on the cure of gunfhot wounds. J. A. Cruce wrote a fyftem of furgery: r(} In the 17th century, furgery was enriched with fe-in the 17th veral fyftems, and with detached or mifcellaneous ob-and 18th fervations. The principal authors are, M. A. Severi-centuries. nu«, V. Vidius, R. Wifeman, Le Clerc, J. Scuhetus, J. Mangetus, C. Magatus, Spigellius, F. Hildanus, T. Bartholin, P. de Marchett. Hie 18th century opens with feveral eminent furgi- 41 S cal 8338 SURGERY. Part I. Hiftory. cal writers and improrcments. In the operation of " ” lithotomy, asdefcribed by Celfns, the reftum or lower Improve- gut, and often the feminal dufts, were wounded, fi- ments m itulas enfued, or the power of generation was annihi- 11 0‘om),• hilated. The moderns therefore invented three me¬ thods different from that of Celfus. One method, and the earlieft, was to introduce a catheter into the ure¬ thra and bladder, and upon that to make a direft in- ciiion through the urethra into the bladder. J. de Romanis, an Italian, in the 16th century, was the original inventor of this operation, a defcription of which was publifhed by his pupil Marianus. Another method, much later invented, was to diftend the blad¬ der as large as poflible with urine, and when thus en larged and elevated, to open into it through the ab¬ dominal mufcies, immediately above the os pubis. Thefe were called the high and low operation!; Cel- fns’s, the apparatus minor. A French prieft. called Frere Jacques introduced another improvement, fome- what different from the modern low operation, or ap¬ paratus major. Jacques’s incifion was dire&ed ob¬ liquely and to one fide of the urethra, avoiding as much as poffible to open any confiderable extent of the urinary canal. Inconveniences ftill attended thefe va¬ rious experiments in lithotomy. Jacques was a bold rafh man, and ignorant of anatomy ; of 60, cut by him for the ftone, 25 died foon after; others furvived, but under an incontinence of urine and fiftulas, and only 13 were perfe&ly cured. The priefl’s operation and fuccef* is defcribed by J. Merey. A grooved catheter was afterwards invented to condu6t the incifion-knife; other furgeon added the cutting-gorget ; and, with thefe improvements, Jacques’s lateral operation is now confidered as one of the mod fafe and fuccefsful. Douglas, Chefelden, and afterwards Le Dran, took uncommon pains to explain and to improve this opera¬ tion. J. Denys alfo wrote well on the done and li- t8 thotomy. Inventions J. Petit of Paris wrote on difeafes of the bones, of M. Petit.fradures, diflocations, and caries. Boerhaave fays, ‘Trattatus hie nunquam fibi parem habuit. Petit in- evented the ferewed tourniquet, which can be braced or relaxed at pleafure, and, in the hurry of battles, is extremely ufeful to comprefs the large arteries, and to flop the haemorrhage. Tourniquets were not ufed un¬ til towards the end of the 17th century. The ancients, previous to amputation, only made a tight ligature round the member, or attempted to grafp and com¬ prefs the arteries with the band and fingers: from tbefe defefls, amongd them, the amputation of any large member was thought tremendous, and was too frequently fatal. Of late years, the agaric, growing upon old oak-trees, has been extolled as a powerful dyptic in hmmorrhagies from large veffels. Different complete defcription of the different furgical ac- fvftems of cidents and difeafes, and of the principal furgical ope- furgery. rations, as executed from the beginning of the i8th century to the prefent time, with deferiptions and plates of the inftruments and bandages, will be feen in thofe celebrated writers, French, German, and Engliffi, P. Dionis and De la Faye, J. Garengeot, H. F. le Dran, L. Heifter, and S. Sharp. Heifter’s Syftem confifts of two quarto volumes, and is prefaced with a large catalogue of writers. To Sharp’s Compendium of the furgical operations is" added a volume called ^ Critical Inquiry into the Modern Practice of Surgery. Hiftory. To thefe may be added, Saviard’s Surgical Obferva- vations, J. Z. Platner’s Surgical Inffitutions. On gunfhot wounds, and on fraftures, Ranby and Brom- field merit perufal. Splints of a new conftruflion, to retain fra&ured bones in a fteady pofition until a cal¬ lus is formed, were invented by Sharp, and improved by Pott. Gouch, with meritorious ingenuity, has in¬ vented and publilhed a defcription of feveral machines, to fecure fra&ured bones in a fixed ftation. As fuch accidents occur fo frequently in life, and above all du¬ ring war, every invention of this fort, and the author, is entitled to public thanks. There is infinitely more Ikill and addrefs required to fave a fraftured member, than to cut it off. Knives and faws are dreadful al¬ ternatives ; and we have already an exuberant ftock of treatifes on extirpation. 20 Numbers had dragged through a great part of life, Of difetfes and many had died in excruciating agony, from ob- of urc- ftruftions of the urethra and fiftulas, the confequence ^1aa£and of venereal gleets, and other caufes. To remedy fuch U aS’ complaints, we find bougies of different conftrudions and materials recommended by the moderns, and de¬ fcribed with more or lefs accuracy in moft of the fur¬ gical fyftems. In the prefent century, Daran and Goulard have written differtations exprefsly upon this fubjefl. Goulard’s Treatife on the Preparations of Lead, and its utility in external inflammations, fprains, contufions, and a variety of complaints, is alfo well entitled to perufal. In preventing the protrufion of inguinal ruptures, of ruptures J the modern fteel-bandages called trujfes are more effec- | tual than the ancient. The nature of the hernia con¬ genita, or inguinal rupture of infants, was obfeure before the publications of Haller, Hunter, and Pott. The laft author has written excellent treatifes on rup¬ tures, and on the hydrocyle. f; On difeafes of the eyes, and furgical operations on Difeafes of 1 thofe organs, the moft celebrated treatifes are written the eyc;- j by Maitre Jean, C. St Yves, D. Mauchard, and Tay¬ lor. Daviel, a modern French furgeon, rejefled the operation of depreffing the cryftalline lens with a needle to the bottom of the orbit, in couching of catarafts ; he made an incifion through the external coat of the eye, and extratfted this humour entire. In the former mode, the lens frequently afeended, and again inter¬ rupted the rays of light. 2 1 On the teeth, their,difeafes, the dentift operations, of thAecth and the dentition of infants, we have two excellent treatifes, one in French, the other in Englifh, writ¬ ten by P. Fauchard and by J. Hunter. We do not meet amongft the ancients with any mention of artificial teeth. Hippocrates and Celfus only dire£l the imme¬ diate reinftating into their fockets found teeth fuddenly loofened from the jaw. With us, artificial teeth are commonly made from the hard tufk of a fea-horfe. Another modern invention, in which, unfortunately, the advantages and difadvantages are balanced, is that of tranfplanting found teeth of fimilar fhape and fize from one head, and fixing them inftantaneoufly into the frefh fockets of another perfon’s jaws; there they are tied to the neighbouring teeth by a waxed filk thread, and in a few weeks are firmly grafped and fe- cured by the gums. Through the writings of almoft all the eminent ana* tomifts. Parti. SURGERY. 8339 £ Hiftory. tomifts, there are a variety of mifcellaneoua furgical dents in the knowledge of anatomy, and the fuperio- Hiftory. obfervations. To recapitulate their names in detail rity likewife in the conftruclion and workmanfhip of would be fuperfluous. their inftrumeuts, neceffarily render, all. their opera- The great fuperiority of the moderns above the an- tions much more fafe and profperous. Part II. THEORY of SURGERY. 14 1 Theories ofTN the eXtenfive fignification in which we have taken I furg^ry a,'d A word forgery, it is plain that the theory mud 1 connefted ‘nc'll^e l^c grealei^ Parti >f not the whole, of the theo- I ’ ry of medicine. Fevers, for inftance, may terminate by a critical fwelling; and the furgeon who fliould ignorantly attempt to difcufs a tumor of this kind, might do much mifchief. Ulcers may arife from various internal caufes ; and the perfon who fhould attempt to cure them by external applications alone would certainly fail. In like manner, the treatment of a fimple wound becomes exceedingly different, according to the conftitution and habit of body in the perfon who is wounded : from all which it is plain, that there is no theory which will in all cafes anfwer ; but that the furgeon muff be well acquainted with the other branches of medicine, or he cannot pra&ife with any kind of certainty or fuccefs.—We (hall begin, how¬ ever, with thofe cafes where the cure is moft eafy. Sect. I. OfSbnple Wounds. ts Of mortal The fird thing to be confidered in the infpeftion of wounds. a wound is, whether it is likely to prove mortal or not. This knowledge can only be had from anatomy, by which the furgeon will be able to determine what parts are injured; and, from the offices which thefe parts are calculated to perform, whether the human frame can fubfid under fuch injuries. It is not, however, eafy for the mod expert anatomid always to progno- fticate the event with certainty ; only this rule he 16 ought always to lay down to himfelf, to draw the The moft mod favourable prognofis the cafe will bear, or even favourable more th^n the rules of his art will allow. This is par- prognofis ticularly incumbent on him in fea-engagements, where the fentence of death is executed asToon as pronoun- ought, al- vays to be drawn. ced, and the miferable patient is thrown alive into the fea upon the furgeon’s declaring his vsoundto he mor¬ tal. There are, befides, inftances on record where a7 wounds have healed which the mod fkilful furgeons Inftances of have deemed mortal. In the war before lad, an officer defperate was (hot quite through the body by a mu(ket-ba!l, wounds be- which penetrated the fubdanee of the lungs ; yet he ing healed, j-ggovg,.^ though not without great difficulty. Mr Forfter informs us that Tupia, a native of the ifland of O-Taheitee, had been run through the body by one of the fpears headed with the bone of the ding-ray; and yet this wound was healed. He informs us alfo, that in others of that country he had obferved the marks of fuch defperate wounds, that he could not imagine how life could have fubfided under them. In general, however, thofe wounds are judly deemed •tab alfo or vertebral, of the vena cava, the iliac vein, in¬ ternal jugular, vertebral, renal, or mefenteric veins; of the vena porta, and of other large veins that lie deep in the body ; becaufe their fituation will not ad¬ mit of proper applicationito feltrain the flux of blood. 2. Thofe wounds are no lefs mortal than the for¬ mer which obftruA or entirely cut off the paflage of the animal-fpirits through the body. Such are wounds of the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and fome vio¬ lent drokes of the brain itfelf; though the cortical fubdance of the brain may be much injured, and yet the patient recover. There is reafon to apprehend very great danger when the fmall veins or arteries which are contained in the cranium are injured: for the blood flowing from them into the internal finufes of the braia, either produces too great a preffure upon thofe very tender parts of the brain, and fo obftrufla the courfe of the blood and fpirits; or, being cor¬ rupted, putrifies the brain itfelf, if it cannot be eva¬ cuated by the affiftance of the trepan ; which is the cafe when this accident happens at the lower part of the cranium, or in the finufes of the brain. Nor is there lefs danger where the nerves which tend to the heart are wounded, or entirely divided; for, after this, it is impoffible for the heart to continue its motion. 3. To this clafs alfo are to be refered all wounds that entirely deprive the animal of the faculty of breathing. Therefore there is great danger where the afpera arteria is completely divided; for, where it rs only divided in part, it may be healed again by the affitlance of an expert furgeon. To this place alfo be¬ long violent (hocks of the bronchia, mediaftinum, and diaphragm, efpecially the tendinous parts of it. 4. Thofe wounds alfo which interrupt the courfe of the chyle to the heart are no lefs incurable than the the former; fuch are wounds of the ftomach, inteftines, receptacle of the chyle, thoracic duft, and larger lac- teals : to which we may add wounds of the oefopha- gus, if they are large ; though death is not fo bidden an attendant upon thefe wounds, but for want of nourilhment they are greatly weakened by degrees, and die confumptive. 5. Wounds which are infli&ed upon membranous pans that are fituated in the abdomen, and contain fome fecreted fluid on the bladders, either for the bile or urine, the ftomach, inteftines, receptacle of the chyle, and la&eal veffels. The fluids contained in thefe parts, when once they are let loofe into the cavity of the abdomen, cannot be properly difeharged, and therefore eafily corrode the internal parts of the body ; and the membranes that contained them |are Different kinds of wounds which 1. That penetrate the cavities of the heart, and all generally fo fine, that they will not admit of aggluti- thofe wounds of the vdfeera where the large blood- veffels are opened; fuch are large wounds of the neceftarily 'ungs> bv‘;r> fpleen, kidneys, ftomach, inteftines, me¬ morial. fentery, pancreas, uterus, aorta ; of the iliac, cceliac, renal, mefenteric, and carotid arteries, (efpecially if they are wounded near their origin), of the fubdaviaa nation, efpecially fince no medicine from without can be applied; though foroe few, indeed, have recovered 19 after flight wounds in thefe parts. become ** 6. We (hall next proceed to deferibe thofe wounds which prove fatal if negle&ed and left to nature. By when left to thefe are mean thofe wounds that nioJuce inftant themfelves. 41 S 2 death 8340 $ U R C Theory, death unlefs relieved by prefcnt affiftaoce, but are curable by a good furgeon called in time; fuch are wounds of the larger external blood-veflels, which might be remedied by ligature. Of this kind are wounds of the brachial or crural artery, unlefs they are too near the trunk of the body. Wounds in the large arteries of the cubit or tibia, of the branches of the external carotid and temporal artery, are of this kind j to tbefe may be added wounds of the jugular and other veins fituated upon the external parts of the 3* body. Of thofe y. Wounds are properly faid to become mortal by ^iiortalTmeaccident, where the patient’s death is occafioned either accident, hy the ill condudt of the patient himfelf, or by the ignorance or negledt of his furgeon, the wound itfelf being deemed curable. Under this head are to be reckoned, 1. Thofe wounds which the furgeon has neglected to cleanfe fufficiently, though he had it in his power to do it; as when fome foreign body, which might eafily have been extrafted, is left in the wound by the careleflnefs of the furgeon, and produces inflammations, haemorrhagiee, convulfions, and at laft death itfelf. So in wounds of the thorax {and abdo¬ men, if the furgeon does not ufe his utmoft diligence to evacuate the grumous blood, it will corrupt there, and, by drawing the neighbouring parts into confent, will expofe the patient to inftant death. Therefore great care muft be taken that the lips of the wound do not clofe till the blood which is collefted in the cavity of the body be all evacuated, if pofixble ; which may be eafily perceived by the difficulty of breathing, and other bad fymptoms, being removed: but if any of the larger internal veffils are wounded, then all attempts to difeharge the blood are vain ; for the violence of the hsemorrhagy takes off the patient. 2. Wounds alfo are reckoned mortal by accident which are treated or fearched in too rough a manner bythefurgeon ; for if wounds be handled roughly that are full of nervous parts or large blood-veffels, there is great danger of bringing on hasmorrhagies, convulfion, inflammation, gangrene, and death itfelf. The cafe alfo is the fame, 3. In external wounds which are flight of themfelves, but the patient is loft by the violence of the inflammation which is brought on and increafed by the furgeon’s injudicious treatment. Or, 4. When any one is taken off by the violence of the haemorrhagy from a wound of the hand or foot; for in this cafe a furgeon might eafily have flopped the blood by the application of proper remedies, or by ligature. Or, 5. Where the patient is guilty of any intemperance in eating or drinking, of excefs of any paffion, of expofing himfelf to the cold air, or of ufir.g any violent execcife ; for by this means wounds, more efpecially thofe of the head, by being liable to frefh hzmorrhagies and other dangerous accidents, frequently become mortal, notwithftanding the fur¬ geon,ufes his utmoft care and fkill. Under this head alfo are to be reckoned, 6 Thofe wounds of the head where the patient is loft by the vaft quantity of blood which is extravafated in the cavity of the cra¬ nium, and confined there; but where he might have been relieved, if the trepan had been ufed in time : for though wounds of this kind generally prove incu¬ rable, yet, as there is a poffibiliiy of faving a perfon in tbefe circumftajices by the ufe of the trepan, thU x E R Y. Part II. may properly be reckoned amohgft the doubtful cafes, Theory. and not deemed abfolutely mortal. * In examining wounds, the next confideration is, whether the parts injured are fuch as may be fuppofed ®fe^hn“ , to induce dangerous fymptoms, either immediately wTthdan^ or in forae time during the courfe of the cure. In gcrous order to proceed here with any degree of certainty, it is neceflary to be well acquainted with thofe fym- toms which attend injuries of the different parts of the body. If the fkin only and part of the cellular fubftance is divided, the firft confequence is an effufion of blood ; the lips of the wound retraft, become tu¬ mefied, and red and inflamed ; leaving a gap of con- 3^ fiderable widenefs, according to the length and deep- nels of the wound. Along with this inflammation, p|e woui)(j if a very confiderable portion of fkin and cellular fub- left to heal fiance is divided, a flight fever feizes the patient; the naturally, effufion of blood in the mean time flops, and the wound is partly filled up with a cake of coagulated blood. Underneath this cake, the fmall veflsTs pour forth a clear liquor, which in a fhort time becomes converted into pus*. Below this pus granulations of* Seethe new flefli arife, the cake of coagulated blood loofens, articles Pus a new fkin covers the place where the wound was,andMu* and the whole is healed up; only there remains a mark, cus‘ called a cicatrix or fear, fhowing where the injury had been received. . All wounds are accompanied with 9 confiderable de¬ gree of pain, efpecially when the inflammation comes on ; and this though the divifion reaches no farther than the fkin and cellular fubftance. But if the muf- Qf wounds cular fibres are alfo divided, the pain is much greater, cf tj.e muf. becaufe the found part of the mufcle is ftretched bycles. the contra&ion of the divided part and the a£lion of the antagonift mufcle, which it is now lefs fitted to bear. The wound now alfo gaps much more than where the cellular fubftance only is divided, infomuch that if left to itfelf the fkin will cover the mufclar fibres without any intervention of cellular fubflance, and not only a very unfightly cicatrix remains, but the ufe of the mufcle is in fome meafure loft.—If the mufcle hap¬ pens to be totally divided, its parts retradi to a very confiderable diltance ; and unlefs proper methods be taken, the ufe of it is certainly loft ever afterwards. 34 If by a wound any confiderable artery happens to Of wound- be divided, the blood flow’s out with great velocity,ed arteii£s* and by darts diflinguifhing the pulfe of the artery; the patient foon becomes faint with lofs of blood ; nor does the haemorrhagy flop until he faints away al¬ together, when the ends of the divided veffel clofe by their natural contradlility ; and if as much vis vita ftiil remains as is fufficient to renew the operations of life, he recovers after fome time, and the wound heals up as ufual. The part of the artery which is below the wound in the mean time becomes ufelefs, and its fides collapfe, fo that all the inferior part of the limb would he deprived of the vital fluid, were it not that the fmall branches fent off from the artery above the wounded place become enlarged and ca¬ pable of carrying on the circulation. Nature alfo, after a wonderful manner, often produces new veffels from the foperior extremity of the divided artery, by which the circulation is carried on as formerly. How- Dangerons- ever, the confequences of fuch a profufe haemorrhagy confequen- maybe very dangerous to the patient, by inducing “*u°fd'6 cf< ex- ^ jPart Theory. II. U R R Y. extreme debility, polypous concretions in the heart and large veflels, or an univerfal dropfy in cafe the patient recovers. This happens efpecially where the artery is partially divided ; becaufe then the veflel cannot contraft in fuch a manner as to clofe the orifice: however, if the wound is but fmall, the blood gets into the cellular fubftance and inteftines of the mufcles, fwelling up the member to an extreme degree, form¬ ing what is called a fpurious aneunfm. Thus the haemorrhagy foon flops externally; but great mifehiefs are apt to flow from the confinement of the extravafa- ted blood. This is now found to have the power of (JPower of ^ uravafated diffolving not only the flefhy parts, but alfo the bones | themfelves; and thus not only the ufe of the limb is entirely loft, but the patient is brought into great danger of his life, if proper afliftance be not obtained ed by the divided parts contra&ing themfelves, ccca- Theory, fions the moft excruciating pain, which frequently ter- " minates in convulfions of the worft kind, particularly thofe moft fatal fpafms termed tetanus iu<\ opiflhotanus, which often attend wounds in nervous or tendinous parts. Wounds which penetrate the cavities of the thorax Wountls of or abdomen are always exceedingly dangerous, becaufe ^ th°rax* there is fcarce a poffibility of all the vifeera efcaping unhurt. A wound is known to have penetrated the cavity of the thorax principally by the difeharge of air from it at each infpiration of the patient, by an extreme difficulty of breathing, coughing up blood, &c. Such wounds, however, are not always mortal, though very frequently fo. The lungs, nay even the heart itfelf, may be wounded, and yet the patient re¬ in a fhort time—It not unfrequently happens, that cover. Van Swieten relates, that a flag was found to Wounds of “ 1—“ l'-c ~ have a cicatrix of a wound formerly inflifted on theth® cone of its heart. The fame author alfo is of opinion, a]*aj!.s that wounds even of the right ventricle are not abfo- moital. i lutely mortal, as the force of contraftion in this ven¬ tricle is not very great: however, it is otherwife when the laft ventricle is wounded, the great force with which it contra&s, continuallydilating the wound, and extravafating the blood in fuch quantities, that when a large artery has been wounded or totally divided, fo that the parts which were wont to be fup- plied with blood by that veffel become totally or in great meafure deprived of it, a mortification then enfues which cannot be prevented or cured: in fome cafes the limb remains paralytic or infenfible through life. Wounds of Wounds of the membranes, nerves, or tendons, are attended with the moft direful fymptoms. The pe- life cannot poffibly fubfift Wounds of the diaphragm of the dia- r. — - j.j arc a|m0{t a]way8 mortal, either by inducing fatal phragm ex- convulfions immediately, or by the afeent of the cccdin81y flomach, which the preffure of the abdominal mufcles dai,£erous‘ forces up through the wound into the cavity of the thorax ; and of this Van Swieten gives feveral in- 4j fiances.—Even though the wound does not penetrate Danger of into the cavity of the thorax, the very word fymptoms wolIncls may follow. For if the wound defeends deeply among the mufcles, and its orifice lies higher, the extravafated "ratePtehceca. humours will be therein collefted, ftagnate, and cor-vi:y of the. rupt in fuch a manner as to form various finufes ; andd'011** after having eroded the pleura, it may at length pafs into the cavity of.the thorax. The matter having once found a vent into this cavity, will be continually augmenting from the difeharge of the finuous ulcer. culiar fymptom indeed which attends a wounded mem' brane is an eryfipelas. This is to a membrane what a Ample inflammation is to a flefhy part: and hence the danger of an eryfipelas of the face more than of any other part of the body ; for there is fuch a connexion between the external and internal membranes all over the body, that an affeflion of the one feldom fails to bring on an affection of the other. When a nerve or tendon is entirely divided, the pain is hut trifling, though the confequences are often dangerous. If the nerve is large, all the parts to which it is diftributed below the wound immediately lofe the power of mo¬ tion and fenfation ; nor is it uncommon, in fuch cafes, for them to be feized with a gangrene. This, how¬ ever, does not hold univerfally. According to Dt" land’s op-- Kirkland, it takes place only when all or the greateft. and the lungs at laft confumed by foaking in corrupt part of the nerves belonging to a particular part are divided or tied. “ If the fpinal marrow” fays he, “ is divided near to the head, we know the parts below foon lofe their action irrecoverably ; or if the bundle of nerves palling out of the axilla were divided or lied, fenfation in the greateft part of the arm below would probably be loft. But we all know, that in perform¬ ing the operation for an aneurifm in the arm, if the nerves which accompany the brachial artery are tied, a temporary numbnefs is only felt, and fenfation in any degree below the ligature is not loft.—I have ed matter. This is moft to be dreaded from thofe finuous ulcers which run behind the ribs;, for there is then no opportunity either of comprelfing the parts,, or dilating the wound in order to procure a difeharge of the matter. If, in cafes of wounds in the thorax, the ribs or llernum happen to become carious, the cure 44 will be extremely tedious and difficult. Galen relates Extraord!' the cafe of a lad who received a blow upon his fternum naiTca,e off in the field: of exercife : it was firft negle&ed, and fternum5 afterwards badly healed; but, four months afterwards, and moni- matter appeared in the part which had received the (een the fuperior cubital nerve torn afunder above the blow. A phyfician made an incifion into the part, elbow, in a gun-ftiot wound, with confiderable lofs of and it was foon after cicatrized : but in a fhort time fubflance; and a temporary palfy only was the con- a new collection of matter made its appearance, and fequence.” upon a fecond incifion the wound refufed to heal. When the tendon belonging to any mufcle is to- Galen found the fternum carious; and having cut off tally divided, that mufcle immediately exerts its con- the difeafed part, the pericardium itfelf was obferved Lfatalf -,ra£tilc power; the divided ends of the tendon are to be corroded, fo that the heart could be feen quite 'K I toms at- P removed to a confiderable diftance ; and, unlefs proper naked; notwithftanding which, the wound was cured.^j^*0" tending the affillance is obtained, the aClion of the mufcle is for in no very long time. woitnds’of- | partial divi-€ver loft. But when either nerve or tendon happens Great caution is neceffary in determining whether fome of the vifcera will certainly be protruded the "cavity through it ; or if the wound is. but fmall, and clofed pf the abdo-up with fat fo that none of the inteflines can protrude men, themfelves, we may yet know that the cavity of the abdomen is pierced, and probably fome of the vifcera wounded, by the acute pain and fever, palenefs, an¬ xiety, faintings, hickup, cold fweats, and weakened pulfe, all of which accompany injuries of the internal parts. The mifehiefs which attend wounds of this kind proceed not only from the injury done to the vifcera themfeives, but from the extravafation of blood and the difeharge of the contents of the inteftines into the cavity of the abdomen ; which, being of a very putref- j6 cent nature, foon bring on the molt violent diforders. Wounds of Hence wounds of the abdominal vifcera are very often the i.ue- jnortab though not always fo. It appears, that the fome*imes inteftines have been totally divided, and yet the Leal fpun- patient has recovered. Wounds both of the fmall and tasieoully. large inteftines have healed fpontaneoufly, even when they were of confiderable magnitude; fo that both the contentsof the inteftine have been freelydifeharged thro* the wound in it, and part of the inteftine itfclf has been protruded through the wound of the integuments. When this laft is the cafe, however, there is great ganger from the mere contaft of the external air; and E R Y. Part II. indeed the wound moft commonly proves generally Theory. \ mortal where any confiderable portion of the inteftine has been protruded, even though itfclf fhould not be wounded. Jt ; When the mefentery is injured, the danger is ; treme, both on account of the blood-vcflels which areteryan(j " ■ every where difperfed through it, and the membranous liver very * nature of the mefentery itfelf, which is as fubjeft to dangerous, j the eryfipelatous inflammation as the other membranes of the body. Wounds of the liver are alfo exceedingly dangerous, on account of the nature of that vifeus ; for as the circulation of the blood is there very flow, * and the fubftance of the liver itfelf is exceedingly foft and tender, the fmalleft acrimony in the matter is fuf- ficifnt to deflroy the whole, by producing incurable st abfeefles. Wounds of the fpleen and pancreas are faid But not not to be dangerous; and there are even fome inftan-of t,ie ces of thefe parts being cut out of living animals with- out any confiderable injury ; but thofe of the kidneys,P urinary bladder, and gall-bladder, are almoft always ^H>lta,. Wounds of the head, even though they penetrate Of wounds j only through the external integuments, are not without thejutad. danger, chiefly on account of the danger arifing from the membranes of the brain, the pericranium, and the concufiion of the brain by the ftroke of the wounding inftrument. Even contufions on the head, without any external wound, have fometimes brought on the moft violent fymptoms, and this when every thing S4 feemed for a while to be in a fair way. Mr Pott, ini his excellent Treatife upon Injuries of the Head from t|iem imo f| external Violence, divides wounds of the head into two dafles. | two kinds, viz. lacerated wounds, and thofe made by punfture. The former be fubdivides into other two kinds, viz. thofe in which the fcalp, though torn or unequally divided, ftill keeps its natural fituation, and is not feparated from the cranium to any confiderable diftance beyond the breadth of the wound; and thofe in which it is confiderably detached from the parts it ought to cover. The latter are the moft dangerous ; Of thofe in t as in fuch cafes the pericranium is moft commonly in- which the V flamed, and communicates the injury to the membraneslcalp on as *n the eryfiptlas, neither does it pit or retain the- impreffion of the fingers. It is of a deep red colour, unmixed with the yellow tint of the eryfi¬ pelas : it appears tenfe, and is extremely painful to the touch. As it is not an affedtion of the tela cellu- lofa, and as the ears and the eye-lids are not covered by the pans in which the wound is inflifted, they are feldom, if ever, included in the tumour, though they may partake of the general inflammation of the fkin : it is generally attended with acute pain in the head, and fuch a degree of fever as prevents fleep, and fome¬ times brings on a delirium. Ofthofe V10^cnt wounds of the head, it not unfrequently where the happens that the fkull is cleft, or even a part of it en- Ikull is cleft, tirely taken off, fometimes with and fometimes without part of it jnjuring the brain. Thefe wounds, though very dan- 11 gerous, are not always mortal, unlefs the medullary fubftance of the brain be injured ; for this never falls to bring on death in a fliort time. There have been inftances of people who by wounds of this kind had a confiderable portion of the dura mater expofed for the remainder of their life, and yet felt no remarkable in¬ convenience, farther than that the brain was exceed- It 8343 ingdy tender ; and they felt great pain, giddinefs, dim- Theory. nets of fight, &c. even on a flight preffure of that part. In wounds of the joints there is always a confider- 50 able difficulty of cure, by reafon of the efflux of thetj,e°pn*s' fynovia, which ferves for lubricating the parts; and dangerous, there is alfo great danger on account of the number of tendons, ligaments, and fynovial glands, which arc fuuated about the articulations. In this cafe, fmall wounds are more dangerous than large ones, efpecialjy when the former cannot be enlarged. The danger is lead when the wound is fituated in the upper part of the joint, and has not penetrated through the capfular ligament. The fymptoms attending a wounded joint are, violent pain, inflammation, &c. with an efflux of thick whitifh matter almoft of the confidence of honey, called melicera, and is indeed no other than the fyno¬ via which lubricates the joint. This flux it is very difficult to redrain, and by it the wound is prevented from healing: at lad the wound degenerates into an ulcer with callous lips, which ends in an incurable fi- flula; and even if the wound fhould at lafl be healed up, the joint for the mod part remains diff and con- trafted, fo that the limb cannot be dretched out. Co From the preceding account of the fymptoms at-A Prognof‘3 tending wounds in the different parts of the body, the^"^ furgeon may be enabled to judge in fome meafure ofccrla;nly' the event; though it muft always be remembered, that wounds, even thofe which feemed to be of the flighted nature, have, contrary to all expeftation, proved mor¬ tal, chiefly by inducing convulfions or a locked jaw ; fo that no certain prognodic can be drawn on fight of recent wounds. We fhall now, however, proceed to confider their treatment. 61 For the cure of wounds, it has been already obferved, Virtues of that the ancients imagined balfams, the juice of herbs, &c. to be a kind of fpecifics. In after-ages, and in r;ngwountis countries where balfams are not eafily to be procured, imaginary, falves have been fubdituted in their place ; and even at this day there are many who reckon a falve or oint¬ ment effentially neceffary for healing the flighted cut. It is certain,, however, that the cure of wound's can¬ not be effedfed, nay, not even forwarded in the lead, by ointments, unlefs in particular cafes or by accident. That power which the human frame has of repairing the injuries done to itfelf, which by phyficians is call¬ ed vij medicatrix nature, is the foie agent in curing external injuries, and without this the mod celebrated c1 balfams would prove ineffeflual. There are three Threefia£es dages to be obferved in the cure of a wound the fird, called digejiion, takes place when the ends ofCUJ.j0go£; the wounded veffels contract themfelves, and pour out wounds, the liquor which is converted into pus. As foon as this appears,, the fecond ftage, in which the flefh be¬ gins to grow up, takes place ; and as this proceeds, the edges of the wound acquire a fine bluifh or pearl colour, which is that of the new fkin beginning to co¬ ver the wound as far as the flefh. has filled it up. This procefs continues, and the fkin advances from all fides towards the centre, which is called cicatrizing of the wound. For the promoting of each of thefe pro- Cefles, there were ointments formerly much in vogue. A compofition of turpentine and the yolk, of an egg was named digejiive ointment, from the power it was fuppofed to have of promoting the formation of pus balilicon and other ointments were fuppofed to pro¬ mote 8344 U R Theory, mote the growth of flefh, and there were ointmenta — alfo for cicatrizing. But it is now founJ, that no None of ointment whatever is capable of promoting thefe ope- thefe can be rati°ns 5 a!1d it is only neceflary to keep the wound promoted clean, and to prevent the air from having accefs to it. by any This, indeed, nature takes care to do by covering the ointment, wouncjecj p3rt w;th a cake 0f coagulated blood ; but if a wound of any confiderable magnitude (hould be left entirely to nature, the pus would form below the cruft of coagulated blood in fuch quantity, that it would moft probably corrupt, and the wound degenerate into a corroding ulcer. It is neceflary, therefore, to r ^clesnfe the wound once a-day; and for this purpofe it and drdllngI56 ptope1" to apply a little ointment fpread on wounds. loft feraped lint. For the firft dreffing, dry lint is ufu- ally applied, and ought to be allowed to remain for two or three days, till the pus is perfe&ly formed ; after which the ointment may be applied as juft now dire&ed ; and, in a healthy body, the wo,und will heal without further trouble. As to the ointment employ¬ ed, it is almoft indifferent what it be, provided it has no acrid or ftimulating ingredients in its corapofition ; and hence the digeftive ointment above-mentioned is rather hurtful than otherwife, on account of the ftimu¬ lating nature of the turpentine which makes part of its compofition. But though, in general, wounds thus eafily admit of a cure, there are feveral circumftances which require a different treatment, even in fimple divilions of the fleftiy parts, when neither the membranous nor tendi- Where fu- noug parts are injurec|. Thefe are, I. Where the ccfliry. -Of extract¬ ing foreigi todies. wound is large, and gapes very much, fo that, if al¬ lowed to heal in the natural way, the patient might be greatly disfigured by the fear. In this cafe, it is pro¬ per to bring the lips of the wound near to each other, and to join them by future, either of the dry or bloody kind, as the wound is more fuperficial or lies deeper. 2. When foreign bodies are lodged in the wound, as when a cut is given by glafs, &c. it is neceftary by all means to extract them before the wound is dreffed; for it will never heal until they are difeharged. Sometimes it happens that thefe bodies are fituated in fuch a manner as not to be capable of being ex- tradted without lacerating the adjacent parts, which would occafion violent pain and other bad fymptoms. In this cafe it is neceffary to enlarge the wound fo that thefe offending bodies may be eafily removed. This treatment, however, is chiefly neceffary ing’un- (hot wounds, of which we fhall treat in the next fe&ion. Ofufing 3. When the wound is made in fuch a manner that it cymprefles, runs for fome length below the fkin, and the bottom &c* is much lower than the orifice. In this cafe, the mat¬ ter colle&ed from all parts of the wound will be lodged in the bottom of it, where, corrupting by the heat, it will degenerate into a fiftulons ulcer. To pre¬ vent this, we muft ufe compreffes, applied fo that the bottom of the wound may fuffer a more confiderable preffure than the upper part of it. Thus the matter formed at the bottom will be gradually forced upwards, and that formed at the upper part will be incapable of defeending by its weight; the divided parts in the mean time eafily uniting when brought clofe together. Indeed, the power which nature has of uniting divided parts of the human body is very furprifing ; for, ac¬ cording to authors of credit, even if a piece of flefh G E R Y. Part II. is totally cut out, and applied in a fhort time after- Theory, wards to the place from whence it was cut, the two —— will unite. On this principle Taliacotius, profefforat Bologna, pretended to reftore loft parts, as nofes, ears, lips, See. by cutting out a piece of the arm and adapting it to the part. But though thefe are juftly looked upon to be ridiculous pretenfions, we are cer¬ tain that a part cut out of a living body does not en¬ tirely lofe its vital power for fome time, as is evident from the jnodern pra&ice of tranfplanting teeth; and from an experiment of Dr Hunter’s at London, where he put the tefticle of a cock into the belly of a living hen, which adhered to the liver, and became conne&ed to it by means of blood-veffels *. We have * See therefore the greateft reafon to hope, that the divided110 I9' parts of the human body, when clofely applied to each other, will cohere without leaving any finus or cavity between them. However, if this method fhould fail, and matter (till be colle&ed in the depending part of the wound, it will be neceffary to make an opening in that part in order to let it out; after which, the wound may be cured in the common way. gg 4. During the courfe of the cure it fometimes happens, Of taking that the wound, inftcad of filling up with fltfliy granu- away fun- lations of a florid colour, (hoots up into a glaffy-like®ous e ' fubftance which rifes above the level of the furrounding ikin, at the fame time that, inftead of laudable pus, a thin ill-coloured and fetid ichor is difeharged. In this cafe the lips of the wound lofe their beautiful pearl colour, and become callous and white, nor does the cicatrizing of the wound at all advance. When this happens in a healthy patient, it generally proceeds from fome improper management, efpecially the making ufe of too many emollient and relaxing medicines, an immoderate ufe of balfams and ointments. Frequently nothing more is requifite for taking down this fungus than dreffing with dry lint; at other times deficcative powders, fuch as calamine, tutty, calcined alum, &c. will be neceffary; and fometimes red precipitate mercury muft be ufed. This laft, however, is apt to give great pain, if fprinkled in its dry ftate upon the wound; it is therefore moft proper to grind it with fome yellow bafilicon ointment, which makes a much more gentle, though at the fame time efficacious, cfcharotic. Touching the overgrown parts with blue vitriol Is alfo found very effectual. Hitherto we have confidered . the wounded patient as otherwife in a ftate of perfeft health 5 but it muft be obferved, that a large wound is capable of difor- dering the fyftem to a great degree, and inducing dangerous difeafes which did not before exift.—If the Of the regi- patient is ftrongand vigorous, the pain and inflamma- mef1 ‘he tion of the wound great, a confiderable degree of fe- ver may arife, which it will be nece.ffary to check by bleeding, low diet, and other antiphlogiftic regimen, at the fame time that the inflamed lips of the wound and parts adjacent are to be treated with emollient fomentations or cataplafms till the pain and fwelling abate. On the other hand, it may happen, when the patient is of a weak and lax habit, that the vis vitas may not be fufficient to excite fuch an inflammation in the wound as is abfolutely neceffary for its cure. In this cafe, the edges of the wound look pale and foft; the wound itfelf ichorous and bloody, whhout any figns of flcfhy granulations; or if any new fldh (hoots 2 up, Part II. U R R Y. Theory, up, Jt 15 of the fungous glaffy.Jtind above-mentioned. “ “ To fuch wounds all external applications are vain ; it is neceffary to ftrengthen the patient by proper inter¬ nal remedies, among which the bark has a principal place, until the wound begins to alter its appearance. In fuch perfons, too, there is feme danger of a heftic fever by the abforption of matter into the body when the wound is large ; and this will even take place during the courfe of the cure, even when the appear¬ ances have been at firft as favourable as could be wifhed. This happens generally when the wound is large, and a great quantity of matter formed: for by this difeharge the patient is weakened, fo that the pus is no fooner formed, than it is by the abforbent velfels re-conveyed into the body, and feverilh heats immediately affeft the patient. For this the bed remedy is to exhibit the bark copioufly, at the fame time fupporting the patient by proper cordials and nourilhing diet. Indeed, in general, it will be found, that, in the cafe of wounds of any confiderable mag¬ nitude, a more full and nourifhing regimen is required than the patient, even in health, has been acci'iftomed to; for the difeharge of pus alone, where the quan¬ tity is confiderable, proves very debilitating, if the patientis not ftrengthened by proper diet. Audit iscon- itantly found, that the cure of fuch fores goes on much more eafily when the patient is kept in his ufual habit of body, than when his fyllem is much emaciated by a very low allowance ; and, for the fame reafon, pur¬ gatives, and whatever elfe tends to weaken the confti- 70 tution, are improper in the cure of wounds. Ofhsmor Hasmorrhagies very frequently happen m wounds, t rhagics. either from a divifion of one large artery, or of a num¬ ber of fmall ones. In this cafe, the firft ftep to be taken by the furgeon is to effeft a temporary ftoppage of the blood by means of ftrong compreffion. In the head, as well as in the trunk of the body, the eafieft method of applying preffure of this kind is by means of doffils of linen or charpie, held firmly upon the 8345 Theory. the cautery. Styptic powders af% ftill lefs efficacious ; and though fponge, agaric, and fungous fubftances of- various kinds, have been recommended even by the more fkilful modern furgeons, yet the application of the ligature, and that alone, can be depended upon 71 where the larger arteries are divided. In Perf°™ingt|1,es^^sof this operation there are two different methods; one in Can alone be which the nerve which runs along with the artery,depended and part of the circumjacent mufcles, are taken in withon- the artery in the ligature; the other, in which the divided artery is taken hold of by a pair of forceps, or by an hooked inftrument called the tenaculum, and tied up by itfelf. The former method is liable to great objeftion, on account of the violent fymptoms it occafions ; particularly extreme pain, fpafms, and convnlfions, not only of the part affe&ed, but even of the whole fyftem. Spafmodic twitches are frequently found f tooccurf Bell’s after the amputation of limbs, and are often the fource of much diftrefs. In fome inftances they are nol’* 3S- doubt to be confidered as the effeft of other caufes ; Ba(I <,”^5 but in various cafes it has happened, that demonftra-0f includ- tive proof has been obtained of their arifing from theing the ligatures of arteries having been applied in an impro-nerv®s in per manner. When fuch convulfive affe&ions occurtlie i^aturc' after amputations, and the ufual means of preventing them have failed, effedhial relief may be frequent¬ ly obtained by deftroying the ligatures altogether, fo as to remove the compreffion upon the nerves ; care being taken at the fame time to renew the ligatures upon the arteries immediately, without comprehending any of the contiguous parts. Praftitioners have commonly been afraid of ty-Arteries ing up blood-veffels by themfelves without the in-may be fafe- tervention of fome of the furrounding parts, on the tlc<1 l1P fuppofition of the coats of arteries not being of a fufficient firmnefs for bearing that degree of compref¬ fion neceffary for the prevention ofhaemorrhagy.—This, however, originates from an idea of the coats of mouths of the bleeding veffels, either by the hands of arteries not being fo flrong as they really are, and of Ancient ;uj furgeons ** defetfive H flopping rhagy. great degree of force being neceffary for compref- fing the fides of arteries into clofe contaff with on? another. But it is now well known, that even very fmall arteries are poffeffed of much firmnefs : and it is alfo certain, that, even in the largeft arteries of the arm or thigh, a very flight degree of compreffion is fully fufficient, not only for reftraining haemorrhagy, but for fecuring the ligature on the very fpot to which it is firft applied ; and in fmall veffels the force ne¬ ceffary for this purpofe is trifling indeed, being far lefs than is commonly pradlifed. It has alfo been ob- affiftant or the ufe of a proper bandage: but it is better when preffure can be applied to the fuperior part of the artery, as it not only fecures the veffel equally well, but admits of the neceffary ligature be¬ ing applied with greater freedom. Where accidents of this kind, therefore, happen to any of the limbs, and preffure can be made on the fuperior part of the artery, the tourniquet is immediately to be applied. The patient being in this manner fecured from im¬ mediate danger, the furgeon muft take the proper means for preventing any return. In this the ancients the know- Were extremely defective. Being ignorant of the ufe jeded to this mode of fecuring blood-veffcls by them- tj| ledge of 0f thc tourniquet, and equally fo of the method of felves, that the ligatures, although they fhould not tying up blood-veffels, they could only apply doffils of cut the arteries through, yet are more apt to flip than linen covered with attringent powders for the fmall arteries, and for the larger ones they had no other re- fource but fearing with red-hot irons. This cruel remedy they applied even in cafes of amputation; and we find that fome ancient chirurgical writers ordered the flefh to be divided down to the bone by a red-hot knife : but the effeds even of this are by no means to be de¬ pended upon farther than as a temporary relief ; for, in general, the pulfation of the larger arteries foon overcomes all refiftance from the efehar occafioned by Vox.. X. when fome of the furrounding parts are comprehended along with them ; and, in fome inftances, it is faid that arteries retrad fo far, that they cannot in any other way be laid hold of than by means of the crooked needle in the ordinary method. Long and repeated experience, however, of a few individuals, of this mode of taking up arteries by themfelves, has put the fad beyond a doubt, that it is equally fecure as any other yet invented (a).—Fatal hasmorrhagies after capital operations, either from inattention or fome 41 T other (a) See an effay upon this fubjed, by Mr Aitken, an ingenious furgeon of Warrington. 8346 S U R G E R Y. Part II. Theory, otlier caufe, do now and then indeed happen in the ‘ hands of the moft able pradlitioners ; but occurrences of this nature have as frequently happened when the curved needle was employed, as when the blood-veffels were fecured by themfelves without any of the conti¬ guous parts being included. In a few inftances it may happen, that a bleeding veffel, from lying at the bottom of a deep wound, cannot be laid hold of in any other manner than by the curved needle being made to pafs round it. Such 75 occurrences, however, are exceedingly rare. Among of the in- other advantages which the tying of arteries by means ftrument of the tenaculum has over the old mode of operating, called the there is ftill one we have not yet taken notice of. It tenaculum. 0ften happens, after amputations and other operations where the larger arteries have been tied, that the ligatures do not come eafily away, from being made to run fo deep as with the curved needle is commonly neceflary. In foroe inftrances much pain and trouble has occurred from this circumftance, the ligature re¬ maining quite immoveable for a great many weeks: and after all, we have feen it neceflary for the fur- geon to put the patient to a great deal of pain, by being obliged to cut out the threads with a fcalpel. But when the tenaculum is ufed, every rifle of this kind is effedlually avoided, from the ligatures generally falling off of their own accord, in the courfe of the third or fourth drefiing of the fore. From what has been faid, therefore, we (hall con- fider it as a praftice that ought to be eftablifhed, that, in forming the ligature of arteries, the nerves and other contiguous parts fhould be carefully avoided. HouMhe Pr‘nc*Pa^ artery being in this manner fecured, tmader* the vei'lels ot tne part nruft one alter another be ta- vcflels are ken up in the fame manner, by firft loofening the tour- tobefecu- niquet in order to difeover them, and afterwards ap- rc ar,d being put in praftice in perform-for the removal of fymptoms from which it is perhaps mg it. difficult to perfuade the patient that much danger can occur, all the remedies we hare mentioned ftiould be Theory. firft made trial of before it is propofed: but at the fame —“ time, care ought to be taken that the diforder is not allowed to proceed too far before we have recourfe to it; for if the patient (hould be previoufly much weak¬ ened by the feverifh fymptoms having continued vio¬ lent for any length of time, neither the remedy now propofed, nor any other with which we are acquaint¬ ed, would probably have much influence. So foon therefore as the courfe already preferibed has been fair¬ ly tried, and is found to be inadequate to the effefts expefted from it, we ought immediately to have re¬ courfe to a free divifion of the parts chiefly affe&ed ; the manner of doing which will be deferibed in its pro¬ per place. Thefe are the general methods of treating fimple wounds of the nerves, tendons, or membranes ; but where the wounds are very large, and attended with great diftradlion, laceration, and lofs of fubftance, fume farther dire&ions will be neceffary; but of thefe we (hall treat in the next feflion. The total divifion Of a fotal of a tendon is not attended with much danger whered>vifion of the aftion of the mufete belonging to it is not neceffafyteniions' to life: for the divided ends of tendons will very readily unite if they are kept clofe together; and may either be conjoined by future, or retained in that pofture by a proper bandage. IoQ In wounds ofthe thorax, even tho’ none of the vifeera Wounds of (hould be wounded, we may yet reafonably expeft the thorax, that a confiderable quantity of blood will be extra- vafated ; and this, if very large, muft be evacuated if poffibl-e. However, it ought to be particularly ob- ferved, that this extravafated blood (hould not be dif¬ charged before we are affured that the wounded veffels have done bleeding. When the pulfe appears fuffici- ently ftrong and equal, the extremities are warm, no hickup or convulfiou appears, and the patient’s ftrength continues, we may then know that the internal hasmorrhagy has ceafed, and that the means for dif- charging the blood may now be fafely ufed. It may, however, be doubted whether the extravafed blood ought always to be difcharged by art; fince it is ap¬ parent fron the moft faithful obfervations, that matter, water, blood, &c. have vanifhed from the cavities of the thorax, and been afterwards difcharged by fweat, urine, &c. Yet this but feldom happens; and if we were to trull to nature only in thefe cafes, it is certain that many would perifli from a deftruftion of the vital vifeera by the extravafated and putrid blood, who by an artificial extraftion of the fame blood might have been faved. The extradlion therefore is to be attempted, by putting the body in fuch a pofture that the blood may flow out through the orifice of the wound ; by fucking through a flexible tube, obtufe at the end, and having holes in its fides; by injeftions of diluent, attenuating, and deterging liquors; by dilating the wound, or perforating the thorax a little above the diaphragm, as in the operation for an empyema. By one or other of thefe methods, wounds of the thorax may generally be cured, provided the vifeera are not injured in fuch a manner as to render them incapable of performing the offices of fife. In wounds of the abdomen, where the inteftines 0f are injured, they muft, if poffible, be joined by what abdomen, is called the Gbver’s future; though, when the wound is t(Of thein- f Part II. S U R rt: Thrtoy. is frrfall, they may be left to themfdves. In all . wouncjg Qf tjje abdomen, however, there is great dan¬ ger from the entrance of the air between the integu¬ ments and the vifcera. This, if confined, will be rarefied to an extreme degree, and occafion the molt violent pains, with incredible diftenfion of the abdo¬ men. It is neceflary therefore, that the air which has entered (hould be expelled, by fucking and the effort of refpira’.ion j after which the integuments are to be fewed together, and the wound is to be cured in the fame manner as dire&ed for fimple wounds: only it will require to be dreffed as feldom as poffible; and a fpare diet, with other antiphlogiftic regimen, is here abfolutely neceflary. It fometimes happens, that, through a large wound qjlapfed * ot the abdominal integuments, the inteftine comes out -ujthrough a without being injured ; yet, if it remains for any time f f wound expofedtothe air, thecafe is commonly verydangerous. “■in^rfured'^ 3ffi^ance can ^ad at the moment the wound is mg injure t|,e ;nteftines are immediately to be replaced, and the patient laid in fuch a pofture that they cannot by their own gravity fall out again. However, if alfiftance is not procured in time, and thus the in¬ teftine is become dry and cold, it ought to be well fomented before it is replaced. Celfus advifes alfo, that thofe parts of the inteftine which prolapfed laft fhould be firft replaced, after which the patient Ihould be gently fliaken, that each of the inteliines may re¬ duce itfelf to its proper place, and there remain.— This advice is very nectflary to be obferved ; otherwife violent gripes and other bad confequences may follow. Garengeot alfo gives us another advice of no fmall confequenee, namely, that if the wound is in the middle of the abdomen under the navel, penetrating through the reflus mufcle on either fide, then the prolapfed part of the inteftine or omentum is frequent¬ ly liable to be returned under that mufcule, between its body and the tendinous capfule, which very loofely encompafles this mufcle below the navel ; fince it might thus be falfely imagined that the inteftine was returned into the abdomen, whence the moft violent diforders might enfue. If the ineftines are already cold and dry, before any attempts are made to replace them, we ought firft to be certain that life remains in thefeparts:, otherwife we might expeft anabfolute mor¬ tification and though the mortified parts fliould caft off, the contents of the inteftines would efcape into the cavity of the abdomen; whence the death of the patient would follow, after the moft miferable diforders. When the wound of the abdomen is large, the in¬ teftines eafily prolapfe, but are as eafily returned. But when part of an inteftine has been forced through a narrow wound, the diforderis much more dangerous. For the prolapfed inteftine, being diftended by flatus, or the ingefted aliments driven thither by the peri- ftaltic motion, it will be inflamed, tumefied, and in¬ capable of being returned through the ftri.art fuppuration or gangrene. In thefe cafes we muft ufej"" our utmoft endeavours to make the two ends ofgangrened^ the inteftine unite; and if they do fo, the lofs of the gangrened or fuppurated part will not be much felt: but if this (hould be found impra&icable, the upper part of the inteftine fliould be joined to the edge of the wound ; where it will ever afterwards perform the office of an anus, and the faeces will continue to be difeharged that way through life. It is to be remarked, however, that even in the moft favourable cafe, viz. where the divided ends of the inteftine unite, there will always remain a ftri&ure on the part; for which reafon it is requifite that the patient fhould be very temperate in his diet, eat foft food, and by fmall quantities at a time; otherwife there will be danger of an obftruftion in the place of union, and a rupture may enfue. 104 When the omentum appears prolapfed, the fame Remarkable general treatment is to be obferved ; only that, when °f]s ;il it is dry and mortified, the dead part may faftly be the .^0,1 extirpated.—We fhall conclude the article of abdo-men. minal wounds with a cafe from the memoirs of the academy of fciences for the year 1705, which fliows that we ought not to defpair, even though the moft defperate fymptoms fliould take place, as long as any vis vitje remains. A madman wounded himfelf in 18 different places of the abdomen. Eight of thefe pe¬ netrated the cavity, and injured the contained vifcera ; he had a diarrhoea, naufea, and vomiting, tenfion of the abdomen, with difficult refpiration and violent feyer, fo that his life was defpaired of. During the firft four days, he was blooded feven times; and during the greateft part of the cure his diet confided almoft entirely of flefti-broths, with the addition of fome mild vegetables. By thefe means he was not only cured of his wounds, but reftored to his right fenfes. Seventeen months after, he went mad again, and threw himfelf over a precipice, by which he was inftantly killed : on opening the body, the wounds were found to have penetrated the rhiddle lobe of the liver, the inteftinum jejunum, and the colon. I05 In wounds of the head, where the cellular mem-Wounds of" brane only is affe&ed, and the aponenrofis and peri-'he(utub cranium untouched, phlebotomy, lenient purges, and the ufe of the common febrifuge medicines, particular¬ ly thofe of the neutral kind, generally remove all the threatening fymptorrs mentioned, n° 105. When the inflammation is gone off, it leaves on the (kin a yellpwifh.tint and a dry feurf, which continue until perfpiration takes them away ; and upon the removal of 8352 S U R C Theory. 0f the difeafe, the wound immediately recovers an 'healthy afpefl, and foon heals without further trouble. But in the worft kind of thefe wounds, that is, where a fmall wound pafles through the tela cellulofa and aponeurofis to the pericranium, the patient will admit of more free evacuations by phlebotomy than in the former. In both, the ufe of warm fomentations is required ; but an emollient cataplafm, which is gene¬ rally forbid in the eryfipelatous fwellings, may in this latter cafe be ufed to great advantage. Where the fymptoms are not very-prefiing, nor the habit very inflammable, this method will prove fufficient ; but it fometimes happens that the fcalp is fo tenfe, the pain fo great, and the fymptomatic fever fo high, that by waiting for the flow effeCl of fuch means, the patient runs a rifle from the continuance of the fever; or elfe the injured aponeurofis and pericranium, becoming floughy, produce an abfeefs, and render the cafe both tedious and troublefome. A divifion of the wounded part, by a Ample incifion down to the bone, about half an inch or an inch in length, will moft commonly remove all the bad fymptoms ; and if it be done in toS time, will render every thing elfe unneceflary. Of the jn vv0linds 0f the joints, if any thing can be done joints. IJmbj it muft be by dilating the wound in order to difeharge the humour, which colledls in great quantity. At the fame time the moft cooling and difeutientremedies are to be applied to the neighbour¬ ing parts, while the wound itfelf is to be treated with drying gums and balfamics. Relaxing and emollient applications are bad, as caufing a great efflux of hu¬ mour, which at any rate is too copious. The air and cold are likewife to be avoided, and all applications to the v^und ought to be of the warm and ftimulating kind. Sect. II. Of contufed and lacerated Wounds, ’without or ’with Fraflures of the Bones. When the fmall veflels are broken by a blow with any hard inllrument without penetrating thefkin, at the fame time that the folid fibres of the part are cruflied, the injury is termed a contufon: and when at the fame time the fkin is broken, it is termed a contufed and lacerated wound; becaufe in this cafe the parts are not fairly divided as with a knife, but torn 107 afunder or violently ftretched. Simple con- Every contufion therefore, whether the fkin is tufionde- broken or not, may properly be reckoned a wound; feribed. for where the injury is fo flight that none of the con¬ tents of the fmall vefiels are extravafated, it fcarce de- ferves to be mentioned. The immediate confequence of a contufion, therefore, is a fwelling, by reafon of the extravafation juft mentioned ; and the fkin becomes difcoloured by the blood ftagnating under it : but as this fluid, even though covered by the fkin, cannot long remain in its natural ftate, it thence happens, that the contufed part foon lofes its florid red colour, and becomes blue or black ; the thinner parts being in the mean time gradually taken up by the abforbent veflels, which at iaft happehs to the blood itfelf; the blue difappears, and is fucceeded by a yellowifh colour, fhowing that the blood is now difiblved; after which the part recovers its former appearance, and the ruptured veflels appear to have uoited as though nothing had happened. ^ E R Y. Part II. Thefe are the fymptoms which attend the flighteft Theory, kind of contufions ; but it is evident, that where the 108 blow is fo violent as to rupture or cruffl fome of the Mifchicfs large nerves, blood-veffels, tendons, or membranes, all the bad confequences already mentioned which attend contuflon?t Ample wounds of thofe parts will enfue, and they will not at all b? alleviated by the circumflance of the fkin being whole. Hence it is eafy to fee how a contufion may produce ulcers of the worft kind, gangrene, fpha- celus, carious bones, See.', and if it happens to be on a glandular part, a feirrhus or cancer is very fre¬ quently found to enfue. Even the vifeera themfelves, efpecially of the abdomen, may be injured by con- tnfions to fuch a degree as to produce an inflammation, gangrene, or feirrhus, nay inftant death, without rupturing the fkin ; and fuch a blow as a man may ftrike with his fift will often be fufficient for this pur- pofe, as has been obferved in the cafe of fome cele¬ brated boxers. That the bones may be fractured along with a con¬ tufion, is known by every day’s experience ; however, without being broken, it is certain that they may be fo Crufhed and injured, that the medullary fubftance contained in them may be vitiated, and thus the moft grievous diforders may enfue. But in no part what- con*°fjons ever are cootufions more dangerous than in the heard, 0f the head as has been confirmed by the moft fatal experience, verydanger. Mr Pott divides into two clafles thofe injuries to which ons- the head is liable from contufion, viz. thofe in which the mifehiefis confined to the fcalp, and thofe where the other parts are concerned. The former is of little confequence ; the tumour attending it being eafily re¬ moved, or the extravafated blood with which it is filled may be difeharged by a fmall opening. One circumftance, however, he fays, attending this tumour, requires confiderable attention ; for the tumour here fometimes produces to the fingers a fenfation as if the cranium was broken and deprefled; whence an inex¬ perienced furgeon might be apt to remove the fcalp as in the real fra&ure, and thus give his patient a great deal of unneceflary pain. The touch therefore being in this cafe fallacious, it is necefiary to wait for the appearance of other fymptoms before we proceed to a divifion of the integuments. The moft dangerous contufions of the head are thofe of where the dura mater and parts within the fkull areextreme affefted; and in order to have a clear idea of this kind what altered in colour from a found healthy bone. Qfmum• this alteration it is not very eafy to convey an idea by words; but it is a very vifible one, and what fome very able writers have noticed. Among thefe Fallopius particularly: Infpiciatis diligenter os dsteftum: quod os, quando ejl in natura fua, eji co/oris fubrubri, non candidi prorfus, nee rubri prorfus, fed eft veluti color miftus ex albo declinans ad rubicandum, ut ft multo lade, aut alio colore candido, poneres parum fanguinis vel alteriurrei rubra. Sed ft videritis inaqualitatem coloris in ipfo ofe detedoy ita ut adftnt veluti punda coloris albs, et aridi ojjis, qua arida aliquando majores funt, aliquando mino- resy &c. feiatis quod os Jit contufum, . From this time the fymptoms generally, advance more haflily and more apparently; the fever increafes,.. the fkin becomes hotter, the pulfe quicker and harder, the fleep more difturbed, the anxiety and reftleffnefs more fatiguing; and to thefe are generally added irre¬ gular rigors, which are not followed by any critical fweat, and which, inftead of relieving the patient, add confiderably to his fufferings. If the fcalp has not been divided or removed until the fymptoms are thus far advanced; the alteration of the colour of the bone will be found to be more remarkable: it will be found to be whiter and more dry than a healthy one; or, as Fallopius has very juflly obferved, it will be found to be more like a dead bone: the fanies or fluid between it and the pericranium will alfo, in this ftate, be found to be more in quantity, and the faid membrane will have a more livid difeafed afpedt. In this (late of matters, if the dura mater be denu- Qf dur* ded, it will be found to be detached from the infide mater, of the cranium, to have lofl its bright filver hue, and to be as it were fmeared over with a kind of mucus, or with matter, but not with blood. Every hour after this period, all the fymptoms are exafperated, and ad¬ vance with hafty ftrides: the headach and thrift become more intenfe, the ftrength decreafes, the rigors are more frequent, and at laft convulfive motions, attended in fome with delirium, in others with paralyfis or co- matofe ftupidity, finifh the tragedy. If the fcalp has not been divided or removed till this „ the progrefs nor extravafation, nor commotion underneath it, and point of time, and it be done now, a very offenfive dif- ^ h.uqiB of the dif- the fcalp be neither confiderably bruifed nor wounded, coloured kind of fluid will be found lying on the baremcnts. S • the mifehief is feldom difeovered or attended to for fome few days. The firft attack is generally by pain in the part which received the blow. This pain, tho’ beginning in that point, is foon extended all over the head, and is attended with a languor or dejeftion of ftrength and fpirits, whicji are foon followed by a naufea and inclination to vomit, a vertigo or giddinefs, a quick and hard pulfe, and an incapacity of fleeping, at leaft quietly. A day or two after this attack, if no means to prevent inflammation are ufed, the part ge- cranium, whofe appearance will be ftill more unlike to the healthy natural one; if the bone be now perfora¬ ted, matter will be found between it and the dura ma¬ ter, generally in confiderable quantity, but different in different cafes and circumftances. Sometimes it will be in great abundance, and diffufed over a very large part of the membrane; and fometimes the quantity will be lefs, and confequently the fpace which it occu¬ pies fmaller. Sometimes it lies only on the exterior furface of the dura mater; aad fometimes it is between Part II. S U R Theory, it and the pia mater, or alfo even on the furface of the "brain, or within the fubftance of it. Caufcof Priroary ai,d original caufe of all this is the thefe fymp-ftr°ke upon the fkull: by this the veffels which (hould toms. carry on the circulation between the fcalp, pericra¬ nium, Ikull, and meninges, are injured; and no means being uftd to prevent the impending mifcbief, or fuch as have been made ufe of proving ineffectual, the ne- ceffary and mutual communication between all thefe parts ceafes; the pericranium is detached from the fkull, by means of a fanies difcharged from the ruptu¬ red veffels; the bone, being deprived of its due nourifh- ment and circulation, lofes its healthy appearance; and the dura mater (its attaching veffels being deftroyed, or rendered unfit for their office) feparates from the infide of the cranium, inflames, and fuppurates. Whoever will attend to the appearances which the parts concerned make in every ftage of the difeafe, to the nature of the fymptoms, the time of their accefs, their progrefs, and moil'frequent event, will find them all eafily and fairly deducible from the one caufe which has juft been affigned, viz. the contufion. As the in¬ flammation and feparation of the dura mater is not an immediate confequence of the violence, fo neither are the fymptoms immediate, feldom until feme days have paffed: the fever at firft is flight, but increafes gradu¬ ally; as the membrane becomes more and more difeafed, all the febrile fymptoms are heightened; the formation of matter occafions rigors, frequent and irregular, un¬ til fucb a quantity is colle&ed as brings on delirium, ns fpafm, and death. Appear- Hitherto we have confidered this difeafe as unac- ^"^’^"-companied by any other, not even by an external mark wounded, * ‘'’jury, except perhaps a trifling bruife of the fcalp: let us now fuppofe the fcalp to be wounded at the time of the accident, by whatever gave the contufion; or let us fuppofe, that, the immediate fymptoms having been alarming, a part of the fcalp had been removed in or¬ der to examine (kull. In this cafe the wound will for fome little time have the fame appearance as a mere Ample wound of this part, unattended with other mifehief, would have; it will, like that, at firft difeharge a thin fanies or gleet, and then begin to fuppurate ; it will digeft, begin to incarn, and look perfe&ly well. But after a few days all thefe favourable appearances will vanifh ; the fore will lofe its florid complexion and granulated furface, will become pale, glaffy, and flabby; inftead of good matter,it will difeharge only a thin difcoloured fanies; the lint with which it is dreffed, inftead of coming off cafily (as in a kindly fuppurating fore), will flick to all parts of it; and the pericranium, inftead of adhe¬ ring firmly to the bone, will feparate from it all round, to fome diftance from the edges. This alteration in the face and circumftances of the fore, is produced merely by the difeafed ftate of the parts underneath the fkull; which is a circumftance of great importance in fupport of the do&rine advanced; and is demonftrably proved, by obferving that this difeafed afped of the fore, and this fpontaneous fepa¬ ration of the pericranium, are always confined to that part which covers the altered or injured portion of the dura mater, and do not at all affeft the reft of the fcalp; nay, if it has by accident been wounded in any G E R Y. 8355 other part, or a portion has been removed from any Theory, part where no injury has been done to the dura mater, no fuch feparation will happen; the detachment above will always correfpond to that below, and be found no¬ where elfe. The firft appearance of alteration in the wound im¬ mediately fucceeds the febrile attack ; and as the fe¬ brile fymptoms increafe, the fore becomes worfe and worfe, that is, degenerates more and more from a healthy, kindly afped. Through the whole time, from the firft attack of the fever to the laft and fatal period, an attentive obferver will remark the gradual alteration of the colour of the bone if it be bare: at firft it will be found to be whiter and more dry than the natural one; and as the fymp¬ toms increafe, and either matter is collefted or the dura mater becomes floughy, the bone inclines more and more to a kind of purulent hue or whitiih yellow: and it may alfo be worth while in this place to remark, that if the blow was on or very near to a future, and the fubjeft young, the faid future will often feparate in fuch a manner as to let through it a loofe, painful, ill- conditioned fungus; at which time alfo it is no uncom¬ mon thing for the patient’s head and face to be attack¬ ed with an eryfipelas. We have faid, that in thofe cafes in which the fcalp is very little injured by the bruife, and in which there is no wound, nor any immediately alarming fymptoma or appearances, that the patient feels little or no in¬ convenience, and feidom makes any complaint until fome few days are paft. That at the end of this un¬ certain time, he is generally attacked by the fymptoms already recited. That thefe are not prtffing at firft, but that they foon increafe to fuch a degree as to baffle all our art; from whence it will appear, that when this is the cafe, the patient frequently fuffers from what feems at firft to indicate his {Safety, and prevents fuch attempts being made, and fuch care from being taken of them, as might prove preventative of mifehief. But if the integuments are fo injured as to excite or Ufeful in- claim our early regard, very ufeful information may formation from thence be collected. For whether the fcalp beto.be g*Ine they do moft probably imply an effufion of a fluid fomewhere. This effufion maybe in the fubftance of the brain; in its ventricles, between its membranes, or on the furfaceof the dura mater: and which of thefe is the real fituation of fuch extravafation, is a matter of great uncertainty; none of them being attended with any peculiar mark or fign that can be depended upon, as pointing it out precifely: but the inflammation of of the dura mater, and the formation of matter be¬ tween it and the fkull, in confequence of contufion, is generally indicated and preceded by a puffy, circum- fcribed, indolent tumour of the fcalp, and a fpontane- ous reparation of the pericranium from the Ikull under fuch tumour. Thefe appearances therefore following a fmart blow on the head, and attended with languor, pain, reftleff- nefs, watching, quick pulfe, headach, and flight ir¬ regular (hiverings, do almoft infallibly indicate an in¬ flamed dura mater, and pus either forming or formed between it and the cranium. By detachment of the pericranium is not meant every reparation of it from the bone which it fhould cover. It may be and often is cut, torn, or fcraped off, without any fuch confequence: but thefe repara¬ tions are violent; whereas this is fpontaneous, and is produced by the deftruflion of tbofe veffels by which it was conne&ed with the fkull, and by which the com¬ munication between it and the internal parts was car¬ ried on : and therefore it is to be obfcrved, that it is not the mere removal of that membrane which caufes the bad fymptoms, but it is the inflammation of the dura mater j of which inflammation this fpontaneous G E R Y. Part II. feceflion of the pericranium is an almoft certain indica- Theory, tion. Befides the mifchiefs already mentioned, Mr Pott ,19. obferves, that fometimes an exfoliation or reparation^pbaorta^™_ of both tables of the cranium takes place from exter-blcS of the nal violence, fuch as happen fpontaneoufly in old or cranium negle£led venereal diforders. This difeafe, which has fometimes its feat in the diploe, often fpoils the whole fubftancetakes plaee' of the bone, and produces a reparation of a part of it. This kind of venereal caries, is moft frequently of a fmall extent, and affefts different parts of the fkull; though fometimes it may be of large extent in one piece. The feparated part is generally quite carious, and appears as if it had been worm-eaten. The fur- face of the bone fo difeafed is feldom much elevated, though generally fomewhat: neither has it often the circumfcribed form and appearance of a true node, as it is called; though now and then it has. The fcalp which covers a bone in this ftate is moft frequently difeafed alfo; fometimes with one large ill- conditioned fore 5 but more often with a number o€ crude, foul, painful, ferpiginous ulcers; through moft of which a probe will difeover a rough bare bone, and from which is conftantly difeharged a greafy ftinking fanies. This complaint is generally accompanied by a nofturnal headacb, pocky fpots, and pains about the breaft and fhoulders; and is almoft always prece¬ ded by the former, though very frequently that fymp- tom ceafes, either during the mercurial courfes inftitu- ted for that purpofe, or when the pericranium covering the difeafed part becomes foul and floughy. The proportion of extent of furface which one table of thefe difeafed parts of the cranium bears to the dif¬ eafed part of the other table, is very uncertain, and of¬ ten very unequal. Sometimes the alteration of the outer tablets much more extenfive than that of the inner; in which cafe, when the feparation is made, the detached piece comes away very eafily, and the uncovered part of the dura mater is fmall compared to the fize of the external fore: but fometimes, on the contrary, the dif¬ eafe occupies a more confiderable extent of the inner table than of the outer, and thereby renders the cafe more difficult and the cure more tedious. ,3£) Where the fkull is broken, the moft. violent fymp-Of fraftures toms frequently, though not always, take place at the°fthecra* very beginning. Mr Pott divides this kind of injurynium* into two general claffes, viz. thofe in which the bro¬ ken parts keep their proper level, and thofe in which they do not; or, in other words, fra&ures without and fractures with depreffion. The fymptoms of a fradlured cranium have been unxverfally reckoned, Lofa of fenfe, giddinefs, vomiting, bleeding at the ears, nofc, mouth, &c. But though thefe do frequently ac¬ company a broken fkuil, they are by no means produ¬ ced by the breach made in the bone, nor do they in¬ dicate any fuch breach to have been made. They pro¬ ceed entirely from fome violence offered to the con¬ tents of the cranium, and either do or do not accom¬ pany fra&ures as they happen to be joined with fuch injuries or not. Thefe fymptoms are frequently pro¬ duced by extravafations of blood or ferum upon the membranes of the brain, or between them. They may alfo be the confequence of fhocks or concuffions of the brain itfelf, where the fkull is perfectly entire. On the other i Part II. S U R | Theory, other hand, the bones of the cranium are fometimes ■ cracked, broken, nay, even deprefled, and the patient iCDifficulty fuff(rr8 none thefe fymptoms. Hence it is difficult ;|of know;n(»know when the fletill is fra£tured and when it is not: r|whether the and hence arifes one fource of danger in contufions and l&uliisfrac-bounds of the head; for as it is impoffible to know laoT^ °r whether the cranium is fractured or not, the furgeon I* ‘ is often not warranted to divide the fcalp until fome urgent fymptoms appear, after which it too frequently happens that ail afiiftance comes too late. But if by any means the furgeon i* affured that the (kull is bro¬ ken, it will then be incumbent on him at all events to proceed in the manner to be afterwards direfted for cuiing thefe kinds of injuries. Sometimes, though rarely, it happens that one of tables of the flcull only is injured; but in this the fymp¬ toms are fo much alike with the foregoing, that it is needlefs to take further notice of them: we fliall there¬ fore only confider one fymptom more, and which at¬ tends injuries done to the fubftance of the brain itfelf. This is a fungous excrefcence of the brain, fomewhat refembling the fungous or proud flefh already men¬ tioned, which grows up in ill-conditioned wounds in any part of the body. Thefe fungi of the brain arife very fuddenly and unexpeffedly, and expand to a con- fiderable bulk; and grow the largeft when the patient is feized with a violent fever. However, they are fel- dom formed when the dura mater continues entire; for this membrane, being very ftrong, fufficiently confines the brain: but when it is divided, together with the pia mater, the fungi increafe mod of all. Thefe fub- ftances feem entirely to be produced from the cortical fubftance of the brain, and never have any portion of the medulla; whence they are fometimes extirpated with fafety, though their appearance is at any rate to be accounted a very bad fymptom. In violent contufions and lacerations of the mem¬ branes and tendons, all the fymptoms which we have before mentioned will arife with aggravation ; and death very frequently enfues, after the itioft terrible convulfions. Thefe are very frequent in gunfhot wounds; but the different ways in which people may be affected in confequence of thfefe wounds, it is im- Df gunthot pofiible to recount. One thing to be obferved in gun- vounds. (hot wounds is, that the entrance of them is always nar¬ rower than the place where the ball comes out, provi¬ ded it goes quite through the limb ; becaufe the vio¬ lent impetus of the ball drives in and contufes the fltfti J35 before it as it goes in, while it lacerates and tears it Why there out in going through the other fide. By reafon of is little has->^8 extreme contulion and laceration, there is fre- to°hefe^y quently very little haemorrhagy from gunfhot wounds, wounds. even when confiderable veffels are injured; and hence probably proceeds the notion of an efchsr in gunftiot [)f contu- G E R Y. 8357 wounds, as if they were burnt by the heat of the bul- Theory. let. But it is impofiible that a true efehar can in this cafe be formed ; becaufe it is demonftrated that bul¬ lets acquire no heat while flying in the air, nor unlefs they ftrike upon an hard obftacle *. That a violent * See PHI. diftenfion of the veffels will prevent hssmorrhagy, is Tra*f plain from the cafe of thofe who have unhappily g0( Vo!. Ixxi. their arms torn off by entangling about mills or other parC machinery; for in none of thefe do the axillary artery bleed, notwithftanding its magnitude. The reafon of this feems to be, that the veffels entirely lofe their ela- fticity, and collapfe by the preffure of the furrounding parts in fuch a manner that the blood cannot pafs through them. I3(J With regard to the cure of Ample contufions of the Cure of flefhy parts, they are in general eafily removed by hmPl« coar* the common difeutient applications, of which none is tuPlolls* better than vinegar and crude fal ammoniac. If the blow has been very violent, the part will perhaps fup- purate; in which cafe it is to be treated as afterwards direfted when we come to fpeak of tumours. The danger of contufed wounds in the head, however, is greater than in any other part of the body. Here it of ccuvtufed fometimes happens, that the fcalp is fo wounded at the wounds of time of the accident, or fo torn away, as to leave the the head, bone perfe&ly bare, and yet the violence has not been where the' fuch as to produce the evil abovementioned. In this P;uII^r'!l’n(j cafe, if the pericranium be only turned back along with fcaip are the detached portion of fcalp, there may be probability detached of its reunion ; and it ftiould therefore be immediately frora lhe made clean and replaced, for the purpofe of fuch expe- bone* riment, which, if it fucceeds, will fave much time, and prevent confiderable deformity. If this attempt does not fucceed, the detached piece may be removed, and the cafe then becomes as if the fcalp and the pericra¬ nium bad been forced away at the time that the wound was firft infli&ed ; and the word that can happen, is an exfoliation from the bare (kull (c). It does alfo fometimes happen, that the force which detaches or removes the fcalp does alfo occafion the mifehief in queftion ; but the integument being wound¬ ed or removed, we cannot have the criterion of the tumour of the fcalp for the direclion of our judgment. In thefe circumftances our whole attention mult be di- refted to the wound and general fymptoms. The edges of the former will digeft as well, and look as kindly for a few days, as if no mifehief was done tin- 133 derneath: but after fome little fpace of time, when the ■^PPearailc5 patient begins to be reftlefs and hot, and to complain of pain in the head, thefe edges will lofe their vermi- when the lion hue,and become pale and flabby; inftead of mat-internal ter, they will difeharge a thin gleet; and the pertcra-Pa.rts are nium will loofen from the (kull, to fome diftance frominjllred*' the faid edges. Immediately after this, all the general fymp- (c) Not that exfoliation is the neceflary confequence of the (kull being laid bare; this depends upon other circum¬ ftances befides the mere removal of the fcalp and pericranium. The folidity of the furface of the bones, the fize of the vefiels, and the impulfe of the blood through them, are what principally determine that. If the cortex of the bone be not very hard, and the impulfe of the blood be capable of counterbalancing the effects of the external air, a granula¬ tion of flefti will be generated on the furface of the bone, which will cover and firmly adhere to it, without throwing off the fmalleft exfoliation, efpecially in young fubjefts. On the contrary, if the bone be much hardened, and the veffels thereby conftringed; or if fuch applications be made ufe of as will produce an artificial conftridlion of them; the furface will neceffarily become dry, and, the juices ceafing to circulate through it, it muft part with a fcale to a cer¬ tain depth ; that is, that part through which the circulation ceafes to be carried' on will be feparated from and caft ofl'by the veffels which nouriih the reft of the bone. '8357 Theory. : fyrnptoms are increafed and inflammation of the membrane is heightened tended, they become daily worfe and worfe, until a quantity of matter is formed, and colledted, and brings on that fatal period which, though uncertain as to date, very feldom fails to — SURGERY. Part XL ;afperated, and as the colle&ed under the cranium, can be anfwered only by Theory, ^ the perforation of it. When, from the fymptoms and appearances already Dil-p^ ' defcribed, there is juft reafon for fuppofing matter to concerning be formed under the fltull, the operation of perforation the per- cannot be performed too foon; it ftldom happens that foyming . 1 , this opera- The method of attempting the relief of this kind of it is done foon enough. of bleeding. It ought never to be omitted. injury confifts in two points; viz. to endeavour to pre¬ vent the inflammation of the dura mater; or, that be- ing negle&ed, or found impracticable, to give dif- charge to the fluid collected within the cranium in con- fequence of fuch inflammation. Of all the remedies in the power of art for inflam¬ mations of membranous parts, there is none equal to phlebotomy. To this truth many difeafes bear tefti- mony; pleurifies, ophthaltnies, ftrangulated hernias, &c. and if any thing can particularly contribute to the prevention of the ills likely to follow fevere contufions of the head, it is this kind of evacuation : but then it muft be made ufe of in fuch a manner as to become truly a preventative; that immediately, and freely. It will in general indeed be found very difficult to perfuade a perfon, who has had what may be called only a knock on the pate, to fubmit to fuch difcipline, efpecially if he finds himfelf tolerably well. He will be inclined to think, that the furgeon is either unne- ceffarily apprehenfive, or guilty of a much worfe fault; and yet, in many inftances, the timely ufe or the ne- gleft of this Angle remedy makes all the difference between fafety and fatality. It may be faid, that as the force of the blow, the height of the fall, the weight of the inftrument, &c. can never precifely or certainly determine the effeft, nor inform us whether mifchief is done under the bone or not, a large quantity of blood may be drawn off un- neceffariiy in order to prevent an imaginary evil. This is in fome degree true; and if the advice juft given were The propriety or impropriety of applying the tre¬ phine in cafes wdiere there is neither fiffure, fra&ure, nor fymptom of extravafation, is a point which has been much litigated, and remains dill unfettled either by writers or praftitioners. When there is no reafon for fufpefling either of thofe injuries, either from the fymptams or from the appearances, and the pericranium, whether the fcalp be wounded or not, remains firmly attached in all parts to the fkull, there certainly is not (let the general fymptoms be what they may) any indication where to apply the inftrument; and confequently no fufficient authority for ufing it at all. But whenever that mem- ought al- j it muft be made ufe of brane, after the head has received an external violence, ways to be feparates, or is detached fpontaneoufly from the bones performed underneath it, and fuch reparation is attended with the 'vt,fre A)6 colletftion of a fmall quantity of thin brown ichor, an femmes'"* alteration of colour in the feparated pericranium, and from the an unnatural drinefs of the bone, we cannot help fkull. thinking that there is as good reafon for trepanning as in the oafeof fra&ure: we believe experience would vindicate us, if we faid better reafon; fince it is by no means unfrequent for the former kind of cafe to do well without fuch operation, whereas the latter (we mean fuppuration under the fkull) never can. All the belt praftitioners have always agreed in ac¬ knowledging the neceffity of perforating the fkull in the cafe of a fevere ftroke made on it by gunfhot, upon the appearance of any threatening fymptoms, even though the bone fhould not be brsken: and very good praftice it is. A wound by gunfhot (as far as it re* univerfally followed, many people would be largely lates to the flcull) is to be regarded only as one attend- Of perfora* ting the cra¬ nium. bled without neceffity ; but then, on the other handj many a very valuable life would be preferved, which ibr want of this kind of affiftance is loft. And if it be allowed to ufe fuch means as may be in themfelves ha¬ zardous, furely it cannot be wrong to employ one which is not fo; at leaft if it be confidered in a gene¬ ral fenfe, whatever it may accidentally prove to fome few particular individuals. Acceleration or hardnefs of pulfe, reftleffnefs, anxiety, and any other degree of fever, after a fmart blow on the bead, are always to be fufpe&ed and attended to. Im¬ mediate, plentiful, and repeated evacuation by bleeding, have in many inftances removed thefe, in perfons to whom, in all probability, very terrible mifchief would have hap¬ pened had not fuch precaution been ufed. In this, as well as fome other parts of pra&ice, we neither have nor can have any other method of judging, than by comparing together cafes apparently fimilar. It is by no means, however, to be inferred from hence, that early bleed¬ ing will always prove a certain prefervative; and that they only die to whom it has not been applied: this, like all other human means, is fallible ; and perhaps there are more cafes out of its reach than within it: but where preventative means can take place, this is certainly the beft, and the moft frequently fuccefsful. ed with a very high degree of contufion, and there¬ fore moft likely to produce fymptoms accordingly; among which, inflammation of the dura matter {lands principal. Experience confirms both: moft of the fymptoms attending wounds of the head made by gun- ffiot, are fymptoms of contufion ; and the formation of matter between the cranium and dura mater is a very frequent and very fatal confequence of fuch contufion. In ffiort, the fpontaneous feparation of the pericra¬ nium, if attended with general diforder of the patient, with a chillinefs, horripilatio, languor, and fome de¬ gree of fever, appears to us, from all the obfervation we have been capable of making, to be fo fure and certain an indication of mifchief underneath, either prefent or impending, that we ftiould never hefitate about perforating the bone in fuch circumftances. When the Ikull has been once perforated, and the In 1 dura mater thereby laid bare, the ftate of the latter cafes it is :f muft principally determine the furgeon’s future con- to he re- | duft. In fome cafes one opening will prove fufficient P63'611, for all neceffary purpofes, in others feveral may be ne- ctffary. This variation will depend on the fpace of detached dura mater and the quantity of colle&ed matter. The repetition of the operation is warranted both by the nature of the cafe, and by the beft autho- The fecond intention^ viz. the difebarge of matter titles, -there being no companion to be made betw; the jfrhe anti- ilijphlogiftic ni; regimen necedary fifter the iperation. * I U7 3 WOf cafes lilwhere the nJcranium is ft|fra£Uircd. Part II. S U R Theory, the pofiible iiiconvenienee arifing from largely denu- ' dura mater, and the certain as well as te.rrible evils which muft follow the formation and confinement of matter between it and the fkull. It can hardly be neceffary to obferve, that notwith* Handing the cj>eration of perforation be abfolutely and unavoidably neceflary, yet the repetition of blood-let¬ tings of cooling laxative medicines, the ufe of antiphlo- giftic remedies, and a moll Itridl obfervance of a low diet and regimen, are as indifpenfably requilite after fuch operation as before: the perforation fets the mem¬ brane free from preffure, and gives vent to collected matter, but nothing more: the inflamed Hate of the parts under the flcnll, and all the neceffary confequences of fuch inflammation, call for all our attention full as much afterwards as before; and although the patient muft have perilhed without the ufe of the trephine, yet the merely having ufed it will not preferve him with¬ out every other caution and care. In thofe cafes where the bone is evidently fradlured, if the folution of continuity be either produced by fuch a degree of violence as hath caufed a confiderable di- fturbance in the medullary parts of the brain, or has difturbed any of the fun&ions of the nerves going off from it, or has occafloned a breach of any veffel or veffels, whether fanguine or lymphatic, and that hath been followed by an extravafation or lodgement of fluid, the fymptoms neceffarily confrquent upon fuch derangement, or fuch preffure, will follow; but they do not followbecaufe the bone is broken: theircaufes are fuperadded to the fra&ure ; and although produced by the fame external violence, are yet perfe&Iy and abfolutely independent of it; fo much fo, that, as we have already obferved, they are frequently found where no frafture is. The operation of the trepan is frequently performed in the cafe of Ample fradtures, and that very judicioufly and properly. But it is not performed becaufe the bone is broken or cracked: a mere fradlure or fiffure of the Ikull can never require perforation, or that the dura mater under it be laid bare. The reafon for doing this fprings from other caufes than the fradlure, and thofe really independent on it. They fpring from the nature of the mifehief which the parts within the cra¬ nium have fuftained, and not from the accidental divi- fion of the bone. From thefe arife the threatening fymptorns, from thefe all the hazard, and from thefe the neceflity and vindication of performing the opera¬ tion of the trepan. If a Ample fradlure of the cranium was unattended in prefent with any of the before-mentioned fymp¬ toms, and there was no reafon for apprehending any other evil in future, that is, if the folution of conti¬ nuity in the bone was the whole difeafe, it could not poffibly indicate any other curative intention but the general one in all fra&ures, viz. union of the divided parts. But how can fuch union be promoted or af- fifted by perforation? It moft certainly cannot; and yet perforation is abfolutely neceffary in feven cafes out of ten of Ample undepreffed fraftures of the (kull. Reafons for The reafons for trepanning in thefe cafes are, flrft, the trepanning immediate relief of prefent fymptoms ariflng from preffure of extravafated fluid; or, fecond, the dif- charge of matter formed between the Ikull and dura mater in confequence of icftaraatfUion ; or, third, the 148 G E R Y. 8359 prevention of fuch mifehief as experience has ihown Theory, may moft probably be expefted from fuch kind of "" violence offered to the laft-mentioned membrane. In the flrft cafe (that of an extravafated fluid within the cranium), the relief from perforation is not only fometimes immediate, but frequently is not attainable by any other means. This is a fufficient proof, not only of its utility, but of its neceflity. In the fecond (of formation of matter between the fkull and dura mater), there is no natural outlet by which fuch matter can efcape ; and the only chance of life is from the operation1. In the third, that of mere fraflure, without depref- flon of bone, or the appearance of fuch fymptoms as indicate commotion, extravafation, or inflammation, it is ufed as a preventative ; and therefore is a matter of choice more than immediate neceflity. Many pradlitioners, both ancient and modern, have therefore difufed and condemned it; and have, in ca¬ fes where there have been no immediate bad fymptoms, advifed to leave the frafture to nature, and not to perform the operation as a preventative, but to wait until its neceflity may be indicated by fuch fymptoms as may both require and vindicate it. This” is a point of the utmoft confequence in pra&ice, and ought to be very maturely confldered. 149 They who object to the early ufe of the trephine, Objeflions fpeak of it as being frequently unneceffary, and as ufc 0f the^ rendering the patient liable to feveral inconveniences trephine, which may arife from uncovering the dura mater be¬ fore there is any good or at leaft any apparent rea¬ fon for fo doing. And in fupport of this their opi¬ nion, they allege many inftances of Ample fra&ure, which have been long undifeovered, without being at¬ tended with any bad fymptoms ; and of others which, though known and attended to from the flrft, have done very well without fuch operation. J50 They who advife the immediate ufe of the inftru- Anfwcred^ ment, do it upon a prefumption that, in confiderable violence received by the head, fuch mifehief is done to the dura mater, and the veffels by which it is con- nefted to the cranium, that inflammation of the faid membrane muft follow ; which inflammation generally produces a colleftion of matter and a fymptomatic fever, which moft frequently baffles all our art, and ends in the deftru&ion of the patient. What the former affert is undoubtedly fometimes true. There have been feveral inftances of undepreffed fraflures of the Ikull, which either from having been undifeovered at firft, or neglefled, or having been under the care of a pra&itioner who has difliked the operation, have done very well without it. This is certainly true, but is not fufficient to found a general rule of practice upon : in matters of this fort, a few inftances are by no means fufficient to eftablirti a pre¬ cedent : that which is found to be moft frequently ufeful, is what we ought to abide by; referving to ourfelves a liberty of deviating from fuch general rule in particular cafes. This is one of thofe perplexing circumftances which all writers lament, and all pra&itioners feel; but which, inftead of merely complaining of, we (hould endeavour, as much as in us lies, to corredl. In order to obtain what information we can on this fubjeft, we fliould confiderj firftj what the mifehiefs are 8360 Theory. I5i ^Dangers arifingfrom a delay of the opera¬ tion. IS* Thole which fol¬ low the operation itfclf. Much lefs than thofe ■which at- hy. 'tS 6 S U R G R Y. Part II, are, which may moft probably be expefted to follow, or which moft frequently do follow, when perforation haabeentoolongdeferredortotallynegleded; fecondly, what prejudice or inconvenience does really arife from, or is thought to be caufed by, the operation itfelf, confidered abftra&edly ; and, thirdly, what propor¬ tion the number of thofe who have done well without it bears to that of thofe who may truly be faid to have been loft for want of it, or of thofe to whom it might have afforded fome chance of relief. With regard to the firft, we have already obferved in the cafe of Ample undepreffed fraftures, whenever the trephine is applied, it muft be with defign either to relieve or to prevent ills ariling from other mifehief than the mere breach in the bone; which breach, confidered Amply and abftradledly, can neither caufe fuch ills, nor be relieved by fuch operation. One, and that the moft frequent, of thefe mifehiefs, is the inflammation, detachment, and fuppuration of the dura mater, and confequently the colleftion of matter between it and the fkull; a cafe of all others attend¬ ing wounds of the head, the moft preffing, the moft hazardous, and the leaft within our power to relieve. Indeed, the only probable method of preventing this evil feems to be the removal of fuch a part of the flcull as, by being broken, appears plainly to have been the part where the violence was infli&ed; and which, if the dura mater becomes inflamed, and quit¬ ting its connexion fuppurates, will, in all probability, cover and confine a colleftion of matter for which na¬ ture has provided no outlet. The fecond confideration propofed was, What mif¬ ehief or inconvenience may moft reafonably be fup- pofed to follow or to proceed from the mere opera¬ tion confidered abftra&edly. They who are averfe to the ufe of it as a preventative, allege that it occa- fions a great lofs of time; that it is frequently quite unneceffary ; and that the admiflion of air to the dura mater, as well as the laying of it bare, is neceflarily prejudicial. The former of thefe is undoubtedly true : a perfon whofe fkull has been perforated cannot pofiibly be well (that is, cured) in fo fhort a fpace of time as one who has not undergone fuch operation, fuppofing fuch perfon to have fuftained no other injury than the mere fra&ure ; and if the majority of the people whofe fleulls are broken, were fo lucky as to fuftain no other injury, that is, if no other mifehief was in thefe cafes in general done to the parts contained within the fkull, the objeftion to perforation would be real and great, and the operation a matter of more ferious confidera¬ tion. But this is feldom the cafe ; by much the lar¬ ger number of thofe who fuffer a frafture of the fkull, are injured with regard to other parts, and labour un¬ der mifehief of another kind additional to the frac¬ ture ; that is, the parts within the cranium are injured as well as the cranium itftlf. This being the cafe, the lofs or wafte of a little time ceafes to be an objeft of fo great importance. The hazard which it is fup- pofed may be incurred from laying bare the dura ma¬ ter is indeed a matter of fome weight: fo that it cer¬ tainly ought not to be done but for very good rea- fons: and yet, let the fuppofed hazard be what it may, it cannot, in the nature of things, be by any means -equal to that which muft be incurred by not doing it when fuch operation becomes neeeflary. In fhort, if Theory we would form a right judgment of this point, the r"' queftion concerning it ought to ftand thus : Is the chance of ill which may proceed from merely denuding the dura mater, equal to that of its not being fo hurt by the blow as to inflame and fuppuratc ? Or is thp mifehief which may be incurred by mere perforation of the fkull, equal to the good which it may produce ? Thefe queftions, let thofe who have feen moft bufmefs of this kind, and who are therefore the beft judges, confiderand determine. The third confideration, viz. What proportion the number of thofe who have efcaped without the opera¬ tion bears to that of thofe who have perifhed for want of it, is in great meafure included in the two prece¬ ding ; at leaft the determination of them muft alfo de¬ termine this. ij “ The number of cafes of this kind (fays Mr Pott) V1 which are neceflarily brought into a large hofpital fo c j 11 * 1 *111 r concernii lituated as 13artholomew7s is, in the middle of a po- the nun pulous city, where all kinds of hazardous labour are bers of carried on, has enabled me to make many obfervations thofe whi on them; and although I have now and then feen fome few of them do well without the ufe of the tre- 0fitt phine, yet the much greater number whom I have fecn perifh with colleiftions of matter within the cra¬ nium, who have not been perforated, and for whom there is no other relief in art or nature, has, I muft acknowledge, rendered me fo very cautious and diffi¬ dent, that although I will not fay that I would al¬ ways and invariably perform the operation in every cafe of Ample frafture, yet the cafe muft be particu¬ larly circumftanced, the profpeA much fairer than it moft frequently is, and my prognoftic delivered in the. moft guarded apprehenfive manner, when I omit it. I fhould be forry to be fo mifunderftood as to have it fuppofed that I mean to fay, that I think the denu¬ dation of the dura mater a matter of abfolute indiffer¬ ence, or that no ill can proceed from it. This I know is a point concerning which the beft praftition- ers have differed, and concerning which we will ftand in need of information ; but I think I may venture to fay, what is fully to my prefent purpofe, viz. that enlarging the opening of a fra&ure by means of a trephine will not produce or occafion much rifle or hazard additional to what muft be occafioned by the fradure itfelf: that has already let in the air upon the membrane ; and therefore that confideration is, at leaft in fome degree, at an end, and the principal point to be determined ftill remains the fame, viz. Whe¬ ther, upon a fuppofition that the dura mater may pof- fibly not have been fo injured as to inflame and fup- purate in future, the operation ought not to be pra&i- fed as a preventative, but, on the contrary, ought rather to be deferred until worfe fymptoms indicate the neceffity of it ? or, Whether it ought in general to be performed early, in order, if poffible, to pre¬ vent and guard againft a very probable as well as very terrible mifehief? “I know that it may be faid, that a fra&ure, if of any confiderable fize, or whofe edges are fairly diftant and unconne&ed, will ofitfdf make fome way fordif- charge from within : and fo it certainly may and does, in the cafe of an effufion of fluid blood ; but even in this * it very feldom proves fufficient for the purpofe. But does f. Part II. S U R G | Theory. doe8 not the diftant reparation of the edges imply greater reparation of the attaching veflels of the dura mater ? and does not experience too often prove this to be the cafe ? In truth, the great advantage which is fometimes derived from confiderable fraftures, is .moft frequent in thofe cafes where portions of bone are fo loofe as to be removeable; which removal of bone ftands in place of perforation, and makes much more for the neceffity of the operation in other cafes j iJS thanagainft.it, if properly confidered. HI Cafes of fn confirmation of the above doftrine Mr Pott io eontiifions adduces a great many cafes. Of contufions of the 'f of die head head without any wound he mentions five. The firft, R an^a man that was knocked down in a mob; he foon re- & mentioned covered his fenfes, and, after being plentifully bled, 4<: by Mr Pott, was to appearance well in three days. Six days after, 1H he was taken ill with the fymptoms of a beginning inflammation of the dura mater ; which having conti¬ nued three days, he was again taken under Mr Pott’s care.—It was now twelve days from the accident; and after this the fymptoms continually increafed until the feventeenth day, when he died. Two days before his death, a tumour, which had arifen on tbe fpot where the injury had been received, was laid open, and a thin brown fanies difcharged. The cranium was altered from its healthy appearance, but without fra&ure or fiffure. On opening the head, a confiderable quantity of matter was found betwixt the dura mater and the ikull under the difeafed part, but I nowhere elfe. The fecond cafe was a boy of nine years of age, who had been ftunned for a minute or two by a fall from a cart. In two days he fecmed to be quite well: but in five days after, that is, in feven from the accident, he complained of the fymptoms already mentioned ; which having continued for fix days longer, Mr Pott was called, and found about a third part of the parietal bone covered with a flattifh tumour, containing a fluid. The fcalp was now divided, and the cranium found in a difeafed ftate; but a phyfician who alfo at¬ tended him over-ruled Mr Pott when he intended to perforate it. The child grew worfe, and died in three days. On opening the body, a colle&ion of matter was found below the difeafed part of the bone; and I about the middle of it the dura mater was difcoloured and floughy, containing about a fpoonful of matter betwixt it and the pia mater. In the third cafe, a labourer fell from a fcaffold two Hories high, by which he was ftunned, but feemed well next day. Five days after, he began to com¬ plain of the ufual fymptoms of an oppreflfed brain* to which was added a fenfation as if a cord was drawn tight round the encephalon ; and on the right fide of his forehead was a fmall tumour, which being opened, was found to c ntain a brown fluid. The bone was difeafed, and a circular piece of the fcalp cut out. However, as- only internal remedies, fuch as bleeding, neutral falls, &c. were made life of, all the fymptoms were aggravated. On the tenth day, the fore was pale, fpongy, and glafly, and the fcalp" feparated from the fkull to fome diftance. This day a piece of the bone was removed, and the dura mater under it found fmeared with matter. Next day he was worfe in every refpedl; upon which a larger piece of the bone was removed, and a confiderable quantity of matter Vol. X. E R Y. 8361 difcharged. This done, finding his pulfe ftili high Theory, and full, ten ounces of blood were drawn off, and a' glyfter inje&ed. The lofs of blood produced a fwoon- ing, which lafted fome minutes, after which he faul he thought his head was eafier. As the evening ap¬ proached, the fymptoms returned, and therefore fome leeches were applied to his temples. That night, for the firft time, he got a little quiet fleep, and in the morning of the 12th day he laid that his head was perfeflly eafy; a very large difeharge had been made throngh the perforation in the cranium, and the wound in the fcalp had rather a better afpeft. He was kept ftri&ly to a low regimen ; took at firft the fal abfynthii mixture freely : when his pain had left him, his phyfician ordered him the bark ; and in a very few days every bad fymptom left him. The fourth cafe was a lad of about twelve years of age, whowas ftruckfenfelefs by the blow of a bat on his forehead, as he flood befide a man playing at cricket. A confiderable fwelling arofe on the part: he was treated with bleeding, purging, and the antiphlogiftic regimen ; and at the end of nine days was difcharged as well. In five days after, 14 from the accident, he returned with complaints of an oppreffed brain. The fymptoms continued to increafe, notwithftanding all that could be done, till the 20th, when the forehead which had formerly been fwelled and fubfided, begin- ning again to look tumvd and puffy, the integuments were divided; the pericranium was found to have quitted its adhefion for more than the breadth of a crown piece, and between it and the bone was a fmall quantity of thin difcoloured fluid. The trephine be¬ ing applied, a large difeharge of matter continued for a week ; and the boy again got well. The fixth cafe terminated fatally, though the tre¬ phine was applied on the tenth day. The patient was a woman, a feller of greens ; who, in a quarrel with her hufband, had been ftruck over the head with a mopftick. The blow neither fetched blood nor brought her to the ground; and (he continued, notwithftanding an irregular life, for a week, without any omplaint: flic was then taken with the ufual fymptoms ; and, two days after, the operation was performed on one fide of the fagittal future, and clofe to it. The dura mater was altered from its natural colour, and fmeared over with matter. All the fymptoms were now ag¬ gravated, and a violent eryfipelas came on; upon which the trephine was applied on the other fide the future, and the fame kind of appearance found as be¬ fore. The fymptoms continued without any abate¬ ment; and a third opening being made near to the firft, vent was thereby given to fo large a quantity of matter, that Mr Pott was convinced the event muft be fatal. Accordingly the patient died on the 16th day; and upon opening the head, the dura mater was found covered with matter, under the whole internal furface of both parietal bones ; but the firm adhefion of the longitudinal finus to the fagittal future had prevent¬ ed all communication between the two colleftions of matter. Of feven cafes of contufion with one or more wounds, q[ canv.:- mentioned by the fame author, four died, notwith- fums with (landing the operation being performed ; the collec- wounds, tions of matter being fo large, or fo fituated, that it was impofiiblc to give vent to it by art. One of thefe 41 X cafes 8362 Theory. U7 A remark- abJc one. SURGERY. Part It. cafes was r«markable, as it fliows the difference be- to take fome medicines of the febrifuge kind. A day Theory. tween fymptoms arifing from an injury done to the or two more paffed in this manner, his fever not * brain at the time the contufion is received, and that violent,but rather increafing 'ban remitting; his pain, which fpontaneoufly follows the inflammation of the though not acute, yet fuch as to deprive him of his dura mater: we fliall'therefore give it in Mr Pott’s fleep; little rigors occurring irregularly, no perfpira- own words. tion, and an exceflive langour. At lad, on the 2t(l “ A fireman who was at work on the top of an houfe, day, on the upper part of the os occipitis, on the fell in with the roof of it; he was taken out fenfelefs, right fide, where there had been a fmall bruife, a and brought in that ftate to the hofpital. tumour arofe, fo chara&erized as to fatisfy me that “ He had on different parts of hisbodyfeveral wounds the caufe of the late alteration of circumftances lay and bruifes, but none of them feemed to be of any underneath it: it did not rife to any height, aqd con- great confequence. On his head were four, one of tained a fmall quantity of fanies, but covered a por- fome fize, on the upper part of the frontal bone, tion of bone which the pericranium had quitted. I near to the coronal future; two on the left parietal; removed the fcalp, and would have fet on a trephine; one on the right fide of his head, juft above his ear ; but the man obftinately refufed to fubmit to it. and a fmall bruife on the upper part of the os occipitis. “ On the 25th day he loft the ufe of his left leg and Of all thefe wounds, the pericranium was divided in arm, and was much convulfed in thofe of his right one only, viz. that near the coronal future. fide; which paralyfis and fpafm continued until the “ His wounds were dreffed, he was largely bled, a 2.7th, and on the 28th he died, glyfter was thrown up, and a purging mixture was “ Upon examining his head, a colle&ion of matter ordered to be given cochltatim, until he (hould have a was found under the bare part of the occipital bone; difeharge pa' anurn. The next day he was in the the dura mater under this matter was floughy and feme ftate, perfe&ly fenfelefs, had the apople&ic putrid; and about a defert-fpoonful of matter lay bc- ftertor, a full labouring interrupted pulfe, and fome tween the meninges, juft under the altered part of the difficulty of refpiration. He had four or five large dura mater. In the part where the bloody extra- ftools; wherefore his mixture was difeontinued, but vafation had been, every thing was perfeftly fair and fixteen ounces more of blood were drawn from one of free from difeafe. the jugular veins; which evacuation was repeated. “ In this cafe, there feems to have been as clear a again in the evening of the fame day, to the quantity diftindiion between the bloody extravafation, with its of eight more. On the third day, being ftill per- effedls, and the inflammatory ftate of the dura mater, feclly ftupid, difeharging both urine and faeces in- with its confequences, as can be defired. All the voluntarily, and having ftill a full labouring pulfe,. firft fymptoms were fuch as were caufed by mere both the temporal arteries were opened, and fourteen preflure of the extravafated blood; an obliteration of ounces drawn from thence. On the fourth, finding every fenfible faculty, attended with the principal no alteration, and being fatisfied that the man’s ftate fymptoms of an interrupted circulation. Perforation could hardly be made worfe, I determined to perfo- of the Ikull, where this extravai'ation had been made, rate the cranium; and accordingly fet a large trephine did, by giving difeharge to the blood, happily remove on the upper part of the frontal bone, where the pe- thefe; and the man was getting well apace, until the ricranium had been divided. The dura mater was ills arifing from another caufe, viz. the inflammatory found to be thinly covered with grumous blood, fome feceffion of the dura mater in confeqiience of contu- <>f which I removed, and thereby made way for the fion, and that in another place, began to appear: they difeharge of more. The next day (the fifth), finding indeed made their attack rather late, nor did they that what difeharge had been made during the night rife fo high as they moft frequently do ; but then it was bloody, and that the man was in no refpefl al- muft be confidered what difcipline the poor man had tered for the better, I thought I had fufficient au- undergone, and what evacuation had been made. thority for repeating the operation; which I accord- Notwithftanding which, they bore their true, genuine, tngly did, clofe by and below the former; and as the febrile, inflammatory chara&er, and produced their blow by which the wound had been infti&ed feemed moft frequent event. What perforation of the os to have been almoft exadlly on the top of his head, I occipitale might have done, I cannot fay ; I fear but made a third opening in the parietal bone, clofe to the little, as the matter was not only upon but under- future. The appearance under all was the fame as neath the dura mater, and that too difeafed.” ,Sfj ij under the firft, viz. a thin layer of grumous, or rather Of the caries of the cranium, mentioned n° 129. four Cafes of a t coagulated, blood. examples are brought; of which only one terminated cane.s of “ Next day (the fixth), toward the evening, the man fatally, at leaft from the apparent injury done to tVie crarilUia' 1 epened his eyes ; and on the feventh, in the morning, brain; although another died of a peripneumony,after he fpake. The difeharge of blood continued for fe- every thing feemed to be in a fair way. In this lift veral days, and at the end of about a week frpm this the trephine was applied upon the carious part of the time ceafed; the dura mater and the wounded fcalp bone; but in the other three it feparated fpontaneoufly. wearing as good an afpeft as could be wifhed, and the Twelve cafes are related by our author of Bffures or ^ patient being eafy and rational. and fradlures of the cranium without any depreffion. and frac- ) “ On the i8ih day, he complained of pain all Of thefe fix. recovered, and as many died. The,ure$with- over the head; was lick, reached to vomit, and faid fymptoms were generally the fame as in contufions°“tnclePre*-’v{ * that he was faint and chilly. On the 19th, his face without fra&ures. In one cafe, indeed, where a girl of was flufhed, his fkin hot, his pulfe quick and hard. 16 had got a violent blow on the head with an iron He was let blood, and ordered to have a glyfter,, and poker, (he had a large, wound on the top of her head. r Parc II. S U R T Theory, head, with a confiderable fradure on the fagittal ' future. The broken pieces were fo large and foloofe that they were removed without any perforation, by which the longitudinal finus was left bare for at leaf! two inches in length ; but no haemorrhagy followed from the removal of the fragments.—For three days ihe was bled twice a-day from one part or other, and 'ftools were procured: but all to no purpofe ; fhe ftill remained quite infenfible. On the fifth day an opening was made with a lancet into the longitudinal finus, and the blood fuffered to runoff, until her countenance, tvhich had been much flufhed, became pale; her pulfe, which till then had been full and ftrong, faultered con- fiderably, and flic fhowed all the marks of a deliquium from inanition. A bit of lint was then put on the orifice, and the nurfe was ordered to keep her fin¬ ger on it, till Mr Pott had vifited the other pa¬ tients in the houfe. On his return, the part fhowed no difpofition to bleed again, nor did it ever after. That afternoon fhe opened her eyes, and moved her arms, and the next morning was fenfible enough to afk for drink. Shvas free from all complaints; granulations began to appear on the wound, which looked well; s and the ufe of the drops was difconhnued. He re¬ mained well till the 16th ; about which time he was ‘ feized with giddinefs and a ficknefs at his ftomacb. Eight ounces of blood were then taken away, and feme ftools procured by a purging draught. On the 19th the giddinefs and ficknefs entirely left him. On the 21ft his ficknefs returned, with great pain in his head: he was then directed to take a fcruple of Dovar’s powder at night. On the 36th all his com¬ plaints were gone. He was then ordered to take four fpoonfuls of the following medicine once in four hours; | Sal. abfinth. 9ii. fucc. limon. ^i. decoft. cort. Peru¬ vian. §xiv. He remained without any return of his complaints, and was difcharged on the 12th of June. “Patrick Darbun, aged 26 years, was admitted into St George’s hofpital the 6th of July 1771, having a large wound on the fore-part of his head, and fome flight bruifes in different parts of his body. He bad fallen from a fcaffold. It was about an hour after the accident when he was brought to the hofpital, where the furgeon was informed that he had continued fenfe- Jefs for half an hour after the fall, and had vomited twice. He had great pain in the parts that were hurt, with ftupor and heavinefs. Upon a careful ex¬ amination of the flcull, no fradlure could be difcovered. Some blood had been taken away before he was brought to the hofpital, where a purging mixture was given him, and fome ftools thereby procured. He then took a fcruple of Dovar’s powder. He com¬ plained of great pain in his head and giddinefs on the • i feventh, and had had but little reft. The tinftura anodyna antimonialis wasgiven him, 10 drops of which he took once in four or fix hours. He was rather eafier in the evening, and the pulv. Dovari was re¬ peated at bed-time. On the eighth he was much bet¬ ter; the bfe of the drops was continued. On the ninth the pain in his head and giddinefs were quite gone. He continued to take the drops till the 12th; about which time, he being perfeftly well, no more were given. Having remained in the hofpital till the 31ft, without any return of his complaints, and the wound being nearly healed, he was made an out¬ patient by his own defire, and continued perfedly well. “ John Hyde, a boy about 14 years of age, was, on the 7th of June 1771, admitted into St George’s hofpital, on account of a hurt he had received on his head by falling backwards. The fcalp was much fwelled, but without any wound : he complained of giddinefs, and vomited frequently. The furgeon made an incifion into the tumified part, by which the Ikull was laid bare, and a fra fp'^uous nature, is remarkably injurious on thefe occafions; and what no wounded part can in any degree bear. Let the firft drtfiing be with di- geltive, or lint moillened with a little oil; and a very light bandage made, if it can be readily got, with thin flannel: the next with a digeftive warmed, and .over it the bread-and-milk poultice, mixed with a fuf- ficient quantity of oil to keep it moift ; and where there is great tenfion, and the wound large, a fo- •inentation fhould be ufed. This courfe is to be conti- G E R ¥. Parti. nued till the fore is clean. Theofo This method will commonly pfomote a conflant eafy perfpiration, abate the pain, very much facilitate the t digeftion, and remove all apprehenfions of any ap¬ proaching inflammation. The advantage of moiften- ing the lint with oil, is the cafe that is procured to a 1 contufed wound from fuch an application, in compa- J rifon pf one of an abforbent drying difpofition ; which, inftead of giving free liberty to the fanious I blood to difeharge itfelf, and confequently preventing l an inflammation, by unloading the part, would pof- fibly obflrudl the mouths of the capillary veffels, and hinder nature from getting rid of that incumbrance which, it is obfervable, fhe very much affefls to throw | off. We muft add here, that tents are never to be made nfe of where they can be poffibly avoided. igci Should an inflammation feize any part through theOf inf!a| lodgment of a bullet, or any other foreign body, that could with fafety have been more immediately traded, all attempts of diflodging fuch extraneous ged, 1 matter fhould be poftponed till the fwelling has in fome meafure fubfided, and the inflammatory difpo¬ fition of the fibres is nearly vanifhed ; unlefs the ball, J or other extraneous body, lie at no great diftance j from the orifice ; and there be, on that account, a cer¬ tainty of removing this incumbrance without any ma¬ terial trouble to the patient. r8t “ If a wound (fays our author) be of fuch a defperate ^an;i nature as to require amputation (which is always concerns cafe when it happens in any principal joint), it would tjK, pr-0p certainly be of confequence could the operation be time of j performed on the fpot, even in the field of battle ; filming left, by deferring it, an inflammation, which one mayampm*i very reafonably exped, fhould obftrud a work that ought rarely to be entered upon during the continuance of fo calamitous a circumftance. The negleding this critical jundure of taking off a limb, frequently redu¬ ces the patient to folow a ftate, and fubjeds the blood and juices to fuch an alteration, as muft unavoidably render the fubfequent operation, if not entirely unfuc- cefsful, at leaft exceedingly dubious. And in wounds even where no amputation is required, it is equally advifable not to defer the care neceffary to be taken of them ; left, by the parts being expofed to the air, there might arife a feries of very dangerous fymp- toms. |8J “ Wounds that border on any confiderable artery, How to are very apt to bleed afrefli upon motion, or the re- prevent! turn of a free circulation of the blood into the part,h*mor' which was interrupted at firlt by the violence of thejj^fl* injury offered it; and this is almoft always the cafe begins u when the flough begins to feparate. For which rea- feparate. fon, one fhould never attempt to remove it by force, but wait with patience till there be a perfed repara¬ tion of this flough ; nor be in the leaft fhocked at the accident of arteries thus opening themfelves, which a very moderate experience will convince one to be al¬ moft inevitable. The patient frequently gives warn¬ ing of what is coming upon him, by complaining of great weight and fulnefs in the limb, which are ever accompanied witn more or lefs pulfalion in it: an in¬ fallible prognoftic of the confequences. Let the wound afflid whatfoever part, if thefe complaints at¬ tend it, bleeding and the bark are inftantly to be en¬ joined. I i Part II. S U R G Theory. «I have knowfl (fays Mr Ranby) feveral Inftances of '' L Ia}^' perfons lofing their lives from the ftarting of an artery 'i. Why a per- before the forgeOn could reach them ; particularly fon fome- where an amputation has preceded. And I dare af- ■ limh(inieSa ®rrn* t^e q113111*')" of blood loft, efpecially in the cafe • mentioned, has not amounted to 12 ounces. Ido tity of not know how to account for this, otherwife than by id blood after the drain which had been made from the mafs of blood n: an amputa- bcfore and during the operation ; whence a fud- » lon' den gu(h (though but a moderate one) of blood, after the great quantity already loft, gives a check to the circulation, and caufes immediate death. This re- fle&iou, I think, ought to be a leffon of inftruflion to |j every pra&itioner to be particularly intent on the faithful difcharge of his duty in regard to tying the i veffels.” r: The bark In all large wounds, efpecially' thofe made by a T extremely cannon ball, there is conftantly a great laceration of || in the parts endued with an exlquifite fenfation. Thefe I are ever attended with an excruciating pain, and a ’ difcharge of a gleety matter; which, if not reftrained, proves often of the worft confequence, by reducing the patient almoft to a Ikeleton ; there being nopoffi- bility of receiving a fupply of nourifhment proportion¬ ed to the difcharge. In this unhappy ftate, the bark (in dofes of a dram each, and repeated every three hours, or oftener if the ftomach will bear it) with fur- prifing efficacy repairs the breach made in the confti- tution by this terrible havoc. In whatever form it be adminiftered, whether in tin&ure, extraft, or refin, we muft ever have an eye to the proportion : for the prefcribing it in lefs quantity is one reafon why our expeflations are often fruftrated, and the medicine brought unreafonably into difgrace ; the failure, in point of fuccefs, being generally owing to fome irre- i8j gularity in the giving or it, either by under-doing it. And tlixir or not fufficiently perfifting in its ufe. Elixir of vi- : „ of vitriol. taken three times a-day in a glafs of water, is of Angular benefit, and proves a very good alfiftant to the virtues of the bark ; and if the body be coftive, to each dofe of the bark four or five grains of rhubarb rouft be added, till that inconveniency be remedied. Should the bark run off by more than four or five fuc- cefiive ftools, this effeift of it will be checked by a few drops of laudanum, or two fpoonfuls of the diaf- cordium mixture along with it, every time it is given. Where the fore difeharges a confiderable quantity of gleety matter, is flabby, looks pale and glofly, (which appearances are often confequent to a lofs of fubftance), the bark continually relieves the pain that is predominant in this cafe, and quite changes the complexion of the wound. Nor, in adminiftering it, is the leaft attention necefiary to the quicknefs of the pulfe. And in wounds where, upon every dreffing, there has been an oozing from the capillary srteries, like water fqueezed from a fponge, fubjefting, of courfe, the patient to no little hazard, the bark, by thickening the matter and leflening its quantity, 186 procures the mod furprifing good effefts. I Mr 0‘Hal- On the fubjeft of gunfliot wounds Mr O’Halloran K loran’s opi-0bferVes,-that of all the fymptoms which attend e-x- | gj°"(hot ternal accidents, none is more dreaded than inflam- gl wounds. mation and fever; to guard againft which, profufe bleedings, antiphlogiftics, diluting liquors, and low diet, are ftrongly recommended. Yet, neceifary as Vol, X. i E R Y. 8369 thefe means are, we may go to too great excefs in Theory. them. Inflammation is the natural confequence of ' every wound, and is abfolutely neceffary for bringing about the procefs of healing. The more violent the hurt, the greater is its concomitant inflammation. The latter therefore, fo far from being an objedt of terror, is greatly to be wifhed for: its abfence is always a bad fign; and where it is but flow, the adt of re¬ union or healing is very diftant. If, then, a flight in¬ flammation is abfolutely neceflary to bring a trivial hurt to heal,it muft of confequence follow, that a more violent one is requifite to promote a reunion of parts after a more defperate accident. Inflammation there¬ fore fiioukl not be haftily reprefled: it is a true con¬ comitant on all all hurts; and its excefs or abfence are the only fymptoms* of this clafs againft which we fliould guard. Sect. III. Of Fraftures and Dijlocationt. 187 This is one of thofe parts of furgery which Is Fraftnrc?, generally thought to be well underftood, and the treat-&c- not ment of broken bones to be very eafily learned. Hence we find it pra&ifed by thofe who do not attempt the flood, pradlice of other parts of the fcience ; yet, notwith- llanding thefe pretenfions, it is certain that much attention and care is neceffary in reducing fradtured and luxated bones, in order to prevent a deformity in the limb, or perhaps worfe confequences. The gene¬ ral dodlrine of fradlures is contained under the follow- ,83 ing heads, as part of the treatment of them. Exten- Heads of fion; counter-extenfion ; coaptation or fetting ; appli-the com" cation of medicaments; deligation or bandage : no- m-on doc* r ■ ■ i-rr-. o't trine con- htion ; prevention or relief of accidents. ceming This is the general arrangement of the fubjedl by them, moft of the writers on it, and a very juft and proper one it is ; but, notwithftanding the parade of books under thefe various heads, much lefs alteration will be met with, fince the times of Hippocrates, Galen and Celfus, than an inquirer might expedf, or than the fubjedl is capable of. l8? The fir ft article in the general arrangment is ex Ofexten- tenfion ; under which may alfo be comprehended the l*011- fecond, or counter-extenfion. In order to accomplifh this, we are diredted, if the fradlnre be of the thigh or leg, to place the patient in a fupine pofture, and the brokenlimbin a ftraightone; than having the upper part of it held firm and fteady by proper alfiftants, we are ordered, by means of hands, ligatures, lacs, or even in fome cafes by pieces of machinery, to make fuch an extenfion or ftreaching of the limb lengthwife as fhall enable the furgeon to place the ends of the broken bone in as apt, that is, in as even a pofition, with regard to each other, as the nature of the frac¬ ture will admit.—This is a fhort defeription of what in the vulgar phrafe is called fetting a broken bone; and is moft commonly a painful operation to the patient, a fatiguing one to the operator and his affiflants, and, what is worfe, is in many inftances found to be ineffi¬ cacious, at leaft not fully to anfwer the intention of the one or the expedition of the other. JOO Writers in general are very precife end formal inThedoc- the diredtions which they have given for the due and trine.con- proper accompliftiment of this purpofe. They havecernlng it; told us, that the extenfion fhould be made flowly and61™601'5' gradually, and fhould be continued till the ends of the 41 Y bone 8370 S U R G Theory, bone are feparated from each other fufHciently, to ad- —‘mit of the fra&ure being fet without riik of breaking off any points or inequalities, and to enable us to place them perfe&ly fmooth and even, All this, like many other of the preceptive parts of phyiic and fur- gery, is very pretty on paper, but not often found to be pra&icable in the chamber. The direftions to continue the extenfion until the ends of the bones are at a certain diftance, lengthwife from each other, plainly implies a conftderable degree of violence ; the limb mull by fuch force be not only made longer than its fellow, or than nature ever intended it fhou'ld be; but it is ordered to be executed while the limb is in fuch pofition as to put all the mufcles moft on the io» ftretch, and render them lead likely to yield to it. When ex- jn or ^et us ^or a moment confider what is or ought to be meant by the terms extenfion and counter- extenfon, and why they become neceflary: and here it is plain that neither of them can ever be neceffary on account of the mere fraClure confidered abdrac- tedly. The broken ends of the bone or bones are of themfelves inadlive ; and if not adled upon by other parts, they would always remain motionlefs. When any attempt is made to put them into motion, they of themfelves can make no poffible refidance, nor can any be made on their part, fave an accidental one, arifing from the points of the fradlurc being entangled with each other; and when they have been once, by the hand of the furgeon, placed properly and evenly with regard to each other, they would of themfelves for ever remain fo. What then is the reafon why frac¬ tured bones always fuffer a greater or a lefs degree of difplacement ? why is a broken limb almod always Ihorter than its fellow ? what creates the refiftance which we always find in attempting to bring the fra&ured parts aptly together ? whence does it proceed, that when we have done all that is in our power (according to this mode of adling), the ends of the frafture will, in many cafes, become again difplaced, and lamenefs and deformity frequently eufue? In fhort, what are the parts or powers which aft on the bones, and which, by fo afting on them, produce all thefe confequences? The action Thefe parts are the mufcles, the only moving of the powers in an animal-body. By the aftion of thefe on mufcles the the bones, all locomotion is performed, and cannot be ffades'to Pcrformed without them: and although all bones, the reduc- broken, are in fome degree difplaced and Ihorten- tion of a ed; yet it will always be found, that in proportion as fradture. the mufcles furrounding or in conneftion with a bone are ftrong or numerous, or put into aftion by in¬ advertence or fpafm, fo will the difplacement of the ends of fuch bone, when fraftured, be. The even and fmooth pofition of the fraftured ends of a tibia, when the fibula of the fame leg is entire and unhurt, that is, when the mufcles therefore cannot aft upon the former; the vifible and immediate deformity when both the before-mentioned bones are broken nearly in the fame place, that is, when the mufcles can aft upon and difplace fuch frafture ; the great difficulty frequently met with in endeavouring to get a broken os femoris to lie even tolerably fmootb, and to prevent fuch broken limbs from being much fhorter than the other;are, among others which might be produced, fuch ftrong and irrefragable proofs as need no comment. E R Y. Part II. \ From the mufcles then, and from them only, pro- Theory. |ri ceeds all the difficulty which we meet witli in making '' T~ our extenfion; and by the refiftance of thefe, and of thefe only, are we prevented from being always able to put the ends of a fraftured bone immediately into the moft apt contaft. Let us in the next place confider what it is which gives to a mufcle, or to the principal mufcles of a limb, the greateft power of refifting any force applied to them ab externo, in order to draw them out into greater length; for, whatever that is, the fame thing will be found to be the caufe of the different degrees of refiftance in fetting a frafture. aoj | Does not the putting the mufcles in a ftate-of ten-Hence the is fion, or into a ftate approaching nearly to that °f™,Uh|CtS0 Ij tenfion, almoft neceffarily produce this efteft ? or, in^g^gj^^ L, other words, docs not that pofition of a limb which before we puts its mufcles into, or nearly into, fuch a ftate, giveattemPt •http fuch mufcles an opportunity of exerting their greateftre deed ; for, whatever may be the popular or prevailing I Reduaion opinion* it is demonftrably true, that a broken bone , ought to be cannot be too foon put to rights; as muft appear to performed every one who will for a moment confider the tveceflary ■ as ftate of thelmufcles, tendons, and membranes furround- g;1 ’ ing, and the medullary organs contained within a large bone broken and unfet; that is, lying in an un¬ even irregular manner. In Ihort, if the experiment of change of poiture be fairly and properly made, the obje&ions to immediate redudtion, from tenfion, tu¬ mour, &c. will moft frequently be found tobeground- lefs, and the frafture will be capable of being put to rights, as well at firft as at any diftance of time after¬ ward. Extenfion having been made, and the broken ends of the bone having been placed as fmcotk and as even J E R Y. 8371 as the nature of the cafe will admit, the next circum- Theory, fiance to be attended to is the application of fome me- ~~ dicament to the limb; particularly to the fractured aio part of it. In this, different people aft differently. Proper tp- Some make ufe of an adbefive, or what they choofe pliwix'-1* to call a roboranty flajicr; fome, of what is commonly [° called a cerecloth; others apply fpirit of wine, with oil, re ini vinegar,and white of egg; and others the fpiritus Min- dereri, the folution of crude fal ammoniac in vinegar and water, or fome fuch kind of medicine. But let the form and compofition of the application made to the limb be what it may, one thing is clear, viz. that it Ihould be put on in fuch manner as that it may be renewed and fhifted as often as may be ncceffary, without moving the limb in any manner ; it beingcer- air tain, that when once a broken thigh or leg has been Motion to properly put to rights, and has been depofited pro* !£muchM perly on the pillow, it ought not never to be lifted poffible. * up nor moved from it again without necefiity, until the frafture is perfeftly united; and it is as true, that fuch neceffity will not very often occur. This may perhaps feem ftrange to thofe who are accuftomed to roll fituple fraftures, and confequently to lift them up every three or four days in order to renew fuch kind of bandage : but the neceffity of this motion arifes merely from the kind of bandage made ufe of, and not from any circumftance of the frafture itfelf. That the frequent motion of a fraftured limb cannot pof- fibly contribute to the eafe of the patient, will be readily admitted ; as alfo it will, that when a broken limb has been once depofited in the beft pofition poffible, it is impofiible to mend that pofition merely by taking fuch limb up and laying it down again t from whence it muft follow, that fuch kind of appa¬ ratus as neceflitates the furgeon frequently to difturb the limb, cannot be fo good as one that does not ; provided the latter will accomplifti the fame kind of cure as the former. The prevention of a flux of humours to a broken And too limb by bandage, is a common phrafe ; but if by the tight ban . points and edges of the broken bone the mufcles anddages. membranes be unavoidably wounded and torn, or if the fame kind of mifehief be incurred by the inadver¬ tence or indiferetion of the patient, or of thofe who affifted in getting him home, or from the violence ufed in extending the limb and felting the frafture, inflammation muft be excited, and pain and tumefac¬ tion will be the confequence : and thefe will continue for fome time in every frafture ; but that fpace will be longer or (horter in different cafes and under diffe¬ rent circumftances. Evacuation, reft, and a favourable pofition of the limb, will, and do in general, remove all thefe complaints: but bandage can contribute no¬ thing more than by keeping the applications in their proper place ; fo far from it, that if the bandage be a roller, it muft, by the frequent neceflity of its being adjufted, and the frequent motion of the limb, in fome degree counteraft the proper intention of cure. The old writers are in general very precife as to the n0 gre'at number of days during which the roller fliould beexaftnefs fuffered to remain without being fhifted, and the num- neccfiary ber of times which fuch fhiftings fliould be repeated within the firft fortnight. This txaftitude is by nogts, an means nsceffary ; but if the bandage be fuppofed to & be of any ufe at all, it is obvious, that it ought to be 41 Y 2 re- 0372 SURGERY. Part It Theory, renewed or adjufted as often as it may ceafe to per¬ form the office for which it is defigned, or whenever it fhall be found to counteraft fuch office, that is, as often as it fliall become fo flack as not to contain the fraSure at all, or whenever the limb fliall be fo fwollen that the roller makes an improper degree of rtri&ure ; the former generally occurs every four or five days, the latter is mod frequent within the firft week. Superfluous I'1 m°ft l^e writers on the fubjett of fradlures, d'ueftions we alfo find marks or figns laid down for our infor- concerning mation concerning the due or undue efleft of the b^ma^nVCn ^an^age on ^ie l>mb. They tell us, that when that writers1/ Part lC >s below the termination of the roller does not fwell at all, the bandage is not fuffi- ciefltly Arid, and will not retain the frafture; that when the fame part is confiderably fwollen, or tenfe, or inflamed, it implies that the binding is too ftrait; and that a moderate degree of tumefaftion is a fign that the deligation is properly executed. la confequence of thefe precepts, many pra&itioners look more anxioufly after this degree of tumefadtion, than after the true and exaft pofition of the limb, and cannot be induced to believe that any thing can be wrong under this appearance : although it is plain, that even this degree of fwelling is wrong; that it im¬ plies fome kind of obflruftion to the circulation, and cannot ferve any good purpofe ; and confequently, that as far as it may be fuppofed to be the effeA of bandage, fo far that bandage muft be faulty. Bandages purpofe for which the roller is faid to be cannot re- ufed, is the regulation and reftraint of the callus.—If gufateor we were to form our notion of callus by what the ge- reftrain thenerai;ty 0f writers have faid on this fubjeft, we fliould ** us’ fuppofe, that it was not only a particular juice always ready for the purpofe; but that, if not reftrained and regulated by art, it would always flow in fuch quantity, as to create trouble and deformity; that there were fpecific remedies for increafing or decreafing it, and that it always required the hand and a& of furgery to manage it. That the callus is fo far a particlar juice, as that it confifts pf whatever is defti- ned to circulate through the bones for their particular nouriihment, is beyond all doubt ; and that this gelatinous kind of fluid is the medium by which frac¬ tures are united, is as true; but that it requires art to manage it, or that art is in general capable of mana- Why the B‘n& an^ dire&ing it, is by no means true. That this callus fome-callus or united medium does oftentimes create tume- times pro- faclion and deformity, or even lamenefs, is true alfo; duces de- {jUt jjjg fau]t ;n t]iefe cafes does not lie in the mere anThme- redundance of fuch juice; it is derived from the aefs. nature of the fraflure, from the inequality of it when fet, and from the inapt pofition of the broken ends with regard to each other; nor is furgery or the fur- geon any otherwife blameable in this cafe, than as it was or was not originally in their power to have placed them better. It is the inequality of the frac- Theory^ ji ture which makes both the real and apparent redun- dance of callus, and the tumefa&ion in the place of union. When a bone has been broken tranfverfely, or nearly fo, and its inequalities are therefore neither many nor great; when fuch broken parts have been happily and propetly coaptated, and proper methods have been ufed to keep them conftantly and fteadily in fuch ftate of coaptation, the divided parts unite by the intervention of the circulating juice, juft as the fofter parts do, allowing a different fpace of time for different texture and confiftence. When the union of a broken bone under fuch circumftances has been procured, the place where fuch union has been made will be very little preceptible; it will be no deformity, nor will it occafion any inconvenience. It will indeed be difcoverable, like a cicatrix of a wound in a fofter part: but there will be no redundance of callus, be- caufe none will be wanted; neither will there be a neceffity for any particular management on the part of the furgeon, to reprefs or keep it in order. But when a bone has been broken very obliquely or very un¬ equally ; when the parts of a fra&ure are fo circum- ftanced as not to admit of exa£l coaptation; when fuch exa& coaptation as the frafture perhaps would have admitted, has not been judicioufly made'; when, from unmanageablenefs, inadvertence, or fpafm, the proper pofition of the limb has not been attended to or pre- ferved; in all fuch cafes there muft be confiderable in¬ equality of furface; there rauft be rifings on one fide, and depreffions on another; and in fuch cafes the juice circulating through the bone cannot accomplifli the union in the fame quantity, the fame time, or in the fame manner. The broken parts not being applied exa&ly to each other, there cannot be the fame apti¬ tude to unite ; and according to the greater or leffer degree of exaftitude in the coaptation, that is, ac¬ cording as the ends of the bones are or have been placed more or lefs even with regard to each other, will the inconvenience and the deformity be, and f ill muft, when the fra&ure is not fet at all; but the broken ends of the bone unite laterally, or by touching eaclv other’s fides. The periofteum covering every fia&ure will remain thickened for fome time, and a degree of fullnefs or rifing will be thereby caufed about the place where fuch fra&ure has been united ; but time, and the ufe of the mufcles, foon in general remove this. Two kinds of fra&ure there arc which do not ad-in what I mit of the bent pofition of the joints, vJz, that of thepafes the proceffus olecranon at the elbow, and that pf the pa-j°ij,tbseCaa- i tella : in thefe a ftraight pofnion of the arm and leg bended, is neceffary ; in the former, to keep the fradtured parts in contaft till they are united ; in the latter, to bring them as near to each other as may beft ferve the purpofe of walking afterward (a). With regard to the fra&ure of the patella, an opi¬ nion (a) Although a ftraight pofition of the limb is neceffary for the broken patella, yet this very pofition becomes fo, upon the fame principle, as renders the bent pofture moft advantageous in the broken tibia and femur, viz. the re¬ laxation of the mufcles and tendons attached to the fradhired bone. Whoever will for a moment attend to the difpolition of the pieces in a patella which has been broken tranfverfe¬ ly, will fee how little neceffary or ufeful the many contrivances of bandages, ftraps, compreffes, buckles, buttons, &c. to be found in writers are, efpecially all that part of them which are applied to the inferior fragment. By the adlion of the united tendons of the exienfores imjfcks of the leg, the fuperior fragment is pulled upward and I Part II. S U R < rJ Theory, nion has long anti generally prevailed, which feems to I—^have no foundation in truth, or even in probability: iWhya it is, that the great degree of (liffnefs in the joint of Jjfrafture of the knee, which is fometimes found to be the confe- nhe patella quence 0f this kind of frafture, isowing to or pro* ^producesa duced by a quantity of callus falling into it from the Irtiffnefs of edges of the broken bone; and that the nearer the uhe joint, broken pieces are brought to each other, the more likely fuch confequeoce is. But, in the fird place, the fraftured bone is by no means capable of fupply- ing fuch a quantity of callus as to produce this eife^ ; in the fecond place, if this was the cafe, the molt likely, and indeed the only probable way of prevent¬ ing the depofuion of fuch juice, muft be by bringing the broken pieces into clofe contadt ; and, in the third place, there is no authority from the appearance of fuch joints after death, to fuppofe this to be the cafe, or to countenance fuch opinion. The caufe, there¬ fore, of this rigidity, which is now and then found to attend the broken patella, mud be fought for elfe- where, viz, in the long red and confinement of the joint, as a means ufed by many to procure exadi union ; in mifchief done to the ligament, which is formed by the united tendons of the four extenfor mufcles of the leg, at the time of and by the fradture; and in the nature of the fradture iifelf, that is, the 1 manner in which the bone (hall happen to be broken. What cafes But> be all this as it may, the fadb undoubtedly is, of this that they walk bed after fuch accident whole patella frafhire are has been broken tranfverfely, and that into two nearly vourabTe cclua^ fragments; whofe confinement to the bed has | ' been Ihort, that is, no longer than while the inflam¬ mation laded; whofe knee, after fuch period, has been daily and moderately moved; and in whom the broken pieces are not brought into exadi contadt, but lie at fome fmall didance from each other. We cannot take leave of this fubjedt of Ample frac¬ tures without mentioning a circumltance relative to them, |- which, although, when rightly underdood, is of little Of the ri- or no importance, yet, by being mifunderftood, be- (ingendof comes frequently of confiderable confequence, viz, I ‘he broken the ufe of the term ri/tng end of a broken bone. "•ne- By the exprefiion, any one unacquainted with thefe things would be inclined to think, that the prominent part of a broken bone rofe or was elevated from its natural place, and became by fuch rifing fuperior to the other part or extremity of the fra&ure. This would certainly, be the idea of an ignorant perfon, and as fuch would be of Hale confequence : but by theprac- tice of many furgeons, it is as certainly their idea alfo} and this renders it a matter of great confequence. The truth is, that there is really no rifing end to a broken bone, when applied, as the term ufually is, to the The te'rm leg, thigh, and clavicle. There is indeed a fuperior improper, or prominent end or part, and an inferior or depreffed one:, but the former of thefe is in its proper place, from which it cannot by art be moved; .and the latter, which is not in its proper place, is very capable by art of being put into it. When a collar-bone, os femoria, or tibia and fibula, are 3 E R Y. 8373 are broken by the aftion of the mufcles, by the mo- Theory, tions of the patient, and by the mere weight of the inferior part of the arm, thigh, or leg, the fradhired ends of fuch bones are difplaced, and always difplaced in fuch manner, that the inequality occafioned necef- farily by fuch difplacement, proceeds from the inferior end of the fra&ured bone being retraced or drawn under the fuperior. This produces a tumefaction or unequal rifing ; and the upper extremity of the frac- ture is therefore called the rifing end of it. Now the We muft man who regards this rifing end as that part of the not attempt fradture which has by fuch rifing got out of its place, ng almoit by the fkin. Mr Boucher, of the Royal bad frac- Academy of Surgery, gives twelve remarkable inftan- CC8 0f defperate fraftures in which the limbs were pre- bmbs were ferve^’ The firlt was a (hot through the thigh, with preferred. a confiderable fraQure of the os femoris near the con¬ dyles. The patient refufed to fubmit to the operation, and was completely cured, but with one thigh (horter than the other, in ten months, notwithftanding the frequent incifions, fever, and large fplinters of bone that came away from time to time. The fecond had a fradlure of the lower extremity of the arm, and was alfo cured without amputation. The third was (hot in the fore-arm by a piftol ball, which wounded the in¬ ternal condyle of the humerus and olecranum ; yet the patient not only was cured of the wound in the fpace of 12 months, but recovered of the anchylofis alfo. The fourth and fifth were fimilar. In the fixth, the (hot penetrated the lower part of the femur, in which the inner condyle was engaged; yet, notwith¬ ftanding a variety of bad fymptoms, he obtained a cure in the fpace of ir months. In the feventh cafe, the inferior part of the radius was fradured, with confi¬ derable laceration of the tendons ; neverthelefs this patient alfo was cured, but with aftifthefs in the joint. In the*eightb, the ball paffed from the malleolus in- ternus through the malleolus externus ; yet the patient was completely cured in nine weeks. The ninth pa¬ tient had received a ball which tore through the del¬ toid mufcle, fradured the head of the humerus, and part of the clavicula. The extirpation of the humerus was judged abfolutely needfary, which yet the patient refolutely oppofed ; and by that means faved his arm, being difeharged only with a fmall fiftula, which the warm bath foon cured. The tenth was a foldier, wounded by a mufket-ball in the upper part of the humerus, with a fradure of this bone; yet he alfo got a cure without amputation. In the eleventh, a mufket-ball fradured the head of the bone at the el¬ bow. In the twelfth, a ball was lodged in the calca- neum ; yet, after extradion, the wound was cured without any bad accident. Notwithftanding this great fuccefs, however, M. Boucher is of opinion, that there are certain accidents which nothing but amputation-can remove. Such, for In what inftance, are fradures of the larger extremities, where cafes he numbers of fplints ftick out, and cannot be removed ; thinks am- when the fame bone is fradured in feveral different oueht°to P^aces 5 when the extremity of one of thefe bones is take place, feparated from its body, and (battered in many pla¬ ces; when the wounded parts are feized with violent convulfions which cannot be cured ; where the bone is furrounded with loofe dabby defh, and a famous dif- charge with acute pain, which indicate the bone to be difordered ; and where a fphacelus is formed. Where thefe fymptoms indicate amputation, he thinks that j E R Y. Part II. I] the fooner it is performed the better; for when it is Theory^ deferred, he fays, the violent irritation of the nervous ~ and vafcular fyftems, which in a (hort time fucceeds 217 ;' the accident, puts the whole animal oeconomy and mafsIIis rcaf»,W of fttiids into fuch diforder, that the pus requifite for !°r p?r* .}r the cure is defective, and the recovery becomes doubt- jmme- I- ful. And he attributes this want of fuccefs where thediately. 1, operation is delayed, not to the firft caufe, but to the alteration caufed by the delay. On the other hand, M. Faure, in a paper prefented to the Academy, attempts to prove, that where am" jyir putation is neceffary, it ought always to be deferred reapons fo|| till the bad fymptoms occafioned by the wound have delayingtMi;] abated. The reafon he gives for this pra&iceis, thatopcration,j|i nature having already fuftained a violent (hock, is un¬ able to bear the fucceeding one arifing from amputa¬ tion : and for the truth of this he appeals to the cafes of about 300 perfons, who underwent the operation after the battle of Fontenoy, of whom fcarce one in ten efcaped. Convinced, by this fad example, that amputation had been too haftily performed, he fe- lefted ten patients on whom the operation was judged unavoidable, and dire&ed them to be let alone for a month j after which he performed the operation with fuccefs on them all. The cafes were the worft that can almoft be imagined. The firft had the head of the os humeri fradiured by a cannon-ball, while a complicated fra&ure of the leg was made by a mufket- . | ball. The others were a complicated fra&ure of the thigh ; a fradure in the articulation of the knee, thro* which the ball paffed ; a complete fradure of the fore¬ arm, which extended to the os humeri; a wound of the inferior part of the fore-arm, with (hivering of the bones of the carpus; a wound at the upper part of the humerus, with a fradure above an inch broad ; a fradure of the bones of the carpus ; the os calcis (hf- vered, and the tendo Achillis torn ; a complicated fradure of the tibia ; a fradure of the tibia in which the tarfus was engaged.—From all thefe cafes, M. Faure ftrongly contends, that where amputation is unavoidable, it fhould always be delayed till the fever and other bad fymptoms ceafe ; and he exclaims againft the contrary method ; adding, that “we might even fay, the fooner the limbs were amputated, the fooner were the patients condemned to death.” M. Boucher prefented a fecond paper to the Aca- j demy, in which he adhered to his former opinion, and jj gave his reafons for immediate amputation. Thefe to Mr ^ 1 were, that at the time of the hurt, or foon after it, Faure. the body muft be in the beft date for enduring the operation ; and by neglecting this time, the efforts of nature are ufelefs, and (lie becomes weaker; the me¬ lancholy effeds of which, he fays, he has been witnefs of. “For how can we expeCt (fays he) that a body extenuated with pain and mifery for five or fix weeks, (hould then be in a better condition to fupport a ter¬ rible operation, than when in full vigour, as muft be the cafe at the time of the accident ?” Several inftances are adduced in favour of his doftrine ; but Mr 0‘Hal- 230 loran, from whom we have taken this account, is ofShown to | opinion, that his reafonine is quite unfatisfadorv. b.e . “ I he great point,” fays he, “for which M. Bou-Mr 0‘Hal-( cher contends, is the advantage arifing to the pa- loran. tient by having his limb taken off in. the firft; period, or before the fever, inflammation, &c. come on, which in Part II. S U R . ■^Theory, in themfelves endanger the life of the party. But it is | " • highly probable this gentleman never once recolledted, that this fever, and all other alarming fymptoms. tho’ they do not immediately appear, are neverthelefs the effeft of ihe derangement in the conftitution on recei¬ ving the accident: that on this account it is certainly very bad praSice to amputate til! at leaft part of thefe fymptoms are abated, for three exceffive flrong and clear reafons. Firft, fo much depends upon the habit of body, that we cannot be too cautious in our prog- noftics : for if the flighteft hurts, happening in con- ftitutions feemingly found, are often attended with the moll fatal fymptoms, in fpite of the earlieft and bell refources of art; how then can we, with any de¬ gree of certainty, immediately promife ourfelves fuc- cefs, by performing a terrible operation, till we firll know if the very juices themfelves will not be the greatefl obilacle to a re-union ? Secondly, how often H does it happen, in the bell conllitutions, that the ter¬ rible Ihock which the whole frame fuftains on a violent gunlhot wound, nay, even in a fall, without any frac¬ ture or viftble hurt, that the parts can never recover their tone, and the patient in fome days expires ? What elfe are concuflions of the brain, violent leaps, where, though the party comes down on his legs, and has no vifibie hurt, yet dies with all the appearance of | $ concuflion of the brain ? What elfe but the velocity of the circumambient air of a difcharged cannon-ball, which, by deranging the whole animal-fyftem, kills the party without fign of hurt ? If thefe account for the death of the patient, will not this be a ftrongrea- fon for delaying amputation, till we know whether I* v nature is ftrong enough to recover from this (hock, without adding to his mifery that of a cruel and ter¬ rible operation ? Thirdly, let us fuppofe, to give this gentleman and his partifans argument their utmod force, that happily for the patient, though unknown, or never reflefted on by the furgeon, firft, that the juices are balfamic and kind; and, fecondly, that na¬ ture is ftrong enough to recover from the Ihock which every accident, more or lefs, fubje&s the conftitution to : how can we poffibly forefee, or at leaft is not the prefumption very llrong, that by an immediate am¬ putation, after fuch a terrible violence as abfolutely indicates it, we expofe the conftitution to the fevereft trials and the greateft danger poffible ? If in anchy- lofis of the tarfus, with great pain, which has reduced the patient very low, we find a fevere fever and inflam¬ mation enfue, the confequence of the pain and the Ihock the human frame has fuftained by an amputa¬ tion, how much more is it to be dreaded after a ter¬ rible gunlhot wound or complicated fradture ; which accidents alone bring on all thefe fymptoms in an higher degree ? Juftly then does M. Faure exclaim, “ That the fooner their limbs were taken off, the 131 fooner were they condemned to death !” phy M. << The few inflances advanced by M. Boucher, of jtafes are $ ^ hux^fs °f immediate amputation, for the reafons fnfuSk-ienc ^ ^ave above afligned, can pro-ve nothing for him. If :o prove any thing can be granted, it is, that, happily for the |hfe,fru'h patients, their conftitutionsfurmounted (he raflrnefsof Mioe. °C" t*ie'r furgeons> 33 wel1 as the fevere trials of nature. Amputation, then, fliould never be pradlifed after fudden accidents, till at leaft the violence of thefymp- j e r y. 8375 toms proceeding from it are abated, for the reafons Theory, affigned, and which I again inculcate ; namely, firft, till by laudable .fuppuration we are affored that the 13* juices are balfamic, and which becomes manifeft in,j^r0,‘^‘ eight or ten days. Secondly, till we are certain that nature recovers from the fhock ; which we will alfo be certain of, by reafon’s becoming reftored if loft, or by the ftate of the pulfes and nervous fyftem : this alfo becomes apparent about the eighth or ninth day. And, thirdly, till it becomes manifeft, that the pain, fever, and inflammation, will not terminate in gangrene, fphacelus, or death. This the flate of the pulfe and fpi- rits, and the nature of the fuppuration, will determine. “ But befides thefe advantages, at leaft thefe points of knowledge gained by the delay, another and a greater alfo follows ; namely, that the abatement of the fever, and the laudablenefs of the fuppuration, are the higheft preparations, and the moll ufeful, the pa¬ tient can poffibly have previous to the operation: he is, at the time of amputation, in the fame ftate that we could wilh a patient to be in who is to fuffer ino¬ culation ; and a great degree of certainty attends the recovery of the patient, efpecially in our method. I lhall juft Angle out one obfervation, which firft threw me into this chain of thinking. 333 “ A girl about 16, of a good conftitution, fome .ExamP,es few years pad, on Pennywe'll road, adjoining this city,5n was accidentally (hot in the thigh. The fvvan-lhot hu doc-0 fradtured the femur at the lower condyles, and the trine, rotula anteriorly, and paffed through the parts with a very large wound. In this fituation Ihe lay extended on a table for about two hours, when affiftance came. Her pulfe was regular, (he fpoke fenfibly, and feemed more alarmed than pained. We judged amputation abfolutely unavoidable ; and her thigh was taken off diredtly, but (he died in about four hours after. Here the death of this girl was vifibly haftened, by adding amputation before nature had time to recover from the firft accident. “ The truth of this reafoning will appear ftili ftronger by the following obfervations: “ John Qmnlon, a fedan-chairman of this city, in a difpute with another chairman, received a fall by a trip, fo that the tibia tore through the fldh at its articu¬ lation with the aftragal, and reached down a little be¬ low the os calcis, and the fibula was confequently ter¬ ribly fraiflurtd. This accident happened the latter end of A-uguft 1760. To reduce thefe parts was ab¬ folutely impoffible; becaufe a lefs force than was ne- ceffary for this mull feparate the foot from the leg.. Amputation was the only refource left. The man was ftrong, and about 35 years of age ; fo that every thing might be expedled from the conftitution. However, on mature deliberation, though amputation was abfo¬ lutely unavoidable, 1 was determined to defer it for fome days. Accordingly I laid open the fldli below the protruded bone, and formed an eighteen-tailed bandage, in which, after a gentle extenfion, I laid the leg, bled the man, and had the parts often wet in brandy. In a few days the inflammation became vio¬ lent ; which was fomewhat allayed by bleeding, fo¬ mentations, and poultices, In 12 days from the ac¬ cident, finding the foot gangrened, I determined to amputate. The next morning I performed the opera¬ tion y 8376 S U ft G tion ; and though, after taking off the limb, fome real ' pus (the remains of the inflammation) flowed from the flump fpontaneoufly, yet did the cure go on as hap¬ pily as could be wiflied ; and in about ten weeks he was completely cured. “ All ice Blachall, about 15 years old, fubjeft to epileptic fits, and paralytic in the right fide, leg, and arm, in one of thefe fell into the fire, and had the difeafed leg fo miferably burnt, that the bones of the toes and metatarfus fpontaneoufly dropped off, and thofc of the tarfus were uncovered and ready to fepa- rate. In this condition fhe was left at our hofpital- door July 17th 1762; but with an hedtic, lax, and a large difcharge from the leg, which was alfo burnt. This accident happened about to days before. The fores, which were filthy, I had carefully ftuped, and waftied with a decodlion of wormwood ; and finding amputation abfolutely unavoidable, I performed it; and ftie was difcharged, completely cured, in the latter end of the following month, with a firm coat of fiefln to cover the extremity of the flump, notwith- ftanding that this whole fide was completely paralytic, and of courfe the balfamicjuices were greatly deficient. “ John Deelan, apoorman, received the fire from a muiket, charged with fmall {hot, in his right hand, and fo near, that the wadding refted in the fore. Be¬ ing recommended to our hofpital by the reverend dean Maffy the day after the accident, he was immediately admitted. The little and ring fingers were quite tore off, and hanging by a little flefh ; the two metacar¬ pal bones that fupported them were alfo fraftured and terribly tore ; and the ftiot was promifcuoufly thrown into every part of the hand. It was judged impoflible to preferve the hand; but, for the reafons already fpecified, I was determined to defer amputation till the inflammatory ftate was over. However, I fepa- rated the two fingers from the hand; dilated the fores ; and extrafted a great deal of (hot, tow, broken bones, &c. The inflammation which followed was very vio¬ lent, and extended very high up the arm; but was re¬ lieved by profufe bleedings, emollient embrocations, poultices of flummery half-boiled, nitrous medicines, &c. In about 12 days this orgafm was greatly aba¬ ted ; and willing to preferve part of his hand if pof- fible, I extra&ed the entire remains of the two raeta- tarfal bones, and by this means a great deal more fhot, fplints, &c.; and, contrary to expectation, this man was difcharged with two fingers and part of his hand, with which he has been able to fupport his poor family fince by day-labour. “ One O'Neal, returning from town much in li¬ quor, fell into a fand-pit on the high road near this city, and a very large ffone fell on his right leg with fuch a force, as to frafture the tibia for above three inches in a moft dreadful manner, wkh a wound of a larger furface. Indeed the bone was broke into num- berlefs bits 5 infomuch that, coniidering the length of the frafture, it may be fafely affirmed, that a quarter of an inch of it was not entire. He was carried to the turnpike-houfe, and I was fent for. On the fpot I prepared an eighteen-tailed bandage, dilated the wound, extra&ed a great many loofe bits of bone, dreffed with foft lint, and bled him. Next morning he was brought to town on a door, and drefied lightly Part II. I 3 fome- Theoiylfe his leg, ■‘r E ft Y. for fome days, till the ftate of inflammation was what abated; when I determined to take off his ^ which was judged impollible to be faved : and I dare fay, from this flight defcription of the cafe, every fur- geon would conclude the fame. Neverthelefe, fo boun¬ tiful was nature in this cafe, and fo ftrong in her re- fources, that in four months from the accident, this man could ufe this leg, and is now a living witnefs of this truth. So that, befides the reafons already advan¬ ced, we have a chance for one more, and that the great- eft, advantage to the patient, namely, the chance of faving the entire limb by delaying the operation. “ But as M. Faure does n^t abfolutely determine the precife time of performing the operation after the accident, and that by the delay of fix weeks, or till the fymptoms ceafe, numbers of lives muft be loft, I obferve, that this is very vague and uncertain; be- caufe, by the nature of the accident, many fymptoms muft fubfift, even after the general inflammation is pafled. Such are extraneous bodies conftantly irri¬ tating, fplints of bones, too abundant fuppuration, &c. In fuch cafes, it will be in vain to expeft an abatement of fymptoms till the caufe of them is remo¬ ved, namely, the limb taken off. Upon maturely, then, confidering the whole affair, I boldly affirm, that the fliock from the general inflammation, the patient’s ftate of blood and habit of body, &c. will be thoroughly known in about 20 days from the accident ; and every fymptom that continues fub- fequent to this muft; take its rife from the fore it- felf, and that where amputation is abfolutely unavoid¬ able. Suppofing the patient to be treated all the time preceding this according to the rules of art, it ftiould not be deferred longer, left the patient fink under it. By this means, inftead of about one in three amputa¬ ted patients recovering, we fliould fcarce lofe, almoft to a certainty, one in twenty.” Mr Pott feems to be an advocate for immediate am¬ putation, or at leaft to dread none of thofe fatal con- fequences from amputation which we have juft now mentioned. His words are, “ When a furgeon fays that a limb, which has juft fuffered a particular kind Mr Pott’s I of compound fradlure, ought rather to be immediately opinion, cut off, than that any attempt ftiould be made for its prefervation, he does not mean by fo faying, that it is abfolutely impoffible for fuch limb to be preferved at all events ; he is not to be fuppofed to mean fo much in general, though fometimes even that will be ob¬ vious: all that he can truly and juftly mean is, that from the experience of all time it has been found, that the attempts to preferve limbs fo circumftanced, have moft frequently been fruftrated by the death of the patients in confequence of fuch injury; and that from the fame experience it has been found, that the chance of death from amputation is by no means equal to that arifing from fuch kind of fraftiire. “ Every man knows, that, apparently, defperate cafes are fometimes cured ; and that limbs fo {battered and wounded as to render amputation the only pro¬ bable means for the prefervation of life, are now and then faved. This is an uncontroverted fa£f, but a faft which proves very little againft the common opinion ; becaufe every man of experience alfo knows, that fuch efcapes are very rare, much too rare to admit of be¬ ing j Parc II. SURGE K Y. 8377 J g Theory. Jog made precedentSi and that the majority of fuch and make all that part of it which is cot of fuch wound Theo,^ ' r~ attempts fail (b). prefs hard on the Ikin of the leg underneath it. In “ This contideration, relative to amputation, is of thefc circumftances, all attempts for redudlion in this the more importance, becaufe it mod frequently re- manner will be found to be impracticable ; the more quires immediate determination ; every minute of de- the leg is llretched out, the tighter the bone will be lay is, in many inftances, to the patient’s difsdvan- begirt by the wound, and the more it will prefs on the tage; and a very ihort fpace of time indeed frequently fltin underneath. i3(J makes all the difference between probable fafety and Upon this occafion, it is not very unufual to have of rawing fatality. If thefe cafes in general would admit of de- recourfe to the faw, and by that means to remove a off the end liberation for two or three days, and during that time portion of the protruded bone; but this praftice is of a brokcn fuch circumftances might be expefted to arife as ought frequently erroneous. k011^ neceffarily to determine the furgeon in bis condud, In fome few inftances, and in the cafe of extreme without adding to the patient’s hazard, the difference /harp-pointednefs of the extremity of the bone, it may would be confiderable : the former would not feem to be, and undoubtedly is, right, but in many inftances be fo precipitate in his determination as he is fre- it is totally unneceffary. quently thought to be; and the latter, being more The two moft proper means of overcoming this dif- convinced of the neceffity, would fubmit to it with lefs ficulty are, change of pofture of the limb, and en- relu&ance. But, unhappily for both parties, this is largement of the wound. In many cafes, the former ffeldom the cafe ; and the flrft opportunity having been of thefe, under proper condufi, will be found fully neglefted, or not embraced, we are very frequently fufficient; and where it fails, the latter ihould always denied another. Here therefore the whole exertion of be made ufe of. Whoever will attend to the effeft a man’s judgment is required, that he may neither which putting the leg or thigh (having a compound ralhly and unneceffarily deprive his patient of a limb ; frafture and protruded bone) into a ftraight pofition nor, through a falfe tendernefs or timidity, fuffer always produces, that is, to the manner in which the him to periih, by endeavouring to preferve fuch limb, wound in fuch pofition girds the bone, and to the in- Some degree of addrefs is alfo neceffary upon fuch creafed difficulty of reduftion thereby induced, and occafion, in order to convince the patient, that what will then, by changing the pofture of fuch limb from feems to be determined upon haftily and with preci- an extended one to one moderately bent, obferve the pitation, will not fafely admit of longer delibera- alteration thereby made in both the juft-mentioned 1 a3J tion.” circumftances, will be fatisfied of the truth of what has bf redu- The limb being thought capable of prefervation, the been faid, and of the much greater degree of cafe and |cing a com-next confideration is the reduftion of the frafture. pra&icability of redu&ion in the bent thanintheex- frac-q'he cafe or difficulty attending this depends not only tended pofition ; that is, in the relaxed, than in the F * on the general nature of the cafe, but on the particular llretched ftate of the mufcles. Redudlion being found QfenV difpofition of the bone with regard to the wound. impradticable either by extenfion or change of po-ingthe** If the bone be not protruded forth, the trouble of fture, the obvious and neceffary remedy for this diffi- wound in reducing and of placing the fradture in a good poll- culty is enlargement of the wound. This, to fomethe inteSu" tion, will be much lefs than if the cafe be otherwife ; praditioners who have not feen much of this bufinefs,nienls’ and in the cafe of protrufion or thrufting forth of the appears a ,difagreeab!e circumftance : but here there bone or bones, the difficulty is always in proportion there is neither difficulty nor danger ;\ it is the fkin to the comparative fize of the wound through which only which can require divifion ; and in making fuch fuch bone has paffed. In a compound fradture of the wound there can be no poffible hazard. It is needlefs leg or thigh, it is always the upper part of the broken to fay, that the divifion Ihould be fuch as to render bone which is thruft forth. If the fradlure be of the redudtion eafy ; or to remind the pradlitioner, that tranfverfe kind, and the wound large, a moderate degree fuch enlarged opening may ferve very good future pur- of extenfion will in general eafily reduce it; but if the pofes, by making way for the extradlion of fragments, fradlure be oblique, and terminates, as it often docs,’ and the difcharge of matter, Houghs, &c. I in a long (harp point, this point very often makes its If the bone be broken into feveral pjfeces, and any way through a wound no larger than juft to permit of them be either totally feparated fo as to lie loofe fuch extenfion. In this cafe, the very placing the leg in the wound, or if they be fo loofened and detached in a ftraight pofition, in order to make extenfion, as to render their union highly improbable, all fuch [- obliges the wound or orifice to gird the bone tight, pieces ought to be taken away ; but they (hould be Vol. X. 41 Z removed “ (b) The baron Van Swieten, writing as many others have done, that is, theoretically, on furgery, advifes us, in the cafe of very bad compound fradtures, which may moft probably require amputation, to defer the operation until | we have tried the force of antifeptic fomentations, and applications of like kind, for two or three days ; and this opi¬ nion and advice he builds, in fome meafufe, on the remarkable fuccefs bf La Motte, in a feemingly defperate cafe, of a man’s leg maflted by the wheel of a heavy carriage. “ That De La Motte’s patient efcaped I make no doubt, becaufe he has faid fo: but the furgeon fliowed much more rafhnefs in attempting to fave fuch a limb, than he would have done in the amputation of it ; the operation would have been the more juftifiable pradtice.—With regard to the baron’s advice, to flay two or three days, I take the liberty to add, that if you do that, flay feveral more; for at the end of that time (I mean two or three days) the patient will have very little chance indeed from the operation, much lefs than he would have had at the time of the accident. “ I Ihould be very forry to bethought a patron or an advifer of rafhnefs or cruelty ; but in what I have here faid, I believe I ffiall have every man in the profeffion, who ha? either true humanity, or found judgment founded on ex¬ perience, on my fide.” 8378 S U R < Theory, removed with all poffible gentlenefs, without pain, violence, or laceration ; without the rifk of hasmor- rhagy ; and with as little poking into the wound as poflible. If the extremities of the bone be broken into iharp points, which points wound and irritate the fur¬ rounding parts, they muft be removed alfo. But the whole of this part of the treatment of a compound fradture rttould be executed with great caution. The objedts of fear and apprehenfion in a compound fradlure (that is, in the firft or early (late of it) are, pain, irritation, and inflammation : tliefe are to be avoided, prevented, and appeafed, by all poflible means, let every thing elfe be as it may : and altho’ certain things are always recited as neceffary to be done, fuch as removal of fragments of bone, of foreign bodies, &c. &c. yet it is always to be underftood, that fuch adts may be performed without prejudicial or great violence, and without adding at all to the a?8 rifle or hazard neceflarily incurred by the difeafe. Of difloca- In diflocations of the joints, as well as in fradlures tions. of the bones, our great attention ought to be paid to the mufcles belonging to the part affefted. Tho’ their aftion is regular and juft, when the bone to which they are attached comes to be difplaced, they pull and diftort the limb in many different ways; and from them only arifes the great difficulty in reducing luxated joints. From this conflderation, Mr Pott lays down the follow¬ ing maxims with regard to luxated joints: “ 1. Although a joint may have been luxated by means of confiderable violence, it does by no means follow that the fame degree of violence, is neceflary for its reduftion. “ 2. When a joint has been luxated, at lead one of the bones of which it is compofed is detained in that its unnatural fituation, by the aftion of fome of the mufcular parts in conneflion with it ; which aftion, by the immobility of the joint, becomes as it were to¬ nic, and is not under the diredlion of the will of the patient. “ 3. That the mere burfa! ligaments of fome of the joints, endued with great mobility, are weak, diftrac- tile, and conftantly moiftened : that, for tbefe rea- fons, they are capable of fuffering confiderable vio¬ lence without being lacerated j but that they are alfo fometimes mod certainly torn. “ 4. That did the laceration of the faid ligaments happen much more frequently than I believe it does, yet it cannot be a matter of very great confequence, as it neither totally prevents reduction, when timely and properly attempted, nor a confequent cure (c). “ 5. That fuppofing fuch accident to be frequent, yet as it is impofiible to know, with any kind of certain¬ ty, whether it has happened or not, or in what part of the ligament, it cannot be admitted as a rule for our conduct, nor ought fuch mere conjecture to pro¬ duce any deviation from what we ought to do were there no fuch fuppofition. Could wc know with cer- x E R Y. Partial tainty when and where this had happened, very ufeful Theory. fi information might indeed be drawn from it. “ 6. That all the force ufed in reducing a luxated bone, be it more or lefs, be it by hands, towels, li¬ gatures, or machines, ought always to be applied to the other extremity of the faid bone, and as much as poffible to that only. “ 7. That in the redudion of fuch joints as are compofed of a round head received into a focket, fuch as thofe of the fhoulder and hip, the whole body ihould be kept as fteady as poffible, for the fame reafon as in the foregoing. “ 8. That in order to make ufe of an extending force with all poffible advantage, and to excite there¬ by the lead pain and inconvenience, it is neceflary that all parts ferving to the motion of the diflocated joint, or in any degree conneded with it, be put into fuch a date as to give the fmalleft poffible degree of refiftance. “ 9. That in the redudion of fuch joints as confift of a round head moving in an acetabulum or focket, no attempt ought to be made for replacing the faid head until it has byextenfion been brought forth from the place where it is, and nearly to a level with the faid focket. “ 10. The laft principle which I fliall take the li¬ berty to mention, and which I would inculcate very ferioufly, is, that whatever kind or degree of force may be found neceflary for the redudion of a luxated joint, that fucb force be employed gradually; that the lefler degree be always firft tried, and that it be in- creafed gradatim.” Sect. IV. Of Abfcejfes and large Suppurations. Under the article Medicine, n° 154. it Las been obferved, that one of the ways in which inflammation terminates is by fuppuration ; in which cafe an abfeefs is formed. This takes place in confequence of that part of the body which was inflamed being rendered impervious to the circulating fluids ; whence they are at laft melted down, and converted into what is called pus or matter.—That an inflammation will terminate in an abfeefs, may be known from the length of time it has continued, from the remiffion of the pain and hardnefs, the greater elevation of the fkin in the middle part, a change of colour from red to bluifh or livid, a flight fever with fhivering, and from a fludluation of matter perceived on handling the part. *3* 1 During the firft flage of the inflammation, however, In what [ we ought, for the moil part, to endeavour to refolve cafe*we : it, or prevent the formation of an abfeefs. Yet fome™^ [“^1 cafes rouft be excepted. For inftance, thofe in-refoiutioa i flammatory fwellings which fometimes occur in fevers, of an in- or fucceed to them, ought always to be brought to fammatie^ fuppuration ; and it might be very dangerous to at¬ tempt a refolution of them. In fwellings of a fero- phulous nature, it is perhaps belt to do nothing at all, either (c) In the accident of a diflocated tibia from a broken fibula, the ftrong, inelaftic, tendinous ligaments, which fallen the end of the former bone to the aftragalus and os calcis, are frequently torn ; and as thefe, by proper care, almoft always do well, and recover all their ftrength, there is the greateft reafon to expedt, that the more weak di- ftradlile ones do the fame. The only mifehief which feems moft likely to follow from a laceration of the latter, is from an effufion of the fynovia ; of which, Mr Pott thinks, he has feen an inftance in the joint of the ankle. That the laceration of the burfal ligament of the ihoulder cannot be a frequent or general impediment to redudion, ap¬ pears from his never having, in more than 30 years care of an hofpital, met with a Angle inftance of its impracticabi¬ lity,’when attempted in time. Part IL S U R G Theory, cither with a view to refoive or fuppurate. Thus it ■ ' might be dangerous to make ufe of repellont applica¬ tions, at the fame time that it is by no means advife- able to promote their fuppuration ; the cure of fuch fweliinge, when opened, proving always very trouble- fome ; while at the fame time it is known, that fuch fweliings may remain for a very long time without any rifle to the patient. In the lues venerea, too, as we are pofTeffed of a certain antidote for the diforder, it is belt not to attempt the fuppuration of any buboes which may appear; as the cure of them, when open¬ ed, very often proves extremely troublefome ; and as their being opened cannot contribute any thing to¬ wards their cure. Where the inflammation is but beginning, and the fymptoms are not fo violent as to affeA the general lyftem, topical remedies, with a due attention to re¬ gimen, often anfwer in refolving them. JJut when the inflammation runs high, with general fymptoms of fe¬ ver, it then becomes neceflary to pay attention to thtfe at the fame time. Warm fomentations and cataplafms have generally been recommended forall inflamed parts: but thefe have a great tendency to promote fuppura¬ tion, and are therefore very improper while the inflam¬ mation may be fuppofed capable of refolution. The firft thing, therefore, to be attended to in the cafe of every inflammation, is the removal of the exciting caufes, which either have brought it on originally, or which may continue it after it is begun. Such are *4° extraneous bodies in wounds, pieces of fra&ured The apph- bones, luxations, &c. with whatever elfe may have per for an°* kad a tendency to foment and keep up the difeafe. Of inflamma- all ‘he various applications for an inflamed part, thofe ;tion. of a fedative nature are chiefly to be depended upon j and, next to thefe, emollients. Of the former kind we may confider all the different preparations of lead diflblved in vinegar; together with the vegetable acid itfelf, which generally adts alfo as a fedative. A- mong the latter we may place, in the firft clafs, the mild expreffrd oils, as alfo the foft ointments made with thefe oils and pure wax. When we fpeak of fedative medicines, however, it muft not be underflood that all of that clafs are to be ufed indiferiminately. Thus opium, though one of the mod powerful of all fedatives, yet as its applica¬ tion, externally, to the human body, is always attend¬ ed with fome degree of irritation, however ufeful it may at times be found in fome particular fpecies of inflammatory diforders, will never, probably, as an external application, become of general ufe in thefe cafes. Warm emollient fomentations, too, though powerful fedatives, as tending more effedlually to re¬ move tenfion and pain than perhaps any other remedy, yet are conftantly found to be improper where a refo¬ lution is to be wifhed for, as we have already obfer* ved. Their conftant effedt is, either to bring the fwelh'ng to a fupjfuration, or to relax the parts in fuch a manner as to render the removal of the diforder al- 241 wa>'s exceedingly tedious. Of the pre- Mr Bell recommends the preparations of lead as parations of proper applications, in cafes of external inflammation, ‘wd. where we wifh for a refolution. Thefe medicines have lately drawn the attention of the public by the great encomiums paffed upon them by M. Goulard, who thus endeavoured to pafs off one of his own compofltions E R Y. 8379 under the very improper name of extraSl of lead. This Theory, medicine, which at bell can only be a faturated folu- tion of lead in flrong vinegar, Mr Bell juftly obferves, has not the advantages of faccharum faturni. “ For (fays he) although in the Extrait dt Saturn of Gou¬ lard, a* likewife in the Acetum Lithargirites of our dif- penfatories, which are both, it may be obferved, very nearly the fame, we may be very certain of the quan¬ tity of lead employed to the vinegar; yet we can ne¬ ver, but by cryftailization, know exadlly, or even nearly, how much of the former the menitruum may have diffolved, as that muft depend on a variety of accidents ; and particularly on the ftrength of the acid and exadl degree of heat employed ; which are cir- cumftances we have not always in our power exa&Iy to regulate. For thefe reafons, therefore, the fait or fugaroflead, as it is called, Ihould, for external ufe, be always preferred.” The beft method of applying it, he fays, is in the form of a watery folution ; and he gives the following formula : “ F». Sacchar. fa- turn. |fs.; folve in acet. pur. ^iv.; et adde aq. fon- tan. dellillat. Ifeij.” The addition of vinegar renders the folution much more complete than it otherwife would be ; and with¬ out it, indeed, a very confiderable proportion of the lead generally feparates and falls to the bottom. In making ufe of this folution in cafes of inflamma¬ tion, as it is of confequence to have the parts affe&ed kept conftantly moift with it, cataplafms prepared with it and crumb of bread, in general anfwer that intention exceedingly well. But when the inflamed part is fo tender and painful as not eafily to bear the weight of a poultice, which is frequently the cafe, pieces of foft linen moiftened with the folution an¬ fwer the purpofe tolerably well: although, when there is not that objedtion to the ufe of cataplafms, as they retain the moifture longer, they fhould always be pre¬ ferred. But whichever of the two are had recourfe to, they Jhould always be applied cold, or at lead with no greater warmth than is merely neceffary for preventing pain or uneafinefs to the patient : they flioold be kept almoft conftantly at the part, and re¬ newed always before turning ftiff or hard. ^ Among the remedies recommended for external ufe, Of emolH- in cafes of inflammation, were mentioned emollients, ents. Thefe, when the tenfion and irritation on the fldn are confiderable, are often attended with very great ad¬ vantage : the parts affefted being, in fuch a ftate of the diforder, gently rubbed over with any of the mild expreffed oils two or three times a-day, the tenfion, irritation, and pain, are often very much relieved, and the difeufiion of the tumour thereby greatly'promo- ted. In every cafe of inflammation, indeed, emollient applications would afford fome relief. But as the pre¬ parations of lead, already recommended, prove, in all fuch diforders, ftill more advantageous ; and as un¬ guents of every kind tend confiderably to blunt the aftion of lead ; thefe two feta of remedies fhould as feldom as poflible be allowed to interfere with one another: and emollients fhould accordingly never be preferibed, but when the circumftances already men¬ tioned, of irritation, tenfion, and pain, are fo conti- derable as to render their application altogether necef¬ fary. Un&uous 8300 S U R G Theory. Un&uous fubllances have, too, been condemned in "fuch cafes upon a different principle, as tending to Hop the pores, and confequently to obftruft the perfpira- tion of thofe parts to which they are applied. It is not, however, probable, that in this way they could prove very hurtful in preventing the refolution of in¬ flammation ; which mud always, it is imagined, be effected in a very different manner than by perfpira- *43 tion* Of the me- When the part affe&ed with inflammation is not thod of very tender, or lies deep, applications of the vege- ufing the tab]c acid are then often had recourfe to with confi- acid 2 derable advantage ; and the mod effedhial form of ufing it feems to be by way of cataplafm, made with the dronged vinegar and crumb of bread. In fuch cafes, too, an alternate ufe of this remedy, with the faturnine folution, has produced more beneficial ef- fe&s than are commonly obferved from a continued courfe of any one of them. At the fame time that thefe applications are conti¬ nued, blooding with leeches, or cupping and fcarify- ing, as near as pofiible to the part affeded, is gene¬ rally of very great fervice; and in no cafe of local inflammation fhould ever be omitted. In all fuch cafes, the whole body, but more efpecially the difea- fed part, fhould be preferved as free as pofBble from every kind of motion ; and, for the fame reafon, the neceflity of a low cooling diet, in every inflammatory diforder, appears obvious, as does alfo a total abfli- nence from fpirituOus and fermented liquors. In flight cafes of inflammation, a due perfeverance in the feveral articles taken notice of, will, in general, be found fufficient for every purpofe. But when there is likewife a full, hard, or quick pulfe, with other 5.44 fymptoms of fever, general blood-letting becomes then tetti^'and a^way8 neceflary ; the quantity of blood taken away otherfvacu-ke‘nf? always to be determined by the violence of the ations. diforder, and by the age and ftrength of the patient. The ufe of gentle laxatives, too, together with cooling diaphoretic medicines, are always attended with very good effe&s. Thefe different evacuations being premifed, the next object of confequence is to procure eafe and quietnefs to the patient; which is often, in inflammatory cafes, of more real fervice than any other circumftance what¬ ever. The moll effe&ual remedy for this purpofe is opium ; which, when pain and irritation are confider- able, as in extenflve inflammations very frequently happens, fhould never be omitted. In large wounds, efpecially after amputations and other capital opera¬ tions, in punftures of all kinds, too, large dofes of opium are always attended with remarkable good ef- fefts. In all fuch cafes, however, opium, in order to have a proper influence, fhould, as was obferved, be adminiltered in very large dofes: otherwife, inflead of proving ferviceable, it feeras rather to have the con¬ trary effe& ; a circumftance which is, perhaps, the chief reafon for opiates in general having been very unjuftly condemned in every cafe of inflammation. By a proper attention to the different circumftances taken notice of, in the courfe of three or four days, and fometimes in a fhorter fpace of time, refolution of the tumour will in general begin to take place 5 at leaft before the end of that period, it may, for the moll part, be known how the diforder ig to terminate. E R Y. Part IT. If the heat, pain, and other attending fymptoms, Theory, abate, and efpecially if the tumour begins to decreafe,"" without the occurrence of any gangrenous appearan¬ ces, we may then be almoft certain that by a conti¬ nuance of the fame plan a total refolution will in time be effeded. But, on the contrary, if all the different fymptoms rather increafe ; and efpecially, if the tumour turns larger, and fomewhat foft, with an increafe of throbbing pain ; we may then, with tolerable cer¬ tainty, conclude that fuppuration will take place; and (hould therefore immediately dtfift from fuch applications as were judged proper while a cure was thought pra&icable by retolution, and endeavour to aflift nature as much as pofiible in the for¬ mation of pus, or what is called maturation of the tumour. For this reafon, in every cafe of inflammation, the different evacuations, efpecialiy that of blood-letting, which may have been advifable while the fwefling was attempted to be difeuffed, fhould never be carried a greater length than maybe merely neceffary for mo¬ derating the feveral febrile fymptoms : for by redu¬ cing the fyftem too much,, and a fuppuration after¬ wards taking place,' its progrefs in that cafe becomes always much more flow and uncertain than it would have been had a due attention been paid to thefe eva¬ cuations ; nor will the patient be afterwards fo able to bear, efpecially if it is confiderable, the difeharge that muft neceffarily enfue from opening the abfeefs. Although it was remarked above, that if in gene¬ ral, in the courfe of three or four days, there does not fome appearances of refolution occur, that fuppuration will mbft probably take place, and that confequently a change of treatment becomes neceffary ; yet this, it muft be obferved, is only to be taken in a limited fenfe: for the time of defifling from one mode of treatment and commencing the other, muft always depend very much on the feat of the inflammation ; fuch diforders being, in fome parts, much more apt to terminate in a fpeedy fuppuration than in others. Thus, in the cellular membrane, and in different foft parts, inflammatory diforders of all kinds termi¬ nate much more readily and quickly than when any of the tough membranous parts are affefted. Hence, in the coats of the eye and of the tefticles, very violent inflammations often continue for many days, nay, even for weeks, without either abating in the fymptoms or ending in fuppuration. In fuch cafes, therefore, which go on even to a very confiderable length, we need not be afraid of continuing the difeutient applications for a much longer time than would in general be other- wife proper: we fliould never therefore be deterred from ufing them, unlefs either an evident fuppuration has taken place, or there appears, from the violence of the fymptoms, a certain rifle either of gangrene or of fome incurable obftrudlion ; in which event, we are, no doubt, always to endeavour to procure the fuppuration of the tumour. i4j When the means ufed for difeufling or refolving an Of bringing inflamed tumour have proved ineffe&ual, the next at- tempt of the furgeon ought to be to bring it to matu-t?on“ppurl'( rity as foon as pofiible ; and for this purpofe there is nothing better than to preferve a proper degree of heat ia the parts. The method commonly had re- . - - - courfe Part IT. S U R I Theory, courfe. to for the application of heat to an inflamed ~~ part, is by the means of warVn fomentations and cata- plafms ; and when thefe are regularly and frequently renewed, nothing, it is probable, could more effec¬ tually anfwer the purpofe. But in the ordinary man¬ ner in which they are applied, by the cataplafms be- . 446 inS renewed only once, or at molt twice a day, they idmmon niuft always, it is imagined, do morfe harm than good, method of For fo foon as the, degree of heat they were at firft auVai8 P0^ fod of is diflipated, the moifture kept up by them, improper* Wlt*1 t*,e cookrp'ent evaporation that enfues, mull al- p ’ ways render the part a great deal colder than if it had been merely wrapped in flannel without the ufc of any fuch application. In order to receive all the advantages of fuch reme¬ dies, the part affe&ed Ihould be well fomented with flannels prefled out of any warm emollient deco&ion, applied as warm as the patient can eafily bear them, continued at lead half an hour at once, and repeated four times a-day. Immediately after the fomentation is over, a large emollient poultice fhould likewife be applied warm, and renewed every fecqnd or third hour at fartheft. Of all the forms recommended for emollient cata¬ plafms, a common milk-and-bread poultice, with a proportion of butter or oil, is perhaps the mod eli¬ gible ; as it not only poflefies all the advantages of the others, but can at all times be moreeaftly obtained. Roaded onions, garlick, and other acrid fubdan- ces, are frequently made ufe of as additions to matu¬ rating cataplafms. When there is not a due degree of inflammation in the tumour, and when it appears probable that the fuppuration would be quickened by having the inflammatory fymptoms fomewhat increa- fed, the addition of fnch fubdances may then be of fervice; but when dimulants are neceflary in fuch ca¬ fes, a fmall proportion of drained galbanum, or of any of the warm gums, diflblved in the yolk of an egg, and added to the poultices, is not only a more elegant, but a more certain form of applying them. Whenever the inflammation, however, takes place to a proper degree, fuch dimulating fubdances never can be neceflary; and in many cafes, it is apprehended, they may even do mifehief. In fuch tumours as, from their being poffeffed of little or no inflammation, are commonly faid to be of a cold nature, as they are generally indolent, and pro¬ ceed very flowly to fuppuration, pladers compofed of the warm gums are often had recourfe to with confi- derable advantage. In fuch cafes, they are not only of ufe by the Aimulus and irritation they occafion, but by the heat which they tend to preferve in the part. They become particularly neceflary when the patient, by being obliged to go abroad, cannot have cata¬ plafms frequently enough renewed, or fo conveniently applied ; but when fome fuch objeflion does not occur, the latter, for very obvious reafons, Ihould always be preferred. Dry cupping, as it is termed, that is, cupping without the ufe of the fcarificator, upon or as near as pofiible to the part affedled, is frequently had recourfe to with advantage in promoting the fuppuration of tumours. It is only, however, in fuch as thefe lad mentioned, where there feems to be a deficiency of inflammation, that it can ever either be neceflary or G E R Y. 83 ufeful ; but in all tumours of a real indolent nature, Theory. and where there is dill fome probability of a fuppu- ration being effedled, I have feldom obferved fuch ef¬ fects from any other remedy. Thefe different applications, under the reflriflions taken notice of, being continued for a longer or fhorter time, according to the fize of the tumour, its iituation, and other circumdanoes, a thorough fuppu¬ ration may in general at lad be expefted. 147 Matter being ful|y formed in a tumour, is known Signs of an by a remifflon of all the fymptoms taking place : ^ r^d'^form- dolor pulfatilis, that before was frequent, now goesy 1 off, and the patient complains of a more dull, condant, heavy pain : the tumour points at fome particular part, generally near to its middle; where, if the matter is not eneyded, or deep feated, a whitifh yellow ap¬ pearance is obferved, indead of a deep red that for¬ merly took place; and a fluftuation of a fluid under¬ neath, is, upon preffure, very evidently difeovered. Sometimes, indeed, when an abfeefs is thickly co¬ vered with mufcular and other parts; and when, from concurring circumflances* there can be little doubt of there being even a very confiderable colle&ion of mat¬ ter ; yet the flu&uation cannot be readily didinguifh- ed : but it does not often happen, that matter is fo very deeply lodged as not to be difeovered upon pro¬ per examination. This, however, is a circumftance of the greated confequence in practice ; and deferves, it may be re¬ marked, more attention than is commonly given to it. In no part of the furgeon’s employment, is experience in former fimilar cafes of greater ufe to him than in the prefent; and however Ample it may appear, yet nothing, it is certain, more readily didinguifhes a man of obfervation and extenfive pradtice, than his being able eafily to detedl colledlions of deep-feated matter; whild nothing, on the contrary, fo materially affedls the charadler of a furgeon, as his having, in fuch ca¬ fes, given an inaccurate or unjud prognofis; as the event, in diforders of that nature, comes generally at lad to be clearly demondrated to all concerned. Together with the feveral local fymptoms of the prefence of pus, already enumerated, may be men¬ tioned the frequent (hiverings that patients are liable to on its fird formation : thefe, however, feldom oc¬ cur fo as to be didin&ly obferved, unlefs the collec¬ tion is confiderable, or feated internally in fome of the vifeera. 14g After the matter is fully formed, and the abfeefs Of opening brought to maturity, the only remedy is to open it,abfeefles. and give vent to the pus it contains. In many cafes> indeed, nature will do the work, and abfeefles when fuperficially feated will certainly burd of themfelves: but where the matter lies deep, we are by no means to wait for this fpontaneous opening; as the pus will acquire an acrimony, before it can break through the integuments, which may prove very prejudicial to health. However, it is a general rule not to open abfeefles till a thorough fuppuration has taken place; for, when laid open long before that period, and while any confiderable hardnefs remains, they commonly prove more troublefome, and feldom heal fo kindly. In fome cafes, however, it is neceffary to deviate from this general rule, and to open them a good deal fooner; particularly in all fuch critical abfeefles as occur. S382 SURGERY. Part II. 1 Theory, occur in malignant fevers. In the plague, too, we “ are commonly advifed to open fuch tumours, fo foon as they are at all tolerably advanced, and not to wait till they are fully maturated; as, from experience in thefe diforders, it is found to be of more confequence, for the removal of the original difeafe, to have a quick difcharge of matter produced, than any harm the patient can ever fuller from having a fwelling fome- what prematurely laid open. In abfcefles, too, fituatedon ahy of the joints, or upon either of the large cavities of the bread and ab¬ domen, and more efpecially when they feera to run deep, they fhould always be opened as foon as the lead flufluation of matter is difcovered. For, when the refiftance is on every fide equal, they juft as readily point internally as outwardly: and the confequence of a large abfeefs burfting into either of the large ca¬ vities efpecially, is well known moft frequently to provefatal: An inftanceof which, in the following cafe, with very little attention, might have been prevented. Cafsofan A furgeon of eminence, and of very extenfive prac- •obfeefs ticc, was applied to by a young healthy-looking man, ^-with a large abfeefs upon the left fide of his cheft. A y’ fluftuation of a fluid was, upon preffure, very evidently difcovered ; and it was agreed, by other two prac¬ titioners that were prefent, that an opening fttould be made to give vent to the matter. But the operator, being much engaged in bufinefs, could not fix on an earlier period for doing it than the the third day from the patient’s applying to him : unluckily, however, the patient^died fuddenly in his bed the night before the abfeefs was to have been opened. On examining the body, the tumour had difap- peared entirely, without any external opening being obfervable; and, on opening the thorax, it was found to have burft inwardly upon the lungs, and fo had produced immediate fuffocation. In every other circumftance, however, except in the cafes alluded to, the rule in opening abfcefles, is, as was already remarked, To allow a thorough fuppu- ration to take place, before any vent whatever be given to the matter ; and it being then determined to lay the colle&ion open, the next queftion that occurs, is with refpeft to the manner of doing it. But the aj0 confideration of this belongs to the next Part. Of white Under the head of alfcejfes, we may reckon thofe dwelling, tumours of thejoints ufually called 'whitefnueJlings; for though they never fuppurate in fuch a kindly manner as the common abfeefe, yet they certainly contain collections of a kind of pus as much as the former.— The only regular treatife which has yet appeared on white-fwellings is that of Mr Bell furgeon in Edin¬ burgh. He obferves, that there are two fpecies of the difeafe ; the one of a mild nature, and frequently ad¬ mitting of a cure; which the other never does. The former, named by our author the rheumatic fpecies of white fwelling, begins with an acute pain, feeming- i*1 ly diffufed over the whole joint, and frequently ex¬ rheumatic tendi"g a'ong ^ tendinous aponeurofes of the mufcles white fwell- wh‘ch communicate with it. There is, from the be- iug. ginning, an uniform fwelling of the whole furround¬ ing integuments; which in different patients is in different degrees, but always fufficient to occafion an evident difparity between the fize of the difeafed joint and the other. Great tenfion generally prevails; but in this period of the diforder thefe is feldom any ex- Theory. ternal change of colour. From the commencement of 1” the difeafe, the motion of the j >int is attended with exquifite pain, and the patient keeps it conftantly in a relaxed pofture, finding that the eafieft. Hence the tendons become extremely ftiff and rigid, till at laft the joints have the appearance of complete and real anchylofes. The fwelling now begins to augment, till the joint has acquired three or four times its na- II. tural fize: the cuticular veins become turgid and |r varicofe; at the fame time that the mufcular fubftance of the limb below decays, though it frequently ac¬ quires an equality in fize by becoming cedematous: the pain becomes intolerable, efpecially when the perfon is warm in bed or otherwife heated : abfeeffes form in different parts, which, either breaking of thcmfelves, or by being laid open, difcharge confi- derable quantities of matter, but without any remark¬ able effeA in reducing the fize of the fwelling. The pus difeharged from thefe is at firft of a tolerably good confiftence, but foon degenerates into a thin ill-con¬ ditioned fanies. However, the orifices from whence it flows foon heal up, unlefs they are kept open by art; and new colledlions breaking out, they burft; and heal up as before ;* fo that in long-continued diforders of this kind, the furrounding integuments are often entirely covered with cicatrices. In the mean time the health of the patient gradu¬ ally declines ; firft from the violence of the pain, which often deprives him of fleep and appetite ; and then from the abforption of matter into the fyftem, which always certainly takes place in fome degree from its firft formation in the different abfeeffes ; but which indeed never appear fo evidently till the different abfeeffes have been laid open; after which a quick pulfe, night-fweats, and a weakening diarrhoea, are fure to occur, and which generally carry off the patient, if the member is not either amputated, or the difeafe cured fome other way. On differing limbs which have been amputated for^pp/^ j white fweliings, the original difeafe appears to have ances an been a morbid thickening of the furrounding liga-d’flefting ! ments, without any other affeftion of the joint what-the | ever ; the bones and cartilages always remaining per forthis fe&ly found, as likewife the fynovia both in quantity fpecies of | and confiftence. In fome inftances where the difeafe .white fwelt has been very violent, this thicknefs of the ligamentsinS’ as was formerly remarked, always, from tioned, and which, by thofe accuftomed to the prac- ferenr the beginning, diffufed over the whole joint, and on tice, is commonly eafily obtained, it mod frequently fpecies of fome occafions extends even a confiderable way along is attended with very confiderable effefts. the difeafe. tjje fflufc]es that are attached to it : whereas, in the It mud here be obferved, that cupping is, in thefe other fpecies of the diforder, the pain is not only cafes, much fuperior to leeches; which is not only a always at fird, but fometimes even when the complaint more tedious method of getting the fame quantity of has been of conliderable ftanding, confined to a very blood, but the fwelling occafioned by the application fmall circumfcribed fpace. of any confiderable number of thefe animals pYoves In the former, the fwelling is always confined to frequently very troublefome ; and, what is often of the foft parts, and is from the beginning exceedingly worfe confequences, gives fometimes an interruption, evident : but in the latter, there is feldom for fome for a time, to the ufe of other remedies, time any perceptible fwelling ; and when it does more Upon the anterior part of the joint, where the cup- fenfibly appear, the bones are found evidently to be ping-glafies have not been placed, a fmall blider ihould the parts chiefly afFe&ed, the furrounding teguments be dire&ly applied, and the part kept open with iffue- coming only to uffer on a farther progrefs of the difeafe. ointment, till the wounds from the fcarificator are fo Thefe are the chief local differences of the two far healed, that a veficatory may likewife be laid on fpecies of this diforder; but fome aflidance in the one fide of the joint; and fo foon as that is nearly didindion may likewife be obtained, from the general healed, the other fide Ihould be alfo blidered. habit of the patient, and from the manner in which By thus alternately applying them, fird to the one the complaint may feem to have been produced. fide, and then to the other, almod a condant dimulus Thus, when fuch fwellings occur in young, drong, plethoric people, efpecially in fuch as have formerly been fubjeft to rheumatifm, and that whether in con- fequence of an immediate external accident or not, fuch, mod probably, will always prove to be of the milded or rheumatic fpec^es of the diforder. Whereas, when fwellings of this nature appear in is kept up; which, in deepfeated inflammations, feems to have fully a greater influence than all the dif- charge occafioned by bliders. Gentle cooling laxatives at proper intervals are here of ufe too ; and the patient Ihould, in every refpeft, be kept upon a drift antiphlogidic courfe, both as to diet and every other circumdance. From a due at - fueh patients as are otherwife evidently of fcrophulous tention to which, with a continuance of the topical difpofitions ; where, together with a fine fkin and de- treatment already recommended, confiderable advan- licate complexion, there are either, on examination, tages have frequently been obferved, more indeed found hardened glands in the neck, arm-pits, or in- than from any other remedies ever ufed in this com- guina ; or it is difeovered that the patient has, from plaint. bis ancedors, a title to fuch complaints; when either It is in the fird dages only, however, of the difeafe, ■anysor all of thefe circumdances occur, and if the dif- that fuch a courfe can probably be of much fervice ; order has begun in the manner formerly deferibed, and in fuch it has frequently been a means of curing without any evident external caufe, we need be under diforders, which otherwife would probably have pro- very little doubt in concluding it to be of a ferophu- ceeded to the lad dages of white fwellings. lous nature. The original inflammatory affeftion being once over. The great utility of properly diftinguifhing the two thefe fort of drains feem to have little or no influence, different fpecies of white fwellings, appears in no cir- and ought not then to be long perfided in, as tending cumdance fo evident as in the treatment. In the one, to prevent the ufe of other remedies, which, in an there being fome chance, by proper remedies, of be- advanced date of the difeafe, prove commonly more ing ferviceable to the patient ; whereas in the other, efficacious. viz. the fcrophulous, it is not probable that art will The inflammation being moflly gone, and while When ever be able to afford much affidance. there are yet no appearances of the formation of mat-^P 15 u e” In the rheumatic white fwelling, as it is always at ter, mercury, in,thefe circumdances, has fometimes fird evidently of an inflammatory nature, confiderable been known of ufe; not given fo as to falivate, but advantages are commonly obtained by a due attention merely to affeft the mouth gently, and to keep it to a proper antiphlogidic courfe. fomewhat fore for a few weeks. aj7 The fird remedy which, with this view, fhould be The bed form of ufing mercury, in fuch cafes, is Method of put in praftice, is blood-letting ; but indead of ge- certainly by way of unftion ; as it allows, at the fame 158 whitefivell-a^v<'ays more effe(^ual take the blood immediately fwellings, may of itfelf be in fome meafure confidered ing. from the part affefted. Cupping and fcarifying is as a remedy. For this purpofe, an ointment of quick- here a principal remedy. The indrument fhould be filver and hog’s lard fhould be prepared ; but with fa applied to each fide of the difeafed joint ; on each fmall a proportion of the former, that the patient may fide of the rotula, for indance, when the knee is the admit of two drams of the ointment being rubbed in part affefted, and at lead eight or ten ounces of blood threfe times a-day. In order to rub that quantity of ilifeharged ; and this to be repeated at proper inter- the medicine in with gentle friftion, an hour each time' vals, once, twice, or oftener, according to the vio- is at lead neceffary, and which is as little as fhould lence of the fymptoms and date of the patient’s ftrength ever be given in order to receive all the advantages at the time. that attend the praftice : for however ufeful friftion, 'Part II. U It G E R Y. 8385 Theory, in fuch cafes, may be, when properly applied, in the found to proceed merely from a contra&ed ilate of the Theory. A ftiffiiefs ordinary way of continuing the remedy for a few nutes only, it is not probable it can ever have much influence. Gentle mercurials, given internally, are here fome- times of fervice too ; but as all the advantages to be derived from them in that form are obtained from the undfion, together with that of the fri&ion neeeffary for its application, the latter, in all fuch cafes, (hould certainly be preferred. By Le Dran, and other French writers, falls of warm water on dwellings of this nature are much re¬ commended ; and there is no fort of doubt, but a long-continued and reiterated application of that re¬ medy may, in the firft ftages of fuch complaints, be often attended with very good effefts. By a proper ufe of thefe different applications, tvi. of the joint of the feveral topical remedies in the firft or inflamma- Tometitnes tory ftate of the difeafe, and afterwards (ftill, how1- rtmains af- cver> before the formation of matter) of mercurials, ^ fwelUnff"* frifti0!5* many affeftions of this nature have been entirely removed. But in many inftances, when, ei¬ ther by the ufe of medicines, or by an effort of nature, the fwelling and pain are almoft entirely, or evert wholly removed, it frequently happens, by the bent pofition the limb has been for a long time kept in, that the ufe of the joint comes to be entirely loft, ha¬ ving often acquired fuch a degree of ftiffnefs, that any attempts to move it are commanly attended with very great pain. Unluckily, in all fuch cafes, thefe affeftions of the i concerning joints have been conftantly attributed to one or other ftifTnehes of of two different caufes, which are both in their na- the joints, ture incurable, viz. either to the ends of fuch bones as compofe tfie joints having run into one another, fo as to become firmly conjoined in confequence of the fur¬ rounding cartilages being abraded ; or to the infpiffa- tion, as it is termed, of the fynovia of the joints, whereby their cavities are fuppofed to be entirely filled up, and no fpace thereby left for the future motion of the different bones. “ Both thefe opinions, however, (fays Mr Bell), I can, from a great number of fafts, affert to be in general at lead very ill founded s for although, by an abrafion of the cartilages which furround the different bones at the joints, an union of their extremities may very readily be occafioned, and is no doubt on fotne occafions the caufe of fuch affeftions; yet from a va¬ riety of diffeftions, I am convinced that it is an ex¬ ceeding rare occurrence-, and, in cafes of white fwell¬ ing, never happens but in the moft advanced ftages of the diforder: the only caufes almoft of the ftiffnefs of the joints, in ftich cafes, being that contrafted ftate of the flexor tendons, formerly taken notice of in the defcription ; at leaft, in nineteen cafes out of twenty, it probably is fo. There is nothing indeed more deceiving than the feel on fuch occafions: for when the diforder has been of long (landing, the ftiffnefs and immobility are ge¬ nerally fo'confiderable, as, at fir-ft fight, always to appear as if a real conjundtion of the bones certainly fubfifted ; many inftances'of which I have known, that had been all along confidered as real anchylofes of the worft kind'; but which, on chfleftion, were conftamly Vol. X. Mr Beil’s fl»pinion. flexor mufcles and tendons. “ With refpeft to the other opinion, which did for¬ merly fo univerfally, and with many ftill does, prevail, of fuch affeftions generally proceeding from an infpif- fated ftate of the fynovial fluid, it has for fome time, by many anatomifts, been much doubted if it ever occurs; and from all the opportunities I have had of diflefting fuch difeafed joints, I am pretty much con¬ vinced, that it either never does take place, or atleaft that it is an exceeding rare occurrence: for in every cafe of this kind, even when the difeafe had been of very long continuance, if the capfular ligament of the joint remained undivided, fo that no matter from the furrounding foft parts got admittance, and when the ends of the bones were not become carious, the fynovia always retained its natural appearances both in co¬ lour and confiftence. So that it is very probable, the many caufes of difeafed joints, attributed to affeftions of that fluid, have been more founded on mere hypo- thefes than on fafts and experience. “ This ftiffnefs of the joint, therefore, which to a certain degree always occurs in white fwellings, pro¬ ceeding feldom or never from either of the caufes men¬ tioned, which might probably both be confidered as incurable, but merely from a preternatural contraftion of the mufcles and tendons, we have from that cir- cumftance great reafon to expeft, that in many fitua- tions a good deal may be done towards its removal. And in faft, there is no fort of doubt but complaints of this kind, which often remain after every other fymptom of white fwelling has difappeared, may, on many occafions, be got the better of, merely by a long-continued ufe of emollients : feveral inftances, indeed, of this I have feen, fome of which had been thought to be of the worft fpecies of anebylofis. “ The beft, and probably leaft offenfive, emollient Oil olive that can be ufed, is pure olive oil applied warm ; ast,'el>e^ much of it as can be eafily rubbed in by an hour'semo gentle friftion (hould be regularly done at leaft three times a-day ; and inftead of confining the friftion al¬ together to the rigid tendons, as is commonly done, it fhould be extended over the whole mufcles, even to the infertions of their other extremities; but more efpecially on their flefhy mufcular parts, where the principal caufe of the continuance of fuch complaints is probably feated ; thefe parts being chiefly, if not altogether, poffeffed of the coatraftile, and confe- quently of the refilling, powers. 2(y, “ I have known ufed, too, in this complaint, as Neat’s-foot an emollient, and often with advantage, an oil ex-0'l f01?6' trafted from aflimal-fubftanees, known by the name 111 i‘ of neats foot oil: but as it is more apt to turn rancid than olive oil, it is not therefore fuch a pleafant appli¬ cation ; and not being pofftffcd of any fuperior relax¬ ing properties, the other will probably, for that rea¬ fon, be commonly preferred. “ The diforder now under confideration, viz. a (lift joint, is fo evidently one of tbofe which particu¬ larly require the ufe of emollients, that almoft every old woman has fotne particular form or other of re¬ commending them ; one of which I cannot avoid men¬ tioning, as I have frequently known it ufed, and in two cafes particularly, with very evident advantages, 4 2 A viz. 8386 SURGERY. Part IE i Theory, viz. the web or omentum of a new-killed flieep, or ” of any other animal, to be applied over all the difea- 254 fed parts dire&ly on being cut out of the animal. Omentum u ln the two cafes alluded to, one was in the knee, kilted an!- and the other in the hand; and the joints, from ha- malre- v‘ng ^een totally ufelefs, were almoft perfedly refto- commended red. The application fhould be renewed as frequently as pofGble, once a-day at lead, or oftener when it can be done; for on being more than four or five hours applied it becomes difagreeable ; and after that time, indeed, as it commonly turns (tiff, it cannot then pro¬ bably be of much fervice. The fame kind of remedy, ufed in fomewhat a different manner, I find recom¬ mended by Lieutaud, a celebrated French pra&i- tioner. “ I have been the more particular on this part of the fubjed, as I have often thought, with a little at¬ tention, the ufe of many joints might be recovered, which, from a miftaken notion concerning their cau- fes, have generally from the firft been confidered as . incurable. Treatment “ The diforder has hitherto been fuppofed not to of a white be fo far advanced as to have occafioned the formation fwelling 0f matter; for when come that length, no confider- terisform a^e advantages can be expefted from any of the re¬ ed in it. medics as yet recommended: but even in that ftate of the complaint, if the patient’s health does not abfo- lutely require it, amputation of the member fhould by no means be immediately had recourfe to, as it molt frequently is. For by paying attention to open the different abfceffes foon after their formation^ the mat¬ ter may in that way be pretty certainly prevented from deftroying the capfular ligaments of the joints, which, if once effe&ed, would no doubt in time render that 266 operation neceffary. ©fthepro- “ It may be here obferved too, with refpeft to the for peri„d mo^ ProPer period of the difeafe for amputating fuch tat^in2,bm*bs^^1^8, t^at’ even Point fuccefs from the opera- affefted tion, it ought never to be advifed till the complaint is with white pretty far advanced : for though, a priori, it might fwellings. bc imagined, that the more early in the difeafe am¬ putation of the member is had recourfe to, the more fuccefsful it fhould prove; and although this, indeed, has been made a common argument for amputating very early in every cafe of white fwelling, yet, how¬ ever plaufible the obfervation may appear, it will not, from experience, I am certain, be found to hold good. For in this diforder efpecially, I have conftantly ob¬ ferved, that amputation has more frequently fucceeded, that is, a greater proportion of fuch patients have re¬ covered from it, who have ptevioufly been confider- ably reduced by diarrhoeas and other weakening fymp- toms, than of fuch as have ffill remained in a full ple¬ thoric habit of body. “ In the former, when the conflitution has not been too much broken, and which pra&itioners have always in their power to guard againft, the feveral fymptoms of heftic which previoufly took place, are commonly removed in a very few days after the limb is taken off. No high inflammatory afft&ions are ever produced ; the patient daily mends in his health ; and a complete cure, if the patient has not been too much reduced, is generally very foon obtained. In the latter, again, the very reverfc of all thefe cirgumftances occur: the pa¬ tient, from being in high health at the time of the TheoryJ | operation, is generally thrown into a fmart inflamma- I tory fever; which is no doubt very often got the bet¬ ter of, but which frequently either carries off the pa¬ tient immediately, or produces fuch effects as he never thoroughly recovers from. “ So that in no cafe whatever fhould amputation be had recourfe to, until every probable means for faving the limb has been tried in vain. “ All the different obfervations hitherto made up¬ on the treatment, relate particularly to the rheumatic fpecies of the diforder; and when had recourfe to in time, and duly perfitled in, they will frequently be found of fervice : but when the difeafe is fo far ad¬ vanced as to have deftroyed the capfnlar ligaments of the joint, and perhaps even the cartilages and bones themfelves, amputation of the member is then no doubt the only refource. 2 fcrotum, labia pudendi, the upper and The caufes which tend to the produ&ion of hernia of ^ ca hernite. fore part of the thigh, the umbilicus, and in different in its more ufual form, are as follows : fesofher- points between the interftices of the abdominal I. The containing parts of the abdomen we know "i* i'1 hs mufcles. to be elaftic and compreffible ; whatever, therefore,form*! If the fituation of fuch tumours be various, thevif- tends to produce a diminution of capacity in the cavity cera which produce them are flill more fo; inftances of the abdomen, mull occafion a proportional degree having occurred of the ftomacb, uterus, liver, fpleen, of rifle of fome of the contained parts being pufhed and bladder, being found to form their contents. But from their natural fituations. Violent coughing, cry- a part of the inteftinal canal, or a portion of the omen- ing, laughter, or great bodily exertion, are attended turn, are from experience known to be the mol! fre- with more or lefs contradion of the abdominal mufcles, x8j quent caufe of their formation. and particularly of the diaphragm ; and as the con- "" ' From thefe circuroflances of situation and contents, traftion ofthefe mufcles muli always diminifh the ab- nrlWinrs l^e different appellations are derived by which her- dominal cavity, thefc caufes therefore are frequently e diftinguifhed. Thus they are termed inguinal, found to be produdive of hernia. fcrotal, femoral, umbilical, and ventral; from their II. Falls, in confequence of the derangement they appearing in the groin, fcrotum, thigh, navel, or produce in the abominal vifcera, from the fudden and belly. When the tumour is confined to the groin, the violent (hock with which they are often attended, are hernia is faid to be incomplete, and is termed bubo' not unfrequently the immediate caufes of hernia. meek; but when the fwelling reaches down to the HI. Perfonsof a preternatural laxity of frame are very bottom of the fcrotum, the rupture is then fuppofed liable to hernite. The containing parts of the abdo- Of the her- ! nisi fac. I>art IT. S U R G •Theory, men, from tlie want of a fufficient tone and firmnefs, ...r- are unable in fuch people to refill on all occafions the weight of the different vifcera ; and they are therefore more particularly expofed to diforders of this kind on the flighted application of any of the caufes already mentioned. IV. Sprains are apt to induce a laxity of the part injured ; and have therefore a firailar influence in in¬ ducing herniae with general laxity. V. It has been obferved, that the people of thofe countries where oil is much ufed as an article of diet, are particularly liable to hernise. In whatever parts the parietes of the abdomen hap¬ pen to be weakeft, thefe various caufes will mod rea¬ dily operate in producing hernise ; and accordingly we find, that defcents of the bowels ufually occur only in fuch parts. The parts which from anatomy we would a priori fufpeft to be mod liable to fuch protrufions, are the openings in the external oblique mufcles ; the arch formed by Poupart’s ligament for the paffage of the great blood-veffels of the thigh ; and the umbilicus, where the fame degree of firmnefs does not take place as is met with in the red of the tendinous expanfion of the abdominal mufcles. Sometimes, however, it happens, that parts of the vifcera are protruded be¬ tween the interdices of the different mufcles of the ab- domen ; but thefe are not frequent occurrences. In whichever of thefe fituations a protrufion of any portion of the intedines occurs, except in the cafe of the hernia congenita, as all the vifcera are contained within the peritonxum, a portion of that membrane, it is evident, mud be carried down together with the parts protruded ; and in every fuch inflance, it is this portion of the peritonaeum, which goes down along with the gut, that is termed the hernial fac. The fize of this fac is various in different fubjedts, and in differ¬ ent dages of the fame diforder. On the fird appearance of the difeafe, the fac is commonly of no very confiderable fize, as fuch fwell- ings feldom acquire any great bulk at once; but by repeated defcents of the bowels, the fac comes to be An hernia Kf long .•becomes en- Barged thi 8389 when the redu&ion of a hernia can be accomplilhed Theory, with any kind of propriety, it ought always to be effedled as quick as poflible. 389 All the bad fymptoms which are found to occur in Caufes of hernise, proceed, as may be readily fuppofed, either l*16 ba<1 from obdrudlion to the paffage of the fasces when the attending8 Ibulk, and pufhed lower and lower, till in fome indances its bulk is its fac becomes very confiderable indeed ; and when in this dekened. advanced period of the diforder the fac happens to be laid open, it is found to contain either large quanti¬ ties of omentum or intedine, and frequently large por¬ tions of each. As the peritonaeum has this property in common with many other parts of the body, of thickening ac¬ cording to the degree of any gradual extenfion applied to it, To in many indances the thicknefs and firmnefs of the hernial fac are often really adoniflring. Although every inftance of a bowel protruded from its natural fituation is to be confidered as a derange¬ ment, and as fuch ought to excite our attention for its reduction ; yet daily inftances occur both of recent herniae, and of thofe of longer danding, in which no bad fymptoms are produced from fuch protrufions of the vifcera. Thus it is well known, that hernial fwellings of every kind very frequently happen, with¬ out the patient fuffering in any other manner than from the inconvenience arifing from the bulk of the tumours. But in general the cafe is otherwife; trouble- fome fymptoms mod frequently occur j and at all events, intedinal canal forms the tumour, or from a doppage hernis. of circulation cccafioned by ftri&ure on the prolapfed parts ; fo that the attending fymptoms, it is evident, will be always more or lefs hazardous, according to the nature of the parts fo protruded. 4po Thus, when omentum alone forms the fubdance of An omen, hernial fwellings, as that organ does not appear to betal bcr"ia fo immediately ncceffary for life as many of the other vifcera, fuch tumours accordingly are not fo frequently * productive of bad confequences, at lead they are fel¬ dom in any degree fo hazardous as when a part of the alimentary canal is either protruded by itfelf or along with omentum. J9I Although this, however, is in general the cafe; Yet may yet it does fometimes happen, that even an omental fr^imes rupture is productive of no fmall degree of danger-* When a dridure fo complete upon it occurs as totion- occafion a doppage of circulation in the protruded part, mortification with all its bad confequences mud be the certain event: And befides, the connection be¬ tween the omentum, domach, and other vifcera, is fuch, that a hidden defeent of any confiderable por¬ tion of the former fometimes brings on vomiting, hickup, and other troublefome fymptoras: And ladly, although a rupture containing omentum only, might not of itfelf produce any thing bad ; yet as the paffage through which the omentum has flipped, mud of ne- ceffuy continue open fo long as that vifeus remains protruded, and as that circumdance alone mud fo long as it continues render it more eafy for a portion of gut likewife to get down, this of itfelf is a fufficient reafon for even this fpecies of hernia deferving the feri- ous attention of practitioners. But whatever the contents of fueh fwellings may be, as their remaining in fome indances for a confi¬ derable length of time without being productive of any bad fymptoms, mud proceed entirely from the circu¬ lation continuing to go freely on, notwithdanding the derangement of parts; fo, whenever a ftridture occurs upon the protruded vifcera, fufficient to produce eithelr- a doppage of the circulation, or of the faecal con¬ tents of the alimentary canal when a portion of gut forms the difeafe, the following in general are the fymptoms which accrue. An eladic colourlefs fwelling is obferved at the part Enu2®*ra. affeCted. Aflightpainisfeltnotonlyinthefwellingitfelf, tion of the but, if part of the alimentary canal is down, an uni-fymptoms- verfal uneafinefs is perceived over the whole abdomen; a,t<:nd"!& and this pain is always rendered worfe by coughing, fneezing, or any violent exertion. The patient com-tore, plains of naufea ; frequent retching; can get no dif- charge by (tool ; becomes hot and redlefs ; and the pulfe is commonly found quick and hard. When the fwelling is entirely formed by a portion of gut, if no faeces be contained in it, it has a fmootb, equal fur- face ; and is eafily comprtffible, but indantly returns to its former fize on the preffure being removed : but, in gut-ruptures of long ftanding, where hard faeces have collected in the protruded bowels, confider- oWe 839° S U R Theory, able inequalities are detefted. When again the tu- • mour is compofed both of gut and omentum, its ap¬ pearance is always unequal, it feels foft and fomewhat like dough, and of courfe is not fo elaftic as when part of the inteftinal tube only is down ; for although, like the other, it is compreflible, it does not fo readily regain its former dimenfions on the preffure being taken off. It has been a received opinion, that in cafes of ilrangulated hernia the fymptoms fhould be lefs vio¬ lent when the inteftinc is accompanied by a portion of omentum, than when gut alone is down. Little or no difference, however, is produced by this circum- ftance; for when a gut becomes obftrufted and in¬ flamed, the fymptoms thereby induced are nearly the fame whether the omentum be down with it or not. Thefe It be readily fuppofed, however, that the fymptoms fymptoms we have defcribed never can happen from cannot be ^e prefence of omentum only: For although ftri&ure b^the' 61 Pr°duced on a portion of omentum, even when no part mere de- of the inteftinal tube is down, does now and then feent of the occalion a good deal of diftrefs, fuch as pain in the omentum, part, ficknefs, vomiting, and twitching pains through the whole belly; yet no obftru&ion of the gut ever occurs from this, and of courfe none of the fymptoms ever prove fo alarming as when any part of the gut .is affe&ed. If thefe fymptoms we have defcribed as being produced by a ftrangulated gut, are not now obviated by a removal of the ftriSure which pro¬ duced them, the naufea and retching terminate in frequent vomitings, firft of a bilious, and afterwards of a more fetid matter; the belly becomes tenfe; the pain turns more violent; a diftrefiing convul- five hickup comes on; the fever, which before was not apparently of much confequence, now becomes very formidable ; and a total want of reft, with a very difagreeable flate of anxiety, continues through the Si ns*of a w^°*e courfe of the complaint.—Thefe fymptoms ha- niordfica- ving gone on with violence for fome time, the patient tion of the is at laft commonly fuddenly relieved from all man- :inteftinc, ner of pain; when he flatters himfelf every rifle is for certain over. But inftead of that, the pulfe, from having been hard and frequent, becomes languid and interrupted; cold fweats break out over the whole body, but efpecially on the extremities; the eyes ac¬ quire a kind of languor; the tenfenefs of the abdo¬ men fubfides, and the fwelling of the part affedled difappears ; the teguments covering the parts, which before were either of a natural appearance, or had fomewhat of a reddifh inflamed caft, now acquire a livid hue, and a windy crepitous feel is diftinguilhable all over the courfe of the fwelling. If the protruded parts have not of themfelves gone entirely up, their return is now in general eafily effefted by a fmall de- * gree of preffure, and the patient then difeharges freely by ftool; but the cold fweats increafing, the hickup turns more violent, and death itfelf is at laft ufhered in by its ufual forerunners, fubfultus tend- dinum, and other convulfive twitchings. Thefe are the ordinary fymptoms of what is termed a Jlrangulated or incarcerated gut-hernia : that is, when the parts protruded become fo affe&ed by ftrifture as to produce pain ; and do not either return to their natural fituations on the patient’s getting into a hori* G E R Y. Part II§ zontal pofture, or cannot even be immediately replaced Theor^) by the hands of a praftitioner. In whatever fituation a ftrangulated hernia occurs, the only rational method of cure, it is evident, muft 0<* r confift in the removal of that ftrifture which prevents the return of the protruded parts. It is that ftridture which ought to be confidered as the caufe of all the mifehief; and unlefs it be removed, nothing effeftual can be done for the relief of the patient. Various methods have been attempted by pra&i- tiotiers for the removal of ftriflure in thefe diforders; all of them, however, may be comprehended under two general heads. I. Such as effeft a redu&ion of the protruded parts, without the interpofition of incifion or any chirurgical operation properly fo called; and, II. A diviiion of the parts producing the ftridure, fo as to admit of a replacement of the deranged vif- cera, conftituting what is ternaed the operation forth: hernia. The remedies to be employed for accomplilhing the firft of thefe, are, a proper pofture of the patient, with the manual afliftance of a practitioner ; blood¬ letting, ftimulating glyfters, opiates, the warm bath, and proper applications to the tumour itfelf.—If thefe fail, there is then no other means of cure left but the operation of dividing the integuments, and replacing the vifeera in the manner afterwards to be deferibed. 196 Sect. VI. Of an Eryfipelas, Gangrene, and Morti¬ fication. It jhas been already obferved, that inflammation ofEryfipelai of a membrane produces an eryfipelas, as the inflam- produced' mation of a mufcular or flefhy part produces a tumour and abfeefs. The difeafe is attended with a much greater 0f the fever than a common inflammation, and it is muchmembran^ more dangerous. The internal medicines proper in thefe cafes have been taken notice of under the article Medicine, n° 324. It remains therefore to treat only of the external applications; and here we find, that till very lately there have been fuch ftrong prejudicesagainfl: applying any thing cooling or emollient toparts afflifled with an eryfipelas, that the moft abfurd prafliceshave *97 been adopted. Thofe who maintain the chimerical opi- nion that a volatile acid was the caufe of the difeafe, fions advifechalk to be ftrewed upon the inflamed part: fomeceming ufed fomentations of foap; others medicated bags filled this dllea* with elder-flowers, moiftened with wine and water or vinegar: fome adecoftion of (heeps dungin wine ; while others employed epithems compofed of Venice treacle and fpirit of wine. Some thought lixivium and oil a better remedy, while others preferred a poultice made of oatmeal and water made without boiling.— Hoffman adhered to the method of applying dry me¬ dicated powders; and modern phyficians have followed him, though they have thought proper to fubftituie wheat-flour, or Peruvian bark in powder, as prefer¬ able to the remedies recommended by him. Amidft all this variety of- preferiptions, however, the ufe of cooling and emollient applications has been almoft uni- t g verfally reprobated, from a notion of their checking Emollient perfpiration and repelling the difeafe: but Dr Kirk-recom- land, who has treated this matter at great length, is mended M entirely of opinion that emollients are the only re- jnedies r bartll. S U R ^Theory, medics to be depended upon; and recommends a cata- r plafm compofed of four ounces of the foft crumb of bread, a quart of milk, and four ounces of hog’s lard, boiled flowly together till the poultice acquire fuch a confiftence that it will not Hick to the fingers. Poultices, he fays, can never be good without long boiling; but as they are at any rate inconvenient when the difeafe is feated in the head and face, he recom¬ mends cooling emollient ointments. It is not very uncommon for an inflammation, whe¬ ther of the common or eryfipelatous kind, to terminate in a gangrene and mortification : nor is it uncommon for this difeafe to arife in different parts of the body from internal caufes, without any external tumour appearing ; or at leaft the tendency to gangrene is fo i ^ ftrong, that it may be faid to take place almoft in- Internal ftantaneoufly. The internal caufes of gangrene, ac- laufes of cording to Mr 0‘Halloran, are, Rangrene, An highly vitiated difpofition both of folids and According ancj 0f t^j3 our author reckons four clafies. i. ' O'ilailorar, When the folids and fluids are fo much vitiated, that all attempts to reftrain the difeafe are vain, and only hurry on death the fooner. 2. When the whole body is vi¬ tiated, yet in a lefs degree than the former; in which cafe, by llrong ftimulants and cordials, the patient may furvive by means of nature throwing the general vice to fome particular part, by the lofsofwhichlifeispreferved. 3. Where the malignity is much lefs, fo that the pa¬ tient may be cured without the lofs of a limb. And, 4. Where the blood, though not highly vitiated, is yet deprived of its balfamic properties, fo that all fores E are healed with great difficulty and very confiderable length of time. II. Gangrene may arife from an hot, bilious, and inflammatory ftate of the blood ; in which cafe the parts are endowed with a great degree of fenfibility, and a flight hurt will frequently bring on the molt alarming fymptoms. III. Where there is a groffnefs of the humours, with no great degree of aftivity in the blood itfelf, and a wound or hurt fupervtnes. Here the fyftem has not fufficient power to raife the degree of inflammation necefiary for producing pus; nor often, by the affiftance ef art, to difcufs the tumour. IV. A concerous difpofition of the juices often brings on the moft dreadful fpecies of gangrene. In this, from the hurting of a wart, a flight itching, &C. a fharp humour will gradually form* by which the mufcles, ligaments, blood-vefiels, and bones, are gra¬ dually confumed; nor will it ceafe its advances till the injured parts are totally feparated from the body. V. Another fpecies of gangrene, Mr 0‘Halloran fays, is endemic to the poor of Ireland;, and confifts in an anchylolis and caries of the bones of the tarfus,. coming with or without hurt. The caufe of this he fuppofes to proceed either from the extreme poverty p of thefe people, or from their working continually in jp bogs and marflny lands. |‘Signs°of an A gangrene is known to be approaching, when the Approach- pain, rednefs, and tenfion of the inflamed part, together linggan- with the concomitant fever, increafe, at the fame time igrene. t^at ]{tt]e change is made in the fize of the tumour. Mortification or fphacelus firft appears by a change of colour in the part, from a bright red to a leaden or livid caftj with fmall veficks containing a thin acrid G E R Y. 8391 ferum difperfed over its furface. In the mean time the Theory, pain abates; the pulfe finks, but continues frequent; — the tumour at laft lofes its tenfenefs, and turns quite black and flaccid. This blacknefs is the fign of the mortification becoming complete; the part, mean¬ while, lofing all fenfation, at the fame time that it emits a confiderable fetor ; at laft, too, a foftnefs or flaccidity in general takes place, together with aft en¬ tire diflblution of the different parts of which the or- 301 gan is compofed. There are, however, fome inftan-a ces of what is called dry gangrene, in which the parts gan^re,ie' continue totally mortified for a great length of time, without cither turning very flaccid, or running into diflblution. But fuch cafes never occur from inflam¬ mation ; they happen commonly from the flow of blood to fuch parts being put a flop to by compreffion of one kind or another, as tumours, ligatures, or other fimilar caufes, obftrufting the principal arteries that ufed to fupply them ; which, when the ftoppage of the circulation is complete, always occafion a very flow, tedious, mortification ; and as the parts in fuck inftances are no longer fupplied with frefh quantities of fluids, while a confiderable evaporation muft ftillbe going on, fuch a degree of humidity cannot, there¬ fore, poffibly occur as does in other cafes of gangrene. So that fpecies of the diforder has, perhaps, with pro¬ priety enough, been termed the dry gangrene. 30* There are many other varieties of the difeafe enu-0f.the merated by authors, as the ’whitegangrene; in which 7hitegan^ the parts fuppofed mortified do not turn black, but^"6' retain nearly their former colour, &c. Whether fuch complaints, however, can with propriety be denomi¬ nated gangrene or not, may properly be doubted : but as it is chiefly that fpecics of the diforder which fuc- ceeds to inflammation that is now particularly to be treated of, and in which no fuch varieties are ever obfer- ved, it is not here neceflary to carry the inquiry far¬ ther ; and that efpecially as nearly the whole mode of treatment, afterwards to be pointed out, applies with almoft equal propriety to every variety of the difeafe. ^ Of all the inflammatory complaints to which the Eryfipelas fyllem is liable, that fpecies of the diforder termed moft liable- eryfipelas is obferved moft frequently to terminate int0 end in gangrene; and whenever phlegmon is in any degree^an^rene* conjoined with an eryfipelatous affe&ion, which it not unfrequently is, it feems thereby to have acquired the fame tendency, by being, as was already remarked,, more difficult to bring to fuppurati'on than the true phlegmon, and by going on more frequently to the mortified ftate. 304 The beft and moft effeftual means of preventing Means of mortification in every cafe of inflammation, is to en-Prfventir’g deavour either to obtain its refolution or fuppuration ;t^ie the different remedies for both which purpofes have already been fully pointed out. But in fome cafes, the diforder is far advanced, and gangrene already begun, before the furgeon’s affiftance is called in: in others, the inflammation runs fo high, and proceeds fo quickly, that gangrene occurs notwith- ftanding the ufe of all the remedies that can be applied; in fome inftances, as we have already obferved, fo quickly, even that the inflammatory ftate is fcarcely thoroughly difeerned till mortification appears to be beginning. 305 _ This is moft remarkably the cafe in carbuncles,,^^ what 8392 S TJ R G Theory, what by the French are charbons; in which ' the inflammation proceeds fo rapidly to mortification, that there is feldom any evident tumour raifed, the parts turning black, and ending in real gangrene, often in the courfe of 24 hours from the firft attack. The quick progrefs ufually made by this diforder renders it the word, and perhaps the mod dangerous, fpecies of inflammation. For when it occurs inter¬ nally upon any of the vifcera, as it fometimes does, it mud, probably in every indance, prove fatal, as no remedies we are acquainted with can ever, prevent its progrefs towards the lad dage of mortification. Ex¬ ternally, indeed, when not very extenfive, and not feated on any of the large blood-veffels and nerves, carbuncles are frequently got the better of; that is, 306 with the lofs of the affe&ed parts. ■moftalw'avs '^‘3 carbnnc!es always appear without any evident occur from external caufe, they are in general mod probably putrid owing to a fcorbutic or putrid date of the fluids; for R Y. ftateof the when putrefcency prevails in the fydem, every inflam jutces. matory affedion that occurs, proceeds much more readily to the mortified date than inflammation in other circumdances ever does. This opinion with re- fped to the caufe of carbuncles depending upon a pu- trefcent date of the fydem, is particularly confirmed by their occurring mod frequently as a fymptom in pedilential diferders ; for although they are fometimes met with even in this country, where the plague is now never known, yet the real carbuncle is far from being a common occurrence. The internal remedies proper for preventing gan- 307 grene have been already mentioned under the article Of external Medicine, n°28i. In the way of external applica- applications tion, a variety of remedies have been pointed out, and to gangre- particularly thofe of the antifeptic kind ; fuch as nous parts. aj| tjie warm gUms anj balfams, ardent fpirits, and even alcohol: and to admit of their nearer application to the found parts, with a view to the prefervation of tbefe from putrefa&ion, deep fcarifications through the difeafed and into the found parts have been gene¬ rally recommended. But although fuch articles may ^0g be of ufe in preferving dead animal-fubdances from Little to be corruption ; yet that they will always prove fervice- depended able in the fame manner in living bodies, is probably on. very much to be doubted. And it is even appre¬ hended, by the drong irritation they always occafion when applied to a living fibre, that, in fuch cafes as the prefent, they may rather do mifchief; it being only a very flight degree of inflammation that is requi¬ red to bring on a fuppuration. The incifions, too, . when carried into the found parts, with a view to fa¬ cilitate the operation of fuch remedies, may likewife do harm ; not only from the rifle of wounding the blood-veflels, nerves, and tendons, that lie in the way, but alfo by allowing a free and farther entrance of the putrefeent fluids into the parts not yet affefted : and unlefs they are carried fo deep as freely to reach the found parts, applications of the antifeptic kind can never have any effeft in anfwering the purpofe for which they were intended. Scarlfica- For thefe reafons, and from never having obferved tions of no any advantage to accrue from fcarifications in morti- advantage. fication, the bed pra61 itioners are of opinion that they may be entirely laid afide. Theriac was in for¬ mer times, and dill is with fome pra&itioners, a very Part IT.1 common application in every cafe of gangrene ; but, Theory? from the bed experience, it feems never to produce | any evident goodeffedls. All the advantages commonly obferved from the great variety of applications recommended for gan¬ grene, are obtained with more eafe, and generally too with more certainty, from the ufe of any gentle di- mulating embrocation; which, by exciting a flight An enjb| irritation upon the furface, and efpecially when af- cation re-I fifled by a free ufe of the bark, at lad commonly pro-commen4 duces fuch a degree of inflammation as is wifhed for.^y Mr| With this view, a weak folution of fal ammoniac in ^ * f vinegar and water has been known to anfwer exceed¬ ingly well; a dram of the fait to two ounces of vine¬ gar and fix of water, forms a mixture of a very proper drength for every purpofe of this kind ; but the de¬ gree of dimulus can be eafily either increafed or dimi- nifhed, according to circumdances, by ufing a larger | or fmalfer proportion of the fait. Although, for the reafons formerly advanced, in¬ cifions may not in general be proper; yet in fuch ca¬ fes where the mortification runs very deep, it is fome¬ times of fervieeto make fcarifications into the difeafed parts, fo as to remove part of them ; which by taking off a confiderable load perhaps of putrid dead flt fh, not only leffens the fetor, which in fuch cafes is al¬ ways confiderable, but often renders it more eafy for the found parts to free themfelves from the remainder. When with this view, however, incifions are had re- courfe to, care fhould always be taken that they be not carried the length of the found parts. Whenever, either by the means recommended, or signs of»' n t~\ C 0% * £ » 1 /" ft r 31 i 011 ! by the effeds of a natural exertion of the fydem, a feparatioi»| flight inflammation appears between the difeafed and of the m<>t! r ■ "’Ttig found parts, we may in general, with tolerable cer-tlfied part' tainty, taped, that in due time a thorough repara¬ tion will take place; and when a full fuppuration is once fairly edabliflied, there can then be little doubt but that the mortified parts will be very foon and ea¬ fily removed. A reparation being altogether effeded, the remain¬ ing fore being then to be confidered merely as a fimple purulent ulcer, may be treated in the fame manner as fuch fores generally are, with very flight eafy dreff- ings; at the fame time that proper attention mud al¬ ways be paid to the fupport of the general fydem, by the continuance of a nourifliing diet, the bark, and fuch quantities of wine as may feem neceflary. Although, however, fuch ulcers as remain after gangrenous affedions that have not been very exten¬ five, may in general be healed in the manner now mentioned ; yet in mortifications feated on the extre¬ mities, and that have penetrated to the bones, itinihft fometimes happens that the whole furrounding foft cafes ampi parts come to be dedroyed, fo that amputation of thetation i,!"J member is thereby rendered neceffary. Amputation, however, fhould never be had recourfe to, till a full fh0aui£<■ j* and thorough feparation of the mortified parts has ta-performe® ken place : for it is now, in every cafe of gangrene, from undoubted experience, an edablifhed maxim in furgery, That though the parts immediately contigu¬ ous to thofe evidently difeafed may outwardly appear found ; yet as there can be no certainty of thofe even diredly^ below remaining* fo, till a full dap, or even till a complete feparation, of the mortification has been hat on:s,; but to the lofs of fubftance, from the erofion of the Theory,! bone by an acrimonious humour thrown on it; to . —■■ which caufe perhaps may be attributed the difeafe called rickets in children. The effeds of fcorbutic humour in rendering the bones foft in many inftances, have often been remarked. 3tr j Frpm the obfervations we daily make, that the bones Of the ; of rickety.children become Xoft and flexible, in diffe-r‘c^ets* j| rent parts of the fame'bones, though their fliape is preferred; that the known effed on bones when foaked in an acid roenftruum, is, that the cretaceous particles being deftroyed, they become membranous ; from thefe remarks, we are induced to attribute the fpecies of the diforder to an acrimonious humour thrown on the bones, and obftruded in their internal veffels. By proper diet, gentle fridion with coarfe cloths, exercife, and cold bathing, thefe invalids will frequently get their conftitution fo much changed, as that by the time they arrive at the age of twenty years there (hall not remain the lead veftige of their former difeafe. The epiphfes are generally moft affec¬ ted in this fpecies of the diforder. For want of early attention to invalids of this fort, we find that their bones not only become foft, and yield to the powers of the mufcles, but remain diftort- ed the reft of their lives, though they have acquired a perfed degree of folidity. In fuch cafes, correding the vitiated juices only will not reftore the bones to their natural ftate ; therefore the affiftance of a fldlful mechanic is neceffary both to fupport the parts im¬ properly aded on, and to alter the line of diredion of the diftorted offeous fibres. 3lx | Though the curvature of the extremities, or thick- Symptom J nefs of the ends of the bones near their articulations, indicatinSl| may give the firft alarm to thofe who are conftantlyi with children, yet there are other fymptoms that give deformity 1 earlier notice than thefe, which, had they been timely in rickety i difeovered by proper judges, it is highly probable children* | that the curvature of the limbs in many children might not have happened. The belly generally be¬ comes larger in this difeafe,.from the increafed fize of the contained bowels, as it-is not unlikely but that the mefenteric glands are the firft parts obftruded ; obftrudions of the liver, fpleen, and pancreaa foon follow; the head then becomes enlarged ; then a difficulty of breathing, which is generally fuppofed to be the effeds of taking cold, fucceeds; the fternum is elevated and iharp, and the thorax becomes contrad- ed ; .the fpine is protruded in feveral parts; the pelvis altered, according to the preffure of the parts within, and habitual inclination of the patient, at times, to obtain that line of diredion in which the perpendi¬ cular from the centre of gravity may fall within the common bafe of the body, the extremities of the cylindrical bones, and the ends of the ribs, next the fternum, become enlarged ; foon after this the bones in • general become foft and flexible, yielding in fuch di- redions as the ftrongeft mufcles determine by their adions. jl The bones of children who die of this diforder, we Appear- i obferve, are not only rendered foft, but the veffels anceof the-1 within their fubftance are replete with blood, whofebones texture is totally broken, and has more the appearance <*ealll‘ of thin chocolate than blood : the periofteum in many places is feparated,.aad the intermediate, fpace between it: • ! Part II. SURGERY. 8395 Theory, it and the bone filled with extravafated fluid; and ~ caries is almoft as frequent as the reparation of the periofteum. Tlie mufcles in fuch bodies generally ap- ' 3j5 pear pale and flabby. Mr Brom- Where the afFeflion of the meferiteric glartds is evi- fidd’s me- dent, Mr Bromfield aflerts, that after a dofe or two . thod of of the pulvis bafilicus to empty tlie intellines thorough¬ ly, the purified crude quickfiiver is by much the mod efficacious medicine to remove obftruftions in thofe glands. When the belly begins to foften and fub- fide, the chyle pafies without interruption, and the child begins to get flefh ; then the cold bath becomes truly ferviceable, and the decoftion or cold infufion of the Pervuian bark is a proper reftorative ; but the cold bath ufed too early, or the bark given before there is a free circulation of chyle through the la&eals, would be very injurious. The mollities offium, in fomc cafes, may be pro¬ duced from a redundancy of the oleaginous parts of the blood, or from a laxity of the folids, by which the fluids are not fufficiently attenuated, nor properly blended and mixed : the confequence of which will be obftrufted perfpiration, the habit in general loaded with grofs, phlegmatic, and ferous humours, and the offific matter not united or condenfed as in an healthy ftate. From this debility and laxity of the folids, and con- fequent vifcidity and lentor of the fluids, the rickets are produced ; and, from what has been remarked, we may account for the largenefs of the brain, liver, K and fpleen, ahd the fwelled belly, the diftortion of the vertebras and pelvis, contrafled thorax, and cur¬ vature of the extremities. The method of cure confirms us likewife in the caufe of thefe fymptoms; for, by ftrengthening the fibrous fyftem, by ufing gentle exercife, a dry diet, good air, aromatics, and cold bathing, this kind of . iS invalids are generally reftored to health. Ilf:©f the pal- Among the difeafes of the bones we may likewife || fy of the take notice of that paify of the lower extremities which Bjflower ex- takes place, as is generally fuppofed, in confeqnence feth'cur a a curvature *n ^ome Part l^e fp'ne- To this di- tWofthfftemper both fexes and all ages are equally liable. :fpinc. When it attacks an infant of only a year or two old or under, the true caufe of it is feldom difeovered until h . fome time after the effeft has taken place. The child K, is faid to be uncommonly backward in the ufe of his legs, or it is thought to have received fome hurt in the birth. When the child is of an age fufficient to have already walked, and who has been able to walk, the lofs of the ufe of his legs is gradual, though in general not very flow. He at firft complains of being very foon tired, is languid, liftlefs, and unwilling to move much or at all brilkly. Soon after this he may be obferved frequently to trip and Humble, though there be no impediment in his way; and whenever be attempts to move brilkly, he finds that his legs invo¬ luntarily crofs each other, by which he is frequently thrown down without Humbling ; and when he en¬ deavours to ftand-ftill in an ereft pofture without fup- port, even for a few minutes, his knees give way and bend forward. As the diftemper advances, it will be found that he cannot, without much difficulty and de¬ liberation, direft either of his feet exaftly to any one point; and very foon after this, both legs and thighs lofe a good deal of their natural fenfibility, and be- Theory. come quite ufelefs. In adults, the progrefs of the difeafe — is much quicker, but the fymptoms nearly the fame. Until the curvature of the fpine is difeovered, the complaint generally pafles for a nervous one ; hut when the ftate of the back-bone is adverted to, re- courfe is almoft always had to fornc previous violence to account for it. That this might have been the cafe in fome few inftances, might be admitted; but in by far the greateft number fome predifpofing caufe mult be looked for. 3l7 Mr Pott, who has written a treatife upon this dif-Differences eafe, recommends it to our obfervation, l*iat ^ough a the lower limbs are rendered almoft ufelefs, or evenc0ninoa entirely fo,.yet there are fome circumftances in which paliy, it differs from a common nervous paify. The legs and thighs, though fo much affeAed, have neither the flabby feel of a truly paralytic limb ; nor have they that feeming loofenefs at the joints, nor the total in¬ capacity of refiftance which allows the latter to be twifted almoft in all diretftions; on the contrary, the joints have frequently a confiderable degree of ftiffnefs, particularly the ankles ; by which ftiffnefs the feet of children are generally pointed downward, and they are prevented from fetting them flat upon the ground. ^3 The curvature of the fpine, which is fuppofed toOfihecur= be the caufe of the complaint, and with which it is vation of always accompanied, is various in fituation, extent, and degree, being either in the neck or back, and fome- e?fc times, though very feldom, in the upper part of the loins. Sometimes it comprehends only two vertebras, fometimes three or more, by which the extent of the curve neceffarily becomes more or lefs ; but whatever may be the number of the vertebrae concerned, or whatever may be the degree of curvature, our author never faw the arms affeded. "When a weak infant is the fubjeft of this diforder, and the-curvature is fituated in the vertebrae of the back, it is not uncommon for the whole back to be¬ come what is called humped, at the fame time that the bones of the thorax are confiderably altered ; whence fuch perfona are juftly faid to be fhortened in their ftature ; but in all cafes where this effeft has been gradually produced, the curvature of the fpine is al¬ ways the firft of thefe deformities which makes its ap¬ pearance. Before the curvature of the fpine is difeovered, dr while no attention is paid to it, the complaint is, as we have already faid, looked upon to be nervous; fuch internals as are fuppofed to be proper in nervous cafe's are given, together with warm liniments, embroca¬ tions, and'blifters, to the part affefted : and when the true caufe is known, recourfe is always had to fteel flays, the fwing, fcrew-chair, and other pieces of ma¬ chinery. But all thefe are produftive of no real or per¬ manent good ; the patient becomes unhealthy, and, languifhing for fome time under a variety of complaints, dies in an emaciated ftate, or drags on a miferable ex- iftence, confined to a great chair or bed, totally de¬ prived of the power of locomotion, and ufelefs both to himfelf and others. At firft the general health of the patient feems not to be at all, or at lead not materially, affe&ed; but when the difeafe has continued for fome time, and the 42 B 2 curvature 8396 S U R C Theory, can’ature is thereby increafedi many inconveniences “ and complaints come on ; fuch as difficulty in refpira- tion, indigeftion, pain, and what they call tightnefs at thejlomach, obftinate conftipations, purgings, in¬ voluntary flux of urine and fasces, &c. with the addi¬ tion of feme nervous complaints, which are partly caufed by the alterations made in the form of the ca¬ vity of the thorax, and partly by impreffions made on the abdominal vifeera. Mr Pott was led to a knowledge of the true caufe and cure of this diftemper, from obferving the cafe of a youth of 14, who was reftored to the ufe of his limbs immediately after a feemingly accidental abfeefs near the part. From this he was inclined to think, 319 that the curvature of the fpinc was not the original Not the caufe of the diforderj but that the furrounding parts caiffthofe which formed the curve, were in fome degree altered j from a natural ftate, by being fomewhat thickened or^er and relaxed ; and that what are called the bodies of thofe bones, were palpably fpread and enlarged in their texture, juft as the bones forming the articula¬ tions are in children who are called rickety. That in thofe who had long laboured under the diftemper, and in whom the fymptoms were aggravated, whatever might be their age, the ligaments were ftill more thickened, relaxed, and altered the bodies of the bones more fpread, more enlarged, and more incli¬ ning to become carious ; and the cartilages between the bodies of the vertebras much comprefled and lef- fened in fize : and that in all thofe who-had fo long laboured under the difeafe, as to have been deftroyed by it or by its confequences, the corpora vertebra- rum were completely carious, the intervening cartila- j ges totally deflroyed, and a quantity of fanies lodged between the rotten bones and the membranes invefting \ the fpinal marrow (a). “ All thefe circumftances put together, induced me, as I have already faid, to fufpeft, that when w& attribute the whole of this mifehief to the mere acci¬ dental curvature. of the fpine, in. confequence of vio¬ lence, we miftake an effect for a caufe ; and that pre¬ vious both to the paralytic ftate of the legs, and to the alteration of the figure of the back-bone, there is a predifpofing caufe of both; confifting in a diflemper- ed ftate of the ligaments and bones, where the curve foon after makes its appearance.. “ While the fubjeit was frefli in my mind; I hap¬ pened to be at Worcefter; and in a converfation on it with the. late Dr Cameron of that place, I men¬ tioned to him my opinion and my doubts. The doc¬ tor concurred with me ; and at the fame time men¬ tioned a circumftance which made a ftrong impreffion on me. He faid, that he remembered, fome years ago, to have noted a paffage in Hippocrates, in which he fpeaks of a paralyfis of the lower limbs being cured by an abfeefs in the back or loins 4 and that, taking the bint from this, he. Dr Cameron, had, in a cafe of a palfy of the legs and thighs, attended by a cur- . vature of the back-bone, endeavoured to imitate this aft of nature,.by exciting a difeharge near the part ; and that it had proved very advantageous.- He alfo referred me to Mr Jeffrys, a furgeon of eminence at Worcefter,. for a farther account of the fame kind of attempt. This gentleman confirmed what Dr Came¬ ron had told me; and affured me that, he had found the method equally fuccefafub. -It. (a) In the body of a man who died not long fince‘of this diforder in its laft and word ftate, the bodies of three ®f the vertebra; were not only quite carious, but completely feparated from, all confleftiou with the other parts of. the.fame vertebrae.. Partir. S U R G f; Theory. It may eafily be fuppofed, that thefe accounts, from P —gentlemen of veracity, and of reputation in their pro- feffion, ftill added to my defire of knowing more on this fubjeftjt and determined me to lofe no opportu- || mty of getting information^ Gafesof the “ The firtt that offered was an infant, whofe curva- diflemper, ture was in the middle of the neck, and who had loft ky Mr Pottthe ufe of its legs for about two or three months. I made .air iffue by incifion on one fide of the projedion, and gave ftridl charge to the mother to take care that the pea was kept in: the woman, who bad no faith in the remedy, did not take the proper care ; and cohfequently the difcharge was not equal to what it fhould and might have been : but notwithftanding this negleft, at the end.of about three weeks or a month the child was manifeftly better* and began.to make life of its legs; it was then feized with the fmall pox, and died. The bodies of the vertebrae concerned in the curve were larger than they fhould be, and than thofe above and below were, and their texture much more open and fpongy ; which difference appeared immediately, before the parts covering them weredif- feded off. Some time paffed before I had another opportu¬ nity. My next patient was a tall thin man, about 35 years old,, who thought that he had hurt himfelf by lifting a heavy weight. His legs and thighs were cold, and what he called nunnny, but not abfolutely ufelefs: he could with difficulty go about the room with the help of a pair of crutches ; but he could nei¬ ther rife from his chair, nor get on his crutches, with¬ out the affiftanceof another perfon, nor could he with¬ out them walk at all. “ I made a .feton on each fide of the curve, which was in his back, about the middle ; and having given bis wife dire&ions how. to drefs them, I called on him once in three or four days. At the end of fix weeks lee had recovered the due degree of fenfation in his limbs, and found much lefs neceffity for the ufe of his crutches. He could rife from his bed and from his chair without affiftance : and, by means of one crutch and an underhand flick, could walk, for an hour or more without refting and without fatigue. The felons had now,, from not having been properly managed, worn their way out ; and I would have convened each of them into an ifiTue : but as neither the patient nor his wife had ever believed that the difcharge had had any fliare in his amendment,,, but, on the contra¬ ry, that he would have been better without it, he would not fubmit to what I propofed, and Heft him. At the diltance of about three weeks from the time of my leaving him, I met him in the ftreet walking very lloutly with a common cane, of which.he made little or no ufe. I afked him what he had done : He told me that the fores had continued to difcharge till within a few days} but that ;he had drank a great deal of comfrey-root tea with ifinglafs; and he fuppofed that had cured him. “ I believe that the cure of this man will, by all who know any thing of medicine, be though* to be fo unlikely to have been effe&ed by the comtrey and ifinglafs, that my inference in favour of the feton will not be thought unreafonable, and that my determina¬ tion to profecute the method, from what I had heard and fsen, was well founded. « Within the courfe'of the laft ten or twelve months. E R Y. 3'397 I have had feveral fair opportunities of doing this, Theory. both in St Bartholomew’s hofpital and out of it; and am very happy to be able to fay, that it has not only always anfwered, but in moft inftances greatly ex¬ ceeded, my moft fanguine expectations, by reftoring , feveral moft miferable and totally helplefs people to the ufe of their limbs, and- to a capacity of enjoying life themfelves, as well as of being ufeful to others. “ I have now in the hofpital a boy about 12 years old, whofe'cafe was fo truly deplorable, that I made the experiment merely to avoid the appearance of in¬ humanity by difcharging him as incurable without trying fomething. The curvature was in his back, and confifted of three or four vertebrae; but by means of* the weaknefs thereby induced, the whole fet of dorfal ones had fo univerfally and gradually given way, that he was exceedingly deformed both behind and. before : he was fa abfolutely incapable of motion, that he could neither turn himfeif nor fit up in his bed i his feet were pointed downwards, and his ankles fo fliff, that, when he was held up under the arms, the extremities of bis great toes touched the floor, nor could his feet be brought flat to the ground by any means or force whatever. In fhort, he was as per¬ fectly and as totally helplefs as-can be fuppofed ; and at the fame time in an exceeding. general bad (late of health, from diforders of the thoracic and abdominal vifcera. In this ftate he had been more than a year. It is now about three montha fince the cauftics were applied: he is become healthy, and free from mpft of his general complaints: has the moft perfeCt ufe of his legs while he is in bed ; can walk without the affiti- auce of any body, or any thing to hold by > and from his manner of executing this, will, I make no doubt, fn a very fliort fpace, recover perfectly the ufe of his legs. To this I ought to add, that notwithftanding a confiderable degree of deformity does, and I fuppofe will remain, yet the fpine in general is fo much ftrengthened, that he is fome inches taller than he was four months ago- “ The remedy for this moft dreadful difeafe con- fills merely in procuring a large difcharge of- matter, 0f cure " by fuppuration, from underneath the membrana adi- pofa on each fidejjf the curvature, and in maintaining fuch difcharge until the patient Ihalb have perfectly recovered the ufe of his legs. To accomplilh this purppfe, I have made ufe of different means, fuch as felons, iffues made by incifion, and iffues made by cauftic ; and although there be no very material dif¬ ference, I do upon the whole prefer the laft. A fetott is a painful and a natty thing ; befides which, it fre¬ quently wears through .the fkin before the end For which it was made can be accompUftied. Iffues made by incifion,. .if they be large enough for the intended purpofe, are apt to become inflamed, and to be very troublefome before they come to fuppuration ; but- openings made by cauftic are not in general liable to any of thefe inconveniences, at lead not fo frequently, norin the fame degree : they are neither fo troublefome to.make or maintain. I X make the efehars about this fize and / fliape on each fide the curve, taking / ^ care to leave a fufficient portion of (kin J between them. In a few days, when | the efehar begins.to loofen and feparate, /’ I cut out all the middle, and put into s' ’ each.; 8398 s U R C Theory, each a large kidney-bean : when the bottoms of the * * fores are become clean by fuppuration, I fprinkle, every third or fourth day, a fmall quantity of fnely- powdered cantbarides on them, by which the fores are prevented from contrafting, the difcharge increa- fed, and pdfiibly other benefit obtained. The iflues l keep open until the cure is complete ; that is, until the patient recovers perfe&ly the ufe of his legs, or even for fome time longer : and I fhould think that it would be more prudent to heal only one of them firfi, keep¬ ing the other open for fome time ; that is, not only until the patient can walk, but until he can walk •firmly, brifkly, and without the afliftance of a ftick ; until he can (land quite upright, and has recovered all the height which the habit, or rather the neceffity, of ftooping, occafioned by the diftemper, had made him lofe.” Sect. VIIT. Of the different Operations in Surgery, and in what Cafes they are proper. The moll fimple operations are thofe in which there are neither arteries to tie up, fradures to re¬ duce, nor any divided parts to conjoin by future. They are chiefly phlebotomy or blood-letting ; fimple incifions into abfeefles in order to difcharge the mat¬ in what ter ; and drawing of teeth.——-Phlebotomy is ufeful in cafes bleed- all cafes where there is a great tendency to ihflammation, mg is pro- or where one particular part of the body has been ac- per' cidentally fo much weakened that it cannot bear the impetus of the fluids moving through it with their ufual velocity. Hence it is ufeful in all large wounds, fraftures; or contufions, becaufe the impetus of the blood and other fluids, in fuch cafes, is too great to be borne by the weakened and diftra&ed veflels; and if they are entirely divided, it would keep them per¬ petually bleeding. 'Hence phlebotomy is alfo of ufe in reftraining profufe hasmorrhagies from any part of the body. On the other hand, it is exceedingly hurt¬ ful where the crafis of the fluids tends to a diflblution, or where the vital powers are fo weakened that they cannot propel the humours with their ufual degree of force. In cafes of feurvy, therefore, bleeding is pre¬ judicial; in mortifications, or in large fuppurations 5 becaufe thus the vital powers, which are already re¬ duced, become ftill more weak, the fcorbutic difpofi- tion is inertafed, or the pus cannot be formed as it ought to be. For the fame reafon, in the lues vene¬ rea, however it might feem to be indicated by the pain and fwellings, it is entirely improper. The fame may be faid of all other eruptive diforders, even the itch: for though feme have a notion of the good ef¬ fects of bleeding in this .difeafe, it is always evidently the worfe for it ; and it will conftantly be found, that even this difeafe proceeds from fuch eaufes as weaken the vital powers, fuch as naftinefs, damp, and poor low diet ; while, on the other hand, thofe who keep themfelves clean, and live on wholefome ftrengthening food, are feldom or never troubled with it. ■ Phlebotomy may be performed in many different parts of the body ; and it is found to be more effec¬ tual when performed in the neighbourhood of an af- feded plage than at a diftance from it. Where the affedion of the fyftem is general, bleeding in the arm is moft eligible ; but if the head or throat are af- feded, bleeding in the jugular vein is preferable. In • E R Y. Part II. 1 fwellings ar.d inflammations of the throat, it will alfo Theory.^ be of fervice to open the fublingua! veins : in fuppref- ~ fions of the menies, bleeding in the ankle is recom¬ mended : and it has been found in fome cafes nectfiary to perform the operation even on the veins of the penis and eyes. Cupping, with or without fcarification, is a kind Cupping i of partial phlebotomy. Dry-cupping brings a fluxancl leechej| of all the humours towards that part on which the cupping-ghfa is applied ; and hence is ufeful in bring¬ ing the milk towards the breads of women, in haften- mg fuppuration, &c. If fcarification is ufed, it dif- charges the blood not only from the fmall cutaneous veins, but alfo from the arteries. Hence it is of fer¬ vice in local inflammations. — In the fame cafes alio the application of leeches is ufeful. - ■ Incifion, or fomething equivalent to it, is alwaysincifion. 1 neceffary in the cafe of abfeeffes, or large colledions of matter which cannot otherwife be difeharged : tho’ large incifions are to be avoided as much as poflible ; both on account of their evident cruelty, and becaufe they are apt to produce an abforption; of matter, and occafion an he&ic. In cafes of white iwellings and cancerous tumours, they ought always to be avoided as much as poflible, unlefs with a view totally to ex¬ tirpate the difeafed parts, r On the other hand, in ca¬ fes of pundlured nerves and tendons, incifion is not only neceffary, but frequently the only means of pre- ferving the patient from death. 33(J 1 Under the head of incifion we may likewife reckon KTues and f the putting in of iffues and fetons, though the former fetons. | are more commonly put in by cauftic. They are ufe¬ ful in drawing off colleftions of matter, when fituated in fuch places that they cannot be opened. They are alfo of ufe in the cafe of palfy of the lower extremities with curvature of the fpines, as has been already ex¬ plained, n° 332. In apoplexies, palfies, and other diforders of the head, they are alfo frequently of emi¬ nent fervice. I Under the article Medicine, n° 314. it is &b-Too,h7 1 ferved, that where the teeth are carious, the only re-drawing. | medy is to draw them out. However, we are not therefore to imagine, that in all cafes of toothach, even when the pain is very fevere, that we are to have re- courfe to this remedy. The teeth are never known to exfoliate, and grow up again, as other bones will do ; and therefore the prefervation of them is well worthy our attention. But when, by the gradual pu- trefa&ion of a tooth, the patient is kept in continual pain, und there is danger of a caries, by means of the affe£tion of the tooth, taking place in the jaw¬ bone, tooth-drawing then becomes abfolutely ne¬ ceffary, and is generally attended with little pain to the patient, as in fuch cafes the teeth are generally loofened in their dockets. It muff be remembered, however, that the upper teeth are much worfe to draw that the under ones, being not only much fafter in their fockets, but conne&ed in fuch a manner with the nerves of the eyes, cfpecially thofe called the eye- j .teeth, as makes the drawing of them very dangerous. Of the more difficult operations in furgery, the firft is 33® future; which neceffarily takes place in all cafes where we 0 | defire the union of parts that would otherwife remain at too great a diftance, or where we want to form an adhdion which, would not take place naturally. Hence it Part II. SURGERY.! 8399 A M' Amputa- l Trcpan- pwg. it is necfffaty in all wounds made in the flefhy puts, andattended with confiderable gaping of the lips. It is alfo neceffary in wounds of the abdominal vifcera, where they are protruded; in wounds of the afpera arteria, of the osfophagus; in mortifications of the inteftines, in order to make the edge of the inteltine adhere to the wound ; in the hare-lip, &c. f Under this article likewife we may include the liga¬ ture of arteries, which muft necefiarily take pl^ce in all cafes where thefe vefiels are wounded, either acci¬ dentally or by defign, as in the amputation of limbs ; and to the fame we may refer the operation for aneu- rifms to be afterwards defcribed, and which feems to be the only method of treating thefe tumours with any probability of fuccefs. Reduftion of fraftured and diflocated bones ought i, always to be attempted in cafe of fuch accidents, un- lefs where the bones are broken into fuch fmall pieces that there can be no hope either of their uniting or of preferring the limb. Amputation is necefGry only in fuch cafes as thofe already mentioned, namely, where, either by external accident, or fromTome internal caufe, the limbs cannot by any means be preferred. Hence it is ufeful only in thofe difeafes which are plainly deftruffive of life by the infeQious matter abforbed, or where the parts are entirely mortified and ufelefs. Trepanning of the cranium ought to take place in all cafes where there are fymptoms of an oppreff- ed brain, provided we have any indication of the place under which the mifchief lies, as has already . been explained, n° 131. An operation of a fimilar kind may alfo upon fome occafions be necefiary on other bones, in order to remove a part of their carious fub (lance. In cafes of dropfy, of hydrocele, empyema, and liydrothorax,.the operation called paracentefes, or tap¬ ping, ought to take place, if the water can be diffi- pated by no other means. Some colledions of water, however, there are, in which this operation is highly improper, and indeed fatal; fuch as the hydrocephalus Theory, and hydrorachitis, fpina bifida, or colle&ion of aque- ——— ons fluid in the cavity of the fpine. In this laft cafe the fpinal marrow is compreffed, and all the lower parts of the body become paralytic. The evacuation of this water is certain death'; and if any hope re¬ mains, it muft be by making ufe of fuch internal re¬ medies as are mentioned under the article Medicine, n& 370, for the hydrocephalus. 344 The operation for the bubonocele, or ftrangulated Operation hernia, is not to be performed on patients until a^ter|,0err^ae every method of reducing the gut has been attempted r 1 * in vain. It is very fatal, in this country, but much lefs fo in France; but whether owing to any peculi¬ arity in the climate of that country, or to the fuperior dexterity of the French furgeons, is unknown. An operation of the fame nature is fometimes performed in cafe of a volvulus of the inteftines : and it has even been recommended in cafe of indurated faeces, or balls choaking up their cavity ; though, as the figns of thefe are at lead but equivocal, we have not heard of any operators fo bold as to attempt them. 545 One of the moft capital operations in furgery isOf lithoto*- that of lithotomy, or cutting for the (lone. This has111^’ been pra&ifed from the early ages of medicine, but has received great improvements in modern times. Before it is attempted, all pofiible means fhould be ufed for diflblving the (tone by the folvents propofed under the article Medicine, n°486. However, the opaation may be fafely performed on perfons of all ages; and though many have died under it, many have alfo furvived, and been by it recovered from the moft miferable ftate imaginable to perfedl health. Befides thefe, there are feveral other operations in furgery which are connedled with particular difeafes, and without which thefe diftempers cannot be cured ; fuch as the operation for the fiftula lachrymalis, for the cataradl, for the fiftula in ano, for the phymofis, paraphymofis, _&c. all of which (hall be defcribed under their proper heads. Part III. PRACTICE of SURGERY. Prafnce. Hfpcfti 11 g hglileboto- my. THIS confifts in performing of the different opera¬ tions in furgery, in fuch cafe's and- with fuch intentions as are moft. proper; for which laft the di- reftrons of a phyfician are often thought necuTary ; though, as before obferved, it were much better that furgeons were themfelves acquainted with the cafes where manual operations are neceffary, and when they are not.—We (hall begin with thefe operations which are moft fimple and eafily performed. Sect. I. Of Blood-letting. There are fome general rules and obfervations which relate equally to this operation in whatever part of the body it is pradifed ; tbefe we (hall in the firft place enumerate with as much accuracy as poflible, and (hall afterwards proceed to treat particularly of blood letting in the arm and other parts. I. In this, as in every other operation, the fituation of the patient, and of the operator likewife, ought to be precifely fixed. As the fituation of a patient du¬ ring the operation of blood-letting, has a confiderable influence on the effe&s produced by the evacuation 'pratf;ce upon the fyftem, this circumftance therefore merits our particular attention. In fome diforders, it is the object of this remedy, to evacuate a confiderable quantity of blood without inducing fainting : When this is the cafe, and when from former experience it is known that the patient to be operated upon is liable during the evacuation to fall into a faintifti ftate, a horizontal pofture, either upon a bed or on a couch, ought to be preferred to every other; for every prac¬ titioner is now well acquainted with this fa£t, that fainting is not near fo ready to occur in a horizontal as in an efeCl pofture.- It now and then happens, however, that one ma-0f terial advantage expefted from the operation of blood- ferent pur¬ letting, is the production of a ftate of deliquium ; as,pofes to be for inftance, in cafes of ftrangulated hernia, where a general relaxation of the fyftem is fometimes defirable. In all fuch circumftances, inftead of a horizontal ' pofture, the more ere£t the patient is kept, the more readily will a ftate of fainting be induced; So that the- 8400 S U R G operator. Praftkr. tlie particular cibjcA In view from the operation mull at all times determine this matter. While we thus, however, attend particularly to the poiture of the body.at large, the particular poiition of the limb or part to be operated upon mhft not be negle&ed. In every operation it is a matter of much importance to have the patient feated in a proper light, but in none is it more material than in blood¬ letting. The bed general rule that can be given up¬ on this point is, that the patient ought to be fo placed, as that the principal light of the apartment Hull fall diredlly upon the part to be operated upon, fo that the vein to be, opened may be made as apparent as 348 pofiible. Of the po- But, whatever may be the pofition of the part to ■e of thejjg operated upon, and whether the patient is to be rator. p]ace(j on a or ^ a chair, according to Mr Bell, the furgeon ought always to be feated. The opera¬ tion may, no doubt, be done while the furgeon is • ftanding ; and it is mod frequently indeed performed in this manner : But it can never be done either with fuch deadinefs or neatnefe, as when the operator is firmly feated on a chair. II. From the coats of veins being more flaccid than thofe of arteries, and from the blood not pro¬ ceeding with fuch rapidity in the former as in the latter, an opening made in one of thefe will feldom difcharge blood freely, unlefs the vein is either cut entirely acrofs, which in general would be productive" of difagreeable confequences, or that the blood^e prevented from returning to the heart, by mealPof a ligature placed between the heart and that part of 349 the vein in which the opening is to be made. 1 The patient being properly feated, the next dep, vein.1"2 1 *n every operation of this kind, nmd therefore be, by me-ans of a proper bandage, fo to comprefs the vein intended to be opened, as to prevent the blood from returning to the heart; and, for the fame reafon, an equal degree of preffure, it is obvious, ought to be applied to ail the other veins of the part: for if this circumdance fliould not be attended to, the commu¬ nication preferved by the collateral correfponding branches would render the prefiure upon any one par¬ ticular vein of very little importance. But, independ¬ ent of its producing a more free difcharge of blood than could be otherwife obtained, this preflure upon the veins, by inducing an accumulation of their con¬ tents, tends to bring them more evidently into view, and confequently renders it eafier for the operator to to effed a prpper opening than he would otherwife find it. Although compreffion, hpwever, to a certain ex¬ tent, is neceflary for this purpofe of accumulating a quantity of blood in the veins, and for afterwards dif- charging it at an opening made by the lancet, it is at the fame time perfe&ly evident, that any conlider- able degree of preffure, inftead of forwarding the(e purpofes, muff obftrud them entirely: for if the preffure intended to be applied to the veins only, fhould accidentally be carried fo far as to reft materially up¬ on the arteries conne&ed with them, all farther accefs of blood to the veins would be thereby cut off, fo that no evacuation of importance could take place at any opening to be made in them. Whenever it is in¬ tended, therefore, to evacuate blood iq thi^ manner, R T. Part III. a good deal of nicety is rfqulfite iaSppIyrrfg'thts.pref- PrafticeJ fure upon the veins : it ought always to be carried fo —4 far as effeclually to comprefs the veins of the part, but never to fuch a degree as toobflruft the circulation in the correfponding/ arteries. When we fee that the prtffure applied has the efft& of ratfing the vein?, and if at the fame time the pulfation of the artery is di- ftinQIy'felt in the inferior part'of the member, we may then be certain that it is to a very proper degree, and that it ought not to he carried farther : for by the fwelling of the veins we are fure,that they are fuffi- ciently compreffed ; and by the arteries continuing'to beat, it is evident that a continued flow of blood may be expedled. | III. The reflux of blood to the heart being in this Of makin J mariner prevented, the next qutftion to be determined die open-J is, the belt method of making an opening into thein2' vein. Different inftruments have been invented for this purpofe ; but there are two only which have been retained in ufe, and which are all, therefore, that here require to be mentioned. Thefe are the lancet and the phlegm. This laft, on being placed immediately on the part to be cut, is, by means of a fpring, puflied fuddenly into the vein, and producesan opening of the exa£l fize of the inftrument employed. The phlegm, in many parts of Germany, has ac-The quired fome reputation, particularly in taking blood Ph!e8nvdc‘I from the jugular vein : but there are various obje&ions fcnbcd‘ J| to the life of this inftrument, which muft undoubtedly, prevent it from ever coming into general ufe ; and thtfe particularly are, that we are obliged, from the nature of the inftrument, to regulate the deepnefs to which it is to go before it is applied. Now we know well, that in blood-letting this is a circumftance we are never by any means certain of: for we frequently, after the introduclion of a lancet, find it neceffary to go much deeper than was at firft expedted ; fo that when a phlegm is ufed, unlefs we employ one on every occafion of a length which cannot be frequently re¬ quired, we muft often meet with difappointments. But the moft material obje£lion to this inftrument Is, that where there are arteries or other parts lying be¬ low the veins, and in any danger of-being hurt by the operation of blood-letting, the rifle is much greater with the phlegm than with the lancet. For when the lancet is ufed, after the vein is once opened, the ori¬ fice may be enlarged at pleafure without any addi¬ tional rifle, merely by carrying the inftrument forward along the cotirfe of the vein in the fame depth to which it was at firft introduced : whereas with the phlegm, fo foon as it enters the vein, it muft for certain pafs direftly downwards to its full length ; a circumftance which adds greatly to the rifle of wounding the parts underneath. Independent of this, too, by the life of the lancet, we have it much more in our power to command an orifice of a determined fize than when the phlegm is ufed: So that, without hefitation, wc may ventnreto pronounce the phlegm to be an inftrument in no de¬ gree neceffary. The broad-fhouldered lancet in ordinary ufe, is an 35t ipftrument which ought to be laid entirely afide. For0f tbe pr® opening abfeeffes it is very well calculated; but for the operation of blood-letting, it ought never to be ufed. The capital objection to this kind of lancet is, that Partin. U R [.Praffice. that the SroaJntfs of its ihoulders produces always a wound in the external teguments of perhaps three times the fize of the opening made in the vein ; a cir- cumftance which adds no advantage whatever to the operation; on the contrary, it produces much unne- ceflary pain in the firft inftance ; it renders it fre* quently a very difficult matter to command a ftop- page of the blood; and the wounds produced by it are commonly fo extenfive, as to render them very liable to terminate in partial fuppurations ; an occur- ' rence which always proves painful and difagreeable to the patient. The fpear-pointed lancet, on the contrary, is an inftrument in every refpeA well calculated for the pur- pofe of venaefe&ion. From the acutenefs of its point, K it enters the teguments and vein with very little pain} which, we may here obferve, is with many patients - 2 E R Y. 8401 parts, as to render it hazardous even for the mod dcx- Pra-uee. terous furgeon to attempt this operation. The vein being at laft made choice of, the furgeon, if he is to ufe his right-hand in the operation, takes a firm hold of the member^ from whence the blood is to be drawn with his left, and, with the thumb of the fame hand, he is now to make fuch a degree of pref- fure upon the vein, about an inch and half below the ligature, as not only to render the fie t^er ^0Dg‘tu^‘n^l# the Tides of the wound are apt to 0 <*ue' fall immediately together, fo as not to admit of a free difeharge of blood ; and, on the other hand, when the vein is cut entirely acrofs, troublefome confequen- ces commonly enfue from the wound being very diffi¬ cult to heal. An orifice fomewhat oblique with refpe& to the courfe of the vein, is therefore preferable to ei¬ ther. But the material circumftance to be kept in view, is the dire&ion of the point of the lancet after it has got fairly into the vein. The reafon of thislaft precaution is, that the inter¬ nal orifice of the vein may not be farther extended up¬ wards than the external wound in the Ikin and other teguments, as ecchymofes, or effufions of blood into the cellular fubftance, have, with the broad-fhouldered lancet, been found frequently to occur from a contrary management. But when the fpear-pointed lancet is nfed, this is an occurrence which need never happen ; as, from the narrow point of the inftrument,. it may with fafety be carried on in the cavity of the vein as far as is neceflary. The orifice produced by it in the vein muft, when the operation is properly done, be always of very nearly the fame extent as the external wound in the teguments : and, by the fame manage¬ ment, we avoid that capital rifle which it is evident mud always occur from an implicit obedience to the diredtion alluded'to ; for one certain effeft of raifing the heel or back-part of the lancet, is, that the point of the inftrument tnuft in the fame proportion be de- preffed ; and the eonfequence of lowering the point of the lancet, already perhaps Aiding along the under fide of the vein,, muft at once appear to be very hazar¬ dous: for, in fuch circumftances, if the point of the inftrurnent be deprefled, which muft undoubtedly hap¬ pen if the back-part of it be elevated, it muft forcer- tain pafs through the back-part of the vein ; fo that if either an artery, nerve, or tendon, lie contiguous, they muft of ndeeffity be wounded : and we are per- fedtly convinced, that this caufe alone has frequently been the origin both of wounded arteries and of pricks in the nerves and tendons.. So that as the haz-ard of the praftice, whenever it is attentively confidered, muft at once appear evident; and as the fuppofed inconve¬ nience, ariiing from a contrary mode of operating,, is efie&ually prevented by the ufe of the fpear-pointed lancet, all fueh rifks therefore fhould be carefully avoided. Of the fize With refpeft to the fize of orifice in cafes of blood- oftheori* letting, this circumftance muft at all times be deter- ike. mined by the nature of the diforder for which the eva¬ cuation is preferibed. When a fudden lofs of a con- fiderable quantity of blood is intended, either with a view to produce a ftate of fainting, or for any other E R Y. Part III reafon, a free large orifice isabfolutely necefiary ; but PrafticJ in ordinary praftice, no neceffity occurs for this. f In ufing a fpear-pointed lancet, an orifice of about an eighth part of an inch in length will in general an- fwer every purpofe : but when a lancet with broad | fhoulders is ufed, an opening of twice that fize is little enough ; for, with fuch an inftrument, the orifice in I the vein can feldom be above half the extent of the | external opening. After withdrawing the lancet from the orifice, we have dire&ed the thumb of the left-hand to be remo¬ ved from the place it was made to occupy. One ma¬ terial ufe of the thumb placed below the part where the lancet was diredled to enter, is to keep the tegu- f ments and vein firm, fo as to prevent the latter from 5 rolling. But another advantage occurring from it is, | that, by making a fufficient degree of preffure upon the vein, it thereby prevents any confiderable quanti- I; ty of blood from efcaping between the time of remo- j ving the lancet, and the application of one of the cups for receiving the blood from the orifice in the vein. During this period, it frequently happens that a good i deal of blood is difeharged, to the great annoyance I both of the patient, the operator, and byftanders; a i circumftance which, with a little attention, may be always effedlually prevented. 3S9 V. When the vein is properly cut, and the orifice Of too |i is made fufficiently large, it rarely occurs that any a J difficulty is experienced in procuring all the blood that0' 00c^ is wanted. But it now and then happens otherwife, either from the orifice of the fldn and other parts ha¬ ving receded from the opening in the vein, or fronrr 1 the patient having become faintilh ; a fituation always I unfavourable to a free difeharge of blood. When this laft circumftance occurs, a ftream of frefh air | ought to be admitted to the apartment, wine or fome other cordial fhould be adminiftered, and the patient | ought to be laid into a horizontal pofture. By thefe means the faintifhnefs will in general be foon removed: but if ftill the blood fhould not flow freely, the mem- j ber ought to be put into all the variety of pofitions that can probably affift in bringing the openings of the : fkin and other teguments to corrcfpond with that of I the vein ; which will foon be known to have happened by the blood beginning inftantly to flow. Throwing the mufcles of the part into conftant a£Hon, by giving the patient a cane or any other firm fubftance to turn frequently round in his hand when the operation is 1 done in the arm, will often anfwer in producing a con¬ ftant flow of blood from a vein, when every other means has failed: And, laftly, when the pulfe in the inferior | part of the member is felt very feeble, or efpecially if | it cannot be diftinguifhed at all, we may be thereby rendered certain that the ligature is too tight, and may in general have it in our power to produce an immediate flow of blood, by removing the compreffion thus improperly made upon the arteries of the part. VI. A quantity of blood preportioned to the nature of ftopjij of the diforder being thus difeharged, the preffure too greai upon the fuperior part of the vein fhould be imme-| diately removed; and this being done, if the fpear- ft ] pointed lancet has been ufed, all farther lofs of blood will in general flop immediately. The contrary of this, however, fomelimes occurs, and blood continues ! to ' i-1 j Part III. SURGERY. $403 raflice. to flow freely even after the ligature is removed. When this is the cafe, the operator ought to comprefs the vein both above and below the orifice, by means of the finger and thumb of one hand, fo as to prevent any farther lofs of blood : And this being done, the limb ought to be wafhed, and entirely cleared of any blood that may have fallen upon it ; and the orifice being alfo cleared of every particle of blood, the fides of it (hould be laid as exadly together as poffible; and a piece of court or any other adhefive plalter being fo applied as to retain them, it will feldom happen that any kind of bandage is neceffary : but when the blood lias iffued with uncommon violence during the opera* tion, and has been difficult to command after the re¬ moval of the ligature, in fuch inftances it will be pru¬ dent to apply a fmall comprefs of linen over the pla- fter, and to fecure the whole with a linen roller pro* perly applied round the member. 1 §1.0/' Vtruefettion in the Arm. I In applying the ligature for the ftoppage of the circulation, it ought to be placed about an inch or an inch and half above the joint of the elbow ; and in order to prevent the ends of it from interfering with the lancet, the knot ihould be made on the outfide of the arm. In general, one knot might anfwer ; but a flip-knot being made above the firit, renders it more fecure, and it is very eafily done. In forming the choice of a vein from whence blood is to be taken, the general rules we have already laid down upon this point muft be here particularly at¬ tended to. That vein which appears moft confpicuous, at the fame time that it rolls leaft under the fkin, {hould in general be fixed upon ; but when an artery is found to lie immediately below, and quite conti- 3S1 guous to fuch a vein, the operator, if he is not per* Median ba- fc£Uy fatisfied with his own fleadinefs, ought rather filic vein to take fome other. In general, however, the artery chofen1? be^e9 fo *ow *n place, that the median bafilic vein, I preference under which it commonly runs, may be opened with touihers. perfe& fafety ; and as this vein in general appears more confpicuous than any of the others, probably from the continued pulfation of the artery below ob- ftrufting in fome meafure the paffage of its contents, it is in this refpefl, therefore, more properly calcu¬ lated for this operation than any of the others. Other circumftances occur, too, which render the median bafilic preferable to the cephalic or median cephalic veins for the operation of blood-letting, The for¬ mer, viz. the median bafilic, is lefs deeply covered with cellular fubllance; and by lying towards the in¬ ner part of the arm, it is more thinly covered with the tendinous expanfion of the biceps mufcle than either of the others. From thefe circumftances, the opera¬ tion is always attended with lefs pain when done in this vein than in any of the others. In blood-letting at this part of the arm, although the operation may be done with the right-hand either upon the right or left arm of the patient, yet it is much more neatly done by performing with the right- hand upon the right-arm, and with the left-hand up¬ on the left-arm of the patient. In very Corpulent people, it fometimes happens that all the larger veins lie fo deep as not to be difeo- vered by the eye j but when they are fenfibly felt by the fingers, even although they cannot be feen, they Practice. may be always opened with freedom. In a few inftan- ces, however, they can neither be diftinguifhed by the eye nor by the finger : in fuch a fituation, as they may in general be met with about the vvrift, or on the back-part of the hand, the ligature (hould be re¬ moved from the upper part of the arm ; and being applied about half-way between the elbow and wrift, fhe veins below will thereby be brought into view; and wherever a vein can be evidently obferved, there can be no danger in having recourfe to the opera¬ tion. § 2. Of Blood-letting in the jugular Vein. There is only one ramification of this vein, viz, its principal pofterior branch, which can eafily be brought fo much into view as to be with propriety opened ; and even this lies deeply covered with parts, not only with the (kin and cellular fubftance, but with the fibres of the platifma myoides mufcle ; fo that a confiderable degree of preffure becomes neceffary in order to raifeOf com- it to any height. With a view to produce this, the PreffinS ^ operator’s thumb is commonly advifed to be placedar upon the vein, fo as to comprefs it effedtually about an inch or inch and half below where the opening is to be made. This, however, feldom proves fufficicnt for the purpofe, as the blood, on being (topped in its progrefs through this branch, eafily finds a pa(Tage to the other veins; fo that unlefs the principal vein on the other fide of the neck is alfo compreffed, the vein to be opened can never be fully diftended. In order to effedt this, a firm comprefs of linen (hould be ap¬ plied on the larged vein on the oppofite fide of the* neck; and an ordinary garter, or any other proper ligature, being laid dire&ly over it, (hould be tied with a firm knot below the oppofite arm-pit; taking king care to make fuch a degree of preffiire, as to put an entire (lop to the circulation in the vein, which in this way may be eafily effe&ed without producing any obftru&ion to the patient’s breathing. This being done, and the patient’s head pro¬ perly fupported, the operator, with the tbumb of his left-hand, is now to make a fufficient preffure upon the vein to be opened ; and with the lancet in hia right-hand is to penetrate at once into the vein ; and, before withdrawing the inftrument, an orifice fhould be made large enough for the intended evacuation. It may be proper to obferve, that a more extenfive open¬ ing ought always to be made here than is neceffary in the arm, otherwife the quantity of blood is generally procured with difficulty: and befides, there is not the fame neceffity for caution on this point here that there is in the arm ; for it feldom or never happens, that any difficulty occurs, in this fituation, in putting a ftop to the blood after the -preffure is removed from the veins, all that is commonly neceffary for this purpofe being a flip of adhefive plafter without any bandage whatever. 3(j- In order to bring the vein more clearly into view, The integu- fo as afterwards to be able to open it with more ex- ,c* a"d aftnefs, it has been recommended, that the (kin, cel-®*|01 lular fubftance, and mufcular fibres covering the vein, be divided (hould be previoufly divided with a fcalpel before at- at once- tempting to pufh the .lancet into it. There is not, however, any needflty for this precaution, as it rarely 4* C 2 happens 8402 U R G R Y. Part IIII Pi afKce.J happens that any difficulty is experienced in procuring quantity of blood has run out of the mouth into your PraAicii a free difcharge of blood by opening the vein and te- veffel, remove the ligature from the neck ; upon which ^ guments at once in the manner dire&ed. And it is the flux ufually ftops of itfelf: but if it ihould dill here, as in every inftance where it is neceflary to take continue, let the patient take a little vinegar or Fron- blood by a lancet, if it is not done at once, the patient tiniac wine in his mouth j or elfe you may apply a bit : E R Y. 8405 ther In an artery or in a vein, as when its dire&ion is PrafHce. fomewhat oblique. If the opening has been properly made, and if the artery is of any tolerable fize, it will at once difeharge very freely without any compreffion ; but when the evacuation does not go on fo well as could be wiflied, the difeharge may be always affifted by compreffing the artery immediately above the orifice, between it and the correfponding veins. The quantity of blood being thus difeharged, it will commonly happen, that a very flight compreffion on thefe fmaller arteries will fuffice for putting a ftop to the evacuation : and what¬ ever preffure is found neceffary, may be here applied in the fame manner as was directed in venaefeftion ; firft, by clearing the orifice entirely of blood ; and having covered it properly with a piece of adhefive plafter, if that ftiould not be found to anfwer, a com- * prefs of linen ffiould be applied over it, the whole be¬ ing then to be fecured with a roller. It happens, however, in fome inftances, that this does not fucceed, the orifice continuing to burft out from time to time, fo as to be produ&ive of much diftrefs and inconvenience. In this fituation there are three different methods of by which we may with tolerable certainty put a ftop flopping to the farther difeharge of blood, ift, If the artery the blood, is fmall, as all the branches of the temporal arteries commonly are, the cutting it entirely acrofs, exaftly at the orifice made with the lancet, by allowing it to retraft within the furrounding parts, generally puts an immediate ftop to the difeharge. 2d, When that is not confented to, we have it always in our power to fecure the bleeding vtffel with a ligature, as we would do an artery accidentally divided in any part of the body. And, laftly, if neither of thefe methods is agreed to by the patient, we can, by means of a conftant regular preffure, obliterate the cavity of the artery at the place where the operation has been per¬ formed, by producing, the accretion of its fides. Dif¬ ferent bandages have been contrived for compreffing the temporal artery; but none of them anfwer the pur- pofc fo eafily and fo effediually as the one figured iw the Plate. As fome time,'however, is required to obliterate the cavity of the artery, this method is accordingly more tedious; but to timid patients it generally proves more acceptable than either of the other two. § $• Of Topical Blood-letting. Wheh, either from the feverity of a local fixed pain, or from any other caufe, it is wilhed to evacuate blood direftly from the fmail veffels of the part af¬ fected, inftead of opening any of the larger arteries or veins, the following are the. different modes propo- fed for effecting it, viz. by means of leeches; by flight fcarifications with the flioulder or edge of a lan¬ cet; and, laftly, by means*'Df an inftrument termed a 37* fcarificator, in which any number of lancets, from on^efcr&ot-* to twenty or upwards, may be placed, and are fixed in fuch a manner, that, when the inftrument is applied to the part affeCted, the whole number of lancets con¬ tained in it are, by means of a ftrong fpring, pufhed fuddenly into it, to the depth at which the inftrument has been previoufly regulated. This being done, as the fmaller blood-veffels only by this operation are ever 3406 SURGERY. Panlll. Practice, ever intended to be cut, and as thefe do not com- ‘ ~ monly difcharge freely, fome means or other become 17J necefiary for promoting the evacuation. Ofcupping- Various methods have been propofed for this pur- gWfcs. pofe. Glaffes fitted to the form of the affe&ed parts, with a fmall hole in the bottom of each, were long ago contrived ; and thefe being placed upon the fca* rifled parts, a degree of fu&ion was produced by a perfon’s mouth fufficient for nearly exhaufting the air contained in the glafs: and this accordingly was a fure enough method of increafing the evacuation of blood to a certain extent. But as this was attended with a good deal of trouble, and befides did not on every occafion prove altogether effeftual, an exhauft¬ ing fyringe was at laft adapted to the glafs; which did indeed anfwer as a very certain method of extracting the air contained in it; but the application of this inftrument for any length of time is very troublefome, and it is difficult to preferve the fyringe always air¬ tight. The application of heat to the cupping-glajfes, as they are termed, has been found to rarify the air con¬ tained in them to a degree fufficient for producing a very confidcrable fuftion. And as the inftrument in this Ample form anfwers the purpofe in view with very little trouble to the operator, and as it is at all times eafily obtained, the ufe of the fyringe has there¬ fore been laid afide. There are different methods adopted for thus ap¬ plying heat to the cavity of the glafs. By fupport- ing the mouth of it for a few feconds above the flame of a taper, the air may be Efficiently raritied ; but if the flame is not kept exaftly in the middle, but is al¬ lowed to touch either the fides or bottom of the glafs, it is very apt to make it crack. A more certain, as well as an eafier, method of applying the heat, is to dip a piece of foft bibolous paper in fpirit of wine; and having fet it on fire, to put it into the bottom of the glafs, and, on its being nearly extinguifhed, to apply the mouth of the inftrument direftly upon the fcari- fkd part. This degree of heat, which may be always regulated by the fize of the piece of paper, and which it is evident ought to be always in proportion to the fize of the glafs, if long enough applied, proves al¬ ways fufficient for rarifying the air very effe&ually, and at the fame time, if done with any manner of cau¬ tion, never injures the glafs in the leaft. The glafs having been thus applied, if the fcarifi- cations have been properly made, they inftantly begin to difcharge freely; and fo foon as the inftrument is nearly full of blood, it ffiould be taken away; which may be always eafily done by raifing one fide of it, fo as to give accefs to the external air. When more blood is wifhedto be taken, the parts ffiould be bathed with warm water ; and being made perfe&ly dry, ano¬ ther glafs, exadlly of the tize of the former, ffiould be inftantly applied in the very fame manner: and thus, if the fcarificator has been made to puffi to a fufficient depth, fo as to have cut all tire cutaneous veffels of the part, almoft any neceffary quantity of blood may be obtained. It fometimes happens, how¬ ever, that the full quantity intended to be difeharged cannot be got at one place. In fuch a cafe, the fca- rificator muft be again applied on a part as contiguous to the other as poffible; and this being done, the ap¬ plication of the glaffes muft alfo be renewed as before. Practice, a When it is wiffied to difcharge the quantity of blood “ ” as quickly as poffible, two or more glaffes may be ap¬ plied at once on contiguous parts previoufly fcarified ; and, on fome occafions, the quantity of blood is more quickly obtained by the cupping-glaffes being applied for a few feconds upon the parts to be afterwards fca¬ rified. The fudtion produced by the glaffes may pof- fibly have fome influence in bringing the more deep* feated veffels into nearer contaft with the fkin, fo that more of them will be cut by the fcarificator. A fufficient quantity of blood being procured, the wounds made by the different lancets ffiould be all perfectly cleared of blood ; and a bit of foft linen or charpie, dipped in a little milk or cream, applied over the whole, is the only dreffing that is neceffary. When dry linen is applied, it not only creates more uneafi- nefs to the patient, but renders the wounds more apt to fefter than when it has been previoufly wetted in the manner direfted. Although this operation is by no means difficult in the exeention, yet a good deal of praftice is necef¬ fary to perform it in a neat and fuccefsful manner ; but, with a little attention, any operator may foon become fo expert, as to be able to take any quantity of blood that it can ever be neceffary to evacuate. Dry cupping confifts in the application of the cuP*Dry3cnp. Is ping-glaffes dire&ly to the parts affefted, without the ping. | ufe of the fcarificator. By this means a tumour is produced upon the part ; and where any advantage is to be expeded from a determination of blood to a par¬ ticular fpot, it may probably be more eafily accora- pliffied by this means than by any other. When the part from which it is intended to produce a local evacuation of this kind is fo fuuated, that a fcarificator and cupping-glaffes can be applied, this method is greatly preferable to every other; but it now and then happens, that parts are fo iituated as not to admit of their application. Thus, in inflam¬ matory affeftions of the eye, of the nofe, and of other parts of the face, the fcarificator cannot be properly applied diredtly to the parts affe&ed. In fuch inftan- ces, leeches are commonly had recourfe to, as they can be placed upon almoft any fpot from whence we would wiffi to difcharge blood. ; In the application of thefe animals, the moft effec-Of the ap- j tual method of making them fix upon a particular Phcat'011 fpot, is to confine them to the part by means of a,ecches’ j fmall wine-glafs. Allowing them to creep upon a dry cloth, or upon a dry board, for a few minutes be¬ fore application, makes them fix more readily; and moiftening the parts on which they are intended to fix, either with milk, cream, or blood, tends alfo to caufe them adhere much more fpeedily than they other- wife would do. So foon as the leeches have feparated, the ordinary method of promoting the difcharge of blood, is to cover the parts with linen cloths wet in warm water. In fome fituations, this may probably be as effeftual a method as any other ; but wherever the cupping-glafies can be applied over the wounds, they anfwer the purpofe much more effedlualiy: wherever the figure of the part, therefore, will admit of their application, they ought undoubtedly to be employed. Sect. Pare III. S U R Praaicc. Sect. II. Of Incifiotiy IJfues, and Setons. § i. Of opening Abfcejfes. Incifion There are two ways of opening an abfcefs; either preferable ^7 incifion or cauftic; but incifion is preferable in tocauftic. moft cafes. In fmall abfcefles, there is feldora a ne- ceflity for greater dilatation than a little orifice made with the point of a lancet; and in large ones, where there is not a great quantity of fltin difcoloured and become thin, an incifion to their utmoft extent will ufually anfwer the purpofe ; or if there be much thin difcoloured flcin, a circular or oval piece of it mull be cut away : which operation, if done dexteroufly with a knife, is much lefs painful than by cauftic, and at once lays open a great fpace of the abfcefs, which may be drefied down to the bottom, and the matter of it be freely difcbarged: whereas, after a cauftic, though we make incifions through the efchar, yet the matter will be under fotne confinement; and we can¬ not have the advantage of drefling properly till the re¬ paration of the flough, which often requires a confi- derable time, fo that the cure rouft be neceffarily de¬ layed : befides that the pain of burning continuing two or three hours, which a cauftic ufually requires in doing its office, draws fuch a fluftion upon the fkin round the efchar, as fometimes to indifpofe it very much for healing afterwards. In the ufe of cauftics, it is but too much a praftice to lay a fmall one on the moft prominent part of a large tumour, which not giving fufficient vent to the matter, and perhaps the orifice foon after growing narrow, leads on to the neceffity of employing tents; which two circumftances more frequently make fiftulas after an abfcefs, than any malignity in the nature of the abfcefs itfelf. The event would more certainly be the fame after a fmall incifion : but furgeons, not depending fo much on fmall openings by inctfion as by cauftic, do, when they ufe the knife, generally dilate fufficiently ; where¬ as, in the other way, a little opening in the moft de¬ pending part of the tumour ufually fatisfies them. 37<» From this account of the method of opening ab- of ufing^ d°e8 not appear often neceffary to apply cauftic in cauftics ; yet they have their advantages in fome re- fome cafes, fpefts, and are feldom fo terrible to patients as the knife, though in they are frequently more pain¬ ful to bear. They are of moft ufe in cafes where the fkin is thin and inflamed, and we have reafon to think the maliginity of the abfcefs is of that nature as to prevent a quicknefs of incarning; in whichcircumftance, if an incifion only were made through the fkin, little finufes would often form underneath, and the lips of it, lying loofe and flabby, would become callous, and retard the cure, though the malignity of the wound were corre&ed. Of this kind are venereal buboes ; Which notwithftanding they often do well by mere in- eifion, yet, when the fkin is in the ftate we have fup- pofed, the cauftic is always preferable: but this me¬ thod fhould be confined to venereal buboes; for thofe which follow a fever or the fmall-pox, for the moft part are curable by incifion only. There are many fcrophulous tumours, where the reafoning is the fame as in the venereal; and even in great fwellings, if the patient will not fubmit to cutting, and the furgeon is apprehenfive of any danger in wounding a large veffel, which » often done with the knife, but G E R Y. 8407 is avoided by cauftic, it may on fuch an occa- p^|cc- fion be made ufe of; however, in fcrophulous fwell- “ ~ ings of the neck and face, unlefs they are very large, cauftics are not advifable, fince in that part of the body, with length of time, they heal after incifion. 377 When an abfcefs is ready burft, we are to be guided Ofdilatin^ by the probe where to dilate, obferving the fame rules with regard to the degree of dilatation as in them a ce CS* other cafe. The ufual method of dilating, is with the probe-feiflars; and indeed, in all abfeefles, the generality of furgeons ufe the feiflars, after having firft made a punflure with a lancet: but as the knife operates much more quickly, and with lefs violence to the parts, than feiflars, which fqueeze at the fame time that they wound, it will be fparing the patient a great deal of pain to ufe the knife, wherever it is pra&icable; which it is in almoftall cafes, except forae fiftulas in anot where the feiflars are more convenient. The manner of opening with a knife, is by Aiding it on a dire&or, the groove of which prevents its being mifguided. If the orifice of the abfcefs be fo fmall as not to admit the director or the blade of the feiflars, it muft be enlarged by a piece of fponge-tent; which is made by dipping a dry bit of fponge in melted wax, and immediately fqueezing as much out of it again as pofiible, between two pieces of tile or marble; the effeft of which is, that the loofe fponge being com- prefltd into a fmall compafs, if any of it be introduced into an abfcefs, the heat of the part melts down the Remaining wax that holds it together, and the fponge fucking up the moifture of the abfcefs, expands, and in expanding opens the orifice, wider, and by degrees, fo as to give very little pain. The ufual method of dreffing an abfcefs, the firft of the time, is with dry lintonly ; or, if there be no flux of drefting of blood, with foft digeftives fpread on lint. If there be*bfreftes no danger of the upper part of the wound reuniting when °Penj too foon, the dofiils muft be laid in loofe. But if the61" abfcefs be deep, and the wound narrow, as is the cafe fometimes of abfeeffes in am, the lint muft be cram¬ med in pretty tightly, that we may have afterwards the advantage of drefling down to the bottom without the ufe of tents, which, by refifting the growth of the little granulations of fldh, in procefs of time harden them, and in that manner produce a fiftula fo that, inftead of being ufed for the cure of an ab¬ fcefs, they never ftiould be employed but where we mean to retard the healing of the external wound* except in fome little narrow abfeefies, where, if they be not crammed in too large, they become as doflils, admitting of incarnation at the bottom; but care fhould be taken not to infinuate them much deeper than the Ikin in this cafe, and that they be repeated twice a-day to give vent to theTmatter they confine. But tents do moft good in little deep abfcefles, whence any extraneous body is to be evacuated, fuch as fmaii fplinters of bones, &c. The ufe of vulnerary injeflione into abfcefles has been thought to bear fo near refemblance to the ufe of tents, that they both fell into difrepute almoft at the fame time. Over the dofiils of lint may be laid a large pledgft of tow fpread with bafilicon, which will He fofter than a defenfive plafter; for this, though defigned to de¬ fend the circumference of wounds againft inflamma¬ tion. 8408 8 U R G Praftke. tlon or a fluxion of humours, is often the very caufe of them : fo that the dreffings of large wounds fhould never be kept on by thefe plafters, where there is danger of fuch accidents. In this manner, the dref¬ fings may be continued till the cavity is incarned; and then it may be cicatrifed with dry lint or fome of the cicatrifing ointments, obferving to keep the fungus down, as means of ordinary ufe was, by meansof a curved needle, to pafs a : needT^ *‘8ature of fufficient ftrength round the mouth of the r‘ce e‘ bleeding veffel, including a quarter of an inch all round of the furrounding parts,, and afterwards to form a knot of a proper tightnefs upon the veffel and other parts comprehended in the noofe; But this me¬ thod has been found to give fo much pain,, that the. r E R Y. 8415 heft pradlitioners have thought proper to reje& it, Praftice, and to tie up the blood-veffels by tfiemfelves. In order to deleft the arteries to be tied, the tour¬ niquet, with which they are fecured, muft be flackened a little by a turn or two of the fcrew ; and the mo¬ ment the largeft artery of the fore is difeovered, the furgeon fixes his eye upon it, and immediately reftrains the blood again by means of the tourniquet. An af- fiftant now forms a noofe on the ligature to be made ufe of; and this noofe being placed immediately over the end of the artery, fo as to include it with certainty, the operator then pufties the fharp point of the tenacu¬ lum through the fides of the veffel, and at the fame time pulls fo much of it out, over the furface of the furrounding parts, as he thinks is fufficient to be in¬ cluded in the knot which the afiiftant is now to make, Xn forming this ligature, the furgeon’s knot, as it is termed, which ccnfifts in paffing the thread twice through the firft noofe, is certainly preferable to every other, from its being lefs liable to yield or flip. And as fome additional fecurity is obtained by forming a fecond knot above the firft, this precaution ought ne¬ ver to be omitted. It is eafily done; and-on fecurity in this.point the patient’s life may in a great meafure depend. The degree of ftrength of the ligature muft always be proportioned to the fize of the veffcls; but this is a circumltance to be at all times determined by the judgment of the praftitioner, as muft alfo the force to- be employed in forming the knots. To what was al¬ ready faid upon this point, we fhall juft add, that a very fmall force is fully fufficient for fecuring even the largeft arteries; and that after fuch a force has been applied as-evidently reftrains the farther lofs of blood, a very trifling additional compreffion is all that is in any degree neceffary. ^IS, The operator ought to be provided with needles ofOf the various fizes, and of different forms. The needles inneedles ordinary ufe are, for many purpofes, quite-too much crooked ; for, in general, they are more eafily mana¬ ged when their curvatures are not fo confiderable. The fame kinds of needles as are found neceffary for the interrupted future, anfwer equally well for the li¬ gature of arteries. The needles in common ufie are made triangular, with three different edges, one on each fide, and a third on the concave part of the needle. There is no real neceffity, however, for more than twor indeed the needle enters fully more eafily with two than with three edges ; and as the third edge on the concave fide renders them more liable to injure arteries and other parts in the courfe of their intfoduftion, this addition ought therefore to be omitted. 4rr A needle of this lhape, armed with a ligature of a Method of fize proportioned to itfelf and to the veffel to be taken Pcrformin^: up, is to be introduced at the diftance of a fixth or‘I16 opera' eighth part of an inch from the artery, and pufhed to tl0Sj a depth fuffkient for retaining it, at the fame time that it-is carried fully one-half round the blood-vtffel. It muft now be drawn out; and being again pufhed forward till it has completely encircled the month of' the artery, it is then to be pulled out, and a knot to be tied of a fufficient firmnefs, as was already direfted when the tenaculum is ufed. 8416 Praftice. *U T)f the ef- fefts of prefTure in aneurifms. 4TS Of per¬ forming the opera¬ tion for an aneurifm. S U R G Sect. VII. Of the Treatment of Aneurlfms. In every cafe of aneurifm, the ufe of prefiure has been indifcriminately recommended, not only in the incipient period of thedifeafe, but even in its more ad¬ vanced ftages. In the diffufed or falfe aneurifm, preflute has been univerfally advifed, not only with a view to difilpate the fwelling already induced, but in order to produce a reunion of the wound in the artery: however, as prefl'ure in fuch cafes cannot be applied to the artery alone, without at the fame time afft&ing the refluent veins; and as this circumftance, by producing an in- creafed reftftance to the arterial pulfations, muft un¬ doubtedly force an additional quantity of blood to the orifice in the artery ; therefore no advantage is to be expefted from it; but on the contrary, there is rea- fon to fuppofe it has been on many-occafions produc¬ tive of mifchief. But although prefl'ure ought never to be attempted in any period of the diffufed aneurifm, yet in fome fta¬ ges of the other fpecies of the difeafe, it may be often bad recourfe to with advantage. In the early ftages of encyfted aneurifm, while the -blood can be yet prefied entirely out of the fac into the artery, it often happens, by the ufe of a bandage of foft and fomewhat elaltic materials, properly fitted to the part, that much may be done in preventing the fwelling from receiving any degree of increafe; and on fome occafions, by the continued fupport thus gi¬ ven to the weakened artery, complete cures have been at laft obtained. In all fuch cafes, therefore^ parti¬ cularly in every inftance of the varicofe aneurifm, much advantage may be expefted from moderate pref- fure. But although preffure to a certain degree has fre¬ quently, in cafes of encyfted aneurifm, proved very ufeful, it ought never to be carried to any great length ; for tight bandages in all fuch affeftions, by producing an immoderate degree of rea&ion in the containing parts to which they are applied, ioftead of anfwering the purpofe for which they were intended, have evidently the contrary effed. Moderate com- preffion, therefore, is more eligible than a great de¬ gree of it; and indeed the greateft length to which prefl'ure in fuch cafes ought to go, fliould be to ferve as an eafy fupport to the parts afftded, and no fan- ther. The firft ftep in this operation ought to be to ob¬ tain a full command of the circulation in the inferior part of the member by means of the tourniquet applied above. This being done, the patient fhould be fo placed, that the difeafed limb, on being ftretched on a table, is found to be of a proper height for the fur- geon ; who, as the operation is generally tedious, ought to be feated. The limb being in this fituation properly fecured by an affiftant, the operator is now with a fcalpel to make an incifion through the fltin and cellular fubftance along the whole courfe of the tumour ; and as freedom in the remaining parts of the operation is here a matter of much importance, it is even of ufe to carry this external incifion half an inch or fo both above and below the fartheft extremities of the fwelling. This Jbeing done, the ordinary method is ^proceed E R Y. -Part III. | in a very flow cautious manner, difleding away one PraiRice.§2 layer of the membrane after another, til! the artery it-—^ fp felf is laid bare. In this manner the operation is al¬ ways rendered exceedingly tedious, as the thicknefs of parts with which the artery is found covered, is often really aftonilhing, by one layer of a membranous fubftance having been formed after another, from the coagulable lymph of the blood contained in the tu¬ mour. In reality, however, there isJ no necefiity for this degree of caution, as the operation may, in the following manner, be -equally well performed in a much fhorter fpace of time, and with much lefs pain to the patient. So foon as the external incifion has been made in the manner dire&ed, foas to divide the fkin and cellu¬ lar fubftance, all the effufed blood ought to be wiped off by means of a fpunge; and the fofteft part of the tumour being difcovered, an opening ought there to be made into it with a lancet, large enough for admit¬ ting a finger of the operator’s left hand. This being done, and the finger introduced into the cavity of the tumour, it is now to be laid open from one extremity to the other, by running a blunt-pointed biftoury along the finger from below upwards, and afterwards from above downwards, fo as to lay the whole cavity fairly open. The cavity of the tumour being thus laid freely open, all the coagulated blood is now to be taken out. Tor this purpofe a number of inftruments, particu¬ larly fcoops, have been invented by different opera- , 1 tors: but no inftrument anfwers this intention fo ef« fe&ually, and with fo much eafe to the patient, as the fingers of the operator; who having in this manner removed all the coagulated blood, together with a number of tough membranous filaments commonly found here, the cavity of the tumour is now to be ren¬ dered quite dry, and free from the blood which, on the firft opening of the fwelling, is difeharged into it ftom the veins in the inferior part of the member : and this being effe&ually accompliflied, the tourniquet muft be made perfedlly flack and eafy, in order to difeover, not only the artery itfelf, but the opening in¬ to it, from whence the blood collefted in the tumour has been all along difeharged. This being done, the next point to be determined; is the manner of fecu- ring this opening into the artery, fo as to prevent in future any farther effufion of blood. Various means have been propofed for accomplifliing this ; but the effedls of all of them may be comprchetided under the three following heads. 4I# I. The effefts of ligature upon a large artery ha- Means of ving on fome occafions proved fatal to the inferiorPre}'entlI’2 part of the member, it was long ago propofed, that*|J ®’s pro* tery, it was feveral years ago propofed by an eminent furgeon of Newcaftle, Mr Lambert, that the orifice[hewornid in the artery fhould be fecured by means of the twi-0f theartery fted future. A fmall needle being pulhed through the edges Part III. S U R Practice, edges of the wound, they are then dire&ed to be drawn ' together by a thread properly twifted round the needle, as was formerly dire&ed when treating of futures. Strong objections, however, occur to both of thefe methods. In the firft place, no aftringent application with which we are acquainted is pofleffed of fuch powers as to deferve much confidence; for although different articles of this kind have on various occafions proved a means of putting a temporary flop to haetnor- rhagies, yet there are very few inftances properly au¬ thenticated of their having produced any permanent advantage. In aimoft every inftance in which they have been ufed, the haemorrhagy has recurred again and again, fo as to prove very diftreffing, not only to the patient, but to the pra&itioner in attendance ; fa that, from this want of fuccefs, little or no attention is now paid to remedies of this kind in ordinary prac¬ tice. 418 With regard to Mr Lambert’s method of ditching tojitrLam ^ or^cc t^ie artery, it is certainly a very inge- ben’sme-'nious Pr°pofal; and would in all probability, at lead ihod. in mod indances, prove an effe&ual dop to all farther difeharge of blood : but as we have yet only one in¬ dance of its fuccefs, little can yet be faid about it. Two material objections, however, feem to occur to this pradice. One is, that in the operation for the aneurifm, in almod every indance, a very few only excepted, the artery lies at the back-part of the tu¬ mour ; fo that when all the collected blood is remo¬ ved, there is fuch a depth of wound, that it mud be always a very difficult matter, and on many occafions quite impracticable, to perform this nice operation upon the artery with that attention and exaCtnefs which, in order to enfure fuccefs, it certainly requires. It has now and then happened, indeed, that in this operation the artery has been found to be on the an¬ terior part of the tumour ; and in fuch a fituation the wound in it would no doubt prove acceffible enough. This, however, is a very rare occurrence, as in almod every indance of diffufed aneurifm, the artery lies at the very bottom of the tumour, by the blood being collefted between it and the common teguments ; and accordingly, in feveral indances of this ’diforder, in which, after the tumour was laid freely open, the ar¬ tery has been found to lie fo deep, as would have ren¬ dered it quite impoffible to perform this operation. But there is another very material objcCtion which c/riari evidently,occurs to the praClice recommended by Mr Lambert. By introducing a needle through the fides of the orifice, and drawing thefe together by a ligature, the cavity of the artery mud undoubtedly be at that point much diminilhed. Indeed Mr Lam¬ bert, in bis account of the cafe in which this opera¬ tion was performed, acknowledges that the diameter of the artery was thereby diminilhed. Now the paf- fage of the blood being thus contracted at one point, the impulfe upon that particular part mud be very confiderable : So that the very remedy employed for the cure of one fpecies of aneurifm, will in all proba¬ bility prove a very powerful agent in inducing ano¬ ther; for the blood being thus obftruCted in its ufual courfe, there will be no fmall danger incurred of a di¬ latation being produced immediately above this pre¬ ternatural driCture. Vol. X. G E R Y. 8417 III. Neither of the methods we have yet been con- Praflice. fidering being found eligible for fecuring the orifice — in the artery, we lhall now proceed to deferibe the ordinary manner of performing this operation ; which confids in obliterating the arterial cavity entirely by means of ligatures. The artery being laid bare in the manner direCled, 41^ and all the coagulated blood being carefully removed Method of from the cavity of the tumour, on the tourniquet be* I,.erformill2 ing now flackened fo as to bring the orifice in the ar-^ tery into view, a fmall probe is to be introduced at aneurifm. the opening, in order to raife the artery from the neighbouring parts, fo as that the furgeon may be en¬ abled with certainty to pafs a ligature round it, with¬ out comprehending the contiguous nerves, which in general run very near to the large blood-vefiels of a limb. By this precaution the nerves may be always avoided; and by doing fo, a great deal of mifehief may be prevented, which othefwife in all probability might fupervene. When the diforder is fituated ei¬ ther in the ham, or in the ufual part of blood-letting in the arm, bending the joints of the knee or of the elbow, as it relaxes the artery a little, renders this part of the operation more eafily effeQed than when the limbs are kept fully ftretched out. The artery being thus gently feparated from the contiguous parts, a firm, broad, waxed ligature mull be paffed round it, about the eighth part of an inch or fo above the orifice, and another mull in the fame manner be introduced at the fame diftance below it. Much harm, in all probability, has been done by paffing the ligature fo far diftant from the orifice as is commonly praftifed ; for the rifle of lofing the benefit of anaftomifing branches will be always increafed in proportion to the extent of artery included between the ligatures. The eafieft method of introducing the ligatures is by means of a blunt-curved needle. An ordinary fharp needle is commonly madeufe of for this purpofe; but it does not anfwer the intention fo well as the one here recommended : by the fharpnefs of its points it is apt to injure the contiguous parts; and when the com¬ mon crooked needle is ufed with a fharp edge on its concave fide, there mufl even be fome rifk of its wounding the under part of the artery, as in this Gtua- tion it cannot be introduced without making this part of the needle pafs quite in contaft with the coats of the artery. The blunt needle is not liable to either of thefe objeftions; and befides is more eafily introdu¬ ced than any of the ordinary aneurifmal needles. The ligatures being both paffed in the manner dt- refted, the upper one is now to be tied with a firm- 0f fying nefs fufficient for compreffing the fides of the artery, theligatiue. The diredions formerly given for forming the knot upon bleed ing-vcffels in other parts, will apply with equal propriety here : the ends of the ligature ought by all means to be twice pafTed through the firit noofe,- and this fhould again be farther fecured by a fingle knot made above it. By many writers on this fub- jed, a fraall bolfler of linen is ordered to be inferted between the artery and the knot, in order to prevent the artery from being cut by it. .This, however, is a very unneceffary precaution ; for if the who!^ arterv is not fuirounded with the bolder, it will be juft as 42 E - much 8418 S U R I Practice, much expofed to be cut by the ligature at any other part as where the knot is fixed : and, befides, as we have already remarked, there is no occafion whatever for making the ligature fo tight on arteries as to run any rifle of dividing them ; a much lefs degree of pref- fure than is either commonly applied, or than conld have any influence in hurting them, being fully fuffi- cient for compreffing them in the moll effe&ual man¬ ner. The upper ligature being thus finilhed, before the knot is pa fled upon the other below the orifice, the tourniquet ought to be untwifted, in order to fee whe¬ ther any blood is now difeharged by the wound in the artery or not. If blood flows in any confiderable quantity, it affords a profpeA of fuccefs, as it clearly (hows, that the anaftamofing branches from the fupe- rior part of the artery are cpnfiderable enough for carrying on at lead a tolerable degree of circulation in the under part of the member. At the fame time, however, although blood fhould not be difeharged at this time by the orifice, we are by no means, from this circumrtance alone, to defpair of fuccefs; for it frequently happens, that the operation fucceeds in a very effeftual manner, although no blood whatever is difeharged on the trial now recommended. But whether any blood fhould be difeharged'by this trial or not, we are not to reft- fatisfied with one ligature ; for unlefs the ligature below the orifice be alfo tied, there is always a rifk, on the return of'cir" culation to the under part of the artery, of blood paf- fing out at the orifice. This precaution, therefore,- fhould never be omitted ; it is eafily done, and it ren-» ders the patient quite fecure againft all farther eva¬ cuation of blood by the orifice. 'After the knots have been put upon the ligatures, thefe fhould be cut of fuch a length, that thejr ends may lie fully out over the edges of the wound ; fo that when necefiary they may be more eafily withdrawn. By way of greater fecurity in this operation, it has been advifed to infert other two ligatures quite conti¬ guous to the former, and to leave them untied ; fo that if any of the others mifgive, its place may be immediately fupplied. There is not, however, any necefiity for this pre* caution : for if the firft ligatures are properly applied, there can be no doubt of their anfweringthe purpofe ; and in cafe either one or both of them flrould happen to fail, they can be very eafily renewed. In the mean time, too, the patient is rendered fafe againft any fudden lofs of blood, by the tourniquet being left loofe upon the upper part of the member ; which it ought by all means to befor feveral days after the operationj fo that, in the event of blood burftiog from the wound, it may be fecured by means of it, much more readily than if it depended on the tying of a ligature. The ligatures being both finifned in the manner direfled, the tourniquet is now to be made quite loofe; and if no blood is difeharged at the orifice in the artery, we may then reft fatisfied that the operation is i fo far properly completed. Qfdreffing The wound is now to be lightly covered with foft the wound. lint, with a pledget of any emollient ointment over the whole ; and a comprefs of linen being applied over the dreffings, all the bandage in any degree requifite, is* two or three turns of a roller above, and as many be* J E R Y. Part III. low the centre of the wound, making it prefs with no Pratfice. ; more tightnefs than is abfolutely necefiary for retain- ing the applications we have juft now mentioned. The patient being now put into bed, the member fhould be laid in 3 relaxed pofture upon a pillow, and ought to be fo placed as to create the leaft poffible uneafinefs from the pofture in which it is laid. 412 As the operation for the aneurifm is always tedious,Treatment!: and produces much pain and irritation, a full dofe of®/^' laudanum fhould be given immediately on the patient (i,e opcra,! being got into bed. In order to diininifh-fenfibilitytron. during fome of the more capital operations, different trials have been made of opiates given an hour or fo before the operation. On fome occafions, this proved evidently very ufeful; but in others it feemed to have the contrary effeft; particularly in weak nervous conftitutions, in which with any dofis, however final], they appeared to be rendered more irritable- and more fufceptible of pain, than if no opiate had been given.. Immediately after this operation, how¬ ever, an opiate ought to be exhibited, to be repeated occafionally according to the degrees of pain and reft- leflhefs. 41 j J In fome few cafes of aneurifm it has happened, that Of the rtatj the pulfe in the under part of the member has been °nf difeovered immediately after the operation. This, how- JheW0p£raJ| ever, is a very rare occurrence : For as this diforder ti0n has I is feldom met with in any other part than at the joint been per- r of the elbow as a confequence of blood-letting, andforme<1* al as it rarely happens! that the brachial artery divides till it paffes an inch or two below that place, the trunk of this artery is therefore moft frequently wounded; and when, accordingly, the ligature in this operation is made to obliterate the paffage of almoft the whole blood that went to the under part of the arm, there cannot be the leaft reafon to expeft any pul- fation at the wrift, till in a gradual manner the ana- ftomofing branches of the artery have become fo much enlarged, as to tranfmit fuch a quantity of blood j to the inferior part of the member as is fufficient for a&ing as a ftimulus to the larger branches of the : ;f artery. Immediately after the operation; the patient com¬ plains of an unufual numbnefs or want of feeling in the whole member; and as it generally for a few hours becomes cold, it is therefere right to keep it properly covered with warm foft flannel; and in order to ferve as a gentle ftimulus to the parts below, mo¬ derate frictions appear to be of ufe. In the fpace of ten or twelve hours from the operation, although the numbnefs ftill’continues, the heat of the parts gene¬ rally begins to return ; and it frequently happens, in the courfe of a few hours more, that all the inferior part of the member becomes even preternaturally warm. Immediately after this operation, the want of feel¬ ing in the parts is often very great ; and in propor¬ tion as the circulation in the under part of the mem¬ ber becomes more confiderable, the degree of feeling alfo augments. If we could fuppofe the nerves of the parts below to be always included in the ligature with the artery, that numbnefs which fucceeds im¬ mediately to the operation might be eafily accounted for ; but it has been al!b known to happen when nothing but the artery was lecured by the ligature. Part III. S U R ( Practice. In tbe mean time the patient being properly at- ~ tended to as to regimen, by giving him cordials and r.ourWhing diet when low and reduced, and confining him to a low diet if his conftitution is plethoric, the limb being ftill kept in an eafy relaxed pofture, to¬ wards the end of the fourth' or fifth day, fometimes much fooner, a very weak feeble pulfe is difcovered in the under part of the member, which becoming ftronger in a gradual manner, the patient in the fame proportion recovers the ufe and feeling of the 414 parts. Of taking So foon as there is an appearance of matter having away the formed freely about the fore, which will feldom hap- »ligatures. pen before the fifth or fixth day, an emollient poultice (houid be applied over it for a few hours, in order to foftcn the dreffirfgs, which may be then removed. At this time, too, the ligatures might be taken away ; but as their continuance for a day or two longer can ■; do no harm, it is better to allow them to remain till |r the fecond or third drefiing, when they either drop #, off themfelves, or may be taken away with perfeft fafety. The drefiings, which fhould always be of the fofteft materials, being renewed every fecond or third ||f day according to the quantity of matter produced, the fore is in general found to heal very eafily; and although the patient may for a confiderable time com¬ plain of great numbnefs and want of ftrength in the wholexourfe of the difeafed limb, yet in moft inftances a very free ufe of it is at laft obtained. It will be readily fuppofed, that the termination of this operation, as we have here deferibed it, is the mod favourable that can pofiibly happen. In fome In what ca-inftances, the fuccefs attending it is far from being fo fes a morti- complete : Inftead of a return of circulation, and of jftppen W1 feeling and ufe of the parts, they remain cold and infenfible, and no marks of returning life are per¬ ceived. From a mere want of blood, therefore, mor¬ tification at laft commences; and as nature is here deprived of one of her principal agents for the re¬ moval or reparation of gangrenous parts, viz. the -efforts' of the fanguiferous fyftem, whenever the parts in fuch circumftances begin to mortify, no¬ thing can prevent their progrefs to the ultimate ftage of that malady. Whenever mortification enfues, therefore, as a con- fequence of this operation, if the patient furvives the immediate effefts of it till a feparation occurs between the healthy and difeaftd parts, amputation of the member will then be the only refource. Sect. VIII. Of FraElures and Di/locations. The heft and moft ufcful bandage for a fimple frac- Of (he ban.ture of the leg or thigh, is what is commonly known dages moft by the name of the eighteen-tailed bandage; or rather : proper for one made on the fame principle, but with a little dif- I r“'ures> ference in the difpofition of the pieces. The common method is to make it fo, that the parts which are to furround the limb make a right angle with that which runs lengthwife under it; inftead of which, if they are tacked on fo as to mike an acute angle, they will fold over each other in an oblique direction, and there¬ by fit more neatly and more fecurely, as the parts will thereby have more connedlion with, and more de¬ pendence on, each other. The parts of the general apparatus for a fimple ■T E R Y. 8419 frafture, which come next in order, are the fplints. Praftice. Thefe are generally made of patteboard, wood, or Jxj fome refilling kind of fluff, and are ordered to be ap-Of the plied lengthwife on the broken limb ; in fome cafesfp*ilUs‘ three, in others four, for the more ftcady and quiet detention of the frafture. That fplints properly made and judicioufly applied are very ferviceable, is beyond all doubt; but their utility depends much on their fize, and the manner in which they are applied. In general practice, they are made of fuch length as not to reach either upward or downward, fo far as the roller extends; nor to comprehend either the upper or the lower joint of the broken bone, and to exceed the fraflure either way not many inches: They do not, for example, in the broken leg, comprehend either the joint of the knee or the joint of the ankle, and aft only on the frafture. In this manner of application, and of this fize, they are in faft neither more nor lefs than compreffes, and compreffes made of very bad materials. All the good that ever is, or that can be, done by them, when of fuch length, and fo applied, might certainly be done in a better manner by a more proper kind ofcomprefs; and every difadvantage which a hard refilling com- prefs, injudicioufly applied, is capable of producing, is probable to refult from them thus ufed. The true and proper ufe of fplints is to preferve lleadinefs in the whole limb, without comprefiing the frafture at all. By the former, they become very af- fiftant to the curative intention ; by the latter, they are very capable of caufing pain and other inconve¬ niences ; at the fame time that they cannot, in thq nature of things, contribute to the lleadinefs of the limb. In order to be of any real ufe at all, fplints Ihould, in the cafe of a broken leg, reach above the knee and below the ankle; fhould be only two in number ; and Ihould be fo guarded with tow, rag, or cotton, that they Ihould prefs only on the joints, and not at all on the frafture. By this they become really ferviceable ; but a Ihort fplint, which extends only a little above and a little below the frafture, and does not take in the two joints, is an abfurdity. By prelfing on both joints, -they keep not only them but the foot Heady ; by preffing on the frafture only, they cannot retain it in its place, if the foot be in the fmaileft degree dif- placed ; but they may, and frequently do, occafioa mifehief, by rudely prefiing the parts covering the frafture againft the edges and inequalities of it. In the cafe of a fraftured os femoris, if the limb be laid in an extended pofture, one fplint Ihould certainly reach from the hip to the outer ankle, and -.nother (fomewhat Ihorter) fhould extend from the groin to the inner ankle. In the caf: broken tibia and fibula, there never can be occ’h^n fur more than two fplints; one of which fnould extend from above the knee to below the ankle on one fide, an,d the other fplint fhould do the fame on the ocher fide. The moft efiential article in the treatment of a frac-Qf thep0f,. ture is the pofition of the limb. Upon the judicious tion of the or injudicious execution of this, depends the eafe ofhmbs- the patient during his confinement, and the free ufe and natural appearance of his limb afterward. “ If I meant to deferibe (fays Mr Pott), or if I approved (pardon the phrafe), the common method of 42 E 2 placing Eraftice. placing the broken leg and thigh in a ftraight manner, ~~ this would be the place to mention the many very in¬ genious contrivances and pieces of machinery which praftitioners, both ancient and modern, have invented for the purpofe of keeping the whole limb ftraight and fteadv ; that is, of keeping all the mufcles furround¬ ing the fradlured bone conftantly upon the ftretch, and at the fame time of preventing any inequality in the union of it, and any fhortening of the limb in con- fequence of fuch inequality. But as it is my intention to inculcate another, and as it appears to me a better difpofition of the limb, in which fuch boxes, cradles, and pieces of machinery are not wanted, nor can be ufed, it is neediefs .for me to fay any thing about them. “ According to this plan, the fradured leg and thigh fliould be depofited on the pillow in the very pofture in which the extenfion was made and the frac¬ ture fet ; that is, with the knee bent. “ In the cafe of the fradured os humeri, the only pofition in which it can, with any tolerable convenience to the patient, be placed, is with the elbow bent; that very pofition which neceffarily relaxes and removes all the refiftance of the furrounding mufcles. Daily experiences evinces the utility of this, by our very feldom meeting with lamenefs or deformity after it, notwithftanding the prevailing apprebenfion of exube¬ rant callus. “ The deformity frequently confequent to the frac¬ ture of the bones of the cubit, particularly that of the radius only, will generally, if not always, be found to be in proportion as the mufcles concerned in the pro¬ nation and fupination of the hand happen to be put more or lefs into a ftate of adion or tenfion by the. pofition of the limb. “ In the thigh the cafe is ftill more obvious, as the mufcles are more numerous and ftronger- The ftraight pofture puts the majority of them into adion : by which adion, that part of the broken bone which is next to the knee is pulled upward, and by palling more or lefs underneath that part which is next to the hip, makes an inequality or rifing in the broken part, and produces a fhortnefs of the limb. “In the fradure of both bones of the leg, the cafe is ft ill the fame: a ftraight pofstion puts the mufcles up¬ on endeavouring to ad; a moderate flexion of the knee relaxes them, and takes off fuch propenfity. Of t^/frac- “The difpofuion, therefore, of the broken cubit luted cubit, ought to be that which, by putting the hand into a middle ftate between pronation and lupination, and by bending the fingers moderately, keeps the radius fu- perior to the ulna j or, in other words, the palm of the hand fliould be applied to the breaft, the thumb Ihould be fuperior, the little finger inferior ; and the hand fhould be kept in this pofture conftantly by means of two fplints, which Ihould reach from the joint of the elbow on each fide, and Ihould be extended below the fingers: or the fame purpofe may be ftill better anfwered by a Ample neat contrivance of the very ingenious Mr Gooch of Norfolk ; of which he has given a draught, and which is preferable to a com¬ mon fplint, by its admitting the fingers to be more 430 cafily bent. Of the os “ The pofition of the fraftured os femoris fliould be femons. on ;ts outfide, refting on the great trochanter j the pa¬ tient’s whole body fhould be inclined to the fame fide ; Praftice. j the knee fliould be in a middle ftate, between perfect flexion and extenfion, or half-bent; the leg and foot, lying on their outfide alfo, fliould be well fupported by fmooth pillows, and fhould be rather higher in their level than the thigh : one very broad fplint of deal, hollowed out, and well covered with wool, rag, or tow, fliould be placed under the thigh, from above the trochanter quite below the knee ; and another fomewhat fliorter fhould extend from the groin below the knee on the infide, or rather in this pofture on the upper fide. The bandage fhould be of the eighteen- tail kind ; and when the bone has been fet, and the thigh well placed on the pillow, it fhould not, with¬ out neceflity (which necefiity in this method will fel¬ dom occur) be ever moved from it again until the frac¬ ture is united : and this union will always be accom- plifhed in more or lefs time, in proportion as the limb . ftiall have been more or lefs difturbed.. 1 “ In the fradlure of the fibula only, the pofition is Of the1 not of much confequence ^ becaufe, by the tibia re- fraftured j maining entire, the figure of the leg is preferved, andfibal!U 1 extenfion quite unneceffary: but ftill even here the laying the leg on its fide, inftead of on the calf, is attended with one very good confequence, viz. that the confinement of the knee, in a moderately bent po¬ fition, does not.render it fo incapable of flexion and ufe afterward, as the ftraight or extended pofition of it does; and confequently that the patient will be much fooner able to walk, whofe leg has been kept in the former pofture, than he whofe leg has been confi¬ ned in the latter. , ■ “In the fradure of both tibia and fibula, the knee 0fthefraCfj fhould be moderately bent; the thigh, body, and leg, tured tibial in the fame pofition as in the broken thigh. If com- and fibula».’ mon fplmts be ufed, one fhould be placed underneath the leg, extending from above the knee to below the ankle, the foot being properly fupported by pillows, bolfters, &c. and another fplint of the fame length fhould be placed on the upper fide, comprehending both joints in the fame manner ; which difpofition of fplints ought always to be obferved, as to their length, if the leg be laid extended in the common way; only chan¬ ging the nominal pofition of them, as the pofture of the leg is changed, and calling what is inferior in one cafe exterior in the other, and what is fuperior in one in the other interior.” Reduction of, or fetting a compound fra&ure, is keduftion I the fame as in the fimple ; that is, the intention in of a com- j both is the fame, viz. by means of a proper degree ofpoiin to keep the parts on which it prelfes conftantly walhed, to prevent galling. It can hardly be necefiary to fay, that the furgeon fhould be careful to fee that the trufs fits, as his fuc- cefs and reputation depend on fuch care. A trufs which docs not prefs enough is worfe than none at all, as it occafions lofs of time, and deceives the patient or his friends ; and one which preffes too much, or on an improper part, gives pain and trouble, by produ¬ cing an inflammation and fwelling of the fpermatie cord, and fometimes of the tefticle. Of fhfrup- ^r‘ adults, whofe ruptures are of long Handing, and tores of accuftomed to frequent defeent, the hernial fac is ge- adults, nerally firm and thick, and the aperture in the tendon of the abdominal mufcle large. The freedom and cafe with which the parts return into the belly, when the patient is in a fupine pofture, and the little pain which attends a rupture of this kind, often render the per- fons who labour under it carelefs: but all fuch fliould be informed, that they are in conftant danger of fuch alteration in their complaint, as may put them into great hazard, and perhaps deflroy them. . The paf- fage from the belly being open, the quantity of in- tefline in the hernial fac is always liable to be increa- fed, and, when down, to be bound by a ftri&ure. An inflammation of that portion of the gut which is -down, or fuch obftru&ion in it as may diflend anden- large it, may at all times produce fuch complaints as may put the life of the patient into imminent danger ; and therefore, notwithftanding this kind of hernia may have been borne for a great length of time, without having proved either troublefome or hazardous, yet as it is always poffible to become fo, and that very fud- denly, it can never be prudent or fafe to negleft it. Even though the rupture fhould be of the omental kind (which, confidered abftra&edly, is not fubjeft to that degree or kind of danger to which the intefti- nal is liable), yet it may be fecondarily, or by acci¬ dent, the caufe of all the fame mifehief; for while it keeps the mouth of the hernial fac open, it readers the defeent of a piece of inteftine always poffible, and confequently always likely to produce the mifehief 1 which may proceed from thence. They who labour tinder a hernia thus circumftan- ced, that is, whofe ruptures have been generally down .while they have been in an eredi pofture, and which have either gone up of themfelves or have been eafily E R Y. 8423 put up in a fupine one, fhould be particularly* careful Praftice. to have their trufs well made and properly fitted; for : * the mouth of the fac, and the opening in the tendon, being both large and lax, and the parts having been ufed to defeend through them, if the pad of the trufs be not placed right, and there be not a due degree of clafticity in the fpring, a piece of inteftine will in foma pofture flip down behind it, and render the trufs pro¬ ductive of that, very kind of mifehief which it ought to prevent. II. In the fecond clafs we ranked thofe cafes in which the parts conftituting the hernia are found irreducible, but not in a ftate of inflammation, nor producing any troublefome or dangerous kind of fymptoms. 4J0 This incapacity of reduction may be owing to feve- Why fome ral caufes, but moft frequently arifes either from the ruptures largenefs of the quantity.of the contents, from an al- “unot be teration made in their form and texture, or from con-redUCe * ne&ions and adhefions which they have contradled with each other, or with their containing bag. Ruptures are fometimea rendered difficult to be re¬ duced, by that portion of the inteftinal canal which is called the c«cum, or the beginning of the colon, being contained in the hernial fac. When a hernia of this kind (viz. one containing a part of the inteftinal tube) has been long negle&ed, and fuffered to remain in the ferotum without any bandage at all to fupport its weight, the hernial fac being conftantly dragged down, and kept in a ftate of diftention, neccflarily be¬ comes thick, hard, and tough: by this means the diameter of its neck is leflened, and the return of the inteftine back from the ferotum into the belly ren¬ dered more and more difficult, as the parts through which it is to pafs become harder and lefs capable of yielding. This will indeed, in time, prove an ob- ftruflion fufficient to hinder any part of the inteftine, or even of the omentum, from being returned ; but the more the difficulty is, which proceeds from the mere figure and fize of the portion of gut, the greater will be the obftnxftion when added to that ariling from the juft-mentioned caufe. An alteration produced by time, and conftant, tho* gentle preffure, in the form and confiftence or texture of the omentum, is alfo no infrequent caufe why ne- gledled omental ruptures become irreducible. The cellular membrane, in all parts of the body, however loofe and light its natural texture may be, is capable of becoming hard, firm, and compadl, by conftant preffure. Of this there are fo many and fo well known in (lances, that it is quite unneceffary to produce any. The omentum, from its texture, is liable to the fame conftquence. When a portion of it has been fuf¬ fered to remain for a great length of time in the fero¬ tum, without having ever been returned into the belly, it often happens, that although that part of it which is in the lower part of the hernial fac preferves its na¬ tural foft, adipofe, expanfile ftate, yet all that part which paffes through what is called the neck of the fact is, by conftant preffure, formed into a hard, firm, iu- compreffible, carneous kind of body, incapable of be¬ ing expanded, and taking the form of the pafiage in which it is confined, exa&iy filling that paflage, and rendering it impoffiblc to puflt up the loofe part which fills the ferotum. The 8424 S U R C Praftice. The fame reafon for incapacity of reduflion is alfo fometimes met with in ruptures of the inteftinal kind, from an alteration produced on that part of the me- fentery which has been fuffered-to lie quiet for a great length of time in the neck of an old hernial fac. The other impediment to the return of old ruptures, is connexion and adhefion of the parts, either with each other, or with the bag containing them. This is common to both the inteftinal and omental hernia, and is produced by flight inflammations of the parts, which have been permitted to lie long in contaft with each other, or perhaps, in many cafes, from the mere contaft only. Titefe adhefions are more or lefs firm in different cafes; but even the flighteft will almoft always be found an invincible obje&ion to the reduc¬ tion of the adherent parts by the hand only. Many, or perhaps moft, of thefe irreducible rup¬ tures, become fo by mere time and negledf, and might at firft have been returned; but when they are got into this ftate, they are capable of no relief from for¬ gery but the application of a fufpenfory bag, to take off or leffen the inconvenience arifing from the weight of the fcrotum. TTireftions People in this fituation Ihould be particularly care- to people ful not to make any attempts beyond their ftrength, who have nor aim at feats of agility; they fliould take care to ruptures fu^Pen(^ t^ie loaded fcrotum, and to keep it out of the way of all harm from prtffure, bruife, &c. When the tumour is very large, a foft quilted bolfter ftiould be worn at the bottom of the fupenfory to pre¬ vent excoriation, and the fcrotum fliould be frequently waflied for the fame reafon ; a lofsof Ikin in this part, and in fuch circumftances, being fometimes of the ut- moft importance. Thdy ought alfo to be particularly attentive to the office of the inteftinal canal, to fee that they do not, by any irregularity of diet, diforder it, and keep themfelves from being coftive, for reafons too obvious to need relating. By thefe means, and with thefe cautions, many people have paffed their lives far many years free from difeafe or complaint, with very large irreducible ruptures. On the other hand, it is fit that mankind fliould be apprifed, that the quiet inoffenfive ftate of this kind of hernia is by no means to be depended upon ; many things may happen to it, by which it may be fo al¬ tered, as to become hazardous and even fatal: an in¬ flammation of that part of the gut which is down, any obftruftion to the paffage of the aliment or faeces through it, a ftrifture made by the abdominal tendon, either on what has been long down or on a new por¬ tion which may at any time be added to it, are always capable of fo altering the ftate of the cafe, as to put the life of the patient into danger. Indeed the hazard arifing from a ftri&ure made on a piece of inteftine contained in the fac of an old irre¬ ducible hernia, is, in one refpedf, greater than that attending one that has been found at times reducible; fince, from the nature of the cafe, it will hardly ad¬ mit of any attempt toward relief but the operation ; and that, in thefe circumftances, muft neceffariiy be accompanied with additional difficulty. Among the ruptures which have been thought not reducible, and treated as fuch, there have been fome which, upon more judicious and more patient attempts, have been found capable of reduftion. i E R Y. Part III. u When this is fufpedled to be the cafe, the proper Praftice.-|i method is by abfolute reft, in a fupine pofture, for a ^ 1 confiderable length of time, and by great abftinence and Method offp the ufe of evacuants, fo to leffen the fize of the parts attemPtin3p in the hernial fac, as to render them capable of paffing [joenr^“®11 back again into the belly. olThernia, 1 This method has now and then fucceeded, and in fome cafes is worth the trying: but, previous to the attempt, there ftiould be fome circumftances which makes fuccefs probable ; and there fliould alfo be good reafon to believe, that the habit and age of the patient will bear the neceffary confinement and evacuation; otherwife, even though he fliould get rid of his rup¬ ture, he may be much worfted by the experiment. If fuch attempt fucceeds, a trufs fhould be imme¬ diately put on, and worn conftantly without reroif- fion ; for in thefe people, the largenefs of the abdo¬ minal aperture, the thicknefs of the herni'al fac, and the relaxation of the mefentery, make a new defeent always to be apprehended and guarded againft. An omental rupture, which has been folong in the fcrotum as to have become irreducible, is very feldom attended with any bad fymptoms, confidered abftrac- tedly ; but it is conftantly capable of being the occa- fion of an inteftinal hernia and all its confequences ; neither is that all; for the omentum, either fo altered in form and texture, or fo connedted as to be inca¬ pable of reduftion, may by accident inflame, and ei¬ ther become gangrenous or fuppurate, and be the oc- cafion of a great deal of trouble. 4J3 IILUnderthe third divifion, we reckon thoferuptures Of hemi*4: which are reducible, but whofe reduftion is difficult, whoft re- • and which are attended with pain, trouble, and hazard, 1 Difficulty of redu&ion may be owing to feverai lCU ^ caufes. The fize of the piece of omentum, or the in¬ flamed ftate of it; the quantity of inteftine and me¬ fentery, an inflammation of the gut, or its diftention by faeces or wind ; or the fmallnefs of the aperture of the tendon through which the hernia paffts. But to whatever caufe it be owing, if the prolapfed body cannot be immediately replaced, and the patient dif¬ fers pain, or is prevented thereby from going toftool, is is called an incarcerated hernia, a Jlrangulated her* nia, or a hernia 'with Jiritture. Every fymptom which attends an incarcerated rup¬ ture depends onthisftrifture,and is juftly accountable for from it. The tumour, the pain, the tenfion of the belly, the naufea, the vomiting, and the fuppreffion of ftools, are fo many effefts produced by it, and removable only by removing ir. In order to effeft a redu&ion, theM patient fliould be laid in a fupine pofture, with his attempting I trunk certainly as low, if not lower, than his thighs;a rediuftion ; the thigh on the difeafed fide ftiould be fo elevated as of ftrangu- .j to contribute as much as poffible to the relaxation ofla.tec*liet' ■ the abdominal aperture ; and then the furgeon, grafp-nia‘ ing the lower part of the tumour gently with his hand, in fuch a manner as to keep the tefticle from afeend- ing, and the inteftine from defeending, muft endea¬ vour to procure the return of the latter through the ring, as it is vulgarly called, by gentle continued preffure toward that opening. If the cafe be a bubo¬ nocele, there will be no occafion for endeavouring to grafp thejumour, but, by continued moderate preffure on it with the fingers, to endeavour the return of the piece of gut. This Part III, S U R < | Praftke. This may fcrve for a general defcription of the me- - tjjod of performing this operation ; but the exaft man¬ ner of executing it is one of thofe manoeuvres which - can be learnt only by obfervation and practice, and of which no verbal defeription can convey an adequate and perfect idea : knowledge of the ftrufture and fi- tuation of the parts will inftruft any one how to go about it; and a little pra&ice willfoon make himjadroit. 455 The poflure of the body, and the difpofition of the Cf thepo- lower limbs, may be made very afliftant in this opera- boily°f 1 ‘'on when the difficulty is confiderable : the nearer the pofture approaches to what is commonly called hand¬ ing on the head, the better, as it caufes the whole packet of fmall inteftines to hang, as it were, by the ftrangulated portion, and may thereby difengage it. A little time and pains fpent in this manner will fre¬ quently be attended with fuccefs, and obtain a return of the part; but if it fhould not, and the handling of it (which fliould always be gentle) becomes painful and very fatiguing to the patient, we are advifed to deflit a few hours, and try the effedt of other means, viz. phlebotomy, glyfters, &c. But when all thefe have failed, there is then no other refource than in a chirurgical operation : and perhaps there is not in the pradice of furgery a point which requires morejudge- ment, firmnefs, or delicacy, than to determine the precife time beyond which this operation fhould not be deferred, and For a furgeon to conduct himfelf fo as to induce a patient to fubmit to it early enough for his prefervatiou. The time in which a piece of gut will become gangrenous from (tridure, or get into a ftate approaching to that of a gangrene, is extremely un¬ certain, and depends on circumftances which no man can forefee. There have been feveral inftances of rup¬ tures, attended by preffing fymptoms of ftridure, which have been fafely returned by the hand only, at the end of feveral days; or the operation having been performed at the fame diftance of time, the parts have been found found and unhurt: on the other hand, there are many inftances producible, of the inteftine having been with great difficulty replaced, or of its returning of its own accord, from being mortified, or (the operation having been fubmitted to) of its having been found in fuch ftate by the operator at the end of not many hours. 416 The two principal circumftances which have mod Operation contributed to the infrequency of performing this ope- verymnch rat’on> areJ a dread of great hazard from the operation dreaded, itfelf, confidered abftra&edly j and a fear of bringing a difgrace upon it, by having performed it too late. The firft of thefe is vaftly greater than it ought to be, and is moft. frequently the caufe of the latter : fo that if the one can juftly be leffened, the other will not be fo likely to happen. 4?7 Mr Pott is of opinion, that the operation ought Of the time always to be performed as foon as poffible, after when it jt appears that all rational attempts, by large and performed ^ree Weedinp> lfie warm bath, glyfters, &c. are ' found to be ineffeftual, or that the fymptoms rather increafe than decreafe while fuch means are made ufe of, and that the handling needfary for reduftion be¬ comes more and more painful : for if it be delayed until the inflammation has attained a certain height, though the parts, upon being laid open, are not found Von. X. > E R Y. 8425 quite gangrenous, that is no proof that the want of PraQue. fuccefs muft be-fet to the account of the operation 1 merely. That ftate of inflammation, either of the in¬ teftine or of the hernial fac, which is juft not gangre¬ nous, is no ftate of fafety, nor are we fure that remo¬ ving the ftri£ture will at this time appeafe the fymp¬ toms or abate the hazard ; far from it: fuch an alte¬ ration may have already been made in the inteftine ♦hat a mortification will enfue, though it be fet free and returned into the belly. A ligature need not be continued around any part of a living animal, until it becomes quite gangrenous, in order to produce its de- ftrudion ; there is a certain point of time in which the circulation is fo prevented, that the fame event will follow, though the ligature be then removed. It is indeed a nice, and no very eafy matter, to find this precife time; but this difficulty and uncertainty are the ftrongeft reafons for anticipating rather than wait¬ ing for it: for when, in the prefent cafe, fuch time arrives, or is nearly arrived, the dfle of the operation becomes complicated with that arifing from the difea. fed ftate of the parts within } and the chance of fuc¬ cefs is thereby much lefiened. When the operation ftiall be thoughtneceflary, the 458 manner of performing it is as follows. Manner of The pubes and groin having been clean fhaved, Perform‘n2 the patient muft be laid on his back on a table of con¬ venient height, with his legs hanging cafily over the end of it ; then with a (Iraight diffeding knife an in- cifion muft be made through the flcin and membrana adipofa, beginning juft above the place where the in- teftine paffes out from the belly, and continuing it quite down to the lower part of the ferotum. Upon dividing the adrpofe membrane, there generally appear a few fmall diftiiid tendinous kind of bands, which lie clofe upon the hernial fac, which muft be divided alfo as well as the fac: the fame knife with which the in- cifion through the flein was made will execute this; which fhould be done with a fteady hand and great caution, it being of very different degrees of thick- nefs in different cafes. In the bubonocele, or that which is confined to the groin, the fac is moft fre¬ quently thin, confequently more eafily divided, and requires greater attention in the operator. In the of- cheofcele, or fcrotal hernia, if it be recent, the fac is ufually thin alfo ; if ancient, it is fometimes of con¬ fiderable thicknefs : but whatever be the ftate of it, if the operator has any doubt, let him, as foon as he has made a fmall punfture in what appears to him to be the hernial fac, endeavour to introduce a probe into it: this will give him the neceffary fatisfa&ion ; for if he has not pierced the fac, the probe will be flopped by the cells of the common membrane ; and if he has, it will pafs in without any obftrudtion. The place to make the incifion in the hernial fac is about an inch and half below the ftridlure ; and the opening need not be larger than juft to admit the end of the opera¬ tor’s fore-finger ; which, confidering the great dilata- bility of thefe membrane?, will be a very fmall one. The fore-ringer introduced into this aperture is the heft of all diredftors 5 and upon that a narrow-bladed curved knife, with a bold probe point, will be the only inftrument neceffary to finifh the operation. With this knife on the finger (the point of the former being 42 F always 8426 S U R ( Prattice. always fhort of the extremity of the latter) the fac mull be divided quite up to the opening in the ten¬ don, and down to the bottom of the fcrotum. ' Upon the firft divifion of the fac, a fluid gene¬ rally rulhes out ; which fluid is different in quantity, colour, and confidence, according to the date, fize, and fome other circumftances attending the rupture. This fluid has fometimes been mentioned as a de¬ fence againfl an accident from the knife in the firfl; di¬ vifion of the hernial fac, as if it kept the inteftine at fuch a diftance as thereby to leffen the hazard of its being wounded: but this is a very fallacious circum- ftance, and never to be trufled : the fecurity of this operation depends entirely on a competent knowledge of the parts, a fteady hand, and an attentive eye. Different operators, efpecially among the French, have propofed a number of different inftruments for the fafe performance of this incifion ; as*the biftouri cachee, the biftouri herniare, the winged director, the blunt fcifiars, &c. &c. all which are calculated for the defence and prefervation of the inteftine in the di¬ vifion of the fac and tendon : but whoever will make ufe of the two knives juft mentioned, will find, that he will never ftand in need of any other inftrument, and that he will with them be able to perform the operation with more eafe to himfelf, with lefs hazard to his patient, and with more (a) apparent dexterity, than with any other whatever. “The fac being laid open, the inteftine generally pufhes out immedialy (unlefs it is confined by being enveloped in the omentum), and appears to be much more in quantity than it feemed to be while it was 459 confined within the fcrotum. Of dividing This is the time to try whether, by gently draw- ihe tendon. Jjjg 0„t a little more of the gut, it's bulk cannot be fo reduced as to enable the furgeon to return it back into the belly without dividing the tendon. In the cafe of the protrufion of a very fmall piece of inteftine, it has been found prafticable ; the difficulty of returning a large portion arifing principally from the quantity of mefentery engaged in the ftridure: and indeed, tho* it may now and then happen that a fmall piece of gut may be returnable without a divifion of the ten¬ don, yet if it cannot be very eafily accomplifhed, it had better not be attempted, fince, in the ftate in which this part muft necefiarily be, to require the operation thus far, any degree of force ufed to it will moft probably be more prejudicial and hazardous than the reft of it, if performed properly with a knife. An attention to the natural ftru&ure, figure, and dire&ion of the parts, will give us the bed informa- x E R Y. Partlll. tion how to make the divifion of the ftridure to the Pradtice. beft purpofe and with the lead hazard. The tendon of the obliquus defeendens mufele runs in an oblique dirt&ion from above downward ; and the natural opening which is always found in it, and through which the hernia pafles, is made by a kind of reparation of the fibres from each other : the direc¬ tion of this opening is the fame as that of the tendon, that is, obliquely downward from the os ilion to the os pubis : the knife, therefore, Jhould be fo managed, as rather to continue this reparation than to make any tranfverfe feflion : its edge ftiould be applied to the fuperior and pofterior part of the oval, and carried upward and obliquely backward, until a fufficient opening is made to fervethe purpofe. By this means, the fibres of the tendon will be rather feparated from each other than cut ; and, in all probability, the rHk arifing from the incifion will be leflened. 4(fo It is generally advifed to make the divifion of the Of the fize ftri&ure free and large, as well to admit the eafy re-of 1,16 inc** turn of the parts, as to prevent the inconvenience^1011, which it is fuppofed will be more likely to attend a fmall wound in a tendinous body than a large one. The firft intention, the eafy return of the inteftine, fhould certainly be fulfilled ; and therefore the inci¬ fion ought always to be large enough for that pur¬ pofe, and to afford an opportunity of paffing the end of the finger round on the infide in cafe of any adhe- fion : but as too large an opening may be attended with very ill confequence, it ought alfo to be guarded | againft. In the majority of cafes, a fmall incifion will be found fufficient for the purpofe of redu&ion ; and where the parts are free from adhefion, and the fafe return of them is the only objeft of attention, a fmall divifion, made in the manner already diredled, is not liable to any more pain or trouble than a large one, and may therefore be fafely trufted. 46r The fac and ftri£!ure being laid open and divi-QDhe ftate ded, the contained parts come into view; and, ac-^^J1** cording to the different circumftances of the rupturete cs* and of the patient, will be found in different ftates, and require different treatment. Thefe ftates are reducible to three general heads: that is, the contained parts will be found either in a found, healthy, loofe, unconne&ed ftate, and fit for immediate redu&ion ; or in a found ftate, but, from fome particular circumftances, incapable of being im¬ mediately replaced ; or in an unfound difeafed ftate, and requiring to be treated accordingly. If the rupture confifts of a piece of inteftine only, and that neither mortified nor adherent, the fooner it is (a) They who are not accuftomed to perform operations of fuch confequence as this is, are apt, from timidity, to be too fparing in making their external incifion ; by which means, they add confiderably to their own embarraff- rnent, and to the fatigue of the patient. A free divifion of the hernial fac and fcrotum downwards, gives room for the more eafy admififion of the finger into the ftridure in order to divide it, and affords an opportunity of handling the inteftine or omentum more gently as well as more properly in order to return them into the belly; both which neceffary parts of the operation are much impeded by a fmall ineifion. As therefore no poffible advantage can arife from a fmall wound, but on the contrary it may be attended with great inconvenience both to the patient and furgeon, Mr Pott advifes, when fuch an opening is made in the hernial fac, as will admit the operator’s fore-finger, and upon it his knife, that he immediately? divide the fac and fcrotum down to the bottom. It is true, that, upon fuch divifion, the quantity of inteftine will feem to to be iricreafed; and an ignorant byftander may be alarmed at this fallacious appearance, which is produced merely by the confined compreffed gut being fet free, and not by the addition of any more. The advantage which will ariie to the operator, and confequently to the patient, from fuch divifion, is real and great; it will enable the former to finifti his work with freedom, and fpare the litter a great deal of pain^ Part III. S U R Praflice. is returner!, the better; and the more gently it is handled ■ "'for redu.ftion, the betteralfo. If the intdtine be accompanied with a portion of omentum, the latter (if in a proper ftate) Ihould be . returned firft. In returning the inteftin?, care fhould be taken to endeavour to put in that part firft which came out laft, otherwife the gut will be doubled on itfelf, and the difficulty and trouble be thereby much increafed ; and in making the reduction, the fingers ffiould be applied to that part of theinteftine which is conne&ed with the mefentery, rather than its convex parr, as it will both ferve the purpofe better, and be lefs likely to do mifehief. While the reduftion is making, the leg and thigh on the ruptured fide Ihould be kept elevated ; as fuch pofition of the limb will much facilitate the return of the parts. - Long confinement in the ferotum will in fome people produce flight adhefions by (lender filaments, which are generally very eafily feparated by the finger, or divided by a knife or feiffars, whether the adhefions be of the parts of the inteftine inter fe, or to the her¬ nial fac. If the adhefion be of the former kind, and fuch as proves very difficult to feparate, it will be bet¬ ter to return the gut into the belly as it is, than to run the rifle of producing an inflammation by ufing force : if it be of the latter, that is, if the connexion be with the fac, there can be no hazard in wounding that; and therefore it may be made free with. Sect. X. Of the Fiftula in Ano. The fijiula in ano is an abfeefs running upon or into the intettiflum redlum. If the furgeon have the firft management of the abfeefs, and there appear an external inflammation upon the one fide of the buttock only ; after having waited for the proper maturity, let him with a knife make an incifion the whole Itngth of it ; and in all probability, even though the bladder be affeffed, the largenefs of the wound, and the proper application of doffils lightly prefled in, will prevent the putrefaftion of the inteftine, and make the cavity fill up like im- pofthumations of other parts.—If the finus be con¬ tinued to the other buttock, almoft furrounding the inteftine, the whole courfe of it muft be dilated in like manner ; fince, in fuch fpongy cavities, a generation of flcfli cannot be procured but by large openings ; whence alfo, if the fkin is very thin, lying loofe and flabby over the Gnus, it is abfolutely necefiary to cut it quite away, or the patient will be apt to fink under the difeharge, which is fometimes exceffive. Here we have confidered the impoftbumation as pofleffing a great part of the buttock; but it more fre¬ quently happens, that the matter points with a fmall extent of inflammation on the fkin, and the diredtion of the finus is even with the gut: in this cafe, having made a pundture, you may with a probe learn if it has penetrated into the inteftine, by preffing your fin¬ ger up it, and feeling the probe introduced through the wound into its cavity ; though, for the moft part, it may be known by a difeharge of matter from the anus. When this is the ftate of the fiftula, there is no hefitation to be made ; but immediately putting one blade of the feiflars up the gut, and the other up the G E R Y. wound, fnip the whole length of it. This procefs is as advifable when the inteftine is not perforated, if' the finus is narrow, and runs upon or very near it; for if the abfeefs be tented, which is the only way of dreffing it while the external orifice is fmall, it will almoft certainly grow callous: fo that the fureft means of cure will be opening the gut, that proper applications may be laid to the bottom of the wound. However, it fhould be well attended to, that fome finufes pretty near the inteftine neither run into nor upon it; in which cafe, they muft be opened, accord¬ ing to the courfe of their penetration. There are abundance of inftances, where the inteftine is fo much ulcerated, as to give free iflue to the matter of the abfeefs by the anus: but there are none where there is not, by the thinnefs and difcoloration of the fkin, or an induration to be perceived through the fkin, fome mark of its dife&ion; which, if dilcovefed, may be opened into with a lancet, and then it becomes the fame cafe as if the matter had fairly pointed. If the finufes into and about the gut are not com¬ plicated with, an induration, and you can follow their courfe, the mere opening with feiflars, or a knife guided on a director, will fometimes fuffice; but it is generally fafer to cut the piece of flefh furrounded by thefe incifions quite away, and, when it is callous, abfolutely neceffary, or the callofities muft be wafted afterwards by efcharotic medicines, which is a tedious and cruel method of cure. When the fiftula is of a long (landing, and we have choice of time for opening it, a dofe of rhubarb the day before thd operation will be very convenient, aa it not only will empty the bowels, but alfo prove an aftringent for a while, and prevent the mifehief of re¬ moving the dreffings in order to go to ftool. It fometimes happens, that the orifices are fo fmall, as not to admit the entrance of the feiflars ; in which cafe, fponge-tents muft be employed for their dila¬ tation. In performing thefe operations on the anus, no in- ftruments are fo handy as the knife and feiflars; almoft all the others which have been invented to facilitate the work are not only difficult to manage, but more painful t5 the patient: however, in thofe inftances where the fiftula is very narrow, and opens into the inteftines juft within the verge of the anus, the fyringotomy may be ufed with advantage ; but where the opening into the gut is high, it cannot be employ¬ ed without giving great pain. The worll fpecies of fiftula is that communicating with the urethra, and fometimes (though the proftate gland) with the bladder itfelf. This generally takes it rife from a former gonorrhoea, and appears* exter¬ nally firft in peerineo: afterwards, increafing more towards the anus, and even fometimes into the groin, it burfts out in various orifices, through the fkin, which foon becomes callous and rotten; and the urine pafling partly through thefe orifices, will often excite as much pain, and of the fame kind, as a (tone in the bladder. This fpecies of fiftula taking its rife from ftridures of the urethra, is only manageable by the bougie: for fo long as the urethra is obftrufted, the cure of the fiftula will be imperfed ; but if the canal be opened by this application, it is amazing what obftinate indura¬ tions and foul finufes will in confequeuce difappear; 42 F a though 8427 Praftice. 8428 S U R G Pra&ice. tliougK tliere are forae fo callous and rotten, as to ' demand the knife and flcilful dreflings, notwithftanding the urethra rtiould be dilated by the ufe of bougies. Sect. XI. Bronchctomy, the Extirpation of the Tonftls, 6r. ^ § 1. Of Bronchotomy. The operation of bronchotomy is an incifion made in the afpera arteria, to make way for the air into the lungs, when refpiration is obftru&ed by any tumour compreffing the larynx, or fome other diforder of the glottis and afpera arteria, without any apparent tumour. The manner of doing it, is by making a longitudi¬ nal incifion through the fl at lead, if all eneyfted tumours with matter not curdled, may, in compliance with cuftom, be called fo : Thefe are more frequent, and grow larger than thofe where the matter is curdled, being often attend¬ ant on fcrophulous indifpofitions, which makes them more difficult of cure. The cyfts of thefe tumours, with the fkin covering them, after a certain period of growth, refifting any further enlargement, do frequently inflame and break : but this opening is not fo advantageous for the cure as extirpation by the knife, which fhould be done in the infancy of the fwelling. When the tumours are no bigger than a fmall golden pippen, they may be dif* fedbed away from under the fkin, by making a ftraight incifion only through it ; but if they exceed this bulk, an oval piece of fkin muft be cut through firft, to make room for the management of the knife and taking away the tumour ; in which cafe, it will be advifable to take off the upper portion of the cyft with the fkin; and then', by the help of a hook, to diffeft away as much of the remainder of it as can be conveniently, which is a lefs painful and more fecure method than deftroying it afterwards with efcharotics. This rule is to be obferved when the cyft runs fo deep amongft the interdicts of the mufcles, as to make it impoffible to remove the whole of it, where, if we cut off a great quantity, the reft ufually comes away in floughs and matter. The ganglion of the tendon is an eneyfted tumour of the meliceris kind, but its fluid is generally like the white of an egg: when it is fmall, it fometimes dif- perfes of itfdf j preffure and fudden blows do alio re¬ move it ; but for the moft part it continues, unlefs it Praftice. be extirpated. It is no uncommon cafe to meet with this fpecies of ganglion running under the ligamentum carpale, and extending itfelf both up the wrift and down to the palm of the hand. The cure of this dif- order cannot be cffe&ed but by an incifion through its whole length and dividing the ligamentum carpale. The dreffing in thefe cafes does not at all differ from the general methods of treating wounds. $ 3. Of the Amputation of the Cancered and Scirrhous Breaf. When a feirrhus has admitted of a long delay before 484 the operation, the patient feems to have a better pro- fpe£ of cure without danger of a relapfe, than when it has increafed very fall, and with acute pain. The feirrhus may be diftinguiftied, by its want of inflammation in the fltin, its fmoothnefs and flipperi- nefs deep in the breaft, and generally by its pricking pain ; which as it is more or lefs, increafes the danger accordingly ; though there are fome few with little or none in the beginning : as the tumour degenerates in¬ to a cancer, which is the worft degree of feirrhus, it becomes unequal and livid, and the vefil-ls growing va- ricous, at laft ulcerates. In extirpating the feirrhus, if it be fmall, a longi¬ tudinal incifion will dilate fufficiently for the opera¬ tion ; but if too large to be differed out in that man¬ ner, an oval piece of fkin muft be cut through firft> the fize of which is to be proportioned to that of the tumour ; for example, if the fwelling is five inches long and three broad, the oval piece of fkin cut away muft be nearly of the fame length, and about an inch and a half in breadth. In taking off the whole breaft, the fkin may be very much preferved, by making the wound of it a great deal lefs than the bafis of the breaft, which muft be carefully cleared away from the peftoral mufcle. This is not difficult to do, becaufe all thefe feirrhufes being enlarged glands, are encom- paffed with their proper membranes, which make them quite diftimft from the neighbouring parts, and eafily feparable : at lead this is the cafe when the tumour is moveable; for Sometimes it adheres to the fubjacent mufcle, and that mufcle to the ribs ; in which circum- ftance, the operation is impra&icable. When it is attended with knots in the arm-pit, no fervice can be done by amputation, unlefs the knots be taken away ; for there is no fort of dependence to be laid on their fubfiding, by the difeharge of the wound of the breaft. The bleeding of the large arteries is to be Hopped by paffing the needle twice through the flefh, almoft round every veffel, and tying upon it, which will ne- ceffarily include it in the ligature. In order to dif- cover the orifices of the veffels, the wound muft be cleaned with a fponge wrung out of warm water. The feirrhous tumours which appear about the lower jaw, are, generally fpeaking, fcrophulous diforders, that diftinguifti themfelves almoft by the circumftance of fixing on the falivary glands. Thefe arc very ftub- born of cure, but not fo bad as the feirrhus, fince they frequently fuppurate, and heal afterwards : if they impofthumate again after healing, it is for want of a good bottom, which may fometimes be procured by deftroying their bad furface with a cauftic. Befides thefe, there is another fpecies of feirrhus in the neck, 42 G 2 that 8436 SURGERY. Part III. JVaftice. that Tucceeds better after extirpation than either of t,he former kind ; this is an enlargement of the lym¬ phatic glands, which run clofe up by the jugular vein, and is diftinguifhable from the cancers of this part, by its moveablenefs, want of pain, the laxnefs of the flcin covering it, the fmall degree of preffure it makes on the cefophagus and trochea, and laftly the good habit of body, as it feldom affedls the conftitution, which cancers here do very early, after their firft appearance. This tumour, from its fituation, requires great exadt- nefs in the cutting off: they fometimes extend up to the chin towards the mouth, and occafion a divifion of the falivary duft in operating, which proves very troublefome to heal ; but, when all other methods have failed, may be cured by a perforation into the mouth, through that part of the cheek where it is wounded, which by a tent or fmall feton may be made fi'tulous ; then, by properly dreffing upon the outfide, the oozing of the faliva that way will be prevented, and the external orifice healed without difficulty. Tne treatment of all thefe wounds may be with dry lint firft, and afterwards as in common wounds. Sect. XIV. Of the Operation for the Empyema, Afcites, and Hydrocele. § l. Of the Empyema. The operation for the empyema implies an artificial opening made into the cavity of the thorax, by which we evacuate any fluid that lies there extravafated, and is become dangerous by its weight and quantity. The fluids defcribed as neceffary to be avoided by this operation, are blood, matter, and water. Of the dif- When blood is the fluid fuppofed to require eva- ferent cafescuation by this method, it is always extravafated in which through fome wound of the veffels of the lungs or lion°foCTin.1110rax ; and being diftharged in great quantities on pyema is ‘he diaphragm, is laid to opprefs refpiration, till let rcquifite. out by fome convenient opening made in the moll de¬ pending part of that cavity, which is the only kind of perforation into the thorax diftinguiflied by the name of the operation for the empyema : But though this opening is univerfally recommended iu the cafe here ftated, yet we meet with few or no examples where it has been praftifed for a mere extravafation ofblood. The fecond circumftance in which this operation takes place, is a rupture of matter from the pleura, mediaftinum, or lungs, into the cavity of the thorax; where accumulating, it at length proves fatal for want of a difeharge. It is true, that the cafe occurs but very feldom where the operation is neceffary; be- caufe, in moft abfeeffes of the thorax; the matter is ufually fpit up as fail as it is generated ; and in the diffeftion of thofe who have died of this fpecies of confumption, we rarely find much extravafated pus In t'la cavity, though a great portion of the lungs be deftroyed. However, there are a few cafes which re¬ quire the operation; and thefe may be dillinguiihed by the following fymptoms. The patient is obliged to lie upon the difeafed fide, or, in cafe there is mat- Ur in both cavities of the thorax, on his back; be- eaufe the mediaftinum can fddom fupport the weight of the incumbent fluid, without fuffering great pain. But this rule is not certain, it fometimes happening that the patient can lie with cafe on that fide where there is no fluid. Another fymptom of extravafated Praftice. matter, is an evident undulation of it, fo that in cer-“ tain motions it may be hard to quafh. For the mofl: part too, upon careful inquiry, an oedema, or at lead: a thickening of fome portion of the intercoftal mufcles, will be difeovered. And laftly, if there be much fluid, it will be attended with a preternatural expan- fion of that fide of the cheft where it lies. When therefore thefe figns appear after a previous pleuritic or pulmonary diforder, and the cafe has been attended with the fymptoms of a fuppuration, it is moft probably owing to a colleftion of matter; though.the patient will alfo labour under a continual low fever, and a par¬ ticular anxiety from the load of fluid. The laft fort of fluid faid to require iffue from this operation is water, which however very feldom colleds in fuch manner as to become the proper fubjeft of the operation : for if the dropfy of the thorax be compli¬ cated with an anafarca, or even afeites, it is certainly improper; and indeed it hardly ever takes place, but where the diftemper is Angle, and takes its rife-from the fame fort of diforders in the lymphatics of the pleura, as the hydrocele does from thofe of the tunica vaginalis. The fymptoms of this dropfy are, a fmall cough without fpitting ; a little flow fever, from the dillurbance of refpiration ; fometimes, too, the water, by a fudden jerk, may be heard to quafh; and gene¬ rally fpeaking, its weight upon the diaphragm and mediaftinum are fo troublefome as to oblige the patient to (loop forward, and to turn upon the affefted fide when he lies down ; for the fame reafon, when there is water in both cavities of the thorax, he is forced to lie on his back. The manner of operating, whether it be for the., ,.r , r v 6 • . • . 1 Method or diicharge or matter or water, is to pitch upon thepcrform- depending part of the thorax, which fome have fup- it. pofed to be between the eighth and ninth ribs, and others between the ninth and tenth, at fuch a di- ftance from the vertebrae that the depth of the flefh may not be an impediment to the perforation. This diftance is determined to be about a hand’s-breadth : and here, with a knife, feiffars, or trocar, we are or¬ dered to make the perforation ; but in doing it there are a great many difficulties. In fat perfons, it is not eafy to count the ribs, and the wound will be very deep, and troublefome to make ; it is hardly polfible to efcape wounding the intercoftal artery, which runs in this place between the ribs. But if the only ad¬ vantage propofed by the fituation of the wound be derived from its dependency, the purpofe of difeharging the fluid will be as well anfwered by an opening be¬ tween the fixth and feventh ribs, half way from the fternutn towards the fpine ; which, by laying ourfelves down, becomes in effeft as depending an orifice as the other in fitting up>; and by an opening made in this manner we avoid all the inconveniences in the other method: for in this part of the thorax there is very little depth of mufcles ; the artery lies con¬ cealed under the rib; and the diaphragm is at a great diftance. The opening is beft made with a knife ;. and ftiould be about an inch long through the Ikin, and half an inch through the fubjacent mufcles: tho’, to make the incifion with lefs rifk of wounding the lungs, it may be advifable to dilate it with the blunt- pointed knife (as is pradtifed in the operation for the Part III. S U R C P raft ice. bubonocele), after having made a fmall punfture with ' "a common knife. The treatment of the wound will be according to the nature of the difcharge. If, after a few days, there appears no drain, you may let the orifice heal up; but if it continues, it may be kept open with a (hort filver canula, until fuch time as an alteration in that circumftance will give us leave to ci¬ catrize with fafety. §2. Of the Paracenteft, or tapping for the Dropfy. This operation is an opening made into the abdo¬ men, in order to empty any quantity of extravafated water, colle&ed in that fpecies of dropfy called the afcites ; but as there is much more difficulty in learn¬ ing when to perform than how to perform it, and in¬ deed in fome inftances requires the nicefl judgment, we fhall endeavour to fpecify the diftindfions which render the undertaking more or lefs proper. OfthVdif- There are but two kinds of dropfy: the anafarca, fcrent kinds ca^e^ 2M0 leucophlegmacy, when the extravafated water of dropfy. fwims in the cells of the membrana adipofa; and the afcites, when the water pofiefTes the cavity of the ab¬ domen. In the firil kind, the water is clear and limpid; but in the fecond, a little grofier, very often gelatinous and corrupted, and fometimes even mixed with fiefhy concretions. The operation of tapping is feldom the cure of the diftemperr but dropfies, which are the confequence of a mere impoverifirment of the blood, are lefs likely to return than thofe which are owing to any previous diforderof the liver; and it is not uncommon for dropfies that follow agues, haemorrhagies, and diarrhoeas, to do well ; whereas in fuch as are complicated with a fcirrhous liver, there is hardly an example of a cure. The water floating in the belly, is, by its flti&ua- tion, to determine whether the operation be advifable; for if, by the laying one hand on any part of the ab¬ domen, you cannot feel an undulation from ftriking on an oppofite part with the other, it is to be pre¬ fumed there will be fome obftacle to the evacuation. It fometimes happens, that a great quantity, or al- moft all the water, is contained in little bladders, ad¬ hering to the liver and the furface of the peritonseum known by the name of hydatids ; and the reft of it in different-fized ones, from the degree of a hydatid, to the fize of a globe holding half a pint or pint of water. This is called the encyfied dropfy, and from the fmallnefs of its cyfts makes the operation ufelefs ; but is not difficult to be difliinguilhed, becaufe there is not a flu&uation of the water, unlefs it is compli¬ cated with an extravafation. When the fluftuation is hardly perceptible, (ex¬ cept the teguments of the abdomen are very much thickened by an anafarca), in all probability the fluid is gelatinous. There is another kind of dropfy, which-for the moft part forbids the operation, and is peculiar to women, being feated in the body of one or both ovaries. There is no example of this fpecies but what may be known by the hardnefs and irregularity of the tu¬ mour of the abdomen, which is nearly uniform in the other cafes. When the ovary is dropfieal, the water is generally depofited in a great number of cells formed in the body of it 3 which circumftance makes the flytftuatron ! E R Y. 8437 infenfible, and the perforation ufelefs: though fome- Pratfke. times there are only one or two cells; in which cafe, ^ if the ovary is greatly magnified, the undulation will beVeadily felt, and the operation be advifable. When the afcites and anafarca are complicated, it is feldom proper to perform the operation, fince the water may be much more effe&ually evacuated by fcarifications in the legs than by tapping. 4gg Upon the fuppofition that nothing forbids the ex- Method o£ tra&ion of the water, the manner of operating is this. taPPing- Having placed the patient in a chair of a convenient height, let him join his hands fo as to £refs upon his ftomach ; then dipping the trocar in oil, you ftab it fuddenly through the teguments, and, withdrawing the perforator, leave the waters to empty by the canula. The abdomen being, when filled, in the cir¬ cumftance of a bladder diltended with a fluid, would make it indifferent where to wound; but the appre- henfion of hurting the liver, if it be much enlarged, has induced operators rather to choofe the left fide, and generally in that part which is about three inches obliquely below the navel. If the navel protuberates, you may make a fmall pun&ure with a lancet through the fkin, and the waters will be readly voided by that orifice, without any danger of a hernia fucceeding: but it fiiould be carefully attended to whether the protuberance is formed by the water or rupture ; in which latter cafe, the inteftine would be wounded, and not without the]greateft danger. The furgeon, neither in opening with the lancet, nor perforating with the torcar, need fear injuring the inteftines, un¬ lefs there is but little water in the abdomen, fince they are too much confined by the mefentery to come with¬ in reach of danger from thefe inftruments; but it fometimes happens, that when the .water is almoft all emptied, it is fuddenly flopped by the inteftine or omentum preffing againft the end of the canula ; in which cafe you may pufh them away with a probe^ During the evacuation, your affiftants muft keep pref¬ fing on each fide of the abdomen, with a force equal to that of the waters before contained there: for, by negle&ing this rule, the patient will be apt to fall into faintings, from the weight on the great veffels of the abdomen being taken off, and the finking of the diaphragm fucceeding ; in confequence of which, more blood flowing into the inferior veffels than ufual,. leaves the fuperior ones of a fndden too empty, and thus interrupts the regular progrefs of the circulation. To obviate this inconvenience, the, compreffibn muft not only be made with the hands during the opera¬ tion ; but be afterwards continued, by fwathing the abdomen with a roller of flannel, about eight yards long and five inches broad, beginning at the bottom- of the belly, fo that the inteftines may be borne up againft the diaphragm : you may change the roller every day till the third or fourth day, by which time the feveral parts will have acquired their due tone. For the drcffing, a piece of dry lint and plafter fuffice ;. but between the fltin and roller it may be proper to lay a double flannel a foot fquare, dipt in brandy or fpirit of wine. This operation, though it does not often abfolutely cure, yet it fometimes preferves life a great many years, and even.a comfortable one, efpecially if the waters fiave been long colle&ed. $ 3- ^ 8438 439 _ § Of the Hydrocele. The term hydrocele, if ufed in a literal fenfe, means any tumour produced by water ; but furgeons have al¬ ways confined it to thofe which poflefs either the mem¬ branes of the ferotum, or the coats of the tefticle and its veflels. The firft of thefe, viz. that which has its feat in the membranes of the ferotum, is common to the whole bag, and to all the cellular fubftance which loofely envelopes both the teftes. It is, ftri&ly fpeaking, only a fymptom of a difeafe, in which the whole habit is moft frequently more or lefs concerned, and very feldom affefts this part only. The latter, or thofe which occupy the coats immediately invefting the te- flicle and its veifels, are abfolutely local, very fcldona affeft the common membrane of the ferotum, gene¬ rally attack one fide only, and are frequently found in perfons who are perfectly free from all other com¬ plaints. Notwithftanding the obvious and material difference between the two kinds of difeafe, they have by the majority of writers been confounded together ; have U R G E R Y. Partin. tunica vaginalis (the true and real feats of one or other Praflice. of thefe diforders), have been enumerated, but feve- ral imaginary ones have been added ; firm compadl membranes have been fplit into lamellx, and cyfts and coats have been devifed which never had a real cxift- Different kinds of hydrqcele _ _ confounded been confidered as fpringing from the fame immediate chimb'!’'? ^ource> an^ as requiring the fame kind of treatment ; v-'liters.'03 although the one is plainly and evidently a mere fymp¬ tom or attendant on a general diforder, and the others are ftridly and abfolutely local complaints. This one fundamental error has been the occafion of many others. The fnppofition, that all cblle&ions found in the mem¬ branes and coats of the ferotum and tellicles are of the fame general kind, has produced an infinite variety of wild conje&ures concerning the particular aud im¬ mediate nature and origin of them. By fome they have been attributed to a particular indifpofition of the liver, kidneys, or fpleen ; by others, to a natural and nectfiary conneftion between the fpermatic veflels and thofe of the kidney : by many the fluid has been thought to be of the urinary kind, or at leaf! that it ought to have palled through the kidney ; but that. If all this were matter of mere fpeculation, and pro¬ duced no mifehief in praftice, it would be of no im¬ portance ; but in matters of phyfic and furgery this feldom or never happens : erroneous ide^s of the na¬ ture, origin, and teats ofdifeafes, moft commonly are followed by improper methods of treating them. In the prefent cafe, the abfurdity of the conje&ures con¬ cerning thefe circumftances in the diforder, is fully equalled by the methods of cure which have been pro- pofed and praftiftd. Upon a fuppofition that the extravafation of fluid improper was the confequence of a dropfical habit, ftrong pur-direftiores ges and powerfully diuretic medicines have been pre-*orthe feribed ; aftual cauteries have been ufed, and ligatureacure‘ and incifions made, both on the fpermatic veffels and in the groin, to hinder the defeent of the water from the cavity of the belly ; aftringent liquors and ardent fpirits have been injeded, with a view to clofing or foldering broken lymphatics ; tedious and painful ope¬ rations have been pradifed for the eradication of ima¬ ginary cyfts; diredions have been given to evacuate the water at different times, left the patient’s ftrength Ihould fail or his health fuffer, by its being done too fuddenly ; and the tefticles being fuppofed to be fre¬ quently fpoiled by long lying in the water, caftration has often been performed in the Ample hydrocele. 4pI The ferotum is the common receptacle of both the Of the wa- tefticles, and confifts of the cuticula, cutis, and what tery all the anatomifts have now agreed to call the dartos tt!« which is a loofe cellular membrane, perfedlly void Q£^crotuin* fat, and whofe cells or cavities communicate with each other, with the utmoft freedom through every part. As this membrane has no immediate communication with the cavity of the abdomen within the peritoneum, miftaking its right way, it gets into the membranes of it is plain, that whatever kind or quantity of fluid may the ferotum and tefticles : while others have affirmed, “ ’* L ’ “ ’ r ' ' ' ’ that all complaints of this kind are really fymptoms of a dropfical habit; that the fluid comes from the ca¬ vity of the belly, and either pafles through the peri¬ tonaeum, or extends that membrane down into the fero- Many cautions have been laid down againft at¬ tempting the cure of one fpecies of this difeafe hallily, or without a previous courfe of medicine, upon a fup- pofition that the defluxion is of a noxious nature, and that by falling on this part it frees the conftitution from feveral other diftempers. It has been deferibed as frequently producing a corrupted or otherwife dif- eafed tefticle ; as being nearly allied in nature to thofe tumours which are called eneyfted, whofe tunics are formed out of the common membrane by mere pref- fure ; and as being generally accompanied with a tine hernia, or defeent of the inteftine or omentum ; which lall (fuppofed) circumftance has been gravely urged as a reafon for not attempting a radical cure. The fame wanton liberty has been taken in affigning dif- be depofited in it, it cannot be derived from the faid cavity, even though the patient fliould labour under a true afeites : but as its cells have a free intercourfe with thofe of the general cellular membrane all over the body, they will be liable to be aflefled by all thofe diforders which have their feat in that mem¬ brane ; that is, by all diforders proceeding from a low impoverifhed ftatc of blood, from a deficiency of the urinary fecretion, or from non execution of the office of the abforbent veffels ; and confequently, in anafarcous and leucophlegmatic habits, will become the feat of a watery extravafation. This watery fwelling of the ferotum, although it is moft; frequently a fymptom of a dropfical habit, and very often accompanies both the general anafarca and the particular colle&ion within the abdomen called the afeites ; yet, even in the latter cafe, neither is or can be derived from the cavity of belly, but is confi¬ ned to the tela cellulofa, which lies on the outfide of the peritoneum: the water derived from hence di- ferent feats to thefe diforders, as in accounting for fiends the ferotum in the fame manner, and for the their origin : every part which invefts or accompanies fame reafons, that it often does the legs and feet. ' ~‘:les, not only the tu- The cells of the dartos being larger and abfolutely and the cavity of the void of fat; and the Ikin which covers them being ex¬ tremely the fpermatic veffels or the tefticles, not only the tu- 3 communis of the procefs, Part in. S U It G Practice, tremely dilatable, and giving way for a larger influx ' into this part than into moft others, has indeed occa- fioned its being taken notice of as a particular difeafe, though it is moft properly a fymptom only. This being the cafe, and the true method of cure confiding in an internal medical procefs, it has been improperly ranked among the fpecies of hydrocele ; though the nature of the contents will certainly admit the ule of the word. Deftription *8 an eclual tumour, poffefilng every part of ofthe wa- the cellular membrane in which both the tefticles are tery fwell- enveloped, and confequently is generally as large on ing of the one f1(je as on ^5 other: it leaves the flein of its natu- ■iotum. ra] colour j 0r, to fpeak more properly, it does not redden or inflame it: if the quantity of water be not large, nor the diftention great, the flein preferves fome degree of rugofity, the tumour has a doughy kind of feel, and eafily receives and fora while retains the impref- fion of the fingers ; the raphe or feam of the ferotum divides the fvvelling nearly equally ; the fpermatic pro¬ cefs is perfeflly free, and of its natural fize ; and the tefticles feem to be in the middle of the loaded mem¬ brane. This is the appearance when the difeafe is in a moderate degree ; but if the quantity of extravafa- ted ferum be large, or the difeafe farther advanced, the flein, inftead of being wrinkled,, is fmooth, tenfe, and plainly (hows the limpid ftate of the fluid under¬ neath : it is cold to the touch, does not fo long re¬ tain the impreffion of the finger, and is always accom¬ panied with a fimilar diftention of the flein of the pe¬ nis; the preputium of which is fometimes fo enlarged, and fo twifted and diftovted, as to make a very difa- greeable appearance. Thefe are the local fymptoms; to which it may be added, that a yellow co”.ntenance, a lofs of appetite, a deficiency of urinary fecretion, fwclled legs, a hard belly, and mucous ftools, are its very frequent companions. The cure of the original difeafe comes within the province of the phyfician, and requires a courfe of in¬ ternal medicine : but fometimes the loaded ferotum and penis are fo troublefome to the patient, and in fucli danger of mortification, that a redudlion of their fize becomes abfolutely neceflary ; and at other times a derivation or difeharge of the redundant extravafated ferum from this part is ordered as an afliftant to the internal regimen. The chirurgical means in ufe 'for this end is called in general fcarification i. a term whofe precife fenfe has by no means been fettled; from which it has now and then happened, that a general order being given, and the particular method of executing it being left to the choice of thofe who have not been fufficiently acquainted with this kind of bufinefs, much hazard has been incurred, and confiderable mifehief done which might have been avoided. The means of making this difeharge are two, viz. punfture and inctfion the former is made with the point of a lancet; the latter with the fame inftrument, or with a knife. The generality of writers on this fubjeft have fpo- ken of the two methods in fuch a manner, that a practitioner who had feen but little of either, would be inclioed to think that it was a matter of great in¬ difference which we ftiould make ufe of, and that the E R Y. !?439 fafety and utility of each were equal: which is by Practice, no means the cafe. The intention of the ufe of either is, Jby a difeharge of extravafated fefum, to alleviate the prefent uneafi- nefs ; and, by reducing the fize of the ferotum, to render it lefs troublefome, and lefs likely to mortify. In fome few inftances it has indeed happened, that this drain has proved a radical cure of the original difeafe; but that has been accidental, and is not in general to be expefted. The intention is generally palliatffre ; and, if the patient lives, is moft likely to require repe¬ tition : therefore, if there be any difference between the two methods, with regard either to eafe or fafety,. there can be no doubt which ought to be preferred. All wounds of membranous parts in anafarcous or dropfical habits, are neceffarily both painful and ha¬ zardous ; they are apt to inflame, are very difficultly brought to fuppuration, and will often prove gangre¬ nous in fpite of all endeavours to the contrary. But the larger and deeper the wounds are, the more pro¬ bable are thefe bad confequences. Simple punflures with the point of a lancet are much lefa liable to be attended by them than any other kind of wound ; they generally leave the Ikin eafy, foft, cool, uninflamed,, and in a ftate to admit a repetition of the fame opera¬ tion if neceffary. Incifions create a painful, crude, hazardous fore, requiring conftant care. Pun&urts feidom produce any uneafinefs at all, and ftand in need of only a fuperficial pledgit for dreffing. Now although there is fo very material a difference in the fymptoms and trouble attending the two me¬ thods, yet there is none in their effedt : the commu¬ nication of the cells of the dartos with each other is fo ■ free through every part of it, that pundlures made. with the fine point of a bleeding lancet into the moft: fuperficial of them, will as certainly and as freely drain : off all the water as a large incifion, without any of its inconveniences or its hazard. Another fpecies of hydrocele affe&s the cells of theHydiocchr- tunica communis. of 'he cel^s When the difeafe is fimple, it is perfectly local ; °fcla^Q that is, it is confined entirely to the membrane form-mun;y> ing the tunica communis, and does not at all affcdl either the dartos,. the tunica vaginalis teftis, or any other part.. It is a complaint which does not give a great deal of trouble, unlefs it arrives to a confiderable fize ; and . being by no means fo frequent as either of the other two kinds of hydrocele, it is in general but little known or attended to- With fome it pafl’es for a varix of the fpermaticcord; with others, for the defeentof a portion of omentum, which having, contrafttd . an adhefion cannot be returned. Thus its true nature not being in general rightly underftood, and it giving but little trouble or uneafioefs while it is within moderate bounds, . and neither hindering any neceffary action or faculty, they who have it are moft frequently advifed to be contented With a fufpenfory bandage, and find very little inconvenience from it. Sometimes it arifes to fo large a fize, and gets into^ fuch a ftate, as to become an objedt of forgery,,and to require our very ferious attention. In general, while it is of moderate fize, the ftate of.- it is. as follows. The fcrotal bag is free from all ap«. pearance 8440 SURGERY. Part III. I’radVice. pearance of difeafe, except that when tl>e flcin is not corrugated it feeras rather fuller, and hangs rather lower on that fide than on the other, and, if fufpended lightly on the palm of the hand, feels heavier : the tef- ticle, with its epididymis, is to be felt perfedtly diftindl below this fulnefs, neither enlarged, nor in any manner altered from its natural ftate : the fpermatic procefs is coniiderably larger than it ought to be; and feels like a varix or like an omental hernia, according to the different fize of the tumour: it has a pyramidal kind of forth, broader at the bottom than at the top : by gentle and continued preffure, it feems gradually to re¬ cede or go up, but drops down again immediately up¬ on removing the preffure, and that as freely in a fu- ' pine as in an ereft pofture : it is attended with a very fmatl degree of pain or uneafinefs; which uneafinefs is not felt in the fcroium where the tumefadlion is, but in the loins. If the extravafation be confined to what is called fpermatic procefs> the opening in the tendon of the abdominal mufcle is not at all dilated, and the procefs palling through it may be very diftindlly felt; but if the cellular membrane which invefts the fpermatic vef- fels within the abdomen be affe&ed, the tendinous aper¬ ture is enlarged, and the increafed fize of the diftend- ed- membrane paffing through it produces to the touch a fcnfation not very unlike that of an omental rupture. While it is fmall, it is hardly an obpdl of furgery ; the pain or inconvenience which it produces being fo little, that few people would choofe to fubmit to an operation to get rid of it, and it is very feldom radi¬ cally curable without one : but when it is large, or affefls the membrane within the cavity as well as with¬ out, it becomes an apparent deformity, is very incon¬ venient both from its fize and weight, and the only method of cure which it admits is far from being void of hazard ; as mud appear to every one who will con- hder, or who is at all acquainted either with the na¬ ture of lymphatic extravafation or abforption, or with the frequent confequences of wounds inflicted on parts merely membranousj The encyfied hydrocele of the tunica communis has its feat in the fame part as the preceding, viz. the tu¬ nica communis or cellular membrane, which invtfts the fpermatic vefftls ; with this difference, that in the former the water is diffufed in general through all the cells of the membrane, whereas in this it is contained in one cavity only. It is a complaint by no means unfrequent, efpecially in children. It was very well known to many of the ancients, and has been very accurately defcribed by fome of them; but later writers have often miftaken it for and reprefented it as a wind-rupture, or pneu¬ matocele, a difeafe exifting in their imaginations only. Jt moft frequently pofTeffes the middle part of the pro- cefs, between the tellicle and groin, and is generally -of an oblong figure ; whence it has by fome people been compared to an egg, by others to a fifh’s blad- d. r. Whether it be large or fmall, it is generally pretty t nfe, and confequently the fludluation of the water ‘within it not always immediately or eafily perceptible; for which reafon it has been fuppofed to con'.ain air only. It gives no pain, nor (unlcfs it be very large ■indeed) does it hinder any neceffary a&ion. It is perfeftly circumfcribed, and has no conirfaunication Praftic*. either with the cavity of the belly above, or that of the vaginal coat of the tefticle belowit. The teftis and its epididymis are perfeftly and diftin&ly to be felt below the tumour, and are abfolutely independent of it. The upper part of the fpermatic procefs in the groin is moll frequently very diftinguifhable. The fwelling docs not retain the impreflion of the fingers ; and when lightly ftruck upon, founds as if it contain¬ ed wind only. It undergoes no alteration from change of the patient’s pollure, nor is affeded by his cough¬ ing, fneezing, &c. and has no effe&on the difchargeper anum. Infants are much more fubjeft to this difeafe than •adults, though it often affedls the latter. In young children it frequently diflipates in a fhort time ; efpe¬ cially if affitled by warm fomentation, and an open belly. If it does not difperfe, that is,' if it be not abforbed, the point of a lancet will give difcharge to the water, and in young children will moft frequently produce a cure. In adults, the cyft formed by the prefliire of the fluid does fometimes become fo thick as to require divifion through its whole length ; which operation may in general be performed with great eafe and perfedl fafety : though even this may prove trouble- fome, hazardous, and fatal; of fuch confequence are wounds in membranous parts in fome particular habits. The third fpecies of this difeafe is that which is Hydtocele confined to the vaginal coat or bag which loofely en-of thevagi* velopes the tefticle. In a natural healthy ftate, the"^003^ cavity of this bag always contains a fmall quantity of a fine fluid exhaled from the capillary arteries, and conftantly abforbed by vtflels appointed for that pur- pofe. Xhis fluid in the natural fmall quantity ferves to keep the tunica albuginea moift, and to prevent a -cohetion between it and the vaginalis ; a confequence which almoft neceflorily follows any fuch difeafed flats •of thefe parts as prevents the due fecretion of it. On the contrary, if the quantity depofited be too large, or if the regular abforption of it be by any means pre¬ vented, it will be gradually accumulated, and, by di- ftending the containing bag, will form the difeafe in queftion. The two preceding fpecies of hydrocele have their feat in the tunica communis of the fpermatic vefltls, that is, in the cellular membrane which invefts them ; one by a general diffufion of lymph through all its cells, the other by a colle&ion of it in one particular cyft or bag : that which makes our prefent fubjed has no concern ot* connexion with that membrane at all, but is abfolutely confined to the tunica vaginalis teftis. It is a difeafe from which no time of life is exempt; not only adults are fubjedi to it, but young children are frequently afflidled with it, and infants fometimes born with it. From ail the circumftances attending the complaint, it is pretty clear, that whatever tends to increafe the fecretion of the fluid into the facctilus beyond the due and neceffary quantity, or to prevent its being taken up and carried off by the proper abforbent veffels, mull contribute to its produ&ion ; which is fo flow and gradual, and at the fame time fo void of prin, that the patient feldom attends to it until it has arrived to fome fize. Not but that it fometiraes is produced very Partin. sun Practice, fudderiv, and in A V€ry Hiort fpacc of time attains "confiderable magnitude. The uze and figure of the tumour are various in dilTerent people, and under different circumftances. In general, at its firft beginning, it is rather round ; but ns it iucreafes it frequently affumes a pyriform kind of figure, with its larger extremity downward : fometimes it is hard, and alinoll incomprefiible, fo much fo, that in fome few infianOes it has been miftaken for an in¬ duration of the tefticle ; at other times it is fo foft and lax, that both the tefticle and the fluid furrounding it, are eafily difcoverable. It is perfeflly indolent in it- felf, though its weight does fometimes produce fome fmall degree of uneafinefs in the back. The great chara&eriflic (as it is called) of this difeafe, and on which almoft all writers have agreed to lay the greateft flrefs, and to reft their proof of the nature of the dif- order, viz. the tranfparency of the tumour, is the moft fallible and uncertain fign belonging to it; it is a cir- cumftance which does not depend upon the quantity, colour, or confiftence of the fluid conftituting the dif¬ eafe, fo much as on the uncertain thicknefs orthinnefs of the containing bag, and of the common membranes of the fcrotum. If they are thin, the fluid limpid, and the accumu¬ lation made fo quick as not to give the tunica vaginalis time to thicken much, the rays of light may fometimes be feen to pafs through the tumour ; but this is acci¬ dental, and by no means to be depended upon. Who¬ ever would be acquainted with this diforder muft learn to diftinguifli it by other, and thofe more certain, marks, or he will be apt to fall into very difgraceful as well as pernicious blunders. The colour of the fluid is very different and uncertain i fometimes it is of a paleyellow, or ftraw-colour; fometimes it is inclined to a greenifli call ; fometimes it is dark, turbid, and bloody; and fometimes it is perfectly thin and limpid. Different methods of cure (as they are called) in this methods offpecies of hydrocele, though various, are reducible to cure in the two, viz. the palliative, or that which pretends only hydrocele, t0 re]ieve the difeafe in prefect, by difeharging the fluid ; and the radical, or that which aims at a perfeft cure without leaving a poflibility of relapfe. The end of the former is accompliflied by merely opening the containing bag in fuch a manner as to let out the wa¬ ter ; that of the latter cannot be obtained unlefs the cavity of that bag be aboliflied, and no receptacle for a future accumulation left. One may be pradlifed at all times of the patient’s life, and in almoft any ftate of health and habit; the other lies under fome re- ftraintsand prohibitions, arifing from the circumflances of age, conftitution, ftate of the parts, &c. 49roPer ftill do, that the tefticle hangs loofe in the middle °f[^perfora- the water within the vaginal coat, muft alfo fuppofe tion. that every part of the general tumour is equally fit and proper for this operation. The idea is erroneous, and the experiment may prove highly mifehievous. All the anterior and lateral parts of the vaginal coat are lode and detached from the albuginea; in its po- fterior and fuperior part thefe two tunics make one ; confequently the tefticle is, as it were, affixed to the pofterior and fuperior part of the cavity of the fac of an hydrocele, and confequently the water or fluid can never get quite round it. This being the ftate of the cafe, the operation ought always to be performed on that part of the tumour where the two coats are at the greateft diftance from each other, and where the fluid muft, therefore, be accumulated in the largeft quantity ; and never on that part of it where the fluid cannot poffibly be. The confequence of adding oihgr- wife muft not only produce a difappoiutment by not reaching the faid fluid, but may prove, and has proved, highly and even fatally mifehievous to the patient. 4J|8 It was a cuftom formerly, after performing this ope- Of the ap» ration, to make ufe of fomentations and difeutient plications applications, upon a fuppolition that by fuch means a return of the difeafe might be prevented. Among the ter the 0pe. old writers are to be found the forms of medicines to ration is be applied to the groin and ferotura, to prevent a fu-performed, ture defeent of the fluid ; but anatomy and experience have proved the falfehood of fuch fuppofition, and the abfurdity of fuch applications : the prefent pradti- tioners content themfelves with a bit of lint and a plafter; and if the fcrotum has been confiderably di- ftended, they fufpend it in a bag-trufs, and give the patient no farther trouble. In moft people the orifice thus made heals in a few hours, (like that made for blood-letting); but in fome habits and circumftances, it inflames and fetters: tin's fettering is generally fuperficial only, and is a quieted by any Ample dreffing; but it fometimes is fo tionVome-* confiderable, and extends fo deep, as to affedl the va-times ginal coat, and by accident produce a radical cure. It proves a has alio been known to prove ftill more troublefome, 42 ri and 8442 Praftice. Of cures attempted by means jot Reafons againft the life of the cautery. S04- Of the ten! and cainila. S U R G and even fatal ; but then the circumftances both of the patient and of the cafe have been particular, and fuch as required attention. Every other method of treating this kind of hydro¬ cele, except the pundture, was either originally intend¬ ed to obtain a radical cure, or, having been found to have been often produ&ive of fuch, has been by different people ranked fometimes among the palliative, fome- times among the radical, means. In many of the old writers are found diredfions for obtaining the cure of this difeafe by the ufeof a feton, a canula, a tent, a cauftic, a ligature, an injedlion, or ’ an incifion. Some of thefe are adopted or preferred by one, and fome by another, according to the theory which they have entertained of the diforder, or to the benefits which they have feen to have accidentally arifen from the ufe of the faid means. To reduce thefe under fome kind of method, (which the manner of their being delivered to ns does in ge¬ neral not very eafily admit), we may fay, that the fe¬ ton, the tent, and the canula, were either originally meant to palliate a difeafe of which the old pradti- tioners had very difagreeable apprehenfions, or that they were made ufe of upon a fuppofition that the fluid contained in the cyft was in itfclf noxious; or that the general habit of the patient was relieved, and many other diforders prevented, by the faid humour falling or being depofited in that part; or from an opinion that the cure of it ought not by any means to be haftily or rafhly attempted : that the cauftic, cau¬ tery, and ligature, were defigned to prevent the fup- pofed defeent of the water from the abdomen into the ferotum ; and that the injedlion was calculated for the conftri&ion of a fuppofed breach in thelymphatic vefiels. Some of thefe (happily for mankind) are now quite laid afide, the reafons for their ufe being found to be falfe and groundlefs ; of this kind are the cautery, the ligature, and the injedlion. The water is now, by every body who has made any inquiry into the matterj. known to be formed and colleded in the part where it is found ; and not to have fallen into it from the belly : and, though an obftru&ion in the lymphatis vefl’els of the fpermatic cord, may in fome degree pre¬ vent the regular and due abforption of the fluid from the vaginal tunic, yet no breach or rupture of fuch vefiels can ever produce the difeafe in queftion: the extravafation, in fuch cafe, muft be in another part; and may poffiblycaufe a hydrocele of the cellular kind, in the common membrane of the fpermatic veflels, but which can never be found within the tunita va¬ ginalis. The reafons originally given for the ufe of the tent , and the canula, viz. the noxious quality of the fluid, and the necefilty of a gradual cure, are now alfo known and acknowledged to be without foundation ; and therefore, though thefe methods, or methods like thefe, do ftill continue to be ufed, yet it is with another view, and upon other principles: not with intention to lengthen the time of a cure, by making a gradual drain for the prevention of other diforders; but mere¬ ly to aboliftv the cavity of the tunica vaginalis, by ha¬ ving excited and maintained fuch a degree of inflam¬ mation and fuppuration as /hall produce an union be¬ tween that coat and the albuginea teftis. E R Y. Par: W.) This is indeed the only rational end which can by Praftice. any of thefe means be purfued ; for the diforder being^ abfolutely local, and the tunica vaginalis (the feat of it) mod commonly fomewhat altered from its natural flate, by having been diftended ; unlefs the abforbent veflels can again be reftored to a capacity of doing their duty, (a circumftance which does not very often happen), the arteries will continue to exhale new ferum into the cavity, and the hydrocele will ftill remain, or be renewed in a fliort time after each difeharge. To obtain this end, two kinds of means are pro- pofed. In the ufe of one, it Is intended, by means of a fmall wound, to excite fuch a degree of inflamma¬ tion, as (hall occafion or be followed by a total and abfolute cohefion of the tunica vaginal s with the tu¬ nica albuginea : in the other, a larger and more free incifion is made, whereby the cavity of the former of thefe coats is converted into a hollow or open fore or ulcer, to be filled up by a new incarnation ; or elfe a part of the'faid tunic being cut away, its power of again holding the extravafated fluid is equally pre¬ vented. The firft, or union of the two coats in confgquenct of inflammation, has fometimes been found to follow the ufe of fuch means as were intended to procure on¬ ly a temporary relief: it fometimes follows the limpii pundture with the trocar or lancet; the ancient method of letting out the water by a-fmall incifion frequently produced it ; and the feton, the tent, and the canula, though ufed for another purpofe, or at leall for other reafons, were found to be followed by it fo often, that they foon were ranked among the means for obtaining a radical cure. They were indeed originally defigned to difeharge the water gradually; and to continue fuch a drain from the parts where it had been colleded, as might pre¬ vent any of the ill confequences apprehended from the removal of the local diforder: but the inflammation which fupervenedj fometimes producing a cohefion of the facculus to the furface of the teliicle, what was originally calculated for a palliative remedy only, was by many adopted for a radical one. If the event and confequence flowing from thefe Bad^onfe- means were as much in our power as they have becnquences faid to be, that is, if we could with any tolerable pre- fometimes cifion Or certainty determine the degree of inflatnma- fr^nt^e tion to be excited, and the effeft of fuch inflammation llfe of on the vaginal coat, there would be no doubt of the methods, utility of them ; but this is far from being the cafe : for although it fometimes is fufficient for the purpofe wifhed for, and riles no higher than juft to a degree equal to that purpofe, yet it alfo frequently happens, that either fuch degree and extent of it is not excited, or ic rifes much higher and proves much more pain¬ ful and fatiguing than was promiftd or intended ; or, after a great deal of pain and confinement, a partial cohefion only has been the confequence, and the dif¬ eafe has dill remained, notwithftanding all the patient’s and our trouble. Sometimes the pain, inflammation, and fymptomatic fever, are but little ; but, on the other hand, they are all three fometimes fo great as to become alarming, at leaft to a patient who has been taught to expert a cure upon much more eafy terms. The whole ferotum fometimes becomes excefiively in¬ flamed, and, after a good deal of pain and trouble, PartHI. S U R i Praftice. large Houghs are produced, and the procefs becomes “as irkfome as any of thofe whofe event (with regard to a cure) is much more certain. If the inflammation be but flight, the pain and tu- mefa&ion moderate, the fymptomatic fever light, the fuppuration fmall, and an univerfal cohefion of the two membranes is produced, the event is very fortu¬ nate, and a very troublefome complaint is thereby got rid of upon very eafy terms. If either the inflamma¬ tion be confined to the dartos, where it fometiraes produces feveral fuperficial abfcefies (of no confe- quence toward the cure of the difcafe), or if it has been fo partial as only to have occafioned the cohe¬ fion between the tunics of fmall compafs, the cavity will not by this means be abolifhed, nor any thing like a radical cure be obtained ; confequently the pa¬ tient will have undergone all the fatigue, confinement, or pain (be it more or lefs) for nothing: but if the inflammation rifes high, if the fcrotum fwells confi- derably, and large deep floughs are formed (as fome- times happens), the fymptoms and the hazard are then fully equal to what attend thofe more certain me¬ thods. Which of the three will be the event, no man can fay. Under the fame external appearances, dif¬ ferent people are more or lefs liable to inflammation and fever: the confinement of matter, in confequence of too fmall an opening, will in fome habits make flraage havock in a very ftiort time; and if a large opening and a plentiful fuppuration muft at laft be fubmitted to, the method by a large incifion at firfl is preferable, as the cure is more certain, and the lofs of time lefs. Different circumftances in the patient will render one method preferable to and more likely to fucceed than another ; but whenever a cure is at¬ tempted by any of the before-mentioned means, the uncertainty of the event fhould be made known, and the patient be apprifed of what may happen either J04 with regard to trouble or difappointment. Of thera- All the methods hitherto taken notice of arecalcu- dical cure. Jated to produce a perfect or radical cure, without ma¬ king a large wound, or bearing the appearance of a chirurgical operation : thofe of which we are now to fpeak, are intended for the fame purpofe ; but by ma¬ king a large and free opening into the bag containing the fluid, to render the accomplifhment of fuch pur- soj P0^ more certain. Method of Thefe are called the cure by cauJUc and the cure by curing by incifion. The cure by caultic is calculated to fpare eauftic. t|ie terror which a cutting inftrument always conveys, and (as the patrons of it fay) to avoid the painful fymptoms and hazard which frequently attend a large incifion in thefe parts. The method is this: A piece of the common palte cauflic, rather lefs than a finger’s breadth, properly fecured by plafter, is applied the whole length of the anterior part of the tumour, which will neceflarily make an efehar of proportional fize. When this efehar either calls off or is divided, an opening of nearly the fame length and breadth is thereby intended to be made into the cavity of the tu¬ nica vaginalis tellis ; by which means an opportunity is given to the furgeon to apply fuch dreffinga to the infide of the fat’d tunic as /hall, by the generation of new flelh, fill up and aboliflt its cavity. The prefer¬ ence which fome praftitioners have given to this me¬ thod before that by incifion, has been upon a fuppo- 3 E R Y. 844; fition, that a circumftance. which very feldom happens Praftice. will mod frequently occur ; we mean the penetration of the cauftic through the vaginal tunic containing the fluid. io6 By this they hope to avoid the fymptoms which are This me- fuppofed to be generally excited by the divifion of thetho'? faid bag by a cutting inftrument ; but this the cauUicf^6,^^ very feldom does. If the tumour be very large and indfion. full, the containing parts be very much on the ftrefs, and the Ikin and dartos very thin, the cauftic may now and then penetrate through to the vaginal coat : but this, whatever may be thought or pretended, very fel¬ dom happens ; and when it does not, the tunica va¬ ginalis muft be divided in the fame ftate and manner as if no cauftic had been applied. All the difference between the two methods (cauftic and incilion) will then amount to this: That in the former, the fkin be¬ ing mortified, the patient is freed from a part of his apprehenfion at its being cut ; and the furgeon, fan¬ cying that his efcharotic has gone through the vaginal coat, will divide it as a part of the efehar : but a more careful examination of what he is about at the time of fuch operation, would generally convince him that he divides the bag unaltered' by the cauftic; and the fymptoms which often attend this procefs confirm it. It has indeed been propofed to divide the efehar made in the fkin down to the furface of the tunica va¬ ginalis, and then by the application of a frefh cauftic to make an efehar in that coat alfo. But whoever makes or fubmits to this experiment, will find, that of two evils he choofes the greater ; and, to avoid the pain of incifion, incurs a much greater degree of it by the repetition of the efcharotic. The pain attending the firft application of the cauftic is indeed to fome per- fons but little; but in many it is fully equal to that of the knife, and muft always be of much longer du¬ ration : if it does not penetrate the tunica vaginalis, that bag muft be divided by a cutting inftrument, (as we have already faid), in the fame ftate as if no cau¬ flic had been applied ; which incifion is and muft be accompanied with the fame fymptoms (in the fame perfon) as in the operation by the knife only. Nor can we at all times confine the cauftic, fo as that it {hall not caufe a much larger fore than is intended or can be oeceffary. Upon the whole, the cure by cauftic, as it fpares the terror and apprehenfion of a bloody operation by the knife, and as it requires no dexterity in the ope¬ rator, may, on thofe two accounts, become preferable both to many patients and furgeons: yet whoever pro- mifes to perform, or eXpedls to receive, a radical cure by cauftic upon much eafitrr terms than by incifion, will mod frequently be difappointed ; that is, they will frequently find the fever and inflammatory fymp¬ toms full as high, and the fore full as painful, in the one as in the other, and confequently all their care and attention to obviate mifehief full as neceffary. Neither is the neceffary confinement, in general, at all lefs in the one than in the other. The method of performing the operation by theofpe°r^ knife is as follows Having appointed an afiiftant to forming grafp the upper-part of the tumour, in order to ren- the opera-, der it tenfe below, a pun&ure fliould be made in. the fl°nj>ylhc lower and anterior part through the Ikin and vaginal "V1" coat. If the operator intends to finifh the iucifion 42 H 2 with $444 S U R G PrafKce. w|th a knife, he fhouM make.this punfture large enough * to admit the end of his fore-finger; which he fhould introduce immediately before the water is all difchar- ged and the vaginal coat collapfed; and upon that finger fo introduced, he ftionld continue his divifion of the whole length of the bag and of the fcrotum which covers it. If he intends to ufe the probe-fcif- fars (a more tedious and a more painful method), he may make his fiifl pun&ure with a lancet, and then introduce his fciflars. Upon the firft divifion, the wa¬ ter rufhes out, and the tumour fubfides. If the punc¬ ture be made fmall, a part of the fluid will infinuate it- felf into the cells of the dartos; and by the imme¬ diate collapfion of the vaginal coat, the operator will find feme difficulty in introducing either his finger or his inftrument into the orifice made in it. If he does not do this, he will divide only the Hein and dartos, and the patient muft undergo a fecond incifion for the divifion of the cyft : all which inconvenience may be avoided, by making the firft opening large enough for the introduftion of the finger; and when that is in, „ all the reft is upon that very eafily executed. Treatment When the vaginal tunic is divided, and the fluid ofthetefti- thereby difeharged, the tefticle, covered only by its cle and tunica albuginea, comes into view ; and, if the incifion wound af- wag cjt[ier begun or continued very low, it generally ration! °^e" thrufts itfelf out from the wound. This ffiould be gently replaced ; and if the vaginal coat is not much thickened by having been long diftended, nothing more need be done than to lay a fmall quantity of fine lint into its cavity, and then, covering thetwound with a large pledgit and a foft bolder, tie the fcrotum up in a fufpenfory bag. This operation, if properly per¬ formed, may be executed in a very few feconds : it requirts no other violence than the mere divifion of the parts ; and if this divifion be made with a knife rather than fciflars, it will require much lefs time, and caufe much lefs pain. The membranous ftruflure of the parts on which this wound is infli&ed, their continuation from the pe¬ ritonaeum, and the great irritability of fome of thofe which are neceffarily laid bare, and put under a necef- iity of receiving dreffings, muft occafion pain and fymp- tomatic fever: this it is thebufinefs of art to moderate and relieve; phlebotomy, lenient aperitives, febrifu¬ ges, and opiates, will therefore become neceffary. But in this cafe, as in many others, it will generally be found much nlore eafy to prevent bad fymptoms, than to remove them when they have been permitted to attain a confiderable height. The operation is, or ought to be, confined to the young and the healthy, in whom inflammatory fymptoms are moft likely to occur; but (we may venture to fay) to whom we have more efficacious remedies to apply in fuch diforders, than can be nfed to people of a different habit and in different circumftances. The general induration of all the parts about, the thick tumid lips of the incifion, and the general in¬ flammatory enlargement of the ferotum, have, for the iirit four or five days, a difagreeable appearance ; and may, if negledted or wrong treated, prove very troublefome or even hazardous; and the kind of dif- charge which during that time is made (a thin difeo- loured gleet), feems very unequal to the reduflion of fo much tamefadtion : but when the febrile fymptoms > E R Y. Part III. are appeafed, and a kindly fuppuration is begun, let the Pratficr. furgeon have patience, and not by an over-officiouf- nefs, or by improper dreffings, interrupt nature in what fhe"'is about : let him, by warm fomentations, keep the parts clean and perfpirable ; let him drefs the wound with a fmall quantity of foft eafy digeftive applications, and, covering the whole fcrotum with a foft warm poultice, fufpend it in a proper bag, and he will in general foon fee a favourable change in all the appearances; he will fee the inflammation difap- pear, the tumour refolve, and all the tumefaflion in due time fubfide. But if he negle&s thefe general cautions, and, under a notion of affifting digeftion, goes to work with precipitate and other irritating dreffings, the face of things will not be fo agreeable: the tumour will not fubfide; and he will continue, or rather create, a painful undigefted fore, with all its confequences ; but for which he only is accountable. In about fix weeks the fcrotum is generally redu¬ ced to nearly its natural fize ; and when the wound is quite healed, the cicatrix is a mere line, correfpondent to the original incifion ; which is a circumftance of more confequence to the patient than is imagined, efpecially if he be obliged to get his bread by la¬ bour. If the tunica vaginalis containing the water, by long or frequent diftention or from any other caufe is become thick and hard, and cannot therefore con- traft itfelf or be contrafted upon the evacuation of the fluid, it will contribute confiderably to the thick- nefs of the lips of the wound, as well as to their hard- nefs, pain, and difficulty of digeftion. In this cafe, the beft way is to remove a part of it on each fide at the time of the operation. The cellular flrufture of the dartos eafily admits this to be done ; and when thefe Tides are thus taken away, the lips of the wound confift only of the common integuments. A knife will do this with much more eafe and expedition than any other inftrument whatever. The method propo- fed by the late Mr Douglas, of doing it by repeated fnips of the probe-feiflars, is operofe, unhandy, and unneceflarily painful and tedious ; nor is the cutting away an oval piece of the fcrotum, as advifed by that gentleman and fome others, at all necefiary: on the contrary, the more loofe that part of the fcrotum is which is to cover the tefticle (now deprived of its va- ginal coat) the better, as it will be more capable of corrugation. With thefe cautions, and under the p«>per reftric- tions already mentioned, this method of obtaining a radical cure is very pra&icable. That it is fometimes accompanied by troublefome fymptomF, is beyond all doubt; and fo is the method by cauftic. We cannot fay that we have never feen it prove fatal ; nor can that be faid of any operation of confequence: much depends on the choice of a proper fubjeft, and the ob- fervance of the neceffary means and cautions; with¬ out which, both this and the ufe of the cauftic will always be troublefome, and fometimes hazardous. ^ When the quantity of fluid is large, and the fero-Difcharg- tum and tunic much on the ftretcb, Mr Pott thinks ingthe wa¬ it is better to difeharge the water by mere pun&ure,.s and not to perform the operation for the radical cure fomstinTcs* until a freffi accumulation has again moderately di-eligible. Headed it. The inflammation nectffarily confequent upon PartHI. SURGERY. 8445 Practice, upon the divlfion of thefe parts, juft after they have will not refill the necefiary force in making the per- Praflice. * been fo much on the ftretch, and fo fuddenly let loofe, foration; — * may be produftive of worfe fymptoms, and a higher There are,however,inftancesfromthebeftauthorities, They are degree of fever and tumefadlion, than ufually occurs of the fuccefsful application of the trepan to all thefe ex-not always when the fame parts are divided in a lefs diftended ceptionable parts, lufficient to encourage a cautious and ftate. judicious pradlitioner upon emergencies; to which, fays V° ^ In this operation, the point to be aimed at, as Mr Mr Gooch, I will venture to join my own experience, Pott obferves, is to excite fuch a degree of inflamma- hoping it may have fome weight in determining a lion, both in the tunica vaginalis and tunica albugi- matter of fo much importance to forgery. The fron- nea, as lhall occafion a general and perfedl cohefion tal finufes have been trepanned with fuccefs in London between them : and this, if poflible, without the pro- and Paris. Perforations may be made lower down the duftion of Hough or abfcefs, without the hazard of os front!* in children than in adults, without running gangrene, and without that degree of fymptomatic the hazard of falling upon the finufes ; for they gra- fever which now and then attends both the cauftic and dually enlarge, extending higher up as they arrive at the incifion ; and which, when it does happen, is fo puberty. Mr Gooch has applied the trepan near the Jt0 alarming both to patient and furgeon. middle of the os frontis, without meeting with any~ Oftheufe Thefe ends he has frequently obtained by the ufe obltacle from the fpinal procefs: and at the anterior of afeton. 0f a feton. It is a method of cure mentioned by andinferior angles of the parietal bones, without open- Aquapendens, as ufed by Guido and others before ing the art. dura mqtris. The operation has been him, (though their procefs was fomewhat different performed by Mr Warner upon the fagittal future, from his.) He has feveral times tried it on fubjedls when bits of bone ftuck in the longitudinal finus, of very different ages, fome of them more than 50 which he eafily extraffed after enlarging the wound years old. It requires confinement to bed only for a with his lancet, Hopping the haemorrhagy with dry few days; after which the patient may lie on a couch lint without any difficulty. ^ ^ . to the end of the attendance, which is generally fi- After having deliberately confidered every-circum-Method of nifhed in about three weeks or a month at the fartheft ; ftance, and refolved upon the operation, the inftru- performing - and during all that time no other proeefs or regimen ments, fponges, dreffings, compreffes, bandage, and^e °Peri- is neceffary, than what an inflammation of the fame every neceffary thing, are to be difpofed in perfe£ltlon' part from any other caufe would require. good order, that the operator may have nothing to -st-tt r rr- • he wants it. The head is to be fhaved, if DECT. XV. Of Trepanning. ;t ^as not [jegn already, as indeed it fhould all over There appears fcarce any part of the cranium, immediately after any of the preceding accidents: from the frontal finufes to the infertions of themufcles it is then to be refted and firmly held upon a perfon’a into the occipital bone, that may not be perforated knees; and, with the knife appropriated to this ufe with fafety. There are fome late inftances in this and the fcalprum, a piece of the fcalp is to be removed, kingdom, where the trepan has been fuccefsfully ap- of a circular, elliptical, or other figure, as the circum- plied to the frontal finufes. How far it might be fiances of the cafe require. The fcalping fhould be practicable to feparate the muffles from and apply the of fuch extent, as may give a fair opportunity of ma- trepan to the inferior part of the occipital bone, al- king as many perforations as (hall be found neceffary, moll to the foramen magnum, may be worth future as far as the furgeon’s judgment and obfervation can confideration ; as it is no unreafonable fuppofition, Hired him. He ought not to be fparing in this re- that a cafe may happen to be fo circumflanced as to fped, left he flrould be under the difagrecable necef- admit of no other remedy j and, according to Celfus, fity of extending the incifion farther. The manner of a doubtful one is better than none (a). cutting, is to apply force enough to the knife, to carry Farfs*of the parts ^ not eligible for the applica- it quite through to the bone at once, not bearing too • tkull not tion of the trepan are, 1. The frontal finufes. 2. The much upon the-point, efpecially if we cut over loofe eligible for futures, in young fubjeds ; for in old ones the adhe- - fragments, which we Ihould endeavour to avoid ; the - trepanning. ylon 0f jura njater (0 them is but little more than edge of the knife Ihould be fo inclined, as to cut ra- to other parts of the cranium. 3. The middle of the ther more of the pericranium than the Hein. When we os frontis, towards the nofe, where the fpinal procefs have proceeded thus far, the pericranium'is to beraifed of that bone projeds confiderably. 4. The anterior a little, with the point of the knife,-quite round the and inferior angles of the parietal bones, on-the inter- incifion ; and then the fcalprum ufed, which will be- nal parts of which run the arteries of the dura mater, found the beft inftrument to clear the bone of that 5. The fagittal future, on account of the longitudinal membrane, as has been found by frequent experience, finus running immediately under it. 6. The lambdoi- Should it be thought proper to proceed immediately dal future, under which lies the courfe of the lateral to trepanning, if any confiderable veffels have been * finufes. 7. The occipital bonej on account of its great divided in fcalpiug, they muft be fecured by needle • inequality of thicknefs, and irregularity of its internal and ligature ; but when we do not intend perfoiming furface. 8.' The os temporale, as the temporal muf- the operation diredly, dry lint with comprefs and cle muft unavoidably be wounded in making room for bandage is generally fufiicient to reftrain the haemor- the trepan : and laftly, we muft be careful, not to rhagy ; but fametimes the prtffure of an alfitlant’s ■ apply it to a yielding fractured part of the bone, that fingers upon-it will ferve that purpofe without a liga¬ ture, (a) Bontius, a. writer of the belt credit, relates a firigular cafe of a failor, whofe head was crulhed between the Hiip and a boat; in confequence of which dreadful accident, the greateft part of the occipital bone was taken away in fragments, almoft as far as the foramen magnum, and the patient perfectly cured by him and another furg^on. 844^ Pra£Hce., __ li4 The tre¬ phine the moft eligi¬ ble iuftru- ment. head, work- faw, &c. S U R G ture, when we determine to proceed to the operation diredtly. That kind of trepan called the trephine, is now in general ufe in all places : it is more commodious than the other, and can be better managed and regulated in the operation, as the different bearings may require; end it will cut full as faft, being worked both back¬ wards and forwards. Before the operation is begun, the patient’s head muft be fixed fo that the light may fall properly upon it, and in fuch a convenient pofi- tion, that the inftrument may be placed perpendicu¬ larly upon the part; and of fuch a height and manner, that the attitude may be eafy during the operation, which often proves tedious, requiring many perfora¬ tions (b). Whether the patient has the operation performed in bed or feated in a chair, it is always found that refting his head on a pillow, with a board underneath it, upon the knees of an affiftant, is preferable to any other manner ; for being thus placed, the afiiftant will have more power to keep it fteady, to refift the mo¬ tion of the inftrument. When the head is well ad- jufted, the next ftep is to make a hole with the per¬ forator, deep enough to fix the central pin of the tre¬ phine, in order to prevent the faw from flipping out of its circular courfe, till it has formed a fulcus fuffi- ciently deep to be wrought fteadily in; and then the pin is to be taken out. If the fkull is thick, the teeth of the faw muft be brufhed clean now and then during the terebration ; and dipping it into oil as often, will greatly facilitate the motion, and expedite the dperation, making it lefs difagreeable to the patient if he has his fenfes ; and, in order to lofe no time, it would not be amifs to be provided with two inftru- ments of the fame fize—We muft remember, after having made fome confiderable progrefs in the opera¬ tion, to examine the fulcus often with a picktooth, or fome other proper inftrument, in order to difcover where the bearings are neceffary to be made.—-Thefe juring the fubjacent membrane with the faw. R Y. Part III. elevator; or to extraft the fragments of the bone, PrafHce. grumous blood, or any extraneous body, with proper inftruments. After this, if there appears good reafon to apprehend that blood, lymph, or matter, is contain¬ ed under the dura mater, we fhould open it direftly with a lancet very cautioufly; endeavouring to avoid the blood-veffels ramified upon it, and thofe which lie immediately under it: and, on this occafion, it will be prudential to conceal the inftrument as much as we can, by wrapping it all round with tow almoft to the point, in order to prevent imprefiions being made upon the fpediators to our prejudice. When we have recourfe to the trepan, on account of a fiffure in which the bone will not yield, we fhould apply the inftrument fo as to include part of it, if not dire&ly over it, as it is moft likely the extrava- fated blood or lymph fhould be found direftly un¬ derneath it: and when the fiffure is of great extent, it may be proper to make a perforation at each end, if the whole can be conveniently brought in view ; and, in fome cafes, more perforations may be re- quifite, according to the courfe of it, even to its full extent. When we propofe to make feveral perforations, in order to remove depreffed fragments of the bone that are firmly fixed, and having the internal furface larger than the external, or to raife them fufficiently, it is neceflary to apply the trepan as near the fraftured parts as they will admit of; making the perforations adjoining, to fave the trouble of cutting the inter¬ mediate fpaces with the head-faw: and, as before hinted, we fhould invariably obferve to make the perforations in the moft depending parts we can, for the fame reafon as we endeavour to obtain depending openings in the flefhy parts. And in perforating the fkull, where there is great inequality of its thicknefs, * it appears more advifable to raife the piece before it is cut quite through in every part of it, to obviate in¬ precautions are of more confequence when we are employed in perforating a part of the fkull that we know has an unequal thicknefs, efpecially after having pafled the diplbe. And though we are told by writers in general, that we may faw boldly till we come at the diplbe, generally to be known by an appearance of .blood, yet we fhould be upon our guard in this point; examining if the piece be loofe, when we have fawn fome away into the bone, left we fhonld happen through inadvertence to wound the fubjacent mem¬ brane ; for in fome parts of the fkull there is natu¬ rally very little diplbe, and in old fubjefts fcarce any remains to afford direftion to our judgment by the bloody appearance. And for the fame reafon, it isalfo to be remembered, that childrens fkulls are very thin. —When the piece is quite loofe, it is to be taken out with the forceps contrived for this purpofe; and if the lower edge of the perforation is left jagged, it is to be finoothed with the lenticular, that it may not irritate the dura mater. The next ftep is to raife the deprefled piece or pieces of the cranium with the When the fkull has fuffered an injury upon a future, an. and it is not thought advifable to ufe the trepan.there, ning on a efpecially in young fubje&s, in whom the dura mater future, adheres more ftrongly than in adults, as has been re¬ marked, we fhould always remember to make a per¬ foration on each fide of the future; for this obvious reafon, becaufe there cannot be a free communication between the one fide and the other, on account of the attachment of that membrane to the future. After the elevation of the fragments of the bone, ofthe dref- or the removal of them, the extra&ion of extraneous fings pro¬ bodies, and the evacuation of extravafated blood, I,cr after lymph, or fanies, &c. the membranes may be drefled'I1'opcr*” with unguent, e gum. elemi, extolled by Francifcus Arcseus, the inventor of'it, made of a fofter confi- ftence with half, e copaib. or fome other natural bal- fam ; applying it juft warm with a feather, and foft lint lightly over it, dreffing the other parts as we have already diredied in wounds of the head : after which, it may be proper to embrocate the whole head with ol. et acet. adding a little fpirit. lavend. and to ap- ply .(b) Scultetus fays, he was obliged to make 7 perforations in a fra&ure with great deprefiion. Ckndorpius fays, his mafter Spigelius made the fame number upon the like occafion. Bionis made u. Philip count of Nafiau had 27 made in different parts of his head by Henry Chadborn, a very eminent furgeon ; and that nobleman has attefted the cure under bis own hand. Mr Gooch made 13 in the cafe of an old man, with fuccefs, as related in his Cafes and Remarks on Surgery. Part III. S U R C Praftice. ply a pl&ftfr of cerat. atb. or fome fuch eafy applica- lion, with gentle comprefs and bandage. The pro¬ per bandages upon this occafion are what the French call the grand couvre-chef, and the capdine or reflex bandage, which require great care and exaftnefs in their application, for the patient’s eafe. A bandage with fix tails, or a kind of coif with lappets affixed to it, may be found very applicable rn fome cafes; but to ferve this purpofe, the furgeon muft occafionally cxercife his invention. After the dreffing, the patient is to be placed in as eafy a pofition in his bed as poffible, with his head and ffioulders elevated a little more than ordi¬ nary ; and the rules we have laid down in the cure of wounds are to be duly obferved. Warmer applications and bandages are required in winter than in fummer. The degree of heat in the room muft be regulated according to the temperature of the feafon ; and it is neceffary to exclude the light. In injuries of the head, bad fymptoms are apt to come on fooner iu warm, moift, fultry weather, than in a cold feafon, when it may be very beneficial to make the circum¬ ambient air warm, and drefs the wound as expe- ditioufly as poffible, defending it from the attack of the cold air. A ftridt regimen and obfervance of the non-naturals are now of the greateft importance to be attended to; for a flight tranfgreffion therein may prove of fatal confequence, as we have amply evinced. When the digeftion of the wound proves kind, we fhall foon obferve granulations of fltffi, of a good com¬ plexion, (hooting from the extremitiesof the veflels, and throwing off the parts of the dura mater that may have fuffered ; which, by extending themfelves and twifting one with another, form in the aperture a fubftance ha¬ ving the appearance of fleft. The fame operation of nature, in a longer time, throws off exfoliations from the circumference of the perforation and other parts of the denudated (kull, thicker or thinner, fooner orlater, ac¬ cording to the age and conftitution of the patient, the degree of injury the fubftance of the bone has fuftained, the feafon of the year, &c. The granulations which arifefrom the different parts, uniting together, conftitute the organized or vafcular carnous fubftance, which is called the incarnation of the wound : and this regene¬ rated fubftance, in young fubje&s, generally acquires .a perfefl boney hardnefs in the perforation,but feldom in old perfons. Si8 In order to remove the fungi mentioned, n° 132. Of the me-ijga,ure, exc[{50n> and efcharotics, have been recom- vemingPre* mended ; and fometimes praflifed with fatal effefts, fangi.° throwing the'nervous-fyftem into great diforder.. And as there is fo much to be apprehended from thefe methods, we (hould by. all means take early care to prevent the growth of fuch excrefcences; which, if negle&ed, may increafe to a great fize in a (hort time. The beft method of doing this is, firft to apply to the dura mater a findon,. fpread with the balfam re¬ commended, or dipped into it, moderately warm, ac¬ cording to the ftate the membrane appears in : then a a plate of lead is to be exaiftly adjufted in the perfora¬ tion upon the findon, having the ears of it turned back upon the (kull; over which a comprefs, con- fifting of a few doubles.of common plaftcr., with a r E R Y. 8447 piece of very thin (heet-iead or card interpofed, is to Praftic^. be laid; filling the wound up with even lint, rather above the level of the fcalp; then a fmall eafy com¬ prefs of cloth, faced with cerat. alb. is to be applied, with a piece of card or thin ftiff paper on the outfide of it; over which, drips of common plafter about an inch broad are to be laid crucially, extending two or three inches beyond the comprefs. By this means the plate will be properly confined, and the degree of preffure may be eafily regulated, without inconveni¬ ence to the patient, or interrupting the difeharge at the wound ; and (hould a greater degree of preffure be required, it may be obtained by thickening the comprefs, and making one of the (trips of plafter pafs through a flit in the other, as in the uniting bandage. After proceeding thus far, the head is to be embro¬ cated, and a large thin comprefs fpread with cerate, applied over the crucial plafters, with eafy bandage, as before directed. When the dura mater is granu¬ lated with fiefh, the findon or lint, moiftened with a mixture of tin ft. myrrhee and aq. calcis, is a good ap¬ plication ; and the other parts of the wound are alfo to be attended to, according to the rules of furgery which we have before laid down, in order to prevent the luxuriance of flefh, till the exfoliations are completed ; for (hould this point be negleded, and loofe fleftx fuffered to creep upon the bone from the circum¬ ference of the wound, much inconvenience and trouble, befides pain to the patient, might proceed from fuch inattention. An abatment of the fymptoms after the operation, with a good afpedf of the wound in a healthy fubject, give us reafon to hope for fuccefs ; but if the fymp¬ toms continue threatening, with a drinefs, glaffy ap¬ pearance, or livid colour of the wound, or a difeharge of a fetid gleet from the membranes or brain, they are to be looked upon as very bad omens: however, we are to omit the ufe of no rational means, having inftances upon record of the happy event of the muft: alarming cafes to encourage our perfeverance. The fymptoms after the operation may require frequent bleeding, as well as drift regimen. Should the patient, at any time after the cure, complain of pain or diforder in his head, with fymp¬ toms of plenitude, recourfe ought to be had immedi¬ ately to bleeding and gentle purging, with .the ob¬ fervance of a fpare diet; and for fome time after his cure, he fliould alfo be very exaft in his regimen and government of himfelf, both as to body and mind. It will be likewife very prudent to wear for a confidtrable time a thin brafs, fteel, or tin plate, to defend the part againft external injuries, efpecially if there-has been any great lofs .of the bone; under which cir- cumdance, in old perfons, fuch a defence may be found neceffary for life. Sect. XVI. Of Tumours on the Heads of new¬ born Children. This kind of tumour proceeds from an extravafa- tion of blood ; probably in confequence of fome in-. aufts of jury in a laborious, hafty, or injudicious delivery; as the heads time (hould always be allowed fora gradual dilatation of childteui of the parts, to admit of the exclufion of the foetus with fafety. It is fddom obferved on any other parts 8448 SURGERY. Part III. Praflice. of the head than the parietal bones; and the extra- vafated blood is moft frequently lodged between the S20 pericranium and the cranium. Defcrip- This tumour is generally circumfcribed by a ridge, tion ofthefe when the extravafated fluid is contained between the tumours, cranium and the pericranium, and feels as if there was a deprefllon or deficiency of the bone ; but the decep¬ tion is owing to the fluid in the diftended pericranium yielding to the fingers, and to the ridge circumfcri- bing the tumour, which, without very accurate exami¬ nation, may be taken for the edge of the bone. Some furgeons have looked upon this fort of tumour as an aneurifm proceeding from the infideof the Ikull, others as a hernia of the brain. But was either of thefe the cafe in queftion, it muft appear between, and not^upon, the bones it does; and a pulfation would Sit be obferved in it. cure^the furgeons °f t^e foundling-hofpital, who have found line- greateft opportunities of difcovering the na- hafpitai. ture of thefe tumours, and the beft method of cure, from their large experience, fay, they generally fuc- ceed by opening them, in cafe the children were other- wife healthy ; and that they prefer this method, rather than waiting in expectation of abforption by any other, apprehending that the bad confequences they have feen may proceed from the putrid quality of the fluid contracted by its flagnation. They make an incifion the whole length of the tumour; lay foft dry lint under the edges of the wound, to favour the discharge of the extravafated blood, after prefling out as much as they can without bruifing the tender parts ; and then apply a pledgit of common digtftive over the 31a lint, with eafy comprefs and bandage, me h^tT Some other practitioners, of experience too, are m<'t 0 ' againft opening thefe tumours ; advifing the applica¬ tion of comprefles, moiftened in warm auftere red wine, or red wine and vinegar, to be renewed as often as they grow dry; and fay theyvhave generally obferved abforption of the fluid to be the effeCl of this method without bad confequences. However, fhould there appear no diminution of the tumour by regularly purfuing this method a reafonable time, it will then certainly be advifable to open it, left the fluid fhonld be abforbed in a putrid ftate, or the bone injured by it, whence bad confequences might enfue : and if the bone received an injury originally, the ne- ceflity of opening is indifputable. Sect. XVII. Of the Cataract, cutting the Iris, and Operation for the Fiflula Lachrymalis. § 1. Of the Cataralt. The cataraft, called by the Latinsfujfufot is a dif- eafe of the cryftalline humour, rendering the whole body of it opake ; fo that the rays of light which, in the natural ftate of its tranfparency, were tranfmitted to the tunica retina, become now totally intercepted, and produce no effeft. This is pretty nearly the ac¬ count delivered down to us by Hippocrates and the ancient Greeks, who likewife knew it by the name of *13 glauco?na. raft a^iT- Anatomifts have frequently difie&ed the eyes of per¬ cale of the fons under this diforder after their death; and have cryftalline found it to be always an opacity of the cryftalline hu- humour. aiour, agreeably to the definition of a glaucoma : fo that by confequence we muft underftand the words ca- I’raftice. taratt and glaucoma as fynonymous terms. si4~~* The general criterion of the fitnefs of catara&s for Different the operation is taken from their colour : the pearl-co*our 01? coloured, and thofe of the colour of burnifhecl iron,CaUra s‘ are efteemed proper to endure the needle; the white are fuppofed milky, the green and yellow horny, and incurable. The depreflion of a cataraft of any colour would be the cure, if that alone was the diftemper of the eye; but it generally happen?, that the yellow cataradls adhere to the iris fo firmly as to become immoveable; befides, when they follow in confequence of a blow, which is often the cafe, either the cells of the vitreous humour are fo much difturbed and broken, or the re¬ tina affe&ed, that a degree of blindnefs will remain, though the cataraft be depreffed. To judge whether the cataraft adheres to the iris, if you cannot at once diftinguifti it by your fight, (hut the patient’s eye, and rub the lids a little; then fudr denly opening it, you will perceive the pupil contradf, if the cryftalline humotrr does not prevent the a&ion by its adhefion : and when this is the cafe in any kind of cataraft, the operation can hardly be advifed. Another confideration of the greateft moment, be¬ fore undertaking the cure, is to be affured of the right ftate of the tunica retina ; which is very readily learnt, where there is no adhefion of the cataradl, from the light falling between the iris and cryftalline humour, which if the eye is not fenfible of, it is a certain indi¬ cation of another malady, and abfolutely forbids the operation. Generally this cataraft takes its rife from headachs, convulfions, and nervous diforders. S1! When none of thefe objeftions forbid the operation, it may be thus done. Having placed your patient in {he opaa-S a convenient light, and in a chair fuitable to the height tion. of that you yourfelf fit in, let a pillow or two be pla¬ ced behind his back, in fuch a manner, that the body bending forward, the head may approach near to you; then inclining the head a little backward upon the bread of your afliftant, and covering the other eye fo as to prevent its rolling, let the aflirtant lift up the fu- perior eye-lid, and yourfelf deprefs a little the inferior one: this done, ftrike the needle through the tunica conjundiva, fomething lefs than one tenth of an inch from the cornea, even with the middle of the pupil, into the pofterior chamber, and gently endeavour to deprefs the catacadl with the flat furface of it. If, after it is diflodged, it rifes again, though not wiih much elafticity, it muft again and again be puflved down. If it is membranous, after the difeharge of the fluid, the pellicle muft be more broke and depref¬ fed ; if it is uniformly fluid, or exceedingly elaftic, we muft not continue to endanger a terrible inflamma¬ tion by a vain attempt to fucceed. If a catarad of the right eye is to be couched, and the furgeon can¬ not ufe his left-hand fo dexteroufly as his right, he •may place himfelf behind the patient, and ufe his right-hand. iJ(J We have not recommended the fpeculum oculi, be- Why there caufe, upon the difeharge of the aqueous humour thro’is no °«a- the pundure, the eye, being fomewhat emptied, more {{jl" f°r readily admits of the deprdfion of the cryftalline hu- mour than when prefled upon by the inftrument. ccoli. As to the method of uesting the fucceeding inflam¬ mation, PartHI. S U ft C • Praftice. mation, bleeding and other gentle evacuations arc found “ ~ abfolutely neceffary. § 2. Of cutting the Iris. There are two cafes where this operation may be of lome fervice ; one when the cataract is from itsad- hefion immoveable ; and the other when the pupil of the eye is totally clofed up by a diforder of the muf- cular fibres of the iris, which gradually contra&ing the orifice, at laft leaves the membrane quite imper¬ forate. This laft dirtemper has hitherto been deemed incurable. The adhefion of the cataradf has alfo been confidered as a fpecies of blindnefs not to be relieved. But Mr Chefelden has invented a method of making an artificial pupil, by flitting the iris, which may re¬ lieve in both the inftances here ftated. In doing this operation, the patient muft be placed as for couching, and the eye kept open and fixed by the fpeculum oculi, which is abfolutely neceffary here ; then introducing the knife in the fame part of the con- junftiva you wound in couching, infinuate it with its blade held horizontally, and the back of it towards you, between the ligamentum ciliare and circumfe¬ rence of the iris, into the anterior chamber of the eye ; and after it is advanced to the farther fide of it, make your incifion quite through the membrane ; and if the operation fucceeds, ,it will upon wounding fly open, and appear a large orifice, though not fo wide as it becomes afterwards. The place to be opened in the iris will be according to the nature of the difeafe : if the membrane itfelf be only affefted with a contra&ion, the middle part of it, which is the natural fituation of the pupil, muft be cut; but if there be a cataraft, the incifion muft be made above or below the catarad, though it is more eligible to do it above. The contrafted iris from a paralytic diforder, is fo often complicated with an affeftion of the retina, that the fuccefs is very precarious in this cafe. This ope¬ ration hasanfwered beft in adhefions of the cryftalline humour, though but very feldom even there. § 3. Fijiula Lachrymalis, The fiftula lachrymalis is generally underftood to be fuch a diforder of the canals leading from the eye to the nofe, as obftrufts the natural progrefs of the tears, and makes them trickle down the cheek. Although the feat of this difeafe is the fame in almoft every fub- jeft, yet its appearance is very different in different Varieties inPer ons’ ant* un^er different circumftances. Thefe va- the fiftula riations depend principally on, 1. The degree of ob- I’hchryma- ftru&ion in the nafal duft; 2. The ftate of the cellular ph- membrane covering the fac ; 3. The ftate of the fac- culus itfelf; 4. That of the bone underneath ; 5. The general ftate and habit of the patient. Sometimes a ferous kind of defluxion, by which the lining of the faft and duft are fo thickened as to ob- ftruft or prevent the paffage of the fluid through them into the nofe, makes the whole complaint; and the cellular membrane on the outfide not being difeafed, there is no appearance of inflammation. In this cafe the du& is flopped, and the facculus dilated, but without any alteration in the colour of the Hein ; a fulnefs appears in the corner of the eye next to the Vol. X. r E R Y. 8449 nofe; and upon the application of a finger to this tu- Praftice. mour, a clear vifeid mucus is difeharged through the pun an^ wa3 t^ie principal reafon for their fo free ufe of cauftic, cautery, and fcalpra, in the treatment of it; but fince the difeafe has been more minutely examined into, this circumftance has been found to be a very rare one- When the fiftula lachry- malis is a fymptom of the lues venerea, as it fome¬ times is, the bones are indeed often carious ; but then the fiftula is not the original complaint, but produced fecondarily, and is a confequence of the difeafed ftate of the os ethmoides and offa fpongiofa of the nofe, and is not curable by any local means or applications, but depends entirely on the cure of the difeafe of which it is a fymptom. An abfeefs after the fmall-pox, by falling on the lachrymal bag, has made it all Hough away, and leave the bones bare ; which circumftance alfo fometimes attends the free ufe of ftrong efcharotics applied to de- ftroy what is called the cyft / but without the acceffion of fome other diforder producing it, or the moll ab- furd method of treating the complaint, a caries of the bones will very feldom be met with. Indeed the com¬ bination of other difeafes, either of the general habit, or affedling the fame or the neighbouring parts, does often make a very material difference, both in the ap- Praftice. i pearance of the diforder, in the prognoftic, and in the proper method of treating it; which therefore Ihould always be inquired into. For inftance, the patient is fometimes fubjefl to an habitual ophthalmy or lippitu- do, which will add to the deformity, and give a good deal of additional trouble during the cure : an oztena, or fome other difeafe of the membrane and cells of the ethmoid bone, or a polypous excrefcence within the nofe, are now and then combined with it. The ha¬ bit is fometimes, as we have before obferved, infedled with the lues venerea, of which this difeafe may be a fytpptom : ftrumous glandular obftrudtions are its too frequent companions and, what is worft of all, it is • fometimes cancerous. From what has been faid, we may divide this dif* SS9 j cafe into four general heads or Hates, under which allpejeral , ? its lefler diftinaions may be comprehended. The firft confifts in a fimple dilatation 'of the facculus and ob-difeafe may ftrudlion of the nafal duft, difehargiag upon preffure be clafled. ] a mucus, either quite clear or a little cloudy ; the Ikin covering the bag being entire and perfectly free from inflammation. In the fecond, the tumour is fome- what larger ; the Ikin which covers it is in ah inflamed ftate, but entire ; and the difcharge made through the punfta lachrymalia is o^a pale yellow or purulent co¬ lour. In the third, the Ikin covering the facculus is become doughy, and burfts ; by which means the fwelling is in fome meafure leffened t but the mucus, which while the Ikin was entire ufed to be preffed out through the pnnfla lachrymalia, now difeharges itfelf through the new aperture. The dudlus ad na- res, both in this and the preceding ftate, are not otherwife difeafed than by the thickening of its li¬ ning. In the fourth, the paflage from the facculus lachrymalis into the nofe is totally obliterated, the infide of the former being either ulcerated or filled up with a fungus, and attended fometimes with a ca¬ ries of the bone underneath. The ancients, who fuppofed this diforder, in itsfjov/the ' firft ftate, to be an inflammatory defluxion from the difeafe in .! brain on the caruncle, tending to fuppurate, direfted its firft rtate their firft attention to prevent fuch confequence : for J*’as^reatei incifion, the gentlemen of the French academy have tried ducing a fome others, fuch as the introdudion of a probe into probe with- the lower part of the nafal dud within the nofe, thein ^ nofe’ injedion of a fluid by the fame orifice, the pafiing a feton from the pundum lachrymale fuperius through the facculus and dud and out at the noftril, there to remain till the cure is completed : and for thofe pur- pofes they have invented and given figures of a number ef probes, fyringes, and many other inftruments, which, they fay, have been very fuccefsfully ufed; though others have not found them to anfwer the purpofe. When the difeafe is got beyond the Ample ftate juft deferibed, that is, when the parts round about are much or conftantly inflamed, or the fkin covering the tumour is burft, there is foraething more to be done if a cure is intended. sS4 In this ftate, an opening in the upper part of the When it is facculus lichrymalis becomes in general abfolutely ne- necefl'ary t* celfary ; and as a wound made by a knife leaves much lefs difagreeable fear than that which neceflarily a follows the burfting of the fltin, one being a mere Ample divifion, the other a lofs of fubftance; it will always be found beft to anticipate the accident of burfting, by making the opening as foon as the inte¬ guments are in fuch a ftate as to threaten it. For the making this incifion, authors have been very very particular in their diredions with regard to its place, manner, and form. They have ordered it to be femilunar, having its concave part toward the eye, and that the point of union of the lids fhould be exad¬ ly oppolite to the centre of the incifion. This lunated figure was calculated to correfpond with the courfe of the fibres of the orbicular mufcle, upon a fuppofitiou 42 I 2 that 8452 U R R Y. Part III. Praftice. that a tranfverfe fefiion of them would produce an in- eafed as to be quite obliterated, or in which the bones Praftice. s«s ~ verfion of the lower lid, an effeft which never follows all that the furgeon need obferve is, to take care to keep the knife at a proper diftance from the jundure of the palpebrae, to begin the incifion a very little above a line drawn from that jundure toward the nofe, and to continue it downward ; its form may full as well be ftraight as any other, and the belt imtrument to make it with is a fmall crooked biftory. If the facculus is already burll, the place of opening is determined ; and the orifice may be enlarged with a knife, or dilated. The incifion,made, the facculus ftiould be moderate¬ ly diftended, either with dry lint or a bit of prepared fponge ; by which means an opportunity will be gain¬ ed in two or three days of knowing the ftate of the infide of the fac, and of the dudus nafalis : if the for¬ mer is neither floughy nor otherwife difeafed, and the obftrudion in the latter but flight, it fometimes hap¬ pens, that, after a free difcharge has been made for fome days, and the inflammation occalioned by the firft ope¬ ration is gone off, the fac contrads itfelf, a fuperficial drelfing, with moderate preffure, heals the fore, the lachrymal fluid refumes its wonted courfe, and the difeafe difappears. Of dTlat'ne ^ fimp'e method does not fucceed, or from the the paflage ^ate t^ie Parts feems unlikely to do fo, another muft be tried, which the opening already made will enable us to put in pradice. The point to be aimed at is, if poffible, to render the nafal dud pervious to the lachrymal fluid ; and we muft endeavour to obtain this end by fuch means as give the leaft pain, excite the leaft inflammation, and leave the parts as near as pof¬ fible in their natural ftate; that is, we are to endea¬ vour to dilate the pafiage from the fac to the nofe, by fome means which will gradually diftend it without deftroying its texture, in the fame manner as the di¬ latation of the urethra ought to be effeded in the cafe of ftridures, by paffing either a probe, or a piece of catgut, or a bougie, gently into it, as far as it will eafiiy go, and repeating it occafionally, until it is got quite through, and the paffage is free (a). When a paflage has been once obtained, it fliould be carefully kept open, either by a piece of catgut, a fmall bougie, a leaden probe, or fomething of that fort; and when it is thoroughly eftabliflied, the fore may be permitted to contrad, until it becomes no more than what ferves for the introdudion of the bou¬ gie into the dud ; in this ftate it fiiould be kept open for fome time, injeding now and then a little aqua calcis, foftened with mell. rofar. through from above into the nofe; and when it appears that the paflage is fo free and fo well eftabliflied that there is good proba¬ bility of its preferving itfelf, the orifice in the angle of the eye, by being covered only by a fuperficial bit of are fometimes found to be carious. The methods hi¬ therto defcribed have all been calculated to preferve the natural paffage, and to derive the lachrymal fluid again through it : in this attempt they are fometimes fuccefsful; but when they are not, there is no chiruf- gical means left, but to attempt the formation of an artificial one in its (lead. The upper and hinder part of the facculus lachrymalis is firmly attached to the os unguis, a fmall and very thin bone juft within the orbit of the eye ; which bone is fo fituated, that, if it be by any means broken through or removed, the two cavities of the nofe and of the orbit, communicate with each other; confequently the os unguis forms the partition between the hinder part of the lachrymal bag, and the upper part of the cavity of the nofe ; and it is by making a breach in this partition that we at¬ tempt the formation of an artificial paflage for the lachrymal fluid. To make this opening, many different inftruments have been devifed, and ufed ; a large probe, an in- ftrument like a common gimblet, a curved trocar, &c. each of which, if dexteroufly and properly applied, will do the bufinefs very well: the one neceffary cau¬ tion is, fo to apply whatever inftrument is ufed, that it may pierce through that part of the bone which lies immediately behind the facculus lachrymalis; and not to pufti up too far into the nofe, for fear of injuring the os fpongiofum behind, while it breaks its way. S&1 Mr Pott prefers the curved trocar, which has ferved Mr ^>ott s his purpofe well, and from which he never experienced met od* any inconvenience. In ufing it, the point fhould be turned obliquely downward, from the angle of the eye toward the infide of the nofe ; the accomplifhment of the breach will be known by the difcharge of blood from the noftril, and of air from the wound upon blowing the nofe. The moft precife direftion in this part of the operation will be of but little ufe to him who has no idea of the natural ftruifture and difpofi- tion of the parts concerned, and who ought therefore to get fuch information as foon as he can : but who¬ ever is at all acquainted with this matter, or will at¬ tend to the fituation and connexion of the os unguis, knows that this bone is divided into two parts by a perpendicular ridge; that the lachrymal fac is con- nedled to all that part which is anterior to this ridge; and that the pofterior part of the bone contributes to form the orbit of the eye, and has little or no connec¬ tion with the lacrymal fac. The trocar muft be ap¬ plied therefore to that part of the bone which is ante¬ rior to the ridge, and confequently behind the lacry¬ mal bag ; by the paffage of the inftrument, all this part of the bone will in all probability be broken, but from which no mifchief will enfue. se9 As foon as the perforation is made, a tent of lint How to plafter, or pledgit, will contraft and clofe ; and if fliould be introduced, of fuch fize as to fill the aper-kc'P ^ ture, and fo long as to pafs through it into the cavity0^en° of the nofe: this fliould be permitted to remain in two, three, or four days, till the fuppuration of the parts renders its extraftion eafy ; and after that a frefti during its doling moderate prelfure be ufed on the fac- cuius, to prevent a frelh accumulation of mucus, it will S(S aflift the cure. Of making The laft ftate of this diforder is that in which the r_ t natural paffage from the facculus to the nofe is fo dif- one fliould be paffed every day, until the clean granu- 2 ’ ‘ lating (a) This caution is very neceflary to be obferved in the cure of ftriaures of the urethra; in which cafe the proper intention is, gradually to dilate the paffage, and to procure an increafed difcharge of mucus from the lacunte : this fliould always be done gently, and by means which give as little pain as poffible; whatever irritates or gives pain will certainly do mifchief, will add to the obftruftion, and increafe the dyfury. Part Praftice. III. U R G E R Y. ducing a metal ca nub. Mr Wa- then’s di- reilions. lating appearance of the fore makes it probable that ’ the edges of the divided membrane are in the fame flate. The bufinefs now is to prevent the incarnation from doling the orifice, for which purpofe the end of. the tent may be moiftened with fpir. vitriol, ten. ; or a piece of lunar cauftic fo included in a quill as to leave little more than the extremity naked, may at each dreffing, or every other or every third day, be introduced, by which the granulation will be repref- fed, and the opening maintained : and when this has been done for fome little time, a piece of bougie of proper fize, or a leaden canula, may be introduced in- flead of the tent; and, leaving off all other drefling, the fore may be fuffered to contrad: as much as the bougie will permit, which Ihould be of fuch length that one extremity of it may lie level with the Ikin in the centre of the eye, and the other be within the nofe. The longer time the patient can be prevailed upon to wear the bougie, the more likely will be the con¬ tinuance of the opening ; and when it is withdrawn, the external orifice Ihould be covered only by a fuper- ficial pledgit or plafter, and fuffered to heal under moderate preffure. There is another method which has been much re¬ commended by fome French writers, to prevent the clofing of the opening in the os unguis, and which is now generally approved in this country ; namely, to introduce a canula either of gold or filver, or lead, in¬ to the aperture, and to permit the fore to heal over it, fuffering the canula to remain, or to come away by the nofe. Mr Wathen, who has written a treatife on this fub- jeft, generally makes ufe of gold ; becaufe molt eafy to be procured in a ftate of perfe(ff purity, which is a quality firftto be regarded, whatever the metal be: and he prefers this or filver to lead, chiefly on account of their firmer texture, which muff render a tube made of either of them lefs liable to be affe&ed by any preffure it may receive. The tube is fomewhat coni¬ cal, to prevent its defcent into the nofe; and it is made fufficiently long, to reach from the upper por¬ tion of the bony duft, to its aperture below the os fpongiofum. To introduce it more^eafily, it is furnifhed with a ftyle, nearly as long as a Common probe ; the lower end of which is rounded, fo as that, palling through the tube, it may exaftly fill the aperture at the fmall end : and it is prevented from palling further, by a fhoulder of the fame fize with the outfide of the tube. The tube is held upon the ftyle by a doubled thread, which paffes through a fmall hole on the one fide of its upper or larger aperture, and is continued to a ring at the upper end of the ftyle. By faftening this thread to the ring, the ftyle and tube become ' one inftrument, capable of being introduced and ex- trafted at pleafure, and poffelEng all the power of a probe. By means of this, the operator may be enabled to examine the ftate of the difeafe, and to judge with the greateft precifion of the diameter of the dud, and confequently of the proper fize of the tube. For as the dud in perfons of different ages, &c. will vary both in the diameter and length, there muft on this account be a proportional difference in the tube; 8453 and the operator Ihould therefore be furnilhed with- Praftice. ftyles and tubes of feveral different fizes. The neceffity of paying a clofe attention to the fize of the tube is apparent. For if it be too large, it cannot be introduced ; and if too fmall, it will be liable to flip, if not pafs, through the lower aperture of the dud into the nofe. If, again, it rifes too high, it may prefs againft the fides of the fac, and thus clofe the orifice through which the tears fhould pafs. If, on the other hand, it comes down too low, it will projed beyond the inferior extremity of the dud, and may produce a very troublefome titillation. When the tube is found exadly to fit, the thread, which was paffed through the ring at the upper end of the ftyle, being tied in a knot, at about the diftance o£ an inch from the top of the tube, the longer portion of it, above the knot, is to be cut off. By this the ftyle will be difengaged, fo that it may be extraded with eafe, leaving the tube behind, with the thread hanging out of the wound. When the tube is fixed, fome fimple liquor is to be paffed by a fyringe through it into the nofe, as a proof of its being fo placed that it will anfwer the intended purpofe. The opening made in the fac might be entirely clofed within the fpace of a few days, if it was not thought proper to leave the thread in. When it has continued there about a week, if the tears ab- forbed by the punda are conveyed by the tube to the nofe, the thread, which is double, may then be extraded, by cutting one fide of it with the feiffars, and drawing the other out. The little orifice thro* which the threads palled will be clofed in the fpace of a day. And thus a diforder, which had continued for months, and perhaps years, may be perfedly cured within the fhort fpace of a week. Sect. XVIII. Of Amputation. In this operation the great end to be aimed at is, the procuring of a handfome ftump, in which the bone may not protrude, but be well covered with flefh ; fo that no excoriation or rawnefs may be apt to take place, as is too frequently found to be the cafe after amputation has been performed in the common man¬ ner. As long ago as the year idyp, it was propofed by Jacob Young, an Englifh furgeon, in a treatife intitled Currus Triuniphalis ex Terebinthino, to preferve a flap of flefh and fkin, which was to be folded over the bone, and which, uniting to the parts of the wound after amputation, would effeftually cover the bone, and prevent the inconveniences abovementioned. No traces of the fuccefs of this method, however, can be found till the year 1696 ; when a Latin differtatioo was pub- lifhed upon it by P. Adrians Verduin, an eminent fur¬ geon in Amfterdam. The molt fanguine expeftations were formed of its fuccefs; and it was even thought that the flap would prevent the necefiity of tying up the blood-veffds. However, it does not appear thatv the method as at that time pradtifed, either did or could fucceed ; and accordingly it was entirely laid afide, till lately that it has been revived with confiderable improvements. § 1. Of Amputating the Leg. In Verduia’s method of ampuUtioDj the rule was, B454 S U R G ^raftice. to cut away the fltfliy parts to the tendo achillis; and after fawing through the bone, if the flap was too big, it again fuffered a fecond incifion. To keep this flap united to the bare bone, he contrived a variety of J7i ftraps and machines, highly embarrafling to the ope- Method of rator, and painful to the Tick. But Mr O’Halloran, fnMhe'11 havinS demonftrated that the attempting an union of quantity of l^e^e paris before fuppuration was the true caufe of flefh necef- this operation’s failing of fuccefs, and willing to de- fary to be termine the precife quantity of flefh neceflary to be left fora taken off in the flap operation, found that 15 inches ‘‘p' might be confidered as a medium ftandard of the ^circumference of a man’s leg ; the diameter of which (fuppofing it a complete circle) would be about 4-J in¬ ches, which appeared to him neceflary to be preferved below the amputated part, in order to form a flap fuf- fccient to cover the flump. But as this great length of flefh would make the operation prafticable but in a few cafes, he began to conflderof fome concifer means. After fawing fome tibiae at the ufual place of ampu¬ tation, and meafuring the diameter of the two bones together, he conje£tured, that about 3+t inches, might be admitted as a general ftandard of adults. If, then, an oblique fe&ion be made of the fkin and mufcles, at about three inches, or atmoft three and anhalf, below the part to be amputated, and continued in a Hoping direction till it reaches the bone, at the place of exci- fion ; by a circular incifion of the remainder of the flefli and fkin at this part, we fltall preferve flap enough to cover the ends of the bones. By this means fur- geons will be enabled to perform this operation, in every cafe where amputation becomes neccffary ; and it wiU.be .then found as expeditious as the method of the,Rouble incifion, and attended with no more pain. After a trial on a body, he found the flap a little fhort, on account of the thicknefs of the gafterocnemii mufcles ; but upon.repeating his experiment on ano¬ ther body, and having jirft carefully drawn back as much fkin as he could, a flap of 3+4- inches anfwered exaflly, allowing for the melting down of the corpus adipofum, and cellular fubftance of the mufcles, by fuppuration, as leffening confiderably the bulk of flefli, though not the length of the flap. This rule fhould not be deenud infallible; becaufe, where the iimb is extenuated, a lefs,quantity of fkin will fuffice to cover the extremities of the bones than where the parts are turgid and full. He has fince found, that befides the previous drawing up of the fkin, if in the circular tour care is taken to fave fome fkiu in the an¬ terior part of the leg, which is eafily done by draw¬ ing it bank during the incifion, a flap of three inches will certainly anfwer. This operation he performed three times fuccefsfully in the courfe of eight months, and never meafnred the quantity of flefh he intended to preferve, but with the eye ; however, in a week after each operation, he was curious enough to meafure the particular flaps. The firft meafured 3-bx inches with¬ out, from the extremity of the flap to the place of the circular incifion ; and 2+^ from the internal edge of the flap to the bone; and this flap was foundfufficient to cover the extremity of the flump, though a good- fized leg ; and that the circumference of it meafured 14 inches. In the fecond cafe, the flap meafured from without, three inches ; and internally, not quite two. This woman’s leg was fmalkr than the firft patient’s, E R Y, Part III. but both bones were rather larger and much more firm. Pratfi’ce. The periphery of this ftump was twelve inches. In the T” third inftance, the leg was burnt fo high up, that no greater flap could be allowed than two inches and one- fourth, and from within it meafured i+l inches; and yet this flump was alfo completely covered with a good cufhion of flefh and fkin. The limb was greatly ex¬ tenuated, and the circumference of the ftump was not quite ten inches. Upon the whole, then, he conjec¬ tured that the difference between 3 and 34t inches of a flap, will take in molt legs ; i. e. in adults, that it fhould be feldom under 3, nor ever exceed 3-!-^ inches. Tl.efe neceffary details premifed, where the necef- Method of fity of taking off a leg is maniftft, let the hair be performing fhaved off from the knee to where the limb is to be1!16 opera- taken off, which will fave the patient a good deal oftlon' trouble in the dreffings. The fkin fhould then, be drawn up pretty tight ; and let a fmall band mode¬ rately rolled Aip, and fewed from its outfide folds to the centre of an open roller, of about two inches broad and a yard long, be placed in the ham, over the artery ; and with the open one going round the knee, let it be thus firmly fecured. If one fide of the open band is perforated, fo as to make it a kind of uniting band, it will roll fmoother. Then with Petit’s or the com¬ mon tourniquet, let the artery be fufficiently com- preffed. On this occafion Mr O’Halloran prefers the common one; becaufe, by its uniform preffure round the limb, .lefs blood is loft than in the ordinary way. The difference, neverthelefs, is not of fo much confe- quence as to give one an abfolute preference to the other: the choice, therefore, may be fafely left to the option of the furgeon. The patient fhould be placed on a chair, or low table, of about two feet high, as the leg muft have fome degree of elevation. All the apparatus being properly difpofed, which confift of a ftraight edged knife, with the blade as long as that of the common cateline, and pointed at its extremity, the common amputating knife, faw, and a few needles armed with flat threads, waxed, of different fizes.* Let the leg be elevated about a foot higher than if in an horizontal pofture; and with ftrong tape of about an inch bread, let it be bound round pretty firm at the intended place of excifion a^nd if at this time he lies in a reclining pofture, the railing the leg will be the more eafy. Mark with a pen the traces where you are to com¬ mence your incifion, which fhould be, in adults at leaft, three inches from where the bone is to be fawed. Then with the ftraight incifion-knife, make an oblique fe&ion from this point almoft or quite to the bone, ending at your tape : then with this fame, or the com¬ mon amputating knife, let the circular incifion of the remainder of the flefh be expeditioufly performed. To do this firft part of the operation with greater eafe to yourfelf and advantage to the patient, you mull be careful, if the left leg be the part difeafed, to place your¬ felf between his legs ; and if the right, to be outfide the limb. The reafon of thefe fituations is very ob¬ vious; for you cannot with the right-hand command an exa& fight, or commence your operation dexteroufly, but in thefe poftures. This done, apply a fplit cloth, the two tails of which fhould crofs over the tibia, and with the Angle one draw back the flap. Though fome operators do not approve of the fplit cloth in the com¬ mon Part III. SURGERY. 8455 Fratfice. mon method, yet here it is effentially neceflary : for this purpofe the tape ihould be firft removed. Any little undivided flefh may be now feparated by the cateline ; the periofteum divided round about, and fcraped upwards, agreeable to the advice of profeflbr Monro; and the ligamentum interoffeum divided. The next thing to be done is to faw the bones ; but what¬ ever be your pofition in dividing the foft parts, you muft be always between the legs to cut away the bones. As foon as you have marked the traces of the faw on the tibia, run it along both bones, very light and nimble ; and continue this manoeuvre till the bones are divided. By this means the teeth of the faw will not be entangled in the bones, nor you often obftruc- ted in your motion ; but the divided bones will be fmooth, and the operation expeditious. Oftyingup The limb being taken off, the tourniquet.muft be the blood- relaxed, and the tibialis anticus, pofticus, and inter- vcles. 0f[eUS arteries, carefully taken up. Where the flelh was thin, and not very firm, Mr 0‘Halloran has fometimes made a ligature round the bone in which the artery was included : butifyouufe, infteadofthe liga¬ ture of the veffels, the agaric or lycoperdon, which, our author thinks, may be fafely depended on in the leg and fore-arm, you muft be careful that the fungus does firmly adhere to the veflels before you drefs up the (lump ; as alfo that it be not removed during the laft period. As for the veffels that fpread themfelves on the ga- r fterocnemii and folaeus mufcles in this operation, the taking them up becomes neceffary. The blood being carefully maftered, which you will know by relaxing the tourniquet for fome time, and no blood fpurting out, you are then to drefs the flump thus. Let the the tibia be covered with a pledgit of dry lint, and the reft of the ftump with foft lint, loofe, and ftrewed with fine flour. In the thigh and arm, befides the future, he generally applies fome lycoperdon to the extremities of the principal veffels; the fame may be alfo done in the prefent cafe, if the ligature has been ufed. He particularly recommends it to the fpacc between the tibia and fibula ; becaufe it fometimes Of the drcf-happens that the interoffeus artery (brinks between the bones ; and though no appearance of an haemor- rhagy at prefent happens, yet in a few hours it may return. The pofiibility of this accident juftifies the pre¬ caution, The flap is likewife to be dreffed with foft loofe lint, and a cloth cut in form of a double T, and covered with adhefive plafter, is to cover the dreiEngs. Its figure is thus t The long one is to furround the ftump above the am¬ putated part, whilft the tails, by croffing the flap, prefs it againft the ftump, and make all the dreffings the more compad. This done, an hog's bladder moiftened and notched is to inclofe the ftump ; but previous to this an handful of lint is to be applied be¬ tween the outfide of the flap and the bladder : prefs this laft to the ftump ; and the notches covering each other above make the whole dreflings fmooth, and the preffure foft, and fuch as is heft calculated to prevent an hstmorrhagy. Let a crofs comprefs, moiftened, cover the bladder; and then with a band, of between Pratfice. eight and nine yards long, and near three inches broad, " rolled up to two heads, fecure your dreffings thus: After removing the tourniquet and other bands ufed antecedent to the operation, an handful of foft lint (hould be applied to the ham ; which, in the circum¬ volutions of the band here, greatly reftrains the vio¬ lence of the blood ; for as this is the moll troublefomc and alarming fymptom, and the mod reproachful to the furgeon, all thefe precautions are juftifiable. With one of the heads of your band make three circulars above the knee moderately tight; then with the fame defcend, and make two or three turns below the knee, rather fmooth than tight; and then mount obliquely till you get above the knee, and here make a circular turn. Let the other head of the band go ftraight down from the pofterior and inferior part of the thigh over the flap, and above the knee anteriorly; which will become here fecured by a circular turn of the other head over it. Let the other head again crofs the ftump and flap from the infide of the thigh, and afcend at its outfide above the knee, and here be again fecu¬ red by a frefti circular turn of the other head. Crofs over the ftump again between thefc folds, fo as to form on the flap a kind of ftar of fix points ; and this fold becomes alfo fecure by a new turn of the other. Let the remainder of both bands be then difpofed of round the thigh at pleafure, or cut off. The ftump being dreffed, let the patient be laid on Treatment his bed, and a piilow put under the thigh, fo as to °/the P3* raife that part. Let the patient be kept to a proper diet: but in this point it is impoffible to fix any cri-t;oniP terion ; for regard muft always be had to the patient's ufual manner of living, what is high diet to one be¬ ing infufficient to preferve the life of another. And on this (Ingle point the fuccefs of many a cure plainly depends. In general, young people of plethoric ha¬ bits. (hould be kept low ; thofe advanced in years, or whofe conftitutions are otherwife impaired, (hould live freer. Some bleed on the commencement of the fe¬ ver : but this ought to be avoided, except the fever is high, or the fubje£l full of blood; bccaufe without a fever there can be no fuppuration, of courfe no ten¬ dency to recovery. In general, the firft opening of the fore (hould not be for four or five days, according to the feafoti orfymptoms. This (hould be done, by firft foftening the dreffings in warm water, and remo¬ ving only as much of the lint as comes off loofe and eafy. Let the whole part be then covered with pled- gits, armed with proper ointment, and fecured by the double T plafter, with the conaprefa and bandage al¬ ready defcribed. The flap and the fthmp, at every dreffing, are to be regarded as diftinfl lores, and fe- parately dreffed. If the difeharge is fmall, it may be promoted by duping the ftump with fponges preffed out of very hot water, by the common digeftive, and the like. If abundant, it may be leflened by dofiils of lint wet in brandy or tin&ure of myrrh, or by dry lint alone, which is an excellent abforbent: the bark,infubftance, will alfogreatly reftrain it; often a pill or two of calomel. In general, an abundant fuppu¬ ration will promote a fpeedy coalition j whereas, when flow, it will be more tedious. About the 12th day, then, that is, when inflam¬ mation is entirely paffed, and fuppuration effetftually efts- 8456 S U R C Praftiie. eflablifhed, the bare flap may be turned up againfl; the naked flump, and fo be fecured by plafter, compref- fion, and bandage. Jnftead of the bandage already defcribed, our author on this occafion ufes one cona- pofed of a flrip of ftrong cloth to go round the knee; and to the centre of this is fixed another, which, crof- fing from under the ham, the flump is fecured to the circular above the knee by means of four or five pieces of tape attached to this laft. The fore fhould not be opened for at leaft two days after this, and the dref- fings taken off with great caution. He often bathed this part very hot ; and though the flap fliould in part feparate, yet muft it again and again bereturned until ' the parts firmly unite. The little fore which the flap does not cover Ihould be dreffed with lint and brandy. Soon after the union of the flap and flump, the for¬ mer fometimes inflames ; but a relaxing ftupe, and a poultice of flummery, foon removes this. At every drefling of the remaining little fore of the flefh, the flump may be bathed in bran and water hot, which will greatly accelerate healing. Though after 15 or 16 days the core may be finifhed by any common nurfe, yet do the parts femain tender for fome days longer. By the diffe&ion of one of his patients, who died many months after this operation of a malignant fmall-pox, our author found it was occafioned by the extremities of the bones not being completely healed : fo that what he then thought a difadvantage to this operation, appears now to be one of its greateft excel¬ lencies ; namely, that the bones fhould be fairly covered by a firm periofteum; which at the fame time ac¬ counted for this phatnomenon. § 2. Of amputating the "Thigh. To attempt this operation, by preferving a flap of dlelh in the pofterior and inferior part of the thigh, muft leave fo large a flefh-wound, and fo great a quantity of mufcular flefh bare, as to require a very great length of time to bring on a firm union of the divided parts: befides, the fever, and great difeharge from fo large a furface, may alone endanger the patient’s life. Mr OHalloran, after a variety of trials, concluded, that a flap of flefh and fkin prefer- ved in the anterior part of the thigh, muft anfwerour moft funguine expe&ations: for the quantity of fkfh here is not much, the {kin, corpus adipofum, and reftus mufcle, being only interefled in the incifion; of confequence the wound not confiderable, and the flap Of the* not re(lu*re<^ very large. Our author attempted to quantity of determine, on a dead body, the quantity of flap ne- flap necef- ceffary to be preferved in this manner. The circum- fary to be ference of the thigh, at four inches from the inferior l^e rotu'a’ meafurcfl eighteen inches. Here tlre^h’-gh?2 be drew up the flefh, and bound it by a fmall band. He then began a flap-incifion on the rotula, bringing it up to the circular band, and here fawed through the bone, having firft cut through all the intervening flefh. The preferved flap meafured three inches exter¬ nally, and two and an half from the circular incifion of the flefh to its internal extremity. The diameter of the femur, in its loweft axis, or nearly from fide to fide, was exaftly an inch and one-tenth; and yet this flap, befides completely covering the bone, ex¬ tended an half inch beyond it. By this plain and fimple experiment, it appears, that the flap-opera* t E R Y. Part III. tion in the thigh, by making your incifion in its an- Praftice. terior part, becomes lefs complex, lefs painful, and “ even more expeditious in its cure, than the fame ope¬ ration in the leg. After determining on the precife place on which the limb is to be taken off, care muft be taken to have the blood-veffels maftered in the ope¬ ration, either by Petit’s or the common tourniquet, as in the ufual manner: then let the flefh and fkin be tightly drawn up from the knee, and fo fecured above the place of ele&ion by a circular tape or band. Mr Gooch propofes a kind of thick circular cufhion to ferve inftead of this band, to direft the knife exa&Iy in the circular tour ; but Mr O'Halloran thinks that a thick tape will anfwer this purpofe every bit as well, as this operation is moflly exadlly even, and that the cufhion rather hides the dire&ionof the knife from the eye. With a ftraight knife, fuch as has been defcri¬ bed in taking off the leg, commence your flap-inci¬ fion at about three inches more anteriorly than where the bone is to be fawed through, fuppofing an adult, and fo in proportion to the age and fize of the limb. Let this incifion be continued in an oblique direftion till you reach the bone at the circular tape; then with the fame, or a common amputating knife, make your circular fweep, commencing from the fide of the flap and direftly to the bone ; obferving here, as in the leg, to place yourfelf outfide the body in taking off the right thigh, and between the legs in removing the left. But then tkere is no necefflty here, as in the leg, of change of place in fawing the bone ; becaufe, as it is but one, wherever you place yourfelf to cut off the foft parts, there you may flay to finifh the opera¬ tion. As foon as the circular incifion is completed, the tape fhould be removed and the fplit cloth crofs the divided parts, in order to draw up the fkin and mufcles, the (ingle tail covering the flap; and as foon as the periofteum is feparated, &c. let the bone be fawed. The femoral artery fhould be fecured as already di- re&ed ; and befides this ligature, let fome agaric or lycoperdon be applied : and any other confiderable branches of veffels may be taken up or ftopt by the above fungufes. Let the furface of the fore be covered of dreffing with loofe unformed lint ftrewed with flour, and the the (lump, flap laid over this drefling covered by a double T pla¬ fter ; an handful of lint outfide this, gently preffed againft the flap by an hog’s bladder, moiftened and notched at its orifice ; and the whole covered by a crofs comprefs. Let foft lint, tow, or a linen com- prefs, cover the direftion of the artery ; and fecure all thefe drefflngs on by a band about three inches broad, and twelve yards long, rolled up in two even heads. Apply a large handful of loofe lint or foft tow over the femoral artery near the groin ; and after making a couple of circulars about this part, moderately tight, fo as to break in fome meafure the force of the circu¬ lating fluid, let the bands crofs round the body. Fix a piece of ftrong tape, about an inch or more broad, and a yard long, along the infide of the amputated thigh, one end of which is to be fecured to the band that went round the body, and the other to hang loofe over the flump : let a fimilar piece of tape be in like manner fixed to the outfide of the thigh : then, with one of the heads of your bandages, make three or four circulars round the thigh over thefe tapes, gently de¬ fending; Fart III, SURGERY. 8457 Praftice. fcending ; and with the other head crofs direftly over the anterior part of the thigh and ftump, and afcend pofteriorly : a couple of circulars of the other head, gently afcending, will fecure it fmooth and firm. De- fcend again over the infide of the thigh, crofs the hump, and mount with your firft band outfide the thigh ; and here another circular or two makes this fecond turn firm. Between the anterior and lateral turns of the band you muft bring down your roller crofs the ftump, and afcend in the oppofite direction : and here, again, a couple of circulars of the other rol¬ ler will make alkfirm. Between the pofterior and la¬ teral-parts of the band you muft make a fourth turn over the flump, and fecure it by another circular, and finifh both heads by circulars or fpifal tarns round the Hump ; or if too long, they may be cut off. Thouga the Hump be now apparently well bound, yet, by rea- fon of the form of the thigh, the bands may be apt to loofen, or ever? drop off: to prevent this, let the tapes already mentioned be turned up at their loofe extremi¬ ties ; the infide one to crofs over the infide of the thigh, and, as it afcends, to be here and there fecured by pins to the circulars, and to part of the band that went round the body ; and in like manner the outfide tape. By this means the circular turns, which only could loofen, will be fmoothly retained in their differ¬ ent places, and the whole bandaging convenient, firm, and even. The bandaging, however, fhould be but moderately tight, as the i'welling of the ftump will foon make them fgfficiently diftended. In winter, the ftump (hould not be opened before the fifth, or even fixth Bay ; nor in fummer fooner than the fourth : the bone fhould be dreffed with dry lint, or lint wet in brandy, and thefoft parts with the common digeftive ; taking care to remove no more of the old dreffings th'an what are loofe. When fuppu- ration is well eftablifhed, the flump and flap may be dreffed with dry lint, as the foft digeflives at this time are apt to [encourage exuberant or proud flefh. If, neverthelefs, fuch (bould rife on the flap, it may be now and then fprinkled with red precipitate ; but the furgeon need never be uneafy at attempting an union of the flap and ftump at fuch time. About the 12th or rjth day, and not fooner, fhould the flap and flump be brought into perfect union i before this they are to be treated as diftinfl fore*, and preferved in fuch fituation by a bandage fomething like what has been recommended for the leg. But whereas that was fe¬ cured above the knee, to make this a fixed point, the flraps*muft go round the body, and the body of the band lie on the anterior part of the flump, in order gently to bring the flap and dump into an exaft union. This firft dreffing is not to be opened for three days; an^ every other rule recommended in the leg is her& exadlly to be followed. If, in the fuppurative flate, the fore fhould have an unufual degree of pain and fenfibility, the parts may be often bathed in milk and water; the fick let blood ; and even opium, alone or mixed with digeflives, may be fuccefsfully applied * to the parts. §$• Of amputating the Arm. s8o In amputating the thigh, we have, for very obvious reafons, cholcvto taken the flap from its anterior part, as being a lefs confiderable wound, having lefs of fub- Vol. X. fiance, and of courfe fooner covering the bone, the Pratfice. principal objefk of all. For precifely the fame reafons, in taking off the arm, the flap of flefh fhould be taken from its pofterior part, as being lefs flefhy, and nearer the bone: here a flap of flefh, from two and half to three inches, will be certainly fufficient to cover the bone. The bandaging here muft be pretty nearly the fame as in the thigh ; though, as the arm is almoft: cylindrical, fome may think it unneceffary to crofs the band round the body, as it might be apt to heat and opprefs the patient. But if this fhould be thought proper to be difpenfed with, a flat tape fhould from the neck hang down each fide of the arm, the banda¬ ging to be performed over it, and the two extremities of it turned back, pinned to the circulars, and fo firmly fecured to the neck-band. The union fhould be at¬ tempted about the eleventh day. $ 4. Of amputating the Fore-arm. To take off the fore-arm, we mull look for the flap in its external part, as having lefs to cut through; but above all, as by this means you avoid bringing in that groupe of tendons which cover the infide of the fore-arm. Here from an inch and an half to two inches will be undoubtedly fufficient to cover the bones; but then in the incifion you muft comprehend the full breadth of the flefh and flein on the back of the fore¬ arm. The dreflings and bandaging will be eafily comprehended from what has been already faid ; and about the tenth day you may attempt an union of parts. Sect. XIX. The Method of opening a dead Body. Surgeons are often called on this occafion, in or- S79 der to inveftigate the caufc and feat of difeafes and death, either by the relations of the deceafed, or the magiflrates, to whom report is to be made; therefore, at the time of performing this operation, minutes fhould be taken of what is obferved. The inftruments, and all things neceffary, fhould be difpofed in order, as for any other operation; as knives, a razor, a great and fmall faw, feiflars ftraight and curved, elevators, needles threaded, fponges, tow, faw-duft or bran, bafons with water, towels, and receivers for the vifeera when they are to be taken out of their cavities; and fhould the body have undergone any degree of putre- fa&ion making it offenfive, it will be right to have a mixture of lavender-water and vinegar, or fome fuch thing, to fprinkle it with, &c. The body is to be laid upon a fuitable table, advantageoufly placed for the light, having a cloth thrown over the parts which decency demands fhould be concealed, efpecially in females. When it is intended only to infpeA the abdomen and its contents, a longitudinal incifion from the xiphoid cartilage to the os pubis, interfe&ed by a tranfverfe one at the navel, will give a fair opportuni¬ ty of anfwering thefe purpofes, when the angles are reverfed. Should it be required to examine all the three cavities, and the parts contained in them, we are to begin by ppening the head, making an incifion quite crofs to the bone, from ear to ear; which fedlion is preferable to the crucial, commonly made on this occafion: then the fcalp may be eafily differ¬ ed from the fkull, and turned down over the face, 42 K and 8458 SURGERY. Part III. Practice, and towards the neck, giving room for the faw. The ~ head muft be held very fteadily by an afliftant during the fawing, which fhould be begun on the middle of the frontal, proceeding to each temporal bone, and fo to finifh the circle upon the middle of the occipital bone; which'may generally be done conveniently enough, by raifing the head and inclining it forward, after having proceeded as far as this bone ; or the body may then be turned prone, fhould that pofture be found more convenient, to complete the circle. The cap of the fkull is then to be raifed with the elevator, occafionally cutting the adhefions of the dura mater: after this the encephalon is to be removed, carefully feparating the other attachments of the membrane. In order to bring the thorax and abdomen, with the parts contained in thefc cavities, under one view, an incifion is to be made on each fide the fternum, in the courfe of the cartilages of the ribs which are an¬ nexed to it; differing from thence the mufcles with the teguments, the fpace of two or three inches to¬ wards the fpine ; then cutting through the cartilages, which will be feen, and eafily divided with a knife a little curved near the point; then the incifions are to be continued from the fternum through the abdomi¬ nal cavity, in an oblique direftion, to each ileon or inguen ; after which the clavicles are to be feparated from the fternum, or this bone divided at its fuperior cartilaginous junftion, with a ftrong knife, difie&ing it from themediaftinum,and turning it downwards with the mufeies, &c. of the abdomen. This is the moft eligible manner of opening thefe cavities, and gives an opportunity of fewing them up, with a better ap¬ pearance for any perfon’s view afterwards. That kind of ftitch called by fempftrefles the herring-bone or flat fleam, has a very pretty and neat effeft upon thefe occafions.. If it is propofed to take out the thoracic and abdo¬ minal vifeera together, for further examination, the diaphragm is firft to be cut down to the fpine on both fides ; then, to avoid being incommoded with blood, &c. two very ftrong ligatures are to be palled round the cefophagus and large blood-veffels, in which the trachea may be included ; tying them ftrait, and then dividing thefe parts between the ligatures: the- fame meafures are to taken in refpeft to the inferior vefiels, upon the lumbar region, a little above the bifurcation of the aorta, including the vena cava ; and alfo upon the reftum. After having obferved thefe precautions, the vifeera, with the diaphragm, are to be removed, by a wary difleftion, all the way clofe to the fpine ; and gently drawing them at the fame time, will greatly facilitate the reparation. When the thoracic and abdominal vifeera are to be taken out feparately, in the firft cafe ligatures muft be made as have been deferibed upon the velfels, &c. juft above the diaphragm, and in the other juft below it, and upon the re£tum. Should we be called upon to perform this office when the body is become very putrid, it will be abso¬ lutely neceflary to have fuch parts of it well wafhed with warm vinegar and brandy, and then fprinkled with lavender-water or fome fuch odoriferous anti- putrefeent liquor, before the examination, in order to correct the ftench, and defend us againft the noxious quality of the effluvia : a precaution, the neglea of Pnftice, which may be attended with very direful effeas, and of which we have inftanees. Sect. XX. Ofl Embalming dead Bodies. In the early ages of the world, the praaice of em- balming dead bodies was very common, particularly among the Egyptians ; but it has long been difufed in almoft all countries, except for great perfonages. See Embalming. The following direaions are taken from Mr Gooch, to whom they were communicated by a perfon of great charader, and well acquainted with - the modern practice of embalming in this kingdom. After evifeeration, as has been directed in opening a dead body, and continuing the incifion farther up¬ wards, even into the mouth, and, if pra&icable, with¬ out cutting the fkin of the neck, all the cavities are to be well cleanfed, and the humidity fucked up with fponges, then waffled with tinft. myrrh#, and filled with a fpecies,. compounded of fragrant herbs, aro¬ matic drugs, and gums reduced to powder not very fine, firft reftoring the heart to its former refidence, after having opened its ventricles, cleanfed and waffled them with the tin&ure, fluffed them with the fpecies, and fewed them up; and then the cavities are to be ftitched very clofe with the glover’s or fpiral future. Large and deep incifions are alfo to be made in all the moft fleffly parts, cleaning and waffling them with the tinfture in the fame manner, filling them with the antifeptic fpecies, and Hitching them up. Then the head, trunk, and limbs, are to be perfe&ly well covered with cerecloth ; putting a piece under the chin, to be fccured by fewing on the top of the head, after having well adjufted the cap of the fkull, fewed the fcalp together, and cleaned the mouth, as has been dire&ed for the other parts, and putting in fome of the fpecies. The cerecloth is to be prepared, according to art, with a compofition made of wax, rofin, ftorax, and painter’s drying oil. After the application of the cere¬ cloth, with great care and exa&oefs, cut into fuitable pieces, according to the refpe&ive parts, and clofing them well every where ; the face being clofe fflaved, is to be covered with fome of the above compofuion melted, and laid on with a bruffl of a proper degree of heat, and of a moderate thicknefs ; which may have a faint fleffl-colour given it with vermillion ; and when it is grown cold and (tiff upon this part, it may belightly ft ruck over with hard varnifh; or this varniffl, applied thick, may here ferve the purpofe alone. A cap is to be well adapted to the head, falling down upon the neck, and to be fewed under the chin, making a few circular turns about the neck with a roller of a fit breadth. All the reft of the corpfe is to be mclofed in a ffleet, to be artfully cut, and few'ed on very clofe and ftnopth, with the fineft tape> and the flat fleam mentionedinthepireceding fe£tion; overwhich an appropriate drefs is to be put, as the relations or friends think fit to direil and appoint, and then laid into the coffin, which fflould be in readinefs: but when it is fome great perfonage, who is to lie in flate for public view before the funeral rites are folemnized, the drefs muft be appropriated to his dignity and character. The brain and other vifeera are to be put with fame of the fpecies into a leadea box. Some¬ times Part III. S U R Pnftice. times tlie heart, prepared as has been direfted, to * preferve it from putrefa&ion, is depofited in an urn by itfelf. Exflanati6n of P’ates CCLXXVIII. CCLXXIX. CCLXXX. CCLXXXI. CCLXXXII. Fig. j. A, A direfitor by which to guide the knife ■in the opening ofabfcefles that are burft of themfelves, or firft pun&ured with a lancet. This inftrument fhould be made either of Reel, filver, or iron ; but fo tempered, that it may be bent and accommodated to the di- re&ion of the cavity. It is ufualiy made quite ftraight; but that form prevents the operator from holding it firmly while he is cutting. The manner of ufing it is, by paffing the thumb through the ring, and fupporting it with the fore finger, while the ftraight-edged knife is to Aide along the groove with its edge upwards, towards the extremity of the abfeefs. B, The ftraight-edged knife, proper for opening abfeeflee with the afitftance of a director ; but which. In few other refpe&s, is preferable to the round-idged knife. C, A crooked needle, with its convex and concave fides fharp : this is ufed only in the future of the ten¬ don, and is made thin, that but few of the fibres of fo Bender a body as a tendon may be injured in the palling of it. This needk is large enough for Hitching the tendo achillis. D, The largefl crooked needle neceflary for the tying of any veffels, and Ihould be ufed with a ligature of the fize it is threaded with in taking up the fper- matic veflels in caftration, or the femoral and humeral arteries in amputation. This needle may affo be ufed in fewing up deep wounds. E, A crooked needle and ligature of the moft ufe- ful fize, being not much too little for the largeft veflels, nor a great deal too big for the fmalleft; and there¬ fore, in the taking up of the greateft number of veffels in an amputation, is the proper needle to be employ¬ ed. This needle alfo is of a convenient fize for fevving up moft wounds. F, A fmall crooked needle and ligature for taking up the leffer arteries, fuch as thofe of the fcalp, and thofe of the Ikin that are wounded in opening abfeeffes. Great care ftiould be taken by the makers of thefe needles to give them a due temper: for if they are too foft, the force fometimes exerted to carry them through the flefh, will bend them ; if they are too brittle, they fnap; both which accidents may happen to be terrible inconveniences, if the furgeon be not provided with a fufScient number of them. It is of great importance alfo to give them the form of part of a circle, which makes them pafs much more readily round any veffel, than if they were made partly of a circle, and partly of a ftraight line ; and in taking up veffels at the bottom of a deep wound is abfolutely neceffary, it being imprafticable to turn the needle with a ftraight handle, and bring it round the veffel when in that fituation. The convex furface of the needle is flat, and its two edges are (harp. Its con¬ cave fide is compofed of two furfaces, rifing from the edges of the needle, and meeting in a ridge or emi¬ nence, fo that the needle has three fides. The belt materials for making ligatures, are the flaxen thread G E It Y. that fltoe-makers ufe; which is fufficiently ftrong when four, fix, or eight of the threads are twilled to¬ gether and waxed ; and is not fo apt to cut the nffdg as threads that are more finely fpun. G, A ftraight needle, fuch as glovers ufe, with a three-edged point, ufeful in the uninterrupted future, in the future of tendons where the crooked one C is not preferred, and in fewing up dead bodies, and is rather more handy for taking up the veffels of the fcalp. Fig. 2. A, The round-edged knife, of a convenient fize for almoft all operations where a knife is ufed: the make of it will be better underftood by the figure than any other defeription ; only it may be remarked, that the handle is made of a light wood, as indeed the handles of all inftruments fliould be, that the refiftance to the blades may be better felt by the furgeon. B, A pair of probe-feiffars, which require nothing very particular in their form, but that the lower blade fliould be made as fmall as poffible, provided it be ftrong and has a good edge; becaufe, being chiefly ufed in fiftulas in ano, the introdudion of a thick blade into the finus, which is generally narrow, would be very- painful to the patient. C, The crooked knife with the point blunted, ufed in the operation of the bubonocele. Fig. 3. A, A trocar of the moft convenient fize for emptying the abdomen when the water is not gela¬ tinous. It is here reprefented with the perforator in the canula, juft as it is placed when we perform the operation. B, The canula of a large trocar, recommended in cafes where the water is gelatinous. C, The perforator of the large trocar. Fig. 4. A, A found ufed in fearching for the ftonc- The fize reprefented here is but a little too large for the youngeft children, and may be ufed upon boys till they are thirteen or fourteen years of age : a larger fliould be employed between that age and adultnefs, when one of about ten inches, in a right line from the handle to the extremity, is proper. This fliould be made of fteel, and its extremity be round and fmooth. B, A ftaff fit for the operation on boys from eight to fourteen years of age. The ftaff for a man mull be of the fize of the found already deferibed. 1 C, A ftaff fomething too big for the fmalleft chil¬ dren, but may be ufed upon boys from about four years of age to eight. The ftaff has a groove on its convex fide, which firft ferves as a direftion where to cut, and afterwards, receiving the beak of the gorget, guides it readily to the bladder. Care fliould be taken, in making the groove, that the edges of it be fmoothed down, fo that they cannot wound in paffing through the ure¬ thra. The extremity fhould alfo be open ; ctherwife it will be fometimes difficult to withdraw the ftaff when the gorget is introduced, and preffes againftthe end of it. Thefe inftruments are ufually made with a greater bending than here reprefented ; but this fhape is more like to that of the urethra, and rather more advanta¬ geous for making the incifion. D, The yoke; an inftrument to be worn by men with an incontinence of urine. It is made with iron, 42 K 2 but 8459 PrafticC. 8460 . Pra&icc. S U R C but for ufe muft be covered* with velvet. It moves upon a joint at one end; and is faftened at the other by catches at different dillances placed on a fpring. It muft be accommodated to the fize of the penis, and be taken off whenever the patient finds an inclination to make water. This inftrument is exceedingly ufe- ful, becaufe it always anfwers the purpofe, and feldom galls the part after a few days wearing. Fig. 5. A, A fmall catheter made of filver. This inftrument is hollow, and ferves to draw off the.urine when under a fuppreflion. It is alfo ufed in the high operation to fill the bladder with water. Near its ex¬ tremity are two orifices, through which the water paffes into its cavity. Care fhould be taken that the edges of thefe orifices are quite fmooth. B, The knife ufed in cutting for the ftone : it is the fame already defcribed ; but it is not improper to repeat the figure with the alteration of a quantity of tow twifted round it, which makes it eafier to hold •when we perform the lateral operation, and turn the edge upwards to wound the proftate gland. C, A female catheter, differing from the male ca¬ theter, it being almoft ftraight, and fomething larger. D, A filver-wire to pafs into either catheter, for the removing any grumous blood or matter that clogs them up. Fig. 6. A, The gorget ufed upon men in the late¬ ral operation. B, the gorget ufed upon children under five years years of age in the lateral operation. A gorget between the fizes of thefe two will be fit for boys from five years of age to fifteen or fixteen. Thefe inftruments are hollow for the paffage of the forceps into the bladder; and their handles lie flant- ing, that they may the more readily be carried thro’ the wound of the proftate, W'hich is made obliquely on the left fide of it. The beak at the extremity of the gorget muft be fmaller than the groove of theftaff which is cut upon, becaufe it is to be received in the groove. Care fhould be taken that the edges of the gorget near the beak are not fharp, left, inftead of dilating the wound as it ought, it ftiould only cut on each fide when introduced ; in which cafe, it would be difficult to carry the forceps into the bladder. C, A gorget, with its handle exa&ly in the middle. This fhaped inftrument is ufed in the old way. All the gorgets fhould be made of fteel. Fig. 7. A, The forceps for extracting the ftone. Thefe are reprefented a little open, that the teeth may be better feen within-fide. This inftrument muft be of different fixes for differ¬ ent ages and ftones, from the length of four inches to one of near a foot long ; but the forceps of about eight inches long will be found moft generally ufeful. The number neceffary to be furnifhed with will be four or five. Great care fhould be taken by the makers of this inftrument that it move eafily upon the rivet; that the extremity of the chops do not meet when they are fliut} and particularly that the teeth be not too large, left, in entering deep into the ftone, they fhould break it. It is of confequence alfo that the teeth do not reach farther towards the joint than here reprefented; becaufe a fmall ftone, when received into that part, ^ E R Y. Part III. being held fafl there, would dilate the forceps excef- PraiHce. lively, and make the extraction difficult; on which account, the infide of the blades near the joint Ihould be fmooth, that the ftone may flip towards the teeth. B, A direftor made of fteel, ufed for the direction of the gorget, in the extraction of the ftone from women. C, A fcoop to take away the ftone when it is bro¬ ken into fmall pieces like land. This inftmment is made of fteel. Fig. 8. A, The perforator, commonly called the per- forating trepan. With this inftrument an orifice is ufually made for the reception of the pin on the centre of the piece of bone that is to be taken awayTn the ope¬ ration of trepanning; though, if the pin be very fharp, and project but little beyond the teeth of the faw, as in that marked with the letter B, the perforator would be needlefs; but as the point of the pin prefently grows blunt with ufe, and in that cafe it is difficult to fix the faw, it is advifable to have this inftrument in readinefs. It is alfo handy for boring into thefob- ftance of the bones, in order to promote a granulation, of flefh on their forfaces. When it is made ufe of, it muft be received and faftened in the handle C. B, The crown or faw of the'trepan, with the pin appearing juft beyond the extremities of the teeth. The fhape of this faw is cylindrical. C, The handle of the foregoing inftrument, called the trephine } which is. much preferable to the trepan (an inftrument like a wimble ufed by joiners), becaufe of the great convenience of holding it, and leaning on one fide or other of the faw, as we find it neceffary : The trepan, however, though allowed to be unhandy,, is the inftrument molt ufed by furgeons in other parts of Europe, upon the fuppofition of its working quicker than the trephine. The trephine here reprefented is of fuch a fhape as to make it a convenient elevator ; for which purpofe the extremities of it are made rough. D, A key to take out the pin E, when the faw has made an impreffion deep enough to be worked without the help of it. Fig. 9. A, A convenient forceps to take out the cir¬ cular piece of bone, when it does not ftick to the faw : the contrivance by which they readily lay hold of it, is to make the extremities that are to grafp it with an arch of the fame circle as the favv is made. Upon one of the handles there is added a little elevator, to lift up any fmall fplinter of bone. B, A lenticular: the fore-part of its blade is fharp, in order to ferape the lower edge of the orifice of the cranium, in cafe any fplinters ffionld remain after the operation ; and the button at its extremity receives the duft, that it may not fall on the brain ; but there is feldom any occafion for this inftrument. C, A rugine or rafpatory,. for feraping bones in order to promote granulations of flefh. The handles of thefe two laft inftruments are wood ; whereas every part of the others fhould be made of fteel. Fig to. A, The couching needle; the broad part of which towards the point is flat on one fide ; but on the other is a little convex, to give it more fubftance and ttrength. The handle of this inftrument is white ivory, inlaid with a ftreak of black in that part of it lying even with Fart III. S U R C Practice, with the convex filrface of the blade: The meaning of " which is, that by holding the handle with the ftreak upwards, we may be guided to deprefa the membrane of a milky cataract with the flat furface, though the fubitance of the catarad fwimmingin the eye obfcurea the needle, and prevents its being direded in a pro¬ per pofition by the fight. B, A fgeculum oculi, which is made to open or flmt by an iron button Aiding along a flit in the handle. This inftrument is compofed of one piece of fled, in fuch a manner that it would fly open by its elafticity, if the two branches of the handle were not confined by the button. The circle of it ftiould be covered with velvet, to make it lie fofter on the eye-lids. C, The knife for cutting the iris ; the blade of which has two edges, refembling a lancet, which are more advantageous than one only, in cutting the cor¬ nea for the extradion of the catarad. Fig. it. A, the eye, with the fldn of the eye-lids denuded, in order to fliow the orbicularis mufcle : the white flreak running from the inner angle of the eye towards the nofe, is the tendon of the orbicularis mufcle. At a little diflance from the internal angle, on the edge of the eye-lids, may be obfervtd two black fpots, which are the orifices of the lachrymal channels, and called the puncia lachrymalia. B, the exad dimenfion of the lachrymal channels and bag ; the pricked line reprefents the edge of the orbit. C, A fmall incifion knife, more handy than a larger ■for opening the bag. 1), The perforator to deftroy the os unguis, if ever it Ihould happen to be neceflary. E, An iron inttrument made thin and pliable, to fet even on the forehead, and for ufe covered with vel¬ vet : the holes at the three extremities receive two pie¬ ces of ribband, by which it is faftened on the fore¬ head : the button at the end of the ferew is to be placed on the faccus lachrymalis, and the ferew to be twilled till the button makes a confiderable preflure on the bag : the button fliould be covered with velvet, and a httle comprefs of plailer be laid on the bag before it is applied, to prevent the Ikin from being galled by the preffure. The little branch of iron which receives the ferew mutt be foft enough to admit of bending, otherwiCe it will be difficult to place the button exaftly on the bag. This inttrument is for the left eye ouly ; it thould be worn night and day in the beginning of a fittula, and after a fittula has been healed by incifion ; but as the fuccefs depends upon the exa£t fituation of the button upon the bag, it thould be carefully looked after. Fig. 12. A, The bent probe ufed in extirpating the tonfils, fixed in a handle, with the ligature made of the fame thread as the ligatures for tying the blood-veffels. B, The iron inttrument for tying the tonfils. This inftrutnent is alfo of great fervice in extirpa¬ ting, by ligature, -a fpecies of feirrhus that fometimes grows from the neck or cavity of the uterus. C, The needle with the eye towards the point, for paffing the ligature through the toufi), when the bafis is larger than the extremity. D, A canula made of filver to be ufed in the em¬ pyema. E, A canula to be ufed ii) bronchotomy. 5 E R Y. 8461 To keep the canulas in their place, fmall ribbands Pratficc. may be palled through the rings of them, and carried round the body and neck ; or they may be held by a ligature run through, and faltened to a hole cut in a piece of Iticking-plafter, which is to be laid on each fide of them. Fig. 13. A, The inftrument called probe raztr to cut the maftoideus mufcle in the wry neck ; it is fharp only about half its length at that end where the blade is broad. B, The two pins with the twilled future, ufed in the hare-lip. C, The polypus forceps, with one of the rings open for the reception of the thumb, which would be cramp¬ ed in pulling the forceps with much force, if it were received in the fame fort of ring as in the other handle. Fig. 14. A, The figure of the amputating knife. The length of the blade and handle Ihould be about thirteen inches. B, The figure of the faw ufed in amputating the limbs. The length of the handle and faw fliould be about feventeen inches. Fig. 15. The form of the tenaculum ufed for pulling out bleeding veflels to be tied up. Fig. 16. and 17. Two needles of a different fortn from thofe in ordinary ufe, recommended by Mr Bell as the moll convenient, particularly in deep wounds. Fig. 18. The inftrument namedporteaiguille> for pref- fing through the pins in malting the twilled future. A, The handles.. B, A groove for receiving the pins ufed in the fu ture. Fig. 19. A flat needle, fometimes ufeful in Hitching blood-velfels that lie between contiguous bones. Fig. 20. An improved tourniquet by Mr Bell, The manner of ufing it deferibed p. 8415. Fig. 2i. An improved trocar by Mr Andre, for the purpofesof tapping for the afeites or hydrocele. The roundnefs of its point makes it pierce more eafily than the common one, which is triangular. That the in¬ ftrutnent may be eaffly withdrawn after the perforation is made, the canola (fig. ,2 2-) is computed of two pieces ferewed together; by unicofing which the ii;- ftrument will ealily dilate them, and ibey will c'nfe by the preflure of the furrounding fltfh, fo as lo afford a paflage for the liquid to be drawn off. Fig. 23. Mr Bell’s trocar for evacuating the con¬ tents of anencyfted hydrocele. By the flatnefs of its form, and its point being of the lancet kind, this in¬ ftrument penetrates the cyft with great cafe; and can thereby be ufed with more fafety than the ordinary form of this inllrument. The point of the perforator is commonly made much longer than is neceffary. It ought not to pais more than the fifth or fixth jArt of an inch from the extre¬ mity of the canula ; of this length it anfwers equally well as when the point is longer, and it is not fo apt to wound the teftis on being introduced into the'cavity of the tunica vaginalis. Fig. 24. Reprefents figs. 25. and 27. united, which is then called the double gorgeret, with the cutting blade g,b, affixed to it. This inftrument is ufed in litho¬ tomy, and recommended by Mr Bromfield; {vide fupr.a, n° 478-, etfeq). ab, The handle of the hinder part. c>d, The 8462 SURGERY. Part III. Prafttce. c dt. The grooved edge of the under gorgeret, that has received the edge of the upper gorgeret. e, The beak of the under gorgeret. f. The handle of the upper gorgeret, by which the ioltruments when united, are to be introduced into the bladder. Fig. 2 j'. The upper part of the double gorgeret, with the blade affixed for cutting the proftate gland; £, the cutting blade, which is blunt at h. k, A hole or flit, through which the urine will pafs as foon as the inftrument enters the bladder. This obfervation will be a guide to the operator, as to the length of the incifion he would wifh to make of the proftate, by the farther introduftion of the inftrument when united. 1, The fcrew to fix the blade to the upper gorgeret. Fig. 26. The pofterior fide of the double gergeret when united for ufe. e, The beak formed in the under gorgeret. //, Shows the hollow of the two gorgerets when united, through which the urine comes out, when the extremity is got into the bladder. Fig. 27. The under part of the double gorgeret fe- parated from the upper, which varies but little in fhape from the common gorgeret. a. The beak; bb, the inner edges of the concave part, grooved as far as cc to permit the edges of the upper part to glide in, by which means they become one inftrument at the time of introducing it. Fig. 28. The upper part of the double gorgerer with its convex fide uppermoft ; f the handle 5 ee, the edges of the gorgeret made thin, fo as to glide along the groove in the under part of the inftrument. d, The point, which, when united, forms the double gorgeret, and fomewhat refembles the extreme part of a cow’s horn. In this form it is a very great dila¬ tator, and a much fafer inftrument than the common gorgeret when the membranous part of the urethra only is wounded in the operation of lithotomy. Fig. 29. The fame inftrument, only intended to fhow its internal or concave part. Fig. 30. The cutting blade feparated from the up- per gorgeret. /, A fmal! hole through which a fcrew pafles to fix to the upper gorgeret, as is cxpreffed by /, fig. 28. m, A little hook-like part, which is received into a flit adapted to it in the upper gorgeret. The fpace between #, a, is the only part of the blade that fliauld cut. iV.jB. Great care mult be taken by the inftrument- maker, to place the blade on the upper gorgeret in fuch diredlion, that its edge may incline obliquely downwards and outwards when the inftrument is pufti- ed on to divide part of the proftate gland. Fig. 31. Mr Wathen’s inftraments for the cure of a fiftula lachrymalis. A, The ring at the top of the ftyle. B, The inferior extremity of the ftyle rounded, To as to fill exa&ly the fmaller end of the tube. C, The ftioulder ; by means of which the ftyle is prevented from pafiing further in the tube than it is clcfigned it fhould. D, The tube, with a fmall perforation near its up¬ per or larger aperture for the admiffion pf a thread. E, The tube, with its thread in it. Praflice. F, G, H, The ftyle, tube, and thread put together; — which points out the manner in which the inftrument is fitted for ufe. I, The knot tied in the thread at the diftance of an inch from the tube. Fig. 32. Shows Mr Watheu’s contrivance for keep¬ ing a broken limb fteady. It is applicable either to •the fuperior or inferior extremities ; and in the figure is reprefented as applied to a compound fraSured leg. Fig. 33. Gives the Ikeleton of the machine which he calls a conduSlor, feparated into two portions. The knee*band a, made of tin, a little bent ; divided by four joints b, that it may fit any limb, gfea; or fmall ; holes c, for fixing the buckle and ftrap thers d, round each margin for fewing on the padding ; two tin canulas e, grooved on the outfide, and furniihed on the infide with brafs fprings/J and catches ^; fmall 'holes h, through which the catches pafs to meet the ferrae of the upright portions, when they are within the canulas. The figure in the middle reprefents the infide of the tube with the groove. Fig. 34. The ankle-band a, conftruQed as the knee- band, but lefs; Ihoulders b, to fupport and render the ferrated portions parallel to the grooved canulas; both of brafs. By comprefling the fprings, the catches are raifed, and admit the whole length of the upright ferrated portions within the canulas; reducing the conduftor to near half its length : from which redudion of the inftrument, by the difpofition of the catches and Terras, the canulas are retraded without difficulty, but can¬ not be returned the fame way unlefs the catches are elevated by compreffing the fprings. By this means, when the condudor is fixed, the extenfion hereby given to the leg, whatever it be, is fecured with the greateft certainty, tho’ alterable with the utmoft eafe. Fig. 35. The fame inftrument covered with leather, that it may fit eafy on the limb. Fig. 36. and 37. The improved fplints applied upon a broken leg, fo that the foot-pieces are plainly to be feen on both fidcs. Fig. 38. Shows a machine invented by Mr Gooch for keeping up the hand, and allowing at the fame time the motion of the fingers. This machine fhould be made a little concave, of light tough wood, fuch as beech, willow, or alder, and be covered with lea¬ ther to be glued unto the wood. Its dimenfions for a limb of a common fize fhould be about ten inches long and three and a half broad. Befides the hooks fhtfwn upon the Tides, it fhould have one in the middle. It is to be confined to the limb with fillets tied upon ftiff paper. This very fimple machine has been found of fignal fervice in luxations of the wrift, and in fradlures near that joint, as well as in other cafes where it is ne- ceffary to have the hand fupported, and alfo occafion- ally kept in gentle motion to preferve the flexure of the joint. Rule-joints may be ufed to more advantage, where there is no occafion to drop the hand, and they will allow of a little motion upwards ; when they are ufed, no hooks are required upon the machine. SURI- Surgery. /**('/. / ■plate CCKXXVITL 4 Surgery Plate CCXXXEX . Plate (VI,XXXI J'S 36* ' - V/■ !< // i / , -iS.- /hdtfyiom £u/fa £nc/. fan, a*iA*»l&12i-anvi. /gJ™. S U R [ 8463 ] S U S [Surinam SURINAM, the capital of the Dutch fettlements It in Guiana, fituated on a river of the fame name, in Surveyor, ■^at> ^ jg. yj Long. 56. o. It gives name to the country for 100 roiies round; and ftands on a river of the fame name, which is navigable for 30 leagues up the country. Befides Surinam, there are feven or eight large towns, all rich and populous, and about 500 plantations. The colony is very flourilhing, and car¬ ries on a confiderable trade in fugar, tobacco, cotton, flax, dyeing woods, &c. SURMOUNTED, in heraldry, is when one figure is laid over another. SURNAME, or SirnAme, a name added to the proper or baptifmal name, to denote the perfon of fuch a family. SURREPTITIOUS. See Subreptitious. SURROGATE, in law, denotes a perfon that is fubftituted or appointed in the room of another. SURRY, a county of England, bounded on the weft by Berklhire and.Hamplhire, on the fouth by Suffex, on the eaft by Kent, on the north by Middle- fex, from which it is parted by the Thames, whence it had the name of Suth-rey from the Saxons, i. e. the country on the fouth-fide of the river. It is 34 miles in length from eaft to weft, 21 in breadth from north to fouth, and 112 in circumference. It contains 13 hundreds, 140 parilhes, of which 35 are vicarages, it market-towns, 450 villages, 592,000 acres, and about 170,000 inhabitants. The members fent from it to parliament are 14, of which two are fent by each of the following boroughs, viz. Southwark, Bleeching- ley, Ryegate, Guildford, Gatton, Haflemere, and two for the county. The air of this county, towards the middle con- fifting moftly of hills and heath, is lharp, but pure and wholefome. About the fleirts, where it is more level, and the foil richer, the air is milder, but ftill falubrious. In the middle parts the foil is barren enough in general; but towards the extremities, and where the country is open and champaign, it is fruit¬ ful in grafs and corn, particularly on the fouth fide in in Holmfdale, in which meadows, woods, and corn¬ fields, are agreeably intermixed. The foil is alfo very fertile along the Thames, efpecially towards London, where it greatly contributes to maintain plenty in the London markets. It has feveral rivers, abounding with filh, the chief of which are the Wye, the Mole, and the Wandle. The firft of thefe is of great benefit to the county, being navigable from Weybridge to the Thames, and thereby fupplying many parts of it with neceflaries of all forts. The Mole is fo called becaufe it runs about two miles under-ground, entering at a place named the Swallows, at the bottom of Boxhill, and emerging again, as is commonly thought, at Leatherhead. The chief articles of commerce pro¬ duced in the county, are corn, boxwood, walnuts, and fullers-earth, which is fold at a groat a bufhel. % SURVEYING, the art of meafuring land ; that is, of taking the dimenfions of any tra£t of ground, laying down the fame in a map or draught, and finding the content or area thereof. See Geometry^ SURVEYOR, a perfon who has the overfight and care of confiderable works, lands, or the like. Surveyor, likewife denotes a gauger ; as alfo a perfon who furveys lands, and makes maps of them. SURVIVOR, inlaw, fignifies the longed liver of Survivo joint tenants, or of any two perfons jointly interefted Sus- in a thing. SUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬ ing to the order of belluae. They have four conver¬ ging fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and fix prominent ones in the under jaw; the fnout is truncated, promi¬ nent, and moveable. There are five fpecies. 1. The feropha, or common hog, with the body covered with briftles ; two large teeth above and below. In a wild ftate, of a dark brinded colour, and beneath the briftles is a foft fhort hair ; the cars fhort, and a little round¬ ed. Tame : the ears long, fiiarp-pointed, and flouch- ing ; the colour generally white, fometimes mixed with other colours. In a tame ftate it is univerfal ; except in the frigid zones, and in Kamtchatka, where the cold is very fevere. Since its introdu&ion into America by the Europeans, it abounds to excefs in the hot and temperate parts. It is found wild in rooft parts of Europe. In the forefts of South America there are vaft droves, which derive their origin from the Euro- ropean kind relapfed into a ftate of nature; and are what Mr Bancroft in his Hiftory of Guiana, 126, de- ferihes as a particular fpecies by the name of IVarree. They cannot bear exceflive cold ; inhabit wooded countries; and are very fwift. In America they are ufeful by clearing the country of rattle-fnakes, which they devour with fafety. Of all quadrupeds, the hog is the moft rude and brutal. The imperfeftions of his form feem to have an influence on his nature and difpofitions. All bis habits are grofs; all his appetites are impure; all his fenfations are confined to a furious luft, and a brutal gluttony. He devours indiferiminately every thing that comes in his way, even his own progeny the moment after their birth. This voracioufnefs feems to proceed from the perpetual cravings of his ftomach, which is of an immoderate fize ; and the grdffnefs of his appetites, it is probable, arifes from the bluntnefs of his fenfes of tafte and of feeling. The rudenefs of the hair, the hardnefs of the fkin, and the thicknefs of the fat, render thefe animals lefs fenfible to blows. Mice have been known to lodge upon a hog's back, and to eat his Ikin and fat, without his flaowing any marks of fenfibility. The other fenfes-of the hog-are very good. It is well known to the hunters that the wild boar hears and fmells at a great diftance ; for, in or¬ der to furprife him, they are obliged to watch him in filence during the night, and to place themfelves op- pofite to the wind, that he may not perceive the fmell, which never fails to make him turn back. But the hog, though.the raoft impure and filthy of all quadrupeds, is yet ufeful by the very fordidnefs of its manners ; this alone devouring what is the refufe of all others, and contributing not only to remove what would be a nuifance to the human race,/but alfo con¬ verting, the moft naufeous offals into the richeft nutri¬ ment : for this reafon its ftomach is capacious, and its gluttony exedfive : not that its palate is infenfibie to the difference of eatables; for where it finds variety, it will rejedt the worft with as diftinguilhing a tafte as other quadrupeds. The parts of this animal are finely adapted to its way of life. As its method of feeding is by turning up the earth, with its nofe for roots of different kinds, fo- S U S [ 8464 ] s u s Sus. fb nature has given it a more prone form than other animals ; a ftrong brawny neck; eyes fmall, and placed high in the head; alongfnout, nofe callous and tough, and a quick fenfe of fmelling to trace out its food. Its inteftines have a ftrong refcmblance to thofe of the human fpecies. The external form of its body is very unwieldy ; yet, by the ftrength of its tendons, the wild boar (which is only a variety of the common kind) is enabled to fly from the hunters with amazing agility: the back-toe on the feet of this animal prevents its flipping while it defcends declivities, and muft be of Angular ufe when purfued. Yet, notwithftanding its powers of motion, it is by nature ftnpid, inaftive, and drowfy ; much inclined to increafe in fat, which is dif- pofed in a different manner from that of other animals, and forms a regular coat over.the whole body. It is reft- lefs at a change of weather, and in certain high winds is fo agitated as to run violently, fcreaming horribly at the fame time : it is fond of wallowing in the dirt, ei¬ ther to cool its forfeited body, or to deftroy the lice, ticks, and other infefts with which it is infefted. Its difeafes generally arifc from foul feeding and intem¬ perance ; meafles, impofthumes, and fcrophulous com¬ plaints, are reckoned among them. Thefe are beft prevented by keeping the animals, as the ancients ftrongly recommended, very clean in their flies; al¬ lowing them air, txercife, and a fufficiency of water. JLinnseus obferves, that its flefli is wholefome food for athletic conftitutions, or thofe that ufe much exercife; but bad for fuch as lead a fedentary life : it is, how¬ ever, of moft univerfal .ufe ; and furnifhes numberlefs materials for epicuriun. The boar, or male of thefe creatures, is chofen with .great care, when intended for the propagation of his fpecies; and is thus employed from the age of two to dive years, and then either fold or fatted. The males not allotted to this ufe are caftrated, foraetimes at the age of fix weeks, and fometimes when they are fix month-old; and then fed to a fize either for fale or for the ufe of the family. Sows are kept for breed generally from one year old to feven, and are then fpayed and fatted. They have commonly more greafe on their inteftines than hogs, thefe being fatteft on their backs. As to the age of thefe animals, it is faid that the life of the wild boar may be extended to twenty- five or thirty years. Ariftotle fays, that hogs in ge¬ neral live twenty years ; and adds, that both males and females are fertile till they arrive at the age of fif¬ teen. They can engender at the age of nine or twelve months; but it is better to reftrain them till they be eighteen months or two years. The firft litter of the fow is not numerous; and, when only one year old, her pigs are weak, and even imperfect. She may be faid to be in feafon at all times. Though full, ftie fo- licits the approach of the male. This may be regard¬ ed as an excefs among animals; for almoft every other fpecies refufe the male after conception. The „ ferdour of the fow, though almoft perpetual, is how¬ ever marked by paroxyfms and immoderate movements, which always terminate by her wallowing in the mire. She, at the fame time, emits a thick whitifh fluid. She goes four months with young; brings forth in the be¬ ginning of the fifth; and foon afterwards folicits the male, is impregnated a fecund time, and of courfe brings forth twice a-year. The wild fow, which every way refembles the domeftic kind, produces only once a-year. This difference in fertility is probably owing to want of nourifhment, and the neceflity of fuckling her pigs much longer*than the domeftic fow, which is never allowed to nurfe her young above fifteen days or three weeks. Only eight or nine of the litter are kept longer; the reft are fold. In fifteen days, pigs are excellent food. As thefe creatures, though exceedingly voracious, will feed almoft on any thing, they are bred and kept every where, and are quickly and cheaply fatted. In miry and in marfhy grounds (from which they are not averfe) they devour worms, frogs, fern, rufh, and fedge roots. In drier and in woody countries, they feed on hips, haws, floes, crabs, mail, chefnuts, acorns, &;c. and on this food they will grow flefhy and fat. They are a kind of natural fcavengers, will thrive on the trafh of an orchard, the outcafts of the kitchen, the fweepings of barns and granaries, the offals of a mar¬ ket, and moft richly on the refufe of a dai»y. If near the lea, they will fearch the fliores fori fhell-fifh ; in the fields, they eat grafs; and in cities and large towns they are kept in great numbers, and fupported chiefly by grains. It is evident that the facility of feeding them everywhere at a fmall expence, is a national be¬ nefit, more efpecially in a country where the people are accuftomed to eat flefh daily, and could not per¬ haps perform their daily labour if they did not. It is no lefs obfervable, that notwithftanding this facility o^ feeding, and the multitudes of fwine maintained, they feldom fail of coming to a good market. In no part of Europe is the management of thefe creatures better underftood than in Britain. The time of farrowing is adjufted to the nature of the farm, the food it can fupply ; and the number of pigs fold and kept are in like manner adjufted. New kinds of food, more wholefome and nutritive than what were ufed formerly, have been introduced, fuch as turnips, car¬ rots, clover, &c. They are in moft places regularly managed and clofely attended. Tuflcr, many years fince, affirmed from his own experience, that a fow might bring as much profit as a cow. In fome coun¬ ties, it is faid, a fow dependent on a dairy hath pro¬ duced, all expences dedufted, about 101. in the'fpace of a year. It may be fome fatisfaftion to the reader to know, that, on a nice calculation, the annual pro¬ fits of a fow in France are found to be between 50 and 6olivres. In Britain, tbefe animals in differ¬ ent counties are of very different fizes. In Leicefter- fhire, Nortbamptonfhire, and Pembrokefhire, they are very large. In Hampfhire, Wiltfliire, and where- ever they can run in the woods, and feed on maft and acorns, their fldh is firmer and better. The Chinefe breed are common with us : they are fmaller, blacker, and their legs fhorter ^than ’ours ; fo that, when fat, their bellies literally touch the ground. They thrive exceedingly well with us, are very prolific, and their flefh admirably fine and well-tafted. In confriering the advantages derived from tbefe creatures, it is tobe obferved, that the flefli of all their different kinds, and at all ages, is looked upon as a very fubftantial and agreeable aliment, and of courfe, in their proper feafons, the different forts of provifiona this fupplies are all of them very faleable. The wild boar S U S t 8465 ] s u s Sus. boar was efteemed a prime delicacy amongft the Ro- “roans, and the flelh of the tame was much more in fa¬ vour with our anceftors than with us; though brawn has ftill many admirers, ‘s made in the greateft per¬ fection, and confidered as a rarity peculiar to this country. Pork, though it might be wifely prohibited in fome warm countries, is found by experience equally nutritive and falutary here. As fuch it furnifhes a very large proportion of that food which is vended in our markets. It takes fait better, and keeps longer, than the flefli of any other animal; and the confump- tion of it is prodigious when pickled or faked, more efpecially in our foreign garrifons and in the fea fervice. Our bacon is differently cured, fo as to render it ac¬ ceptable to all palates; and our hams are not at all inferior to thofe of other countries. Frefh pork fells nearly as dear as beef; the lard brings double or triple the price; the blood, the inteftines, the feet, and the tongue, are all prepared as food. The fat of the inteftines and web, which differs from common lard, is employed for greafing axles of wheels, and many other purpofes. Sieves are made of the fkin ; and brufhes, pencils, &c. of the briftles. The dung is reputed next in value to that of fheep. Mr Worlidge (Survey of Hufbandry, p. 172.) propofes that fwine fhould be turned into a clofe, well-paled, and planted with greens, pulfe, and roots, on which they may feed, and by their tramp¬ ling and their dung raife a great quantity of excellent foil. Mr Mortimer affures us (Art of Hufbandry, . vol. i. p. 117.) that fome, on poor light fhallow land in Staffordfhire, fow afmall white pea, which they never reap, but turn in fo many hogs to eat them as they think they will fat; and there they lie day and night, and their dung will fo enrich the land, that it will bring a good fward upon it, and will graze many years after¬ wards. Our old hufbandmen had an ill opinion of this dung, as fuppofing it bred weeds, which any dung will do that abounds in falts. In fome places they wafh with hogs dung for want of foap; which anfwers tolerably well, if the linen hangs long enough in the air to become thoroughly fweet. The wild boar was formerly a native of our country, as appears from the laws of Hoel dda, who permitted bis grand huntfman to chace that animal from the middle of November to the beginning of December. William the Conqueror punifhed with the lofs of their eyes any that were convifted of killing the wild boar, the ftag, or the roebuck; and Fitz-Stephen tells us, that the vaft foreft that in his time grew on the north- fide of London, was the retreat of flags, fallow-deer, wild boars, and bulls. Charles I. turned out wild boars in the New Forefl, Hamplhire; but they were deftroyed in the civil wars. On the continent the wild boar is hunted with dogs, or killed by furprife during the night, when the moon fhines. As he flies (lowly, leaves a ftrong odour be¬ hind him, and defends himfelf againft the dogs, and often wounds them dangeronfly, fine hunting dogs are unneceffary, and would have their nofe fpoiled, and acquire a habit of moving flowly by hunting him. Maftiffs, with very little training, are fufflcient. The oldeft, which are known by the traft of their feet, 'fhould only be attacked : A young boar of three years old is difficult to hunt down ; becaufe he runs very far far without flopping. But the older boars do not Von. X. run far, allow the dogs to run near, and often flop to Sus. repel them. During the day, he commonly remains in his foil, which is in the moll fequeftrated part of the woods. He comes out in the night in queft of food. In fummer, when the grain is ripe, it is eafy to furprife him among the cultivated fields, which he frequents every night. As foon as he is flain, the hunters cut off his tefticles, the odour of which is fo ftrong, that in a few hours it would infeft the whole flefh. The fnout of an old boar is the only part that is efteemed ; but every part of the caftrated and young boar, not exceeding one year fed, makes delicate eat¬ ing. The pork of the domeftic boar is ftill worfe than that of the wild boar; and it can only be rendered fit for eating by caftration and fattening. The ancients caftrated the young boars which they could carry off from their mothers, and returned them to the woods, where they grew fat, and their pork was much better than that of domeftic hogs. 2. The aethiopicus, or Ethiopian hog, with fmall tufks in the lower jaw, very large ones in the upper, in old boars bending towards the forehead in form of a femicircle : no foreteeth : nofe broad, depreffed, and almoft of a horny hardnefs: head very large and broad: beneath each eye a hollow, formed of loofe fkin, very foft, and wrinkled; under thefe a great lobe or wattle, lying almoft horizontal, broad, flat, and rounded at the end, placed fo as to intercept the view of any thing below from the animal. Between thefe and the mouth on each fide, there is a hard callous protuberance. The mouth is fmall: fkin dufky: bridles difpofed in fafciculi, of about five each ; longeft between the ears and on the beginning of the back, thinly difperfed on the reft of the back. Ears large and (harp-pointed, infide lined with long whitifh hairs : tail (lender and flat, not reaching lower than the thighs, and is covered with hairs difpofed in fafciculi. Body longer, and legs fhorter, than in the common common fwine : its whole length 4 feet 9 inches; height before, 2 feet 2 inches: but in a wild date, it grows to an enormous fize.— Thefe animals inhabit the hotted parts of Africa, from Senegal to Congo, alfo the ifland of Madagaf- car. We know little of their nature ; but they are reprefented as very fierce and fwift, and that they will not breed with the domeftic fow. 3. The tajacu, or pecary, with four cutting teeth above, and fix below : two tufks in each jaw; thofe in the upper jaw pointing down, and little apparent when * the mouth is fhut; the others hid: length from nofe to the end of the rump about three feet: head not fo taper as in common fwine : ears fhort and ereift : body covered with briftles, ftronger than thofe of the Euro¬ pean kind, and more like thofe of a hedge-hog; they are dufky, furrounded with rings of white ; thofe on the top of the neck and back are near five inches long, grow fhorter on the fides; the belly almoft naked; from the fhoulders to the breaft is a band of white: no tail : on the lower part of the back is a gland, open at the top, difeharging a fetid ichorous liquor; this has been miftakenly called a xavs/—Inhabits the hotteft parts of South America, and fome of the An¬ tilles : lives in the forefts on the mountains: not fond of mire or marfhy places : lefs fat than the common hog. They go in great droves. They are very fierce, and will fight ftoutly with the beafts of prey : the ja- 42 L guar, S U S [ 84C6 ] s u s guar, or American leopard, is their mortal enemy ; gular form, with a citadel called Memncneum. In often the body of that animal is found with feveral of fcripture it is called Sufan, the royal citadel, from the "thefe hogs (lain in combat. Dogs will fcarce attack great number of lilies growing in that diftrift (Athe- this animal: if wounded, it will turn on the hunters, nseus); fituate on the river tlhlai, or Eulteus (Da- They feed on fruits and roots ; alfo on toads and all niel) : and the Spaniards call at this day a lily afufena manner of ferpents, which they hold with the fore-feet (Pinedo.) Sufa was the w-inter, as Ecbatana was the and ilcin with great dexterity. The flefh is rec- fummer, refidence of the kings of Perfia, (Xenophon, koned very good food; but all writers agree that the Strabo, Plutarch.) Here the kings kept their trea- dorfal gland mull be cut out as foon as the animal is fure, (Herodotus.) Now called Tujier. killed, or the flefh udll become fo infefted as not to SUSPENSION, in Scots law'. See Law,N°c1xxxv. be eatable. The Indian name of this fpecies is pa- 5. 6. 7. ytf/Vrf/, from whence feems to be derived that of/f?rwj. SUSSEX, a county of England, deriving its name 4. The babyrufla, or Indian hog, with four cutting from its fituation in refpeft of the other Saxons, and teeth in the upper, fix in the lower jaw ; ten grinders called SuJJex, i. e. the country of the South Saxons, 1\ to each jaw ; in the lower jaw two tufks pointing to- has Hampfhire on the weft, the Britifh channel on the wards the eyes, and ftanding near eight inches out of fouth, Surry on the north, and Kent on the eaft. Its their fockets; from two fockets on the outfide of the length is 65 miles, its breadth 29, and its circumfe- upper jaw two other teeth, twelve inches long, bend- rence 170. It is divided into 6 rapes, and thefe into ing like horns, their ends almoft touching the fore- 65 hundreds, in which are 312 parifhes, of which 123 head: ears fmall, ereft, fharp-pointed : along the are vicarages, one city, 18 market-towns, 1060 vil- back are fome weak briftles ; on the reft of the body lages and hamlets, and about 120,000 thoufand fouls, only a fort of wool, fuch as is on the lambs : the tail It has few good ports, though it lies along the chan- long, ends in a tuft, and is often twifted : the body nel for 65 miles, which is its greateft length, the coaft: plump and fquare. Inhabits Buero, a fmall ifle near being encumbered in many places with rocks; and Amboina : it is alfo found in Celebes, but neither on where it is more open, fuch quantities of fand are the continent of Afia or Africa ; what M- de Buffon thrown upon it by the fouth-weft winds, and the har- takes for it is the Ethiopian boar. They are fome- hours fo choaked up, that they will not admit veffels times kept tame in the Indian ides: live in herds: of any great draught or burden. The county is well have a very quick feent: feed on herbs and leaves of watered by the rivers Arun, Adar, Oufe, Rother, trees ; never ravage gardens like other fwine: their Lavant, Cuckmeer, Aftiburn, and Aften, by which flefn well-tafted. When purfued and driven to extre- it is well fupplied with fifb, as well as from the fea. mities, they ruflt into the fea, fwim very well, and even Hence different places of the county are famed for dive, and pafs thus from ifle to ifle. In the forefts different forts of fifti, as the Arun for mullets, which they often reft their heads, by hooking their upper enter it from the fea in fummer in fhoals, and by feed- tufks on fome bough. The tufks, from their form, ing upon a particular kind of herb become extremely are ufelefs in fight. delicious; Chichefter for lobfters, Selfey for cockles, 5. The hydrochteris, or river-hog, has a very large Amberley for trout, Pulborough for eels, Rye for and thick head and nofe ; fmall rounded ears ; large herrings, and the county in general for carp. It is black eyes; upper jaw longer than the lower : two remarkable, that all the rivers above-mentioned rife flrong and g’-eat cutting teeth, and eight grind- and fall into the fea within the county. ers, in each jaw ; and each of thofe grinders form The air, as well as the foil, is various in different on their furface feemingly three teeth, each flat at parts of the county. Upon the coaft the air is aguifti, their ends: legs (hort; toes long, conne&ed near their upon the hills and downs pleafant and wholefome ; but bottoms by a fmall web ; their ends guarded by a fmall fomewhat moift and foggy in the valleys, the foil be¬ hoof : no tail : hair on the body fliort, rough, and ing deep and rich, and the vegetation in fummer very brown ; on the nofe, long and hard whifkers. It grows vigorous. The downs in fome places are very fertile to the fize of a hog of two years old.-—Inhabits the in corn and grafs; in others they feed great flocks of eaftern fide of South America, from the ifthmus of fheep, whofe flefh and wool are very fine ; but of the Darien to the river of Amazons: lives in the fenny latter no inconfiderable quantity is clandeftinely ex¬ parts not remote from the banks of great rivers: runs ported to France. In the Weald and the valleys the flowly ; fwims and dives remarkably well, and keeps roads are very deep, efpecially in winter. In the for a long time under water: feeds on fruits and ve- north quarter are many woods, and fome forefts in getables: is very dexterous in catching fifh, which it other places ; whence the king’s yards are fupplied brings on fhore and eats at its eafe: it fits up, and with the largeft and beft timber in England, befide holds its prey with its fore-feet, feeding like an ape : what is made into charcoal and confumed in the iron- feeds in the night, and commits great ravages in gar- works; for on the eaft fide is plenty of iron ore, with dens. They keep in large herds, and make a horrible furnaces, forges, and mills for manufa&uring it. The noife like the braying of an afs. The flefti is tender, gunpowder of this county is faid to excel that of any but has an oily and fiftiy tafte. They are eafily made other. Thofe delicious birds called wheat-ears are tame, and grow very fat. bred in this fhire: they are no bigger than a lark, SUSA, the ancient royal refidence of the kings of but almoft an entire lump of fat. That part nowcall- Ptrfia, built by Darius Hyftafpis, according to Pliny; ed the Wild or Wea/d yf Suffex, was anciently a mere though he probably only reftored it, being a very an- defert for hogs and deer, of great extent, taking in a cient city, founded by Tithonus father of Memnon. part of Kent and Surry; and \vas called .577- It was in compafs 120 ftadia, of an oblong quadran- va, Cold Andred> and Andradfwaldr from Anderida S U T Sutherland, an adjoining city. This county is in the home-circuit ' and diocefe of Chichefter, giving titfe of earl to the family ofYelverton, and fends 28 members to parlia¬ ment, viz. two for the county, two for the city of Chichefter, and two for each of the following towns, Horlham, Lewis, Bramber, Eaft-Grinftead, Mid- hurft, Shoreham, Steyning, Arundel, Mailings, Rye, Winchelfea, and Seaford; of which the four laft are cinque-ports. SUTHERLAND, one of the moft northerly coun¬ ties of Scotland. Including Strathnavern, it borders on Caithnefs to the eaft and north-eaft, is bounded by the ocean on the north, the country of Aflynt on the weft, Rofie on the fouth, and by the German fea on the eaft and fouth-eaft. It ftretches about 80 miles in length, and 40 in breadth; is generally hilly, though in many parts arable; well watered with fmall rivers and ftreams replete with filh, and exhibiting about 60 lakes, the habitation of various filh, fwans, ducks, geefe, &c. The largeft of thefe is Lochfyn, extending 41 miles in length: fomc of them are interfperfed with fmall verdant iflands, which in fum- mer yield a very agreeable profpeft. On the coaft are many commodious harbours, and all the bays fwarm with fifh ; nay, the fea in this place produces fome valuable pearls. Sutherland affords iron, ftone, free-ftone, lime-ftone, and flate, in abundance. Here are alfo quarries of marble, and mines of coal, though the people ufe turf and peat for fuel. Lead-ore, impregnated with filver, and even fome gold, hath been found in this province, together with cryftals and pebbles. The air is fo temperate, and the foil fo good, that faffron has here been brought to perfeflion. Many parts of the country are remarkably fruitful in corn, and the pafturage is excellent every where. Befides three great forefts, there are many fmaller woods in Sutherland, abounding with deer and other game. On the hills are fed numerous flocks of fheep and black cattle ; final!, yet fweet and juicy. There is one bird peculiar to this fhire, called knagy which refembles a parrot, and digs its neft with its beak in the trunks of oaks. The northern part, called Strathnavern, and feparated from the reft by a ridge of mountains, is bounded on the north and weft by the Deucaledonian and Vergivian oceans, on the eaft by Caithnefs, and on the fouth by Affynt. The length of it, from eaft ^o weft, amounts to 34 miles ; but the breadth from north to fouth does not exceed 12 in fome places. It is very hilly ; and the mountains are fo high, that the fnow remains on the tops of them till midfummer. It is watered by Navern, from whence it derives it name : as this diftridt gives a title to the eldeft fon of the earl of Sutherland. Here are feveral woods, fre¬ quented by deer and other game, which the people take great delight in hunting. Iron-mines have been worked in fome places, but to no great advantage. Strathnavern has many frefh-water lakes or lochs; the chief of which are Loch Navern, and Loch Lyel: there are feveral iflands on the northern coaft; and in various parts of the country we fee monuments of viftories obtained over the Danes or other foreign invaders. Sutherland boafts of fome towns, and a great many villages. The people are numerous, hardy, bold, and enterprifmg 5 courteous to ftrangers; cheer- S U T ful, open, frugal, and induftrious. They, as well as Sutler their neighbours of Caithnefs, fpeak the language, and wear the garb, ufed in the Lowlands of Scotland. ) J’ They carry on a confiderable falmon-filhery. They drive a traffic with their black cattle, fheep, and horfes, at the neighbouring fairs ; but export their corn, barley, fait, coal, falmon, falted beef, butter, cheefe, wool-lkins, hides, and tallow. Here are pro- vifions of all forts in plenty; and focheap through all this country, that a gentleman may keep houfe and live much more fumptuoufly for 2001. a year than he can live for three times the money in the fouth of England. SUTLER, in war, on who follows the army and furnilhes the troops with provifion. They pitch their tents, or build their huts, in the rear of each regiment, and about head-quarters. SUTRIUM, (anc. geog.) a famous city, and an ancient colony of the Romans; the key of Etruria. The colony led feven years after the taking of Rome by the Gauls, (Velleius). Now Sutri in St Peter’s patrimony, on the river Pozzolo; furrounded on every fide with rocks, 24 miles to the north-weft of Rome. SUTTON (Samuel), was born at Alfretton in Derbylhire, and going into the army ferved under the duke of Marlborough in queen Anne’s wars with great credit. He afterwards came to London, com¬ menced brewer, and kept a coffee-houfe in Alderfgate ftreet, which was well frequented by the learned men of that time, by whom Mr Sutton was much refpeft- ed, as a man of ftrong natural parts and uncultivated genius. About the year 1740, he fchemed a very Ample and natural method for extrafting the foul air from the wells of (hips, by pipes communicating with the fire places-of the coppers; which operated as long as any fire was kept burning for the (hip’s ufe. In this happy invention, fo conducive to the fafety of mariners, he met, however, with a formidable compe¬ titor in Dr Stephen Hales ; who was at the fame time engaged in promoting his own ventilators: tho’ thefe ventilators were by no means fo well adapted to fea-ufe, where room and labour are precious, as Sut¬ ton’s air pipes ; which could fcarcely be faid to occupy any room, and required no labour to work them, as they produced a regular circulation of air, on philofo- phical principles. Neverthelefs, though Mr Sutton’s invention was warmly patronized by Dr Mead and Dr Watfon, it was ungeneroufly difeouraged by fome leading men in the navy department. Dr Mead an¬ nexed an account of thefe air-pipes, and the hiftoryof the author’s difficulties in procuring a fair trial to be made of them, to his Difcourfe on the Scurvy. Mr Sutton took out a patent in 1744, to fecure the profits of his invention to himfelf; and died about the year 1752. Sutton’/ Air-pipes. See K\%-Pipes. SUTURE, in anatomy, a kind of articulation peculiar to the cranium or fkuli. See Anatomy, n° 2 e. and chap. ii. pajfim. Suture, in furgery, a method of uniting the lips of wounds together. See Surgery, n° 65, 397, etfeq. SWABBER, an inferior officer on board (hips of war, whofe employment it is to fee that the decks are kept clean and neat. [ 8467 1 42 L 2 SWAL- •Swallow Swammer¬ dam. SWA [ 8468 ] SWA SWALLOW, in ornithology. See Hirundo. SwALiow-lVort, in botany. See Asclepias. SWAMMERDAM (John), a celebrated and learned natural philofopher, was the fon of John James Swammerdam, an apothecary and famous na- turalift of Amfterdam, and was born in 1637. His father intended him for the church, and with this view had him inftruOed in Latin and Greek; but he, thinking himfelf unequal to fo important a talk, pre¬ vailed with his father to confent to his applying hirn- felf to phyfic. As he was kept at home till he Ihould be properly qualified to engage in that ftudy, he was frequently employed in cleaning his father’s curiofnies, and putting every thing in its proper place. Thisinfpired our author with an early tatte for natural hiftory ; fo that, not content with the furvey of the curiofities his father had purchafed, he foon began to make a collec¬ tion of his own, which he compared with the accounts given of them by the belt writers. When grown up, he ferioufly attended to his anatomical and medical ftudies; yet fpent part of the day and the night in difcovering, catching, and examining the flying infeits proper to thofe different times, not only in the province of Hol¬ land, but in thofe of Guelderland and Utrecht. Thus initiated in natural hiftory, he went to the univerfity of Leyden in 1651 ; and, in 1663, was admitted a candidate of phyfic in that univerfity. His attention being now engaged by anatomy, he began to con- fider how the parts of the body, prepared by dif- feftion, could be preferved, and kept in conftant order for anatomical demonftration; and herein he fucceeded, as he had done before in his nice con¬ trivances to difled and manage the minuted infeds. Our author afterwards made a journey into France, where he fpent fome time at Saumur, and where he became acquainted with feveral learned men. In 1667, he returned to Leyden, and took up his degree of dodor of phyfic. The next year the grand duke of Tufcany being in Holland, in order to fee the curiofities of the country, came to view thofe of our author and his father; and on this occafion Swam¬ merdam made fome anatomical diffedions of infeds in the prefence of that prince, who was ftruck with ad¬ miration at our author’s great lltill in managing them, efpecially at his proving that the future butterfly lay with all its parts neatly folded up in a caterpillar, by adually removing the integuments that covered the former, and extricating and exhibiting all its parts, however minute, with incredible ingenuity, by means of inftruments of inconceivable finenefs. On this oc¬ cafion the duke offered our author 12,coo florins for his fhare of the colledion, on condition of his removing them himfelf into Tufcany, and coming to live at the court of Florence; but Swammerdam, who hated a court life, declined his highnefs’s propofal. In 1663, he publilhed a General Hiftory of Infeds. About this time, his father began to take offence at his inconfiderately negleding the pradice of phyfic, which might have fupported him in affluence ; and would neither fupply him with money nor deaths. This reduced him to fome difficulties. In 1.675, publifhed his Hiftory of the Ephemeras; and his fa¬ ther dying the fame year, left him a fortune fufficient for his fupport: but he did not long furvive him, for he died in 1682. Gaubius gave a tranflation of all his works from the orginal Dutch into Latin, from Swan, which they were tranflated into Englifh, in folio, in Swanpa«t 1758. The celebrated Boerhaave wrote his life. ’ ' SWAN, in ornithology. See Anas. SWANPAN, or Chinefe Abacus ; a board or inftrument for performing arithmetical operations, de- feribed by Du Halde in his Hilfory of China. The following conftrudion is an improvement of that by Mr G. Smethurft, publifhed in the Gent. Mag. for. 1748. In the fquare frame of wood A BCD, are four Plate divifions formed by the bars EF and GH; of thefeCCLXX. divifions three are feparated into two parts by the lefler bars a 6. In each of the fmaller divifions are placed wires, to be taken out at pleafure; and on each of the wires in the left-hand divifions is ftrung a fmall ivory ball, or large bead ; and on the wires on the right-hand divifion are placed four fucb ballsor beads. The balls in the left-hand divifions, when brought up to the middle bar, ftand each for five; and thofe in the right divifions, when brought to the bar, ftand for units. The balls in the two lower divifions reprefent inte¬ gers, or the whole of any quantity ; thofe on the up- permoft wires ftand for ten of fuch integers, the next for hundreds, and fo on, as is expreffed in the figure. The wires, in all the divifions, may be increafed to any number you think proper. ■ The balls in the four upper divifions reprefent parts of integers ; thofe in the two divifions next the left- hand ftand for tens; and thofe in the two other divi* fions, for units of fuch parts. Now if the fum you would fet down be integers, begin with the balls in the two lower divifions: for example, on the third row from the top bring two balls, of the right hand divifion, up to the middle bar (fee the figure); then bring up two on the next row, and one on the fame row in the left divifion; next, four on the top row, and one on the other fide of the fame row: then in the firft row of units, from the bottom, and in the right-hand divifion, place two balls, on the fecond row one, and one alfo on the fame line in the right-hand divifion of tens; laftly, on the third row of units place three balls. The balls being thus placed, if the integers be pounds fterling, they will exprefs 279 1. 2s. 11 ^d. If the integers be hundred weights, the fum will be279cwt. 2qrs. nib. 30Z.; or if tuey be years, they will denote 279 years, 2 months, 11 days, 3 hours. A part of thefe balls may reprefent fradlions, either vulgar or decimal: the balls in the firft. two divifions of parts may ftand for the numerators, and thofe in the other two for denominators ; or the numbers in either of thefe divifions may be added to thofe in the integers, as decimals. There may alfo be holes made in the bars where the dots are placed, in which pegs may be occafionally put, to ftiow that thofe numbers ftand for fractions. By this inftrument all the operations of arithmetic may be readily performed. Suppofe, for example, you would multiply the fum fet down in the divifion of integers, that is, 279, by 3. Begin with theloweft line, and fay 3 times 2 is 6, therefore fet that num¬ ber up ; then on the next row, fay 3 times 7 is 21, therefoxe iaftead of 7 fet up 1 on that line, and carry S W E [ 8469 ] S W E Sfwanpan the two tens to the line below, which will make the - _ II number there 8. Then at the upper line fay, a times 9 is 27, therefore fet 7 on that line, and carry 2 to the next line below, which will make that number 3. So that the balls on the three lines will then exprefs 837- If you would divide 279 by 3, begin in like man¬ ner with the lowed line: but as 3 cannot be taken in 2, you add the next number to it, and fay, the threes in 27 are 9 ; therefore fet back the 2 on the lowed line, and place 9, indead of 7, on the next line above : then at the uppermod line fay, the threes in 9 are 3 ; therefore indead of 9 place 3 on that line, and confequently the quotient will be 93. When there is a remainder, it may be placed with the divifor, as a fradion, in the upper divifions. Where there are many figures in the multiplicand and multiplier, the latter may be placed in the fird two divifions of parts, and the former and produds in the divifions of integers. In like manner, when there are feveral figures in the dividend and divifor, the former may be placed in the divifion of integers, the latter in the fird two divifions of parts, and the figures of the quo¬ tient, as they rife, in the remaining two divifions. It is well worth obferving, that by means of this indrument a blind man may be taught to add, fub- trad, multiply, divide, and perform all the other ope¬ rations of arithmetic, with as much certainty as ano¬ ther perfon can by figures. SWANEMOTE, Swainmote, or Sweinmote. See FoREST-CW/r. SWEAT, a fenfible moidure ifTuing from the pores of the Ikins of living animals. SWEDEN, one of the mod northerly kingdoms of Europe, lying between Lat. 55. 20. and 69. 30. north, and between 120 and 32° ead from London. On the fouth it is bounded by the Baltic, the Sounds, and Schager-rack, or Categate ; on the north by Danifh Lapland; on the call by Mufcovy; and on the wed t by the mountains of Norway. Early hi- The early hidory of Sweden is no lefs involved in Opry un- fables than that of mod other nations. Some hidorians certain. pretended to give regular catalogues of the princes who reigned in Sweden in very early times ; but they differ fo much among themfelves, that no credit can be given to them. However, all agree that ancient Scandinavia was fird governed by judges elefted for a certain time by the voice of the people. Among thefe temporary princes the country was divided, until, in the year of the world 2054, according to fome, or 1951, according to others, Eric, or, if we believe Puffendorf, Suenon, was raifed to the fupreme power, with the prerogatives of all the temporary magidrates united in his perfon for life, or until his condud fhould merit depofition. From this very early period till the year 1366 of the Chridian sera, the hidories of Sweden prefent us with nothing but what is common to all nations in their early periods, viz. the endlefs combats and maf- facres of barbarians, tending to no other purpofe than 4 the effufion of blood. At the time jud mentioned, Albeit of however, Albert of Mecklenburg, having concluded bur^de' a Peace ^etween Sweden and Denmark, which two clarfd king kingdoms had been at violent war for fome time be- in 1365. * fore, was proclaimed king of Sweden. The peace was of fitort duration, being broken in 1368; on Sweden, which Albert entered into an offenfive and defenfive ‘ league with the earl of Holdein, the Jutland nobility, the dukes of Slefwick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanfe- towns, againd the kings of Denmark and Norway. 3 Albert proved very fuccefsful againd Waldemar king of Denmark at that time, driving him entirely out ofandNos- his dominions; but he himfelf was defeated by the way. king of Norway, who laid fiege to his capital. Soon after this, a new treaty of peace was concluded, by which Albert was allowed to enjoy the crown of Sweden in peace. However, having formed a defign of rendering himfelf abfolute, he fell under the dif- pleafure of his fubjedls, and Margaret of Norway was proclaimed queen of Sweden by the malcontents. A war immediately enfued, in which Albert was de- 4 feated and taken prifoner; but as the princes of Meek- Is defeated lenburg, the earls of Holftein, and the Hanfc-towns, entered into a league in his favour, the war was fo far Margaret of from being extinguifhed by this event, that it raged Norway, with more fury than ever. At length, in 1394, the contending parties came to $ an accommodation. Albert was fet at liberty, on con-Set at liber- dition that he flrould in three years furrender to'?’ Margaret all pretenfions to the city of Stockholm ; and the Hanfe-towns engaged to pay the fum of 60,000 marks of filver in cafe of Albert’s breach of faith. Not long after this, Eric the fon of Albert died ; and he, having no other child, did not think it worth his while to contend for the kingdom of Sweden : he therefore acquiefced in the pretenfions of Margaret, and paffed the remainder of his days at Mecklenburg. Margaret died in 1415, and was fucceeded by Eric 6 of Pomerania. This prince’s reign was cruel and op- Margaret preffive to the laft degree. The people were ruined 'bs by taxes; and the Danes being every where preferredcryu^[yr,it.* to the offices of power, committed the greateft cruel¬ ties. The confequence of this was a revolt; and ? Charles Canutfon, grand marefchal of Sweden and A 8j'ierc* governor of Finland, having joined the malcontents, phee/and5 was declared commander in chief of their army. Eric Eric is de- was now formally depofed, and commenced pirate : Ca- p°fcd. nutfon waschofen regent: but beginning to-epprefs the people, and afpiring openly at the crown, the Swedes and Danes revolted ; in confequence of which a revo¬ lution took place, and Chriftopher duke of Bavaria, nephew to Eric, was chofen king of Denmark, Swe¬ den, and Norway, in 1442. On the accclfion of the new prince, complaints againft Canutfon were brought from all quarters; but, through the intereft of his friends, he efc'a- ped the punifliment due to him; and in 1448, Chrillopher having died after a tyrannical reign of fomewhat more than five years,, he was raifed to the throne at which he had fo. long afpired. However, the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway refufed to own allegiance to him; upon which a war.immediately 8 = commenced. In 1454 peace was concluded, and Den- r|e :- ee - mark for the prefent freed from the Swedifli yoke, 5 Neither did Canutfon long, enjoy even the crown of der chH-" Sweden itfelf. Having quarrelled with the archbi- fthn king fhop of Upfal, the latter formed fuch a ftrong party of Dcn- that the king could not refill him. Chriftian king 0f niar.k« «ho • Denmark was called to the throne of Sweden; and tyrant ani in 1459 once more united the three kingdoms. He is driven enjoyed ouC’ S W E Sweden, enjoyed his dignity but a ihort time ; for having be- gun to opprefs his fubjeds in an arbitrary manner, he was obliged to retire to Denmark in 1463. Katil bifltop of Lincoping, who had driven out the king, took upon himfelf the office of regent. Next year Chriftian returned with a powerful army; but was de¬ feated. The people then thought proper to recal Canut- fon : but he, on his firfl: acceffion, having offended the warlike bifhop Katil, was by him defeated, and obli¬ ged to renounce his right to the crown. After this the kingdom was rent into fa&ions; between whom the moft cruel civil wars took place, until the year 1467, whenCanutfon was again recalled, and enjoyed the kingdom, though not without difficulty and op- pofition, till his death, which happened in 1470. The confufion in which the Swedifh affairs had been fo long involved did not ceafe on the death of Canut- fon. Chriftian again invaded Sweden ; but was de¬ feated by Steen Sture, nephew to the late king. Af¬ ter this the kingdom feems to have remained in peace till the year 1487, when the Ruffians invaded Carelia, committing every where the greateft ravages. Thefe were foon driven out: but in 1497, a rupture happening betwixt Sture and the fenate, an offer was made of the Swedifh crown to John king of Denmark. ^ This prince readily accepted the offer, and was crown- John king accordingly; but no fooner was he feated on the of Den- throne than he became odious to the Swedes, from murk oh- }j;s partiality to the Danes. In a fhort time he SwediW5 out ^or Denmark, leaving his queen, with a ftrong crown, but garrifon, in the citadel of Stockholm. He was is driven no fooner gone than the capital was invefted ; and out* though the queen made a noble defence, fhe was at laft obliged to capitulate, on condition of being al¬ lowed to pafs into Denmark. All the garrifon were made prifoners of war, and the queen herfelf was con¬ fined in a monaftery till the following year. The Swedifh affairs continued to be involved in the fame dreadful confufion as we have already related, until the year 1520, when a great revolution was ef- fe&ed by Guftavus Ericfon, a nobleman of the firft rank, who reftored the kingdom to its liberty, and laid the foundation of its future grandeur. The occafion of this great revolution was as follows: In 1518, Chriftian king of Denmark invaded Swe¬ den, -with a defign to fubdue the whole country: lo but being defeated with great lofs by young Steen ChvilVan Sture, the regent at that time, he fet fail for Den- k ng <>f mark. But meeting with contrary winds, he made invades'11 ^evera^ defeents on the Swedilh coaft, which he rava- Sweden bucSec* t^e *'ury an incenfed barbarian. The is defeated inhabitants, however, bravely defended themfelves, and and driven Chriftian was reduced to the utmoft diftrefs ; [ 8470 ] S W E happening then to prove favourable, be fet fail for Sweden; Denmark with the hoftages, of whom Guftavus Eric- * fon was one. Next year he returned ; and having H ” . drawn Sture into an ambufh, the regent received a roufi^car- wound of which he died fome time after. The king-ri« off fix dom being thus left without an head, matters foon hoftage^of. came to the .moft defperate crifis. The army difbanded^hom 5Ju’ itfelf; and the fenate, inftead of taking proper mea- fures to oppofe the enemy, fpent their time in idle de¬ bates. Chriftian in the mean time advanced into the heart of the kingdom, deftroying every thing with fire and fword; but on his arrival at Stragnez, he granted a fufpenfion of arms, to give the people time to de- n liberate on their fituation, and. to refleft that theyIs chofen might eafily get rid of their troubles by elefting himk!nS> antl king. This they accordingly did; and Chriftiana proved one of the moft bloody tyrants that ever fat on biopdy the throne of any kingdom. Immediately after his coronation, he gave grand entertainments for three days; during which time he projected the diabolical defign of extirpating at once ail the Swedifh nobility, and thus for ever preventing the people from revolting, by depriving them of proper leaders. As the tyrant had figned articles, by which he promifed indemnity to all who had borne arms againit him, it became neceffary to invent fome caufe of offence againft thofe whom he intended to deftroy. To accomplifh his purpofe, Guftavus Trolle, formerly archbifhop of Up- fal, but who had been degraded from that dignity, in an oration before his majefty lamented the de¬ molition of Steckahis place of relidence, and the Ioffes fuftained by the fee of Upfal, amounting to near a mil¬ lion of money. He then proceeded in a bitter accu- fation againft the widow and the fon-in-law of Sture the late regent, comprehending in the fame accufation about 15 of the principal nobility, the whole fenate, and t the burghers of Stockholm. The confequence of this Maffacres Was, that above 6aof the principal nobility and people the nobili- of firft rank in Sweden were hanged up as traitors. ‘V- anc*. Innumerable other cruelties were committed ; part het^ufbe" which are owned by the Danifh hiftorians, and minutely ereftid as related by thofe of Sweden. At laft he departed for he paftes Denmark, ordering gibbets to be erefted, and cau- ak*g- fing the peafants to be hanged on them for the flighteft offences, all the way as he paffed along ; and it is rela¬ ted of him, that at Jencoping he caufed two boys, one of feven and the other of nine years of age, to be whipped to death. This monftrous cruelty, inftead of fecuring him on the throne, exafperated th . whole nation againft him. It has already been mentioned, that Gu¬ ftavus Ericfon, or, as he is commonly called, G«- Adventures half Jiavus Vafay was among the number of the hoftages'>1: Gu^avus of his forces having perifhed with hunger, and tha whom Chriftian had perfidioufly carried to Denmark in 1519. Large promifes had been made in order to reconcile him to Chriftian, and threats had been tifed for the fame purpofe, but all in vain. Secret orders were given to ftrangle him in prifon ; but the officer to whom the affaffination was commited remonftrated to the king about the confequences of it, and prevail¬ ed on him to change the fentence of death into clofe confinement in the caftle of Copenhagen. Some of the hoftages periftied in confequence of the rigorous treat¬ ment they met with ; but Guffaws withftood all hard- flnps. At iaft one Banner, a Danifh nobleman, pre¬ vailed other being in the moft imminent danger by the ap proach of a rigorous winter. He then thought of a llratagem, which had aim oft proved fatal to the re¬ gent ; for having invited him to a conference, at which he defigned either to affaffinate or take him prifoner, Sture was about to comply, had not the fenate, who fufpedfed the plot, interpofed and prevented him. Chriftian then offered to go in perfon to Stockholm in order to confer with Sture, upon condition that fix hoftages were fent in his room. This was accordingly done; but the wind S W E [ 8471 ] S W E Sweden, vailed on the king to put him into his hands, in or¬ der to try whether or not he could prevail upon him to change his fentiments. The king, however, told Banner, that he muft pay 6000 crowns in cafe the prifoner (hould make his efcape. Banner generoufly affented; and having brought the noble prifoner to his fortrefs of Calo in Jutland, foon allowed him all the liberty he could defire, and otherwife heaped fa¬ vours upon him. All this, however, could not extin- guifii his remembrance of the cruelties of Chriftian, and the defire he had of being ferviceable to his coun- He efcapes try- therefore determined to make his efcape ; from Den- and the liberty he enjoyed foon put him in a capa- mark. city of effe&ing it. Having one day mounted his horfe, under pretence of hunting as ufual in the foreft, w’hen he got at a proper diftance, he chan¬ ged his drefs to the habit of a peafant; and quit¬ ting his horfe, he travelled for two days on foot through by-paths, and over mountains almoft impaf- fable, arriving on the third at Flenfburgh. Here no one was admitted without a paffport; and Guftavus dreaded prefenting himfelf to the governor or the of¬ ficer upon guard, for fear of being difcovered. Hap¬ pily for him, it chanced to be on that feafon of the year when the merchants of Lower Saxony drove a confi- derable trade in cattle, which they purchafe in Jut- 1(5 land. Guftavus hired himfelf to one of thefe mer- " Arrives at chants ; and under favour of his difguife efcaped out limbec. of the Danifh territories, and arrived at Lubec. Banner was no fooner acquainted with his efcape, than he fet out after him with the utmoft diligence, found him at Lubec, and reproached him with great warmth as ungrateful and treacherous; but he was foon appeafed by the arguments urged by Guftavus, and efpeciaily by the promife he made of indemnify¬ ing him in the lofs of his ranfom. Upon this Banner returned, giving out that he could not find his pri¬ foner. Chriftian was enraged at his efcape, appre¬ hending that he might traverfe all his defigns in Swe¬ den ; and gave orders to Otho his general to make the ftritfteft fearch, and leave no means untried to ar- reft him. Guftavus applied to the regency for a fhip to convey him to Sweden, where he hoped he {hould be able to form a party againft the Danes. He like- 17 wife endeavoured to draw the regency of Lubec into Attempts his meafures ; and reafoned with fo much zeal and abi- draw'the0 that Nicholas Gemins, firft conful, was entirely regency of gained : but the regency could never be prevailed on Lubec over to declare for a party without friends, arms, money, to his fide. or credtc. However, before his departure, the con¬ ful gave him affurances, that if he could raife a force fufficient to make head againft the enemy in the field, he might depend on the fecyicea of the republic, and that the regency would immediately declare for him. Guftavus defired to be landed at Stockholm ; but the captain of the {hip, either having fecret orders to the contrary, or bufinefs elfewhere, fleered a different courfe, and put him on fliore near Calmar, a city hi¬ therto garrifoned by the troops of Chriftina widow of the' regent. In truth, the governor held this place He arrives ^or ^'s own PurP°fcsJ an£l only waited to make the at Calmar, beft terms he could with the Danes. When Guftavus but meets arrived, he made himfelf known to him and the prin- favourable” c'Pa^ °fficers garrifon, who were moftly Ger- reception. man5> an^ his fellow-foldiers in the late adminiftra- tor’s army. He flattered himfelf that his birth, his Sweder*. merit, and conne&ions, would immediately procure him the command. But the mercenary band, feeing him without troops and without attendants, regarded him as a defperate perfon devoted to deftru&ion, re- fufed to embrace his propofals, and even threatentd to kill or betray him if he did not inftantly quit the city. Difappointed in his expeftations, Guftavus departed with great expedition ; and his arrival being now pu¬ blicly known, he was again forced to have recourfe to his peafant’s difguife to conceal him from the Da- nifli cmiffaries difperfed over the country to fearch for him. In a waggon loaded with hay he paffed thro’ 19 every quarter of the Danifh army, and at laft repaired to an old family-caftle in Sundermania. From hence; he wrote to his friends, notifying his return to Swe¬ den, and befeeching them to affemble all their force in order to break through the enemy’s army into Stockholm, at that time befieged ; but they, too, refufed to embark in fo hazardous and defperate an attempt. Guftavus next applied himfelf to the peafants: but r2g they anfwered, that they enjoyed fait and herringe^PP^5^ under the government of the king of Denmark; and pCiifant5> that any attempts to bring about a revolution would be attended with certain ruin, without theprofpeft of bettering their condition ; for peafants they were, and peafants they {hould remain, whoever was king. At length, after feveral vain attempts to throw himfeif into Stockholm, after that city was furrendered to the king, after the horrid maffacre of the fenate, and af¬ ter running a thoufand dangers, and undergoing hard- fliips and fatigues hardly to be fupported by human nature, he formed the refdution of trying the courage and affedfion of the Dalecarlians. While he was in the deepeft obfcurity, and plunged in almoft unfur- mountable adverfity, be never reiinquiftied his defigns or abandoned hope. The news of the maffacre had, however, very near funk him in defpondency, as there¬ by he loft all his friends, relations, and connexions, and indeed almoft every profpeX of fafety to himfelf or deliverance to his country. It was this that infpi- red the thought of going to Dalecarlia, where he might live with more fecurity in the high mountains and thick woods of that country, if he {hould fail in the attempt of exciting the inhabitants to revolt. Jr Attended by a peafant, to whom he was known, he Arrives in travelled in difguife through Sundermania, Nerlcis, palecsrlia; and Weftermania, and arrived, after a laborious and ^ painful journey, fafe in the mountains of Dalecarlia. ar^d Scarce had he finiftied his journey, when he found him- to worklu felf deferted by his companion and guide, who car- the mines.. ried off with him all the money he provided for his fubfiftence. Thus forlorn, dcftitute, half ftarved, he entered among the miners, and wrought like a flave under ground, without reiinquiftving his hopes of one day afcending the throne of Sweden. His whole pro- fpeX for the prefent was to live concealed, and gain a maintenance, until fortune {hould effeX fomething in his favour: nor was it long before this happened. 1Z A woman in the mines perceived, under the habit ofls difcover- a peafant, that the collar of his fhirt was embroidered, ed and re- This circumftance excited curiofity ; and the graces oflicved* his perfon and converfation, which had fomething in them to attraX the notice of the meaneft of the vul¬ gar. S \V E [ 8472 ] S W E Sweden, gar, afforded room for fufpicion that he was fome perfon of quality in difguife, forced by the tyranny of the government to feek flielter in thefe remote parts. The ftory came to the ears of a neighbouring gentleman, who immediately went to the mines to offer his protedion to the unfortunate ftranger ; and was aftonifhed on recognifing the features of Guftavus, whole acquaintance he had been at the univerfity of Upfal. Touched with compaffion at the deplorable fuuation of fo diftinguifhed a nobleman, he could fcarce refrain from tears ; but however had prefence of mind enough not to make the difcovery. At night he fent for Gultavus, made him an offer of his houfe, and gave him the ftrongeft affurances of his friendfliip and pro- tedion. He told him, he would meet with better ac¬ commodations, and as much fecurity as in the mines; and that, fliould he chance to be difcovered, he would, with all his friends and vaffals, take arms in his de¬ fence. This offer was embraced by Guftavus with joy, and he remained for fome time at his friend’s houfe ; but finding it impoffible to induce him to take part in his defigns, he quitted him, and fled to one Peterfon, a gentleman whom he had formerly known in the fer- vice. By him he was received with all the appear¬ ance of kindnefs; and, on the very firft propofal made by Guftavus, offered to raife his vaffals. He even na¬ med the lords and peafants whom he pretended to have engaged in his fervice ; but in a very few days after, he went fecretly to a Danifh officer, and gave him in¬ formation of what had paffed. The officer imme¬ diately caufed the houfe to be furrounded with foldiers, in fuch a manner that it feemed iropoffible for Gufta- Tlas a very vus to make his efcape. In the interval, however, he narrow ef- was gone, being warned by Peterfon’s wife of the .cape from treachery of her hufband, and by her direftion fled to ;tie ‘*ncf> tj^ houfe of a clergyman, her friend. By him Gu¬ ftavus was received with all the refpeA due to his own birth and merit; and left the domeftic who condufted him fliould follow the treacherous example of his ma¬ iler, he removed him to the church, and condu&ed him to a fmall clofet, of which he kept the key. Ha¬ ving lived for forae time in this manner, Guftavus be¬ gan to confult with his friend concerning the moft pro¬ per method of putting their fchemes in execution. The prieft advifed him to apply direftly to the peafants themfelves; told him that it would be proper to fpread a report, that the Danes were to enter Dalecarlia in order to eftablifti new taxes by force of arms ; and as the annual feaft of all the neighbouring villages was in a few days to be held, he could not have a more favourable opportunity : at the fame time he promifed 24 to engage the principal perfons of the diocefe in his His eaufe Jmereft. thepeafants Agreeable to this advice Guftavus fet out for Mora, of Dalecar- where the feaft was to be held. He found the pea- lia. fants already informed of his defigns, and impatient to fee him. Being already prepoffeffed in his favour, they were foon excited to an enthufiafm in his caufe, and inftantly refolved to throw off the Daniffi yoke. In this defign they were more confirmed by their fu- perftition ; fome of their old men having obferved that the wind had blown from the north while Guftavus was fpeaking, which among them was reckoned an in¬ fallible omen of fuccefs. Guftavus did not give their ardour time to cool, but inftantly led them againft Sweden, the governor’s caftle ; which he took by affault, and put the garrifon to the fword. This inconfiderable enterprife was attended with the moft happy confe- quences. Great numbers of the peafants flocked to his ftandard ; fome of the gentry openly efpoufed his caufe, and others fupplied him with money. Chri- ftian was foon acquainted with what had paffed ; but defpifing fuch an inconfiderable enemy, he fent only a {lender detachment under the command ot one Soren 1S Norby, to affift his adherents in Dalecarlia. Gufta-The Danes vus advanced with 5000 men, and defeated a body of defeated. Danes commanded by one Meleen ; but he was ftre- nuoufly oppofed by the archbifhop of Upfal, who rai- fed numerous forces for king Chriftian. The fortune of Guftavus, however, ftill prevailed, and the arch¬ bifhop was defeated with great lofs. Guftavus then laid fiege to Stockholm ; but his force being too inconfiderable for fuch an undertaking, he was for¬ ced to abandon it with lofs. This check did not prove in any confiderable degree detrimental to the affairs of Guftavus; the peafants from all parts of the kingdom flocked to his camp, and he was joined by a reinforcement from Lubcc. iS Chriftian, unable to fupprefs the revolt, wreaked his Borrid vengeance on the mother and fifters of Guftavus, whom cruelty of he put to death with the moft excruciating torments. Chri- Several other Swedifh ladies he caufed to be thrownltiau* into the fea, after having impofed on them the inhu¬ man tafk of making the facks into which they were to be inclofed. His barbarities ferved only to make his enemies more refolute. Guftavus having affembled the Hates at Wadtlena, he was unanimoufly chofen regent, the diet taking an oath of fidelity to him, and promifing to affift him to the utmoft. Having thus obtained the fanftion of legal authority, he purfued his advantages againft the Danes. A body of troops appointed to throw fuccours into Stockholm were to¬ tally cut in pieces ; and the regent fending fome troops into Finland, ftruck the Danes there with fuch terror, ay that the archbiffiop of Upfal, together with Slahog Succefs of and Baldenacker the Daniffi governors, fled to Den-Gu“*vu‘c, mark. Cbriftian received them but very coldly, ap¬ prehending that their flight might be prejudicial to his affairs ; and in a ffiort time the two governors were put to death, that the king might have an opportu¬ nity of charging them with being guilty of the cruel¬ ties which they had committed by his order. Fie then fent exprefs orders to all his governors and offi¬ cers in Finland and Sweden to maffacre the Swediffi gentry withoutdiftinftion. The Swedes made repri- fals by maffacring all the Danes they could find; fo that the whole country was filled with bloodfhed and {laughter. In the mean time Guftavus had laid fiege to the towns of Cal mar, Abo, and Stockholm ; but Norby found means to oblige him to raife all of them with great lofs. Guftavus, in revenge, laid fiege to the ca¬ pital a third time, and petitioned the regency of Lu- bec for a fquadron of fhips and other fuccours for car¬ rying on the fiege. This was complied with, but on very hard conditions, viz;, that Guftavus fhould oblige himfelf, in the name of the Hates, to pay 60,000 merks of filver as the expence of the armament ; that, tintil the kingdom fhonld be in a condition to pay that S W E t 8473 ] S W E Sweden, fum, the Lubec merchants trading to Sweden fhould be exempted from all duties on imports or exports; that all other nations fhould be prohibited from tra¬ ding with Sweden, and that fuch traffic fhould be deemed illicit ; that Guftavus fhould neither conclude a peace, nor even agree to a truce, with Denmark, without the concurrence of the regency of Lnbec ; and that in cafe the republic fhould be attacked by Chriftian, he fhould enter Denmark at the head of 26,000 men. Upon thefe hard terms did Guftavus obtain affiftance from the regency of Lnbec ; nor did his dear-bought allies prove very faithful. They did , , not indeed go over to the enemy ; but in a fea-fight, where the Danes were entirely in the power of their enemies, they fuffered them to efcape, when their whole force might have been entirely deftroyed. This treachery had well nigh ruintd the affairs of Guftavus: for Norby was now making preparations effedlually to relieve Stockholm ; in which he would probably have fucceeded: but at this critical period news arrived that the Danes had unanimou'fly revolted, €nd driven Chri¬ ftian from the throne ; and that the king had retired into Germany, in hopes of being reftored by the arms of bis brother-in-law the emperor. On hearing this news, Norby retired with his whole fleet to the ifland of Gothland, leaving but a flender garrifon in Cal- maf. Guftavus did not fail to improve this opportu¬ nity to his own advantage, and quickly made himfelf ntafter of Calmar. Mean time Stockholm continued clofely invefted; but Guftavus thought proper to protrad the fiege until he fhould get himfelf elefted k:ng. Hiving for this purpofe called a general diet, the firft ftep was to fill up the vacancy in the fenate occafioned by the maffacres of Chriftian. Guftavus had the addrefs to get fuch nominated as were in his intereft.; and of confequence the affembly was no fooner met, than a fpeech was made, containing the ig higheft enebmiums on Guftavus, fetting forth in -Jfe is cho- the ftfongeft light the many eminent fervices he had fen king of ,jone for hjs country, and concluding that the ftates we cn' would fhow themfelvts equally ungrateful and blind to their own intereft if they did not immediately eled him king. This propofal was acceded to by fuch tu¬ multuous acclamations that it was impoffible to colled the votes; fo that Guftavus himfelf acknowledged, that their affedion exceeded his merit, and was more agreeable to him than the effeds of their gratitude. "He was urged to have the ceremony of his coronation immediately performed ; but the king having fome defigns on the clergy, did not think proper to comply with their requeft, as he would have been obliged to Difteafes ta^e an t0 Pre^rve them in their rights and pri- the clergy, vileges.—Indeed he had not been long fcated on the ‘and favours throne before he incurred the difpleature of that body; !ihc reform- for having large arrears due to the army, with feveral “0n t^ie ),ear i568, but with no great advantage to Sweden. Difputcs about religion between the king and his brothers, and wars with Mufcovy, threw matters into the utmoft confu- Prince Si *’on' At laft prince Sigifmund, the king’s fon, was gifnmnd chofen king of Poland, which proved the fource of chofen king much trouble to the kingdom- He was elefted on ef Poland, the following conditions, viz. That there (hould be a perpetual peace between the dates of Poland and Swe¬ den ; that, on the death of his father, prince Sigif¬ mund fliould fucceed to the throne of Sweden ; that, on urgent occafions, he might, with the confent of the ftates, return to Sweden ; that he {hould maintain, at his own expence, a fleet for the fervice of Poland ; that he fhould cancel a debt which had been long due from the crown of Poland to Sweden ; that, with the confent of the ftates, he ftiould build five fortreffes on the frontiers of Poland ; that he ftiould have liberty to introduce foreign foldiers into the kingdom, provided he maintained them at his own expence ; that he {hould not make ufe of Swedifh counfellors in Poland ; that he ftiould have his body-guard entirely of Poles and Lithuanians ; and that he {hould annex to Poland that Sue eeds to Part Livonia now fubjeft to Sweden. In 1590 the crown ° k‘ng John died ; and as Sigifmund was at a diftance, Sweden, every thing fell into the utmoft confufion : the trea- fury was plundered, and the wardrobe quite fpoiled, before even duke Charles could come to Stockholm to take the adminiftration into his hands until king Si¬ gifmund ftiould return. This, however, was far from being the greateft difafter which befel the nation at this time. It was known that the king had embraced the Popifh religion, and it was with good reafon fufpetted that he would attempt to reftore it upon his arrival in Sweden. Sigifmund alfo was obliged, on leaving Poland, to promife that he would flay no longer in Sweden than was neceflary to regulate his affairs. Thefe circumftances ferved to alienate the minds of the Swedes from their fovereign even before they faw him ; and the univerfal dilTatisfa&ion was increafed, by feeing him attended, on his arrival in Sweden in 1593, by Malafpina the pope’s nuncio, to whom he made a prefent of 30,000 ducats to defray Sweden, the expences of his journey to Sweden. What the people had forefeen was too well verified : the king refufed to confirm the Proteftants in their 3P religious privileges, and ftiowtd fuch partiality on all A party occafions to the Papift.-, that a party was formedformed . againft him; at the head of which was duke Charles his uncle. Remonftrances, accompanied with threats, took place on both fides ; and at an interview between the king and Charles, the difpute would have ended in blows, had they not been parted by fome of the no¬ bility. This, however, made fuch an impreffion upon Sigifmund, that he was apparently reconciled to his brother, and promifed to comply with the inclinations of the people in every refped, though without any in¬ clination to perform what he had promifed. The 40 agreement, indeed, was fcarce made, before Sigif- Forms ade- •• mund conceived the horrid defign of murdering hisT1'1’'! uncle at the Italian comedy afted the night after his^iJf US - coronation. The duke, however, having notice of the plot, found means to avoid it. This enraged the king fo much, that he refolved to accomplifti his de¬ fig ns by force ; and therefore commanded a Polifh ar¬ my to march towards the frontiers of Sweden, where they committed all the ravages that could be expedite! from an enraged and cruel enemy. Complaints were made by the Proteftant clergy to the fenate : but no other reply was made them, than that they {hould ab- ftain from thefe bitter invedtives and reproaches, which had provoked the catholics, until the king’s depar¬ ture ; at which time they would be at more liberty. In 1595 Sigifmund fet fail for Dantzic, leaving the ad- miiiiftration in the hands of duke Charles. The confer quence of this was, that the diflenfions vvhichhadalready taken place being continually increafed by the obftinacy of the king, duke Charles affirmed the fovtreign power; Sigifmund and in 1604 Sigifmund was formally depofed, and his depofed, j uncle Charles IX. railed to the throne. He proved aanc* 's ^,c"" wife and brave prince, reftoring the tranquillity of the charl«7x, ^ kingdom, and carrying on a war with vigour againft Poland and Denmark. He died in 1.611, leaving the kingdom to his fon, the celebrated Guffavus Adolphus. 4l ! Though Charles IX. by his wife and vigorous con- State of • dudt had in a great meafure retrieved the affairs of^edenoa- Sweden, they were ftill in a very difagreeable fitua-acce** j tion. The finances of the kingdom were entirelyo°"^us ; drained by a feries of wars and revolutions; powerful Adolphus, ^ armies were preparing in Denmark, Poland, and Ruf- fia, while the Swedilh troops were not only inferior in number to their enemies, but the government was deftitute of refources for their payment. Though the Swedifli law required that the prince {hould have attained his 18th year before he was of 43 j age, yet fuch ftriking marks of the great qualities ofHeisallow- Guftavus appeared, that he was allowed by the ftates to take upon him the adminiftration even before this early period. His firft ad was to refume all the crown-while yet a j grants, that he might be the better able to carry on «unor, I the wars in which he was unavoidably engaged; and to fill all places, both civil and military, with perfons of merit. At the head of domefticand foreign affairs was placed chancellor Oxenftiero, a perfon every way- equal to the important truft, and the choofing of whom impreffed mankind with the higheft opinion of the young monarch’s penetration and capacity. S00& S W E r 8475 J S W E Sweden. Soon after his acceffion, Guftavus received an em- enthnfiaftlcally attached to Sigifmund. A dreadful Sweden. baffy from James I. of Britain, exhorting him to make peace with his neighbours. This was feconded by another from Holland. But as the king perceived that the Danifh monarch intended to take every opportu¬ nity of criifhing him, he refolved to aft with fuch vi- gour, as might convince him that he was not eafily to ' He invades be overcome. Accordingly he broke into Denmark I Denmark, three different armies at once ; and though the E k-inifto enemy's fuperiority at fea gave them great advantages, I conclude a and the number of -the king’s enemies diftrafted his peace. attention, he carried on the war with fuch fpirit, that in 1613 a peace was concluded upon good terms. This war being finifhed, the king applied himfelf to ’> civil polity, and made feme reformations in the laws of Sweden. In 1615, hoftilities were commenced againft Ruflia, on account of the refufal of that court to re* 45 ftore fome money which had been formerly lent them. Ruflia in- The king entered Ingria, took Kexholm by ftorm, I puccefs^1" anc^ was ,ayin£ ^,eRe 10 Plefcow, when, by the me- i * diation of James I. peace was concluded, on condition ofthe Ruffians repaying themoney.and yielding toSwe- den fome part of their territory. In this and the former war, notwithftandingthe fhortnefsof their duration,Gu- ftavus learned the rudiments ofthe military art for which 4(. he loon became fo famous. He is faid indeed to have Extraordi- catched every opportunity of improvement with a nary mill- quicknefs of underftanding feemingly more than hu- s tary genius man. In one campaign, he not only learned, butim* of the king. provej) all the military maxims of La Gardie, a ce¬ lebrated general, brought the Swedifh army in general to a more fteady and regular difeipline than had for¬ merly been exercifed, and formed and feafoned an invincible body of Finlanders, who had afterwards a very confiderable fhare in the viftoriesof the Swedes. Peace was no fooner concluded with Ruffia, than Guftavus was crowned with great folemnity at Upfal. Soon after this, Guftavus ordered his general La Gar¬ die to acquaint the Polifh commander Codekowitz, that as the truce between the two kingdoms, which had been concluded for two years, was now expired, he defired to be certainly informed whether he was to expeft peace or war from his mailer. In the mean 47 time, having borrowed money of the Dutch for the Has a redemption of a town from Denmark, he had an in- nSiew 5n' tervicw on the frontiers with Chriftran the king of with^the country. At this interview, the two monarchs king of conceived the utmoft efteem and friendfhip for each Denmark, other; and Guftavus obtained a promife, that Chri- ^effor ^'an vvou^ not Sigifmnnd in any defigns he wT/with ffught have againft Sweden. In the mean time, re- Poland. ceiving fto fatisfaftory anfwer from Poland, Gcftavus began to prepare for war. Sigifmund entered into a negociation, and made fome pretended conceflions, with a view to feize Guftavus by treachery ; but the latter having intimation of his dtiign, the whole ne¬ gociation was changed into reproaches and threats on the part of Guftavus. Immediately after this, Guftavus made a tour in Marries difguife through Germany, and married Eleonora Eleonora the daughter of the eleAor of Brandenburg. He daughter of then refolved to enter heartily into a war with Po- ofBranden ^anC^ ’ anC* view ^et ^ ^0r ^-'£a a burn. great fleet, which carried 20,000 men. The place was well fortified, and defended by a body of veterans bombardment enfued ; the ftreets were raked by the " cannon, and the houfes laid in afhes by the bombs ; 49 the moat was filled up, one of the half-moons taken ^'2^be- by ftorm, and the ftrong fortrefs of Dunamund was reduced. The cannon having now effefted a breach in another part of the walls, Guftavus refolved to make a general affault. For this purpofe a flying bridge over the moat was contrived by his majelty ; for tho' the ditch was filled with fafeines and rubbifh, it (till contained too much water to admit the paffage of a large body of men. The foldiers, however, crowded on to the attack with fo much impetuofity, that the bridge gave way, and the attempt proved unfuccefs- ful. Next day the Swedes were repulfed in attempt¬ ing to ftorm another half-moon} and the king was obliged to proceed more flowly. By the middle of September, at which time the town had been invefted for fix weeks, two bridges were thrown over the river together with a ftrong boom, while the Swedes had formed their mines under the ditch. The garrifon be¬ ing now reduced to extremity, were obliged to capi¬ tulate; and Guftavus treated the inhabitants with great clemency. After the reduflion of Riga, the Swedifh monarch entered Courland, where he redqced Mittau; but ce¬ ded it again on the conclufion of a truce for one year. Sigifmund, however, no fooner had time to recover himfelf, than he began to form new enterprifes againft the Swedes in Pruffia } but Guftavus fetting fail with his whole fleet for Dantzic, where the king of Poland then refided, fo broke his meafures, that he was obli¬ ged to prolong the truce for another year. Sigif¬ mund, however, was not yet apprifed of the danger he was in, and refufed to liften to any terms of ac¬ commodation : upon which Guftavus entering Livo¬ nia, defeated the Polifh general, and took Derpt, Hoc- The Poles kenhaufen, and feveral other places of lefs importance; defeated, after which, entering Lithuania, he took the city of and feveral Birfen. places taken Notwithftanding this fuccefs, Guftavus propofed peace on the fame equitable terms as before ; but Si¬ gifmund was ftill infatuated with the hopes that, by means ofthe emperor of Germany, he fhould be able to conquer Sweden. Guftavus finding him inflexible, refolved to pufh his good fortune. His generals The^Poj^ Horn and Thurn defeated the Poles in Semigallia. again de- Guftavus himfelf with 150 fhips fet fail for Pruffia, feated, and where he landed at Pillaw. This place was im-a £reat mediately delivered up to him ; as were alfo B^unf- berck, Frawenberg, Elbing, Marienberg, Mew, Dir-duced by fchau, Stum, Chriftburg, &c. Sigifmund, alarmed at Guftavus. the great fucceffes of Guftavus, fent a body of forces to oppofe him, and to prevent Dantzic from falling into his hands. In this he was attended with as bad fuccefs as before. His troops were defeated before Marienberg, Mew, and Dirfchjau 5 and in May 1627, ^ Guftavus arrived with frefh forces before Dantzic, The Poles which he would probably have carried, had be not defeated a been wounded in the belly by a cannon-fhot. Thedftrd time. Poles in the mean time recovered Mew; and the States of Holland fent ambafl’adors to mediate a peace be¬ tween the two crowns. Sigifmund, however, depend¬ ing upon the aluftance of the emperor of Germany and king of Spain, determined to hearken to no terms, 42 M 2 and S W E [ 8476 ] S W E Sweden, and refolved to make a winter-campaign ; but Guf- tavus was fo well intrenched, and all his forts were fo ftrongly garrifoned, that the utmoft efforts of the Poles were to no purpofe (a). The city of Dantzic in the mean time made fuch a defperate refinance as TheSpoIes greatly irritated Guftavus. In a fea-engagement the defeated bySwedifli fleet defeated that of the enemy; after which fea, and Guftavus, having blocked up the harbour with his D^ntzic in fleet, pufhed his advances on the land-fide with in- Ve Cd' credible vigour. Pie made a furprifing march over a morafs 15 miles broad, affxfted by bridges of a peculiar conftru&ion, over which he carried a fpecies of light cannon invented by himfelf. By this unexpedted manoeuvre he got the command of the city in fuch a manner, that the garrifon were on the point of fur- Th/king rendering, when, by a fudden fwell of the Viftula, obliged by the Swedifli works were ruined, and the king was an inunda- obliged to raife the fiege. In other refpedls, how- tion of the everj tjje affairs of Guftavus went on with their ra'ife thc° ufual S00^ fonun{,• His general Wrangel defeated fiege. the Poles before Brodnitz, of whom 3000 were killed, and 1000 taken prifoners, with five pieces of cannon and 2000 waggons loaden with provi- fions. At Stum the king gained another and more The Poles confiderable victory in perfon. The emperor had fent and Ger- 5000 foot and 2000 horfe under Arnheim, who joined mans de- t|ie main army commanded by the Polifh general with Coniecfpolfki, in order to attack the Swedilh army flaughter in encamped at Qnidzin. The enemy were fo much fu- twoengage-perior in number, that the friends of Guftavus repre¬ sents. fented to him the imminent danger of attacking them. But the king being determined,, the engagement be¬ gan. The Swedilh cavalry charged with fuch impe- tuofity, contrary to their fovereign’s exprefs order, that they were almoft furrounded by the enemy ; but Guftavu?, coming up-to their afliftance, pulhed the enemy’s infantry with fo much vigour, that they gave way, and retreated to a bridge they, had thrown over the Werder. But here they were difappointed ; for the Swedes had already taken poffcflion of the bridge. On this a new a£tion enfued more bloody than the former, in which the king was expofed to great dan¬ ger, and thrice narrowly efcaped being taken prifoner; but at laft the Poles were totaly defeated, with the lofs of a great many men, 22 pair of colours, five ftandards, and feveral other military trophies.. The daughter of the German auxiliaries was fo great, that Arnheim fcarce carried off one half of the troops he brought into the field. This defeat did not hinder the Polifh general from attempting the fiege of Stum; 36 but here again he was attended by his ufual bad for- Tkey are tune> garrjf0n Tallied out, and he was defeated wiih fea'eddand l^e ^ 4000 men* T*16 blame of this misfortune Obliged to was laid upon Arnheim ; who was recalled, and fuc- confent to a ceeded by Henry of Saxe Lawenburg and Philip count truce Qf fix Jvlansfeldr. The change of general officers, however, years‘ produced no good confequenccs to the Poles ; a fa¬ mine and plague raged in their camp, fo that they Sweden. were at laft obliged to confent to a truce for fix years, ” 1 to expire in the month of June 1635. The conditions were, that Guftavus fhould reftore to Sigifmund the towns of Brodnitz, Stum, andDirfchau; that Marien- berg fhould remain fequeftrated in the hands of the eleftor of Brandenburg, to be reftored again to Swe¬ den in cafe a peace was not concluded at the end of. the fix years. Guftavus, on his fide, kept the port and citadel of Memel, the harbour of Pillau, the town of Elbing, Brunfberg, and all that he had con¬ quered in Livonia. j7 Guffavus having thus brought the war with Poland Gufhvus to an honourable conclufion, began to think of refent- j°£ ing the conduit of the emperor in affifting his enemies and oppreffing the Proteftant dates. Before embark- ror. ing in fuch an important undertaking, it was neceffary that he fliould confult the diet. In this the propriety of engaging in a war with Germany was warmly debated ; but, after much altercation, Guftavus in a very noble fpeech determined the matter, and fet forth in fuch ftrong terns the virtuous motives by which he was aftuated, that the whole affemhly wept and every thing was granted which he could require. It was not difficult for Guftavus to begin his expe¬ dition. Plis troops amounted to 60,poo men, hard¬ ened by a fucceffion of fevere campaigns in Ruffia, Finland, Livonia, and Pruffia. His fleet exceeded 70, fail, carrying from 20 to 40 guns, and manned with 6000 mariners. Embarking his troops, he landed at Ufedom on the 24th of June 1630, the Imperialifts having evacuated all the fortreffes they poffeffed there; and the ifle of Rugen had been before reduced byRgdl)sccs general Lefly, in order to fecure a retreat if fortune vfolgaft, ftiould prove unfavourable. Faffing the frith, Gufta-Stetin, &c. vus ftormed Wolgaft and another ftrong fortrefs in the neighbourhood, leaving general Bannier with a gar¬ rifon for the defence of thefe conquefts. He then proceeded to Stetin, which was no fooner invefted than it confented to receive a Swedifh garrifon, and the king perfuaded the duke of Pomerania to enter into an alliance with him. In confequence of this the Swedifh Troopa were received into feveral towns of Pomerania ; and the moft bitter enmity took place between the Imperialifts and Pomeranians, each re- fufing the other quarters. Thefe fucceffes of Guftavus ftruck the empire with confternation ; for being already overwhelmed with civ.il diffenfions, they were in no condition to refift fo impetuous an enemy. At this time alfo the Irnpe- rialifts were without a general, the command of the sp army being difputed by a number of candidates of very Count T51- untqual merit ; but at laft count Tully was fixed upon1)' chofen as the moft proper perfon, and invefted with the fheem-^ nity of Veldt Marifchah. In the mean time the king peror> being reinforced by a confiderable body of troops in Finland (a) In this campaign the praflice of duelling became fo prevalent in the Swedifh army, as to engage the king’s attention, and to oblige him to fupprefs it by very rigorous edidts. Soon after thefe were paffed, a quarrel arofe between two general officers, who aiked his majefty’s permiffion to decide their difference by the laws of honour. The king confented, but wiffied to be a fpedtator of their courage. He went to the place appointed, attended by a body of guards: and having ordered the executioner to be called, “ Now gentlemen, faid he to the officers, fight until one diesadding to the executioner, “ Do you immediately cut off the head of the other.” Dn this the quarrel was dropped, and ao mors challenges, were heard of in the camp.. S W E [ 8477 Finland and Livonia under the conduft of Guftavus Horn, defeated the Imperialifts before Griffenhagen ; taking the place foon after by aflault. By this and fome other conquefts he opened a paffage into Lufatia S W E cannon ; which, however, produced no other efft&, Swede*, than obliging the Swedifh monarch to draw up his 6~s army behind the walls of Werben. Tilly had placed Count Ti!~ his chief hopes in being able to nail up the enemy’s 'v and Silefia ; but in the mean time count Tilly cut cannon, or fet fire to their camp in divers quarters ; ^sGu^a' off 2000 Swedes at New Brandenburg, owing to the obftinacy of their commander Kniphaufen, who after which he propofed making his grand attack. With this view he bribed fome prifoners; but they be- had orders to evacuate the place and join the main trayed him, and told his defign to Guftavus. The army. This advantage, however, was foon overbalanced by the conqueil of Franckfort on the Qder, which Franckfort Guftavus took by affault, making the whole garrifon and Landf- prifoners. Thus he commanded the rivers Elbe and b^Gufta-" 00 botL fides, and had a fair pafiage not only to yus. countries already mentioned, but alfo to Saxony and the hereditary dominions of the houfe of Auftria. Soon after this, Guftavus laid fiege to Landfberg, which he took by aftault; though the number of fol- diers he had with him was fo inconfiderable, that he had thoughts of fending to the main army for a rein¬ forcement before the prifoners fhould march our, being apprehenfive that they might give him battle in the open field, though they could not defend themfelves behind walls. About this time the Proteftant princes held a diet at Leipfic ; to which Guftavus fent deputies, and con- dufled his negociations with finch addrefs, as tended He reduces greatly to promote his interefts. Immediately after Pomerania, this he reduced Gripfwald, and with it all Pome- an-d reftoresran;a. Then marching to Guftrow, he reftored the MeckienSOf^ukes Mecklenburg to their dominions. Here the burg. Cn Imperialifts had tyrannized in fiuch a manner that Guf¬ tavus was received as the deliverer of the people, and the ceremony of the duke’s inauguration was in a fhort time performed with great folemniiy. All this time count Tilly was employed in the fiege of Magdeburg;, but now, being alarmed at the re¬ peated fucceffes of the Swedes, he left Pappenheim with part of the army before that city, while he marched with the reft into Thuringia, to attack the <53 landgrave of H.fTe Cafifel and the eltflor of Satfony. Magdeburg After a moft obftinate defence, Magdeburg fell into the taken by hands of Pappenheim, where he committed all iroa- rialifts^and g'na^‘e cruelties. Guftavrs formed a plan of recover- the inhabi- ing the city; but waffobliged to abandon it, by rap- tams cruel- penheim’s throwing himftlf into the place with his b “fcd- whole, army, and by the progrefs which Tilly was ma¬ king in Thuringia. Relinquiihing this enterprife, therefore, he ordered Bannier to attack Havtlfburg ; which was done with fuch refolution, that the place was forced in a few hours, and all the. garrifon made Have!(burg prifoners. and Wc“ Ln;-' king ordered fires to be lighted in different parts of his camp, and his foldiers to imitate the noife of a tu¬ multuous diforderly rabble. This had the defired ef- feft. The count led his army to the breach made by the cannon ; where he was received with fuch a volley of grape-fhot as cut off the firft line, and put the whole body in difordef, fo that they could never be brought back to the charge. In this confufion the Imperial army was attacked by Bauditzen, and, after an obfti¬ nate conflid, obliged-to quit the field.. Soon after this adtion the queen arrived at the camp with a reinforcement of 8000 men ; at the fame time a treaty was concluded with Charles I. of England, ^ by which that monarch allowed the marquis of Ha- milton to raife 6000 men for the fervice of Guftavus. ^,-5 comes Thefe auxiliaries were to be conduced to the main to the af- army by a body of 4.000 Swedes ; and were in every finance of thing to obey the king while he was perfonally pre-the Sweiies* fent, but in his abfence were to be fubjeft to the or¬ ders of the marquis. With thefe troops the king had refolved to make a diverfion in Bremen ; but the mar¬ quis finding it impofiibie for him to effedl a jun&ion with the Swedifh army, refolved, without debarking his troops, to fteer his courfe for the Oder, and land at Ufedom. Guftavus was very much difpleafed at find¬ ing his projeft thus, difconcerted ; however, making the beft of the prefent circumftances, he commanded the Britilh troops to adl on the Oder inftead of the Wefer. The number of this little army was magni¬ fied exceedingly by report, infomuch that count Tilly had fome thoughts of marching againft them with his whole force ; but on. the departure of the marquis for Silefia,. he reinforced the army in that country with a a large detachment, which was thought to contribute not a little to the defeat he foon after received. Ever finee the late aftion Guftavus had kept within his intrenchments, where his army was well provided with every thing.. Tiily made feveral attempts to fur- prife or draw him to an engagement ; but finding ail his endeavours fruitlefs,, be marched into Saxony, and laid fiege to Leipfic. This precipitate meafure proved highly advantageous to the Swedifh monarch ; as thus Werben was next obiiged to fubmit after .the eleftor, who had been wavering in his refolutions. an obftinate conflift, in which many fell on both fides. l>enre- —Thefe fucceffes obliged count Tilly to attempt in fhe cl’valr^ Per^0D to check progrefs of the Swedes. He de- onheYnv tacbed the • vanguard of his army, compofed of, the perialifts flower of the Imperial cavalry, defeated by t},e Swedifh camp. An adtion t the Swedes. ^e;n tjie Jmper;al general was defeated and killed, with 1500 of his men. Guftavus, after this advantage, placed himfelf in a fitnation fo much, fuperior to.his enemies, that count Tilly was fired with4ndignation,.and march¬ ed up to the Swedifh lines to give him battle. Gufta¬ vus kept within his works, and Tilly attacked his camp, though almoft impregnably fortified, keeping up a moft terrible fire, from a battery of 32 pieces of was now obliged to have recourfe to the Swedes, in o der to preferve himfelf from utter deftru&ion.. A treaty offenfive and defenfive was immediately concluded with Guftavus : and the eledlor willingly promifed every hin a few miles o-f thing that was required of him; and among the reft,, fued, in which Bern- that not only the prince his fon, but he hinw felf, fhould fefide in the Swedifh camp, and engage gy, his life and fortune in the common caufe, Tilly, in Saxony ra¬ the mean time, carried fire and fword into the unhappy vaged-by deflorate. At the head of-an army of 44,000 vtte'^' rans, he fummoned the city of Leipfic to furrenderq keipfioY denouncing the fame vengeance againft it as had been executed on Magdeburg, in cafe of a refufal. By this the. gsvernor was fo much intimidated, that he inftant- ly) S W E Sweden, ly fubmitted; and alfo furrendered the caftle of Pafien- berg, which was in a condition to have flood out till the arrival of the Swedifli army. The eleftor, enraged at the lofs of thefc valuable places, ordered his army to join the Swedes with all expedition, and prefled the king fo warmly to engage, that at laft he yielded to 68 his defire. On the 7th of September 1631, Guftavus Battle of led out his army in the moll beautiful order, the Swedes Leipfic. forming one column on the right, and the Saxons ano¬ ther on the left; each amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly drew up his men in one vail column, poflibly with a view of furrounding the flanks of the king’s army; but every officer of experience in his army, from the excellency of the Swedifli difpofition, prog- mofticated the event of the engagement. Guftavus led •on the troops againft that wing of the Imperialifts commanded by Pappenheim, whom he drove back to fuch a diftance, that he gained a point of the wind ; by which the fmoke fell upon their enemies •and confiderably embarrafled them, at the fame time that the Swedes were got without the reach of a bat¬ tery which played furioufly on their flank. General Bannier in the mean time cut in pieces the troops of Holftein, and mortally wounded the duke who com¬ manded them. Pappenheim led on his troops feven times to the charge, in hopes of regaining his former fituation ; but was as often repulfed by the Swedes. Tilly all this while was engaged with the Saxons; but having at laft driven them off the field, the whole ftrength of the Imperial army was turned upon the Swedilh left wingcommandedby General Horn. TheSwedesfuftain- ed the attack with the greateft firmnefs, until the king detached general Teuffel with the centre to affift them. The Imperialifts then were no longer able to ftand their ground; but gave way. every where except in the centre, which was compofed of 18 regiments of ve- 6p terans accuftomed to viflory, and deemed invincible. Thelmpe- They made incredible efforts to maintain the reputa- tialifts de- tion they had acquired; and, though fwept off in great ^reit Witk numbers by the Swedifh artillery, never fhrunk or fell laughter. ,nt0 confufion. Four regiments, after their officers had been killed, formed themfelves, and retired to the fkirt of a wood ; where they were all to a man cut in pieces, without demanding quarter. Tilly retired at the head of 600 men, and efcaped by the coming on of the night. Seven thoufand Imperialifls lay dead on the field of battle ; 4000 were taken prifoners; a fine train of artillery was loft, with upwards of 100 ftan- dards, enfigns, and other military trophies.—On this occafion it was that the Scots regiment in the Swedifti fervice firft praftifed the method of firing in platoons; to which fome aferibe the aflonifhment and confufion that appeared in the Imperial army. It is thought, 70 however, that the Swedilh monarch difplayed greater Conduft of abilities in gaining this vi&ory than improving it af- Guftavus terwards ; for had he marched immediately to Vienna, ccniureu. before his enemies had time to recover their confter- nation, it is fuppofed that the emperor would have been obliged to abandon his capital, and leave his hereditary dominions to the mercy of the conqueror. But Guftavus apprehended that Tilly might fall upon the Saxons while he was ravaging the Aullrian here¬ ditary dominions; which would have deprived him not only of an ally, but of the free quarters which the eledlor had promifed to his troops in cafe of a retreat. s w E For this and fome other reafons he determined to pe- Sweden; ! netrate into Franconia, where he reduced feveral places, 1 particularly the fortrefs of Workburg. Tilly, having The Swedes j colledled his fcattered troops, which formed an army Jakes num* ] Hill fuperior in number to that of Guflavus, marched^°ci'°^* ' to the relief of this place; but came too late. Hef0iirr£gi. I then direfted his march towards Rottenberg, where meuts of i four regiments were cut in pieces by a Svvedifh de-tke enemy* ! tachment. After this the king reduced Hanau, Franckfort on the Maine, and Mentz ; deftroying a body of Spaniards, who had thrown themfelves in his way to obftruft his paffage. The court of Vienna was now thrown into the ut- moft confufion ; and fent every where begging affift- ance, and foliciting the Catholic princes to arm in de¬ fence of their religion. The emperor was moft em- barraffed in finding out a general capable of oppofing Guftavus in the field 5 for the late misfortunes of count Tilly had entirely funk his reputation. Walleftein, vvaifeftein 1 an old experienced officer, was made choice of; butchofen ge-. '{ as he had formerly been difgraced, it was apprehendedneral by th« j that he would not accept of the command of which heemPeror* j had once been deprived. This obje&ion, however, was got over; and Walleftein not only accepted of the command, but, at his own expence, augmented the army to 40,000 men. During the whole winter the Swedifti army kept a great the field ; and before the approach of fummer had re- number of j duced Crantznach, Bobenhaufen, Kirchberg, Magde-jownhstaken burg, Gozlar, Northeim, Gottingen, and Dander- fladt; while the landgrave William made great pro- * ‘ ] grefs in Weftphalia. Guftavus Horn was repulfed before Bamberg; but foon had his revenge, by entriely deftroying two regiments of Imperialifts. To prevent the troops from being affedled by the lofs before Bam¬ berg, the king refolved to give battle to Tilly, who was marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swedes from gaining a footing in that deflorate. He pur- fued the Imperial general through a vaft traft of coun¬ try, defeated his rear-guard, and, having reduced a va¬ riety of towns and fortreffes on the Danube, penetrated asfarasUIm. Advancing to the river Leek, countTilly I polled himfelf in a wood on the oppofite fide, to dif- iy defeated i pute his paffage. Guftavus endeavoured to diflodge and killed, him by a regular fire from 70 pieces of cannon. The flaughter was dreadful ; and Tilly himfelf, being wounded by a cannon-ball in the knee, died a few days before he was to have been fuperfeded by Walle¬ ftein. The following night the Imperial army eva¬ cuated the poll; part retiring to Ingoldftadt, and others to Newburg. Guftavus immediately croffed the river, and feized the towns of Rain and Newburg, which the enemy had abandoned.* Augfb-irg next fubmitted ; and from the inhabitants of this place Guftavus exa&T ed an oath of fidelity, not only to himfelf but to the * crown of Sweden. This meafure gave the greateft offence to many of the Germanic body, and made them ima¬ gine that the king of Sweden had other views than the defence of the Proteftant caufe. From Augfburg the Swedes advanced towards Ra- tifbon ; but were difappointed in their defign of getting poffeffion of that city by reafon of the Bavarians having thrown a very numerous garrifon into the place.—In the mean time ambaffadors arrived from Denmark, offering the mediation of that crown for obtaining [ 8478 1 S W E [ 8479 ] S W E Sweden; a lading peace between the contending powers. Gu- ~ f^avus, however, replied, that no fuch peace could take place till the Catholic princes thought proper to grant the Proteftants full and ample fecurity for their enjoyment of future tranquiliitj’. But the ambaffadors had no inftruftions to propofe any thing farther; and thus the negociation vanilhed. Guftavus now, refol¬ ds ving to retort upon themfelves the cruelties which the Three Bavarians had inflided on the Proteftants, laid the in'afties'tf towns Morzbourg, Friefengen, and Landfhut, in the^wedcs. a^)es* r^'‘ie inhabitants of Munich faved their city by fubmiffion; but, as the peafants in that neighbourhood had colledted themfelves into bodies in order to murder the ftragglers from the Swedifti army, Guftavus burnt their houfes, and defeated the forces of the ele&or, who had been joined by a confiderable body of militia. While Guftavus was thus employed, Walleftein had affembled a vaft army. He was ftrongly folicited by the eledor of Bavaria to come to his affiftance; but, in revenge of the eledors having formerly obtained the command for count Tilly in preference to himfelf, he drew' off towards Bohemia to encounter the ?(5 Saxons. Arnheim, who commanded the Saxon forces I*rhe Saxon in that place, was the enemy of Guftavus, who had troops de- formerly rallied him for hia cowardice. He there- Iwaikftan *°re Pertn‘t,:ed Walleftein to gain an eafy vidory, in ’ hopes that his mafter the eledor of Saxony, a prince entirely devoted to his pleafures, might be induced to rdinquifh the friendfhip of fuch a reftlefs and warlike ally as Guftavus ; with whom indeed he ufed all the eloquence of which he was mafter, to detach him from the Swedifli caufe. Several advantages in the mean time were gained by the Imperialifts. Pappenheim defeated the archbilhop of Bremen’s cavalry at War¬ den ; and three Swedilh regiments were cut off nearKa- dingen. Pappenheim, however, was forced to retire, and withdraw his garrifon from Stade; of which the Swedes took poffeffion. Walleftein and the eledor of Bavaria, who had now joined their forces, threatened Guftavus with greatly fuperior numbers. At laft, however, the king, being reinforced with 15,000 men, no longer declined the engagement; but Walleftein was too wife to truft the fate of the empire to a Angle engagement againft fuch an enemy Guftavus as the king of Sweden. Guftavus attacked his attacks his camp, but was repulfed with the lofs of 2000 men; I ?imP> which caufed a general murmuring and difeontent ' witlHofs6 againft his ralhnefs. Several other misfortunes hap- pened to the Swedes ; and at laft, after various ma- pceuvres, Walleftein bent his courfe towards Mifnia, in order to oblige the eledor of Saxony to declare againft the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria. Guftavus, notwuhftanding the inconftancy of Auguf- tus, immediately fet out to affift him. With incre¬ dible diligence he marched to Mifnia, where the Im¬ perialifts were affembling their whole ftrength. Hear¬ ing that the enemy were encamped at Wefenfells, and that Pappenheim had been detached with a ftrong corps, Guftavus refolved to engage them before they 78 could effed a jundion. With this view he marched Battle of to Lutzen, where he attacked Walleftein with incre- Lutzeu. dible fury. The Swedilh infantry broke the Impe¬ rialifts in fpite of their utmoft efforts, and took all their artillery. The cavalry not being able to pafs the river fo expeditioufly as the king thought necef- lary, he led the way, attended only by the regiment of Smaaland and the duke of Saxe-Lawenburg. Here, Sweden, after charging impetuoufly, he was killed, as Puffen- dorff alleges, by the treachery of the duke; who, be¬ ing corrupted by the emperor, (hot him in the back Guftlvus during the heat of the adion. The news of his death killed, was in an inftant fpread over both armies. The cou¬ rage of the Imperialifts revived, and they now made themfelves fure of ridory. But the Swedes, eager to revenge the death of their beloved monarch, charged with fuch fury that nothing could refill them. The Imperialifts were defeated a fecond time, juft as Pap¬ penheim, with his frelh corps, came up to their affift- 8o ance. On this the battle was renewed, but the Swedes-n,e impe. were ftill irrefiftible. Pappenheim was mortally wound-rialifts to«- ed, and his army finally routed, with the lofs of 9000 I1'' killed in the field and in the purfuit. The vidory of Lutzen proved more unfortunate to Sweden than the greateft defeat. The crown devolved gi upon Chrillina, an infant of fix years old; the nation was involved in an expenfive foreign war, without any an infant, perfon equal to the arduous talk of commanding the proclaimed; armies, or regulating domeftic affairs, as Gnftavus had done. However, Chriftina, the daughter of Guftavus, was immediately proclaimed queen. The regency de¬ volved on the grand bailiff, the marifchal, the high, ad¬ miral, the chancellor, and the treafurer of the crown. Oxenftiern was invefted with the chief management of affairs, and conduced himfelf with the greatdl pru¬ dence. He was greatly embarra'ffed indeed by the divi- fions among the Proteftant princes, which became more violent after the death of Guftavus; but, in fpite of all difficulties, he went on purfuing the intereft of his country, and planning the means of retaining the Swediffi conquefts. Matters went on pretty fuccefs- ga fully till the year 1634, when, through the rafhnefs of The Swedes the Swedifh foldiers,. they were defeated at Nord- receive a lingen, with the lofs of 6000 men killed on the fpot, great over- a number of prifoners, and 130 ftandards with other t^ro^'.at military trophies, taken by the enemy. Oxenftiern’s Nor conftancy was fhaken by this dreadful blow ; but he applied himfelf diligently to repair the lofs, by recruit¬ ing the army, and rendering the allies faithful. The latter proved the mod difficult talk. The death of Guftavus, and the defeat at Nordlingen, had thrown them into defpair; and every one was defirous of making the beft terms he could with the emperorv TheThe Saxons Saxons not only renounced their alliance with Swe-declare den, but openly xommenced war againft it ; and tho’“gainflSw&”' the regency would gladly have confented to an ho- en' nourable peace, the enemy were now too much flulhed with fuccefs to grant it. Oxenftiern had no other re- fource than an alliance with France, and the bravery of his generals. In 1635, he went in perfon to the court of Lewis, and concluded a treaty; which, how¬ ever, anfwered no purpofe, as it was never ob- g4 ferved. The enemy, in the mean time, pufhed theirsucccfles off good fortune. They furprifed Philiplburg, where the Impe- the French had laid up vaft magazines; and reducedriallfts* Spires, Auglburg, Treves, Wurtlburg, Coburg,'and fome other places. To complete the misfortunes of Sweden, it was expeded that-the Poles would im¬ mediately invade Pruflia. To prevent this, La Gar- die was difpatched thither with a powerful army ; but as it was impoffible to refill fo many enemies at once,, the chancellor purchafed the friendlhip of Poland for 26 years by reding that duchy to the republic. Thus. S W E [ 8480 ] S W E Sweeten, lie got rid of a powerful CBeray ; and the Swedifh 8j affairs began to revive by a vidlory which general The Saxons Bannier gained over the Saxons, in confquence of which deSlby they were driven bey°nd the Elbe- Bannter. Early in the fpring of 1636, the Saxons made fome motions as if they intended to cut off Bannier’s com¬ munication with Pomerania. This he prevented by a ftratagem ; defeated a body of the enemy, and obliged the Saxons to retire. Soon after this he drove them out of their winter-quarters with confiderable lofs, at which time alfo a confiderable body of Irnperialifts 85 who came to their affiftance were difperfed. In Weft- 'fhelmpe- phalia general Kniphaufen beat the Imperialills with Tca ed b''' tbe '°^8 I5co men > but be himfilf was killed in the Kniphauien pnffuit, and his army obliged to repafs the Wefer. Some advantages wefe alfo gained in the neighbour¬ hood of Minden by general Lefly who had affembled g7 a confiderable army. In Alface, Bernard duke of And by the Saxe-'Weymar defeated count Gallas the Imperial duke general, and difptrfed his army. But when every rriai-6 1:b‘nS feemed thus fuccefsful for the Swedes, the city of Magdeburg, contrary to the expeftation of every body, furrend.ered for want of powder, which the gar- rifon had wantonly confumed. The Saxons alfo made 'fome conquetts on the Elbe, which obliged Bannier to ,recall general Lefly from Weftphalia to march a- gainft them. The Saxons fixed on a moft convenient lituation, whence they hoped to deftroy the Swedifh army without coming to a battle. But Bannier, re- folving to hazard every thing rather than fnffer his .army to be wafted by famine, advanced towards Perle- berg, a place clofely blocked up by the enemy. Plere he drove from an advantageous poft four regiments of Saxon curaffiers, having killed or taken prifoners 400 88 men; after which he foon forced them to a general en- The Saxons g.agement> The numbers were very unequal, Bannier’s fcated by army amounting to 9000 horfe and 7000 foot, and Cannier. the Saxons to 15,000 horfe and 13 battalions of foot. The battle began with great fury; the right wing of the Swedes was almolt oppreffed by numbers be¬ fore the left could come to their afliftance. They were ten times driven back, and as often returned to the charge. At the laft time they made fuch a de- fperate effort, that the enemy were entirely broken and defeated. Five thoufand were killed on the fpot, 3000 wounded, and as many taken prifoners, toge¬ ther with 150 colours and ftandards, and feveral pieces of cannon. Thus ended the campaign of 1636, in a manner highly honourable to the Swedes. Some fruitlefs ne- gociations were fet on foot daring the winter; but thefe coming to nothing, Bannier quitted his winter- F,i >h^°re i- tluarters veiT ear'y in lhe feafon ; and falling upon mints of eight regiments of Saxons cantoned at Eulenburg, Saxons ta- purfued them to Torgau, where he obliged them to ‘ken prifo- furrender at diferetion. Another party of Saxons 1,ers* was defeated in the neighbourhood of Leipfic ; after which he propofed in veiling that city. But in this project he was difappointed by the Jmperialifts pene- 50 tratinginto Thuringia. He then called in all his de- Baimier de- tachments, with a view to prevent them from crofting a feats the river named Sala ; but in this alfo he was difappoint- I npcnahfts td: however, he had the good fortune to defeat Jh'ed to re- 2000 imperialifts near Pegau, and deftroy feveral t.is, ’ detachments that .attempted to obftruft his march. Yet, notwithftanding all thefe fucceffes, Bannier Found Sweden, i his fituation every day more ftraitened, from the con- \ tinual increafe of the enemy’s forces ; which obliged him at laft to retreat into Pomerania, out of which he foon drove out count Gallas. The affairs of the S wedes were now once more re¬ duced to the brink, of ruin through the unguarded conduft of General Wrangel, who had alfo an army in Pomerania. After Bannier had driven count Gallas out of the province as above-mentioned, Wrangel, imagining hirnfelf. perfeftly fecure, cantoned his troops and extended his quarters, the better to ac¬ commodate his army. But Gallas being informed 9I i of this proceeding, fuddenly returned, ravaged all Pomerani* ] Upper Pomerania, and reduced the towns of Ufedom, ravaged by 1 Dernmin, andWollin; after which, leaving garrifonst!1<:.J:m',c' j in the fortreffes, he returned to his winter-quarteis innai s* | Saxony. This unfortunate campaign counterbalanced all the advantages of the former. Wrangel was ib ftruck with the fuddennefs of the blow, that he could take no meafures for oppofition. Some of the S wedifh al¬ lies again fell off, and took up arms againft them. ^ In 1638, the Swedifh affairs again began to revive inThelmpe* \ this quarter, through the excellent condufit of Bannier, rialifts de- j who defeated count Gallas with the lofs of 3000 men featet! by ] killed and taken prifoners. Purfuing his good for-Bannier‘ tune, he fo harrafled the count, that he obliged him .i in great hafte to repafs the Elbe, and take fheiter in the hereditary dominions of Auftria. Great as Ban¬ ner’s exploits had been, however, they were eclipfed by thofe of duke Bernard. That general had fo in- creafed his army in the Proteftant cantons of Switzer- EXpfo^tS0f j land, and in Franche Gomte, that he found himfelf in the duke 1 a condition to ad without the afliftance of the French, of Saxe- 4 who indeed were but treacherous allies. Advancing | to the Rhine, he feized on Seckingen and Laffuburg, and laid fiege to Rheinfield. The .Imperialifts, in conjun&ion with the troops of Bavaria, advanced to the relief of the place. An engagement enfued; in which the vi&ory was difputed : the enemy threw fuc- cours into the city, and the duke withdrew his ar¬ my. V/ithin a month he gave them battle a fecond time; and fo completely defeated them, that only one Imperial officer above the rank of a captain efcaped being killed or taken prifoner. He then renewed the fiege of Rheinfield ; which he reduced, as well as fe¬ deral other important places. Advancing to Brifac, 'he blocked it up with a defign of forcing the garrifon to furrender by famine. General Gotz, with 12,000 men, attempted to throw in 1000 waggons of provi- fion ; but he was defeated, with the lofs of all his men except 2500. Duke Charles of Lorrain, with 4000 t men, joined the remains of Gotz’s army, in order to relieve the town ; but being furprifed by Bernard, 4iis whole army was cut in pieces. A third attempt was made by Gotz, but it proved as unfuccefsful as the former ; and the place being reduced to great flraits, was obliged to capitulate. "In January 1639, the two vidtorious generals Ber¬ nard and Bannier prepared to" attack the enemy on their own ground. Bannier made an irruption into the territories of Anhalt and Halberftadt. Leaving his infantry behind, he puftted on with his cavalry, and furprifed Salis, grand-mafter of the Imperial ar¬ tillery. ‘ W E t 84Sf ] S W E Swcdeir.^ tillery. After'.i bloody confl!&, the Swedes gained a of Banner. But Unanimity was wanting ; ev£fy one Swede!?* complete i-iftory, feven regiments of the enemy being would be fupreme in the command ; and Bannier, the ~ tannier de-cut in P‘ecc-• Next entering Saxony, he defeated four beft general of them all, had the lead influence. In* feats the regiments of the enemy, obliging a much larger body dead of thofe mafterly and decifive flrokes by which ^r.emy in to take flieiter under the cannon of Drefden. Hearing the Swedes had hitherto diftinguifhed themfelves, the - feveralen- saxon3 were encamped near Chemnitz, where armies continued looking at one another, each fufier- #»gements. tjiey waite(j t0 be joined by the Imperialifts, he refol* ing the rigours of famine. At laft Bsnnier, refolving ved to attack them before this jun&ion could be efc to expofe his troops no longer, fet out for Thuringia, fefled. The fame good fortune ftill attended his through Franconia, to feize an advantageous poll on arms, and the Saxons were almoft all killed or taken, the Maine ; but as he advanced to the Sala, he found Bannier next entering into Bohemia, laid the country the Imperialifts entrenched on the other fide. Finding under contribution; after which, returning crofs the it impoffible to force a paflage, he took the road Elbe, he fell on general Hofskirk, who was encamped through Hefle, where his troops fuffered greatly by near Brandeiz with 10 regiments of horfe and feveral famine. Here he propofed to fight the enemy; but battalions of foot. Him he defeated with the lofs of the Landgrave and duke of Lunenburg refufed their 2000 men. The remains of the Imperial forces were confent. Upon this he threatened to leave them to purfued to the walls of Prague, and the generals Hofs- the mercy of the confederates, and thus obliged them kirk and Montecuculi were taken prifoners. Yet, not- to be fomewhat more pliant. None of thofe brilliant withftanding thefe conftant fuccefles, the enemies of fuccefles, however, now attended the operations of Bannier multiplied daily. He had expefted an infur- the Proteftant allies: the campaigns of 1640 and 1641 re&ion in his favour in Silefia or Bohemia; but no were fpent in ufelefs marches and countermarches ; fuch event took place. The Proteftant princes, over- ferving only to bring the army into the greateft dan* 9g awed by the enemy, did not fend him the neceflary gers, from which they were as cor.ftantly relieved by Death of affiftance. Undifmayed, however, by difficulties or the adtive and intrepid Bannier. At laft this brave Bannier. danger, Bannier performed wonders. He defeated a general, worn out with perpetual fatigues, died of a body of Imperialifts at Glatz : three times he drove fever in the year 1641, leaving the Swedifh army in the Saxons from their camp at Firn; and yet was for- a worfe fituation than ever. ced to evacuate the place, becaufe he could not fpare The imperialifts were too well acquainted with the a garrifon. His army being deftitute of the means of abilities of Bannier not to take advantage of the op¬ recruiting, was confiderably diminifhed in number; portunity offered by his death. A Swedifh detach- 99 yet with it he reduced a number of towns, and ob- ment was cut in pieces at Quidlenberg. The Swedifti^^^1^ tained a variety of other important advantages, when army, accuftomed only to be obedient to Bannier, be- ”ut jDeatt? of on 3 fudden all his hopes were blafted by the death of came mutinous, and Piccolomini refolved to fall uponces. the duke the duke of Saxe-Weymar; poifoned, as was fuppo- them with his whole force. But the four generals, of Saxe- fed, by the French, who were defirous of getting the Wrangel, Konigfmark, Wittemberg, and Pfuhl, ha- Weymar. town Gf Brifac into their hands, from which the duke ving convinced the foldiers of the neceffity of defend* prevented them. ing themfelves, made fuch excellent difpofitions, that The difficulties to which Bannier was now reduced the imperialifts durft not attack them. Piccoloraini 5(S proved extreme. The French monarch took upon then detached part of his army to attack the Heffians 100 Treachery him to difpofe of the army and conquefts of Bernard in their quarters ; but Wrangel and Konigfmark threwThe Impe- of the as he thought proper. Brifac, and other places of themfelves in their way, and defeated them with the In his way he cut in pieces a body of 3000 Croats, ber for fome time by a dangerous gout; and thus a | General Konigfmark routed the-Imperialifts at Gera ; report of bis death being fpread, the-Imperialifts were ted by Ko- 3 fecond time at Scbplen ; and a third time entirely encouraged to begin a long march through roads fcarce tiigfmark. defeated them near Leipfic. Bannier was very pref- paffable, in hopes of furprifing the Swedifh army fing on the allies to join him ; and at laft, in 1640, without a general. Torftenfon having intelligence of he was joined by the Weymar army under the dukes this, feized an advantageous.poft which could not be of Longueville and Gubrien, a body of Ruffians led forced ; and thus obliged the enemy to retreat, after by general Melander, and the troops of Lunenburgh having fuffered as much by their fatiguing march as commanded by general Klitzing. The army now if they had fought a bloody battle. Then joining ge- ,0l amounted to 22 battalions of infantry and 22,000 neral Stalhanch, who had been driven by the Impe-Reduces fe- horfe; fo that they were much more than a match for perialifts out of Silefia, he reduced the town of Greatveraltowns, their enemies, had they been under the foie direftion Glogau, with a number of other important placesi -Vov. X. 42 N after S W E Sweden, after which he laid fiege to Schweidnitz. of Saxe-Lawenburgh, at the head of all his cavalry, endeavoured to throw in fuccours; bat was defeated with the lofs of 3000 men. He himfelf was taken prifoner, and died of chagrin a few days after. In confequence of this defeat Schweidnitz furrendered at difcretion ; and Torftenfon having fent a detachment to invert: the city of Neiffe, proceeded with the reft to [ 8482 ] S W E The duke lofs of one half its number at Dettingen by the Ba- Sweden.1 ? varians, proved a dreadful blow, from which the —’a Swedes could fcarce recover themfelves. Indeed, not-TheSwedei Drives the drive the enemy entirely out of Silefia. This he ef- Imperialifts ft&ually performed; obliging them to retire over bar- out of Sile-ren mountains, almoft famiflied for want of proviGon, fakes Ol- an(* harrafled by his light troops ; fo that this lately jjjutz &c. formidable army was almoft entirely ruined. With his vi&orious troops the Swediih general then poured into Moravia ; where, in five days, he reduced the ftrong town of Olmutz (which not long ago fuftained a fiege of as many weeks by the king of Prufiia.) Litta and Newftadt Glared the fame fate ; after which them at Leipfic. withftanding the valour and fuccefs of the Swedes, defea.te<1 at| their affairs in Germany mull have gone to wreck inDettm£enT the campaigns of 1643 and 1644, had not the French under Gonde and Turenne made a moft powerful di- verfion, and performed fuch exploits as immortalized the names of thefe two generals. In 1645', the war againft Denmark was puftied Ana^an^i with fuch vigour, that a peace, very honourable and tageous j advantageous for Sweden, was concluded ; and thus peace with Torftenfon was again at liberty to adl againft the Jm. Deiimarli* perialifts. He now took meafures for carrying the war into the heart of the Auftrian dominions. Hat¬ field affembled a confiderable army to oppofe the Swedes ; and the emperor came in perfon to Prague to animate his troops.. The two armies came in fight the Swedes, returning fondenly to Silefia, made them- at Jancowitz, and both prepared for an engagement, 1 ■Td woo O o 1 o i 'Rviorv *» *■» 1 o I/I €11> rv & fr* walmir rtf’ f-ViP mr\rp rtrpvailprj • a n . ,. n “ I felves mafters of Oppelein, Brieg, and laid fiege to Breflau. Here the garrifon made fuch an obftinate defence, that the Imperialifts had time to affemble un¬ der the condvft of the archduke Leopold, and come to their relief. As Torftenfon was greatly inferior in number, he raifed the fiege ; but appeared fo formi¬ dable in his retreat, that the enemy durft neither at¬ tack him, nor attempt to prevent his encamping in a very advantageous fituation. The Imperialifts took this opportunity of laying fiege to Glogau : but after having loft a great number of men, they were forced to abandon the enterprife on the junftion of Wrangel with Torftenfon; by which means the Swedes were once more in a condition to face their enemies in the field. Torftenfon now projefted an irruption into Bohe¬ mia, and putting his army into winter-quarters in that country ; but in this he was prevented by the vigilance of the enemy : however, he reduced the city of Zit- tau, where, for the firft time, a cartel for prifoners was eftablifiied ; by which means the Swedifti army was confiderably augmented. Thus difappointed in his defigns on Bohemia, Torftenfon direfted his courfe to Leiplic, which he intended to invert. The Impe¬ rial generals affembled their whole force, and fet out to relieve that important place. The two armies foon came in fight of each other; and a furious cannona¬ ding was the prelude to a general engagement.. A tingle bullet had almoft proved fatal to the Swedifti caufe. It carried away the furniture of Torftenfon’s horfe, killed the count Palatine’s horfe, pierced ge¬ neral Rabenau through the body, took off the head of a celebrated counfellor named Crabbe, and carried away the leg of a private foldier. The Swedes, as foonas the armies came up, behaved with their wonted refolution, and after an obftinate confli& obtained a complete vidiory ; 5000 of the enemy being killed on the fpot, 3000 wounded, and as many taken prifon¬ ers. This vidory was followed by the immediate fur- render of Leipfic; and in all probability the Swedes would have finally triumphed over all their enemies, had not a rupture with Denmark enfued. Torften- Denmark. f0n and Horn behaved with their ufual valour in Hol- ftein and Schonen, while general Konigfmark diftin- guiflied himfelf in Germany; but the ruin of the Weymar army, which was totally defeated with the Entirely The valour of the Swedes once more prevailed ; and rjaiifts en- I they totally defeated their enemies. Four thoufand tirely de- of the Imperialifts were killed on the fpot, among feated « i whom were general Hatfield and a great number of t| officers ; and near 5000 were taken prifoners. No great advantages, however, were derived from this vidtory. Some towns indeed were reduced; but at laft Torften¬ fon was obliged to retire into Moravia, where he put his army into winter-quarters; and in the beginningj of the year 1646 refigned the command to Wrangel. refigns the 1 The new general conduced the Swedifti affairs with command 1 great ability and fuccefs; till at laft the Imperialifts,t0 Wran- | finding themfelves finally unable to drive the Swedes £e ’ I out of Germany, concluded a peace with them in 1648. This was the memorable treaty of Weftphalia, by which the Germanic conftitution was fettled upon its ancient *10 1 principles, and thofe implacable difputes which had ^e:lfy.of oflong torn the empire were ended ; the duchies of p a" Bremen and Verden, all the Upper and part of Lower Pomerania, the city of Wifruar and theifle of Rugen, were affigned to Sweden, and a gratification of five millions of crowns was given to the army. u* Sweden now enjoyed fome years of repofe. Charles ^ha^Ies Guftavus, count Palatine, having gained the favour of Chriftina, was appointed generaliffimo of the forces, heir to th© and heir-apparent to the crown. A marriage was crown of propoftd between them ; but the queen would never Swedea* liften to this or any other propofal of the kind. In J650, the ceremony of the queen’s coronation was performed ; but in four years thereafter, file refigned the crown in favour of Guftavus. (See the article Christina.) The new king found himfelf involved in confider- able difficulties on his acceffion to the throne. The Sweden on treafury was quite exhaufted ; great part of the reve- the accef- nue was appointed for the fupport of Chriftina’s houfe- flon of hold ; the people were oppreffed with taxes ; and the charles* nation having been difarmed for feveral years, began to lofe its reputation among foreigners. To remedy thefe evils, Charles propofed to refume all the crown- lands which had been alienated by grants to favourites during the late reign; to repeal a duty which had been laid upon fait; to put the kingdom in a pofture of defence ; and to enter upon a war with fome neigh¬ bouring ftate. Under pretence, therefore, thatCafi- mir king of Poland had quellioned his title to the throne, S W E War with Poland re- tfolved on. The Poles bjefeated, and the kingdom fccdttced. TIJ War with the Eleftor i of Branden¬ burg. *17 Charles gains a vie tory, buti obliged to retire. n8 Concludes a treaty with the Dutch and the Eleiftor of Bran¬ denburg. throne, he began to make preparations for invading that kingdom. Several embaflies were fent from Poland to Stockholm ; but fome point of ceremony always dif- appointed them of an audience of the king; fo that they were obliged to return without their errand. As foon as matters were in readinefs, General Wit- temberg made an irruption into Poland from the fide of Pomerania. The Poles oppofed him with an army of 15,000 men; but inftead of fighting, they began to negociate, and in a fhort time entirely difperfed themfelves. Charles himfelf foon followed with a powerful army, and purfued his march without obitruc* tion, all the cities throwing open their gates to him as he approached, and offering to fupply him with ne- ceffaries. As he advanced to Cracow, Cafimir re- foked to make one effort to fave his capital. His ar¬ my amounted only to 10,000 men ; and thefe were un¬ fortunately fuch as had never flood fire. After a feeble refiftance they fled with precipitation, having loft 1000 men killed and taken prifoners. A few days after this Charles defeated the Poles a fecond time about eight leagues from Cracow; upon which Ca¬ fimir fled with his family to Oppelen in Silefia. The capital was then invefted ; and, though defended with the utmoft valour by Stephen Czarnefki, was in a fhort time obliged to capitulate. Thus in lefs than three months Charles apparently became mafter of Poland ; but it foon became evident that the Poles had no in¬ tention of abandoning their former fovereign. In 1656 a war took place with the ele&or of Bran¬ denburg. While Charles was employed in the con- queft of Poland, that prince had invaded the Royal and Ducal Pruflia, and reduced the molt confiderable towns with little oppofition. The king of Sweden took umbrage at his progrefs; and having marched againft him, defeated his forces in feveral flight en¬ counters, and obliged him to own that he was a vaffel of Sweden. Thefe rapid conqucfts alarmed all Eu¬ rope ; and the different powers fought for means of driving the Swedes out of Poland, which they had fo unexpectedly and unjuflly feized. The Poles were no fooner afiiired that they fhould be affifted, than they every where revolted and maffacred the Swedes. Ca- fimir returned from Silefia ; and thofe very troops and generals who had before fubmitted to Charles without oppofition, now ranged themfelves under the banners of his antagonift. Charles immediately marched from Pruflia to chaftife the infolence of the Poles, and to¬ tally defeated a body of 12,000 men under the com¬ mand of Czarnefki. This did not hinder all the Poles incorporated with his troops to defert; which confi- derably reduced his army ; and the campaign being performed in the depth of winter, he was at laft obli¬ ged to retreat to Pruflia. In his march he was har- rafled by the Poles ; and a body of 4000 Swedes was furprifed and defeated by them at Warka. This lofs, however, was foon after recompenfed by a complete victory gained by Adolphus the king’s brother and General Wrangel ever Czarnefki. In the mean time the king was taking meafures for laying fiege to Dantzic; but was prevented by the Dutch, who threat¬ ened to oppofe him, unlefs a proper regard was paid to their interefl. Charles accordingly granted them advantageous terms; and afterwards gained over the eleCtor of Brandenburg, by ceding to him the fove* [ 8483 1 S W E reignty of PrufGa, that he might be at liberty to turn Sweden. his whole ftrength againft Poland. — By the treaty juft concluded with the eleftor, the latter was to aflirt Charles in his war with Poland ; but the cleCtor had fo procraftinated matters, that the Poles, having obtained afiiltance from the Tartars, had reduced the city of Warfaw. The two princes, however, now marched in concert againft their ene¬ mies, who were encamped in a ftrong fituation in the neighbourhood of the city abovementioned, their camp being fronted by the Viflula*, The Poles were driven from their entrenchments with prodigious {laughter, tI3 and a vaft number taken prifoners. The Poles and The Poles Tartars then laboured to break the alliance; withanfl Tartars which view they entered Ducal Prufiia, and defeated 3^ fund., Stetin, and Gripfwald. In 1678, the Swedifh fleet was defeated in two engagements. At Landf-^hcre^o^ croon a moft obftinate battle was fought from ten in to wredu the morning till fix at night; when both parties were obliged, by their fatigue, to.retire to their refpeftive camps.. At Oldeval in Norway, the Swedes were de¬ feated ; and the Danes laid defolate the iflands of Odand, Smaaland, Unno, and Kuno ; while the elec¬ toral troops and Imperialiits reduced count Konigf- mark. S W E [ 8485 ] S W E Sweden, mark to tke utmoft diftrefs in the neighbourhood of * ' Stralfund. In this deplorable fituation of affairs count Konigf- mark found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to fuch advantage, that he obtained a complete vic¬ tory ; after which he ravaged the duchy of Mecklen¬ burg. Yet notwithftanding this fuccefs, he could not prevent the ele&or from reducing Stralfund; after which he was obliged to evacuate Pomerania; and, to complete his diftrefs, the fleet which tranfported the Swedifh army from Pomerania was wrecked on the coaft of Bornholm ; by which accident 2000 perfons were drowned, and the remainder plundered and taken prifoners by the Danes, though they had been fur- nifhcd with paffports from king Frederic. In this unprofperous fituation of affairs a peace was concluded at St Germain’s between France and her ene¬ mies, by which the Swedes and Danes were left to decide their'quarrel by themfelves. Denmark was by no means a match for Sweden, even in the diftreffed Peace con ^tuat^on to w^'c^1 ^ie was reduced : for which reafon eluded. " 3 treat7 was inftantly concluded, on terms much more favourable to Sweden than could have been expedted ; and the peace was confirmed by a marriage between Charles and Ulrica Eleonora, daughter to the king of Denmark. From this time the Swedifh monarch ap¬ plied himfelf to the reformation of the ftate ; and by artfully managing the difputes between the nobility and peafants, he obtained a decree of the ftates em¬ powering him to alter the conftitution as he pleafed. *3® ^ Being thus invefted with abfolute power, he proceeded Icom^ab^ t0 take fome very extraodinary meafures. In 1685 it foiute. was projedled to liquidate the public debts by railing the nominal value of money, without adding any thing to its intrinfic value. This was pbt in execution the following year, by which the creditors of the govern¬ ment loft upwards of nine millions of crowns. This, with fome other arbitrary fteps taken about the fame time, difgufted all the nobility, merchants, and crown- creditors* In Livonia they were highly refented fand remonftrancea were repeatedly fent by the hands of de¬ puties, who had orders to infill upon their privileges , confirmed by many adds of the king’s predeceffors. tnany of his The deputies could obtain nothing, fo that the diet ; fubjetfs. was affembled. On their report the body of nobi¬ lity refolved to draw up a ftronger remonftrance than 140 an7 l^e formcr> t0 be prefented to the king by cap- ► Boldnefs tain Patkul one of the deputies, who had already di- and misfor-ftinguifhed himfelf by his boldnefs and attachment to tunes of liberty.. His public fpirit, however, produced no other captain at” effe(cy than to procure his own deftrudtion. An accu- fation was drawn up againft all the reroonflrants, but efpecially Patkul. He was fentenced to lofe his right- hand, then to be deprived of his life, honours, and eftates ; to have the latter confifcated to the crown, and his papers burnt by the hands of the common executioner. The accufation was declared unjuft by the univerfity at Leipfic : but notwithftanding this, Patkul was obliged to fly his country, to avoid the execution of his rigorous fentence; which, however, 141 fell upon him with redoubled fury in the fubfequent Charles XI. reiVnj Gf which an account is given under the article dies, andiSpA° KUL_ by his fon On the 15th of April 1697, died Charles XI. leav- charles ing hia.crown to his fon, the celebrated Charles XII, XU. a - at that time a minor. On his acceffion he found him- Sweden, felf under the tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had governed the kingdom during the minority of the late king. Though Charles was at that time only 15 years of age, he inftantly (bowed a defire of taking the government into his own hands. Hiscoun- fellors, count Piper and Axel Sparre, fignified his de- Hetakesthe fire to the queen-regent. They were by her referred govern - to the ftates ; and there all were unanimous: fo that muit ir.ro that the queen, finding that oppofition would be vain,j’isown refigned her power with a good grace; and Charles was invefted with abfolute authority, in three days after ° he had exprefled'his defire of reigning alone. He was fcarce feated on the throne, when a powerful combina-a powerful tion was formed againft him. King Auguftus of Po- comhina- land formed defigns on Livonia; the king of Denmark formed revived the difputes he had with the duke of Holftein, aSa’n^‘mi as a prelude to a war with Sweden ; and Peter theGreat of Mofcovy began to formdefigns upon Ingria,formerly a province of Rufiia. In 1699 the king of Denmark inarched an army into Holftein. Charles fent a conlide- rable body of troops to the duke’s afllftance; but before their arrival the Danes had ravaged the country, taken ^ the caftle of Gottorp, and laid clofe fiege to Tonnii*- vaged^by-1* gen. Here the king of Denmark commanded in per- the Danes, fon; and.was affifted by the troops of Saxony, Bran¬ denburg, Wolfenbuttle, and Hcfie-Cafftl. England and Holland, as guarantees of the laft treaty with Den¬ mark, in concert with Sweden, joined Charles againft; this confederacy, and fent fleets to the Baltic. They propofed a termination of the war upon equitable terms; but thefe were haughtily refufed by the Danifli mo¬ narch, who defpifed the youth and inexperience of Charles, and relied too much upon the alliance he had formed with Saxony, Brandenburg, Poland, and lluf- fia. The town of Tonningen, however, refifted all his efforts; and when he ordered the place to be^ey^rc ftormed, he had the mortification to fee his troop Tonninven driven headlong from the wails, by a handful of Swedes b under general Banhitr, In the year 1700, Charles, having entrufted the^'j^ affairs of the nation with a council chofen out of our from* * the fenate, fet out on the 8th May from his capital, Stockholm, to which he never after afterwards returned. Hean<1 embarked at Carlfcroon, and defeated the fleet of the‘^e ^ of' allies. Having made a defeent on the ifland Zealand/ 6 3 1CS' he defeated a body of cavalry that oppofed his march, and then proceeded to inveft Copenhagen by fea and* land. The king of Denmark then faw the neceffity there was either of having his capital deftroyed, or 147 of doing juft ice to the duke of Holftein. He chofe obliges 'he. the latter ; and a treaty was concluded in eleven days, to upon much the fame terms- as formerly. Charles, peaacc. being thus at liberty to turn his arms againft the other princes who had confpired his deftru&ion, re¬ folved to lead his army againft Auguftus king of Po¬ land;.but on his way he received intelligence that the czar of Mofcovy had laid fiege to Narva with 100,000 men. On this he immediately embarked at ,43- Garlfcroon, though it was then the depth of winter, Marches and the Baltic fcarce navigable ; .and Coon landed Etagaillft thcr Pernaw in Livonia with part of his forces, the reft Ru®;ins* -, being.ordered to Reval. His army did not exceed 20,000 men; but they were the bed foldiers in Eu¬ rope, while the Ruffians were only an undifeiplined muL- S W E [ 8486 ] S W E Sweden, multitude. The czar, however, had thrown every pofiible obftru&ion in the way of his antagonift. Thirty thoufand men were potted in a defile on the road, to oppofe his paflage; and this corps was fuftained by a body of 20,000 others, potted fome leagues nearer Narva. The czar himfelf had fet out to batten the march of a reinforcement of 40,000 men, with whom he intended to attack the Swedes in flank and rear. But the celerity and valour of the Swedes baffled every endeavour. With 4000 foot and an equal number of horfe the king fe;t out, leaving the 149 reft of the army to follow him at their leifure. With Defeats two thefe he attacked and defeated the Ruffian armies one inie^and H^er anot^er» Puffl>ng his way to the czar’s camp, attacksThe which he gave immediate orders for attacking. This Czar’s camp was fortified by lines of circumvallation and camp. contravallation, by redoubts, by 150 pieces of brafs cannon placed in front; and was defended by an army of 80,000 men : yet fo violent was the attack of the Swedes, that in three hours the entrenchments were carried ; the king with 4000 men that compofed the wing he commanded in perfon, purfued a flying army of 50,000 to the river Narva. The bridge broke down by the weight of the fugitives, and the river was inftantly covered with their bodies. Great numbers returned in defpair to their camp, where they defended themfelves for a while ; but at tall the ijo generals Gallowin and Frederowitz, who commanded The camp them, furrendered. Thirty thoufand were killed in the entrenchments and in the purfuit, or drowned in defeated3nSt^’e river; 20,000 furrendered at difcretion, and were with great difmifled unarmed ; while the reft were totally dif- flaughter. perfed. An hundred and fifty pieces of fine cannon, 28 mortars, 151 pair of colours, 20 ftandards, and all the baggage of the enemy, were taken. Among the prifoners were .the duke de Croy, the prince of G-eorgia, and feven other generals. Charles behaved with the greateft generofity to the conquered. Being informed that the tradefmen of Narva had refufed i5, credit to the officers whom he detained prifoners, he Generofity fent iooo ducats to the duke de Croy, and to every ©f diaries, other officer a proportionable fum. Peter was advancing with 40,000 men to furround the Swedes, when he received intelligence of the dreadful defeat at Narva. He was greatly chagrined ; but, comforting himfelf with the hopes that the Swedes would in time teach the Ruiffians to beat them, he returned to his own dominions, where he applied himfelf with the utmoft diligence to the raifing of another army. He evacuated all the provinces which he had invaded, and for a time abandoned all his great projects, thus leaving Charles at .liberty to pro- i'ecute the war againft Poland. IJl As Auguftus had expefted an attack, he en» Treaty be- deavoured to draw the czar into a clofer alliance with tween the Thc two monarchs had an interview at Birfen, •Czar and where w2s agreed that Auguftus fflould lend the aotio- czar 50,000 German foldiers, to be paid by Mofcovy; that the czar (hould fend an equal number of his troops to be trained up to the art of war in Poland; and that he fflould pay the king three millions of rix- dollars in the fpace of two years. Of this treaty Charles had notice, and by means of his minifter count Piper entirely fruftrated the fcheme. In 1701, as early as the feafon permitted, Charles, having received a reinforcement from Sweden, took Sweden, i the field, and appeared fuddenly on the banks of the 7 -j Duna, along which the Saxon army was potted tocharfes receive him. The king of Poland at that time being marches 1 lick, the army was commanded by Ferdinand duke ofagainft tlie Courland, marifchal Stenau, and general Psykel, all335*00*’ officers of valour and experience. They had fortified certain iflandsin the mouth of the river, andtakenevery other precaution againft an attack; the foldiers were hardy, well-difciplined, and nearly equal to the Swedes in number: yet Charles, having palled the river in boats with high fide, to fereen the men from the fire of the enemy, attacked them with fuch fury, that . ’r4 they were entirely defeated, with the lofs of 2500 ^rd/de- • killed on the fpot, and 1500 taken prifoners. All the feats* them. ] Saxon baggage, 36 pieces ofcannon,five pairof colours, and fix ftaudards, fell into the hands of the Swedes. This victory was followed by the furrender of all the towns and fortreffes in the duchyof Courland. The king then paffed into Lithuania, where every town opened its gates to him. At Birfen, an army of 20,000 Ruffians retired with the utmoft precipitation on the news of his approach. Here Charles, per¬ ceiving that the kingdom of Poland was greatly dif- TSS affeCled to Auguftus, began to projeft the fcheme of Forms a dethroning him by means of his own fubjeds. Thisfcheme for ■ fcheme he executed with more policy thanheever ffiowed Autufbuf on any other occafion. The manner of putting it in 2 execution was concerted between Radziewifcbi, car¬ dinal primate of Poland, and count Piper. Intrigues and cabals were held at the houfe of the treacherous ecclefiaftic, while he was publiffling circular letters to keep the people in their duty to the king. The diet being filled with Swediffl partifans, became tumultuous, 15s and broke up in confufion. The affairs of the king-Confufions ' dom then fell into the hands of the fenate ; but here*0 Poland, the Swediffl party was as ftrong as in the diet. It was agreed that they fflould fent an embaffy to Charles; that the pofpolite fflould mount, and be ready againft: all events: but the chief regulations refpeded the king’s authority, which it was determined at any rate to re¬ trench. Auguftus, refolving rather to receive laws ,57 from the victorious Charles than from his own fubjeds, Auguftus fent an embafly to him, committing the management atremP,s t0 ; of the whole to the countefs of Konigfmark, a native ut of Sweden, and a lady famous for her wit and beauty. But the king refufed to fee her; on which ffle returned, chagrined and difappointed, to Warfaw. The ambaf- fadors of the fenate inftantly obtained an audience; and were affured by Charles, that he took arms againft: the Saxons in defence of the liberties of the Poles, whom he fhould always regard as his beft friends. Con¬ ferences were appointed to be held at Kinfchin ; but Charles foon after altered his mind, and told the am- • bafladors he would hold them at Warfaw. Auguftus, in the mean time, finding his fcheme 15B of peace fruftrated, had recourfe to the fenate; but Makes a j met with fuch a rough anfwer from them, that hefe.fon^aP” deterfhined once more to apply to Charles. To p“r0"J° | him therefore he fent his chamberlain; but a pafiport * | being forgot, the ambaffador was arrtfted. Charles continued his march to Warfaw, which furrendered ,S9 on the firft fummons; but the citadel held out for Warfaw fome days. Auguftus, finding at lad that no depen-take11* 1 dence was to be had on the Poles, determined to truft SWA [ 8487 ] SWA Sweden, trull his fortune wholly to the Saxon army and the nobility of the palatinate of Cracow, who offered to fupport him to the utmoft of their power. The Saxon army was now advanced to the frontiers, and Auguftus immediately put himfelf at the head of it. Being joined by the nobility of Cracow, he found his forces to amount to 30,000 men, all brave and well-difci* plined. With tbefe he marched in queft of his enemy; §' ifio w^° not dec^ne lhe corabat, though he had with ! TheSaxonshim only 12,000 men. Tho’ the Saxons were ftrongly entirely de polled, having their front covered by a morafs, befides feated. being fortified with pallifadoes and chevaux de frife, they were attacked with irrefiftible impetuofity, and entirely defeated, with the lofs of 4000 killed, 2000 made prifoners, and all their baggage and cannon. This viflory was followed by the lofs of Cracow : after which Charles fet out in purfuit of the fly- i ,Sl ing army, with a defign of preventing them from ^ow ta‘re-affembling ; but his horfe falling under him, he had the misfortune to break his thigh, by which he was confined fix weeks: and thus Augullus obtained fome refpite. The interval he made the bell ufe of. Having convoked a diet firft at Mariemburg, and then at Lublin, from them he obtained the following re- folutions; that an army of 50,000 men fhould be raifed by the republic for the fervice of the prince; that fix weeks fliould be allowed the Swedes to de¬ termine whether they were for war or peace; and that the fame time Ihould be granted to the turbulent and difcontented nobles of Poland to make their concef- fions. To counteraA the effe&s of thefe refolutions, Charles affembled another diet at Warfaw; and while the two affemblies difputed concerning their rights I* and privileges, he recovered of his wound, received.a I Remains offtrong reinforcement from Pomerania, and utterly de- the Saxon feated and difperfed the remains of the Saxon army, army en- The ill fortune of Auguftus continued ftill to perfe- IfMted'*6* cute I7°4 was formally depofed by the ea C ’ diet, and the crown conferred by Charles on Staniflaus 163 Lecfinlky palatine of Pofnania. Auguftus, however, Auguftus did not yet tamely give up his kingdom. His ad- Hormally herents daily Ikirmilhed with the Swedes; and Au- Hnd°Stanif- guftns himfelf, being reinforced by 9000 Ruffians, re- llaus raifed took Warfaw, and was very near furprifing the new Itothe ' king, who lived in perfedl fecurity in the city while throne. Charles fought in his caufe. Count Horn, with 1500 Swedes, vigoroufly defended the citadel; but at laft, *^4 finding it no longer tenable, he was obliged to furren- takeTbyre"der at difcretion. The redu&ion of Warfaw was ; Auguftus. among the laft advantages gained by Auguftus in the 1 courfe of this war. His troops were now compofed of Saxon recruits and undifeiplined Poles, who had no attachment to his perfon, and were ready on all oc- cafions to forfake him. Charles and Staniflaus ad¬ vanced with the vi&orious army ; the Saxons fled be¬ fore them, and the towns for feveral miles round fent | their fubmiffions. The Poles and Saxons were under condufTof command of Schullemberg, a molt fagacious and his general experienced general, who ufed every expedient to check ■Schullem- the progrefs of the Swedes, by feizing on the advan- tageous polls, facrificing fmall parties to the fafety of the whole, and to miflead the enemy, See. How¬ ever, with all his conduft and caution,, he found him¬ felf outwitted, and Charles in the neighbourhood of his camp ready to fall upon him, while he thought him at 50 leagues diftance. The Swedilh monarch Sweden.' attacked him with a fuperior army, but entirely com- pofed of horfe. Schullemberg had polled his men in i6« inch a manner as rendered it impoffible to furround His en- them. His firft rank being armed with pikes and fufees, prefented a kind of rampart of bayonets; thegweje;. fecond line Hooping over the firft who kneeled, fired over their heads, while the third rank, who Hood up¬ on their feet, kept up an inceffant fire, by which the Swedilh horfe were exceedingly galled and put in dif- order. Charles loft the opportunity of cutting off the whole Saxon army, by omitting to order his men to difmount. This was almoft the firft time that infantry had been regularly oppofed to cavalry, and the fupe- tg7 riority of the former was evident. After the engage- His fine ie» ment had continued about three hours, the Saxons re- treat, treated in good order ; which no enemy had ever done before in any engagement with Charles. The Swedes purfued their enemies towards the Oder, and forced them to retreat through thick woods, almoft impervious even to infantry. The Swedilh horfe, however, pulh- ed their way, and at laft inclofed Schullemberg be¬ tween a wood and the river, where Charles had no doubt of obliging him to furrender at diferetion, or die fword-in-hand, as having neither boats nor brid¬ ges; but the genius, of Schullemberg fupplied every defed. In the night he ordered planks and floats of trees to be faftened together; upon which he carried over his troops, while the Swedes were employed in diflodging 300 men, which he had placed in a wind¬ mill, for the purpofe of defending his flank and keeping the enemy in play. Charles fpoke of this retreat with admiration^ and faid he had been conquered by Schul¬ lemberg. _ ,63 No material advantage, however, refulted from this Auguftus- to Auguftus; who was again obliged to leave Poland, !eaves ^°" and fortify the capital of his hereditary dominions, an ' which he expedted every moment to fee invefted. In the mean time, however, the Ruffians having reco¬ vered their fpirits, fell upon the Swedes in Livonia ,9(y with the utmoft fury. Narva, Llorpt, and feveral The Ruf- other towns, were taken, and the inhabitants and gar- f'ans tahe rifons treated with great barbarity. Soon after, an army ftveralt of 100,000 Ruffians entered Poland. Sixty thoufandLivonia*1 Coffacks under Mazeppa entered the country at the fame and inva’dc. time, and ravaged every thing with the fury of barba-Poland, rians. Schullemberg, too,perhaps moreformidable than either, advanced with 14,000 Saxons and 7000 Ruf¬ fians, difeiplined in Germany, and reputed excellent foldiers. Could numbers have determined the event of war, the Swedes mull certainly have been at this time overpowered. Inftead of this, however, Charles feemed to triumph over his enemies with more eafe the more numerous they were. The Ruffians were de¬ feated fo fall, that they were all difperfed before one iyv party had notice of the misfortunes of another; TheAftonilk. defeating an army of 40,000 men fcarcely obftrudted'"S (ucc®fs the march of the Swedes, while their aftonilhed ei>e* agaftiit 3 mies looked upon thefe a&ions as the effects of witch-them, craft, and imagined that the king of Sweden had deal¬ ings with infernal fpirits. With thefe apprehenfions they fled beyond the Borifthcnes, leaving the unhappy Auguftus to his ill fate. Schullemberg, with all his fkill and experience, fucceeded no better. The Swe¬ dilh general Renfchild engaged and defeated him in half. S W E [ 8488 3 S W E ‘Sweden, half an hour, though the Swedes were vaftly inferior —ffi in number, and their enemies ported in a moft ad van • Schullem- tageous fituation. Nothing could be tnore complete tire? 'de ^ian t*1's v'(^ory• ^rhole regiments of Saxons threw featJd by down their arms, and begged their lives in the moft Renfchild. fuppliant pofture. Six thoufand were flain in the field, and 7000 taken prifoners. Thirty-fix pieces of cannon, 11,000 mufkets, 40 pair of colours and ftandards, with all the Saxon baggage, fell into the hands of the Swedes: and the confequences were ftill more important; for now a paffage was opened into Saxony, and Auguftus feemed to be in as great dan¬ ger of lofing his hereditary dominions as he had been oflofing Poland. This extraordinary viftory, indeed, is faid to have been owing to a panic which feized the troops of Schullemberg : however, it was looked upon with admiration, and thought to equal the renown of Renfchild to that of his fovereign. Charles himfelf was jealous, and could not help exclaiming, “ Surely 17a ’Renfchild will not compare himfelf with me !” But Cruelty of the cruelty of this general fullied his reputation ; for, the Swedi(bflX hours after the engagement, he caufed 1000 Ruf- .genera. *flan5 t0 he maffacred in cold blood, to revenge, as he faid, the cruelties they had committed in Poland. Soon after this viftory, which was gained on the . 1 2th of February 1706, Charles entered Saxony at r-vatles^S XO-l^e 24>000 ^‘et al ftat‘^on de¬ ny. ’dared him an enemy to the empire if he crofled the Oder. But to this declaration no regard was paid. Charles purfued his march; while Anguftus was redu¬ ced to the condition of a vagrant in Poland, where he ports fled not a fingle town befides Cracow. Into this city he threw himfelf with a few Saxon, Polifh, and Ruffian regiments, and began to ere& fome for¬ tifications for its defence ; but the approach of the Swedifh general Meyerfeldt, and the news of the in- vafion of Saxony, difconcerted all his meafures, and .^.ugiiftus threw him into defpair. The Ruffians indeed were begs for his faithful allies; but he dreaded them almoft as peace on much as the Swedes: fo that he was reduced to the any terms. nec'efflty cf wr;ting a letter to Charles with his own hand, begging for peace on whatever terms he thought proper to grant. However, as he was then at the mercy of the Ruffians, this tranfa&ion was concealed ,7J with the greateft care. His emiflaries were introduced Charles’s to the Swedirti court in the night-time; and being ,anfwer. prcfented to Charles, received the following anfwer: That king Auguftus Ihould for ever renounce the crown of Poland, acknowledge Staniflaus, and pro- mife never to re-afcend the throne, rtiould an oppor¬ tunity offer ; that he rtiould releafe the princes ’So- biefki, and all the Swedifh prifoners made in the courfe of the war; furrender Patkul, at that time refident at his court as ambaffador for the Czar of Mufcovy, and •fiop proceedings againft all who had parted from his ■ into the Swedirti fervice. Thefe articles Charles wrote with his own hand, and delivered to count Piper, or- Ai’guftus t0°k the extraordinary refolution of vifiting fits king king Auguftus with no more than five attendants. Auguftus. Though he had no reafon to imagine that Auguftus either did or could entertain any friendfhip for him, he was not uneafy at the confequences of thus putting himfelf entirely in his power. He got to the palace- door of Auguftus before it was known that he had entered the city. General Fleming having feen him at a diftance, had only time to run and inform his mafter. What might be done in the prefent cafe immediately occurred to the minifter ; but Charles entered the eledor’s chamber in his boots before the latter had time to recover from his furprife. He breakfafted with him in a friendly manner, and then exprefled a defire of viewing the fortifications. While he was walking round them, a Livonian, who had formerly been condemned in Sweden, and ferved in the troops of Saxony, thought he could never have a more favourable opportunity of obtaining pardon. « He therefore begged of king Auguftus to intercede for him, being fully affured that his majefty could not refufe fo flight a requeft to a prince in whofe power he then was. Auguftus accordingly made the requeft ; but Charles refufed it in fuch a manner, that he did not think proper to aik it a fecond time. Having paffed fome hours in this extraordinary vifit, he re¬ turned to his army, after having embraced and taken leave of the king he had dethroned. Ma* h4- r^*ie arm'es Swc in Saxony, Poland, and .aeainfUhe Finland, now exceeded 70,000 men ; a force more Ruffians, than fufficient to have conquered all the power of Muf- covy, had they met them on equal terms. Peter, who had his army difperfed in fmali parties, inftantly af- fembled it on receiving notice of the king of Sweden’s march, was making all poffible preparations for a vi¬ gorous refiftance, and was on the point of attacking Staniflaus when the approach of Charles ftruck his whole army with terror. In the month of January 1708 he palfed the Niemen, and entered the fouth ate of Grodno juft as Peter was quitting the place y the north gate, Charles at this time had advanced Vox.. X. horfe. The Czar, having intelligence of his fitua- tion, fent back a detachment of 2000 men to a,tack Def^ and him : but they were utterly defeated; and this difap- drives them pointment was followed by the total evacuation of Li out of Li¬ thuania. The king purfued his flying enemies in the t^uania* midft of fnow and ice, over mountains, rivers, moraf- fes, and through almoft every obftacle that could be furmognted by human power. He had forefeen all difficulties, and determined to furmount them all. As he knew that the country could not furnifh provifion fufficient for the fubfiftence of his army, he had pro¬ vided a great quantity of bifcuit, on which his men chiefly fubiifted till they came to the banks of the Be- rezine, in view of Boriflow. Here the Czar was poll¬ ed, and Charles defigned to bring him to a battle ; after which he could penetrate with the greater cafe into Ruffia. Peter, however, did not think proper to come to an a6lion ; but retreated towards the Bo- rillhenes, whither he was purfued by Charles as foon tQg as he had refrelhed his army. The Ruffians had de-Gains a ftroyed the roads and defolated the country; never- remarkable thelefs the Swedilh army advanced with great celerity, v^ory, and in their way defeated 20,000 of the enemy, tho’ entrenched to the teeth. This viftory, conlidering the circumftances in which it was gained, was one of the molt glorious the Swedes had ever obtained. The memory of it is preferved by a medal ftruck in Swe¬ den, with this infcription, Sylvx, Paludes, Aggeres, Hofles, vifti. ig When the Ruffians had repaffed the Borifthcnesj-phe czar which feparatts Poland from Mofcovy, the Czar, find-lues for ing himfelf clofely purfued by an enemy with whom peace, but he was not able to cope, determined at laft to propofe Lec“Tes au peace. Propofals were accordingly made ; but Charles anfwer. returned no other anfwer, than that he would treat at Mofcow ; which being reported to Peter, he coolly re¬ plied, “ My brother Charles affefts to play Alexan¬ der, but he will not find in me a Darius.” However, he did not think proper to venture an engagement, but continued his retreat; and Charles purfued fo clofe, that he was daily Ikirmilhing with the rear of the ene¬ my. In thefe actions the Swedes had generally the advantage, though in the main thefe victories proved detrimental, by weakening the army in a country where it was impoffible to recruit. Near Smolenlko, 188 the king, with only fix regiments, defeated a body of Another 10,000 horfe and 6000 Calmucks. In this engage-defPera*® ment he was expofed to the utmoft danger, the enemy having feparated him from his troops. With one re¬ giment only, he fought with fuch fury as difperfed the enemy, and drove them before him, at the time they thought themftlves fureof taking him prifoner. Two aids-de-camp that fought near him were killed; his horfe was killed, ?s was alfo an equerry while he pre- fented another. The enemy had broke through the regiment, and got quite up to , the king ; who is faid to have on this occafion killed twelve men with his own hand without receiving a wound. By the 3d of O&ober 1708, Charles was within cta’iej ar_ iqo leagues of .Mofcow ; but the Czar had made the rives within roads impaffable, either by laying them under water,100 leagues digging deep ditches^ or covering them with the wood°f M.'’|eow» of whole forefts. He had alfo deftroyed the villages Ut on every fidea and taken away every pofiibility of fub- ,mfJa(fable- 42 O lifting S W E [ 8490 ] S W E Sweden, fifting an army. The feafon was alfo far advanced ; the intenfe fevere weather was approaching; fo that the Swedes were threatened with all the miferies of cold and famine, at the fame time that they were expofed to the attacks of an enemy greatly fuperior in number, who, from their knowledge of the country, had al- rnoft conftant opportunities of harrafling and attacking isia them by furprife. For thefe reafons the king refolved Refolves to to pafs through the Ukrain, where Mazeppa, a Po- pafs thro’ lifh gentleman, was general and chief of the nation, the Ukram.]yfazeppa having been affronted by the Czar, readily entered into a treaty with Charles, whom he promifed to afliff with 30,000 men, great quantities of provi- fions and ammunition, and with all his treafures, which were immenfe. The Swedifft army advanced towards the river Difna, where they had to encounter ’S* the greateff difficulties; a foreft above 40 leagues in great dif- extent> with rocks, mountains, and marlhes. Acuities. To complete their misfortunes, they were led 3a leagues out of the right way ; all the artillery was funk in bogs and marthes; the provifion of thefol- diers, which confided of bifeuit, was exhaufted ; and the whole army fpent and emaciated when they arri¬ ved at the Difna. Here they expe&ed to have met Mazeppa with his reinforcement ; but inftead of that, they perceived the oppofite banks of the river covered with a hoftile army, and the paffage itfelf almoft im- prafticable. Charles, however, was (till undaunted ; he let his foldiers by ropes down the fteep banks; they ,9t croffed the river either by fwimming, or on rafters Defeats thehaftily Iput together; drove the Ruffians from their Ruffians, poft, and continued theirmarch. Mazeppa foon after •a"d u appeared, having with him about 6000 broken re- Jj^"'epp^in mains of the army he had promifed. The Ruffians great di- had got intelligence of his defigns, defeated and dif- flrefs, perfed his adherents, laid his towns in affies, and ta¬ ken all the provifions colle&ed for the Swedifh army. However, he ftill hoped to be ufeful by his intelligence in an unknown country ; and the Coffacks, out of re¬ venge, crowded daily to the camp with provifions. Worfe misfortunes, however, ftill awaited the Swedes. When Charles entered the Ukrain, he had Defperate fent orders to general Lewenhaupt to meet him with encounters 15,000 men, 6000 of whom were Swedes, and a large between eonvoy of provifions. Againft this detachment Peter JLewen- now ^ent ^1S w^10^e f°rce> and marched againft him haupt and w'lh an army of 65,000 men. Lewenhaupt had re- the Ruf- ceived intelligence that the Ruffian army confifted only Cans. 0f 24,000 ; a force to which he thought 6000 Swedes fuperior, and therefore difdained to entrench himfelf. A furious conteft enfued ; in which the Ruffians were defeated with the lofs of 15000 men. The Swedes con¬ tinued their march ; but, by the treachery of their guide, were led into a marffiy country, where the roads were made impaffable by deep ditches and trees laid acrofs. Here he was again attacked by the Czar with his whole army. Lewenhaupt had fent a de¬ tachment of two battalions to difpute the paffage of the enemy over a morafs; but finding they were likely to be overpowered, he marched at the head of the whole infantry to their relief. Another defperate battle enfued; when at,lad the Ruffians were put in diforder, and on the point of being totally defeated, when the Czar gave orders to the Coffacks and Cal- mucks to fire upon all the Ruffians who fled. “ Even kill me (faid he) if I ffiould be fo cowardly as to Sweden: turn my back.” On this the battle was renewed with great vigour; but notwithftanding thefe pofitive or¬ ders, and the example of the Czar himfelf, the Ruf¬ fians were a third time put in diforder, after lofing 6000 men, when general Baver arrived with a ftrong reinforcement of frefti Ruffian troops. The engage¬ ment was again renewed, and continued without in- termiffion till night. The Swedes took poffeffion of an advantageous poft; but were next morning attacked by the Ruffians. Lewenhaupt had formed a kind of rampart of his waggons, but was obliged to fet fire to them, in order to prevent their falling into the to* hands of the enemy, and at the fame time to cover All the his retreat by the fmoke. The Ruffians, however, came foon enough to fave 5000 waggons-of thofe pro-j3iu.nt or vifions defigned for the diftreffed Swedes.. A ftrong taken by detachment was fent to purfue Lewenhaupt; but fo the Rut- terrible did he appear, that the Ruffian general of-^lalls‘ fered him an bonouraole capitulation. This was re- fufed with difdain ; and the battle renewed with the fame vigour as before. The Swedes, though redu¬ ced to 4000, again defeated their enemies, arid killed 5000 on the fpot. After this, Lewenhaupt was fuftered to purfue his march without moleftation,Lewen- but alfo without cannon or provifions. Prince Menzi- haupt joins koff, indeed, was detached to harrafs him ; but fuch the main was the formidable appearance of the Swedes even tn (a.r™eyo"1ajj their diftrefs, that he was afraid to attack them: fOoppofuion, that at laft the 4000 arrived fafe iu the camp of Charles, after having killed upwards of 30,000 of the enemy on their march. This, we may fay, was the laft effort of Swediffi valour. The difficulties they had now to undergo ex¬ ceeded what human nature could bear ; yet ftill they hoped, by conftancy and courage, to overcome every j 6 obftacle. Tn the fevereft winter known for a long ]?xtrem<, time even in Ruffia, they made long marches, clothed cliflrefs of like favagesin the ikins of wild beafts ; all the draught- the Swedes, horfes periftied ; thoufands of foldiers dropped dead with cold and hunger: fo that by the month of Fe¬ bruary 1709, the whole army was reduced to 18,000 Swedes. Amidft numberlefs difficulties thefc penetra- 1£)7 ted at laft to Pultowa, a town on the eaftern frontier Charles be- of the Ukrain, where the Czar had laid up magazines; fieges Pul- and-of thefe Charles refolved to get poffeffion. Ma-tow3- zeppa advifed the king to inveft the place, in confe- quence of his having correfpoudence with fome of the inhabitants, by whofe means he hoped it would be furrendered. However, he was deceived; the be- ,pg fieged made an obftinate defence, the Swedes were re-A detach- pulfed in every affault, and BoOo of them were defeated,ment and almoft emitely cut off, in an engagement with a ®00° r r:> rr m , - Swedes en- party 01 Kullians. io complete his misfortunes, tjreiy de- Charles received a (hot from a carbine in his heel, feated and which (battered the bone. For fix hours after he con- cut off. tinned calmly on horfeback, giving orders, till he fainted with the lofs of blood ; after which he was carried into his tent. It was imagined that amputa¬ tion would be nectffary, as the wound had already begun to mortify ; but one Newman undertook to fave the limb. It was told the king that deep inci- fions would be neceffary. “ Fall to work then (faid he), cut boldly, and fear nothing.” He held out his leg while the operation was performing} never chan- S W E [ 8491 ] S W E Sweden, ged countenance ; and while the drefiing was laid on, " ordered an affault for the next morning. 19£) For fome days the Czar, with an army of 70,000 The Swedes men, had lain at a fmall dittance, harraffing the Swe- PjarafTed by difh camp, and cutting off the convoys of provifions; I a™^0 hut now intelligence was received, that he was advan- Ruffians cing as if with a ddlgn of attacking the lines. In this fituation, Charles, wounded, diltreiled, and al- moft fturounded by enemies, is faid to have, for the firft time, afiembled a grand council of war ; the re- fult of which was, that it was expedient to march out and attack'the Ruffian?. Voltaire, however, totally denies that the king relaxed one jot of his wonted ob- ftinacy and arbitrary temper ; but that, on the 7th of July, he fent for general Renfchild, and told him, without any emotion, to prepare for attacking the I enemy next morning. I Battle of' The 8th of July 1709 is remarkable for the battle * I’ultowa. which decided the fate of Sweden. Charles having left 8000 men in the camp to defend the works and repel the fallies of the befieged, began to march againft his enemies by break of day with the reft of the army, confifting of 26,000 men, of whom 18,000 wereCof- facks. The Ruffians were drawn up in two lines be¬ hind their jntrenchments, the horfe in front, and the foot in the rear, with chafms to fuffer the horfe to fall back in cafe of neceffity. General Slippcnbach was difpatched to attack the cavalry; which he did with fuch impetuofity, that they were broken in an inftant. However, they rallied behind the infantry, and re¬ turned to the charge with fuch vigour, that they dif- ordered the Swedes in their turn, and took Slippen- bach prifoner. Charles was now carried in his litter to this fcene of confufion. The troops were animated by his prefence, and returned to the charge ; the battle became doubtful, when general Creuk was difpatched by Charles to attack the euemy in flank. Creuk mif- took his way, which occafioned the lofs of the battle. Peter now difpatched prince Menzikoff with a ftrong detachment, to poft himfelf between the Swedes and Pultowa, to cut off their communication with their camp, and to fall upon their rear. He executed his orders with great fuccefs; cut off a corps de referve of 3000 men ; and thus decided the fortune of the day. The king, however, had ranged his remaining troops in two lines ; the foot in the centre, and the horfe in the two wings. They had already been twice rallied, and were now attacked with fury on all fides. Charles, in his litter, with his fword drawn in one ‘ hand, and a piltol in the other, feemed to be every where prefenr. New misfortunes, however, awaited - him. A cannon ball killed both horfes in the litter; and fcarce were others put in their place, when a fe- cond broke the litter ilfelf in pieces, and overturned the king. The foldiers now believing him killed, fell ioi back in coufternation. The firft line was broke, and TheSwedcsthe fecond fled. Charles did every thing in his power entirely de-to reftore order ; but the Ruffians preffed fohard, that Rated. rallying was impoffible, efpecially as powder was alfo wanting. Renfchild and feveral other general officers were taken prifoners ; and the king himftlf muft have fallen into the hands of the enemy, had not count Po- niatowlky drawn up 500 horfe, furrounded the royal perfon, and with deiperate fury broke through ten regiments of the enemy. With thefe the king arrived on the banks of the Borifthenes. The Ruffian's forced Sweden, the Swedifli camp, where they found fix millions in fpecie ; but could not hinder Lewenhaupt, with 4000 T^camp foot and all the remaining cavalry, from retreating taken, and to the banks of the Borifthenes. This, however, the Swedilh availed them but little ; for being purfued by prince army a[T Menzikoff, they were obliged, for want of boats or bridges, to furrender at diferetion. Charles fled in a uken. mean calafti, attended by a little troop inviolably at¬ tached to his perfon, fome on foot, and iome on horfe- back. They were obliged to crofs a fandy defart, where neither herb nor tree was to be fetn, and where the burning heat and want of water were more in¬ tolerable than the extremities of cold they had for¬ merly fuffered. The whole had almoft periffied for want of water, when a fpring was fortunately difeo-Charles ar- vered ; after which they reached Ozakow, a town in rives fafe la the Turkiffi dominions, the bafhaw of which fuppliedTurky* the king with every neceffary. It was fome time, however, before boats could be got ready for tranf- porting the whole of the king’s attendants ; by which accident 500 Swedes and Coffacks fell into the hands of the enemy. This lofs affe&ed him more than all his other misfortunes. He fhed tears at feeing acrofs the river Bogh the greater part of his few remaining friends carried into captivity, without having it in his power to affift them. The bafliaw waited upon him to apologize for the delay, and was feverely repri¬ manded by Charles, as if he had been his own fubjeiff. The king remained but a few days at Ozakow, when the ferafquier of Bender fent an aga to compliment him on his arrival in the Turkiffi dominions, and to invite him to that city. Here he was treated with the Is kindly utmoft hofpitality : the Turks praftifed to its utmoft receive'h extent their generous maxim of regarding as facred j^de^'sf the perfons of unfortunate princes who had taken p°^su°rin_ ftelter in their dominions; and perhaps regarded him, Ruflla be- notwithftanding his misfortunes, as an ally that might gjn to re- be ufeful to tbemfelves againft the Ruffians. Every vive* one, indeed, regarded him in hisdiftrefs. The French king offered him a fafe paffage from the Levant to Marfeilles, from whence he might eafily return to his own dominions. But Charles was tooobftinate to re¬ ceive advice. Puffed up with the notion of imitating Alexander the Great, he difdained to return, except at the head of a numerous army; and he yet expefted, by means of the Turks, to dethrone his adverfary Czar Peter. Negociations for this purpofe, indeed, were carried on in the Tutkiffi divan; and it was propofed to efcort Charles with a numerous army to the fron¬ tiers of Poland : but the revolution which took place there quickly put an end to all fuch projects. Au-Auguftus guftus thought himfelf no longer bound to obferve the recovers the treaty which he had made, than Charles was at hand ol to force him to it. After the battle of Pultowa,10 an therefore, he entered Poland, and took every meafure, in concert with the Czar, for the recovery of his king¬ dom. Staciflaus was not able to Hand before fuch enemies, but was obliged to leave his dominions and fly 19 Bender ia the difguife of a Swediffi officer, in order to fliare the fortune of Charles.—It was not in Poland alone that the Swediffi affairs began to fuffer in confequence of the defeat at Pultowa. The Danes 7’]le1^’at)es quickly invaded the province of Schonen with an army invade Swe. of 13,000 foot and 2500 horle. Only J3,000 Swe-nen. 42 O 2 diffi S W E [ 8492 ] S W E Sweden, dlfli forces remained to defend all the territories pof- fefied by Charles in Germany; and of thefe only a fmall part were allotted for the defence of Schonen. The regency of Sweden, however, exerted themfelves to the utmoft to repel this ungenerous invafion ; and having collefted an army of 12,000 militia and 8000 regulars, difpatcbed them under general Steenboek into Schonen. Same Saxon troops were incorporated in this army ; and among thefe a prodigious defertion took place, which the general found it impoffible to prevent: and thus the Danes gained feveral advanta¬ ges, and at lad took Ctrriftianftadt. Their infolence on this fuccefs was fo great, that the Swedes demanded to be inftantly led againft them. Here the good for- 307 tune of Sweden feemed once more to revive. The terl adeUt" ^anes were drivf0 from a very drong fnuation, with feated.6* ^ ^00° killed and taken prifoners, befides a vad number wounded. The king received the intelli¬ gence of this victory with the greated exultation ; and could not help exclaiming, “ My brave Swedes, flrould it pleafe God that I once morejoin you, we will con¬ quer them all!” In the mean time Charles, by means of his agents the count Poniatowfki and the Sieur Neugebar, ufed his utmod efforts to procure a rupture between the porte 208 and Ruflia. For a long time the money bedowed by The Turks Peter on the vizirs and janifaries prevailed ; but at declare war]^ Jn 171 j, the grand fignior, influenced by his rao- Ruifians 6 t^er, w^'0 was ^rong'y >n intered of Charles, and had been wont to call him her lion, determined to avenge his quarrel with Peter. He therefore gave orders to the vizir to fall upon the Ruffians with an army of 200,000 men. The vizir promifed obedience; but at the fame time profeffed bis ignorance in the art of war, and diflike to the prefent expedition. The cham of Crim Tartary, who had been gained over by the reputation and prefents of the king of Sweden, had orders to take the field with 40,000 of his men, and had the liberty of affembling his army at Bender, that Charles might fee that the war was undertaken upon his account. The czar, on this news, left the fiege of Riga, where he had continued forfome months; and with 24,000 men entered Moldavia, where he was joined by Cantemir a vaffal of the porte. The vizir marched againft him with a prodigious army, and, top through the negligence of the czar, cooped him up in The Czar fuch a manner that he could neither advance nor re¬ brought in-treat. In this defperate fituation he obferved that he t0 8 f'ua'" WaS n°W 'n 38 Da^ 3 ^tuat‘on 38 Charles at Pultowa ; tion * but" is anc^ 8ave or^er8 ^or breaking thro’ the enemy with fixed relieved by bayonets. The defponding fpiritlefs foldiers, however, a treaty. were little difpofed to execute thefe orders; when Ca¬ tharine, wife to the czar, without his knowledge, fet on foot a treaty with the vizir ; and having foon ob¬ tained his confent, had the peace figned in fix hours, by which means, in all probability, the whole Ruffian army was faved. The new treaty was moft violently oppofed by count Poniatowfki and the cham of Tartary. The former had made the king acquainted with the fituation of both armies; on which he inftantly fet out from Bender, filled with the hopes of fighting the Ruffians, and ta¬ king ample vengeance. Having rode 50 leagues poll, he arrived at the camp juft as the czar was drawing off his half-famifhed troops. He alighted at Ponia- Sweden. towfki’s tent ; and being informed of particulars, in- ftantly flew in a rage to the vizir, whom he loaded 210 ^ with reproaches, and accufed of treachery. Recoiled-'' ing himfelf, however, he propofed a method by which (his 0cca- V the fault might be remedied ; but finding his propofal lion, rejected, he ported back to Bender, after having by the groffeft infults (bowed his contempt of the vizir. The violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his intereft. The vizir perceived that his (lay in Tur¬ key might prove fatal to himfelf; and therefore deter¬ mined to get him out of the country as foon as pof- fible, either by fair means or foul. Succeeding vizirs adopted the fame plan ; and at laft the grand fignior 3ir himfelf wrote a letter to the king, in which he defired The Grand him to depart by next winter, promifing to fupply Signior de- him with a fufficient guard, with money, and everyfires him to thing.elfe neceffary for his journey. Charles gave andepart". evafive anfwer, and determined to procraftinate his journey, as well to gratify his own ftubborn temper, as becaufe he difcovered a correfpondence between king Auguftus and the cham of Tartary, the objedt of which, he had reafon to believe, was to betray him to the Saxons. When he was therefore again preffed to fix the day of his departure, he replied, that he could not think of going before his debts were paid. Being afked how much was requifite for this purpofe, he re¬ plied, 1000 purfes (a). Twelve hundred purfes were inftantly fent to the ferafquier at Bender, with orders M 1,1 ^ to deliver them to the king of Sweden, but not before unjf,rt5eha- he fhould have begun his journey. By fair promifes, viour of however, Charles perfuaded him to part with the mo- Charles, ney; after which, infteadof fating out, hefquandered away his treafure in prefents and gratifications, and then demanded 1000 purfes more before he would fet out. The ferafquier was attonifhed at this behaviour. He fhed tears; and, turning to the king, told him, that his head would be the forfeit of having obliged him with the money. The grand fignior, on being acquainted with this fhameful behaviour of Charles, flew into a rage, and called an extraordinary divan, where he himfelf fpoke, a thing very unufual for the Turkifh monarchs. It was unanimoufly agreed that fuch a troublefome gueft ought to be removed by force, fhould other means fail. Orders were therefore pofitively refolve to fent to Charles to depart; or, in cafe of his refufal, to force him attack him in his quarters. Nothing could equal histo dePart* obftinacy on this occafion : in fpite of the menaces of his enemies, in fpite of the intreaties of his friends, he perfifted in his refolution ; and at laft determined to * refift with 300 Swedes, being all the attendants he His defpe- had, an army of 20,000 janifaries well armed and rate refolu- furnifhed with cannon. At length he was attacked in1'01110 re“ good earneft ; though it muft be owned,-that even in this extremity the Turks fhowed their regard to him, and were tender of his life, which the king did not at all return in a fimilar manner. The moft of the Swedes furrendered at once, perhaps as thinking it the only method of faving the king’s life. This mifeon- duft, however, had a quite contrary effeft. Charles became the more obftinate, the more defperate his af-fsabando- fairs feemed to be. With 40 menial fervants only, ned by alt and the generals Hord and Dardorff, he determined h‘s f°h°w* to defend himfelf to the laft extremity. Seeing hisers foldiers 4°' (a) Each purfe contained 30 fequins. S W E [ 8493 ] S W E Sweden, foldiers lay down their arms, he told the generals, “ We muft now defend the houfe. Come, (adds he with a fmile), let us fight pro arts et focis.” The houfe had been already forced by the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the door, and where his do- mefiics had aflembled themfelves. Charles forced his way through the janifaries, attended by the generals Hord and DardorfF, joined his people, and then bar- ricadoed the door. The moment he entered, the ene¬ my, who were in the houfe, threw down their booty, and endeavoured to efcape at the windows. Charles ai6 purfued them from room to room with much blood- Fights like (hed, and cleared the houfe in a few minutes. He a madman, grecj furi0ufiy from the windows, killed 200 of prisoner enthe Turks in a quarter of an hour, fo that the balhaw with all his who commanded them was at length forced to fet the followers, houfe on fire. This was done by arrows with lighted matches (hot into the roof; but Charles, inftead of quitting it, gave orders for extinguifhing the fire, in which he himfelf affifted with great diligence. All efforts, however, were vain : the roof fell in ; and Charles, with his few faithful companions, was ready to be buried in the ruins. In this extremity one called out, that there was a necefiity for furrendering. “ What a ftrange fellow! (cries the king), who would rather be a prifoner with Turks than mix his afhes with thofe of his fovereign.” Another had the pre¬ fence of mind to cry out, that the chancery was but 50 paces off, had a Itone roof, and was proof againft fire. Pleafed with the thoughts of again coming to blows, the king exclaimed, “ A true Swede ! Let us take all the powder and ball we can carry.” He then put himfelf at the head of his troops, and fallied out with fuch fury that the Turks retreated 50 paces ; but falling down in the hurry, they ruflied in upon him, and carried him by the legs and arms to the bafhaw’s tent. This extraordinary adventure, which favours not a little of infanity^ happened on the 12th of February 1713. He was now kept prifoner, with all his retinue ; 117 and in this fituation he was vifited by the unfortunate •Staniflaus Staniflaus. The latter, as we have already obferved, arrefted in came in the difguife of a Swedilh officer, and had in¬ deed ferved in the Swediffi army in Pomerania, for- which reafon he wasarrtfted in the Turkifh dominions; but being known at Bender, notice was lent to the baffiaw who was conducing the king of Sweden to Adrianople. The baffiaw communicated the news to baron Fabricius, a favourite of Charles, who imme¬ diately imparted it to the king. “ Dear Fabricius, wtrrT-r. (fays this inflexible monarch), run and tell him never of Charles.t0 ma*ie Peace with Augultus; we ihall loon have a change in our affairs.” Such were the confiderations that dill occurred to the mind of Charles ; however, at laft he feemed in- 2I£) dined to fubmit to his fate, and began ferioufly to Begins to think of returning to his kingdom, now reduced to the think of moft. deplorable fituation. His habitation was now fixecj at Demotica, a finall town about fix leagues minions " fr0[n Adrianople. Here he was allowed provifions for his own table and thofe of his retinue ; but only 25 crowns a-day in money, inftead of 500 which he had received at Bender. During his rtfidence here he received a deputation from Heffe-Cafiel, foliciting his cynfeat to the marriage of the landgrave with Elea. Turkey. nora princefs royal of Sweden ; to which he rea- Sweden, dily agreed : a deputation was alfo fent him by the ~ regency of Sweden, requefting that he would prepare for returning to his own dominions, which were ready to fink under a ruinous war in his abfence. What determined him, however, more than any thing to haiten his return, was the following accident. The new grand vizir Ibrahim Molla, having for private reafons determined to come to a rupture with the czar, invited Charles to a conference, in the ftyle and with lto the familiarity of an equal. Charles was fo much Obliged, by chagrined at this indignity, that he fent his chancellor Jlis “nfea- Mullern to meet the vizir, with a pretence that hep°rj^leto was fick. To avoid giving offence^o this minifter, keep his Charles was obliged to keep bis bed during his reft- bed for 10 dence at Demotica, which was for 10 months after. months' At laft, this vizir being ftrangled, and the Swediffi intereft at the porte thereby entirely ruined, he deter¬ mined to quit Turkey at all events. His departure was to be negociated by his favourite Grothufen, whom he veiled with the charadlerof ambaffador extraordinary; J2r fending him to Adrianople with a train of 14 perfons Sends an richly dreffed. To equip this retinue the king wasam^afiacIor reduced to the moft mortifying ffiifts, and to the ne- ‘“J e.Port^ celiity ot borrowing money from ulurers at 50 per cent, fa- The great objedt was, to obtain from the vizir money vourablyre- and a paffport. Grothufen was received with all theceived- refpedf due to his rank; but the vizir ftarted difficul¬ ties. With regard to the paffport, he faid, it could be of no ufe until the confent of the court of Vienna was firft obtained ; and as to money, he faid, “ his mafter knew how to when he thought proper, but it was beneath his dignity to lend; that the king ffiould have every neceffary provided for his journey, and poffibly the porte might make fome pecuniary prefent, but he would not have it expedled.” The Imperial minifter, however, removed every difficulty with regard to the paffport, by granting it in the molt full and ample manner, in the name of the emperor, the princes and ftates of Germany. He fent alfo a prefent to the king, confiding of a tent of fcarlet richly embroidered with gold ; a fabre, the handle of which was ftudded with jewels; and eight fine horfes richly caparifoned. Money, the article moft wanted,, was entirely forgot; however,. the day was fixed for Charles’s departure, and the vizir appointed 60 car¬ riages loaded with all kinds of provitions, .and feveral companies of janifaries and other troops to attend him to the frontiers of Tranfylvania. On the 14th of Odlober 1714, Charles quitted his Sets out for bed at Demotica, and fet out for Sweden. All theSwedcn’ princes through whofe territories he was to pafs, had given orders for his entertainment in the moft magni¬ ficent manner ; but the king perceiving that thefe compliments only rendered his imprifonment and other misfortunes more confpicuous, fuddenly difmiffed his Turkiffi attendants, and, .affembling his own people, bid them take no care about him, but make the belt of their way to Stralfund. After this he.fet out poll, Difmi/Tes in the habit of a German officer, attended only by h’5 retinue, colpnel During. Keeping.the bye-roads through Hun- aucl pro' gary, Moravia, Auftria, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, theonJ^Qn'11 palatinate, Weftphalia, and Mecklenburg, arrived on attendant the 2lit of November at midnight, before the gates of . Stralfund. Being unknown, he was admitted with difficulty ; , S W E [ 8494 ] S W E Sweden, difficulty ; but being foon recognized by the governor, - the greateft tokens of joy were fhown all over the town. Arrives at t*ie t*ie tumult Charles went to bed. He Stralfund ^een booted for 16 days, and now his legs were and is recei-fwelled to fuch a degree that his boots were cut off. ved with Having flept for fome hours, he arofe, reviewed his the utmoft tro0pSj and gavc orders for renewing the war with re- y' doubled vigour. Sweden was now in the greateft diftrefs. We have already mentioned, that on the news of the defeat at ils Pultowa, ’the Danes had invaded Schonen, but were Diftrefled defeated by general Steenboek. This viftory, bow- fituation ©ftfver, not pUt an cncj t0 the war. On the contrary, Swc en. kings of Denmark and Poland, with the czar of -Mofcovy, entered into flrifler bonds of amity than ever. They dreaded the return of Charles to his own dominions, and apprehended that numberlefs victories would foon efface the remembrance of Pultowa. They determined, therefore, to make the beft ufe of their time ; and perhaps Charles never took a more impru¬ dent refolution than obftinately to remain fo long in the Turkifh dominions. The kings of Denmark and Poland invaded Pomerania ; but after laying fiege in vain to Stralfund, Wifmar, and other places, they were obliged to retire with difgrace into winter-quar- ters. In 1712, the king of Denmark invaded and re- Steenboek dneed Bremen and Verden ; but the fame year met defeats the with a terrible defeat from Steenboek, with the lofs the Danes, 0f a vaft nUntber killed and wounded, and almoft all wards taken theif artillery taken. The following year, however, prifoner this general being purfued, and furrounded by the uni- with his ted forces of the Ruffians, Danes, and Saxons, was whole army0bijg£c] t0 throw himfelf into the neutral town of Tom- mingen ; where he was befieged, and obliged to fur- render at diferetion, with his whole'army. The con- fequence of this difaftcr was an invafion of Finland by the czar; which province he totally reduced, after defeating the Swedes in feveral engagements. In¬ deed, the Swedifh forces were now fo much reduced, that they were unable to cope with almoft any enemy. The return of Charles, however, feemed to give new life to the whole nation. Though the number of in¬ habitants was vifibly diminilhed, the levies he had or¬ dered were complete in a few weeks : but the hands left to cultivate the earth confifted of the infirm, aged, anddecrepid; fo that a fatnine was threatened in confe- quence of the military rage which had feized all the youth of the kingdom. 55.^ The prefence of Charles did not now produce thofe The king is confequences which the allies had feared. The king- unable to ,3orn was too mUCh reduced to be able to furnifh the Swedifh af-nece^ary fuPP''es men an^ money; and though the fairs. king’s courage and military fkill were not in the leaft diminifhed, the efforts he made, inftead of reftoring Sweden to its fplendour, ferved entirely to ruin it. In 1715, Pruffia declared againft him, on account of his demanding brek the town of Stetin, which that mo¬ narch had feized. To complete his embarraffmenr, the elefior of Hanover, George I. of Britain, alfo be* came his enemy. The forces of Denmark, Pruffia, Saxony, and Hanover, joined to inveft Wifmar, while a body of 36,000 men formed the fiege of Stralfund ; at the fame time that the czar, with a fleet of 20 large fliips of war, and 150 tranfports, carrying 30,000 men, threw every part of the Swedifh coatt into the Is encom- all fides by- enemies. greateft confternation. The heroifm of Charles could Sweden. not prevail againft fo many enemies. So dreadful, c" however, he ftill was, that the prince of Anhalt, with 129 12,000 brave troops, did not think himfelf a match for His defpe- this furious enemy when at the head of only 2000, tillrate valour, he had entrenched his army behind a ditch, defended by chevaux de frize. It appeared, indeed, that his precaution was not unneceffary ; for, in the night, Charles with his men clambered up the ditch, and at¬ tacked the enemy in his ufual manner. Numbers, however, at laft prevailed; and Charles was obliged to retire, after having feen his favourite Grothufen, ge¬ neral Dardorff and During, the companions of his exile, killed by his fide, and himfelf being wounded in the breaft. This rafh attempt was made in order to fave Rugen, 130 from whence the town of Stralfund was fupplied with Stralfund provifions. The place was well fortified, and gar- befie£ed* rifoned with 9000 men, with Charles himfelf at their head ; but nothing could refift the efforts of the enemy. The houfes w’tre laid in afhes by the bombs; the walls miferably fbattered, and large breaches made in them by the cannon; fo that by the jyth of De¬ cember it was propofed to give the afiault. The attack on the horn-work was defperate : the enemy were twice repulfed ; but at laft, by dint of numbers, effefted a lodgment. The next day Charles headed a fally in which he dealt terrible deftru&ion among the befiegers, but was at length overpowered and obliged to retreat into the town. At laft his officers, appre¬ hending that he muft either fall into the hands of the enemy, or be buried in the ruins of the place, in- 13r treated him to retire. A retreat, however, was now And taken, almoft as dangerous as to remain in the town, on in fPitc of account of the fleets of the enemy with which the fea was covered, and it is thought that this very circum- the king, fiance induced the king to confent to it. Setting out therefore in a fmall boat with fails and oars, he paffed all the enemy’s fliips and batteries, and arrived fafe at Yftedt in Schonen. To revenge himfelf for thefe Ioffes, Charles invaded Charles in- Norway with an army of 25,000 men, The Danesva throne! by which the king, from being the moll limited be¬ came one of the moft defpotic monarchs in Europe. Ever fince the death of Charles XII. the whole power 533 of the kingdom had been lodged in the ftates ; and Account of this power they had on all occaficns moft grievouflyrfvolu" abufed. Guflavus therefore determined either to feizc*'^'^ on that power of which they made fuch a bad ufe, or which he perilh in the attempt. The revolution was effedled in became de- the following manner. On the morning of the igthfl50110* of Auguft 1772, a confiderable number of officers, as well as other perfons known to be attached to the royal caufe, had been fummoned to attend his majefty. Before ten he was on horfeback, and vifited the regi¬ ment of artillery. As he paffed through the ftreeta he was more than ufually courteous to all he met, bowing familiarly to the loweft of the people. On the king’s return to his palace, the detachment which was to mount guard that day being drawn up toge¬ ther with that which was to be relieved, his majelly retired with the officers into the guard-room. He then addreffed them with all that eloquence of which he is faid to be a perfect mailer; and after infinuating to them that his life was in danger, he expofed to them in the ftrongeft colours the wretched Hate of the kingdom, the lhackles in which it was held by means of foreign gold, and the diffenfions and troubles arifing from the fame caufe which had dillradted the diet during the courfe of fourteen months. He affured them that his only defign was to put an end to thefe diforders; to baniih corruption, rellore true liberty, and revive the ancient lultre of the Swedilh name,. which had been long tarnilhed by a venality as noto¬ rious as it was difgraceful. Then affuring them in the llrongeft terms that he difclaimed for ever all ab- folute power, or what the Swedes call foverrignty, he concluded with thefe words: “ I am obliged to de¬ fend my own liberty and that of the kingdom, againft the arillocracy which reigns. Will you be faithful to me, as your forefathers were to Gullavus Vafa and Guftavus Adolphus? I will then rifle my life for your welfare and that of my country.” The officers, moft of them young men, of whofe attachment the king had been long fecure, who did not S W E , [ 8496 ] S W E Sweden, not thoroughly perhaps fee Into the nature of the re- ” queft his majefty made them, and were allowed no time torefle&upon it, immediately confented to every i39 thing, and took an oath of fidelity to him. Refofution Three only refufed. One of thefe, Frederic Ceder- ofaSwedifh ftrom> captain of a company of the guards, alledgcd ®®cer* he had already and very lately taken an oath to be faithful to the dates, and confequently could not take that which his majefty then exa&ed of him. The king, looking at him fternly, anfwered, “ Think of what your are doing.” “ I do,” replied Cederftrom, “ and what I think to-day, I fhall think to-morrow; and were I capable of breaking the oath by which I am already bound to the ftates, I (hould be likewife capable of breaking that your majefty now requefts me to take.” The king then ordered Cederftrom to deliver up his fword, and put him in arreft. His majefty however, apprehenfive of the impreffion which the proper and refolute condnft of Cederftrom might make upon the minds of the other officers, fhortly afterwards foftened his tone of voice ; and again addreffing himfelf to Cederftrom, told him, that as a proof of the opinion he entertained of him, and the confidence he placed in him, he would return him his fword without infilling upon his taking the oath, and would only defire his attendance that day. Ce¬ derftrom continued firm; he anfwered, that his ma¬ jefty could place no confidence in him that day, and that he begged to be excufed from the fervice. While the king was fhut up with the officers, Sena¬ tor Railing, to whom the command of the troops in the town had been given two days before, came to the door of the guard-room, and was told that he Could not be admitted. The fenator infilled upon being prefent at the diftribution of the orders, and fent in to the king to defire it; but was anfwered, he rouft go to the fenate, where his rnajefty would fpeak to him. The officers then received their orders from the king ; the firft of which was, that the two regiments of guards and of artillery fhould be immediately af- fembled, and that a detachment of 36 grenadiers ffiould be polled at the door of the council-chamber to prevent any of the fenators from coming out. But before the orders could be carried into execu¬ tion, it was neceflary that the king fhould addrefs himfelf to the foldiers; men wholly unacquainted with his defigns, and accuftomed to pay obedience only to the orders of the fenate, whom they had been taught to o hold in the higheft reverence. The king As his majefty, 'followed by the officers, was ad- gains over vancing from the guard room to the parade for this the foldiers. pUrp0fe> f0me of them more cautious, or perhaps more timid than the reft, became, on a Ihort reflec¬ tion, apprehenfive of the confequences of the meafure in which they were engaged : they began to exprefs their fears to the king, that unlefs fome perfons of greater weight and influence than themfelves were to take a part in the fame caufe, he could hardly hope to fucceed in his enterprife. The king flopped a while, and appeared to hefitate. A ferjeant of the guards overheard their difeourfe, and cried aloud— “ It fhall fucceed—Long live Guftavus 1” His ma- jdly immediately faid, “ Then I will venture}”—and ftepping forward to the foldiers, he addrefled them in Sweden, terms nearly fimilar to thofe he had made ufe of to the officers, and with the fame fuccefs. They an¬ fwered him with loud acclamations; one voice only faid, No ; but it was not attended to. In the mean time fome of the king’s emilfaries had fpread a report about the town that the king was arrefted. This drew the populace to the palace in great numbers, where they arrived as his majefty had concluded his harangue to the guards. They tellified by reiterated Ihoots their joy at feeing him fafe ; a joy which promifed the happieft conclufion to thebufi- nefs of the day. ,4C, The fenators were now immediately fecured. They Secures the had from the window of the council-chamber beheld^cnators» what was going forward on the parade before palace; and, at a lofs to know the meaning of thefterofthc j Ihouts they heard, were coming down to inquire into whole ' the caufe of them, when 30 grenadiers, with theirP°w®r,n bayonets fixed, informed them it was his majefty,s 'n^' pleafure they Ihould continue where they were. They began to talk in a high tone, but were anfwered only by having the door Ihut and locked upon them. The moment the fecret committee heard that the fenate was arrefted, they feparated of themfelves, each individual providing for his own fafety. The king then mounting his horfe, followed by his officers with their fwords drawn, a large body of foldiers, and numbers of the populace, went to the other quarters of the town where the foldiers he had ordered to be affembled were polled. He found them all equally willing to fupport his caufe, and to take an oath of fidelity to him. As he pafled through the ftreets, he declared to the people, that he only meant to defend them, and fave his country; and that if they would not confide in him, he would lay down his feeptre, and furrender up his kingdom. So much was the king beloved, that the people (fome of whom even fell down upon their knees) with tears in their eyes im¬ plored his majefty not to abandon them. The king proceeded in his courfe, and in lefs than an hour made himfelf matter of all the military force in Stockholm. The kingdom of Sweden, in its prefent Hate, is 0» divided into the following provinces: 1. Sweden Pro-Swe(jent ! per. 2. Gothland. 3. Finland. Swediffi Lapland. And, 5. The Swedilh iflands. Great abatements mud be made for the lakes, and unimproved parts of Swe¬ den ; which are fo extenfive, that the habitable part is confined to narrow bounds. The face of Sweden is pretty fimilar to thofe of its^j^* neighbouring countries ; only it has the advantage of foil, navigable rivers. The fame may be faid with regard to its climate, foil, &c. Summer burfts from winter; and vegeta¬ tion is more fpeedy than in fouthern climates. Stoves and warm furs mitigate the cold of winter, which is fo intenfe, that the nofes and extremities of the inhabitants are fometimes mortified. The Swedes, fince the days of Charles XII. have been at incredible pains to correft the native barrennefs of that country, by erefting colleges of agriculture, and in fome places with great fuccefs. The foil is much the feme with that of Denmark and fome parts of Norway, gene¬ rally very bad, but in fome valleys furprifingly fertile. Sweden •a4,[ i 14 V ] larac'ter S W E [ 8497 ] S W E The Swedes, till of late years, had not induftry fuf- ficient to remedy the one, nor improve the other. The peafants now follow the agriculture of France and England ; and fome late accounts fay, that they rear almoft as much grain as maintains the natives. Gothland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, and beans; and in cafe of deficiency, the people are fupplied from Livonia and the Baltic provinces. In fummer, the fields are verdant, and covered with flowers ; and produce ftrawberries, rafpberries, cur¬ rants, and other fmall fruits. The common people know, as yet, little of the cultivation of apricots, p:aches, nedfarines, pine-apples, and the like high- flavoured fruits ; but melons are brought to great per- feftion in dry feafons. Sweden produces cryftals, amethyfts, topazes, por¬ phyry, lapis-lazuli, agate, cornelian, marble, and -other foffils. The chief wealth of the country, how¬ ever, arifes from her mines of filver, copper, lead, and iron. The laft-mentioned metal employs no fewer than 450 forges, hammering-mills, and fmelting- houfes. A kind of a gold mine has likewife been difcovered in Sweden ; but fo inconfiderable, that from the year 1741 to 1747, it produced only 2398 gold ducats, each valued at 9 s. 4 d. fterling. The firft gallery of one filver mine is 100 fathoms below the furface of the earth; the roof is fupported by prodi¬ gious oaken beams; and from thence the miners de-_ fcend about 40 fathoms to the lowed vein. This mine is faid to produce 20,000 crowns a year. The produdt of the copper mines is uncertain ; but the whole is loaded with vaft taxes and reductions to the government, which has no other refources for the exigences of date. Thofe fubterraneous manfions are aftonilhingly fpacious, and at the fame time commo¬ dious for their inhabitants, fo that they feem to form a hidden world. The water-falls in Sweden afford excellent conveniency for turning mills for forges; and for fome years the exports of iron from Sweden brought in 300,000!. derling. Dr Bufching thinks that they condituted two-thirds of the national re¬ venue. It mud, however, be obferved, that the ex¬ tortions of the Swediih government, and the importa¬ tion of American bar-iron into Europe, and fome other caufes, have greatly diminifhed this manufacture in Sweden ; fo that the Swedes very foon mud apply themfelves to other branches of trade and improvements, efpecially in agriculture. The animals differ little from thofe of Norway and Denmark, only the Swedifh horfe are known to be more ferviceable in war than the German. The fidies found in the rivers and lakes of Sweden, are the fame with thofe in other northern countries, and taken in fuch quantities, that their pikes (particularly) are faked and pickled for exportation. The train-oil of the feals, taken in the gulph of Finland, is a confi- derable article of exportation. There is a great diverfity of charaflers among thd people of Sweden ; and what is peculiarly remarkable among them, they have been known to have different charaCfers in different ages. At prefent, their pea¬ fants feem to be a heavy plodding race of men, drong and hardy ; but without any other ambition than that of fubfilting themfelves and their families as well as Von. X. they can: they are honed, fimple, and hofpitable; Sweden, and the mercantile claffes are much the of the fame cad; but great application and perfeverance is difcovered among them all. One could form no idea that the modern Swedes are the defendants of thofe who, under Gudavus Adolphus and Charles XII. carried terror in their names through the mod didant coun¬ tries, and fliook the foundations of the greated em¬ pires: The principal nobility and gentry of Sweden are naturally brave, polite, and hofpitable; they have high and warm notions of honour, and are jealous of their national intereds. The drefs of the common people is almod the fame with that of Denmark: the better fort are infatuated with French modes and falhion. The common diverfions of the Swedes, are Heading, running races in fledges, and failing in yachts upon the ice. They are not fond of marrying their daughters when young, as they have little to fpare in their own life time. The women go to plough, threfli out the corn, row upon the water, ferve the brick¬ layers, carry burdens, and do all the common drudge¬ ries in hufbandry. 34J Chridianity was introduced here in the 9th century. Religion, Their religion is Lutheran, which was propagated among them by Gudavus Vafa, about the year 1523, as we have already related. The Swedes are furprifingly uniform and unremitting in religious matters; and have fuch an averfion to Popery, that cadration is the fate of every Roman-catholic pried difcovered in their country. The archbifhop of Upfal has a reve¬ nue of about 400 1. a-year ; and has under him thirteen fuffragans, befides fupperintendants, with moderate dipends. No clergyman has the lead diredion in the affairs of date ; but their morals, and the fandity of of their lives, endear them fo much to the people, that the government would repent making them its enemies. Their churches are neat, and often orna¬ mented. A body of ecclefiadical laws and canons dired their religious ceconomy. A converfion to Pa¬ pery, or a long continuance under excommunication, which cannot pafs without the king’s permiffion, is puniftied by imprifonment and exile. ^ The Swediih language is a dialed of the Teutonic, Language., and refembles that of Denmark. The Swediih no- ° bility and gentry are, in general, more converfant in polite literature than thofe of many other more flourilhing dates. They have of late exhibited fome noble fpecimens of their munificence for the improve¬ ment of literature and fcience, particularly natural hidory. The Swediih commonalty fubfids by agriculture, jy[al*ufac- mining, grazing, hunting, and filhing. Their mate-Hires, &c. rials for traffic are the bulky and ufeful commodities of mads, beams, beal-coards, and other forts of timber for dripping; tar, pitch, bark of trees, pot-aftr, wooden utenfils, hides, flax, hemp, peltry, furs, copper, lead, iron, cordage, and fifb. Even the manufaduring of iron was introduced in¬ to Sweden fo late as the 16th century ; for till that time they fold their own crude ore to the Hanfe-townp, and bought ic back again manufadured into utenlils. About the middle of the 17th century, by the affidance of the Dutch and Flemings, they fet up fome manu- fadures of glafs, darch, tin, woollen, filk, foap, 42 P leather- Sweden Sweep 148 Rtvenues 149 Military Urength,. S W E [ 849B ] S W I kather-dreffing, and faw-mills. Bookfelling was at _ that time a trade unknown in Sweden. They have fince had fugar-baking, tobacco-plantations, and ma- nufadures of fail-cloth, cotton, fuftian, and 6ther ftoffs; of linen, alum, brimftone, paper-mills, and gunpowder-mills. Vail quantities of copper, brafs, ftee!, and iron, are now wrought in Sweden. They have alfo founderies for cannon, forgeries for fire-arms and anchors, armories, wire and flatting-mills, mills alfo for fulling, and for boring and (lamping; and of late they have built many (hips for fale. Certain towns in Sweden, being 24 in number, are called Staple-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import and export commodities in their own (hips. Thofe towns which have no foreign commerce, though lying near the fea, are called land-towns. A third kind are termed mine-towns, as belonging to mine- dillrids. The Swedes, about the year 1752, had greatly increafed their exports, and dimini(hed their imports, moft part of which arrive or are fent off in Swedilh (hips ; the Swedes having now a kind of na¬ vigation-aft, like that of the Engliflt. Thofe pro- mifing appearances were, however, blafted, by the madnefs and jealoufies of the Swedifb government ; and the people fo opprefled with taxes, that fome im¬ portant revolution was daily expefted in that kingdom. The revenue of Sweden, fince the unfortunate wars of Charles XII. has been greatly reduced. Her gold and filver fpecies, in the late reign, arofe chiefly from the king’s German dominions. Formerly, the crown- lands, poll-money, tithes, mines, and other articles, are faid to have produce#! a million fterling. The payments that are made in copper, which is here the chief medium of commerce, is extremely inconvenient; fome of thofe pieces being as large as tiles; and a cart or wheelbarrow is often required to carry home a moderate futn. The Swedes, however, have gold ducats, and eight-mark pieces of filver, valued each at 5s. 2d. and the fubfidies paid them by France help to increafe their currency. No country in the world has produced greater heroes or braver troops than the Swedes; and yet they cannot be faid to maintain a (landing army, as their forces confift of a regulated militia. The cavalry is cloathed, armed, and maintained, by a rate raifed upon the nobility and gentry, according to their edates ; and the infantry by the peafants. Each province is obliged to find its proportion of foldiers, according to the number of farms it contains; every farm of 60 h or 70I. per annum, is charged with a foot-foldier, furnifhing him with diet,- lodging and ordinary cjoaths, and about 20 s. a^year in money;, or elk a little wooden houfe is built him by the far¬ mer, who allows him hay and pafturage for a cow,, and ploughs and fows land enough to fupply him with bread. When embodied, they are fubjeft to military law, but otherwife to the civil law of the country. It may therefore literally be faid, that every Swedifh foldier has a property in the country he defends. This national army is thought to amount to above 50,000 men : and Sweden formerly could have fitted out 40 (hips of the line ; but of late years their (hips, together with their docks, are fuffered to run to decay. SWEEP, in the fea-language, is that part of the mould of a (hip where (he begins to compafs In the Sweet | rung-heads: alfo when when the haufer is dragged II along the bottom of the fea to recover any thing that 18 funk, they call this aftionfweepingfor it. SWEET, in the wine trade, denotes any vegetable juice whether obtained by means of fugar, raifins, or other foreign or domeftic fruit, which is added to wines with a defign to improve them. SWEIN-mote. See Forest Courts. SWIFT (Dr Jonathan), an eminent divine, poli¬ tician, and wit, was defeended from an ancient family; and born at Dublin in 1667, feven months after hia father’s death. He was educated at Trinity college, Dublin: but minding hillory and poetry more than academic learning, he was refufed his bachelor’s de¬ gree for infufficiency, though he was at laft admitted fpeciali gratia, by favour rather than merit; a cir- cumftance that ferved as a fpur to his future (ludies. In 1688, being then without fupport, he was pa¬ tronized by Sir William Temple, who had married a relation of his mother, by whofe means he was intro¬ duced to the notice of king William, who o(Fered to make him a captain of horfe; but Swift had deter¬ mined on a clerical life, and after Sir William’s death j the king took no farther notice of him. He met with feveral difappointments in his endeavours at prefer¬ ment, obtaining only two fmall livings, Laracor and Rathbigging, in the county of Meath, when he be¬ came eminent as a political writer. While Swift refided at Laracor, he invited to Ire¬ land a lady, whom he has celebrated by the name of Stella. He became acquainted with her while he lived with Sir William Temple. She was the daughter of his (Reward, whofe name was Johnfon\ and Sir William, in confideration of her father’s faithful fervices, left her at his death 1000I. She was now about eighteen: and was accompanied by Mrs Dingley, a lady who was fifteen years older, and, though related to Sir William, had only an annuity of 27I. But whatever was Swift’s attachment to Mrs Johnfon, j every precaution was taken to prevent fcandal: they ? never lived in the fame houfe; nor were they ever | known to meet but in the prefence of a third peifon. Swift made frequent excurfions ; but Mrs Johnfon was buried in folitude and obfeurity ; (he was per- fonally known only to a few of Swift’s moft intimate ! acquaintance, and Mrs Dingley was her only female companion. In 1701 Swift took his degree of doftorof divinity. 1 He had been educated among the Whigs; shid the fame year publifhed a Difcourfe of the contefts and . diffenfions between the nobles and commons of Athens and Rome: this was in behalf of king William and his minifters, againft the violent proceedings of the i houfe of commons. But foon after, he attached him- felf to the Tories; becaufe, as he faid, the Whigs had renounced their old principles. In 1710, being then in England, he was commif- fioned by the primate of Ireland to folicit the queen 1 to releafe the clergy from paying the 20th part and « firft-fruits; and this brought him acquainted with Mr Harley, who, with the reft of the minifters, appears to have carefled him with uncommon afiiduity. From this time he fupported his new friends with all his i power, in pamphlets, poems, and periodical papers; yet S W I [ 8499 ] S W I Swift, yet received no gratuity or reward until the year ’ ~ 17I3> when he accepted the deanery of St Patrick’s, Dublin. A bifhopric had been intended for him by the queen ; but archbithop Sharp, and a certain great lady, having repreftmted him as as man whofe re¬ ligions fmcerity was very doubtful, it was given to another. It is here proper to obferve, that among other per- fons with whom he became intimately acquainted while in England, was Mrs Vanhomrigh. She was born in Ireland ; and had been married to Mr Van¬ homrigh, firft a merchant of Amfterdam, then of Dub¬ lin, where king William gave him very great places : but he dying, left two fons and two daughters; and his fons dying foon after, his whole fortune, which was very confiderable, fell to the daughters. The widow and the two young ladies came to England in 1709, where they were vifited by perfons of the firft quality; and Swift living near them, ufed to be much there. During this familiarity, he infenfibly became a kind of preceptor to the young ladies, particularly to the el- deft, who was then about 20, and was fond of read¬ ing, and a great lover of poetry. Hence admiring fuch a character as that of Swift, fhe palled from ad¬ miration to love, and ventured to make him a pro- pofa! of marriage. He at firft alFe&ed to believe her in jeft, then to rally her on fo whimfical a choice, and at laft gave her an abfolute refufal. While he was in this fituation he wrote his Cadenus and Vanefla ; and then returned to the place of his exile, as he ufualiy called it. Soon after Mrs Vanhomrigh died, and left fome debts; which it not being convenient for her daughters, who had debts of their own, to pay at prefent, to avoid an arreft they followed the dean in¬ to Ireland. The firft remarkable event of his life after his fettle- ment at the deanery, was his marriage with Mrs John- fon, the daughter of Sir William Temple’s fteward, the celebrated Stella, after an intimate friendlhip of more than 16 years; but whatever were the motives to a marriage that was never avowed, the dean and the lady continued to live in the fame Platonic manner they had done before. He had hitherto continued to vifu Mifs Vanhomrigh, but now his vifus were let's frequent. Soon after, her fifter died ; and the remains of the family-fortune centering in her, (he retired to Selbridge, a fmall houfe and eftate about 12 miles from Dublin. From thence Ihe frequently wrote to the dean, and prefled him to marry her, but he rallied and (till avoided a pofnive refufal. She preffed him either to accept or refufe her as a wife ; upon which he wrote an anfwer, and delivered it with his own hand, and probably let her into the fatal fecret of his being already married : this the unhappy lady did not furvive many weeks ; however, before her death, fhe cancelled a will ftie had made in the dean’s favour. From 1716 to 1720, is a chafm in the deap’s life, which it has been found difficult to fill up. Lord Or¬ rery thinks, with great reafon, that he employed this time upon Gulliver's Travels. The truth is, that Swift’s difappolntments had rendered him fplenetic; and he frequently indulged himfelf in an intolerable mifanthropy, that, in the midft of all his wit and ima¬ gination, is difguftful in feveral parts of this work. About the year 1720, the dean diftinguiftied himfelf as a patriot, in his Propofolfor the life of Irifb Manu- Swift. faflures, and by his Drapier's Letters in oppofition to Wood’s patent for a copper coinage ; which, he clear¬ ly fhowed, was calculated to procure the patentee an. exorbitant gain, to the impoveriftiment of Ireland. Thefe letters rendered him amazingly popular, and from this time the dean’s influence in that ifland was almoft without bounds; for he was confulted in what¬ ever related to domeftic policy, and particularly to trade. In 1727, died his wife, the amiable Stella, in the 44th year of her age ; a lady poflefled of an enchant¬ ing beauty, a mufical voice, unbounded wit, mingled with fweetnefs of manners, and a mind adorned with every virtue. She had been declining ever fince the year 1724; and it is generally believed that her im¬ mature deajh was occafioned by the peculiarity of the dean’s conduft towards her. It is faid the dean did at length earneftly defire that (he might be publicly owned as his wife ; but as her health was then decli¬ ning, (he faid it was too late, and infifted that they (hould continue to live as they had lived before. To this the dean in his turn confented, and fuffered lur to difpofe entirely of her own fortune, by her own name, to a public charity, when (he diech From the death of Stella his life became much re¬ tired ; the aufterity of his temper alfo increafed, and he could not enjoy his public days: thefe entertain¬ ments were therefore difeontinued, and he fometimes avoided the company of his moft intimate friends; but in time he grew more defirousof company. In 1732, he complains, in a letter to Mr Gay, that “ he had a large houfe, and (hould hardly find one vifitor if he was not able to hire btpr with a bottle of wine and, in another to Mr Pope, “ that he was in danger of dying poor and friendlefs, even his female friends having forfaken him; which,” as he fays, “ vexed him moft.” Thefe complaints were afterwards repiated in a ftrain of yet greater fenfibility and felf-pity : “ All my friends have forfaken me. “ Vertiginofus, inops, furdus, male grains amicis. “ Deaf, giddy, helplefs, left alone, To all my friends a burden grown!” It is very remarkable, however, that although his mind was greatly deprefled, and his principal enjoy¬ ment at an end when Mrs Johnfon died, yet there is an air of levity and trifling in fome of the pieces he wrote afterwards, that is not to be found in any other: fuch, in particular, are his Direftions to Servants, and feveral of his letters to his friend Dr Sheridan. The fits of giddinefs and deafnefs, to which he had been fubje&ed from a furfeit before he was 20 years old, became more frequent and violent as he grew in years. A prefentiment which he had long entertained of that wretehednefs which would inevitably overtake him towards the clofe of life, by the failure, of his in- tellefts, clouded his mind with the moft melancholy ideas, and tinged every objetSl around him. How far this gloomy fentiment prevailed, we may learn from the following remarkable anecdote mentioned by Mr Faulkner in his letter to lord Chefterfield. “ One time, in a journey from Drogheda to Navan, the dean rode before the company, made a fudden flop, dif- mounted his horfe, (ell on his knees, lifted up his hands, and prayed in the moft devout manner. When 42 P 2 his S \V I [ 8coo ] S \V I Ins friends came up, he defired and infilled on their alighting; which they did, andalkedhim the meaning. “ Gentlemen,” faid he “ pray, join your hearts in fer¬ vent prayers with mine, that I may never be like this oak-tree, which is decayed and withered at top, while the other parts are found.” In 1736, while he was writing a fatire on the Irilh parliament, called the Legion Club, he was feized with fo dreadful a fit of his malady, 'that he left the poem unfinifhed ; and never after attempted a compofuion that required a courfe of thinking. From this time his memory gradually declined ; his paffions perverted his underllanding ; and, in 1741, he became utterly incapable of conver- fation. The concluding fcene of his life was truly affedling, and afforded a linking leffon to check the pride of human genius. Mr Faulkner’s account of it is well worth notice : “ Swift never was very outrageous; but his memory failed him by degrees for feveral years to¬ gether, infomuch that he forgot all his friends and do- mefties. He could not call any of them by their names ; nor for cloaths, food, or any neceffaries that he wanted. In Ihort, bis forgetfulnefs grew fo much upon him, he could not remember any one paffage of his life, nor read, nor even tell his letters, for near two years before his death. He likewife loft the ufe of his fpeech, excepting now and then uttering fome in¬ coherent rambling words, being incapable of alking any queftions, or of returning anfwers ; nor could he alk for one neceffary of life. Daring this melancholy fituation great care was taken of his perfen and his food, as he was incapable of dreffing, undreffing, or helping himfelf to cloaths or viftuals; and fo totally was he deprived of all rational faculties, that he was treated like a new-born infant, being taken out of bed, undreffed, and put into bed like the youngeft child ; and had the aftions of one, being fond of gold and filver toys, which he would play with or put into his mouth.” In this deplorable ftate of infenfibility he lingered until 1745, when the diffolution of his bo¬ dily frame followed the extinflion of his mental powers. Upon opening the fkull, after his death, much water was found in the brain. By his will, which is dated May 1740, he left about 1200I. in legacies; and the reft of his fortune, which was about 11,000 I. toeredt and endow an hofpital for idiots and lunatics. His •works have been often printed, and of various forms. Swift undoubtedly was a man of native genius. His fancy was inexhaullible. His conceptions were lively andcompreherifive ; and he had the peculiar felicity of conveying them in language equally corredl, free, and perfpicuous. His penetration was as quick as intui¬ tion ; and he was indeed the critic of nature. As his genius was of the firft clafs, fo were fome of his virtues.—The following anecdote will illuftrate his filial piety. His mother died in 1710, as appears by a memorandum in one of the account-books, which Dr Swift always made up yearly, and on each page entered minutely all his receipts and expences in every month, beginning his year from November 1. He obferved the fame method all bis lifetime till bis laft illnefs. At the foot of that page which includes bis expences of the month of May 1710, at the glebe- houfe of Laracor in the county of Meath, where he was then refident, are thefe remarkable words, which fhow at the fame time, bis filial piety and the reli- Swift, gious ufe which he thought it his duty to make of that melancholy event. “ Mem. On Wcdncfday, be¬ tween feven and eight in the evening, May 10. 1710, I received a letter in my chamber at Laracor (Mr Percival and Jo. Beaumont being by) from Mrs F—, dated May 9, with one inclofed, fent by Mrs Worral at Leicefter to Mrs F , giving an account that my dear mother, Mrs Abigail Swift, died tlia< morning, Monday April 24. 1710, about terr o’clock, after a long ficknefs : being ill all winter, and lame; and ex¬ tremely ill about a month or fix weeks before her death. I have now loft uiy barrier between me and death. God grant I may live to be as well prepared for it as I confidently believe her to have been ! If theway to heaven be through piety, truth, juftice, and charity, fhe is there. J. S.” He always treated his mother, during her life, with the utmoft duty and affedlion ; and file fometimes came to Ireland tovifit him after his fettlement at Laracor. She lodged at Mr Brent’s, the printer, in George’s lane, Dublin. She afked Mrs Brent, the landlady, “ Whether fhe could keep a fe- cret ?” She replied, “ She could very well.” Upon which fhe enjoined her not to make the matter public, w’hich (lie was now going to communicate to her. “ I have a fpark in this towm, that I carried on a corre- fpondence with whilft I was in England. He wrill be here prefently to pay his addreffrs, for he hath heard by this time of my arrival. But I would not have the matter known.” Soon after this a rap was heard at the door, and Dr Swift walked up flairs. Mrs Brent retired : but after a little time fhe was called, and then Mrs Swift introduced her to her fon, and faid, “ Tins is my fpark I was telling you of. This is my lover ; and indeed the only one I fhall ever admit to pay their, addreffes to me.” The do&or fmiled at his mother’s humour, and afterwards paid his duty to her every day, unfufpe&ed by Mrs Brent, whom he invited forne years afterwards to take care of his family-affairs, when he became dean of St Patrick’s: and when Mrs Brent died, he continued her daughter, a poor widow, in the fame office. The liberality of the dean hath been a topic of' juft encomium with all his admirers : nor could his- enemies deny him this praife. In his domeftic affairs,, he always afled with ftrift ceconomy. He kept the moft regular accounts : and he feems to have done this chiefly with a view to increafe his power of being ufeful. Mr Faulkner informs us, that “ his income was 9001. per annum, which he endeavoured to divide; into three parts, for the following purpofes., Firft, to., live upon one-third of it. Secondly, to give another, third in penfions and charities, according to the man¬ ner in which perfons who received them had lived :. and the other third he laid by, to build an hofpital for the reception of idiots and lunatics.” “ What is re-, markable in this generous man,, is this, (fays Mr F.) that when he lent money upon bond or mortgage, he- would not take the legal intereil, hut one per cent. below it.” Fires have fometimes happened in Dublin, by which people of all denominations have been fufferers : upon which melancholy occafions the dean always exerted himfelf, not only in perfon, by going from houfe to, houfe to makecolle&ions forthem, but wrote and recom¬ mended , Swift. S W I mended their melancholy cares to the public. He would go to the affli&ed fufferers, offer them his'fervice, and would be the firft to fubfcribe in a moft princely and generous manner to their relief; which worthy example of his the benevolent citizens of Dublin would imitate. His charity appears to have been a fettled principle of duty, more than an inftin&ive effort of good-nature : but as it was thus founded and fupported, it had ex¬ traordinary merit, and feldom failed to exert itfelf in a manner that contributed mod to render it beneficial. He did not lavifli his money on the idle and the worth- lefs. He nicely difcriminated characters, and was feldom the dupe of impofition. Hence his^generofity always turned to a ufeful account: while it relieved ditf refs, it encouraged induftry, and rewarded virtue. We dwell with great pleafure on this truly excel¬ lent and diflinguifhing part of the dean’s character: and for the fake of his charity we can overlook his oddities, and almoft forgive his faults. He was a very peculiar man in every refpeCt. Some have faid, “ What a man he would have been, had he been without thofe whims and infirmities which fhaded both his genius and his character!” But perhaps the peculia¬ rities complained of were infeparable from his genius. The vigour and fertility of the root could not fail now and then of throwing' out fuperfluous fuckers. What produced thefe, produced alfo the more beauti¬ ful branches, and gave the fruit alb its richnefs. It muft be acknowledged, that the dean’s fancy hurried him into great abfurdities and inconfiftences, for which nothing but his extraordinary talents and noble virtues, difeovered in other inftances, could have atoned. The rancour he difeovered on all occafions towards the diffenters, is totally unjuftifiable. No feCt could have merited it in the degree in which he al¬ ways fhovved it to them ; for, in fome inftances, it bordered on downright perfecution. He doubtlefs had his reafons for expofing their principles to ridicule ; and might perhaps have fufficient grounds for fome of his accufations againft their principal leaders in Ire¬ land : but nothing could juftify his virulence againft the whole body. It muft I kewife be admitted, that when Swift’s re- fentment was excited, it generally arofe to indignation. Amidft the conftellation of virtues which fhed a di- ftinguilhing luftre on his character, he wanted one that a minuter of Chriftianity ought to be ambitious of numbering amongft the chief ornaments of his profef- fion, and that was forgivenefs. This is a virtue that requires a great (hare of humility; and Swift feemed tx> confider himfeif as having a preferiptive right to haughtinefs. His pride gave a dignity indeed to fome parts of his conduCt ; but it frequently tranfgrcffed all the bounds of common civility and Chriftian conde- feenfion. His pride was not gratified with lowering on thofe he hated with a fupercilious brow ; it muft trample them under his feet. He could not laugh away his refentment. “ It ftuck to his laft fand and gained ftrength by its duration. Of Dr Sharp the archbifhop of York, who hindered Lis promotion in the church by jnfinuating fomething to the prejudice of his religion, he never fpoke but with a tone of indignation that marked a fettled ran¬ cour,. Dr Teuifon the archbifhop of Canterbury, he (a) In one of his poems, he exprefsly fays, S W I calls, for the fame good reafon, “ the moft good-for- Swift, nothing prelate that ever lived.” Mr Nicols, the editor Swimming. of a late Supplement to Swift’s works, hath tranferibed, from an authentic MS. in the poflcflionof Thomas Aftle, Efq; a fort of a counter-part to Macky’s Charaften, an¬ nexed to Memoirs of Secret Services,\n which thedean hath difeovtred his keennefsof obfervation andfeverity of refentment againft fome of the moft diftinguifhed characters of the court of George I. The following arc a few inftances. Lord Wharton (a).- “ He is one of the completdl gentlemen in England r hath a very clear underftand- ing and manly expreflion ; with abundance of wit.” Macky.—“ The moft univerfal villain I ever faw.” Swift, MS. Earl of Galway. “ He is one of the fineft gentle¬ men in the army, with a head fitted for the cabinet as well as the camp : is very modeft, vigilant, and fin- cere : a man of honour and honefty : without pride or affectation.” Macky.—“ In all direCtly otherwife. A deceitful, hypocritical, factious knave : a damnable hypocrite : of no religion.” Swift, MS. Of John duke of Argyle, Swift fays in his MS. “ Ambitious, covetous, cunning Scot : has no prin¬ ciples but his own intereft and greatnefs: a true Scot in his whole deportment.”—Of the earl of Derby : “ As arrant a fcoundrel as his brother.”—Of the dukd of Grafton : “ Almoft a flobberer : without one good quality.”—Lord Cholmondley : “ Good for nothing, as far as ever I knew.”—Lord Guildford : “ A mighty filly fellow.”—Duke of Marlborough : “ Deteftably covetous.”—Earl of Sandwich : “ As much a puppy as ever I faw; very ugly, and a fop.”—Speaker of" the houfe of commons : “ A heavy man.” The natural acrimony of Swift’s temper, as already obferved, had been increafed by repeated difappoint- ments. This gave a fplenetic tin&ure to his writings j and amidft the duties of private and domeftic life, it too frequently appeared to ftiade the luftre of his more eminent virtues.—The dean hath been accufed of avarice, but with the fame truth as he hath been ac¬ cufed of infidelity. In detached views, no man was more liable to be miftaken. Even his genius and good fenfe might be queftioned, if we were only to read fome paffages of his writings.- To judge fairly and pro¬ nounce juftly of him, as a man and as an author, we fliould examine the uniform tenor of his difpofition and conduCt, and the general nature and defign of his pro¬ ductions. In the latter, he will appear great; and in the former, good; notwithftanding the puns and pue¬ rilities of the one, and the abfurdities and inconfift- encies of the other. SWIMMING, the art of fufpending one’s felf on water; and at the fame time making a progreffive motion through it. ^ As fwimming is not natural to man, it is evident, that at fome period it muft have been unknown among the human race. Neverthelefs there are no accounts of its origin to be found in the hiftory of any nation ; nor are there any nations fo barbarous but that the art of fwimming is known among them, and that in great¬ er perfection than among civilized people. It is pro¬ bable, therefore, that the art, though not abfolutely natural, will always be acquired by people in a favage ftatej. he hated Wharton like a toad.” [ 85=1 1 Swimming. S W I [ §502 ] S W I (late from imitating the brute animals, mod of whom fvvim naturally. Indeed, fo much does this appear to be the cafe, that very expert fwimmers have recom¬ mended it to thofe who wiflied to learn the art, to keep fome frogs in a tub of water conftantly befide, and to imitate the motions by which they move through that element. The theory offwimming dependsupon one exceed¬ ing fitnple principle ; namely, that if a force is ap¬ plied to any body, it will always move towards that fide where there is the lead refiftance. Thus, if a perfon (landing in a boat pulhes with a pole againft the fide or any other part of the veffel in which he flands, no motion will enfue ; for as much as he pref- fes in one dire&ion with the pole, juft fo much does the aftion of his feet, on which the preffure of the pole muft ultimately reft, pufti the veifel the other way : but if, inftead of the fide of the vefie!, he pufhes the pole againft the (hore, then only one force atfts upon it, namely, that of the feet ; which being refifted only by the fluid water, the boat begins to move from the (hore. Now the very fame thing takes $place in fwimming, whether the animal be man, qua¬ druped, bird, or fi(h« If we confider the matter lim¬ ply, we may fuppofe an animal in fuch a fituation that it could not poffibly fwim : thus, if we cut off the fins and tail of a fi(h, it will indeed float in confe- quence of being fpecifically lighter than the water, but cannot make any progreflive motion, or at lead but very little in confequence of wriggling its body ; but if we allow it to keep any of its fins, by ftriking them againft the water in any dire&ion, the body moves the contrary way, juft as a boat moves the con¬ trary way to that in which the oars ftrike the water. It is true, that as the boat is but partly immerged in the water, the refiftance is comparatively lefs than when a frog or even any other quadruped fwims; but a boat could certainly be rowed with oars though it was totally immerged in water, only with lefs velocity than when it is not. When a man fwims, he in like manner (Irikes the water with his hands, arms, and feet; in confequence of which the body moves in a diredlion contrary to the ftroke. Upon this prin¬ ciple, and on this only, a man may either afcend, defcend, or move obliquely, in any poffible direftion in the water. One wmuld think, indeed, that as the .ffrength of a man’s arms and legs is but final!, he could make but very little way by anyliroke he could give the water, confidering the fluidity of that ele¬ ment. Neverthelefs it is incredible what expert fwim¬ mers will perform in this way ; of which Mr Forfter gives a mod remarkable indance in the inhabitants of O-.Taheitee; whofe agility, he tells us, was fuch, that when a nail was thrown overboard, they would jump after it into the fea, and never fail to catch it before it came to the bottom. As to the pradlice of fwimming, there are but few dire&ions which can be given. The great obftacle is the natural dread which people have of being drowned; and this it is impoffible to overcome by any thing but accultoming ourfelves to go into the water. With, regard to the real danger of being drowned, it is but little; and on innumerableoccafions arifes entirely from .the terror above mentioned, as will appear from the .fallowing obfervations by Dr Franklin. “ That though the legs, arms, and head of a hu- Swimming, man body, being Tolid parts, are fpecifically fome- what heavier than frelh water, yet the trunk, particu¬ larly the upper part, from its hollownefs, is fo much lighter than water, as that the whole of the body, ta¬ ken together, is too light to fink wholly under water, but fome part will remain above until the lungs become filled with water; which happens from drawing water into them inflead of air, when a perfon in the fright attempts breathing while the mouth and noftrils are under water. “ zdly, That the legs and arms are fpecifically lighter than fait-water, and will be fupported by it ; fo that a human body would not fink in fait-water though the lungs were filled as above, but from the greater fpecific gravity of the head. “ 3dly, That therefore a perfon throwing himfelf on his back in falt-water, and extending his arms, may eafily lie fo as to keep his mouth and noftrils free for breathing ; and, by a fmall motion of his hands, may prevent turning, if he (hould perceive any ten¬ dency to it. “ 4ihly, That in freflr water, if a man throws him¬ felf on his back near the furface, he cannot long con¬ tinue in that fituation, but by a proper a&ion of his hands on the water. If he ufes no fuch a&ion, the legs and lower part of the body will gradually fink till he comes into an upright pofition; in which he will continue fufpended, the hollow of the breaft keeping the head uppermoft. “jthly, But if in this eredl pofuion the head is kept upright above the (houlders, as when we (land on the ground, the immerfion will, by the weight of that part of the head that is out of water, reach above the mouth and noftrils, perhaps a little above the eyes ; fo that a man cannot long remain fufpended in water with his head in that pofition. “ 6thly, The body continued fufpended as before, and upright, if the head be leaned quite back, fo that the face looks upwards, all the back-part of the head being then under water, and its weight confequently in a great meafure fupported by it, the face will re¬ main above water quite free for breathing, will rife an inch higher every infpiration, and fink as much every expiration, but never fo low as that the water may come over the mouth. “ 7thly, If, therefore, a perfon, unacquainted with fwimming, and falling accidentally into the water, could have prefence of mind fufficient to avoid ftruggling and plunging, and to let the body take this natural pofition, he might continue long fafe from drowning, till perhaps help would come : for as to the cloaths, their additional weight, while immerfed, is very in- confiderable, the water fnpporting it; though when he comes out of the water, he would find them very heavy indeed.” The method of learning to fwim is as follows: The perfon muft walk into water fo deep that it will reach to the breaft. He is then to lie down gently on the belly, keeping the head and neck perk-flly up¬ right, the breaft advancing forward, the thorax in¬ flated, and the back bent; then withdrawing the legs from the bottom, and ftretching them out, ftrike the arms forwards in unifon with the legs. Swimming on the back is fomewhat.fimilar to that on the belly ; but I J S W I [ 8503 ] S W I Swimming but with this difFtrencc, that although the legs are tl employed to move the body forwards, the arms are Switzer an genera|)y unemployed, and the progreffive motion is derived from the movement of the legs.—In diving, a perfon muft clofe his hands together, and, preffing his chin upon his bread, make an exertion to bend with force forwards- While in that pofuion, he mud continue to move with rapidity under the furfaee ; and whenever he choofes to return to his former fituation, he has nothing to do but bend back his head, and he will immediately return to the furface. It is very common for novices in the art of fwim- ming to make ufe of corks or bladders to affift in keeping the body above water. Some have utterly condemned the ufe of thefe ; however, Dr Franklin allows that they may be of fervice for fupporting the body while one is learning what is called the jiroke, or that manner of drawing in and finking out the hands . and feet that is neceflary to produce progreffive mo¬ tion. “ But (fays he) you will be no fwimmer till you can place confidence in the power of the water to fupport you : I would therefore advife the acqui¬ ring that confidence in the firlt place, efpecially as I have known feverai who, by a little of the praftice necefiary for that purpofe, have infenlibly acquired tiie ftroke, taught as it were by nature. “ The practice I mean is this: Choofing a place where the water deepens gradually, walk coolly into it till it is up to your bread : then turn round your face to the (bore, and throw an egg into the wa¬ ter, between you and the ihore ; it will fink to the bottom, and be eafily feen there, if the water is clear. It muft lie in the water <0 deep as that you cannot reach it to take it up but by diving for it. To encourage yourfelf in order to do this, refled that your progrefs will be from deeper to fliallower water ; and that at any time you may, by bringing your legs under you, and {landing on the bottom, raife your head far above the water : then plunge under it with your eyes open, throwing yourfeif towards the egg, and endeavouring, by the adion of your hands and feet againft the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In this attempt you will find that the water buoys you up againlt your inclination ; that it is not fo eafy a thing to fink as you imagined ; that you can¬ not, but by adive force, get down to the egg. Thus you feel the power of the water to fupport you, and learn to confide in that power ; while your endeavours to overcome it, and to reach the egg, teach you the manner of ading on the water with your feet and hands; which adion is afterwards ufed in fwimming to fupport your head higher above water, or to go forward through it.’' SWINE, in zoology. See Sus. SWITZ, or Schitz, the capital of one of the can¬ tons of Switzerland, to which it gives name, feated on the call fide of the lake Lucern, in N. Lat. 47. E. Long. 8. 30. SWITZERLAND, or Swisserland, a country bounded to the fouth by Savoy, the Milanefe, and the territories of Venice ; to the north, by Swabia ; to the eatl, by the country of Tyrol, a part of Auftria and Swabia ; and to the weft by the Sandgau, Burgundy, and the country of Gtx ; being about 260 milts long and iqo.broad,. The Swifs were anciently called,• and be-Switzerland ing fubdued by the Romans, they continued in fub- jedion to that power till the empire declined, when they became a part of the kingdom of Burgundy. After that they fell under the dominion of the Franks, then of the Germans; but being opprcfled by the lat¬ ter, they threw off the yoke, and eredcd feverai dates and republics, which, at the treaty of Weftphalia in 16,48, were recognized as free and independent. The Cantons of Switz, Uri, and Underwald, having, as early as the year 1308, entered into a confederacy in the canton of Switz, and having alfo obtained their firft vidory in 1315 over Leopold archduke of Au¬ ftria in the fame canton, its name was given to the whole confederacy, which it ftiil retains. The other cantons fucceffively acceded to this afibciation, but fome of them not until upwards of 100 years after. With refped to the government and conftitution of thefe can¬ tons, fome of them are ariftocracies and fome demo¬ cracies. In the former, both the legiflative and exe¬ cutive power is lodged in the burghers or citizens of the capital of each canton ; and of thefe there are fe- ven, viz. Zurich, Bern, Bafil, Friburg, Solothurn, and Schauffhaufen. In the others, the legiflativc power is lodged in the whole body of the people ; and every male above fixtcen, whether mafter or fervant, has a vote in making laws, and in the choice of ma- giftrates. For what concerns the whole Helvetic body, there are diets ordinary and extraordinary : the former are held annually, and the others upon parti¬ cular emergencies; and both are fummoned by the city of Zurich, which appoints the time and place of their meetings. Befides the general diets, fince the Reformation, there have been particular diets of the two religions, at which all public affairs of confe- quence that regard the two parties are treated fepa- rately ; for though a fenfe of their common intercft obliges them to ftudy to maintain the league and union, yet it is certain, that the mutual confidence between the cantons is in. fome meafure loft through the zeal of each party for their particular opinions, efpecially of the Roman Catholics. The annual ge¬ neral diets are held always at Frauenfeld or Baden, principally to regulate the affairs of the common bai- liages. Luceru takes the lead of the Roman Catho¬ lic cantons, being the molt powerful of that denomi¬ nation ; but Zurich, though lefs powerful than that of Bern, takes the precedence of all the other can¬ tons, both Proteftant and Popifh, - Thefe cantons do not make one commonwealth, but are fo many inde¬ pendent Hates united together by ftri£t alliances for their mutual defence. The extraordinary diets or congreffes are held at Aldorf. • Each canton nfually deputes two envoys both to the ordinary and extraor¬ dinary , to which alfo the abbot and town of St Gall, and the town of Biel, fend reprefentatives as allies. To the 13 cantons belong in common 21 Bailiages, two towns, and two lordfliips. The allies or incor¬ porated places, , as they are called, are the abbot and town of St Gall, the three Grifon leagues, the repu¬ blic of the Valais, the towns of Muhlhaufen and Biel, the principality of Neuenberg or Neufchatel, Geneva, and the bifliop of Bafil. Of thefe the abbot and town of St Gall, and the town of Biel, are regarded as mem¬ bers of the Helvetic body, but the reft only as allies. As- S W I [ 8504 ] S W I Switzerland As to the air, foil, and produce of Switzerland, ' that part of the canton of Bern to the eaft of the lake of Geneva, together with the cantons of Up, Switz, .Underwald, Claris, Appenzel, and part of the can¬ ton of Lucern, confift of ftupendous mountains, whofe tops are faid to be from 9000 to 12000 feet above the level of the fea, confiding of craggy inacceffible rocks, of which fome are quite bare, while others are always covered with ice and fnow. Among the mountains are many excellent medicinal and other fprings, cold and warm baths, water-falls, craggy precipices, deep narrow valleys, and caverns. They yield alfo a great variety of herbs, thickets, and bufhes, in the upper parts; and in the lower rich paftures and woods. The higheft are thofe in the canton of Uri. Many of the valleys are covered with lakes, or watered by brooks and rivers. In fome of them are towns, villages, woods, vineyards, and corn-lands. Both on the mountains and in the valleys the air is extremely cold in winter ; but in fnmmer it is very pleafant, cool, and refrefhing on the former, but excefiive hot in the lat¬ ter. Sometimes it is winter on the north fide of a mountain when it is fummer on the other; nay, flowers may be gathered fometimes with one hand and fnow with the other. Prodigious mafles of ice and fnow often fall from them in winter, and do a great deal of damage ; an 1 mod of the dreams and rivers take their rife from the thawing of the ice and fnow on their fides and tops. From the rifing or defeend- ing of the clouds, with which they are commonly en¬ veloped, the inhabitants can, for the mod part, pretty exadily foretel the changes of the weather ; fo that they ferve them indead of weather-glaffes. The other and lower parts of Switzerland are very pleafant and fertile, being diverfified with vineyards, corn-fields, meadows, and padure-grounds. The mountains in thefe are but mole-hills in comparifon of the others: there is neither fnow nor ice on them in fummer; and they frequently afford not only good padurage, but arable ground. Many petrifa&ions are found both among thefe and the others, with a variety of foffils. The fands of the rivers yield gold-dud, par¬ ticularly thofe of the Rhine, the Emmet, the Aare, the Reufz, the Adda, and the Goldbach. The me¬ tals of this country being generally found to be brittle, the only mines that are worked are a few iron ones. In the lower parts of Switzerland they fow rye, oats, barley, fpelt, flax, and hemp. Wines of various forts are alfo produced in fome of them, with a variety of fruits. Of wood for fuel and other ufes, there is ge¬ nerally plenty ; in fome places, however, they are obliged to burn (heeps dung, and in others a kind of heath and fmall fhrubs. In the valleys they cultivate faffron with good fuccefs. The Switzers derive their principal fubfidence from their flocks and herds of cattle, which in fummer graze upon the mountains. Their cheefe is much edeemed, efpecially that of Bern and Griers in the canton of Freyburg. Great num¬ bers of horfes alfo are bred here, and bought up for the French cavalry. Btfides the above-mentioned ri¬ vers, the Rhone and the Tefin have their fources in this country. The lakes are very numerous ; but the chief are thofe of Geneva, Neufchatel, Biel, Zurich, Thun, Brien, Condance, and Lucern. Both rivers and lakes abound with fidi, and afford a cheap water- carriage. S witzerland is not fo populous as many SwitzerlaniJ! other countries in Europe ; and the Popifh cantons — i lefs fo than the Protedant. The total number of the inhabitants is computed at two millions. The language generally fpoken here is the German, in which alfo all public affairs are tranfafted ; but in thofe parts of the country that border on Italy or France, a corrupt French or Italian prevails. The two predominant religions are Calvinifm and Popery. Of the former are the cantons of Zurich and Bern, the towns of St Gall, Geneva, Muhlhaufen, and Biel, the principality of Neufchatel, the greater part of Bafil, Schaffhaufen, the country of the Grifons, the Thurgau, Toggenburg, Glaris, and the Rhine valley ; the frontiers of Appenzel, with a fmall part of Solo- thurn, and fome places in the countries of Baden and Sargans. The red of the Swifs cantons, allies, and dependents, are Popifli. For the education of youth there is an univerfity at Bafil, and academies at Zurich, Bern, Laufanne, and Geneva, befides gymnafiuros and fcbolae illudres, both in the Popidi and Swifs can¬ tons. There are alfo focieties among them for the improvement of the German language and the fciences. The principal manufaftures are fnuff and tobacco, linen of feveral forts, lace, thread, filk and worded dockings, neckcloths, cotton duffs, gloves, handker¬ chiefs, filks of feveral forts, gold and filver brocades, a variety of woollen manufactures, hats, paper, lea¬ ther of all forts, earthen wares, porcelain, toys, watches, clocks, and other hardwares, &c. The trade of Switzerland is greatly promoted by many na¬ vigable lakes and rivers. In fome of the above manu¬ factures, and in cheefe, butter, {beep, horfes, black cattle, hides, and fkins, the exports are confiderable ; and as the imports are chiefly grain and fait, with fome American and Afiatic goods, there is probably a large balance in their favour. In fome parts of Switzerland drefs is redrained by fumptuary laws. The public revenues are in general very inconfider- able, arifing chiefly from the ufual regalia, appro¬ priated every where to the fovereign, the demefnes, and public granaries, voluntary contributions, the fale of fait, and a land-tax ; in the Protedant cantons, from the church-lands alfo that were feized at the Re¬ formation. Except in Zurich, Bern, Bafil, and Schaffhaufen, where the people are more indudrious, have a greater trade, and are richer than in the others, they defray the ordinary charges, and that is all. The cantons never keep any danding troops, except for a few garrifons ; but their militia is reckoned to be the bed regulated of any in Europe. Every male from 16 to 60 is enrolled, and about one-third of them regimented. They muff all provide themfelves with arms, cloathing, and accoutrements, and appear on the dated days for exercife ; and the feveral cantons and didriCls mud be furnifhed with a fufficient train of artillery, and ail the ether implements of war. The Switzers of the feveral cantons are allowed to engage in the fervice of fuch foreign princes and dates as are in alliance with thofe cantons, or with whom they have made a previous agreement. Such dates, paying an annual fubfidy to the refpeftive cantons, are allow¬ ed to make levies. Every manenlills voluntarily, and for what number of years they pleafe ; at the-expira¬ tion of which they are at liberty to return home. A great S Y D [ 2$os ] S Y M Sword great many thus always returning from foreign fer- II vice, Switzerland is never unprovided with able and y en am' experienced officers and foldiers. With refpeft to their chara£ter, they are a brave, honeft, hofpitable, hardy people ; very true to their engagements, friendly, and humane. In fliort, there is not a people in Europe whofe national charafter is better. In their perfons they are generally tall, robuft, and well-made; but their complexions are none of the beft, and thofe that live in the neighbourhood of the mountains are fubjedl to wens. The women are faid to be generally hand- fome and well-fhaped, fenfible and modeft, yet frank* eafy, and agreeable in converfation. Few of the pea- fants are miferably poor; many of them are rich, efpecially in the Proteftant cantons, and that of Bern ■ ^ in particular. SWORD, an offenfive weapon worn at the fide, and ferving either to cut or ftab. Its parts are the handle, guard, and blade; to which may be added I the bow, fcabbard, puifmul, &c. Sword of State, which is borne before the king, lords, and governors of counties, cities, or boroughs, &c. For or before the king, it ought to be carried upright; the hilt as low as the bearer’s waift, the blade up between his eyes. For or before a duke, the blade mull decline from the head, and be carried between the neck and the right fitoulder. For or before an earl, the blade is to be carried between the point of the (boulder and the elbow : and for or before a baron, the blade is to be borne in the bend of the arm. This ceremonial form no lefs denotes the dignity of a gover¬ nor than the coronet fet on his coat of arras. SwoRD-i^V/^. See Xiphias. SWORN brothers, (fratresjurati'), perfons who, by mutual oath, covenanted to (hare each others for¬ tune. Formerly, In any notable expedition to invade and conquer an enemy’s country, it was the cuftom for the more eminent foldiers to engage themfelves by reciprocal oaths to fhare the rewards of their fervice. This pra&ice gave occafion to the proverb offworn brothers or brethren in iniquity, becaufe of their dividing plunder and fpoil. SYCAMORE-tree, in botany. See Acer. SYCOPHANT, an appellation given by the an¬ cient Athenians to thofe who informed of the exporta¬ tion of figs contrary to law: and hence it is dill ufed in general for all informers, parafites, flatterers, cheats, &c. SYDENHAM (Dr Thomas), an excellent Eng- lifh phyfician, was the fon of William Sydenham of Winford Eagle in Dorfetfhire, and was born there about the year 1624. He ftudied at Magdalen- hall, Oxford ; but left that univerfity when Oxford was garrifoned for king Charles I. and went to Lon¬ don : where becoming acquainted with Dr Thomas Cox, an eminent phyfician, that gentleman perfuaded him to apply himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic; and therefore, after the garrifon was delivered up to the parliament, he retired again to Magdalen-hall, en¬ tered on the medical line, and in 1648 was created ba¬ chelor of phyfic. Soon after, he was made a fellow of All-Souls college, and continued there feveral years : when, leaving the univerfity, he fettled at Weftmin- fter, became dodof of his faculty at Cambridge,: Vol. X. grew famous for his pradice ; and was the chief phy- Syllable cian in London from the year 1660 to 1670; at II which period he began to be difabled by the gout. He died in 1689. PI is works are highly efteemed both at home and abroad. He was famous for his cool regimen in the fmall-pox ; for giving the bark after the paroxyfm in agues; and for his ufe of lau¬ danum. He regulated his pradice more by his own obfervations and inquiries, than by the method either of his predeceflbrs or cotemporaries. SYLLABLE, in grammar, a part of a word con- fifting of one or more letters pronounced together. SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, denotes a table of contents, or an index of the chief heads of a book or difeourfe. SYLLOGISM, in logic, an argument or term of reafoning, confiding of three propofitions; the two firft of which are called premifes, the laft the conclujion. See Logic, n° 61, 63, 84—ioi ; and Oratory, n° 50. SYMBOL, a fign or reprefentation of fomethfng moral, by the figures or properties of natural things. Hence fymbolsare of various kinds ; as hieroglyphics, types, aenigmas, parables, fables, &c. SYMMACHUS, a citizen and fenator of ancient Rome, and conful in the year 391, has left us ten books of epiftles ; from which, as well as from other things, we colled, that he was a warm oppofer of the Chriltian religion. He was baniflied from Rome by Valentinian on fome account or other, but afterwards recalled and received into favour by Theodofius. Am- mianus Marcellinus fpeaks of him as a man of great learning and modefty. Scioppius, Pareus, and other learned men, have written notes upon the epidles of Symmachus : we know of no later edition of them than that of Francfort, 1642, 8vo. Ambrofe b;fhop of Milan wrote againft Symmachus, and fo did the Chriftian poet Prudentius. SYMMETRY, the juft proportion of the feveral parts of any thing, fo as to compofe a beautiful whole. Symmetry, in painting. See Painting, n° 7. SYMPATHETIC, foraething tl^t ads or is aded upon by fympathy. Thus we fay iympathetic difea- fes, inks, &c. Sympathetic Inks. See Ink Sympathetic. SYMPATHY, an agreement of affedions and in¬ clinations, or a conformity of natural qualities, hu¬ mours, temperaments, which make two perfons de¬ lighted and pleafed with each other. Sympathy alfo denotes the quality of being afled- ed by the affedion of another; and may fubfift either between different perfona or bodies, or be¬ tween different parts of the fame body. It is either fimilar or dilfimilar : fimilar, when the affedion or adion in the fympathifer is fimilar to the affedion or adion in the fympathant; and diflimilar, when thofe are different.—Sympathy, too, is often an imitative faculty, fornelimes involuntary, frequently without conlcioufnefs: thus we yawn when we fee others yawn, and are made to laugh by the laughing of another. Sympathy, according to Dr Jackfon, relates to the operations of the affedions of the mind, to the opera¬ tions of the imagination, and to the affedions of the external Xenfes. 42 i- The S Y M [ 8506 ] S Y M Sympathy. x. The paflions and affeftions of the mind produce 1 in the body different fenfations and impreffions, and, as fympathies of confctoufnefs, determine in general the fpirits to thofe parts which labour mod, or are mod apt to be affeAed. Thus fear and anger deter- Jackfon on mine to the heart; luft to the eyes, See.; joy, pity, Sympathy, wondei.} and the like> to the head. P- 9S- paflions and affedlions have been faid to im- prefs and aft upon the body, in the following manner: “ 1. Fear caufeth palenefs, trembling, the Sanding of the hair upright, darting, and fcrieching. 2. Grief and pain caufeth fighing, fobbing, groaning, feream. ing, and roaring ; they alfo caufe tears, difiorting of the face, grinding of the teeth, and fweating. 3. Joy caufeth a cheerfulnefs and vigour in the eyes, flnging, leaping, dancing, and fometimes tears. 4. Anger produces palenefs in fome, and the going and coming of the colour in others ; alfo, trembling in fome, fwell- ing, foaming at the mouth, flamping, and bending of the fid. 5. Slight, difpleafure, or diflike, caufes fhaking of the head, frowning, and knitting of the brows. 6. Shame caufeth blufhing, and calling down of the eyes. 7. Pity caufes fometimes tears, and a flexion or caft of the eyes afide. 8. Wonder caufeth aflonifhment, and an immoveable poflure of the body, calling up of the eyes to heaven, and lifting up of the hands. 9. Laughing, though hardly to be confider- ed as a paflion, fince it is produced by an afTeftion of the mind, caufeth a dilatation of the mouth and lips; a continued expulfion of the breath ; with a loud noife, which maketh the interjeftion of laughing, fhaking of the bread and Tides, and running of the eyes with wa¬ ter, if it be violent and continued. 10. Lull caufes a flagrancy in the eyes, and priapifmi” The afFeftions of the mind of one perfon will often work upon the fpirits of many. Thus whole compa¬ nies are fometimes difpofed to be fad and melancholy, or merry and jovial, when any one is prefent much in¬ clined to either of thofe Rates of mind ; and it has been obferved, that old people, who have loved the company of the young, and have been converfant con- tinually with thetru have generally lived long. But young people nvurt not conclude from th'is, that the company and converfation of the grave and old will operate upon their living and fenfitive principle, thro’ the affeftions of their mind, and difpofe them to be fhort-lived. On the contrary, by thus improving their underdanding, they will be more enabled to fortify their conflitution and refill the ravages of youthful indulgence. It may alfo be further obferved, that thofe tender fympathetic affeftions which lay hold of the mind, at the reprefentation of theatrical performances, originate from the fame principle, while they are to be confi- dered as the lured ted of juft execution in the adlor, and of the exprefiive language of the author. Indeed all ftage-cffeft depends on fympathy. The affeftions of the mind make the fpirits more powerful and aftive, efpecially thofe which manifeft themfelves by the eyes. Two in particular may be named, love and envy. As fympathies of confcioufnefs, their operations are more eafily felt than deferibed. Though oppofite in their nature, they are equally vio¬ lent in obtaining their particular ends. The one can no more fuffer indifference and difappointment, than Sytr.patJi>\' the other contempt and haughtineft. It has been faid, that the paflions of the mind are occafionally iafeftive, particularly fome ofthem. Thus fear and fhame are fometimes very fuddenly fo. We fre¬ quently may have occafion to fee, that the darting of one will make another ready to Hart. Again, when one man is out of countenance in company, others will often blufli in his behalf. However, the ferious paflions may furely be fo under the controul of reafon as to refill infeftion, whatever may be the cafe of tempo¬ rary, mufcular, or nervous attraftion. 2. Our author is inclined to think, that a conneftion between the affeftions and fenfatiens of the female mind and uterus is very materially concerned in the procefs of generation, and probably can alone give efficacy to thofe aftions and imprefiions fubfervient to conception, through the fympathizing affeftions of the mind. One of the firft medical philofophers of the prefent time, he obferves, is of opinion that the mother has always the powers and principles of falhioning her child within herfelf, but that they are not rouzed to aftion with¬ out the llimulating influence of the male. The prin¬ ciples that muft be immediately concerned are the fen- tient and living; but it is through the influence of the mental principle that the form and image of the em¬ bryo is flamped. With refpeft to the depravity and force of the ima¬ gination in theproduftion of fympathies, they always operate moll upon “ weak minds and fpirits, and therefore moft on women, fuperllitious and fearful perfons, Tick people, children, and young creatures.’* “ Their effefts, however, fometimes fail to appear, becaufe they are encountered and overcome by the mind and fpirit before they work any manifeft ef¬ fefts.” Such effefts are obviated upon the fame principle which eftablifhes the prevention of bodily difeafe: “ for in infeftion and contagion from body to body (as, for example, during the plague), the miafma may be received ; but from the ftrength and gooddif# pofition of the body, it is expelled and wrought out before it has had fufficient time to form the dileafe.” It has been faid, and many are of the opinion, that the force of imagination doth often forward the end propofed. Thus, for inftance, it has been put as a queition, “ Whether a man, when he conftantly and itrongly believes that fuch a thing lhall be (as tliat fuch a one will love him, and the like), helps any thing to the effefting the thing defired ?” Certainly not in the manner which has been advanced, namely, “ by a fecret operation qn the fpirit of another.” If he lucceeds, it is either becaufe he perfevered, or be¬ caufe his perfeverance and earneftnefa (and not any occult operation) makes him at length he attended to. There is not a doubt but the force of imagination often gives energy to our aftions. It may, however,, unlefs we are much on our guard, eafily delude us afide from reafon. It has been the tree which has yielded the fruits of fuperftition in former times, and which has often fed the human mind with the moft extravagant notions of fympathy. Sympathies of this kind, fuch as the power of charms, and the like, are now sy / S Y M [ 8507 ] S Y M mpathy. now pretty generally exploded. . _ thy took place through the brain ; that the extre- Symphony 3. The five principal fenfes, hearing, tajling,fmtU- mities of the nerves conveying a difagreea.ble or pain- II-. ing, feeling, feeing, are confcious of a fympathe- ful fenfation to the medullary part of the brain, affedted tic impreffion frorh odious objedts. “ 1. A difagree- fome part of its fibres adjacent to or connect d with the —I— able found will fet the teeth on edge, and make all the origin of the nerves diftributed to fome other parts of body (hiver. 2. The fwallowing of a naufeous medi- the body 5 whence the latter become alfo affe&ed, and cine will be attended with a (baking of the head and of confequence that part of the body to w&ich they neck. 3. Difagreeable fmdls produce nearly the fame are diftributed. In a late treatife f, however, Dr effeft, which are l^fs perceived, becaufe there is a re- Kirkland has endeavoured to explode this theory, and medy at hand by flopping the nofe. 4. If you come to eftablifh another. He denies that either the me- f Inquiry fuddenly out of the fun into the fhade, the fenfe of dullary part of the brain or of the nerves confifts, zzimo the pre-. feeling is "difturbed by a chillnefs or (hivering of the has been commonly fuppofed, of fibres. No °l whole body. 5. And even fudden darknefs produces he fays, ever faw the extremity of any n;rve ; nor a propenfity to (hivering. are any fibres, diftintt from blood-veffsls, to be feeu ^ fbU, There is a very apparent reafon why a fympathy even by a folar microfcopc in the medullary fubftance fhould take place between the eyes. Hence their mo- of the brain or infide of a nerve. He afferts, that the tions are fynchronous. It may be faid, that cuftom medulla of the brain is a mere mucus, which totally, and habit difpofe the eyes to move one and the fame or almoft totally, evaporates with the heat of boiling way ; “ for when one eye moveth towards the nofe, water, or even in the heat of the common atroofphere the other eye moveth from the nofe.” in the (hade ; that this mucus is continued through Though the eyes are by nature prone to move in the nerves, and by them fpread out on the mufcles, concert, cuftom will, however, deftroy this natural where it appears in its proper form, namely that of a confent, and produce the contrary. Thus fome people fine tranfparent mucus. This he proves from obfer- can fquint when they will. Our author therefore ving, that though a mufcle may be irritated, either gives this caution to mothers and nurfes : “ Let them by pricking it or the nerve above it, yet if the mucus not fuffer infants to fit with a candle placed behind which lies on the furface be previoufiy wiped off, no them ; for both their eyes will difpofe to move out- fuch irritation will take place. The nerves then, ac- wards, as affebting to fee the light of the candle, which cording to our author, are only defigned to convey may bring on the habit of fquinting.” this mucus to every part of the body, that, as the brain It appears as a quality in the fenfes of hearing and is the fountain of life, every part may (hare in the feeing, “ that the inftrument of each feparate fenfe common life of the whole. Hence he is of opinion, has a fympathy and fimilitude to that which giveth that the nervous fympathy does not a- to ^ave ^gen governed by kings: but if this was the jnarc ica. monarchical government mull have conti¬ nued only for a very fiiort time; fince Ariftotle, Dio¬ dorus Siculus, and Juftin, mention it as being very Soon be- early fubjeft to a democracy. The hiftory, however, comes de- is pbfeure and unimportant till the time of Gdon, jmocratical. wjien ;t began to make a confpicuous figure. 4 Gdon was born in the city of Gela in Sicily, of Gelon feizes tbe family of Tdines, who had been created prieft of lhe the infernal gods. Pie fignalized himfdf in a war car- jlovereignty ^ on by Hippocrates tyrant Gela aga;nft the Syracufians, whom he defeated in a pitched battle, and had well nigh taken their city afterwards.. Ha¬ ving thus become very powerful among his country¬ men, he foon found means to feize on the fovereignty for himfdf. In a fhort time, having put himfdf at the head of fome Syracufian exiles, he marched to¬ wards that place, where he was received with loud acclamations by the faflion to which they beiongedtj and by their means obtained poffcffion of the city, Gelon, in order to people the capital of his new do- s minions, firft demolifhed the neighbouring city of Ca- Takes feve-marina, and tranfplanted the inhabitants to Syracufe.' gal cnies, Soon after, entering into a war with the Megareans, Khe inhulii-5 defeated them, took and rafed their cities, and Ltants to Sy-in like manner tranfplanted the people. Syracufe •tracufe. thus became very powerful, and full of inhabitants; and the friendfhip of Gdon was courted both by Athens and Lacedaemon at the time of the Pei fian in- vafion. His affiftance, however,, was afterwards re- jt&ed, as he infifted upon being made commander in chief, or at leaft of either the fleet or the land-army. In the mean time theCarthaginians had enteredintoa treaty with the Perfians ; by which it was agreed, that the former fliould attack thofe of the Greek name in Si¬ cily and Italy, in order to. divert them from affifting one another. Sicily was accordingly invaded by the Syracufe. Carthaginians with a vaft army ; but they were utterly overthrown by Gdon, as is related under the art*c^e Carthage, n° 7—9. After this vi&ory, the peopleCarthagi'. * out of gratitude obliged him to take upon himfdf thenians, and title of king ; which til! that time he had refufed. A^kes the decree alfo pafled without oppofition, by which the!\tieof crown was fettled on his two brothers Hiero and in^' Thrafybulus after his death. 7 The new king, inftead of keeping his fubjefts inHisexcel- greater awe, ftudied the more to make them happylcilt reiS"*' as he found his power increafed ; and, according to Diodorus Siculus, was the firft man who became more virtuous by being raifed to a throne. He was parti¬ cularly famous for his honefty, truth, and fincerity ; is faid never to have wronged the meaneft of his fub- jefts, nor ever to have promifed a thing which he did not perform. g Gdon died in the year 471 B. C. after havingGelon dies, reigned three or four years ; and wasfucceeded by his and is fuo brother Hiero, whofe charafter is differently related ^fdred by by different hiftorians. He was twice engaged in a ier°’ war with the Agrigentines, and drove from their ha¬ bitations the people of Catana and Naxus, fettling in their room a colony of Syracufians and Pdoponne- fians. He is highly celebrated in the odes of Pindar ; and it is certain that his court was the refort of men of wit and learning, to whom he behaved in the molt courteous manner and with the greateft liberality. p In 459 B. C. Hiero was fuceeeded by Thrafybu-Thratybu- lus ; who proving a tyrant, was in ten months driven lus> aty- out, and a popular government reftored ; which con-rant‘ tinued for the fpace of 55 years. However, feveral to perfons continued for fome time to afpire at the fove-Popular reign power ; and to rid themfelves of thefe afpiring g°vem- geniufes, the inhabitants made a law not unlike thatment refl°* of the oftracifm at Athens. By this law they wererc ’ to write on a leaf the names of thofe whom they fup¬ pofed to be powerful enough to afpire at the crown ; and when the leaves were counted, he . who had the ,, moft fuffrages againft him was, without further in-Petalifra in¬ quiry, banifhed for five years. This method of weak-'reduced, ening the interefts of the overgrown citizens was called but foon petaHfm, from the Greek word a-sraxov, fignifying a [^j0" leaf; but being found to be produ&ive of great incon¬ veniences, by driving out of the country all thofe who were moft capable of governing the commonwealth, the law was repealed foon after it had been enafted. it About this-time the Syracufians entered into a war The Siculr with the Siculi, which terminated in the total fubjec-fubdued- tionofthelatter; after which Syracufe becamefo power¬ ful, that it in a manner gave law to the whole ifland. The Greek cities indeed enjoyed a perfedl liberty ; 13 but they all acknowledged Syracufe as their metro* polis: by degrees, however, the latter began to affume iuch an authority over them as was totally inconfiftent * with liberty; and this occafioned many wars, which in¬ volved them in much diftrefs and danger. They be¬ gan with the Leontines, whofe territory they laid vvafte, and reduced their city to great ftraits. Le- ontini was an Athenian colony ; and this furnifhed the Athenians, who had already meditated the con- queft of Sicily, with a pretence to attack the Syra- Invaded byr cufians with their whole force. Under colour oftheAlhf‘, affifting their countrymen, therefore, they Cent a fleet ouTfucccft SYR [ 8510 ] SYR Syracufe. 0f 2$0 fail to Sicily : but the Leontines, fenfible that — ^their pretended allies aimed at nothing lefs than the conqueft of the whole ifland, concluded a peace with Syracufej and the difappointed Athenians vented their rage upon thofe who had adidfed and conduced the ij expedition. A new in- In 416 B. C. a difpute happening between the vafion. inhabitants of Egefta and Selinus concerning fome lands which the latter had feized, the Egeftines ap¬ plied for affiftance to Agrigentum, Syracufe, and even to Carthage. But as none of thefe dates chofe to intereit themfeves in their quarrel, they applied at lad to the Athenians, who joyfully accepted of the opportunity of again interfering in the affairs of Sicily. Though the Egeltines were but an inconfi- derable people, they had engaged to pay all the troops that fliouM be employed in the war; but this ap¬ pearing doubtful to the Athenians, they fent ambaf- fadors to inquire into the date of the ifland in general, ■Athenians ant^ particularly that of Egefta. The Egeftines im- impofed on ppfed on thefe ambaffadors by producing a great by the Ege- number of gold and filver veffels which they had bor- itines. rowed for the purpofe; fo that the populace of Athens, dreaming of nothing but conquefts to be made with¬ out any expence, became obftinately bent on the war. Nicias, a man of great influence at Athens, at¬ tempted to fhow, that as Athens was then engaged in a dangerous war with Sparta, it was impollible to fpare a force fufficient to reduce the ifland ; but the contrary opinion being efpoufed by Alcibiades, at that time the moft eloquent fpeaker in Athens, Nicias was over-ruled, and obliged to engage in the expedi- T7 tion. The force he required was only 5000 land- Ill-ground- forces and too galleys, with which, however inade- -e l confi- quate to the purpofe it may feem, the Athenians were theCAthe ^ure0^ fneerfs, that the officers, before they fet fail, nians. a conference with the fenate concerning the dif- pofal of the Sicilians. In this conference it was agreed, that the Selinuntines and Syracufians their fup- pofed allies fhould be carried off and fold for flaves, and the reft obliged to pay an annual tribute and live according to the Athenian laws. With thefe fanguine expe&ations the Athenian forces embarked to the number of 7000; for fuch was their eagernefs for the expedition, that 2000 more enlifted themfelves than Nicias had required. They flrft failed to the ifland of Egina, and from thence to Corcyra, whe^e they had appointed the place of ren¬ dezvous for their allies and the tranfports. On their ■ arriva1* they fet fail again, and landed on the coaft of Italy, with a view to engage fome of the Italian cities in their quarrel; but finding this impoflible, they fent fome (hips to cruife off the coaft of Sicily, in order to find out a proper place for landing, and at the fame ig time to know what treafure the the Egeftines could -pind’out contribute towards carrying on the war, which had the deceit been undertaken for their fake. Thefe, on their of the Ege-return, acquainted the generals, that the Egeftines ihnes. jiaj imp0fecj on them, and were a poor indigent peo¬ ple, who had only 30 talents in their treafury. On this information a council of war was called, in which Nicias gave it as his opinion that they fhould fail to Selinus, which had been the firft occafion of this ex¬ pedition ; and then, if the Egeftines performed their promife, and fupplied the army with a month’s pay, to oblige the Selinuntines and Egeftines to come to Syracnfe. an agreement, and then return to Athens without 1 engaging in fuch an expenfive war. Alcibiades, how¬ ever, again oppofed Nicias ; thinking* it highly dif- honourable to return home without doing any thing, after having been at the expence in fitting out an armament. He therefore urged, that they ffiould folicit the cities of Sicily to enter into a confederccy againlt the Syracufians and Selinuntines ; and, in cafe they found them difpofed to come into their meafures, to attack either Syraeufe or Selinus. Another of the Athenian generals was for laying fiege immediately to iP Syracufe; but the opinion of Alcibiades prevailing, Reduce fe»! they fet fail for Sicily. Having accordingly landedveralplaces* in the ifland, they reduced feveral places; but Alci¬ biades in the mean time being recalled, Nicias and Lamachus were left to conduA the war as they beft l could. At firft they were fuccefsful, pofieffing them- 10 I felves of a ftrong port, and put the Syracufians to flight; foon after which they recived confiderable fup- and poffefs plies both of men, money, and provifions, from Athens, themfelvesj as well as from their Sicilian allies. The Syracufians of a ftrong! alfo received afliftance from the Lacedaemonians under po^' the command of an experienced officer named Gylippus*. Before thefe arrived, however, the Athenians had poffeffed themfelves of an important poll named Epi- pol<£, which being a very fteep hill, flood without the city and commanded it. Immediately after this the city was invefted in form. The inhabitants made frequent ZT. . and vigorous fallies; but were always repulfed with in' lofs. In one of thefe fallies Lamachus was (lain ; ’ \ and thus Nicias became foie commander. He then caufed the canals to be cut by which water was conveyed into the city ; upon which the Syracufians i* began to think of capitulating. From this, however, Gylippus 1 they were foon prevented by the arrival of Gylip-am^eg'VIt‘1 pus with the Spartan auxiliaries. On this they pte-t°™set0Pt^ pared for making vigorous fallies, in order to facilitate relief of SyJ the entrance of Gylippus. While they were making racufe. j thefe preparations, Gylippus himfelf appeared at the head of 3000 foot and 200 horfe. Making dire&ly for Epipolae, where Nicias had fortified himfelf in a caftle named Labdctlon, he drew up his fmall army under the walls; and fent an herald to Nicias, letting him know that he would allow him only five days to leave Sicily. To this meffage Nicias returned no an- 13 '! fwer; but Gylippus foon after attacked the fort, Takes a carried it by ftorm, and put to tht fword all the Athenians that were in it. This opened him e way into the city, where he was received with loud I acclamations. The fortune of the war was now foon changed. The Athenians gained an advantage by land, but were next day defeated with confiderable lofs. The Syracufians received frtfti fupplies from Corinth, and the Athenians from their own country. Many en¬ gagements both by fea and land took place, in which the fuccefs was ultimately in favour of the Syracufians. At laft the Athenian affairs were totally ruined by the lofs of a fea-figbt, in which 60 of their (hips were taken or deftroyed, and the reft left quite unferviceable. In this defperate fituation it was determined to abandon ^ 24 their (hips, and retire that very night to the city of At^niaH their confederates. The Syracufian commander, fuf- fe;ite/at ' peding that this would be the cafe, ordered all his fea. forces SYR [85] Syracufe. forces to be in readinefs to prevent them from effe&ing i their purpofe. But as the people were then in the height of their rejoicing for the late viftory, they rc- l; aj fufed to take up arms again until they had reded for ( Outwitted fome days. On this Hermocrates the general fent Ecufiarf^" t0 l'ie -^l^enian camp fome hcrfemen, who were to fcenerah Pa^s ^or ^r'encls> and advife Nicias to quit his camp, which was well fortified, fince the Syracufians lay in ambudi for him, and had feized on all the pafles lead¬ ing to the cities of their allies. To this falfe advice Nicias gave too eafy credit, and did not march out till the third day, when his antagoift Hermocrates I l6 had prevailed upon his forces to march out. The l Haraflid in Athenians and their allies alfo marched out to the 1 jjtheir re- number of no lefs than 40,000; but finding themfelves 1 {hut up on all fides, and being obliged to fight their way through every outlet, they Toon funk into the deeped I defpair. Nicias did his utmoft to encourage them ; and at lad fucceeded fo far that they marched out in two \ j| bodies, both drawn up in proper order. The vanguard 1: Part of the led by Nicias continued to keep together, and advanced army fur- in good order; but half the rear, commanded by t lenders. Demodhenes, lod their way in the night, and were y obliged to furrender. Nicias being informed of this misfortune, offered to pay the whole expence of the war, provided he was allowed to-march off with his men. I Dut this beinS he fet out, though galled all [The reft the way byfhowers of darts from his enemies. Arriving fdcfcaied at a river called Afmarus, they rufhed into it without jlwith great any order; in which confufion the Syracufian cavalry flaughter. attacked them fo defperately, that iS,ooo perifhedj and the river for many miles was dyed with their blood. On this occafion the Athenians were fo preffed with third, that, unmindful of their danger, they drank the waters of the river all bloody as they were, which gave their enemies the better opportunity of {laughtering them without refidance. The remain¬ der furrendercd, on the fingle condition of having their f.. lives faved ; but the terms were (hamefully broke by 1 The re- the Syracufians. The generals were fird ignomini- ! Fa’nd«r dully whipt, and then put to death : the common j |J)^€areer’ f°^'ers were thruft down into quarries, where they were 1 Icrueilyufed.a^owe^ on'y two fraall meafures of flour and one of water a day ; and where, being crowded upon one another, they fuffered inexprefllble miferies for many months. Mod of them perifhed by this cruel treat- 1 30 ment, and the few who furvived were fold for (laves. : New inva- The war was fcarce ended, when a new and for- I flon by^the midable invafion by the Carthaginians took place; Biaiis.381" but tbe event tbat expedition was as unfortunate to the Carthaginians as the. former had been, of which a particular account is given under the article Car- i thage, n° 12. et feq. In the mean lime, however, a confiderable revolu- ;f tion had happened in Syracufe. The city of Agri gentum had Been taken by the Carthaginians, and of the few inhabitants who efcaped, fome fled to 1 Syracufe, where they accufed the Syracufian com- > Rife of manders of having betrayed the city into the hands of iDionyfuis. the enemy. Dionyfius, a man of great valour and addrefs, but who had become very obnoxious to the populace, took this opportunity of attempting to retrieve his credit. He therefore fupported the ac- cufations. brought againd his countrymen by the Agrigentines, and even impeached the magiftvates as. 1 ] SYR having a fecret intelligence with the enemy, and at- Syracufc: tempting to introduce an oligarchy. As bis fpeech * was entirely levelled againd the more wealthy citizens, it was very agreeable to the lower clafs: the com¬ manders were inflantly degraded ; and others, among whom was Dionyfius, were appointed. Having once gained this point, he began to confidcr how he might get all his colleagues turned out. For this purpofe he never joined in any council of war with the other commanders, nor imparted to them his refolutions, giving out that he could not trud them, and that they had more regard for their own intereft than the welfare of their country. But while he was proceed¬ ing in this manner, the more prudent part of the citizens, fperceiving what he aimed at, complained of him to the fenate and magidrates, and fined him as a didurber of the public peace. According to the laws, the fine was to be paid before he could fpeak in public, and the circumdances of Dionyfius did not allow him to difeharge it. In this dilemma he was afllfted by Philiftus the hifiorian, a man of great wealth, who not only paid this fine for him, but en¬ couraged him to fpeak his mind freely, as it became a zealous citizen to do, promifing to pay all the fines that fliould be laid upon him. Being extricated out of this difficulty, Dionyfnis next proceeded to inveigh, with all the eloquence he was mader of, againft thofe who by means of their power or intered were able to oppofe his defigns, and by degrees brought them into diferedit. His next fcheme was to get thofe exiles recalled whom the nobility had banifhed at different times ; as thinking that they would fupport him wit'* all their power, as well out of gratitude as out of hatred to the oppofue party. Having gained this point alfo, he next found means to ingratiate himfelf with the foldiery to fuch a degree, that, under pretence of taking proper mea¬ fures for refiding the Carthaginians, he was chofen commander in chief, with abfolute and unlimited Is chofen. power. This was no fooner done, than, pretending generaltf-' that his life was in danger, he chofe o*ut 1000 menlimo' for his guard, whom he attached To his intereft by great promifes. As no per/pnf'durd now oppofe him, he poffeffed bimTelf of the citadel, where all the arms and provifions were kept; after which he pu- 33 blicly took the title of king of Syracufe in the year®enC°o“ 404 B. C. Syracuft*. The Syracufians did not tamely fubmit to their new mailer : but Dionyfius managed matters fo well, that their frequent revolts anfwered no other pur¬ pofe than more certainly to entail flavery on' them¬ felves; and he was allowed to poffefs the throne with¬ out much oppofition till his death, which hapoened in the year 366 B. C. . ' On the death of Dionyfius, he was fucceeded by hisDionyfics fon, called alfo Dionyfius. He was naturally of a mild and peaceable temper, averfe from cruelty, and inclined to learning ; but his father, to whom all merit, even in his own children, gave umbrage, ftifled as far as pofiible his good qualities, by a mean andobfcureeduca- tion. He no fooner afeended the throne, than Dion, bro¬ ther to Ariilomache the other wife/of Dionyfius the elder, undertook to corredt the. faults of his education, and to infpire him with thoughts fuitable to the high ftatioa in which he was placed. For this purpofe he fent. SYR [ 8512 ] SYR Syrfcufe. fentfor. the philofopher Plato, under wliofe care he immediately put the young king. This inftantly pro- Put under ^uce^ a reformati°n on Dionyfius ; but the courtiers, the care of dreading the effe&s of the philofopher’s inftruftions, Plato by prevailed on him to banifh Dion, and to keep Plato his uncle himfelf in a kind of imprifonment in the citadel. At ul'om he ^owever» fet ^i111 at liberty; upon which Plato baniflies. returned to his own country. Dion, in the mean time, vifitcd feveral of the Gre¬ cian cities, and at laft took up his refidence in Athens; but the honours which were every where paid him, raifed fuch jealoufies in the bread; of the tyrant, that he flopped his revenue, and caufed it to be paid into his own treafury. In a fhort time, Dionyfius again fent for Plato ; but finding it impofTible todiflblve the friendfhip between him and Dion, difgraced, and Ufes Plato placed him in a very dangerous fituation, in the midft ill, and of aflaflins who hated him. Not daring, however, to provokes offer him any violence, he allowed him foon after to vJ^gg10 rC’depart ; revenging himfelf on Dion, whole eftate he fold, and gave his wife Arete in marriage to Timo- crates one of his own flatterers. Dion now refolved to revenge fcimfelf on the tyrant for the many injuries he had fuflained, and at once to deliver his country from the opprtffion under which it ^ groaned. He began with railing foreign troops pri- D'.on raifes vately, by proper agents, for the better execution of ;troops for bis defign. Many Syracufians of diftin&ion entered dethroning jnto fchemej and gave him intelligence of what t e tyrant. pa{pe{j ;n the city : but of the exiles, of whom there were upwards of 1000 difperfed up and down Greece, only 25 joined him ; fo much were they awed by the i3* of the tyrant. The troops were aflembled at ■very (lendert*16 1'^an^ Zacynthus, in number only about 800; at gift. but who had all been tried on many occafions, were well difeiplined, and capable of animating by their example the forces which Dion hoped to find in Sicily. When they were about tofetfail, Dion acquainted them with his defigp, the boldnefs of which at firft occafioned no fmall conllernation among them ; but Dion foon re¬ moved their fea^s, by telling them that he did not lead them as foldiers, but as officers, to put them at the head of the Syracufians and all the people of Sicily, who were ready to receive them with open arms. Having then embarked in two fmall trading veflels, they arrived in 12 days at Cape Pachynum near Syra- 'Is in »reat cufe. Their pilot advifed them to land immediately, .danger. lefl they fhould be overtaken by a violent ftorm, which he perceived was approaching ; but Dion, judging it improper to land fo near the enemy, commanded him to put to fea again and double the Cape.—This was no (ooner done than the florin came on ; and the two veflels were driven on the coaft of Afric, where they were in great danger of being loft. At laft they ar¬ rived at the port of Minoa, not far from Agrigentum. Here they received intelligence that Dionyfius had fet fail for Italy, attended by a fleet of 80 galleys. On this Dion refolved to take advantage of the tyrant’s abfence ; and immediately fet fail for Syracufe. On his march he prevailed upon the inhabitants of Agri¬ gentum, Gela, Camarina, and other cities, to join 40 him. As foon as he entered the territories of Syra- EnteisSy- cufe> multitudes flocked to him ; and as nobody ap- racufe with-peared to 0pp0fe him, he boldly entered the city, fition.PP°* w^ere TJ'ckly found himfelf at the head of 50;ooo men. As foon as he had landed in Sicily, Timocrates, Syracufe. i to whom his wife Arete had been given by Dionyfius, ■ and to whom the care of the city had been left, dif- patched a courier to let the tyrant know the danger in which he was. The meflenger, when almoft at his journey’s end, found himfelf fo much opprefled by fa¬ tigue, that he could not help lying down on the ground to take fonre refl. In the mean time, a wolf/ fmeli- ing fome meat which he had in his wallet, came to the place, and carried off the bag in which was the meat, together with the difpatches. By this means Dionyfius was prevented from receiving a timely ac¬ count of Dion’s arrival; fo that when he entered the citadel by fea, feven days after Dion’s arrival, he found his affairs in a defperate fituation Upon this he 4T had recourfe to artifice ; and having amufed the Syra- Dionyfius ’ cufians by a feigned negociation, until he obferved ?rriv<:s’hut that they kept a negligent guard, he attacked them.^J^*^ , all at once with fuch fury, that he had almoft taken the city. But Dion encouraged the foldiers by his example fo much, that he at laft obtained a com¬ plete vi&ory ; for which they prefented him with a crown of gold. ^ j It was not long, however, before the ungrateful Ingratitude i Syracufians began to think of conferring quite differentof Sy- j rewards on their benefatftor. Dionyfius had the ad- •'^ufiaiis to \ drefs to render him fufpefted by the multitude; at the 10n' fame time that Heraclides, an excellent officer, but a fecret enemy to Dion, did all that lay in his power to fink his credit. In a fliort time Dionyfius was obliged to fly into Italy : after which Heraclides, in order to ingratiate himfelf with the populace, propoftd a new divifion of lands ; inlimtating, that they could never enjoy perfeft liberty as long as there was fo much in¬ equality in wealth and power among the citizens. This fclteme was oppofed by Dion, in confequence of which a general combination was formed againft him ; and he was deferted by all, excepting the foreign troops whom he had brought with him into the ifland. The Syracufians folicited even thefe to abandon the 4j caufe of their general: but their offers were rejedted He is obli- with difdain ; and Dion, with his faithful adherents, leave getting clear of the tumultuous and riotous populace,1 e Clty* took the road to Leontini. The rabble purfued him, but were foon driven back ; and Dion refided .for fome time at Leontini, where he was received with all the refpeft due to his cbara&er. In the mean time the citadel ftill continued in the hands of the adherents of Dionyfius. Being blocked up on all fides, they were reduced to great ftraits, and were aftually making propofals of capitulation, when ‘ Nypfius, an experienced general, and greatly attached A new ad* to Dionyfius, appeared with a numerous fquadron ofva.ntage galleys, and a large fleet of tranfports laden with pro- vilions. The general landed his men, and got themflans. into the citadel ; but almoft all his galleys and fhips laden with corn were funk or taken. This vitftory proved the ruin of the Syracufians ; for, giving them- felvcs up to feafting and debauchery, the enemy Tallied out in the night-time from the citadel, and maffacred The inha- the citizens without mercy. Being thus made fenfible bltantsmaf' 1 of the error they had committed, an embaffy was fent [^/'arrifo to Dion, intreating him to return and fave the city a0ft^ec:. ' fecond time. To this he agreed without hrfitation, tadel. and inftantly fet out on his march ; but in the mean time, SYR r S513 ] SYR Syracufe. time, as the foldiers of Dionyfius, fatiated with flaugh- ! ter, had retired into their fortrefs, the ungrateful Sy- racufians began to repent of their having fent an em- bafiy to Dion. The chief commanders, therefore, fent mefiengers to flop his march ; but as fome of his friends fent deputies to him at the fame time, defiring him to pay no regard to the former meffage, he pro¬ ceeded on his journey. The infatuated multitude feized the gates in order to difpute his entrance ; but 4(5 they paid dear for their frenzy. The Dionyfians again A fecond fallied out upon them, and made fuch {laughter that maflacre, one would have thotight they had left none alive in and thereby the city. As the troops of the tyrant well knew that et on re. pjQn was haftening to the relief of the city, they ufed their utmoft endeavours to deftroy it entirely before his arrival ; for, after they had murdered all the inha¬ bitants they could find, they fet fire to the houfes, by which great numbers perifhed. During this confufion Dion unexpectedly arrived ; and having brifkly at- 47 tacked the enemy, at lad defeated them with great TheDiony-flaughter, driving the remainder into the citadel. Du- fians defeat ring the reft of the night, inftead of refrelhing them¬ ed with felves after their fatigues, they alfifted in extinguifhing daughter jtta ^re ’ which was not done without great danger Dion. X and difficulty. The citadel foon after furrendered ; and Dion allowed Apollocrates the tyrant’s Ton, who commanded there, to retire with five galleys to his father. As foon as Dion entered the citadel, he was met by his fiftcr and wife Arete, whom he received with affe&ion, notwithftanding her having lived fo long with Timocrates. He then left the Syracufians in poflelfion of the citadel, rewarded his followers, dif- mifled his guards, and continued to live like a private citizen. As foon as Dion had got pofTeffion of the city, He- raclides had fubmitted to him, and been received into favour ; but as bis feditious and turbulent behaviour ftill continued, Dion at laft gave orders to put him to death. This aftion, however neceflary, fo affefted^he 43 mind of Dion, that he became melancholy ; and ever comes me- a^ter *mag'nc^ himfelf haunted by a frightful fpe&re, iancholy, refembling a woman of gigantic ftature, with the hag- andis mur-gard looks and air of a fury. In a {hort time after, he •dered. ]0ft jj|s iife> through the bafe treachery of Calippus, or Gylippus, who pretended to be his intimate friend, and who'immediately after caufed his wife and After to be carried to prifon. Galippus having thus removed Dion, foon made him¬ felf matter of Syracufe, where he committed all man¬ ner of cruelties ; but was driven out, and forced to fly 49 to Rhegium, where he was murdered with the fame Dionyfms dagger which had killed Dion. In 350 B. C. Dio- re ore ‘ nyfius again made himfelf mailer of Syracufe ; and being exafperated by his paft misfortunes, tyrannized worfe than ever. The Syracufians firft had recourfe to Icetas tyrant of Leontini; but as the Carthaginians took this opportunity to invade them with a powerful fleet and army, they were obliged to apply to the Co¬ rinthians. By them Timoleon, a celebrated commander, was fent to the affiftance of the Syracufians, whom he SurrtSn0derS found in a very diftreffed fitnation ; Icetas being ma- toTimo- fter of the city, the Carthaginians of the harbour, and Icon, and Dianyfius of the citadel. As all parties were equally fchool at t^ic cnein'e3 Dionyfius, he found it impoffible to Corinth out, and therefore furremkreel himfelf to Tuno- ' .. Vol.X. Icon, by whom he was fent to Corinth j where at laft Syracufe.. he was reduced to the neceffity of teaching a fchool r_* for his fupport. After the expulfion of the tyrant, Timoleon with¬ drew to Catana, leaving only 400 Corinthians, under the command of an experienced officer named Zccw, to guard the citadel. Thefe were immediately befieged by Icetas and the Carthaginians, but Timoleon found means to relieve them in fpite of all oppofition ; and having difperfed emiflaries through the army of Mago SI the Carthaginian general, exhorting the mercenary Cowardice Greeks to forfake him, he was fo much intimidated, thatof the Car- in fpite of all the remonftrances Icetas could make/hagmianS. he fet fail for Africa, leaving his colleague to carry on the war in the beft manner he could. The day after the departure of Mago, Timoleon aflaulted the city fo brifkly, that the troops of Icetas were driven from the walls, and the Corinthians be¬ came matters of the place. Timoleon, by found of trumpet, invited the inhabitants to come and aflift in Citadel of demoliftiing the citadel and other cattles, which hes^acu.fe called the tiefts t>f tyrants; after which he caufed edi- for,s°dema. fices to be erefted in the place where the citadel had lifted by- flood, for the adminiftration of juftice. • He found theTimoleoa. city in a moft miferable fituation : for many having' perilhed in the wars and feditions, and others having fled to avoid the oppreflion of tyrants, Syracufe, once fo wealthy and populous, was now become almoft a defert; infomuch that the horfes were fed on the grafs He rt- which grew on the market-place. Timoleon fuppliedpeoples the the city with inhabitants from Corinth and other ci-city* ties of Greece, at the fame time that great multitudes from Italy and the other parts of Sicily reforted thi¬ ther. Timoleon diftributed the lands among them gratis; but fold the houfes, and with the money ari¬ sing from the fale eftablifhed a fund for the fupport of the poor. Having thus reftored Syracufe, he in like manner delivered all the Greek cities of Sicily from the tyrants who had taken pofllffion of them, all of whom he put to death. After thkMfc refigned his authority, and led a retired life, honourea in the higheft ^ degree by the Syracufians, and by all the cities in Dies, and Sicily. After his death he was honoured as a god ; is honoured the expence of his funeral was defrayed by the public;as a S0<*' fports, with horfe-races and gymnaftic exercifes, were held annually on the day of his death; and it was de¬ creed, that whenever the Syracufians were at war with the barbarians, they ftiould fend to Corinth for a general. For 20 years the Syracufians enjoyed the fruits of 5S Timoleon’s vi&ories ; but new difturbances arifing, in s>'r.ae“(® a fhort time another tyrant ftarted up, who exceeded ^ all that had gone before him in cruelty and other vices, power of This was the celebrated Agatbocles, of whofe exploits tyrants, againft the Carthaginians a full-account is given under the article Carthage, n°33—53. He was poifoned by one Moenon in the year 289 B. C. after having reigned 28 years and lived 95. A fuccefiion of tyrants fol¬ lowed, till-at laft the city, being held by two rivals, Toenion and Sofiitratus, who made war within the”very walls, Pyrrhus king of Epirus was invited .into Sicily, pyrriU], in order to put an end to thefe diftraftiops. He will-king of ingly complied with the invitation; and was every-EP'rus lil' where received with loud acclamations, as the deliverer gl1^.1”10 not only of Syracufe, but of all Sicily. As he had a" ' * 4! R fine SYR [ 8514 ] SYR Syncufe. fine army of 30,000,foot and 5000 horfe, with a fleet — oj, 20Q jje drove the Carthaginians from place to s 7 place, till he left them only the two ftrong pods of Conquers a]VryX an(j Lilybaeum. The former of thefe he took ofthePart by affault, and was himfelf the firll man who mounted ifland. the walls, after having killed a great number of Afri¬ cans with his own hand. Tne Mamertines likewife, who had conquered a confiderable part of the ifland, were everywhere defeated and driven out, till at lad they were (hut up in the city of Meflana. The Car¬ thaginians, alarmed at the rapidity of his cpnqueds, fent ambafladors with propofals of peace upon very advantageous terms; but Pyrrhus, puffed up with the expeftation of reducing the whole ifland, refufed to hearken to any terms unlefs they would indantly aban¬ don it. So firm was he in the belief of this, that he 58 caufed his fon take upon him the title of king of Si- ®®'iave*111 cil/j but in the mean time, having difpleafed the Sici- nftnnfr ^ bans by his arbitrary behaviour, they deferted from and is obli-him in fuch numbers that he was glad to fet out for ged to re- Italy, for which retreat the embaflies he received from aim into Samnites, Tarentines, and other Italians, furnilhed ^him with an honourable pretext. He embarked in the fliips which he had brought with him from Italy ; but was met at fea by the Carthaginians, who funk 70 of his veflels, and difperfed or took the red ; fo that he faved himfelf in Italy only with 12 veflels, the poor remains of a fleet of 200 fail. No fooner were the S7 Mamertines apprifed of his departure, than they dif- Harnded by patched a body of 18,00,0 men to harrafs him after merdnts b's landing. Thefe, having pafled the dreights before him, poded themfelves in the road which Pyrrhus mud take in marching by land to Tarentum; and con¬ cealing tbemfelves among woods and rocks, attacked him unexpectedly, and with great refolution. But Pyrrhus behaved on thisoccafion with his ufual bravery. The attack being made on his rear, he hadened thither, and made a dreadful (laughter of the enemy, till a wound on his head obliged him to retire. As he was fuppofed to be difableflKy this wound, a proud Mamertine, of an extraordinary fize, and fhining in bright armour, advanced, and with a loud voice challenged the king of Epirus, if he was yet alive, to a Angle combat. Pyrrhus immediately turned about, and making a Aflohifh dreadfnl appearance by reafon of the blood which ran ing exploit d°wn his face, flew at this new champion, on whofe ofl’yrrhus. head he difcharged fuch a furious blow, that he cleft his body afunder ; one half falling to the right, and the other to the left. This incredible feat, which has fince been afcribed to other warriors, perhaps with as much truth as to Pyrrhus, fo much intimidated the Mamertines, that they allowed the Epirots to continue their march unmolefted. Il'fro cho- After the departure of Pyrrhus, Hiero the fon of fen general Hierocles, a defeendant of Gelon the firft king of Sy- of the Sy- racufe, was chofgn general of the forces, along with racufian another named The two generals had forces. nothing more at heart than to put an end to the con- fufion and diforder which reigned in the city ; for - which reafon they entered it at the head of their for¬ ces. On this occafion Hiero difeovered extraordinary talents for government. By mere dint of infinuation and addrefs, without fhedding blood or hurting a Angle citizen, he calmed the minds of the people ; reconciled the fadionsj and fo gained the affections of all, that he was Invefted with the whole civil as well as Syraetife* j military power in the date. Soon after this, he mar¬ ried the daughter of one of the Arft: citizens; and ha- 6z ving diftinguiflved himfelf by his exploits againfl the Is.eleftei1 '] Maraertines, was unanimoufly elefted king of Syra-ku!grof cufe, in the year 265 B. L. Some time after Hiero’s acceffion to the throne, he again defeated the Mamertines, and reduced them to fuch ftraits, that they were obliged to call"in the Ro¬ mans to their afiiftance. The confequences of this have been fully related under the articles Rome and gave UP b°lli Ortygia and Achradina to be ed, plundered by his army, after he had fecured the late king’s treafures for the ufe of his republic, and the ftatues, paintings, and principal ornaments of Syra¬ cufe to illuftrate his triumph. The foidiers had orders to fpare the lives of the citizens; but they were cruel in their avarice, flew many of them, and among the reft the incomparable Archimides. He was very in¬ tent on a demonftration in geometry, 'and calmly Syria, drawing his lines, when a foldier entered the room, and clapped a fword to his throat. “Hold! (faid Archemides), one moment, and my demonftration will be finiflied.” But the foldier, equally regardlefs of his prayer and his demonftration, killed him in- ftantly. There are different accounts of the manner of his death v but all agree that Marcellus regretted it extremely, and Ihowed a lingular favour to his rela¬ tions for his fake.” The city of Syracufe continued fubjeft to the weft- yj ern empire till its declenfion, when the ifland of Sici- Syracufe ly, being ravaged by different barbarians, the capital alfo underwent various revolutions ; till at laft, in the^J^s,' 9th century, it was fo deftroyed by the Saracens, that very few traces of its ancient grandeur are now to be feen. SYRIA, a very ancient kingdom of Alia, lying between the Mediterranean on the weft, the Euphra¬ tes on the eaft, and Arabia Deferta, Phoenice, and Paleftine on the fouth. Names, di¬ in ancient times this country was called Aram, from vili0ns, Aram the youngeft fon of Shem, who fettled here :°fa.ncient but in procefs of time the name came to be changed Syna‘ into Syria, from one Syrus, according to fome ; tho’ others think it is only a contraftion of the word AJJy* ria. At firft it was undoubtedly parcelled out into feveral petty Sates ; all of which feem afterwards to have been reduced under fubjedion to the four princi¬ pal ones, Zobah, Damafcus, Hamath, and Gelhur. Afterwards the whole country was divided into two parts only, viz. Coelefyria and Phoenicia ; though the Phoenicians, Idumeans, Jews, Gazites, and Azotites, or the whole country of the Philiftines, was included. After the death of Alexander, Syria, in the great extent of the word, was divided, according to Strabo, into Comagene, Sdeucis of Syria, Coelefyria, Phos- nice on the fea-coaft, and Judea in the mid-land. Ptolemy, however fubdivides thefe ; and in the pro¬ per Syria reckons only Comagene, Pteria, Cynifti- ca or Cyrrheftica, Seleucis, Caffiotes or Cafiotes, Chalybonitis, Chalcidice or Chalcidene, Apamene, Laodicene, Phoenicia Mediterranea, Coelefyria and Palmyrene. The hiftory of the ancient Syrians, till the time of their being carried away by the kings of Affyria, is totally unknown, excepting a few particulars which may be gathered from feripture, and which it is need- lefs here to repeat. During the continuance of the Affyrian, Babylonian, and Perfian monarchies, the hiftory of this country affords nothing remarkable ; but after the death of Alexander, it gave name to a very confiderable empire, which makes a confpicuous figure in ancient hiftory. At this time, however, it was not confined to Syria properly fo called, but comprehended all thole vaft provinces of the Upper Afia which formed the Perfian empire ; being, in its 7? full extent, bounded by the Mediterranean upon oneSe,eucus fide, and the river Indus on the other. The firft firft king was Seleucus, one of the generals of Alexander Sy"fa aft(.r the Great; who, after the death of that conqueror,Alexander being made governor of Babylon, was tempted, by the Great, the example of Alexander’s other captains, to fet up for himfelf. Eumenes, who had fincerely at heart the intereft of Alexander’s family, folkited his afliftance again ft SYR [ 8517 ] SYR Syria, agalnft Antigonus, who had openly revolted; but • ^ Seleucus not only refufed this affiftance, but attempted Attempts to deftroy Eumenes himfelf with his whole army, by to deftroy cutting the lluices of the Euphrates, and laying under fcumenes. wate' wi!ole plain where they were encamped. Eumenes, however, found means to efcape the danger without the lofs of a man. Upon this Seleucus en¬ deavoured to gain over his troops: but finding that impoffible, he made a truce with Eumenes, and granted him a fafe paflage through his province; but at the fame time fent an exprefs to Antigonus, defiring him to fall upon him before he was joined by the gover¬ nors of Upper Afia. Antigonus did not fail to fol¬ low his advice ; but having prevailed againft Eume- nes through treachery, he next thought of bring- Obliged by ing Seleucus himfelf under fubje&ion. On his re- Antigonus turn to Babylon, therefore, after having been feafted to fly into with his whole army by Seleucus, he demanded of EYV*' him an account of the revenues of his province. Re¬ ceiving an unfavourable anfwer to this queftion, An¬ tigonus was fo much exafperated, that Seleucus, not thinking himfelf a match for him at that time, thought proper to fly into Egypt. By the flight of Seleucus, Antigonus was left ma¬ iler of all his provinces ; but his fon Demetrius being T8 afterwards defeated by Ptolemy at Gaza, Seleucus be- Attempts gan to think of recovering what he had loft. Being jb^recove- forniftied by Ptolemy with 1000 foot and 200 borfe, lonwith J"he ^et out w’th lhat flender force to attempt the re- very flender covery of Babylon. Nothing could have a more de¬ force. fperate appearance than this undertaking ; yet Seleu¬ cus was not difcouraged. On his arrival at Carrhse in Mefopotamia, partly by force and partly by per- fuafion, he prevailed on the Macedonians who garri- foned that place to revolt from Antigonus and join him. Being thus reinforced, he entered the territo¬ ries of Babylon, where new fupplies were continually added to his army ; his ancient fubjetls flocking to him from all parts,*and declaring themfelves ready to Hand by him with their lives and fortunes. This hap¬ pened in confequence of the lenity with which they had been treated by Seleucus; whereas Antigonus was 79 univerfaliy detefted on account of his feverity.—As he inafter'of aPProac^e<^ l^e c‘ty» tbok who favoured Antigonus the city°. ret‘recl into the citadel, but were foon obliged to fur- render ; and in that fortrefs Seleucus found his chil¬ dren, friends, and domeftics, whom Antigonus had kept prifoners ever fince his flight into Egypt. Seleucus having thus made himfelf mailer of Baby¬ lon, in the year 312 B. C. began to prepare for en- 80 countering Antigonus, who he knew would foon Defeats attack him with all his force. Nicanor, governor of ' Nicanor, Media under Antigonus, firft advanced againft him at MeddiadaUdSthe keac* I0>000 f°ot and 7000 horfe; but Seleucus, Sufiana!” w't^1 onty 300° ^00t ant^ 400 h°rfe> having drawn him into an ambuih, cut off almoft the whole of his army, and fuch of the foldiers as had efcaped the ilaughter willingly enlifted under his banner. The confequence of this viflory was the fubmiflion of all Media and Sufiana; which alarming Antigonus, he fent his fon Demetrius with an army of 5000 Ma¬ cedonian foot, 10,000 mercenaries, and 4000 horfe. Seleucus was then in Media ; and Patrocles, Whom he had left to take care of Babylon, finding his force L inadequate to that purpofe, compelled the inhabitants Syria, to leave the city and difperfe themfelves in the adjacent countries, while he himfelf, with what troops he had, retired into two forts which he thought could cafily be defended. When therefore Demetrius entered Ba¬ bylon, he was furprifed to find it deferred, upon which he inftantly attacked the forts. One was quickly re¬ duced ; but as the other held out till the expiration of the time which had been allowed him by his father, he left 5000 foot and 1000 horfe under the command of Archelaus to carry on the fiege. With the reft he marched away, fuffering his foldiers to live at difere- tion as he went along; which fo provocked the Baby¬ lonians, that they were ever after attached to Seleucus as if he had been their natural prince. On the return of Seleucus to Babylon, he eafily drove out the troops left by Antigonus, recovered the caftle which he had garrifoned, and fettled his authority on fuch a firm foundation that it could never 81 afterwards be moved. Having then marched again N^inor into Media, he defeated and killed with his own hand Nicanor, or Nicator, whom Antigonus had killed, fent againft him; after which, having fettled the affairs of Media, he reduced all Perfia, Baftria, and Hyrcania, fubjefting to his new empire thefe and all the other provinces on this fide the Indus which had been conquered. Seleucus being now mafter of all the countries which lie between the Euphrates and the Indus, took the title of king of Babylon and Media. But, not fatisfied with thefe poffeffions, ample as they were, he croffedthe Indus, in order to conquer thofe regions which had fubmitted to Alexander beyond that river. But, during the time that the generals of Alexander Cedes India had been making war upon his family and upon one to Sandro- another, one Sandracottus, a native of India, had driven cottus for out the Macedonians, and made himfelf mafter of thep£°atsc' whole country. He oppofed Seleucus with an army of 600,000 men, and a prodigious number of elephants; which intimidated the Macedonian fo much, that he offered to leave Sandrocottus in quiet pofleffion of his dominions, provided he would furnifh him with 500 elephants. To this Sandrocottus readily affented; upon which Seleucus marched back into the weft againft Antigonus, and, in conjun&ion withLyiimachus and Ptolemy, engaged and totally defeated and killed Def^ats him at Ipfus. After this Seleucus marched into Upper Syria, which he reduced entirely, and built the city of Antioch on the Orontes. In the fame country he built fevcral other cities; one of which he called Se/eucia, from his own name ; another Apatnea, from his wife Apama, the daughter of one Artabazus a Perfian; and a third Laidicea, from his mother Laodice. He firft entered into an alliance with Demetrius, and married S’.ratonice his daughter; but foon after r.fiilled Ly- fimachus and Ptolemy to deprive him of the heft part of his dominions. Thus Demetrius being re¬ duced fo low that he could give him no farther jealoufy, Seleucus betook himfelf to the building of another city, which he called likewife Selucia, and which flood on the place where the city of Bagdad now Hands. Befides thefe, he built a great many others; 16 of which he called Antioch, from the name of his brother Antiochusj nine Sekucia, from his own name ; three Aparneay, SYR t 85 Defeats and kills Xyfi tria¬ ls himfelf taeacher- oufly mur¬ dered. Aparnea, from Apama his firft wife; one Stratonicea, from his fecond wife Stratbnice; and fix Laodiceat from his mother Laodice. In 284 Seleueus entered into a war with Lyfima- chus, with whom he had hitherto lived in drift amity. Out of 36 general officers left by Alexander the Great, they two only furvived, and both were upwards of 70 years old. Neverthelefs they were both filled with the ambition and animofity of young men, The two armies met at a place zMcHl Curopedion in Phrygia, where an obftinate engagement took place. Viftory was long doubtful : but at laft Lyfimachus was run through with a fpear, and died on the fpot; on which his troops betook themfelves to flight, and left Seleucus mailer of their baggage. This viftory added to the pofief- Tions of Seleucus all thofe provinces which had for¬ merly been fubjeft to Lyfimachus. The former ex¬ ulted much in his good fortune ; being chiefly pleafed that he was now the lall of Alexander’s captains, and by this viftory became, as he ftylled it, the conqueror of conquerors; and on this account he is generally called Nicator, or the Conqueror. His triumph, how¬ ever, on this occafion, was but fliort-lived ; for, feven months after, as he was marching towards Macedon to take pofltfiion of that kingdom, he was treache- roully murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunns, on whom he had conferred innumerable favours. Philetaerus prince of Pergamus purchafed his body at a great price from Ptolemy, and fent it to his fon Antiochus ; who, with extraordinary pomp, burned it in Seieucia on the fea-coaft, erefting on the place a magnificent chapel, Which he called from his furmame Nicatorium. . Seleucus was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus Soter, who held the empire 19 years. He refigned to Antigo- nus Gonatus all pretehfions to the crown of Macedon; andhaving engaged in a war with Eumenes kingof Per¬ gamus, he was defeated by him, and obliged to yield up part of his dominions. He died in 261 B. C. and was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus Theos ; who ha¬ ving engaged in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt, the Parthians and Baftrians took an opportunity to revolt, and could never afterwards be reduced. In 246 B. C. he was poifoned by his wife Laodice, whom he had divorced for Berenice daughter to Ptolemy, with whom he made peace on the revolt of the Baftrians. On the death of Ptolemy, Antio- c'hus divorced Berenice, and took back Laodice ; who, to fecure herfelf againft the effefts of his fickle difpo- fion, poifoned him, as we have juft mentioned, and railed to the throne her own fon, named Seleucus Calli- nicus. ..Not thinking herfelf fafe, however, as long as . Berenice lived, Laodice began immediately to concert meafures for putting both her and her fon to death. Berenice attempted to fave herfelf by retiring to Daphne, where fhe fhut herfelf up in an afylum built by Seleucus Nicator. There Are was clofely befieged by the fons of Seleucus; of which the cities of Afia having intelligence, formed a confederacy in her favour. Her brother the king of Egypt alfo haftened to her relief with a confiderable army ; but before either of thefe could come to her affiftance, both fhe and her fon were barbaroufly murdered, with all the Egyptians who attended them. .P-oJetuy, 00 hearing the melancholy news of his 18 ] SYR fifter’s death, determined to take the moll fevere ven- . Syria, geance on her murderers. Joining his forces to thofe “ of the Afiatics, he carried everything before him-Greilf9 Having in the firft place put an end to the life of0fhisdo- Laodice, he made himfelf matter of all Syria and Cili-minions cia ; then palling the Euphrates, he fubdued all the c0ntll,cre<1 country as far as Babylon and the Tigris ; and etes!* not the progrefs of his arms been interrupted by a fedi- ^ tion which obliged him to return to Egypt, it is more than probable that he would have fubdued-the whole Syrian empire. As foon as he was returned, Seleucus attempted to revenge himftlf; but his fleet being de- ftroyed by a violent ftorm, and his land-army defeated by Ptolemy, he concluded a truce for ten yeairs. During all this time the Parthian prince had eftablifh- ed himfelf fo firmly on the throne, that it was in vain to think of difpoflefiing him. However, as foon as his other affairs would permit, Seleucus undertook anSeleucos expedition againft Arfaces the Parthian monarch ; by whom he was utterly defeated, taken prifoner, andpri(-oner b carried into-Parthia, where he died four years after, the Par- He was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Seleucus Ceraunus, d'-ians. a weak prince, who was poifoned by a confpiracy of two of his officers, when he had reigned one year; after which his brother Antiochus, furnamed the Great, afeended the throne in 225 B. C. pi In the very beginning of his reign, two of his ge- Antiochus nerals, Alexander and Molo, rebelled againft him.1,16 Great’ The former had been appointed governor of Perfia, and the latter of Media ; but they, defpifing the king’s youth, refufed to obey. The occafion of this revolt is faid to have been their dread of the cruelty of; Hermias the king’s prime minifter; and as they hoped to draw into their fchemes Achaeus governor of the provinces of Afia Minor, they doubted not of fuccefs. In this, however, they failed ; but this did not difeourage them from proceeding in their rebellion. Epigenes, the commander of the troops about the king’s perfon, advifed him to march without delay againft the rebels; but as Hermias reproached him with treachery and a defign to betray the king into o* the hands of his enemies, Antiochus fent two of hisGn^ake* generals into the eaft, while he himfelf undertook an cefsfu] ex.. expedition againft Ptolemy Philadelphus, with a viewpeditiou of recovering Coelfyria. In this attempt, however, agait,ft he was difappointed; and the generals whom he hadE£ypt’ fent into the eaft were totally defeated, and their troops cut off: upon which he determined to layafide for the prefent his Syrian enterprife, and march in p whom he married ; and became fo great a vicur. £ave to jjjjg pa(fion> that he entirely negle&ed his af¬ fairs ; the army gave themfelves up entirely to diffi- pation and debauchery, and every trace of military difeipline evanilhed. In the year 191 B. C. Antiochus was raifed from his lethargy by a declaration of war again!! him at Rome, and fet out for iEtolia. His army at this time amounted to no more than 10,000 foot and 500 loz horfe. He had been made to believe that he would Js defeated receive a vaft reinforcement in ./Etolia : but when he by the Ro- came to make the experiment, he foon found his mif- mans at . au the troops he could raife there amounted to ^ermt>py-no more ljian ^000 men. With this force, fo ex¬ ceedingly inadequate to the purpofe, he was obliged tooppofethe Roman army, who were advancing in conjunflion with the Macedonians, and had already made furprifing progrefs. Antiochusfeized the Straits of Thermopylae; but was driven from them by the Romans, the king himfelf being the firfl that fled. Almoft his whole army was deftroyed in the battle or in the purfuit, and Antiochus returned with difgrace into Afia. Soon after his return, Antiochus equipped a fleet of 200 fail; on which he immediately embarked for the Thracian Cherfonefus, now Crim Tartary, where he fortified the cities of Lyfimachia, Seftus, andAby- dos, with others in that neighbourhood, to prevent the Romans from croffing the Hellefpont. In the mean time Polyxenidas the Syrian admiral fent intel¬ ligence to the king that the Roman fleet had appeared His^ect > upon which he defired him to feek them defeated byout and en8a8e them at all events. He did fo, and that of the was defeated with the lofs of 40 ftiips taken or funk Romans. Jn the engagement. This was foon after revenged by the deftru&ion of the Rhodian fleet by the artifice of Polyxinedas ; but in the end the king’s affairs went every where to wreck. Having laid fiege to the city of Pergamus, he was obliged to raife it with lofs ; the Phoenician fleet commanded by Hannibal was defea- ,04 . ted by the Rhodians ; and foon after the Syrian fleet Meets with uncjer Polyxenidas was utterly defeated by the Romans, defeats, and Antiochus was io much ddheartened by theie repeated becomes defeats, that he appeared like one infatuated. In- like one in- ftead 0f fortifying more ftrongly thofe cities which lay fatuated. on ^ front;er6 0f hjg kingdom, he entirely deferted them : and thus Lyfimachia and Abydos, the two keys to Afia, fell into the hands of the Romans with¬ out the lead refiftance. The arrival of the Romans in Afia ftruck Antio¬ chus with fuch terror, that he inftantly fued for peace. The terms he offered were indeed very advantageous, but by no means agreeable to the expectations of the Sues for Romans. They therefore gave him this final anfwer : peace, hut i. That fince he had drawn upon himfelf the war, he is refu fed. ftould defray the whole expence of it; 2. that he ffiould reftore liberty in general to all the Greek ci¬ ties in Afia ; and, 3. that to prevent future hofti- lities, he fhould relinquifli all Afia on this fide Mount Taurus. Thefe terms, however, ftill appeared to him fo intolerable, that he refolved to continue the war ; and determined alfo to take the moft imprudent me> thod of carrying it on, namely, by hazarding all on Syria. the event of a general engagement. The king en- camped near Magnefia, and ftrongly fortified his camp. The Romans infulted him in his trenches, and propo- fed to attack his fortifications if he continued to de¬ cline an engagement. At laft the king, thinking it would be fhameful for him longer to refufe an engage¬ ment, being at the head of an army far more nume¬ rous than that of the enemy, in a friend’s country, and in the midft of his allies, refolved at all events to accept the challenge, and accordingly prepared for a decifive battle. iog The Roman army confided of four legions, partly ]3att|eof Romans and partly Latins, each legion at this time Magnefia, containing 5500 men, and of 7000 auxiliaries fent by the kings of Pergamus and Macedon; but of thefe 2000 were ordered to guard the camp during the- ac-, tion. The Romans were pofted in the centre, and the Latins in the two wings, the left of which ex¬ tended to the river. On the fide of the right wing, to cover and fupport it, the conful pofted the auxiliary troops of Eumenes, a fmall body of horfe, and fome Trallians and Cretans lightly armed. Sixteen ele¬ phants which the Romans had were placed behind the army by way of corps-de-referve, the conful not thinking it proper to oppofe them to thofe of the enemy, which were far more numerous, being in all 52, and befides excelled the Roman elephants in ftrength, height, and courage, the former being brought from India and the latter from Africa. As for the Syrian army, all the nations of the eaft feemed to be affembled to fupport the caufe of Antiochus. But the main ftrength of it confided in 16,000 foot, armed after the Macedonian manner, who compofed the phalanx. This body faced every way, was armed with long pikes, and taught to fight in clofe order, as the foldiers of Alexander the Great had formerly been. Antiochus did not draw up his phalanx as ufual, but divided it into 10 companies feparated from each other, placing, in the fpaces between each of the companies, an elephant loaded with a tower full of armed men. On the right of the phalanx was drawn up in a line part of the cavalry, viz. 1500 Afia- tic Gauls, 3000 horfe armed cap-a-pee, and 1000 more, the flower of the Median cavalry. At fome diftance from thefe followed the cavalry of the king’s houfehold richly cloathed, and wearing bucklers pla¬ ted over with filver. In the fame line twelve hundred Scythians on horfeback, armed with bows and ar¬ rows, made a great figure, being all chofen men, and of an extraordinary fize. ' The light-armed troops, to the number of 3000, partly Trallians and partly Cre¬ tans, with 10,000 Myfian archers and 4000'men more, partly Cyrtceans armed with flings, partly Perfians armed with bows, and partly Arabians mounted on dromedaries, clofed the right wing, which was led on by the king in perfon, furrounded by a body of Sy¬ rians and Lydians well mounted, but not heavily armed. The left wing was commanded by Seleucus and Antipater; the former the king’s fon, and the latter his nephew, and difpofed thus: Clofe to the phalartx were pofted 1500 Galatians and 2000 Cap¬ padocians, which king Ariarathes had fent to the af- fiftance of his father-in-law. Next to thefe were pla¬ ced 2700 auxiliaries fent from different countries; thefe SYR Syria, thefe were followed by 3000 cuiraffiers well mounted; and, laftly, in the flank of this wing marched 2000 horfe lightly armed. At fome diftance were placed feveral fmall bodies of light-armed troops both foot and horfe ; among which were 2500 Galatian horfe, fouiie Tarentines, Cretans, Carians, Cilicians, &c. The phalanx, which was in the centre, was com¬ manded by three officers of diftin&ion, viz. Minio, Zeuxis, and Philip. A vafl number of chariots, armed with hooks and fcythes, were drawn up before the fir(l line, as were likewife a great many elephants carrying towers with feveral floors, all filled with {lingers and archers ; befides many camels, ani¬ mals then unknown to the Roman troops, mounted by Arabians armed with fwords fix feet long, that the riders might from their backs reach the enemy. The Romans had never feen a more numerous army, nor one more finely adorned ; neverthelefs they never flowed fo great a contempt for an army as for this which they were now going to attack. On the day of the battle the weather proved very favourable to the Romans; for a thick fog rifing in the morning, the day was almoft turned into night, fo that the Syrian commanders could not have all the corps under their command in view, on account of their great extent, nor fend them proper orders in time; whereas the fog was not thick enough to pre¬ vent the Roman generals from feeing their fevcral bo¬ dies at the greateft diftance, as they took up but little ground. Befides, the damp which was occafioned by the fog flackened the ftrings of the enemy’s bows, fo that the Afiatics who ufed them could {hoot their darts and arrows but faintly. The whole dependence of Antiochus in the firft attack was on his armed cha- io? riots, which were to cut their way into the Roman Gallant be- army. For this purpofe they had long halberts faf- haviour of tened to their poles, and {harp hooks to their axle- Eumeues*. trees ; the former were about the height of a man’s head, and the latter almoft fwept the ground, and cut off the legs of all who flood in their way. But Eu- menes undertook to render them ufelefs, and even fa¬ tal to the enemy. This brave prince, putting himfelf at the head of the bowmen and {lingers, ordered them to charge, not in a body, but divided in platoons, and to aim only at the horfes in the chariots. According¬ ly, as foon as the chariots moved, Eumenes advanced at the head of his men, who pouring on them from every quarter, darts, ftones, and javelins', and at the fame time, fhouting as leud as they could, fo frightened the horfes that they could no longer be kept in order, but, fcouring up and down, and turning againft their Own troops, fcll on the Arabians who fupported them, which occafioned a great eonfufion in that quarter. Thofe in the Syrian array who were at a diftarrce, hearing the noife and outcries, and not knowing the •caufe of them, were ftruck with no fmall terror. Af¬ ter this advantage, the Roman cavalry .advanced, and fell on thofe whom the chariots had put in diforder. Tire's8 S>r‘an3 being already intimidated, after a faint rians de- refiftance, gave way ; and the Romans made a great feated. {laughter of their men and horfes, both being borne down with the weight of their heavy armour. Eu- menes charged the left-wing, in which Stleucus com¬ manded, with fuch vigour, that he put it to flight; and the fugitives flying to the phalanx for pruteflbn, put Vox.. X. SYR that body likewife in diforder: which Domitius ob- Syria, ferving, advanced againft it at the head of his legiona- —— ries, but could not break it till he ordered bis men to attack the elephants ; which, as before obferved, were placed in the fpaces between the companies. The Romans had learnt, in their wars with Pyrrhus and Hannibal, not to fear thofe monfters which were once fo terrible to them. They attacked them, therefore, with great refolution ; and driving them againft the phalangites, put that body into diforder, by means of thofe very animals which had been polled there for its defence. But in the mean time advice was brought that the left-wing of the Romans was in great danger. An¬ tiochus, who had obferved that the flanks of the left- wing were quite open and uncovered, the four fqua- drous which covered it having joined the reft of the cavalry to fall upon the enemy’s left-wing, had charged it at the head of all his auxiliaries, not only in front but in flank. The Roman infantry, feeing themfelvea in imminent danger of being furrounded and hemmed in on all fides, fled in great diforder to their camp, which was guarded by 2000 men under the command of a legionary tribune called JEmilius. This man fee¬ ing the Romans flying towards him, marched out at the head of all his troops to meet them ; and after ha¬ ving bitterly reproached them for their cowardice and ignominious flight, ordered his men to draw their fwords, and cut in pieces fuch as fliould advance one ftep farther, or refufe to face about againft the enemy. This order, given fo feafonably, and put in execution without mercy againll fome, had the defired effedl. Thofe who were flying firft halted ; and then, being both reinforced and encouraged by ALmilius, returned under his conduft tawipe off the dilhonour of their flight. At the fame time Attains the brother of Eu¬ menes, having left the right-wing on his receiving ad¬ vice that the left was in danger, arrived very feafon¬ ably with 200 horfe. Antiochus obferving that the troops which had fled were returning to the battle, and that the enemy’s right-wing vj^s ready to fall upon him, turned his horfe about" and fled. This ferved in a manner as a fignal for the reft of the troops, for the whole Syrian army immediately turned their backs. Eumenes alone pnrfued them at the head of the cavalry, and made a moil dreadful havock of the fugitives. The Romans walking over heaps of dead bodies, efpecially where the phalanx flood, marched 10* up to the Syrian camp, attacked, and plundered Jt. And their The riches'they found in it are not to be deferibed : camPtake*' but the taking of it coft the Romans a new battle, which proved more fatal to the Syrians than that in the field ; for the Romans having, in fpite of a molt defperate refiftance, forced the intrenckments, gave no quarter, but put all to the fword without diftindlion. There fell this day in the battle, in the purfuit, and in the plunder of the camp, 50,000 foot, and 4000 horfe ; 1500 were taken prifoners, and 15 elephants. In the confular army there were but 300 foot killed, and 2 5 horfe. Eumenes had only 15 of his men killed; fo that this vidtory, as we are told by the ancients, feemed a prodigy to all nations, both of the call and weft. Antiochus retired to Sardis with as many of his forces that had efcaped the {laughter as he could draw 42 S toge- [ 8521 ] SYR [ 8522 ] SYR Syria, together. From Sardis he foon marched to rejoin his fon Seleucus, who had fled to Apamea. As for the confol, he took advantage of the king’s defeat and flight, making himfelf mailer of all the neighbouring countries. Deputies haftened to him from all parts; the cities of Thyatira, Magnefia, Trallis, Magnefia in Caria, all Lydia, and Ephefus itfelf, though highly favoured by Antiochus, declared for the Romans. Polyxenidas, upon the news of the king’s defeat, left the port of Ephefus, and failed to Patara, where he landed with a very fmall guard, and returned by land into Syria. The conful took the road to Sardis, which opened its gates to him. As he flopped there, his brother Africanus, as foon as his health allowed him, came and joined him in that city, and congra¬ tulated him on the glory he had fo lately acquired. Antiochus finding his affairs in a badfituation both by fea and land, and not daring to appear before the confular army in the field, fent Antipater his brother’s fon, and Zeuxis, who had been governor of Lydia and Phrygia, to fue for a peace. They were ordered to treat chiefly with the elder brother, of whole clemency and good-nature Antiochus entertained a high opinion. Accordingly, on their arrival at Sardis, where the con¬ ful then was with his brother, they addreffed the lat¬ ter, and were by him prefented to the conful. Their fpeech was very fubmiffive, and fuch as became a van- quilhed people. Hereupon a council was fummoned, and after long debates the ambaffadors were called in ; and Scipio Africanus being defired by the conful to acquaint the deputies with the refolutions of the affembly, is faid to have expreffed himfelf in the following terms : “ We are fenfible that the vi&ory which we have lately gained is owing to the gods, and therefore fhall treat the vanquilhed with moderation, demanding little more of ,,0 them now than we did at our firll entering into Afia. Antiochus Antiochus ffiall obtain a peace upon the following obtains terms: That he give up his pretenfions to Europe, con- ver'Vard fine ^‘s dom'n^ons t0 Alia beyond mount Taurus: and terms.31 that he pay i5>Qpo Euboic talents for the expences of the war ; 500 doVvn, 2500 when the fenate and people fhall confirm the articles, and 1000 more every year for 12 years together. We alfo infill upon his fatif- fying king Eumenes, and his paying him the 400 ta¬ lents he owes him, and what remains due for the corn which his father fent to the king of Syria. It is like- wife the pleafure of the council that you deliver up to us Hannibal the Carthaginian, Tboas the Aitolian, Mnefilochus the Acarnanian, and Philo and Eubulus two Chalcidians; for thefe have been the authors of our divifions, the incendiaries who kindled the prefent war. Laflly, the king of Syria, for a further proof of his fincerity, fhall give us 20 fuch hoftages as we fhall choofe, of whom Antiochus his youngefl fon fhall be one.” The ambaffadors of Antiochus had been ordered to refufe no terms ; and therefore thefe were accepted, and the whole affair concluded. So that the Syrian ambaffadors now prepared to fet out for Rome, to get the conditions of peace propofed by Scipio ratified there. In the mean time, the conful dividing his army into three bodies, put it into winter-quarters; one part continued at Magnefia, another was fent to Tral¬ lis, and the third to Ephefus, where the Scipios took up their quarters. There they received a new embaf- Syria, fy from Antiochus, with the hoftages he had pro- mifed, the Roman prifoners and deferters, and the ftrangers which the conful had demanded, except Han¬ nibal, who after the king’s defeat had fled out of his dominions ; and Thoas the iEtolian, who, as foon as he heard that a treaty was on foot between Antiochus and the Romans, had returned to jEtolia, where a war was likely to break out between that re¬ public and Rome. L. Aurelius Cotta was fent with the ambaffadors to Rome, to acquaint the fenate with the particulars of the treaty. When they appeared before the confcript fathers, they fpoke with great fubmiffion, and only defired them to ratify the articles which the Scipios had offered to their mailer. The fenate, after examining them, ordered that a treaty of peace Ihould be concluded with Antiochus, and the articles of it engraved on brafs, and fixed up in the capitol. They only added one claufe, which was. That the Syrians ffiould change every year all their hoftages, except the fon of king Antiochus, who Ihould continue at Rome as long as the republic thought fit. The peace being thus ratified, and all Afia on this fide mount Taurus delivered into the hands of the Romans, the Greek cities were by them rellored to their liberty, the provinces of Caria and Lydia given to the Rhodians, and all the reft that had belonged to Antiochus beftowed upon Eumenes. Antiochus did not long furvive his misfortune at jiis d/ath. Magnefia. Some tell us, that being greatly puzzled how to raife the fum he had engaged to pay to the Romans, he feized on the riches which had for many ages been depofited in a temple of Jupiter Belus in the province of Elymais; upon which the populace rofe in arms, and flew him and all his attendants. Others inform us, that he was killed at an entertainment by one of his guefts. Antiochus the Great died in 187, and with him the glory of the Syrian empire. The Romans now gave laws to the kings of Syria, infomuch, that when An¬ tiochus Epiphanes the grandfon of Antiochus the Great hefitated at obeying the commands of the fe¬ nate, one of the ambaffadors drew a circle round him with a rod on the floor, and told him, that he fhould not go out of that fpot before he had told him what he was to do. The mod remarkable tranfaftions of this prince are his wars with the Jew's, and perfecu-Syria be. tions of them ; of which a full account is given under comes a the article Jews. After a variety of ufurpers and Romanpro- tyrants, the kingdom of Syria fell under Tigranesvince' king of Armenia in the year 83 B. C.; and upon his overthrow by the Romans, it became a province of the dominions of the republic. From them it was taken by the Saracens in the reign of the caliph Omar, and is now a province of Turkey in Afia. Syria, in general, is bleffed with a ferene, tempe- ci;^*,** rate, and healthful air; being refrclhed, during thef0ii; &c.’of hot fultry months of June, July, and Auguft, by cool the country, breezes from the Mediterranean. The face of the country is moftly level and delighful, and the foil na¬ turally deep, rich, and fertile ; fo that it would pro¬ duce in the greateft plenty, if cultivated, whatever could be wifhed for, either for the fuftenance, pleafurc, or convenience of the inhabitants ; but, like all the other countries poffeffed by the Turks, a great part of SYR [ 8523 ] SYR Syria it lies wafte and uncultivated. With the little culture II beftovved upon it, it produces, in many places, abun- Syltem. Qf corn> wine, oil, figs, lemons, oranges, melons, canes, dates, and cotton, with aromatic and medicinal herbs. In Syria alfo are bred great num¬ bers of buffaloes and other oxen, camels, dromedaries, wild-boars, deer of all forts, hares, rabbits, and other game; with a kind of goats whofe hair is long and of a beautiful colour ; and a breed of fheep, whofe wool is very fine, and their tails fo large that they fome- times weigh 30 pounds. SYREN. See Siren. SYRINGA, lilac, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants. There are two fpecies ; both of them deci¬ duous flowering fhrubs, adorned with oval, heart- fhaped, and fpear-fhaped fimple leaves, and large bunches of odoriferous fmall funnel-fhaped flowers, white, blue, and purple, in the different varieties. They are all hardy plants; and though natives of Perfia, will bear the fevereft winters. They are eafily propagated, by feed, fuckers, or layers. SYRINGE, a well-known inftrument, ferving to imbibe or fuck in a quantity of fluid, and to fquirt or expel the fame with violence. The word is formed from the Greek or the Latin Jyrinx, “ a pipe.” —A fyringe is only a fingle pump, and the water af- cends in it on the fame principle as in the common fucking pump. See Hydrostatics, n° 23, etfeq. SYRUP, in pharmacy, a faturated folution of fu- gar, made in vegetable decodfions or infufions. See Pharmacy, n°48o—joo. SYSTEM, in general, denotes an aflemblage or chain of principles and conclufions, or the whole of Syftem any dodlrine, the feveral parts whereof are bound to- II gether, and follow or depend on each other; in which JriyS>r-- fenfe we fay a fyjlem of philofophy, a fyfiem of divinity^ Sec.—The word is formed from the Greek VUni/xa, “ compofition, compages.” System, in the animal oeconomy, the vafcular, the nervous, and the cellular. See Anatomy. System, in mufic, an affemblage of the rules for harmony deduced from fome common principle by which they are re-united; by which their connexion one with another is formed ; from whence, as from their genuine fource, they natively flow; and to which, if we would account for them, we mull have recourfe. See the articles Chromatic, Diatonic, Enharmo¬ nic, Harmony, Interval, and Music. System, in botany. See Botany, Sedl. ii. iii. iv. System, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, feft. iv. SYSTOLE, in anatomy, the contradlion of the heart, whereby the blood is drawn off its ventricles into the arteries ; the oppofite ftate to which is called the diafole, or dilatation, of the heart. See Anatomy, n° 388. SYSTYLE, in architefture, that manner of placing columns where the fpace between the two fliafts confilts of two diameters or four modules. SYZYGY, Syzygia, in aftronomy, a term equally ufed for the conjunftion and oppofition of a planet with the fun.—The word is formed from the Greek, which properly fignifies “ conjundlio.” On the phe¬ nomena and circumftances of the fyzygies a great part of the lunar theory depends. See Astronomy, n° 220. T. Tor t, the 19th letter and 15th confonant * of our alphabet, the found whereof is formed by a ftrong expulfion of the breath through the mouth, upon a fudden drawing back of the tongue from the fore-part of the palate, with the lips at the fame time open. The proper found of this letter is that in tan, ten, tin, tun, fat, pot, put, &c. When it comes before i, followed by a vowel, it is founded like /, as in nation, potion. See. When h comes after it, it has a two-fold found ; one clear and acute, as in thin, thief, &c.; the other more obtufe and obfeure, as in then, there, See. In abbreviations, amongft the Roman writers, T. ftands for Titus, Titius, &c.; Tab. for Tabularius; Tab. P. H. C. Tabularius Provincia Hifpaniee Citerio- ris •, Tar. Tarquinius; Ti. Tiberius; Ti. F. Tiberii filius ; Ti. L. Tiberii libertus ; Ti. N. Tiberii Nepos; T. J. A. V. P. V. D. tempore judicem arbitrumve pofu- lat ut det; T. M. P. tertninum pofuit; T. M. D. D. tenninum dedicavit; ’Ye. trans, tribunus ; Tr. M. or Mil. tribunus militum ; TR. PL. DES. tribunus pie- bis defgnatus ; TR. AER. tribunus ararii; TRY. CAP. triumviri capitales; T. P. or TRIB. POT. tribunicia potejlate ; Tul. H. Tullus Hofilius. Amongft the ancients, T. as a numeral, flood for one hundred andfxty; and with a dafti at top, thus T, it fignified one hundred and fxty thoufand. In mufic, T ftands for tutti, “ all, or altogether.” TABANUS, the breeze-fly ; a genus of infefl* belonging to the order of diptera. The moft remark¬ able fpecies is the bovinus. The head of this infeft is grey ; the eyes almoft of a black brown, occupying the greateft part of it. The thorax is of a grey co¬ lour; the abdomen is yellowifli, with a triangular white fpot on the middle of every ring, which conftitutes a longitudinal band of fpots, the point of which is di- re&cd towards the thorax. The thighs are blackifti, and the legs yellow. The wings are fomewhat dullcy, with brown veins of a deeper dye. This infedl is the terror of horned cattle, horfes, &e. Its mouth is armed with two (harp hooks which penetrate their hide ; while with its probofeis, which is (haped like a fling, it fucks their blood, of which it is very fond. The pun&ure of the tabanus is keen and painful. The 42 S 2 icfeft TAB [ 8524 ] TAG Tabby Jnfeft is very common in damp woods and meadows, Tabic 'cfpeci3My during the great heats, when it is molt i troublefome. The horned cattle are fometimes To molefted by their (tings, that they go mad, inn down precipices, tear themfelves on the Humps of trees, Hones, &c. TABBY, in commerce, a kind of rich filk which has undergone the operation of tabbying. TABBYING, the pafiing a fi!k or fluff under a calender the rolls of which are made of iron or copper varioufly engraven, which bearing unequally on the Huff renders the furface thereof unequal, fo as to reflect the rays of light differently, making the reprefentation of waves thereon. TABELLIO, in the Roman law, an officer or fcrivener, much the fame with our notaries-public, who are often called tabdliones. TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of building, in the form of a tent, fet up, by exprefs command of God, for the performance of religious worfhip, facrifices, &c. during the journeying of the Ifraelites in the wildernefs: and, after their fettlement in the land of Canaan, made ufe of for the fame pur- pofe till the building of the temple of Jerufalem. It was divided into two parts; the one covered, and pro¬ perly called the tabernacle; and the other open, called the court. The curtains which covered the tabernacle were made of linen, of feveral colours, embroidered. There were ten curtains, twenty-eight cubits long and four in breadth. Five curtains faftened together made up two coverings, which covered all the tabernacle. Over thefe there were two other coverings; the one of goat-hair, and the other of Iheep-lkins. The holy of holies was parted from the reft of the tabernacle by a curtain made fall to four pillars, Handing ten cubits from the end. The length of the whole tabernacle was thirty-two cubits, that is, about fifty feet; and the breadth twelve cubits, or nineteen feet. The court was a fpot of ground one hundred cubits long, and fifty in breadth, enclofed by twenty columns, each twenty cubits high and ten in breadth, covered with filver, and ftanding on copper bafes, five cubits diftant from one another; between which, there were cur¬ tains drawn, and faftened with hooks. At the eaft end was an entrance, twenty cubits wide, covered with a curtain hanging loofe. Feajl o/1 Tabernacles, a folemn feftival of the Hebrews, obferved after harveft, on the fifteenth day of the month Tifri, inftituted to commemorate the goodnefs of God, who prote&ed the Ifraelites in the wildernefs, and made them dwell in booths, when they came out of Egypt. On the firft day of the feaft, they began to ered booths of the boughs of trees, and in thefe they were obliged to continue feven days. The booths were placed in the open air, and were not to be covered with cloths, nor made too clofe by the thicknefs of the boughs; but fo loofe that the fun and the liars might be feen, and the rain defcend through them. For further particulars as to the celebration of this feftival, fee Levit. cb. xx ii. TABERN^E, (anc. geog.) SccTres Tabernx. TABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, ufually made of wood or Hone, and fupported on piliirs or the like, for the commodious reception of things placed thereon. Table is alfo ufed for the fare or entertainment Table ferved up. |1 Table, in mathematics, fyftems of numbers cal- 1 ack* culated to be ready at hand for the expediting aftro- nomical, geometrical, and other operations. djlronomical Tables, are computations of the mo- tions, places, and other phenomena of the planets, both primary and fecondary. See Astronomy. HIMountain, a mountain of Africa, being the mod wefterly cape or promontory in that part of the world, and near the Cape of Good Hope. The bay which is formed thereby is called the Table bay. Laws of the Twelve Tables, were the firft fet of laws of the Romans: thus called either by reafon the Romans then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tablets covered with wax ; or rather, becaufe they were engraved on tables or plates of copper, to be expofed in the moft noted part of the public forum. After the expulfion of the kings, as the Romans were then with without any fixed or certain fyftem of law, at lead had none ample enough to take in the various cafes that might fall between particular perfons, it was refolved to adopt the beft and wifeft laws of the Greeks. One Hermodorus was firft appointed to tranflate them, and th;. decemviri afterwards compiled and reduced them into ten tables. After a world of care and application, they were at length enadled and confirmed by the fenate and an affembly of the people, in the year of Rome 303. The following year they found fomething wanting therein, which they fupplied from the laws of the former kings of Rome, and from certain cuftoms which long ufe had authorifed: all thefe being engraven on two other tables made the law of the twelve tables, fo famous in the Roman jurifpru- dence, the fource and foundation of the civil or Ro¬ man law. Tables of the Law, in Jewilh antiquity, two tables on which were written the decalogue, or ten commandments, given by God to Mofes on Mount Sinai. TABOR (Mount). See Thabor. TACAMAHACA, in pharmacy, a folid refin, im¬ properly called a gum in the (hops. It exfudes from a fpecies of poplar; and is in repute for mitigating pain and aches, and as a vulnerary. TACITUS (Caius Cornelius), a celebrated Ro¬ man hiftorian, and one of the greateft men of his time, was raifed for bis merit to the firft pods in the em¬ pire. Vefpafian and Titus gave him confiderable em¬ ployments ; he became prastor under Domitian, and two years after was made conful in the room of Vir- ginius Rufus in the year 97. But thefe dignities, gave him but a fmall Ihare of glory, compared with that he obtained by the labour of his pen. There are ftill extent, 1. Five books of his hiftory. 2. His Annals. 3. A Treatife on the different nations which in his time inhabited Germany: and, 4. The Life of Agricola his father-in-law. There is alfo attributed to him a Treatife on Eloquence, which is more gene¬ rally allowed to have been written by Quintilian. Ta¬ citus’s other works are loft. Pliny the Younger, who was his friend, and the learned fince his time, give the works of Tacitus the higheft praifes. TACK, a rope ufed to confine the foremoft lower- corners of the courfes and ftay-fails. in a fixed pofition, when T A C [ 8525 ] TAG Tack, when the wind crofies the (hip’s courfe obliquely. rpjie fame narne ;s a|f0 given to the rope employed to pull out the lower corner of a ftudding-fail or driver to the extremity of its boom. The main-fail and fore-fail of a (hip are furnifhed with a tack on'each fide, which is formed of a thick rope tapering to the end, and having a knot wrought upon the largeft end, by which it is firmly retained in the clue of the fail. By this means one tack is always faftened to w’indward, at the fame time that the ftieet extends the fail to the leeward. See Chestree. Tack, is alfo applied, by analogy, to that part of any fail to which the tack is ufually faftened. A fhip is faid to be on the (larboard or larboard tack, when fire is clofe-hauled, with the wind upon the (larboard or larboard fide: and in this fenfe the diftance which (he fails in that pofition is confidered as the length of the tack ; although this is more fre¬ quently called board. See that article. To Tack, to change the courfe from one board to another, or turn the (hip about from the (larboard pjate to the larboard tack, in a contrary wind. Thus CCLXXVI foip A, being clofe-hauled on the larboard tack, fig. 6. and turning her prow fuddenly to windward, re¬ ceives the impreffion of the wind on her head-fails a, by which (he falls off upon the line of the (larboard- tack a. Tacking is alfo uftd in a more enlarged fenfe, to imply that manceiwe in navigation by which a (hip makes an oblique progreffion to the windward, in a zigzag dire&ion. This, however, is more ufually called beating, or turning to •winivdard. Thus, fuppofe the (hip A bound to a port B ly¬ ing to windward, with the wind northerly, as express¬ ed by the arrow. The fails a, b, c, being braced obliquely with the keel, the wind alfo falls upon their furfaces in an oblique dire&ion, by which the fhip is pufhed to leeward, as explained in the article Lee¬ way. Hence, although (he apparently fails W. N. W. upon the larboard-tack, as exprefied in the doted line Ad, and E. N. E. upon the other df, yet if the lee-way is only one point, (and indeed it is feldom lefs in the fmootheft water), the courfe will accord- ingly be W. by N. upon one tack, and E. by N. upon the other, as reprefented by the lines Ae, and eg. If the port A were direftly to windward of the (hip, it is evident that both tacks ought to be of equal length ; or, in other words, that (lie ought to run the fame diftance upon each tack: but as the place of her deftination lies obliquely to windward, (he mull run a greater diftance upon one tack than the other; fcecaufe the extremities of both boards fliould be equal¬ ly diftant from the line of her true epurfe B A; fo the larboard tack A e, crofting the courfe more ob¬ liquely than the other eg, will neceflarily be much longer. As the true courfe, or the direifl diftance from B to A is only 12 leagues, it is evident that with a favourable wind (he could reach it in a few hours. On the contrary, her diftance is confiderably increafed by the length of her boards, in a contrary wind ; which, by its obliquity with her fails, operates alfo to retard her velocity. Thus her firft board A e, on a W. by N. courfe, is equal to 5. 7 leagues. The fecond tack e£ is 9. 2 leagues E by N. the third tack, parallel to Ae, is ii. 5 : the fourth, parallel to eg^ is 9. 2: and the fifth, parallel to the firft, t i. 7 TaA- leagues. Finally, the fixth board is 4. 8 leagues pa¬ rallel to the fecond, which brings her to the port B. By this fcheme it appears that (he has run more than four times the extent of the line A B, her primitive diftance ; and this is the moft favourable circum- (lances of a contrary wind, viz. when the fea is fmooth, and when fhe may carry her full topfails. For if the wind blows ftrongtr, to render it neceftary to reef the topfails, (he will foon make two points of lee-way, and accordingly run eaft on one board and weft on the other. In this fituation (he will neither approach nor recede from the place of her deftina¬ tion : but if the wind increafes, the fea will alfo be enlarged ; a circumftance that dill farther augments the lee-way. Hence the veffel will gradually fall off from the port, in proportion to the augmentation of the wind and fea, which occafions a proportional in- creafe of lee-way. In order to explain the theory of tacking a (hip, it may be neceffary to premife a known axiom in natural philofophy, That every body will perfevere in a (late of reft, or of moving uniformly in a right line, unlefs it be compelled to change its Hate by forces impref- fed ; and that the change of motion is proportional to the moving force impreffed, and is made according to the right line in which that force is exerted. By this principle it is eafy to conceive how a (hip is compelled to turn into any direction, by the force of the wind afling upon her fails in horizontal lines. For the fails may be fo arranged as to receive the cur¬ rent of air either dire£lly or more or lefs obliquely. Hence the motion communicated to the fails mud of neceflity confpire with that of the wind upon their furfaces. To make the fhip tack or turn round with her head to the windward, it is therefore neceftary,, after (he has received the Sift, impreflion from the helm, that the head-fails (hould be fo difpofed as to dimi- nifh the effort of the wind in the firft inftant of her motion ; and that the whole force of the wind (hould be exerted on the after-fails; which, operating on the (hip’s ftern, carries it round like a weathercock. But fince the action of the after-fails to turn the (hip will unavoidably ceafe when her head points to the wind¬ ward, it then becomes neceflary to ufe the head-fails, to prevent her from falling-off and returning to her. former fituation. Thefe are accordingly laid aback on the lee-fide, to pu(h the vefiel’s fore part towards the oppofite fide, till (he has fallen into the line of her courfe thereon, and fixed her fails to conform wiih that fituation. It has been obferved above, that the firft effort to turn the (hip in tacking is communicated by the helm, which is then put to the lee-fide. This circuroftance being announced by the pilot or commanding officer, who then calls out Helm's a lee! the head-fails are immediately made to (hiver in the wind, by calling loofe their (heets or bowlines. The pilot then calls. Up tacks andJheets ! which is executed by loofening all the ropes which confine the corners of the lower fails, in order that they may be more readily drifted to the other fide. When the (hip has turned her head diredtly to windward, as in d, the pilot gives the or¬ der to turn about the fails on the main and mrxen mafts, by the exclamation, Haul main-fail, haul! the bowlines T iE N [ 8526 ] T A I Tack bowlines and braces are then inflantly cafi off on one T ILa fide, and as expeditioufly drawn in on the other fide, aE1>ia' fo as to wheel the yards about their mafts. The lower corner of the main-fail is, by means of its tack, pulled down to its ftation at the cheftree ; and all the after¬ fails are at the fame time adjufted to ftand upon the other board. Finally, when the Ihip has fallen off five or fix points, the pilot cries, Haul off all! or. Let go, and haul! then the fails on the fore-maft are wheeled about by their braces; and as the fhip has then a tendency to fall off, Ihe is checked by the ef¬ fort of the helm; which for that purpofe is put hard a-lee. The fore-tack, or the lower corner of the fore-fail, being fixed in its place, the bowlines are hauled ; and the other fails, which have been ne- gledted in the hurry of tacking, are properly arran¬ ged to the wind ; which exercife is called trimming the fails. See Lee-way, and Sailing. Tack, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxvii. 8—15. TACKLE, among feamen, denotes all the ropes or cordage of a Ihip ul’ed in managing the fails, &c. TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of difpofing forces to the bell advantage in order of battle, and of performing the feveral military motions and evolutions. TADCASTER, a town in the Weft Riding of Yorklhire, noted for the great plenty of limeftone dug up near it. W. Long. t. 5. N. Lat. 53. 52. TADPOLE, a young frog before it has difenga- ged itfelf from the membranes that envelope it in its firft ftage of life. TAENIA, in zoology ; a genus of infe&s, belong¬ ing to the order of vermes zoophyta. The body is of an oblong form; and compofed of evident joints or ar¬ ticulations, in the manner of the links of a chain, with a mouth andvifcera in each joint. See Plate cclxxxii. 1. The lata, long tape-worm, or folitary worm, infefts theinteftines of mart and fome other claffes of animals, Simmons's and feems to derive its nourilhment from the chyle Account of that is prepared in the ftomach.—This worm is long the Ttnia. an(j gat> comp0fed 0f many very fhort rings that arc articulated to each other, and has a kind of vein run¬ ning through its whole length, which is more or lefs apparent.—This has occafioned the Germans to give it the name of flat fpinous uvorm. It is not always of the fame complexion ; fometimes it appears of a blueifh or reddilh, and fometimes fimply of a white colour; now and then it manifefts itfelf only by a fpot, which is to be perceived in the middle of each ring. In fome of thefe worms this fpot is of a blackifh colour, in others of a colour more tending to white; and it rifes into a very fmall prominence on each fide, that is not eafily apparent, however, to the naked eye. The tail or pofterior end has never been capable of examination hitherto, becaufe the worm breaks, and the patients void portions of it occafionally, either naturally or by the means of various remedies. Its body, which is ufually feveral ells in length, and flattened like a rib¬ band, becomes gradually narrow towards its upper extremity, and at length terminates in a fmall thread¬ like appearance, of a foot or more in length. The point, which to the naked eye appears very minute, when examined by the lens, feems fomewhat bulbous; and when viewed through a microfcope that magnifies powerfully, is found to be the head of the worm, and Tasnia is terminated by four horns of unequal length, which II. are perhaps the channels through which the animal Tai1, derives its nourifhment. The body of the worm ex¬ tends itfelf throughout the whole inteftinal canal, and often reaches even to the anus. It has been named folitary nvorm, becaufe there commonly exifts only one in the famefubjedl: fometimes, however, two of them arc found together; and fometimes, after the expul- fion of the firft, there regenerates a fecond. It is by no means eafy to remove this worm : the purgative vermifuge remedies commonly ufed in phyfic bring away portions of it, which we are always obliged to break, in order to feparate them from thofe which remain behind ; it feldom happens that they effeft a complete cure. 2. The folium, or gourd-worm, refembles the for¬ mer in many particulars, and is equally met with in the inteftines of animals. It will be diftinguifhed from the preceding one, by having neither the appearance of a head nor of a longitudinal vein : its rings are much longer than thofe of the folitary worm, and arc ftriated through their whole length, being furnifhed only with a little lateral prominence. Thefe rings are eafily detached from each other, fo that they appear as fo many diftinft worms, which have each of them life and motion independent as it were of the reft. The form of thefe rings, when viewed together, varies confiderably. Thofe of the upper extremity are much more complete, fhort, narrow, and thin, than thofe lower down ; the rings gradually becoming longer as they ap¬ proach the lower end. Thefe rings are in lhape not unlike the feeds ofgourd,andhencethename£0«n/- All the deities, except Ceres, perceived his cruelty and impiety, and would not touch his provifions. That goddefs, whofe thoughts were folely employed about her daughter Proferpine,. inadvertently eat a part of His left fhoulder. Pelops, however, was reftored to life; and an ivory fhoulder given him in the room of that which had been eaten ; while Tantalus was thrown into Tartarus, where he was punifhed with perpetual hunger and third. He was chained in a lake, the water of which reached up to his chin, but retired when he attempted to drink. The branch of a tree loaded with fruit hung down even to his lips, but on his attempting to pluck the fruit the branch fprung upwards. Tantalus, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to the order of grails, The bill is long, Tubulated, and fomewhat crooked ; the noflrils oval, the fore-part of Tantalus the head bald from the eyes; the feet have four toes II palmated on the under-part There are feven fpecies; of which the mod remarkable is the ibis of the Egyp¬ tians. Mr Haffelquift informs us that ft is of the fize of a raven-hen. This bird is found in Lower Egypt, and is feen in great numbers during the overflowing of the Nile, in thofe places which the water does not reach, and afterwards in the places the water has de- ferted. It feeds on infedls and fmall frogs, which abound in Egypt during the inundation of the Nile and for fome time after, being by this means of great fervice to the country. They often aflemble, efpe- cially mornings and evenings, in the gardens, in fuch numbers as to cover whole palm-trees. #When this bird reds, it fits upright, fo as to cover its feet witlu its tail, and raifes the bread and neck. Tantalus’s Cup. See Hydrostatics, n° 38. TANZY, or Tansy, in botany. See Tanacetum. TAPE-worm. See Ta:nia. TAPESTRY, a curious kind of manufa&ure, fer- ving to adorn a chamber or other apartment, by covering or lining the walls thereof. It is a kind of woven hangings of wool and filk, frequently raifed and enriched with gold and filver, reprefenting figures of men, animals, landfcapes, hidories, See. The invemion of tapeflry is faid to have come to us from the Levant ; and this feems the more probable, in that the workmen concerned in it were called, at lead in France, farrajins, or farra/mois. It is fup- pofed that the Englifh and Flemifh, who were the firft that excelled in making tapedry, might bring the art with them from fome of the croifades, or expeditions againd the Saracens. Be this as it will, it is certain that thefe two nations, efpecially the Englifli, were the fird who fet on foot this noble and rich manufac¬ ture in Europe, now one of the fined ornaments of palaces, churches, &c. and therefore, if they may not be allowed the inventors, they have at lead the glory of being the rtflorers of this fo curious and admirable an art, as gives a kind of life to wools and fiiks, fcarce inferior to the paintings of the bed maders. Tapedry-work is didinguifhed by the workmen in¬ to two kinds, viz. that of high and that of low warp; though the difference is rather in the manner of work¬ ing than in the work itfelf; which is in effe£l the fame in both: only the looms, and confequently the warps, are differently fituated ; thofe of the low warp being placed flat and parallel to. the horizon, and thofe of the high warp ere&ed perpendicu¬ larly. The Englifh anciently excelled all the world in the tapeftry of the high warp ; and they dill retain their former reputation, tho’ with fome little change : their low warps are ftill admired ; but as for the high ones, they are quite laid afide by the French. The French have three confiderable tapedry-manufaflures, befides that of the Gobelins; the fird at Aubuffon in Auvergne, the fecond is at Felletin in the Upper Marche, and the third at Beauvais. They were all equally edablifhed for the high and. the low warp; but they have all laid afidethe high warp excepting the Gobelins. There are admirable low warps in Flan¬ ders, generally exceeding thofe. of France ; the chief and alitiod only FJemifh manufaflures are at Bruffcls, Antwerp, Oudenard, Lifle, Tournay, Bruges, and TAP [ 8536 ] TAP Tapeftry. Valenciennes. The ufual widths of tapeilries are from two ells to three ells Paris-meafure. The Manufatture of Tapestry of the High Warp. The loom whereon it is wrought is placed perpendi¬ cularly : it confifts of four principal pieces ; two long planks or cheeks of wood, and two thick rollers or beams. The planks are fet upright, and the beams acrofs them, one at the top, and the other at the bot¬ tom or about a foot diftance from the ground. They have each their trunnions, by which they are fufpend- ed on the planks, and are turned with bars. In each roller is a groove from one end to the other, capable of containing a long round piece of wood, fattened therein with hooks. The ufe of it is to tie the ends of the wrarp to. The warp, which is a kind of worfted, or twitted woollen thread, is wound on the upper roller ; and the work, as fall as wove, is wound on the lower. Withinfide the planks, which are feven or eight feet high, fourteen or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick, are holes pierced from top to bottom, in which are put thick pieces of iron, with hooks at one end, ferving to fuftain the coat-ftave: thefe pieces of iron have alfo holes pierced, by putting a pin in which, the ftave is drawn nearer or fet further off; and thus the coats or threads are ftretched or loofened at pleafure. The coat-ftave is about three inches diameter, and runs all the length of the loom; on this are fixed the coats or threads, which make the threads of the warp crofs each other. It has much the fame effeft here as the fpring-ftave and treddles have in the common looms. The coats are little threads fattened to each thread of the warp with a kind of Hiding knot, which forms a fort of mafh or ring. They ferve to keep the warp open for the paf- fage of broaches wound with filks, woollens, or other matters ufed in the piece of tapeftry. In the laft: place, there are a number of little flicks of different lengths, but all about an inch in diameter, which the workman keeps by him in bafkets, to ferve to make the threads of the warp crofs each other, by palling them acrofs; and, that the threads thus croffed may retain their proper fituation, a packthread is run among the threads above the Hick. The loom being thus formed, and mounted with its warp, the firft thing the workman does, is to draw on the threads of this warp, the principal lines andftrokes of the defign to be reprefented on the piece of ta¬ peftry ; which is done by applying cartoons, made from the painting he intends to copy, to the fide that is to be the wrong fide of the piece, and then, with a black-lead pencil, following and tracing out the con¬ tours thereof on the thread of the right fide ; fo that the ftrokes appear equally both before and behind. As for the original defign the work is tobefinilhed by, it is hung up behind the workmen, and wound on a long ftaff from which a piece is unrolled from time to time as the work proceeds. Befides the loom, &c. here defcribed, there are three other principal inftruments required for working the fiik or the wool of the woof within the threads of the warp; thefe are a broach, a reed, and an iron-needle. The broach is made of a hard wood, feven or eight inches long, and two-thirds of an inch thick, ending in a point with a little handle. This ferves as a IhuUlej the filks, woollens, gold, or filver, to be ufed in the Tapeflry/s work being wound on it. TaPir~ The reed or comb is alfo of wood, eight or nine inches long, and an inch thick on the back, whence it grows lefs and lefs to the extremity of the teeth, which are more or lefs apart, according to the greater or lefs degree of finenefs of the intended work. Laft- ly, the needle is made in form of the common needle, only bigger and longer. Its ufe is to prefs clofe the wool and filks when there is any line or colour that does not fit well. All things being prepared for the work, and the workman ready to begin, he places himfelf on the wrong fide of the piece, with his back towards the defign ; fo that he works as it were blindfold, feeing nothing of what he docs, and being obliged to quit his pott, and go to the ‘Other fide of the loom when¬ ever he would view and examine the piece, to corredt it with his preffing-needle. To put filk, &c. in the warp, he firft turns and looks at the defign ; then, ta- * king a broach full of the proper colour, he places it among the threads of the warp, which he brings crols each other with his fingers, by means of the coats or threads faftened to the ftaff; this he repeats every time he is to change his colour. Having placed the filk or wool, he beats it with his reed or comb ; and when he has thus wrought in feveral rows over each other, he goes to fee the effedts they have, in order to reform the contours with his needle, if there be occa- fion. As the work advances, it is rolled upon the lower beam, and they unroll as much warp from the upper-beam as fuffices them^to continue the piece: the like they do of the defign behind them. When the pieces are wide, feveral workmen may be employed at once. We have but two things to add : the firft; is, that the high-warp tapeftry goes on much more flowly than the low warp, and takes up almoft twice the time and trouble. The fecond is, that all the difference that the eye can perceive between the two kinds, confifts in this, that in the low warp there is a red fillet, about one-twelfth of an inch broad, running on each fide from top to bottom, which is wanting in the high- warp. TAPIR, in zoology, by fome accounted a fpe- cies of hippopotamus, has the fore-hoofs divided into four, and the hind-hoofs into three parts. Tiie nofe extends far beyond the lower jaw, is (len¬ der, and forms a fort of probofeis; it is capable of be¬ ing contracted or extended at pleafure, and its fides are fulcated. The extremities of both jaws end in a point, and there are ten cutting teeth in each. Be¬ tween them and the grinders there is a vacant fpace ; and there are 10 grinders in each jaw. The ears are ereCt, the eyes fmall, and the body is (haped like that of a hog. The back is arched ; the legs are (hort ; and the hoofs fmall, black, and hollow. The tail is very fmall. The animal grows to the fize of a heifer half a year old. The hair is (hort : when young, it is fpetted with white ; when old, of a dufky colour.— It inhabits the woods and rivers of the eattern fide of South America, from the Ifthmus of Darien to the river of Amazons. It deeps during day, in the darkeft and thickeft forefts adjacent to the banks; and goes out in the night-time in fearch of food. It lives on grafs, fugar- TAR [ 8537 ] TAR Tapping gar-canes, and on fruits. If difturbed, It takes to the itarazona water ’ fw'm3 very we^ » or finks below, and, like the ° a‘ hippopotame, walks on the bottom as on dry ground. It makes a fort of hilling noife. The Indians Ihoot it with poifoned arrows : they cut the Ikin into bucklers; and eat the flelh, which is faid to be very good. It is a falacious, flow-footed, and fluggilh animal. Gu- Imila fays, it will make a vigorous refiftance if attack¬ ed, and fcarce fails flaying the dogs which it can lay hold of.—Dampier and Bancroft give very faulty de- fcriptions of this beaft, imagining it to be the fame with the hippopotame. TAPPING, in general, the aft of piercing a hole in a veflel, and applying a tube or canula in the aperture, for the commodious drawing off the liquor contained therein. Tapping, in furgery. See there, n° 487, 488. TAR, a thick, black, unftuou* fubftance obtain¬ ed chiefly^ from old pines and fir-trees by burning them with a clofe fmothering heat, much ufed in coat¬ ing and caulking Ihips, &c. It is prepared in diffe¬ rent parts of Germany, in North America, and in all countries where there is much wood. The wood is inclofed in a large oven, to the quantity of ten or more loads at a time : this Hands within another oven called the mantle, the fpace between them receiving the fire. Fi\>m the bottom of the inner oven there runs a gutter, by which the tar is conveyed off in proportion as it melts out from the wood. Along with the tar there runs out an acid fpirit or juice, by means of which part of the oily matter becomes fo- luble in water ; and it is owing to this that tar infu- fed ip water communicates to it a medical virtue. Tar when dillilled yields a kind of effential oil called oleum pint and oleum tacLe, which is greatly valued by pain¬ ters, varnilhers, &c. on account of its drying quality: it foon thickens of itfelf almoll to the confiftence of a balfam. Of late it has been found that the empyreumatic oil produced from pitcoal or culm anfwers the purpofes of tar diddled from wood. There is, however, the fame difference between the two that there is between a ve¬ getable and a bituminous empyreumatic oil. The procefs is much the fame as when wood is ufed. TARANTO, a fea port town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and ih the Terra de Otranto. It is a flrong and populous place, with an archbilhop’s fee, and the title of a principality. It is feated on a peninfula, and is defended by a flrong caftle; but the harbour is choaked up, which has hurt it very much. From this town the fpiders called tarantalus hav^ their name, whofe bite it was faid could not be cured but by }• See mufic and dancing; but this is now found to be falfe f. Aranea. E. Long. 17. 25. N. Lat. 40. 45. TARACON, an ancient, populous, and large town of France, in Provence, with a well-built caftle, and a chapter compofed of 15 canons; fcated on the river Rhone, in a pleafant fertile country, over-^gainfl Beaucaire, with which it communicates by a bridge of boats. E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 43. 48. TARAZONA, a ftrong town ofSpain, in the king¬ dom of Arragon, and on the frontiers of Old Caftile, with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated partly on a rock, and partly in a fertile plain, on the river Chiles. It was Vol. X. taken from the Moors in 1110. W. Long. r. 29. N. Lat. 4»• 55- TARE, is an allowance for the outfide package, that contains fuch goods as cannot be unpacked with¬ out detriment : or for the papers, threads, bands, &c. that inciofe or bind any goods imported loofe; or tho’ imported in calks, chefts, &c. yet cannot be un¬ packed and weighed neat. TARGET, a kind of Ihield or weapon of defence made nfe of by the ancients. TARGUM, a name whereby the Jews call the Chaldee paraphrafes or expofitions of the Old Tefta- ment in the Chaldee language. See Bible. TARIF, a table or catalogue containing the names of different forts of merchandize, with the duties to be paid as fettled by authority amongft trading na¬ tions. TARPA (Spurius Mecius), a Latin critic in the time of Julius Caefar and Auguftus. He had his tri¬ bunal in the temple of Apollo, where, with four af- fiftants, he palled fentence on the works of the poets. Cicero and Horace make honourable mention of this critic. TARPAULIN, a piece of canvas, well tarred over, to keep off the rain from any place. The term is alfo often applied in a burlefque fenfe to a perfon that has been all his life bred to the fea. TARPEIAN, in Roman antiquity, an appella¬ tion given to a deep rock in Rome; whence, by the law of the twelve tables, thofe guilty of certain crimes were precipitated. The rock took its name from Tarpeia, a veflal vir¬ gin who was killed by the Sabines, as related under the article Rome, n° 24. TARQUIN Elder, king of Rome, fucceeded Ancus Martius 615 B. C. He inftituted a new or¬ der of fenators, under the title of Patrej minorumgen¬ tium. Hi fignalized himfelf as a general, and dilco- - vered great tafte and magnificence in embellilhing the city of Rome. Pliny, who lived 800 years after him, fpeaks with aftonilhment of the fubterraneous aque- du&s which he caufed to be conftruftcd to carry off the filth from the city. Affaffinated by the fons of Ancus Martius, 577 B. C. See Rome, n° 35 — 40. Tarqjjin the Proud, a tyrant and ufurper, had ren¬ dered himfelf odious to the Romans by his pride and cruelty, when his fon, Sextus Tarquinius, having ra- vilhed Lucretia, occalioned that well-known revolu¬ tion which put an end to the monarchy, and efta- bliflied the republic of Rome. See the article Roms, n® 49. 51, &c. TARTAR, the faline incruftation depofited on the infides of calks in which wine is kept. See Chemistry, n® 291. Tartar Chalybeated. See Chemistry, n° 299. Tartar Emetic. See Chemistry, n0 455. Tartar Soluble. See Chemistry, n° 294. ! TAtiTAK Vitriolated. See Chemistry, n°ii9. TARTARY, or Tatary, a very large country of Afia, fituated between 57° and 160° of E. Long, reckoning from the weft end of the ifle of Ferro, and between 37° and 55° of Lat. It is bounded on the north by Siberia, or that part of Afia which belongs to Ruffia ; on tU weft by the rivers Don, the Wol- 52 U ga, Tare Tartary. TAR [ 8538 ] TAR ga, and Kama, which feparate it from Ruffia; on the 'fouth by the Euxine and Cafpian Seas, Karazm, the two Buckarias, China, and Korea ; and on the eaft, by the Oriental or Tartarian ocean. It extends from eaft to weft the fpace of 104 degrees in longitude, or 4r45 geographical miles; but its breadth is not pro¬ portionable, being not above 960 miles where broadeft, and where narrowed 330. This vaft region is divided into two great parts; the one called the IVeJlern, the other the Eajlern Tart ary. Weftern Tartary, which is much more extenfive than the Eaftern, containing 139 degrees of longitude out of 161, is inhabited by a great number of nations, or tribes of people, who are called MungU, or Mun- gali, by themfelves ; and Moguls or Tartan^ indiffe¬ rently, by other nations. The principal mountains, or rather chains of moun¬ tains, found in this part of Great Tartary, may be divided into three claffes: firft, thofe which run along the northern borders of it; and though, perhaps, not always contiguous, or of the fame denomination, go under the general name of Ulug Tdg* or Dag, that is, the Qreat Mountain. Secondly, thofe which make the fouthern bounds, and are called Kichug TSg, or the Lejfer Mountain. The third great chain is call¬ ed Mount Allay, lying nearly in the middle, between the Cafpian Sea and Eaftern Tartary, and extending between the other two, in about the noth degree of longitude. The principal rivers of Weftern Tartary, befidea the Dnieper, Don, and Wolga, are the Ja'ik, or Ya'ik, and Yem, both defeending from the Ulug Tag, and falling into the Cafpian Sea on the north fide : the ri¬ ver Ili, or Khonghis, which rifes out of the Kichug Tag, on the borders of Little Buckaria, and runs north-weft into the lake Palkafi, which is about 40 miles long, and 30 broad, in latitude 48°, longitude 970, reckoning from the ifle of Ferro: on this river the khan of the Eluths, or Kalmuks, ufually refides : the river Irtilh, Irtis, or Erchis, which rifes in Mount Altay, and runs weftard, inclining to the north, be¬ tween two branches of it, into the lake Sayfan, Saffan, or Ifan, called alfo Honhotu-Nor, 90 miles long from weft to eaft, and 40 broad, in latitude 470 30', longi¬ tude 104°; from whence iffuing again, it pafies north- weft, through part of Siberia, and falls into the Obi, which has its-fource in the fame mountain, about one degree to the north of that of the Irtifh ; and feven or eight degrees to the north-eaft rifes the Kem, or Jeni- fea, which runs weft ward for the fpace ef feven or eight degrees, and then turning northward enters Si¬ beria. The next river of note is the Selinga, which rifes out of the lake Kofogol, Hutuktu, or Khutuktu, which is 70 miles long from fouth to north, and 20 broad, in latitude 520, longitude 118°, not far from the-fource of the Janifea, and taking a fweep fouth- ward, round by the eaft, falls northward into the lake Baykal in Siberia, about 30.1eagues north-weft of the city Selinghinfkoy, which ftands upon it. Into the Selinga runs the Orkon, coming from the fouth-weft; and into the Orkon the Tula, rifing eaftward in Mount Kentey. On the fame mountain rifes alfo two other rivers, viz. the Onon, called alfo by the Tartars Sag- halian ifla, or the Dragon river, and by the Ruffians Amdr; which running north-eaftward, and then ta- Tartary. king a large fweep by the fouth, rolls along the bounds of Eaftern Tartary, and falls into the caftern Ocean. On its banks ftand two cities ; Nerchinfkoy, or Nipchew, a frontier of the Ruffians, almoft due north of Pekin in China ; and Saghalian Ula, poffefled by the Chinefe. Another large river in the Kerlon, or Kerulon, which running north-eaftward, falls into the lake Kulon, or Dalay, which is 60 miles long from fouth-weft to north-eaft, and 27 broad, in lati¬ tude 48° 30', longitude 1350, and iffuing out again under the name of Ergona, or Argun, joins the Sag¬ halian Ula, about 170 miles beyond Nerchinfkoy. To thefe let us add the river Kalka, from whence, tho’ fmall, the Kalka-Moguls, or Mongols, take their name. It rifes in the mountains, feparating Eaftern from Weftern Tartary, and, running weftward, falls into the lake Fair, and then into that of Kulon, be¬ fore fpoken of. In the middle of a defart, on the banks of the river Irtifh, is a remarkable piece of antiquity called Ssdm y Palate, or the feven palaces. See that article. Above the Sedmy Palaty, towards the fource of the Irtifh, grows the beft rhubarb in the world, without the lead culture. In a plain of this country alfo, about eight or ten days journey from Tomfky in Siberia, are found many tombs and burying-places of ancient he¬ roes, who in all probability fell in battle. Thefe tombs arc eafily diftinguifhed by tbe mounds of earth and ftone raifed over them ; the Tartars fay, Tamer¬ lane had many engagements in this country with the Kalmucks, whom he in vain endeavoured to conquer. Many perfons go from Tomfky, and other parts, every fummer, to thefe graves, which they dig up, and find among the afhes of the dead confiderable quantities of gold, filver, brafs, and fome precious ftones, but par¬ ticularly hilts of fwords and armour. They find alfo ornaments of faddles and bridles, and other trappings for horfes; and fometimes thofe of elephants. Whence it appears, that when any general or perfon of diftinc- tion was interred, all his arms, his favourite horfe and fervant, were buried with him in the fame grave; this cuftom prevails to this day among the Kalmucks and other Tartars, and feems to be of great antiquity. It appears from the number of graves, that many thou- fands muft have fallen in thofe places ; for the people have continued to dig for treafure many years, and ftill find it unexhaufted. They are, indeed, fometimes interrupted, and robbed of all their booty, by parties of Kalmucks, who abhor difturbing the afhes of the dead. Armed men on horfeback, caft in brafs, of no mean defign and workmanfhip, with the figures of deer caft in pure gold, have been dug out of thefe tombs. They once difeovered an arched vault, where they found the remains of a man, with his bow, lance, and other arms, lying on a filver table. On touching the body, it fell to dull. The value of the table and arms was very confiderable. Great quantities of a kind of ivory, called by the natives Mammons-horn, are found in this country and in Siberia, on the banks of the Oby. They are com¬ monly found on the banks of rivers that have been wafhed by floods. Some of them are very entire and frefh, like the beft ivory in all refpe&s, excepting only the colour, which is of _a yellowifh hue. In Sibe- tar [ 8539 ] TAR Tartary. ria they make fouff-boxes, combs, and divers forts of P" turnery ware of them. Some have been found weigh¬ ing above 100 pounds Englilh. The moft confiderable tribes in Weftern Tartary, next to the Kalmucks, are the Kalkas and Mungls, or Mongals, properly fo called. The country of the Kalkas extends eaftward, from mount Altay to the fource of the river Kalka, whence they derive their name, in the borders of Eaftern Tartary, and 139th degree of longitude. The territories of the Mungls, or Mongalla, lie to the fouth of thofe of the Kalkas, between them and the great wall of China, to which empire both nations are fubjeft. Befides thefe tribes, who are idolaters, of the religion of the Delay Lama, there are others, who poffefs that part of Weftern Tar¬ tary called Turkejian, the original country of the Turks and Turkmans, fituated to the north of Great Bukharia andKarazm, between thofe countries and the dominions of the Eluths. Under Weftern Tartary alfo is comprehended Tibet, Thibet, or Tobbut, fubjeft to the Delay Lama, or great high-prieft of the Pagan Tartars and Chinefe, In all the vaft region of Weftern Tartary there are but few towns, moft of the inhabitants living under tents, efpecially in fummer, and moving from place to place with their flocks and herds. They gene¬ rally encamp near fome river, for the convenience of water. The air of this country is temperate, wholefome, and pleafant, being equally removed from the ex¬ tremes of heat and cold. As to the foil, tho’ there are many mountains, lakes, and defarts in it, yet the banks of the rivers, and the plains, fome of which are of great extent, are exceeding fertile. The mountains, woods, and deferts, abound with venifon, game, and wild fowl ; and the rivers and lakes both with fifh and fowl. In particular, here are wild mules, horfes, and dromedaries, wild boars, feveral kinds of deer, a fpecies of goats with yellow hair, fquirrels, foxes ; an animal called hautehan, refembling an elk ; another called chulon, or chelifon, that feems to be a fort of lynx; and a creature called tael-pe, as fmall as an ermine, of whofe Heins the Chinefe make mantles to keep out the cold. Among other birds of extra¬ ordinary beauty, bred in this country, there is one called theJho?ikar, which is all over white except the beak, wings, and tail, which are of a very fine red. Notwithftanding the foil in many parts of Tartary is fo luxuriant, yet, we are told, it does not produce a Angle wood of tall trees of any kind whatever, excep¬ ting in fome few places towards the frontiers ; all the wood that is found in the heart of the country confift- ing of flirubs, which never exceed the height of a pike, and even tbefe are rare. It is remarkable, that in ail the vaft dominions of Mongalia, there is not fo much as a Angle houfe to be feen. All the people, even the prince and high- prieft, live conftantly in tents, and remove their cattle from place to place, as conveniency. requires. Thefe people do not trouble themfelves with ploughing or digging the ground in any fafhion, but are content with the produce of their flocks, though the foil is ex¬ ceeding fine, and capable, by proper culture, of producing grain of feveral forts. In the country of the Mongals the grafs is very thick and rank, and would, with, little labour, make Tartary. excellent hay. This graft is often fet on fire by the Mongals in the fpring, during high winds. At fuch times it burns mod furioufly, running like wild-fire, and fpreading its flames to the diftance of perhaps 10 or 20 miles, till its progrefs is interrupted by fome ri¬ ver or barren hill. The rapidity of thofe flames, their fmoke and crackling noife, Cannot eafily be con¬ ceived by thofe who have not feen them. When any perfon finds himfelf to the leeward of them, the only method by which he can fave himfclf from th6fr fury, is to kindle immediately the graft where he Hands, and follow his own fire. For this purpofe, every perfon is provided with flints, fteel, and tinder. The reafon why the Mongals fet fire to the grafs, is to procure early pafture to their cattle. The afties left upon the graft fink into the earth at the melting of the fnow, and prove an excellent manure ; fo that the grafs in the fpring rifes on the lands which have been prepared in this manner, as thick as a field of wheat. Caravans, travellers with merchandife, but efpecially armies, ne¬ ver encamp upon this rank graft ; and there are feve¬ ral inftances of confiderabie bodies of men being put in confufion, and eve"n defeated, by the enemy’s fel¬ ting fire to the graft. Eaftern Tartary, according to the limits ufually af- figned it by hiftorians and geographers, is bounded to the weft by Weftern Tartary, or by that part pofleffed by the proper Mungls and Kalkas; on the north, by Siberia ; on the eaft, by that part of the Oriental O- cean called the Tartarian Sea; and on the fouth by the fame fea, the kingdom of Korea, and the Yellow Sea, which feparates it from China. It is fituated between the 137th and 160th degrees of longitude, being about 900 miles long from fouth to north, and near as many in breadth from weft to eaft, yet but thinly peopled. This large region is at prefent di¬ vided into three great governments, all fubjedt to the Chinefe, viz. Shin-yang, or Mugden, Kurin-ula, and Tfitflkar. The government of Shin-yang containing all the ancient Lyau-tong or Quan-tong, is bounded on the fouth by the great wall of China and the Yellow Sea ; on the eaft, north, and weft, it is inclofed by a wooden palifade, feven or eight feet high, fitter to mark its bounds and keep out petty robbers- than to oppofe an army. The lands of this province are, for the general, very fertile, producing abundance of wheat, millet, roots, and cotton. They alfo afford pafture to great num¬ bers of ftteep and oxen, which are rarely feen in any of the provinces of China. They have indeed but little rice ; yet, to make amends, there is plenty of apples, pears, hazel-nuts, filberds, and chefnuts, even in the forefts. The eaftern part, which borders on the ancient country of the Manchews and kingdom of Korea, is full of deferts and bogs. The principal cities of this government are Shing-yang or Mugden, Fong-whang-ching, Inden, Ithew, and Kingchew. This country was the original feat of the Tartar tribe of the Manchews, who have been mailers of China above 100 years. The 'government of Kirin-ula-hotun is bounded weftward by the palifade of Lyau-tong ; on the eaft, by the Eaftern Ocean; fouthward, by the kingdom of 42 U 2 Korea, TAR [ 8540 ] TAR Tartly- Korea ; and on the north by the great river Sagha- " ^lian: fothat it extends no fewer than 12 degrees, and almoft 20 degrees in longitude, being 750 miles in length, and 600 in breadth. This vail country abounds in millet and oats, with a fort of grain unknown in Europe, called by the Chi- nefe may-fera^mi, as being of a middle kind between wheat and rice. It is wholefome, and much ufed in thofe cold regions. There is but little wheat or rice here ; but whether that is the fault of the foil or the inhabitants, we cannot affert. The cold begins much fooner in thefe parts than at Paris, whofe latitude is near 50 degrees. The forefts, which are very thick and large the nearer you advance to the Eaftern O- cean, contribute not a little to bring it on and keep it up. The banks of the rivers here, in fummer, are enamelled with a variety of flowers common in Eu¬ rope, excepting the yellow lilies, which are of a mod lively colour, in height and fliape exaflly refembling our white lilies, but are of a much weaker feent. But the plant which is mod edeemed, and draws a great * See number of herbalids into thefe deferts, is the gin-feng#, Panax. called by the Manchews orhota; that is, the chief or queen of plants. It is highly valued for its virtues in curing feveral difeafes,rand all decays of drength pro¬ ceeding from exceflive labour of body or mind. For this reafon it has always been the principal riches of Eadern Tartary; what is found in the north of Ko¬ rea being confumed in that kingdom- Formerly the Chinefe ufed to get into the gin-feng country among the mandarins and foldiers continually paffing ; but, in 1700, the emperor Kang-hi, that his Manchews might reap this advantage, ordered 10,000 of his foldiers, encamped without the great wall, to go and gather it, on condition that each Ihould give him two ounces of the bed, and take an equal weight of fine filver for the remainder : by which means the em¬ peror got in that year 20,000 pounds of it for lefs than one-fourth of the price it bears at Pekin. The root is the only part that is ufed medicinally. Its va¬ lue is enhanced by its age, for the larged and firmed are the bed. This country abounds alfo in fine fables, grey ermines, and black foxes. One of the tribes of Tartars inhabiting this country are called the Tu pi Tartars, whofe manner of life is fomewhat extraordinary. All the fummer they fpend in filhing : one part of what they catch is laid up to make oil for their lamps; another ferves for their daily food ; and the red, which they dry in the fun, with¬ out faking, for they have no fait, is laid up for their winter’s provifions, whereof both men and cattle eat when the rivers are frozen. Notwithdanding this diet, a great deal of drength and vigour appears in mod of thefe poor people. Their raiment confids ofthefkins of fifh, which, after drefling and dyeing of three or four colours, they fhape and few in fo delicate a man¬ ner, that one would imagine they made ufe of filk, till, on ripping a ditch or two, you perceive an ex¬ ceeding fine thong, cut out of a very thinflcin. When the rivers are frozen, their fledges are drawn by dogs trained up for the purpofe, and highly valued. Although the Manchew language is as much ufed at the court of Pekin as the Chinefe, and all public afls are drawn up in the one as well as the other ; yet it began to decline, and would probably have been lod, had not the Tartars taken great pains to pre- Tartary ferve it, by tranflating Chinefe books, and compiling diftionaries, under the emperor’s patronage. Their language is Angular in this refpeft, that the verb dif¬ fers as often as the fubdantive governed by it: or, which is the fame thing, to every different fubdantive they ufe a different verb ; as for indance, when they would fay, make a verfe, a picture, ajiatue} for tho* the repetition of the fame verb in difeourfe might be excufable, it is with them unpardonable in writing, as making a mondrous grating to their ears. Another Angularity of their language is the co- pioufnefs of it : for inftance, befides names for each fpecies of animals, they have words to expref* their fe¬ veral ages and qualities. Judagen is the general name for a dog ; but tayka fignities a dog who has very long and thick hair both on his ears and tail; and yelo, a dog with a long thick muzzle and tail, large ears, and hanging lips. The horfe, as more ferviceable to them, has 20 times more names than the dog ; almoll every motion of him giving occafion to a different name. Where they could get that adoniftiing multitude of names and terms, is not eafy to determine. On) the weft are the Mungls, but in the two lan¬ guages there are fcarcely eight words alike. They un- derdand nothing of the language of a few favage na¬ tions on the ead and north. As to the Koreans, their language and letters being Chinefe, have no refem- blance to the Manchews. It is faid, they have above 60 letters in their alphabet, but only one fort of cha- rafter. They write from the top to the bottom of the paper, like the Chinefe, but four different ways, according to the occafion, as in other countries. They commonly write with a pencil, though fome ufe a kind of bamboo pen ; but the pencil holds ink better, and moves more freely on the paper. The Mancbews think their language the mod elegant, as well as the mod copious, in the world ; and imagine there is no rendering the fenfe of it, much lefs the majedy of its dyle, in any other language: yet they cannot exprefs all founds, as they want the letters B and D, ufing P and T in their dead ; nor can write words in which two confonants come together, without inferring a vowel between them. Their tranfitions likewife are fo few, that they are much puzzled how to connedl their written difeourfes. In other refpefts it muft bet allowed to be a madcrly language, and as full of terms perhaps as the Arabic itfelf. This country is but thinly peopled, and contains only four cities, namely, Kirinula-hotun or Khotun, Pedne or Petuna, Ninguta, and Putay-ula-hotun, which are very ill-built, and encompaffed with no better than mud-walls. The fird dands on the river Songari, and is the refidence of the Manchew gene¬ ral, who has all the privileges of a viceroy, and com¬ mands the mandarines as well as the troops. Nin¬ guta, which the family now reigning in China con- fiders as its antient patrimony, is fituated on the Hur- kapira, which runs northward into the Songasri. Its name is compounded of two Tartarian words which fignify feven chiefs, to exprefs the rife of the Man¬ chew kingdom, which was fird _eftablilhtd by feven brothers of the late emperor Kanghi’s great-grand¬ father’s father. The tribe of the Manchews, who inhabit a part of TAR [ 8541 ] TAR Tartary. of Eaftern Tartary, and are lords of all the other in- habitants thereof, are called by the Ruffians Bogdoy; and the emperor of China, Bogdoy khan, and Amiilon Bogdoy khan. The third government into which Eaftern Tartary is divided, is that of Tfitfikar. It is 740 miles long, and 600 broad; and belongs partly to China, and part¬ ly to Ruffia. The people are great hunters, dexterous archers, and pay their tribute in fable-lkins; each fa¬ mily being aflefled two or three, or more a-year, ac¬ cording to the numbers of able perfons. This province is inhabited chiefly by three forts of Tartars, the Manchews, the Solons, and Taguri, of whom the firft are matters. The Taguri are a large robuft people, but not very numerous. They live in houfes or huts, and cultivate barley, oats, and millet. Their cattle are principally borfes, dromedaries, oxen, cows, and fheep. They make much ufe of their oxen to ride on. The Solons alfo are a brave robuft people. Their drefs is a fhort jacket of wolves fkins, with a cap of the fame; and they have long cloaks, made of fox or tigers Ikins, to defend them againft the cold, efpecial- ly of the night. They hang their bows at their backs. Their women ride on horfeback, drive the plough, hunt flags and other game. Befides the country towns or villages, there are three cities in the province of Tfitfikar, namely, Tlit- fikar, Merghen, and Saghalian-ula-hotun. The gar- rifon of Tfitlikar, the capital, confifts of Manchews; but the inhabitants are moftly Chinefe. According to their own account, they are all ftiammans, or con¬ jurors, and invoke the devil with frightful cries. They give their dead two burials, firft leaving a hole at top of the grave, where the relations daily bring vic¬ tuals, which they convey to the mouth of the decea- fed with a fpoon, and leave drink in fraail tin cups, Handing round the grave. This ceremony holds for feveral weeks, after which they bury the body deeper in the ground. Several rivers in this country produce pearls, which, tho’ much cried up by the Tartars, would be little va¬ lued by Europeans, on account of their dcfe&s in fhape and colour. The kingdoms or countries of Corea, Lyau-tong, and Nyu-che, forming a part of Katay, Kitay, or Ca¬ thay, and by fome included under E:ftern Tartary, are more properly provinces of China, tho’ they lie with¬ out the great wall. UJbeck Tartary. To the north and north-eaft of Perlia lie the countries of Karafm, and Great and Little Bukharia, which being moftly fubjedl to and inhabited by the tribe of Ufbeck Tartars, are com¬ monly known by the general name of UJbeck Tartary. The kingdom of Karafm was known to the ancient Greeks, as appears from Herodotus, Ptolemy, and other authors of that nation, by the name of Khoraf- vita. At prefent it is bounded on the north by the country of Turkeftan, and the dominions of the great khan of the Eluthsor Kalmuks; on the eaft, by Great Bukharia, from which it is feparated partly by the mountains of Irdar, and partly by the defarts of Ka- rak and Gaznah ; on the fouth, by the provinces of Afterabad and Khoraflan, belonging to Iran, or Perfia at large, from which it is divided by the river lihun or A mu, and fundry deferts of a vaft extent; and on Tartar}-, the weft by the Cafpian Sea. It may be about 440 miles in length from fouth to north, and 300 from weft to eaft; being fituated between the 39th and 46th degrees of north la¬ titude, and the 71ft and 77th degrees of eaft longi¬ tude. The country confifts, for the moft part, of vaft fandy plains, fome of which are barren defarts, but others afford excellent pafture. There is good land in feveral of the provinces, where vines grow, and wine is made ; but water being fcarce, a great part of the country turns to no account. Karafm owes all its fertility to three rivers and a lake. The rivers are the Amu, Khefil, and Sir. The Amu, as it is called by the Ufbecks and Perfians, is the Jihun of the Arabs, and Oxus of the ancient Greeks. It has its fource in thofe high mountains which feparate Little Bukharia from the dominions of the Great Mogul; and, after paffing through Great Bukharia and Korafm, divides into two branches, one of which falls into the Khefil, and the other into the Cafpian Sea, towards the borders of the province of Aftarabad. The Amu abounds with all forts of ex¬ cellent fifti, and its banks are the moft charming in the world. Along them grows thofe excellent melons and other fruits fo much efteemedin Perfia, the Indies, and Ruffia. The river Khefil rifes in the mountains to the north- eaft of the province of Samarkant, and falls into the lake of Aral or Eagles, 50 or 60 miles below its jun&ion with a branch of the Amu. Its banks are ex¬ ceeding fertile wherever they arc cultivated. The Sir, or Daria, rifes in the mountains to the eaft of Little Bukharia, and after a long courfe weftward, along the borders of the Bukharias and Karafm, falls at laft into the lake Aral. Karafm is at prefent inhabited by three forts of people, the Sarts, Turkmans, and Ufbeck Tartars. With regard to the firft of thefe, we are told, that they are the ancient inhabitants of the country, or thofe who were fettled there before the Ufbecks became matters of it; and that they fupport themfelves like the Turkmans, by their cattle and hufbandry. The Turkmans, or Turkomans, came originally from Tur¬ keftan, or the parts of Tartary to the north of Ka¬ rafm and Great Bukharia, towards the nth century. They divided into two parties ; one of which went round the north fide of the Cafpian Sea, and fettled in the weftern parts of the Greater Armenia, from thence called Turkomania, or the country of the Turko¬ mans. The fecond party turned fouth, and refted about the banks of the river Amu and the fhores of the Cafpian Sea, where they ftill poffefs a great many towns and villages, in the countries of Karafm and Aflarabad. The name of UJbecks, which the ruling tribe of the Tartars of Karafm and Great Bukharia bear at pre¬ fent, is derived from one of their khans. The Ufbecks of Karafm are divided into feveral hords, and live for the moft part by rapine ; refembling in all refpedfs thofe of Great Bukharia, excepting that they are much more rude and uncivilized. Like the Turk¬ mans, they dwell in winter in the towns and villages which are towards the middle of Korafm; and in fum- mer the greater part of them encamp in the neigh¬ bourhood. TAR [ 8542 ] T A S Taftary, bourhood of the Amu, or in other places where they 1 ‘,niBI' can meet with pafture for their cattle, always watch¬ ing for fome convenient opportunity to rob and plun¬ der. They never ceafe making ineurfions upon the adjacent territories of Perfia or Great Bukharia, and are to be reftrained by no treaties or engagements ■whatfoever. Although they have fixed habitations, yet, in travelling from one place to another, they carry with them all their effe&s of value, conformable to the way of living in ufe among their anceftors before they had fettled dwellings. Thefe Tartars, it is faid, never ride without their bow, arrows, and fword, although it be in hawking or taking any other diverfion. They have no arts or fciences among them, neither do they till or fow. They are great devourers of flelh, which they cut in fmall pieces, and eat greedily by handfuls, efpecially horfe- ilefh. Their chief drink is four mare’s milk, like that in ufe with the Nogays. They eat their viduals upon the ground, fitting with their legs double under them; which is their pofture alfo when they pray. All thefe tribes have abundance of camels, horfes, and fheep, both wild and tame. Their fheep are ex¬ traordinary large, with great tails weighing 60 or 80 pounds. There are many wild horfes in the country, which the Tartars frequently kill with their hawks. Thefe birds are taught to feize upon the head or neck of the bead, which being tired with toiling to get rid of this cruel enemy, the hunter, who follows his game, comes up and kills him. Some travellers tell us, that the inhabitants of this country have not the ufe of gold, filver, or any other coin, but barter their cattle for neceffaries. Others tell us, that they have money, particularly a piece of filver called tanga, the value near the fourth-part of a crown. It is round, and has on one fide the name of the country, and on the other that of the khan with the year of the hejirah. There are alfo, it is faid* fmall pieces of copper, of different fizes, which anfwer to our pence, half-pence, and farthings. As to the government of Karafm, the Ufbecks being rnafters, it is commonly vetted in divers princes of that tribe of the fame houfe ; of whom, notwithftanding, only one has the title of khan, with a kind of fupe- riority over the others. This khan has no fort of de¬ pendence on him of Great Bukharia, or any other prince. Bukharia, Bokharia, Bokaria, Bogaria, or Boharia, is the name given to all that region or trad of land lying between Karafm and the Great Kobi, or Sandy I)efert, bordering on China. It is divided into the Great and Little Bukharia ; for an account of which fee the article Bukharia. TARTINI (Signior), a very celebrated Italian compofer and performer on the violin, was born at Pirano in Iftria in 1692 ; where, having in his early youth manifefted an attachment to an unworthy ob- je£t, bis father flint him up : it was during this con¬ finement, that, amufinghimfelf withmufical inftruments, he accidentally difeovertd the feeds of his mufical ta¬ lents. He was engaged in 1722 as a performer in the church of St Anthony at Padua, in which capa¬ city he officiated as long aa he lived ; and wrote fe- veral treatifes on mafic. A Angular anecdote is re¬ lated of him, which ferves to (how to what a degree Ta his imagination was animated by a genius for compo- fition. He dreamed one night, in 1713, that he had made a compaft with the devil, who promifed to be at his fervice on all occafions ; and in the courfe of their acquaintance prefented his new friend with his violin to try what kind of a mufician he was. To his great aftoniffiment,. he heard the devil play a folo fo exquifitely beautiful, that he awaked in a tranfport, and, feizing his fiddle, endeavoured in vain to exprefs what he thought he had juft heard : however, he then compofed a piece, which is perhaps the beft of all his works; and called it The devil's fonata. He died in 1770 ; and left to the profeflbr Colombo the care of a pofthumous work, of which, as Dr Burney relates, though it is chiefly mathematical, the.theory of found makes a confiderable part. TASSO (Torqugto), a juftly celebrated Italian poet, was born at Sorrento in the kingdom of Naples, in 1544. He was the fon of Bernardo Taflb, the au¬ thor of feveral ingenious compofitions both in verfe and profe; and of Portia de Roffi, a lady of an illu- ftrious family of Naples. His father being obliged to accompany the prince of Salerno to the emperor- Charles V. upon a depu¬ tation from Naples to remonftrate againft ere&ing the inquifition there, committed the care of his fon, then three years old, to Angeluzza, a man of great learn¬ ing ; who, we are told, -at this tender age began to teach him grammar: it four he was fent to the Je- fuits college, and at >f$x*n was well acquainted with Latin and Greek. At-12 years of age he went from Rome to Mantua, ifhere his father had entered into the fervice of the duke Guglielmo Gonzaga : he had then compleated his knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages ; he was well acquainted with rhetoric and poetry, and a matter of Arittotle’s ethics ; he had alfo ftudied the precepts of Mauritio Cataneo with parti¬ cular attention, and ever after reverenced him as a fe- cond father. He was foon after fent to the univerfity of Padua ; and, in his 18th year, publiflied his Rinaldo, a poem written upon the plan of Homer’s Odyffey. This extended his reputation throughout all Italy; but greatly difpleafed his father, who forefaw that it would feduce him from ftudies of more advantage. He went to Padua, to remonftrate againft his apparent pur- pofe of giving himfelf up to philofophy and poetry, and made ufe of many very harfh exprtfiions, which Taflb heard with a patience and tranquillity that made the old gentleman Hill more angry : “ Of what ufe is that philofophy on which you value yourfelf fo much?” 44 It has enabled me (replied Taflb) to endure the harflmefs of your reproofs.” He foon after went to Bologna, by the invitation of the city and college ; but in a little time returned to Padua at the prefling inftances of Scipio Gonzaga, who had been eledled prince of the academy that had been eftabliflied in that city by the name of the JEtherei. He was incorporated into this fociety, and took upon himfelf the name of Pentito. In this retreat he formed the defign of his Jerusa¬ lem Delivered, invented the fable, difpofed the parts, and determined to dedicate it to the houfe of Efte; but whether to Alphonfo II. the laft duke of Per- T A S [ 8543 ] T A S Taflb. rara, or his brother the cardinal Luigi, to whom 1 he had already dedicated his Rinaldo, he was yet in doubt. Being preffed by both the brothers to refide with them at Ferrara, be confented. The duke gave bim an apartment in his palace, where he lived in peace and affluence, and profecuted his work; which he now determined to dedicate to the duke, and which was ppbliffled by his patrons, book by book as he finiffled them. When he was about 27, he publifhed a paftoral co¬ medy called Aminta; which was received with univer- fal applaufe, as a mafter-piece in its kind, and is the original of the Paftor Fido and Filli di Sciro. In the 30th year of his age he finiflied his Jerufa- lem, and the whole was reprinted and publifhed toge¬ ther: the fuccefs of it was .aftonifhing ; it was tranf- Jated into Latin, French, Spanifh, and even the Orien¬ tal languages, almoft as foon as it appeared. But it was Taffb’s fate to become wretched from the iftoment that he gained the fummit of reputation : very foon after his Jerufakm was publifhed, he loft his father, who died at Oftia upon the Po, the govern¬ ment of which place had been given him by the duke of Mantua; his Jerufalem was attacked by a fwarm of ignorant, but petulant critics, who gave the prefe¬ rence to the rhapfodies of Pulci and Boyardo ; and the perfidy of a friend drew upon him much greater mif- fortunes. This friend was a gentleman of Ferrara, to whom Taflb had indifcreetly communicated fome tranfac- tions of a very delicate nature concerning his pa¬ tron the duke, with whom he lived. This fecret be¬ ing betrayed, Taffo reproached his friend for his trea¬ chery ; and this reproach was retorted in fuch a man¬ ner as provoked Taflb to ftrike him. A challenge im¬ mediately enfued, and the opponents met and enga¬ ged ; but during the rencounter, three brothers of TafTo’s antagonift came up, and all fell upon him toge¬ ther: Taffo defended himfelf fo well, that he wound¬ ed two of them, and kept his ground againft the o- thers till fome people came up and parted them. This made a great noife at Ferrara, where nothing was talk¬ ed of but the valour of Tafib ; and it became a kind of proverb, “ That TafTo, with his pen and his fword, was fuperior to all men.” The duke being informed of the quarrel, banifhed the brothers from his dominions, confifcated their eftates, and TafTo himfelf he fhut up in prifon under pretence of fecuring him from any future attacks of his enemies. TsfTo found means to efcape from this confinement, after having fuffered it about a year ; and, being now about 34 years of age, retired to Turin, where he was foon known and recommended to the duke of Sa¬ voy, who fhowedbim many marks of efteem and affec¬ tion: but Taffo, fearing that the duke of Ferrara would require bim to be delivered up, and that then the duke of Savoy would choofe rather to comply than forfeit the friendftiip of that prince, precipitately fet out for Rome alone, and without proper neceffaries for fuch ajourney. He got fafe, however, to Rome ; where he went dire£lly to bis friend Mauritio Cataneo, who received him with great kindnefs, and the whole city feemed to rejoice at the prefence of fo extraordinary a perfon. He was vifited by princes, cardinals, prelates, and all Taffo. the learned in general. But being impatient of exile, he took meafures to make his peace with the duke, and fucceeded. The duke received him with great appearance of fatisfaflion, and gave him frefti marks of his efteem. But Taffo having made fome attempts on the prin- •cefs Leonora, whom he has celebrated in feveral of his verfes, the duke her brother, believing, or pre¬ tending to believe, that his ill condud proceeded from a difordered underftanding, caufed him to be ftridtly confined in the hofpital of St Anne. Taffo applied to the duke, by every friend he had, to releal'e him from this confinement; but the duke coldly anfwered, that inftead of endeavouring to procure the enlargement of a perfon in his condition, they ought rather to exhort him to fubmit patiently to fuch remedies as was judged proper for him, Taffo was certainly difordered in his mind, whether as the effeft or caufe of this confine¬ ment: he was confcioue that he laboured under fome diftemper, and he believed the caufe of it to be fuper- natural, and fancied himfelf haunted by a fpirit that continually difordered his books and papers; to which,- however, the tricks played him by his keepers might contribute. He continued, notwithftanding, to foli- cit the interpofition of all the powers in Italy, to whom he could find means to apply, particularly the emperor and the pope ; but without fuccefs. At laft, after he had been a prifoner feven years, Vincentio Gonzaga prince of Mantua came to Ferrara among other great perfonages, during the feftivalsand rejoi¬ cings that were held there on the marriage of Casfar of Efte with Virginia of Medicis, procured his liberty, and took him with him to Mantua, he being then in the 42d year of his age. At Mantua he lived about a year in great favour with the prince, and in all the fplendour and af¬ fluence which the favour of great princes confers : but he was weary of a ftate of dependence, however fplen- did and luxurious; and therefore refolved to go to Naples, and endeavour to recover his mother’s join¬ ture, which had been feized by her relations when he went into exile with his father Bernardo. With this view, he procured letters of recommendation to the viceroy ; and having taken leave of the prince of Mantua, he went firft to Bergamo, where he ftaid fome time, and from thence proceeded to Naples. At Naples he immediately commenced a fuit at law for the recovery of his right, and divided his time be¬ tween a profecution of that and his ftudies. But du¬ ring the fummer he retired to Bifaccio, with one Giovanni Batifta Manfo, with whom he had contradt- ed an intimate friendfhip. Taffo, who was now in his 45th year, appeared to Manfo, while they were at Bilaccio, to be affedfed with a melancholy, which had very Angular effedls : he therefore very frequently queftioned him about them; and Taffo told him that he bad a familiar fpi¬ rit, with whom he frequently and freely converfed. Manfo treated this as an illufion, but Taffo ftill affirm¬ ed it to be real ; and telling him that the fpirit would meet and converfe with him the next day, invited him to be prefent. Manfo coming at the hour appointed, faw Taffo fix his eyes with great earneftnefs upon a window, and perceiving him to continue without mo¬ tion- T A S [ 8544 ] T A S Taflb. tlon, he called him feveral times by his name; Taflb “made no reply, but at length cried out with great ve¬ hemence, “ There is the friendly fpirit that is come to converfe with me ; look, and be convinced that what I have faid is true.” Manfo looked, not with¬ out fome furprife, but faw nothing except the fun- beams which (hone through the window: he was juft going to afk where the pretended fpirit was, when he was prevented byTaffo's fpeaking with great earneft- nefs to fome imaginary being, fometimes putting que- ftions,' and fometimes giving anfwcrs, in a manner fo pleafing, and with fuch elevation of exprdfion, that Manfo had no defire to interrupt him : the converfa- tion at laft ended by the fuppofed departure of the fpirit; when Taffo, turning round to his friend, alked if his doubts were removed ; to which he made no re¬ ply, being fo much amazed that he gladly waved all farther converfation on the fubjeft. Finding his law-fuit not likely to be foon determi¬ ned, he went from Naples to Rome, where heronti- nued about a year, in high favour with Pope Sextus Qm'ntus; and then went to Florence, at the preffing invitation of Ferdinsndo grand duke of Tufcany, who had been cardinal at Rome when Taffo firft refided there. Having fpent about another year at Florence, he returned again to Naples ; and there applied himfelf to corredl his Jcrufalem Delivered. Soon after the publication of this work, Hippolito Aldrobandini fuc- ceeded Sextus Quintus to the papacy, by the name of Clement the VIltk\ and his two nephews, Cynthio and Pietro Aldrobandini, were created cardinals. Cyn¬ thio, who was a great patron of learning and genius, and had known Taffo when he laft refided at Rome, prevailed with him once more to leave his retreat at Naples, and live with him in that city. Here he con¬ tinued till his 50th year; and being then again weary of his fituation, and defirous to profecute his law-fuit, he obtained permifiion to retire once more to Naples, where he took up his abode with the Benedi&ine fa¬ thers, in the c&nvent of St Severin. Cardinal Cyn¬ thio, however, found means to recal him again to Rome, after a very (hort abfence,by having prevailed •with the Pope to confer upon him the honour of be¬ ing publicly and folemnly crowned with laurel in the . Capitol. He fet out from Naples to receive this honour, with a prefage that he fhould never return ; and arrived at Rome in the beginning of the year 1595, being then about 51 years old: he was met at the entrance of the city by many prelates and perfons of diftinftion, and was introduced by the two cardinals to the Pope, who complimented him by faying, “ That his merit would confer as much honour on the laurel he was about to receive, as the laurel had formerly conferred on others.” Orders were immediately given to deco¬ rate not only the Pope’s palace and the Capitol, but all the principal ftreets through which the proceflion was to pafs : but Taffo, whether from an habitual dejeftion of mind, or a fecret fenfation of the firft approaches of a difeafe which he apprehended would be fatal, declared that all thefc pompous preparations would be in vain. It happened, that while they were waiting for fair weather to celebrate the folemnity, cardinal Cynthio fell fick; and, before he was perfeftly recovered, Taffo Taficl, himfelf was taken ill, and died on the 15th day of bis Tafte* ficknefs, aged 51. His poems have acquired him an immortal reputation. The principal of them are, 1. Jerufalem delivered. 2. Jerufalem conquered. 3. Rt- naldo. 4. The Seven Days of the Creation. 5. The tragedy of Torimond. 6. Aminta, See. All Taffo’s works were printed together at Florence in 1724, in fix volumes folio, with the pieces for and againlt his Jerufalemn delivered. A pompous edition of this laft poem was printed at Venice in 1745, *n fol’0- The heft edition of Mirebaud’s French tranflation is that of Paris in 1735, in two volumes duodecimo. His minta and Gierufalemme liberata, have been tranflated into Englifh. TASSEL, a fort of pendsnt ornament at the cor¬ ners of a cufhion or the like.—In building, taffels de¬ note thofe pieces of board that lie under the ends of the mantlet-trees. TASTE, in phyfiology, a peculiar fenfation1 ex¬ cited by means of the organs of tafte, viz. the papillae on the tongue. See Anatomy, n° 403. Intelleftual Taste. See Morals, n° 179—183. The external fenfe with which nature has furnifhed us, and by which we difliinguifh and rd fh the various kinds of nourifhment that arc adapted to health and pleafure, has in all languages given occafion to the metaphorical word tajle, by which we exprefs our perception of beauty, deformity, or defe&, in the feveral arts. Talle then, in general, is a quick dif- cernment, a fudden perception, which, like the fen¬ fation of the palate, anticipates refleftion ; like the palate, it relifhes what is good with an exquifite and voluptuous fenfibility, and rejefts the contrary with loathing and difguft; like the palate alfo, it is often doubtful, and, as it were, bewildered, not knowing whether it fliould relifh or rejed certain objeds, and frequently requires the influence of habit to give it a fixed and uniform determination. To have a tafte, fuppofes fomething more than merely to perceive, and to difeern with accuracy the beauty of any work or objed. This beauty mult be felt, as well as perceived; the mind muft be touched and affeded by it in a lively and fenfible manner. This feeling however, in order to conftitute true tafte, muft not be a vague and confufed fenfation; but muft be attended with a diftind view, a quick and compre- henfive difeernment of the various qualities, in their feveral relations and connedions, which enter into the compofition of the objed we contemplate. And in this we fee another ftriking refemblance between the intelledual tafte and the fenfualone: for as a nice palate perceives immediately the mixture of different wines, fo the man of tafte will quickly difeern the motley mixture of different ftyles in the fame produdion ; and, let the beauties and defeds be ever fo clofely blended in an objed, will always be capable of di- ttinguilhing the former from the latter. As the corruption of the fenfual tafte difeovers itfelf by a relilh for only thofe delicate and high feafoned difhes, in which all the refinements of art have been employed to excite a forced fenfation of pleafure; fo the depravity of the intelledual tafte manifefts itfelf by an attachment to far-fetched and fludied orna¬ ments, and by a want of relifh for thofe beauties which T A S [ 8*45 ] T A S which are unaffe&ed and natural. The corruption of the fenfual tafte, which makes us delight in fj^ch ali¬ ments as are'difgufting to thofe whofe organs are in a good flate, is in reality a kind of difeafe; nor is that depravity of the intelle&ual tafte which makes many prefer the b.urlefque to the fublime, and the la¬ boured ftiffnefs of art to the beautiful fimplicity of na¬ ture, lefs a difeafe in our mental frame. The intelleftual tafte is much more formed by edu¬ cation and culture, than the fenfual one: for though the latter may be brought, by habit, to relifh what at firft excited loathing and difguft ; yet it does not feem to have been the intention of nature, that the generality of mankind fhould acquire by cuftom and experience thofe fenfations and perceptions which are necelfary to their prefervation. It is otherwife with the intelleftual tafte : its formation requires time, in- ftruftion, and experience. A young man uninftrufted in the arts of mufic and painting, let his natural fen- fibility be ever fo quick and lively, will not immedi¬ ately diftinguifh, in a grsnd concert of mufic, the various parts whofe conne&ion and relation conftitute the effence and charm of the compofition ; nor will he perceive in a pidfure the gradations of light and ftiade, that harmony of colours, that corre&nefs of defign, which charadterife a finifhed piece: but in procefs of time, and alfo by degrees, he learns both to hear and to fee in a more perfect manner. The fame unin- llrudled perfon will find a variety of emotions arife in bis mind the firft time he is prefent at the reprefenta- tion of a fine tragedy : but he will neither perceive the dexteHty of the author in maintaining the unities; nor that exquifite art by which the drama is fo ma¬ naged, that no perfon enters upon the feene nor quits it without an evident reafon; nor yet that ftill more nice and difficult art of making the various fubordinate interefts terminate and centre in one, which abforbs them all. It is only by the force of habit and reflec¬ tion that he will diftinguifti thefe feveral objedls of tafte, and feel delightful fenfations from circumftances of which formerly he had little or no idea. Elegant and able artifts may communicate their feelings and their difeernment to others, and thus ex¬ cite tafte in a nation, which, without them, had never known its refined pleafures. By frequently con¬ templating the works of great and eminent mailers in the various arts, the powers of nature arife into tafte; and we imbibe, as it were, the fpirit of thefe illuftrious men, fo as to come at length to look at a gallery of paintings with the eyes of a Le Brun, a Pouffin, ora X.e Sueur; nay, we even read works of learning and genius with a portion of that fpirit that appears in their compofition. If, in the firft periods of the culture of the arts and fciences, it has fometimes happened, that a whole na¬ tion have been unanimous in the praife of authors full of defefls, and whom fucceeding ages have beheld with indifference, and even with comtempt; the reafon is, that thefe authors had natural beauties which were perceived by all, while that juft difeernment that was ueceffary to diftinguilh their numerous defedls, and* which is lefs the gift of nature than the refult of time, habit, and refleftion, was as yet acquired by none. Thus Lucilius, who had been in the higheft reputa¬ tion among the Romans, funk into oblivion when Vol. X. Horace arofe ; and Regnier was univerfally admired Tafte. by the French, until Boileau appeared ; and if there are feveral ancient authors who have maintained their credit, notwithftanding the abfurdities that are to be found in every page of their writings, it mult be the authors of thofe nations among whom no judicious and correft writer has appeared to open their eyes, like Horace among the Romans, and Boileau among the French. It is a common faying, that there is no difputing about taftes: and if by the tafte here be underftood the palate, which loaths certain aliments and relffties others, the maxim is juft ; becaufe it is needlefs to difpute about what cannot be corredled, or to attempt reforming the conftitution and mechanifm of organs merely corporeal. But the maxim is falfe and per¬ nicious, when applied to that intelledlual tafte which has for,its objects the arts and fciences. As thefe objefts have real charms, fo there is in reality a good tafte which perceives them, and a bad one which per¬ ceives them not ; and there are certain methods by which we may often corredl thofe mental deft&s which produce a depraved tafte. But it muff be granted, at the fame time, that there are certain phleg¬ matic fpirits which nothing can enflame ; and alfo certain diftorted intelleds which it is impoffible to re&ify: with fuch, therefore, it is in vain to difpute about tafte, becaufe they have none at all. In many things tafle feems to be of an arbitrary nature, and without any fixed or uniform direflion ; fuch as in the choice of drefs and equipage, and in every thing that does not come within the circle of the finer arts. In this low fphere it fhould be diftin- guifhed by the name of fancy; for it is fancy, rather than tafte, that produces fuch an endlefs variety of new and contradidlory modes. The tafte of a nation may degenerate and become extremely depraved ; an! it almoft always happens, that the period of its perfedlion is the forerunner of its decline. Artifts, through the apprehenfion of being regarded as mere imitators, ftrike out into new and uncommon paths, and turn afide from the beautiful fimplicity of nature, which their predeceffors invari¬ ably kept in view. In thefe efforts there is a certain degree of merit, which arifes from indullry and emu¬ lation, and cafts a veil over the defeds which accom¬ pany their produdions. The public, fond of novelty, applauds their invention; but this applaufe is foon fucceeded by fatiety and difguft. A new fet of artifts ftar up, invent new methods to pleafe a capricious tafte, and depart ftill further from nature than thofe who firft ventured from its paths into the wilds of fancy. Thus the tafte of a people degenerates into the groffeft corruption. Overwhelmed with new in¬ ventions, which fucceed and efface each other with incredible rapidity, they fcarccly know where they are, and caft back their eager and anxious defires to¬ wards the period when true taft.e reigned under the empire of nature. But they implore its return in vain ; that happy period cannot be recalled; it depofits, however, in the cuftody of certain choice fpirits, the fublime pleafures of true tafte, which they cherifh and enjoy in their little circle, remote from the pro¬ fane eye of the depraved and capricious multitude. There are vaff countries where tafte has not yet 42 X Lctn Tarte. T A S [ 8546 ] T A S been able to penetrate. Such are thofe uncultivated 'waftes, where civil fociety has never been brought to any degree of perfeftion, where there is little inter- courfe between the fexes, and where all reprefentations of living creatures in painting and fculpture are fevere- ly prohibited by the laws of religion. Nothing ren¬ ders the mind fo narrow, and fo little, if we may ufe that expreflion, as the want of focial intercourfe; this confines its faculties, blunts the edge of genius, damps every noble pafiion, and leaves in a ftate of languor and inaftivity every principle that could contribute to the formation of true tafte. Befides, where feveral of the finer arts are wanting, the reft mull necefiarily languilh and decay, fince they are infeparably con- ne&ed together, and mutually fupport each other. This is one reafon why the Afiatics have never ex¬ celled in any of the arts ; and hence alfo it is that true tafte has been confined to certain countries in Europe. Tastes of fubjlances, particularly Vegetables. The ancients, particularly Ariftotle, and Theophraftus, enumerate only feven primitive taftes : 1. Sweet. 2. Fat. 3. Acid. 4. Acrid. 5. Auftere or harfti. 6. Acerb. 7. Salt, and bitter, Thefe laft are by Theophraftus counfounded.—To thefe feven primitive taftes of Ariftotle and Theophraftus, Pliny has added the following fix, which, however, appear to be ra¬ ther intermediate fteps of thofe already enumerated, than fimple taftes. 8. Agreeable (fuavis), a mode of fweet. 9. Poignant or tart (acutus), a lefs degree of acid. 10. Bitter (amarur), a fimple tafte, con¬ founded by the Greek naturalift, as was obferved above, with a fait tafte. 11. Vinous, a compofition, accord¬ ing to Pliny, of fweet, agreeable, poignant, and auftere. 12. Milky tafte, compofed of agreeable and fat. 13. Watery, which is almoft infipid. The fchool of Salernum diftinguiflred nine fimple taftes, which they charafterized by their different temperaments, as follows. I. Acrid, bitter, and al¬ kaline fait: Warm. II. Watery or infipid, fweet, and fat: Temperate. III. Acid, harfti or acerb, and acid fait: Cold. The moderns, by diftinguifliing auftere from acerb, adding fome things, and retrench¬ ing others, have increafed the number of fimple taftes to ten ; which ftand thus oppofed to each other. I. Infipid or watery, II. Sweet, III. Fat, IV. Vifcous, V. Acid, o rVI. Acid, or alkaline fait. “ VII. Acrid. .^mil. Auftere. I IX. Acerb, c X. Bitter. Taftes are diftinguifhed by their quantum of force or intenfity into fteps or degrees, which are likewife, fometimes, by writers on the materia medica, ufed for expreffing the different temperaments of thofe taftes. Thus the fimple tafte bitter has been divided into ten degrees; and we fay, that the root of turmerick is bitter in the firft or lowed degree, the feed of blue clematis in the tenth or higheft. In the fame manner, as a bitter tafte indicates a warm temperament, other degrees or divifions arife from the intenfity of warmth in the inftances in queftion ; and we fay, that one is warm in fuch a degree, and the other in a different. Some taftes affe&the organ of fenfation fooner than others which are of a greater degree of intenfity. Acid and bitter taftes, as vinegar and wormwood, are foon felt, and quickly gone. Acrid taftes are not felt fo foon, and laft longer. Thus the (harpnefs of the feeds of clematis, although in the tenth degree, is not fo quickly perceived as the bitternefs of rofes, although only in the fecond degree. Hot taftes are flower in affefting the organ of fenfe, and laft longer than others. Thus the bitternefs of the roots of black hellebore, which is in the fecond degree, is perceived on the flightdl contaft; but its heat, though in the third or fourth degree, is not felt till after two minutes; in like manner, the bitternefs of elecampane although only in the fourth degree, is fooner felt than its heat, which is in the eighth. The climax or increafe which is obferved in the fenfation or perception of taftes, during its continuance, is different in different obje&s. The heat of galangal caufes, at firft, a flight fenfation, but it is not till the end of one minute that its greateft force is perceived. Black hellebore does not attain its higheft fenfation till four minutes after its firft contaft. The duration of the greateft force of the fenfation is likewife different as the fubftances differ; thus the heat of black hellebore comes to its greateft intenfity and diminiihes in one minute; that of the root of gar- den-crefs in the fame time; that of the root of afara- bacca in two minutes. The leaves of milfoil, which are bitter in the fourth degree, and warm in the firft, lofe at firft their bit¬ ternefs, whilft their heat ftill continues. Acorus, or fweet rufh, is hot in the firft degree, aromatic in the third, and bitter in the fourth; yet its bitternefs is prefently extinguifhed; its heat lafts two minutes, and its aromatic fenfation feven or eight. The heat of garden-crefs endures feven or eight minutes; the bit¬ ternefs of elaterium a quarter of an hour; the heat of euphorbium and black hellebore half an hour; the acrid fenfation occafioned by the root of arum, or cuckow- pint, often lafts 12 hours. From thefe familiar ex¬ amples it appears, that the fenfation acquires its grea¬ teft force in four or fix minutes at moll from the time of contadl; its duration in its decreafe is often 30 or 40 minutes and upwards. Taftes, confidered with relation to the parts which they affeft, are either, 1. fixed and local ; 2. extend themfelves to the parts in the neighbourhood of that which is firft; affected, without, however, relinquilh- ing their former ftation ; as the bitternefs of the dried roots of black hellebore, which fpreads from the end of the tongue to its middle; and that of the leaves of elaterium, which fpreads from the tip of the tongue to its root; or, 3. are tranflated from one part to another, as in the roots of gentian, the bitternefs of which foon relinquifhes the tip of the tongue, the part firft affe<£ted, and tranflates itfelf to the middle. Sapid bodies affeft differently the parts which they touch, as the lips, tongue, palate, throat, and gullet. The lips are affefted more ftrongly by the heat of the root of white hellebore, than any of the other parts. The tip of the tongue is affefted by moll plants; gentian and coloquintida affect chiefly the middle; the leaves of elaterium, the root. The palate is affefted by the root of deadly night- (hade; its imprefiion la ft four minutes. Tafle. The TAT [ 8547 ] T A U Tafte The throat is more affefled than the other parts by Li the roots of mercury, afparagus, and jalap. atian' The cefophagus or gullet is particularly affe&ed with heat by the roots of wormwood; the leaves make no impreffion of this kind; on which account they are not fo itomachic as the roots. As the tafte of the fame individual undergoes feem- ing alterations, according to the perfect or morbid date of the external organ; fo different individuals of the fame fpecies are liable to real variations from climate, foil, and culture. Apples and pears which grow na¬ turally in the woods, are extremely harfh and acid ; wild fuccory is bitter; wild lettuce difagreeable; cul- > ture renders them all fweet and efculent, and moreover produces fuch variety in the atticle of tafte, that of 172 diftunSt kinds of pears, and 200 of apples, enu¬ merated by authors, each kind has a peculiar tafte. All the parts of a plant have not the fame tafte; in fome, the fruit has an acid and agreeable tafte, whilft the leaves or roots are bitter and difagreeable ; in others, the reverfe of this happens. It is for this rea- fon that plants can never be properly arranged by their fenfible qualities ; the different parts of the fame plant poffeffing different qualities, muft neceffarily be disjoined and arranged under feparate articles. All plants aft either by their fmell upon the nerves, by their tafte upon the mufcular fibres, or by both upon the fluids. Sapid bodies never aft upon the nerves, nor odoriferous bodies upon the mufcular fi¬ bres. The former a£l upon the fluids and folids, and change the fluids, which are evacuated by both fapid and odoriferous fubftances. The virtues and qualities of plants are commonly indicated by their tafte, fmell, and colour. lufipid plants, and fuch as have no fmell, have rarely any medicinal virtue. Sapid and odoriferous plants, on the contrary, al¬ ways poffefs very ftrong powers. In fa£t, to deprive a plant of its tafte and fraell is to rob it of its virtue, as is evident from the change effefted in the fcecu- lae and extrafts of arum, calla, caffada, and elaterium. Sweet-fmelling plants are generally of innocent qua¬ lity ; fuch as are naufeous, and of a rank heavy difa¬ greeable fmell, are noxious. The plants of the following lift are finking exam¬ ples of the latter. Many muflarooms, cider, herb- chriftopher, aconite, hellebore, afarabacca, (linking bean trefoil, thorn-apple, tobacco, hen-bane, colo- -quintida, and hounds-tongue. TATE (Nahum), an Englifh poet, born about the middle of the reign of Charles II. in Ireland, where he received his education. He was made poet- laureat to king William upon the death of Shadwell, and held that place until the reign of George I. whofe firft birth-day ode he lived to write, and executed it with unufual fpirit. He died in the mint in 1716, and was fucceeded in the laurel by Mr Eufden. He was the author of nine dramatic performances, a great number of poems, and a verfion of the Pfalms in con¬ junction with Dr Nicholas Brady. TATIAN, a writer of the primitive church in the fecond century. He was born in Affyria, and trained up in the Heathen religion and learning. Coming over to Chriftianity, he became the difciple of Juftin Mar¬ tyr, whom he attended to Rome. While Juftin lived, Tatius he continued fteadily orthodox : but after Juftin’s W death he made a fchifm, and became the author of a — 311 rus' new fed, condemning marriage, enjoining abftinence from wine and animal-food, and fuffering only water to be ufed in the holy myfteries ; whence his followers were called Encratitx and Hydroparajiata. None of his works are now extant but his piece againft the Gentiles ; or, as it is ufually imitled, his Oration to the Greeks- TATIUS (Achilles), a native of Alexandria, was the author of a book on the fphere, which father Petau tranflated into Latin. There is aifo attributed to him a Greek romance on the loves of Leucippe and Clitophon, of which Salmafius has given a beautiful edition in Greek and Latin, with notes. Suidas fays, that this Achilles Tatius was a Pagan, but that he afterwards embraced the Chriftian religion, and be¬ came bifhop. Photius mentions him in his Bibli¬ otheca. TATTOU, a beat of a drum at night to advertife the foldiers to retreat, or repair to their quarters in the garrifon, or to their tents in a camp. TATTOOING, an operation in ufe among the iflanders in the South Sea for marking their bodies with figures of various kinds which they confider as ornamental. It is performed by punfturing the fkin, and rubbing a black colour into the wounds. The inftrument ufed fomewhat refembles a comb, the teeth of which are repeately ftruck into the fkin by means of a fmall mallet. It is very painful; but the children are forced by their relations to fubmit to it. TAVERNIER (John Baptift), a famous French traveller, was born in 1605. In the courfe of 40 years he travelled fix times to Turkey, Perfia, and the Eaft Indies, and vifited all the countries in Europe, travelling moftly on foot. His travels have been fre¬ quently reprinted in fix vols i2mo. He died on his feventh journey to the eaft, at Mofcow, in 1609. TAVISTOCK, a town of Devonfhire in England, fituated on the river Tavey or Tave, W. Long. 4. 26. N. 50. 37. It fends two menbers to parliament, and gives the title of tnarquis to the noble family of Ruffels dukes of Bedford. TAUNTON, a town of Somerfetfhire in England, fituated in W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 51.6. It is pleafantly feated on the river Thone; is reckoned the beft town in the county; and fends two members to parliament. TAURIS, or Tebris, a town of Perfia, and capital of Aderbeitzan. It was formerly the ca¬ pital of Perfia, and is now the moll confiderable next to Ifpahan; for it contains 15,000 houfes, be- fides many feparate (hops, and about 200,000 inhabi¬ tants. It is about five miles in circumference, and carries on a prodigious trade in cotton, cloth, filks, gold and filver brocades, fine turbants, and fhagreen leather. There are 300caravanferas; and 250 mofques. Some travellers fuppofe it to be the ancient Ecbatana; but of this there is no certainty. It is feated in a delightful plain, furrounded with mountains, from whence a ftream proceeds, which runs through the city. E. Long. 46. 50. N. 38. 28. TAURUS, a great chain of mountains in Afia, 42 X 2 which TAW [ 8548 ] TAX Taurus, which begin at the eaftern pait of Little Carimania, II. and extend very far into the India. In different places . awing'- they have different names. Taurus, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206. TAUTOLOGY, a needlefs repeating of the fame thing in different words. TAWING, the art of dreffing Ikins in white, fo as to be fit for divers manufadf ures, particularly gloves, &c. All fkins may be tawed ; but'thofe chiefly ufed for this purpofe are lambs, (heeps, kid, and goat fkins. The method of tawing is this: Having cleared the fkins of wool or hair, by means of lime, they are laid in a large vatt of wood or ftone, fet on the ground full of water, in which quicklime has been flaked; wherein they are allowed co lie a month or fix- weeks, according as the weather is more or lefs hot, or as the fkins are required to be more or lefs foft and pliant. While they are in the vatt, the water and lime is changed twice, and the Ikins are taken out and put in again every day : and when they are taken out for the lad time, they are laid all night to foak in a run¬ ning water, to get out the greateft part of the lime; and in the morning are laid together by fixes one upon another, upon the wooden leg, and are fcraped floutly one after another, to get the flefli off from the flefhy fide, with a cutting two-handled inftrument called a knife ; and then they cut off the legs (if they are not cut off before), and other fuperfluous parts about the extremes. Then they are laid in a vatt or pit with a little water, where they are fulled with wooden peftles for the fpace of a quarter of an hour ; and then the vatt is filled up with water, and they are rin- fed in it. In the next place, they are thrown on a clean pave¬ ment to drain, and afterwards call into a frefli pic of water, out of which they rinfe them well, and are laid again on the wooden leg, fix at a time, with the hair-fide outermofl: over which they rub a kind of whetflone very brilkly, to foften and fit them to receive four or five more preparations, given them on the leg both on the fleih-lide and the hair-fide, with the knife, after the manner above-mentioned. After this they are put into a pit of water and wheaten-bran, and ilirred about in it with wooden poles, till the bran is perceived to flick to them, and then they are left: as they rife of themfelves to the top of the water by a kind of fermentation, they are plunged down again to the bottom ; and at the fame time fire is fet to the liquor, which takes as eafily as if it were brandy, but goes out the moment the Ikins are all covered. They repeat this operation as often as the fkins rife above the water ; and when they have done rifing they take them out, lay them on the wooden leg, the flefhy fide outwards, and pafs the knife over them to fcrape off the bran. Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the fkins in a large bafket, and load them with huge ftones to promote their draining: and when they have drained fufficiently, they give them their feeding, which is performed after the manner following. For one hundred of large fheep-fkins, and for fmal- ler in proportion, they take eight pounds of alum, and three of fea-falt, and melt the whole with water in a veffd over the fire, pouring the folution out, while yet lukewarm, into a kind of trough, in which is Tawing, twenty pounds of the fined wheat-flower, with the 'rax- yolks of eight dozen of eggs ; of all which is formed a kind of pafte, a little thicker than children’s pap ; which, when done, is put into another veffel, to be ufed in the following manner. They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough in which the pafle was prepared, mixing two fpoon- fuls of the pafte with it; to do which they ufe a wood¬ en fpoon, which contains juft as much as is required for a dozen of fkins: and when the whole is well di¬ luted, two dozen of the fkins are plunged into it; but they take care that the water be not too hot, which would fpoil the pafle and burn the fkins. After they have lain fome time in the trough, they take them out, one after another, with the hand, and flretch them out; this they do twice ; and after they have given them all their pafte, they put them into tubs, and there full them afrefh with wooden peftles. Then they put them into a vat, where they are fuf- fered to lie for five or fix days, or more; then they take them out in fair weather, and hang them to dry on cords or racks : and the quicker they are dried the better ; for if they be too long a-drying, the fait and alum within them are apt to make them rife in a grain, which is an effential fault in this kind of dref- fing. - When the fkins are dry, they are made up into bundles, and juft dipt in fair water, and taken out and drained : they are then thrown into an empty tub, and after having lain fome time are taken out and trampled under foot. Then thty draw them over a flat iron inffrument, the top of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom fixed into a wooden block, to ftretch and open them ; and having been opened, they are hung in the air upon cords to dry; and being dry, they are opened a fecond time, by paffing them again over the fame inftrument. In the laft place they are laid on a table, pulled out, and laid fmooth, and are then fit for fale. T AX, (Tax a from the Greek i. e. ordo, tri- buturn;') a tribute or impofition laid upon the fubje£t for the fupport of government. See Revenue, It is the ancient indifputable privilege and right of the houfe of commons, that all grants of fubfidies or parliamentary aids do begin in their houfe, and are firft beftowed by them ; although their grants are not effe&ual to ail intents and purpofes until they have the aflent of the other two branches of the legiflature. See Commons. The general reafon given for this ex- clufive privilege of the houfe of commons, is, that the fupplies are raifed, upon the body of the people, and therefore it is proper that they alone fhould have the right of taxing themfelves. This reafon would be un- anfwerable, if the commons taxed none but themfelves: but it is notorious, that a very large (hare of property is in the poffefiion of the houfe of lords; that this pro¬ perty is equally taxable, and taxed, as the property of the commons ; and therefore the commons not being the foie perfons taxed, this cannot be the reafon of their having the foie right of railing and modelling the fupply. The true reafon, arifing from the fpirit of our conftitution, feems to be this. The lords being a permanent hereditary body, created at pleafure by the TAX r 8549 ] T A Y Tax. king, are fuppofed more liable to be influenced by the crown, and when once influenced to continue fo, than the commons, who are a temporary ele&ive body, free¬ ly nominated by the people. It would therefore be extremely dangerous to give the lords any power of framing new taxes for the fubjedl; it is fufficient that they have a power of'rejeding, if they think the com¬ mons too lavilh or improvident in their grants. But fo reafonably jealous are the commons of this valuable privilege, that herein they will not fuffer the other houfe to exert any power but that of rejecting. They will not permit the leaft alteration or amendment to be made by the lords to the mode of taxing the people by a money-bill: under which appellation are inclu¬ ded all bills by which money is dire&ed to be railed upon the fubjeft, for any purpofe or in any fhape what- foever; either for the exigencies of government, and colle&ed from the kingdom in general, as the land- tax ; or for private benefit, and colleded in any par¬ ticular diftridt, as by turnpikes, parifli-rates, and the like. Yet Sir Matthew Hale mentions one cafe, founded on the praftice of parliament in the reign of Hetiry VI. wherein he thinks the lords may alter a money-bill: and that is, if the commons grant a tax, as that of tonnage and poundage, for four years; and the lords alter it to a lefs time, as for two years; here, he fays, the bill need not be fent back to the commons for their concurrence, but may receive the royal affent without farther ceremony ; for theaUerationof the lords is confident with the grant of the commons. But fuch an experiment will hardly be repeated by the lords, under the prefent improved idea of the privilege of the houfe of commons ; and, in any cafe where a money-bill is remanded to the commons, all amend¬ ments in the mode of taxation are fure to be rejected. The commons, when they have voted a fupply to his majefty, and fettled the quantum of that fupply, ufually refolve themfelves into what is called a com¬ mittee of •ways and means, to confider the ways and- means of railing the fupply fo voted. And in this committe every member (though it is looked upon as the peculiar province of the chancellor of the exche¬ quer) may propofe fuch fcheme of taxation as he thinks will be leaft detrimental to the public. The refolu- tions of this committee (when approved by a vote of the houfe) are in general efteemed to be (as it were) final and conclufive. For though the fupply cannot be a&uaily raifed upon upon the fubjedt till directed by an adl of the whole parliament, yet no monied man will fcruple to advance to the government any quantity of ready cafh, on the credit of a bare vote of the houfe of commons, tho’ no law be yet palled to eftablilh it. The j,taxes which are raifed upon the fubjedt are either annual or perpetual. I. The ufual annual taxes are thofe upon land and malt. See Land and Malt. II. The perpetual are, t. The euftoms. 2. The excife-duty. 3. The falt-duty. 4. The poft office. 5. The llamp duty. 6. Houfe and window duty. 7. The duty on hackney-coaches and chair?. 8. That on offices and penfions.—See the articles Customs, Excise, Salt, Post', Stamp, House, Hackney, and Offices and Penfior.s. As to the application of all thefe, fee the articles Revenue, National Funds, and Civil List. TAXATION. See Revenue, Tax, and Feodal Taxation System. II TAXUS, the yew-tr.ee ; a genus of the mono- dy' delphia order, belonging to the dicecia clafsof plants. There are two fpecies; of which the moft remarkable is the baccata, or common yew, growing natfirally in many places of England and Scotland. It is found here and there in the Highlands, in a truly wild ftate. At Glenlure, near Glen-Creran, in Upper-Lorn, are the remains of an old wood of it. The place takes its name from the trees which grow in it; for Glenlure, in the Gaelic language, is no other than a corruption of Gleaniuir, i. e. “ Tne valley of yew-trees.” It is an evergreen tree, of no great height; but the trunk grows to a large fize. Mr Pennant has taken notice of a very remarkable decayed one in Fortinga! church-yard, vvhofe remains meafured 56 feet and an half in circumference. The leaves are of a dark fhi- ning green, linear and acute, divided by a longitudinal nerve, and grow in a double feries, oppofed to each- other, on the fame plane. The flowers, both male and female, grow from the alse of the leaves. The berry is red and mucilaginous, of a Angular ftrudlure, being formed out of the~ receptacle, which fwells and be¬ comes fucculent, but does not cover the top of the leea. it has a fweet mawkifli tafte. The wood is red and veined, very hard and fmooth, and much ufed by turners and cabinet-makers. The tree is very pa¬ tient of the Iheers, and will affume almoft any figure. It has generally been fuppofed to have a poiionous quality. We have repeated accounts of horfes and cows that h-f/e died by eating it ; but whether the yew was the immediate caufe of their death, is a mat¬ ter of fome doubt. The berries are certainly not poi- fonous. Our anceftors efteemed the wood of this tree as fu- perior to any other for making bows. For this intent it was planted in altnoft every church-yard, for the convenience and ready ufe of the feveral parifliioners. TAY, called by the Romans Tavus or Taus, the largeft river in Scotland. It rifes in Braidalbin, on the frontiers of Lorn ; and having in the paflage of a few miles augmented its ftream by the acceffion of feveral fmall rills, fpreads itfelf into a lake called Loch Dachart; out of which having run but a little fpace, it expands itfelf again. Leaving this fecond lake, it rolls fome miles with a conliderable body of water, and then diffufes itfelf abroad in the fpacious Loch Tay ; which, reckoning from the fources of the river, is 24 miles in length, though, Itri&ly fpeaking, the lake is but 13 : almoft as foon as it iffues from hence, it receives the river Lion, coming out of Loch Lion, and running through Glen Lion ; which, having tra¬ velled in a manner parallel to it, from its fource, for the fpace of 25 miles, at length joins the Tay as it enters Athol, which it next traverfes, and, diredling its courfe in a manner due eaft, receives almoft all the waters of that country. Bending then to the foutb, at the diftance of fix. miles, it reaches Dunkeld ; which,,, in the language of our ancelfors, fignifies the hill of hazels,” was the very centre of the old Caledonia, and is at prefent efteemed the heart of the Highland?.. The river is very broad here, infomuch that there is a ferry-boat over it at each end of the town. Declining ftill to the fouth-eaft, with a winding courfe, for above I T A Y [ 8550 ] TEA Taylor. .12 miles, the Tay receives a large fupply of waters from the county of Angus ; and then running i'outh- weft for eight miles more, is joined in that (pace by feveral rivers, the moft confiderable of which is the Almond. Turning then to the fouth-eaft, at the di- ftance of about three miles, this copious river comes with a fweliing dream to Perth, or St Johulton’s, which is the capital of the (hire of that name. The Tay, continuing ttill a i'outh call courfe, re¬ ceives, a few miles below Perth, the river Erne j which, iffuing from a loch of the fame name, traverfes the county of Strathern, and pafies by Aberncthy, once the capital of the Pi&ifh kingdom : fwelled by the waters of this lad river, the Tay, running next direct¬ ly eaft, enlarges itfelf till it becomes about three miles broad ; but contrads again before the town of Dun¬ dee ; foon after which it opens into the German ocean. At the entrance of the frith, there arc fands both on the north and on the fouth fide, the former dylcd Goa, latter Aberlay and Drumlan; and before thefe, in the very mouth of the frith, thofe which are called the Crofs Sands. At Buttonnefs, which is the northern promontory, there are two light-houfes. The fpace between the north and the fouth fands may be near a mile, with about three fathoms water; but being within the frith, it grows deeper, and in the road of Dundee is full fix fathoms. The frith of Tay is not indeed fo large or fo commodious as that of Forth, but from Buttonnefs to Perth it is not lef* than 40 miles; and the whole may be, without any great im¬ propriety, be dyled a harbour, which has Fife on one fide, and the fibres of Perth and Angus on the other, both very fertile and pleafant countries. TAYLOR (Dr Jeremy), bilhop of Down and Connor in Ireland, was the fon of a barber at Cam¬ bridge, and there had his education. Upon entering into orders, he became divinity-lefturer of St Paul’s in London ; and was, by the intereft of archbifiiop Laud, elefted fellow of All-fouls college, Cambridge, in 1636. Two years after he became one of the chap¬ lains of the archbifliop, who bellowed on him the rec¬ tory of Uppingham in Rutlandlhire. In 1642, he was chaplain to the king; and a frequent preacher before him and the court at Oxford. He afterward attended in the king’s army in the condition of a chap¬ lain. Upon the declining of his majefty’s caufe, he retired into Wales, where he was permitted to officiate as minilter, and to keep a fchool, in order to maintain himfelf and his children. In this retirement he wrote feveral of his works. Having fpent feveral years there, his family was vifited with ficknefs; and he loft three fons of great hopes, within the fpace of two or three months. This affliction touched him fo fenfibly, that it made him defirous to leave the country; and, going to London, he for a time officiated in a private con¬ gregation of loyalifts to his great hazard. At length meeting with Edward lord Conway, that nobleman carried him over with him into Ireland, and fettled him at Portmore, where he wrote his Duftor Dubi- tantium. Upon the reftoration he returned to Eng¬ land : foon after, he was advanced to the biftiopric of Down and Connor in Ireland; and had the admini- ftration of the fee of Dromore granted to him. He was likewife made privy-counfellor, and vice-chancel- * lor of the univerfity of Dublin, which place he held till his death. He died of a fever at Lifnegarvy in Taylor,’ 1667, and was interred in a chapel of his own ereCl- Tea. ing on the ruins of the old cathedral of Dromore. Taylor (Dr John), a learned diflenting minifter, born in Lancafiiire. He fettled firft at Kirkftead in Lin olnfitire, where he preached to a fmall congrega¬ tion and taught a grammar-fehool for near 20 years. Afterward he removed to Norwich, where he preached many years in great repute, until he was invited to fuperintend the academy formed at Warrington in Lancafhire : but a few idle differences on formal punc¬ tilios and uncertain dodrines kindled into fuch a flame there, as fubjefled him to much feurrility and ill treatment, and endangered the very being of the academy. He died in 1761; and among feveral other judicious performances, his Hebrew and Englifli Con¬ cordance, 2 vols. folio, will remain a monument of his critical (kill and indefatigable induftry. TAYLOR-i?m/. See Motacilla. TEA, or Thea, the Tea-plant; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria claf* of plants. This flirub, formerly deferibed by Dr Breynius, in his Century of Exotic Plants, publilhed at Dantzick in 1678, is of a very flow growth, and diminutive fize. It has a black, woody, irregularly branched root. The rifing ftem foon fpreads into many irre¬ gular branches and twigs. Thefe at the lower end and near the ground often feem to be more in number than they really are ; for feveral feeds being put toge¬ ther in one hole, it frequently happens that two, three, or more fhrubs grow up together, and fo clofe to one another, as to be eaflly miitaken for one, by ignorant or lefs attentive obfervers. The bark is dry, thin, weak, chefnut-coloured, firm, and adheres clofely to the wood. It is covered with a very thin fltin; which being removed, the bark appears, of a greenifh colour, a bitter, naufeous, and aftringent tafte, with a fmell much like the leaves of the hazel-nut tree, only more difagreeable and offenfive. The wood is hard, fibrous, of a greenifli colour, inclining to white, and of a very offenfive fmell when green. The pith is very fmall, and adheres clofe to the wood. The branches and twigs are flender, of different fizes, irregularly befet with fimple leaves, Handing on very fmall, fat, green footftalks4; and refembling, when full grown, the leaves of the garden cherry-tree ; but when young, tender, and gathered for ufe, thofe of the common fpindle-tree, the colour only excepted. The leaves are fmooth on both fides, clofely and unequally fawed on the edge, of a dirty dark green colour, which is fomc- what lighter on the back, where the nerves being rai- fed confiderably, leave fo many hollows or furrows on the oppofite fide. They have one very confpicuous nerve in the middle, which is branched out on each fide into five, fix, or feven thin tranfverfe ribs, of dif¬ ferent lengths, and bent backwards near the edges of the leaves; between thefe tranfverfe ribs, run a num¬ ber of fmall veins. The leaves when frefh have no fmtll at all; and though aftringentand bitteriih, as we obferved above, are not naufeous, as the bark. They differ very much in fubftance, fize, and ftiape, accord¬ ing to their age and the fituation and nature of the foil in which the ftirub is planted. From the wings of the leaves come forth the flowers in autumn. Thefe con- TEA [ 8551 ] TEA Tea. continue to grow till late in winter; and are compofed ~ of fix petals, one or two of which are generally fhrunk, and fall far fhort of the largenefs and beauty of the others. The footftalk of the flower is about half an inch long, and ends in fix very fmall green leaves, which ferve inftead of the calix or flower-cup. This defeription, applied by Kasmpfer to the fhrub, which, as he pretends, produces all the difterent forts or pre¬ parations of tea, correfponds, fays Linnaeus, to a par¬ ticular fpecies only, termed by him bohea; for fome tea-plants, he obferves after Dr Hill, produce flow¬ ers compofed of nine petals, which muft therefore con- ftitute a diftinft fpecies from fuch as have only fix. From this circumftance is conftru&ed the other fpe¬ cies of that author, then viridis, or green-tea, the flowers of which have always nine petals. The leaves alfo are much larger than thofe of the bohea, and of a brighter green. To proceed in our defeription. Within the petals, ■which are of a very unpleafant bitterifli tafte, are placed many white ftamina, exceeding fmall, as in the wild rofe, with yellow heads, in fhape not unlike a heart. Kxmpfer reckoned in one flower 230 of thefc ftamina. To the flowers fucceed the fruits in great plenty; thefe are compofed of one, two, but moft commonly of three, capfules, of the bignefs of wild- plums, adhering, like the feed-veffels of the palma chrifti, to one common footftalk as to a centre, but divided into three pretty deep partitions. Each cap- fule contains a hulk, nut, and feed. The kernel or feed is reddifti, of a firm fubftance like filberds, contains a great quantity of oil, and is very apt to grow rank, which is the reafon why there are fcarce two in ten that will germinate when fown. The na¬ tives make no manner of ufe of either the flowers or kernels. The ftirub muft be, at leaft, of three years growth before the leaves, which it then bears in plenty, are fit to be plucked. In feven years time, or thereabouts, it rifes to a man’s height; but as it then grows flowly, and bears but few leaves,'the natives generally cut it down quite to the Item, after having firft gathered what few leaves it produced. The next year, out of the remaining Item, proceed many young twigs and branches, which bear fuch abundance of leaves, as will fufficiently compenfate for the lofs of the former ftirub. Some defer the operation of cutting down to the ftem till the fhrub is of ten years growth. The leaves rouft not be tore off by handfuls, but plucked carefully, one by one; and are not be gather¬ ed all at once, but at different times. Thofe who pluck their fhrubs thrice a-year, begin their firft ga¬ thering about the end of February. The fhrub then bears but a few leaves, which are very tender and young, and not yet fully opened, as being fcarce above two or three days growth. Thefe fmall and ten¬ der leaves are reckoned much better than the reft, and, becaufe of their fcarciry and price, are difpofed of only to princes and rich people; for which reafon they are called Imperial-lea^ and by fome the flower of tea. The fecond gathering, and the firft of thofe who ga¬ ther but twice a-year, is made about the latter end of March or beginning of April : fome of the leaves are then already come to perfeftion, others are but half- grown : both, however, are plucked off promifetroufly; though care is afterwards taken, previous to the ufual Tea. preparation, to arrange them into claffes, according to their fize and goodnefs. The third and laft ga¬ thering, which is alfo the moft plentiful, is made in the end of May, when the leaves have attained their full growth, both in number and fize. The leaves of this gathering are arranged in like manner as the for¬ mer, according to their fize and goodnefs, into diffe¬ rent claffes, the loweft of which contains the coarfelt leaves of all, being full two months grown, and that fort which is commonly drank by the vulgar. The preparation of the leaves confifts in drying or roafting them when frefh gathered, over the fire in an iron pan, and rolling them when hot with the palm of the hand on a mat till they become curled. The particulars of this preparation, as related by the in¬ genious author from whom this defeription is^extraft- ed, are much too tedious for our purpofe. The rea¬ der is therefore referred to the work itfelf. Vide Kxmpfer’s Hiftory of Japan, vol. ii. appendix 1. The tea, after having undergone a fufficient roaft¬ ing and curling, muft, when cold, be put up and care¬ fully kept from the air. In this, indeed, the whole art of preferving it chiefly confifts; becaufe the air, in thofe hot climates, diffipates its extremely fubtile and volatile parts much fooner than it would in our colder European countries. The Chinefe put it up in boxes of a coarfe tin, which, if they be very large, are inclo- fed in w'ooden cafes of fir, all the clefts being firft care¬ fully flopped both within and without. After this manner alfo it is fent abroad into foreign countries. The Japanefe keep their flock of the common tea in large earthen pots, with a narrow mouth. The bet¬ ter fort of tea, namely, that which the emperor him- felf and the great men make ufe of, is kept in porce¬ lain pots or veffels, which are fuppofed to improve its virtues. The coarfe tea of the third gathering is not fo eafily injured by the air as the other forts ; for tho* its virtues are comparatively fewer and lefs fenfible, yet are they more conftant and fixed. The country peo¬ ple keep it, as well as the other forts which they ufe, in ftraw-bafkets, made like barrels, which they put under the roofs of their houfes, near the hole which lets out the fmoke ; being of opinion that nothing is better than fmoke to preferve the virtues of the leaves, and even improve them. Some put it up with com¬ mon mugwort flowers, or the young leaves of a plant called fafatuiua, which they believe renders it much more agreeable. Other odoriferous and aromatic fubftances are found, upon trial, to produce no fuch beneficial effetft. The tea, as it is taken inwardly, is prepared in two different ways. The firft ufed by the Chinefe, and now all over Europe, is nothing elfe but a fimplc infufion of the leaves in hot water. The other way, which is peculiar to the Japanefe, is by grinding. In this preparation, the leaves are, by means of a hand- mill made of a black-greenifti (tone called ferpentine Jlone, reduced into a fine delicate powder, which be¬ ing mixed with hot water into a thin pulp is after¬ wards fipped. This tea is called thick teay to diftin- guifti it from the fimple infufion, and is drank every day by all the rich people and great men in Japan, The narcotic quality of the frefti unprepared leaves of tea, mentioned above, is deftroyed in a great mea- fure. TEC [ 8552 ] TEL Tea fure by a repeated and gradual reading. This ope ; Ted 11 ration renders it exhilarating, refreihing, and clcan- , e eU—' fing. Kasmpfer obferves, that tea is particularly fer- viceable in waihing away that tartarous matter which is the efficient caufc of calculous concretions, nephri¬ tic and gouty diflempers ; and affirms, that among the great tea-drinkers of Japan, he never met with any who w’ere troubled with the gout or done. The leaves of tea, fay writers on the Materia Medi- ca, are much more ufed for pleafure than as medicine : the Bohea, however, is efteemed foftening, nouriffiing, and proper in all inward decays ; the green is diure¬ tic, carries an agreeable rougknefs with it into the fto- mach, which gently aftringes the fibres, and gives them fuch a tenfity as is neceffary fora good digettion. Improper or exceffive ufe may no doubt render this or any thing elfe prejudicial ; but, in general, there are very few herbs employed, either in food or medi¬ cine, which, ufed with moderation, are better, plea- fanter, or fafer, than tea. We do not find that the tea-plant grows naturally beyond the 35th degree of north latitude on the one band, and the 45th degree on the other. Tea-Tree of New Zealand, is a fpecies of myrtle, of which an infufion was drank by Captain Cook’s people in their voyages round the world. Its leaves were finely aromatic, aftringent, and had a parti¬ cular pleafant flavour at the firft infufion ; but this went off at the next filling up of the tea-pot, and a great degree of bitternefs was then extrafted ; for which reafon it was never fuffered to be twice infufed. In a fine foil in thick forefts this tree grows to a con- fiderable fize ; fometimes 30 or 40 feet in height, and one foot in diameter. On a hilly and dry expofure, it degenerates into a fhrub of five or fix inches ; but its ufual fize is about eight or ten feet high, and three inches in diameter. In that cafe its ftem is irregular and unequal, dividing very foon into branches which rife at acute angles; and only bear leaves and flowers at top. The flowers are white, and very ornamental to -the whole plant. TEAL, in ornithology. See Anas. TEARS, a lymph or aqueous humour, which is fubtile, limpid, and a little faltifh : it is feparated from the arterial blood by the lachrymal glands and fmall glandulous grains on the infide of the eye¬ lids. TEBETH, the tenth month of the Jewifh eccle- fiaftical year, and fourth of the civil. It anfwers to our month of December. TECKLENBURG, a town of Germany, in the. circle of Weftphalia, capital of a county of the fame name, with a caftle built on a hill. It was bought by the king of Pruffia in 1707. E. Long. 8. 7. N. Lat. 52. 20. TECHNICAJ., expreffes fomewhat relating to arts or fciences : in this fenfe we fay technical terms. It is alfo particularly applied to a kind of verfes wherein are contained the rules or precepts of any art, thus digelted to help the memory to retain them; an example whereof may be feen in the article Me- -JIORY. TE deum, the name of a celebrated hymn, ufed in :the Chriftian church, and fo called becaufe it begins with thefe words, Tc Deum hudamus, We praifethee, O God. It is fung in the Romifli church, with great Tees pomp and folemnity, upon the gaining of a viftory, or ij other happy event. 1_1_ TEES, a river which rifes on the confines of Cum¬ berland, and running eaftward divides the county of Durham from Yorkfhire, and falls into the German fea below Stockton. TEETH. See Anatomy, n° 26. TEETHING inChildrtn. See Medicine,p.4867. TE-FLIS, the capital of Perfian Georgia in Alia, fituated on the river Kur or Cyrus, in E. Long. 47. 20. N. Lat. 430. It is not large; but, according to Sir John Chardin, one of the finelt cities in the eaft, with ftrong walls on all fides, except on the call, where it is covered by the river Kur. On the fouth fide of it Hands a large caftle or fortrefs, built by the Turks in 1576, when they made themfclves mafters of the city and country, under the command of the fa¬ med Muftapha Pacha. The city is very populous, and a place of great trade, efpecialiy in furs, which are conveyed hence to Conftantinople by the way of Erzerum. As for the filks of this country, they are bought up on the fpot by the Armenians, and con¬ veyed to Smyrna and other ports of the Mediter¬ ranean; but the greateft part is firft fent to Erze¬ rum to be manufa&ured, the Georgians being very ignorant and unfkilful in that refped. From hence, likewife, great quantities of a root called is fent to Erzerum and Indoftan, for the ufe of the linen dy¬ ers. There are fome magnificent caravanferas, bazars, and palaces, fn the city. Of the laft, thofe of the viceroys of Carthuel and Caket are the chief. They reckon no lefs than 14 churches in the city ; one half of them belonging to the Georgians, and the other to the Armenians. As for mofques, the Georgians, it is faid, have never fufFered any to be built, tho’ they are under a Mohammedan government; but have al¬ ways rifen up in arms as often as any attempts have been made to ere£t fuch, and deftroyed them. Here are fome Romifli Capuchins, as miffionaries; but they go under the denomination of phyficians, furgeons, or chemifts, which three profeffions are in great efteem in the eaft. The great cures they make, and the fmall fees they take, which are generally in wine, meal, cattle, or young flaves, procure them fome efteem, though they are often expofed to the infults of the people, efpecialiy when they attempt to make any profelytes to their church. The inhabitants of Teflis are computed at near 20,000 ; viz. 4000 Ar¬ menians, 3000 Mohammedans, 2000 Georgians, and about 500 Romifli Armenians, who are much hated by the others: the reft are Perfians or ftrangers, that are continually coming and going. TEGUMENT, any thing that furrounds or covers another. TEINTS, and Semi-teints, in painting, denote the feveral colours ufed in a pifture, confidered as more or lefs high, bright, deep, thin, or weakened and di- minifhed, &c. to give the proper relievo, foftnefs, or diftance, &c. of the feveral obje&s. TELESCOPE, an inftrument formed by a combi¬ nation of optical glaffes or metallic Ipeculums with lenfes, by which diftant objedls may be viewed di- ftin&ly. See [Index fubjoined to) Optics. TELL (William,) an illuftrious Swifs patriot, chief in- TAR [ 85a ] TAR Teller, ioftrunsent of the revolution which delivered the Swifs Tempe. Cantons from the German yoke in 1307- Grifler, the governor of thefe provinces for the emperor Al¬ bert, having ordered him, under pain of death, to Ihoot at an apple placed on the head of one his chil¬ dren, he had the dexterity, though the diftance was Very confiderable, to flrike it off without hitting the child. The tyrant, perceiving he had another arrow concealed under his cloak, aiked him for what pur- pofe ? To which he boldly replied, “ To have (hot you thro’ the heart, if I had had the misfortune to kill my fon.” The enraged governor now ordered him to be hanged: but his fellow-citizens, animated by his fortitude and patriotifm, flew to arms ; attack¬ ed and vanquiihed Grifler, who was fhot to death by Tell; and the aflbeiation for the independecy took place that inftant. TELLER, an officer of the exchequer, in ancient records called tallier. There are four of thefe officers, whofe duty is to receive all fums due to the king, and to give the clerk of the pells a bill to charge him therewith. They likewife pay all money due from the king, by warrant from the auditor of the re¬ ceipt ; and make weekly and yearly books both of - their receipts and payments, which they deliver to the lore! treafurer. TEMPE, (anc. geog.), a mod pleafant place or valley of Theflaly. That there it was, appears from the epithets Thejfalica, (Livy) ; Theffala, (Ovid) ; but in what particular diftridl is the queftion. From the Phthiotica of Catullus, it fhould feem to be of Phthiotis: but the Peneus, which ran through Tempe, was at too great a diflance, being feparated from it by Mount Othrys and others. Firft, however, we (hall define Tempe, previous to the determining thf particu¬ lar diftrift in which it lay. The Peneus, according to Pliny, running down between Offa to the fouth and Olympus to the north, for 500 ftadia, is for half that fpace navigable : in the dire&ion of this courfe lies what is called Tempe, extending in length for five miles, in breadth for almoft an acre and an half, with gentle convexities rifing on the right and left, beyond ken of human fight. Within glides the Peneus in its verdant light, green in its pebbles, charming in the grafs on its banks, harmonioufly vocal with the mufic of birds. In this defeription Strabo and iElian agree ; the laft adding, that it has an agreeable variety of places of retreat; and that it is not the work of man’s hand, but the fpontaneous produftion of nature ; and Strabo, that formerly the Peneus formed a lake in this fpot, being checked in its courfe by the higher grounds about the feJl^; but that an opening being made by an earthquake, and Mount Oifa torn from Olympus, the Peneus gained a free courfe between them. But Livy, who calls Tempe a grove, remarks a degree of horror rather than amenity, with which the Roman army was ft ruck in marching over the narrow pafs ; for, befides the defile, difficult to go over, which runs on for five miles, there are fteep rocks on each hand, down which the profpedl is apt to caufe a dizzinefs heightened by the noife and depth of the interfluent Peneus. Hence it appears that Tempe was in the Pelafgiotis, whofe extremity was formerly the Peneus, but afterwards, as is probable, allotted to Magnefia ; and thus Pliny places the mouth of the Peneus not in Theffaly itfelf, Von. X. but in the Magnefia of Theflaly. The name is pro- Tempera- perly Temenos, a facred grove ; whence the Romans formed Tempus, and the diminutive Tempulum, or Templum, The name Tempe became at length an ap¬ pellative to denote any pleafant fpot. TEMPERAMENT, among phyficians, the fame with conftitution, ora certain difpofition of the folids and fluids of the human body, by which it may be properly denominated ftrong, weak, lax, &c. In every perfon there are appearances of a tempera¬ ment peculiar to himfelf, tho’thc ancients only took no¬ tice of four, and fome have imagined thefe were deduced from the theories of the four humours or four cardi¬ nal qualities; but it is more probable that they were firft founded on obfervation, and afterwards adapted to thofe theories, fince we find that they have a real exiftence, and are capable of receiving an explanation. The two that are molt diftinttly marked, are the fan- guineous and melancholic, viz. the temperaments of youth and age. 1. Sanguineous. Here there is laxity of folids, dif- coverable by the foftnefs of hair and fucculency; large fyftem of arteries, redundancy of fluids, florid com¬ plexion; fenfibility of the nervous power, efpecially to pleafing objedfs; irritability from the plethora; mobility and levity from lax folids. Thefe charadters are dillindlly marked, and are proved by the dif- eafes incident to this age, as hsemorrhagies, fevers,&c* but thefe, as they proceed from a lax fyftem, are more eafily cured. 2. Melancholic Habit. Here greater rigidity of fo¬ lids occurs, difcoverable by the hardnefs and crifpature of the hair; fmall proportion of the fluids, hence dry- nefs and leannefs ; fmall arteries, hence pale colour ; venous plethora, hence turgefcency of thefe, and livi- dity; fenfibility, frequently exquifice, but with gretit accuracy ; moderate irritability, with remarkable te- nacityof impreffions; fteadinefs in adfion and flownefs of motion, with great ftren.gth ; for excefs of this con¬ ftitution in maniacs gives the moft extraordinary in- ftance of human ftrength we know. This tempera¬ ment is moft diftindtly marked in old age, and in males. The fanguineous temperament of youth makes us not diftinguifh the melancholic till the decline of life, when it is very evident, from difeafes of the veins, haemorrhoids, apoplexy, cachexy, obftruftions of the vifeera, particularly of the liver, dropfies, affec¬ tions of the alimentary canal, chiefly from flower and weaker influence of the nervous powert So much for the fanguineous and melancholic temperaments; the other two are not fo eafily explained.— The choleric temperament takes place between youth and manhood. In the 3. Choleric, diftribution of the fluids is more ex- adly balanced; there is lefs fenfibility, and lefa obe- fity, with more irritability, proceeding from greater tenfion, lefs mobility and levity; and more fteadinefs in the ftrength of the nervous power. As «o the 4. Phlegmatic: This temperament cannot be di- ftinguifhed by any characters of age or ux. !• agrees with the fanguineous in laxity anti fucculency. It dif¬ fers from that temperament, and the melancholic, by the more exaft diftribution of the fluids. Again, it differs from the fanguineous, by having lefs fenfibili¬ ty, irritability, mobility, and perhaps ftrength, tho* 42 Y fome- T E M [ 8554 ] T E M Tempera- fometimes indeed this laft is found to be great. ment Thefe are the ancient temperaments. The tem- Temltars Perament8> indeed, aie much more various; and very 1 far from, being eafiiy marked and reduced to their genera and fpecies, not only on account of variety of temperaments themfelves, but alfo on account of idio- fyncrafy. Temperament, in mufic, is defined by Roufieau to be an operation, which, by means of a flight alte¬ ration in the intervals, caufes the difference between two contiguous founds to difappear, makes each of thefe foCtnds feem identical with the other, which, without offending the ear, may dill preferve their re- fpe&ive intervals or difiances one from the other. By this operation, the fcale is rendered more Ample, and the number of founds which would otherwife be ne- ceffary retrenched. Had not the fcale been thus modified, inftead of twelve founds alone which are contained in the oftave, more than 60 would be indif- penfably required to form what we properly call modu¬ lation in every tone. It is proved by computation, that upon the organ, the harpfichord, and every other inftrument with keys, there is not, and there fcarcely can be, any chords properly in tune, fave the oftave alone. The caufe is this, that though three thirds major, or four thirds minor, ought to form a juft oftave, thofe are found to furpafs, and thefe not to reach it. TEMPERING, in the mechanic arts, the prepa¬ ring of fteel and iron, fo as to render them more com- paft, hard, and firm ; or even more foft and pliant, according to the refpeftive occafions. See Iron and Steel. TEMPLARS, or Templers, a religious order in- ftituted at Jerufalem about the year 1118. Some re¬ ligious gentlemen put themfelves under the govern¬ ment of the patriarch of Jerufalem, renounced proper¬ ty, made the vow of celibacy and obedience, and li¬ ved like canons regular. King Baldwin affigned them an apartment in his palace. They had likewife lands given them by the king, the patriarch, and the nobili¬ ty, for their maintenance. At firft there were but nine of this order, and the two principal perfons were Hugo de Paganis and Geoffry of St Omers. About nine years after their inftitution, a rule was drawn up for them, and a white habit affigned them, by Pope Honorius II. About 20 years afterwards, in the popedom of Eugenius III. they had red croffes fewed upon their cloaks as a mark of diftinftion ; and in a fhort time they were increafed to about 300 in their convent at Jerufalem. They took the name of K-nights ‘Templars, becaufe their firft houfe flood near the temple dedicated to our Saviour at Jerufalem. This order, after having performed many great exploits againft the infidels, became rich and powerful all over Europe ; but the knights, abufing their wealth and credit, fell into great diforders and irregularities. Many crimes and enormities being alleged againft them, they were profecuted in France, Italy, and Spain ; and at laft the Pope, by his bull of the 22d of May 1312, given in the council of Vienna, pro¬ nounced the extinftion of the order of Templars, and united their eftatea to the order of St John of Jeru- falem. TEMPLE, a general name for places of public Temple^ worfhip, whether Pagan, Chriftian, or otherwife 1 But the word, in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed to denote the places or edifices in which the Pagans offered fa- crifice to their falfe gods. The word is formed from the Latin templum, which fome derive from the Greek TE|ttev5r -j-, fignifying the fame thing ; and others from | gee Tfjttvo, abfeindo, “ I cut off, I feparate,” in regard a pe, and 1 temple is a place feparated from common ufes. O- Templum.] thers derive it from the old Latin word templare, “ to contemplate.It is certain, the ancient augurs gave the name templa to thofe parts of the heavens which they marked out for the obfervation of the flight of , birds.—Their formula was this : Templa tefqua funto. ' ! See Augur. Temples,among us,denote two innsof court inLon- don, thus called, becaufe anciently the dwelling-houfe of the knights-templars. At the fuppreffion of that or¬ der, they were purchafed by the profeffors of the com¬ mon law, and converted into hofpitia or inns. They are called the inner and middle temple, in relation to Ef- fex-houfe ; which was alfo a part of the houfe of the templars, and called the outer temple, becaufe fituate without Temple-Bar. In the middle temple, during the time of the templars, the king’s treafure was kept: as was alfo that of the kings of France in the houfe of templars at Paris. The chief officer was the roafterof the temple, who was fummoned to parliament in 47 Hen. III. and from him the chief minifter of the temple-church is ftill called majler of the temple. TEMPLES, in anatomy, a double part of the head, reaching from the forehead and eyes to the two ears. The temples are chiefly formed of two bones called ojjfa temporis. Thefe parts, according to phyficians, were called tempera, from their (bowing the age or time of man by the colour of the hair, which ■turns white in this part before any other; which Ho¬ mer feems to have been aware of, by his calling men policerotaphi, q. d. “ grey-templed.” TEMPLE (Sir William), grandfon of Sir William Temple fecretary to the famous earl of Effex in queen Elifabeth’s time, who was a younger fon of the an¬ cient Temples of Temple-Hall in Leicefterfhire, was born about 1629. From his youth he difeovered a folid penetrating genius, and a wonderful defire of knowledge, which his father Sir John took care to cultivate by all the advantages of a liberal education-. His political principles would not fuffer him to enter upon any public affairs till the way was made open for the king’s reftoration in 1660. He then made a diftinguifhed figure at court; and was fent on feveral embaffies, particularly in 1668 to the States-General, when he brought about the triple league between Eng¬ land, Holland, and Sweden. He had a great (hare in. the marriage of the prince of Orange with the lady Mary the duke of York’s daughter ; and was alfo one of the plenipotentiaries at the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. But the French intereft gaining the afeendant at court, he refigned his public employments, and re¬ tired into the country, where he lived in retirement, folely employedin ftudy and the cultivation of his gar* dens. Mr Swift, afterwards dean of St Patrick’s, Dublin, lived with Sir William as his amanuenfis, and afllfted in preparing his works for theprefs. SirWil- T E M [ 8555 ] T E M T^mplum Ham died toward the end of the yeSr 1700, at Moor- II Park near Farnham in Surry, where, according to hia Te of Painting, from his imitating the manner of different painters with fuch exaftnefs, as to deceive even the niceft judges. He improved greatly under his father, and obtained fuch reputation as introduced him to the favour of the great. The archduke Leopold Wil¬ liam made him gentleman of his bed-chamber; and all the piftures of his gallery were copied by Teniers, and engraved by his direftion. The king of Spain and Don Juan of Auftria fet fo high a value on his pic¬ tures, that they built a gallery on purpofe for them. William prince of Orange honoured him with his friendfliip; and Rubens not only efteemed his works, but afiifted him with his advice. His principal talent lay in landfcapes adorned with fmall figures. He alfo painted men drinking and fmoking, chemifts elabo¬ ratories, country fairs, and the like. His fmall figures are fuperior to his large ones. He died in 1694. The works of the father and fon are thus diftinguifh- ed: The latter difeover a finer touch and frefher pen¬ cil, greater variety of attitudes, and a better difpofi- tion of the figures. The father retained fomething of the tone of Italy in his colouring, which was ftronger than the fon’s^ befides, the fon ufed to put at the bot¬ tom of his piftures, David Teniers, junior. Abraham, another fon of David the Elder, was equal, if not fuperior, to his father and brother in the expreffion of his charaftersj and his underftanding the claro obfeuro; though he was inferior in the fprightlinefs of his touch, and the lightnefs of his pencil. TENISON (Dr Thomas), archbifhop of Canter¬ bury, was born at Cottenham in Cambridgefhire in 1636 ; and ftutlied at Corpus Chrifti college in Cam¬ bridge. In his youth, while the fanatical government lafted, he applied himfelf to phyfic; but afterward went into orders, and was fome time minifter of St An¬ drew’s church, Cambridge; where he attended the fick during the plague in 1665, which his parifliioners ac¬ knowledged by the prefent of a piece of plate. He fhowed himfelf very aftive againft the growth of Po¬ pery by his writings both in king Charles and king James’s reigns: in 1680 he was prefented to the vica¬ rage of St Martin’s in the Fields, London, to which parifh he made feveral donations; and among others, endowed a free fchoof, and built a handfome library, which he fnrnifhed with ufeful books. King William and queen Mary, in 1689, prefented him to the arch¬ deaconry of London ; in 1691, he was nominated to the fee of Lincoln, and in 1694 fucceeded Dr Tillot- fon as archbifhop of Canterbury. He performed all the duties of a good primate for 20 years, and died in 17’5- TENOR, or Tenour, the purport or content of a writing or iaftrument in law, &c. Teniers Tenor. Tenos, TEN Tenor Tenor, in mufic, the firtl mean, or middle part, Tenth -do 0r ‘3 ^lc ordinary pitch of the voice, when r neither raifed to a treble nor lowered to a bafs. * TENSE, in grammar, an inflexion of verbs, where¬ by they are made to fignify or diftinguilh the circum- ftance of time in what they affirm. See Grammar. TENT, in war, a pavilion or portable houfe. They are made of canvafs, for officers and foldiers to lie un¬ der when in the field. The fizes of the officers tents are not fixed ; fome regiments have them of one fize, and fome of another: a captain’s tent and marquee is generally io^-feet broad, 14 deep, and 8 high: the fubalterns are a foot lefs; the major’s and lieutenant- colonel’s a foot larger; and the colonel’s two feet lar¬ ger. The fubalterns of foot lie two a tent, and thofe of horfe but one. The tents of private men are 64- feet fquare, and 5 feet high; and hold five foldiers each. The tents for horfe are 7 feet broad, and 9 feet deep: they hold likewife five men and their horfe accoutre¬ ments.—The word is formed from the Latin tentorium, of tendo, “ I ftretch,” in regard tents are ufually made of canvas ftretched out, and fullained by poles, with cords and pegs. Tent, in furgery, a roll of lint made into the fhape of a nail with a broad flat head, chiefly ufed in deep wounds and ulcers. They are of fervice, not only in conveying medicines to the mod intimate recefies and finufes of the wound, but to prevent the lips of the wound from uniting before it is healed from the bot¬ tom ; and by their alfittance grumous blood,- fordes, &c. are readily evacuated. TENTHREDO, the saw-fly; a genus of infefls belonging to the order of hymenoptera. The mouth is furnifhed with jaws, but has no probofcis; the wings are plain and tumid; the ding confids of two ferrated ‘ ' laminae, and the fcutellum of two grains placed at a di- flance. The fpecies are very numerous, differing from one another in colour and fize. They are not very fhy. Some, by means of their faw, depofit in the buds of flowers, others on the twigs of trees or fhrubs, eggs from which are produced falfe caterpillars. The im¬ plement with which they are armed is nowife formi¬ dable ; as it appears only dedincd to the purpofe of de- pofiting their eggs. The fylvatica is a beautiful fpecies. The antennse are fetaceous, and have more than 20 joints. The head is blue; the trunk grey mottled with yellow; the body is black; the lines dividing the rings are brown- ifh; the fix terminatory fegments are amber-coloured. The wings are brown, with a dufky edge. The legs are yellow. This delicate fly is found in damp woods and moors in Augufl and September. When the fe¬ male lays her eggs, there goes with them an acrid mu¬ cilaginous juice, which perverts the courfe of the fap in the plant, and makes it grow into a kind of gal); this operates as foon as emitted, and fcarifies the part the faw has wounded. One may fee bubbles of this foft and clammy juice always left upon the plant; the wound is oblong and crooked, and the part becomes black as if burnt. The egg increafes in bignefs to twice its fizf, or more, after it is lodged in the plant; nor is this ftrange, fince it has no hard covering. The larvae may eafily be known by the number of their feu, which are always more than 16; by which they differ from caterpillars, which have 16 at molt, and TEN never fewer than 8. In order to accomplilh their Tenths, metamorphofe, they hide tfiemfelves in the ground, fpin their cod, the infide of which Is lined with a very fine down, and admit through the netted texture that moifture from the earth which they have need of in the ftate of chryfalids. TENTHS, and first-fruits of Spiritual Prefer- ments, a branch of the king’s revenue. See Revenue. Thefe were originally a part of the Papal ufurpa- tions over the clergy of this kingdom ; firll introduced by Pandulph the pope’s legate, during the reigns of king John and Henry III. in the fee of Norwich; and afterwards attempted to be made univerfal by the popes Clement V. and John XXII. about the beginning of the 14th century. The firft-fruits, primitia, or an¬ nates, were the firft year’s whole profits of the fpiri- tual preferment, according to a rate or valor made un¬ der the dire&ion of pope Innocent IV. by Walter bi- fhop of Norwich in 38 Hen. III. and afterwards ad¬ vanced in value by commiffion from pope Nicholas III. A. D. 1292, 20 Edw. I.; which valuation of pope Nicholas is Hill preferved in the exchequer. The tenths, or decinitr, were the tenth part of the annual profit of each living by the fame valuation ; which was alfo claimed by the holy fee, under no better pretence than a ftrange mifapplication of that precept of the Leviti- cal law, which direfls, that the Levites “ fhould of- “ fer the tenth part of their tithes as a heave-offering “ to the Lord, and give it to Aaron the high-prieft.” But this claim of the pope met with vigorous refiftance from the Englilh parliament; and a variety of afts were paffed to prevent and reftrain it, particularly the. ftatute 6 Hen. IV. c. 1. which calls it a horrible mif- chief and damnable cufom. But the Popifh clergy, blindly devoted to the will of a foreign mafter, (iill kept it on foot; fometimes more fecretly, fomctimes more openly and avowedly: fo that in the reign of Hen¬ ry VIII. it was computed, that in the compafs of 50 years 800,000 ducats had been fent to Rome forfirft- fruits only. And as the clergy expreffed this willing- nefs to contribute fo much of their income to the head of the church, it was thought proper (when in the fame reign the papal power was abolilhed, and the king was declared the head of the church of England) to annex this revenue to the crown ; which was done by ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. c. 3. (confirmed by ftatute l Eliz. c. 4.); and a new valor beneficiorum was then made, by which the clergy are at prefent rated. By thefe laft-mentioned ftatutes all vicarages under ten pounds a-year, and all reftories under ten marks, are difcharged from the payment of firft-fruits: and if, in fuch livings as continue chargeable with this pay¬ ment, the incumbent lives but half a year, he fhall pay only one quarter of his firft-fruits; if but one whole year, then half of them ; if a year and a half, three quarters; and if two years, then the whole, and not otherwife. Likewife by the ftatute 27 Henry VIII. c. 8. no tenths are to be paid for the firft year, for then the firft-fruits are due: and by other ftatutes of queen Anne, in the fifth and fixth years of her reign, if a benefice be under $o\. per annjtm clear yearly va¬ lue, it fhall be difcharged of the payment of firft-fruits and tenths. Thus the richer clergy being, by the criminal bigo¬ try of their Popifh prcdeceffors, fubje&ed at firft to a foreiga [ S557 ] TEN [ 8558 ] TEN Tenure, foreign exa&ion, were afterwards, when that yoke was fhaken off, liable to a like mifapplication of their re¬ venues, through the rapacious difpofition of the then reigning monarch; till at length the piety of queen Anne reftored to the church what had been thus indi- re&ly taken from it. This fhe did, not by remitting the tenths and firft-fruits entirely; but, in a fpirit of the trueft equity, by applying thefe fuperfluities of the larger benefices to make up the deficiences of the fmal- ier. And to this end fhe granted her royal chatrer, which was confirmed by the fiatute 2 Ann. c. it. whereby all the revenue of firft-fruits and tenths is vert¬ ed in truftees for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor livings. This is ufually called queen Anne’s bounty; which has been ftill farther regu¬ lated by fubfequent ftatutes. TENURE, in law, fignifies the manner whereby lands or tenements are held, or the fervice that the tenant owes to his lord. Of this kingdom almoft all the real property is by the policy of our laws fuppofed to be granted by, de¬ pendent upon, and holden of, fome fupperior lord, by and in confideration of certain fervices to be rendered to the lord by the tenant or pofeffor of this property. The thing holden is therefore ftyled a tenement, the poffcffors thereof tenants, and the manner of their poffefiion a tenure. Thus all the lands in the king¬ dom is fuppofed to be holden, mediately or immediately, of the king; who is ftyled the lord paramount, or above all. Such tenants as held under the king im¬ mediately, when they granted out portions of the lands to inferior perfons, became alfo lords with refpeft to thofe inferior perfons, as they were ftill tenants with refpeft to the king ; and, thus partaking of a middle nature, were called mefne or middle lords. So that if the king granted a manor to A, and he granted a portion of the land to B, now B was faid to hold of A, and A of the king ; or, in other words, B held his lands immediately of A, but mediately of the king. The king therefore was ftyled hrdparamount; A was both tenant and lord, or was a mefne lord ; and B was called tenant paravail, or the lonuejl tenant, being he who was fuppofed to make avail, or profit of the land. In this manner are all the lands of the kingdom holden which are in the hands of fubje&s: for according to Sir Edward Coke, in the law of England we have not properly allodium; which we have fees in the name by which the ftudifts abroad diftinguifh fuch eftates of the fubjeft as are not holden of any fuperior. So .that at the firft glance we may obferve, that our lands .are .either plainly feuds, or partake very ftrongly of .the feodal nature. All tenures being thus derived, or fuppofed to be derived, from the king, thofe that held immediately under him, in right of his crown and dignity, were .called his tenants in capite, or in chief; which was the moft honourable fpecies of tenure, but at the fame time fubjefled the tenants to greater and more.burden- fome fervices than inferior tenures did. And this diftindtion ran through all the different forts of tenure. There feem to have fubfifted among our anceftors four principal fpecies of lay-tenures, to which all other may be reduced : the grand criteria of which were the natures of the feveral feryices or renders that were due to the lords from their tenants. The Tenure, fervices, in refpeA of their quality, were either free “ or bafe fervices ; in refpedl of their quantity and the time of exadling them, were either certain or uncer¬ tain. Free fervices were fuch as were not unbe¬ coming the charadler of a foldier or a freeman to perform ; as to ferve under his lord in the wars, to pay a fum of money, and the like. Bafe fervices were fuch as were fit only for peafants or perfons of a fervile rank ; as to plough the lord’s land, to make his hedges, to carry out his dung, or other mean em¬ ployments. The certain fervices, whether free or bafe, were fuch as were ftinted in quantity, and could not be exceeded on any pretence ; as, to pay a dated an¬ nual rent, or to plough fuch a field for three days. 'The uncertain depended upon unknown contingencies: as, to do military fervice in perfon, or pay an affeff- ment in lieu of it when called upon ; or to wind a horn upon the appearance of invaders; which are free fervices: or to do whatever the lord ftiould command ; which is a bafe or villein fervice. From the various commbinations of thefe fervices have arifen the four kinds of lay-tenure which fubfifted in England till the middle of the laft century; and three of which fubfift to this day. Of thefe Bratfton (who wrote under Henry the third) feems to give the cleareft and moft compendious account, of any author ancient or modern , of which the following is the out¬ line or abftradl: “ Tenements are of two kinds, frank-tenefyent, and viflenage. And, of frank-tene¬ ments, fome are held freely in confideration of homage and knight-fervice ; others in free-focage, with the fervice of fealty only. And again, of villenages, fome are pure, and others privileged. He that holds in pure villenage fihall do whatfoever is commanded him, and always be bound to an uncertain fervice. The other kind of villenage is called villein-focage; and thefe viilein-focmen do villein-fervices, but fuch as are certain and determined.” Of which the fenfe feems to be as follows: firft, where the fervice was free, but uncertain, as military fervice with homage, that tenure was called the tenure in chivalry, per fervitium militare, or by knight-fervice. Secondly, where the fervice was not only free, but alfo certain, as by feal¬ ty only, by rent and fealty, &c. that tenure was called liberum focagium, or free focagi. Thefe were the only free holdings or tenements; the others were villenous or fervile: as, thirdly, where the fervice was bafe in its nature, and uncertain as to time and quan¬ tity, the tenure was purum villenagium, abfolute or pure villenage. Laftly, where the fervice was bafe in its nature, but reduced to a certainty, this was ftill villenage, but diftinguiftted from the other by the name of privileged villenage, villenagium privilegiatum; or it might be ftill called focage (from the certainty of its fervices), but degraded by their bafenefs into the inferior title of villanum focagium, villein-focage. 1. The miltary tenure, or that by knight-fervice, was done away by flat. 12 Car. IF. For an account of this fpecies of tenure, fee Feodal Syftetn, and IS.KIGHT-Service; and for its incidents, fee Aids, Relief, Primer-seisin, Wardship, Marriage, Fines, and Escheat (in APPENDIX). 2. yThe fecond fpecies of tenure or free-focage, oot only fubfifts to this day, but has in a manner abfor- bed TER [ 8559 ] TER Tenure, bed and fwallowed up (fince the ftatute of Charles the courts of law, in favour of the liberty of copy- * the fecond) almoft every other fpecies of tenure. See holders, have tied them down to be reafonable in their Socage. extent; otherwife they might amount to dilherifon of The other grand divifton of tenure, mentioned by the eftate. No fine therefore is allowed to be taken Bra&on is that of villenage, as contradiftinguilhed upon defcents and alienations, (unlefs in particular from liberum tenementum, or frank-tenure. And this circumftances) of more than two years improved value (we may remember) he fubdivides into two clafles, of the eftate. From this inftance we may judge of pure and privileged villenage: from whence have arifen the favourable difpofition that the law of England two other fpecies of our modern tenures. (which is a law of liberty) hath always ftiown to this 3. From the tenure of pure villenage have fprung fpecies of tenants, by removing, as far as poffible, our prefent copyhold-tenures, or tenure by copy of every real badge of flavery from them, however fome court-roll at the will of the lord ; in order to obtain nominal ones may continue. It fuffered cuftom very a clear idea of which it will be previoufly neceflary to early to get the better of theexprefs terms upon which confult the articles Manor and Villenage. they held their lands ; by declaring, that the will of As a farther confequence of what has been there the lord was »to be interpreted by the cuftom of the explained, we may colletft thefe two main principles, manor: and, where no cuftom has been fuffered to which are held to be the fupporters of a copyhold- grow up to the prejudice of the lord, as in this cafe tenure, and without which it cannot exift ; 1. That of arbitary fines, the law itfelf interpofes in an equi- the lands be parcel of and fituate within that manor table method, and will not fuffer the lord to extend under which it is held. 2. That they have been de- his power fo far as to difinherit the tenant, mifed, or demifabie, by copy of court-roll immemo- 4. There is yet a fourth fpecies of tenure, defcribed rially. For immemorial cuftom is the life of all tenures by Brafton under the name fometimes of privileged vil- by copy; fo that no new copyhold can, ftridtly fpeak- lenage, and fometimes of villein-focage. See Privi- ing, be granted at this day. leged Villenage. In fome manors, where the cuftom hath been to Having in the prefent article and thofe referred to, permit the heir to fucceed the anceftor in his tenure, taken a compendious view of the principal and funda- the eftates are copyholds of inheritance} in others, mental points of the doflrine of tenures, both ancient where the lords have been more vigilant to maintain and modern, we cannot but remark the mutual con- their rights, they remain coypholds for life only ; for nettion and dependence that all of them have upon the cuftom of the manor has in both cafes fo far fu- each other. And upon the whole it appears, that, perfeded the will of the lord, that, provided the whatever changes and alterations thefe tenures have in fervices be performed or ftipulated for by fealty, he procefs of time undergone, from the Saxon aera to cannot in the firft inftance refufe to admit the heir of the 12 Car. II. all lay-tenures are now in effeift re- his tenant upon his death; nor, in the fecond, can he duced to two fpecies; free-tenure in common focage, remove his prefent tenant fo long as he lives, though and bafe-tenure by copy of court-roll. But there is he holds nominally by the precarious tenure of his ftill behind one other fpecies of tenure, referved by lord’s will. the ftatute of Charles II. which is of a fpiritual nature, The fruits and appendages of a copyhold-tenure, and called the tenure in Frank-Almoign; fee that that it hath in common with free tenures, are fealty, article. fervices (as well in rents as otherwife), reliefs, and TEPID, a term ufed by writers on mineral waters, efcheats. The two latter belong only to copyholds of &c. to exprefs fuch of them as have a lefsfenfible cold inheritance ; the former to thofe for life alfo. But, than common water. befides thefe, copyholds have alfo heriots, wardfhip, TERCERA, one of the largeft iflands of the and fines. Heriots, which are agreed to be a Danifti Azores, or Weftern Iflands, lying in the Atlantic cuftom, area render of the bed beaft or other good Ocean. It is about 40 miles in circumference ; and (as the cuftom may be) to the lord on the death of furrounded with craggy rocks, which render it almoft the tenant. This is plainly a relic of villein-tenure ; inacctffible. The foil is fertile, abounding in corn, there being originally lefs hardftiip in it, when all the wine, and fruits ; and they have fuch plenty of cattle, goods and chattels belonged to the lord, and he that they fupply the fhips therewith that call there, might have feized them even in the villein’s lifetime. However, their principal trade is wood. The inha- Thefe are incident to both fpecies of copyhold ; but bitants are lively and well made; and they pretend to a wardfhipand fines to thofe of inheritance only. Ward- great deal of religion and gallantry at the fame time, fhip, in copyhold-eftates, partakes both of that, in They pique themfelves upon points of honour, and are chivalry and that in focage. Like that in chivalry, extremely revengeful. It is their cuftom to rove the lord is the legal guardian; who ufually affigns about in the_ night-time in queft of intrigues, and. fome relation of the infant tenant to aft in his Head : feldom fall in finding women for their purpofe. It is and he, like guardian in focage, is. accountable to his fubjeft to Portugal; and Angra is the capital tow.u. ward for the profits. Of fines, fome are in the nature TEREBINTHUS, in botany. See Pistacia. of primer-feifins, due on the death of each tenant, TEREDO, the piercer; a genus of infefts be- others are mere fines for alienation of the lands; in longing to the order of vermes teftacea. There fome manors, only one of thofe forts can be de- is but one fpecies, viz, the navah's, with a flen- manded, in fome both, and in others neither. They der bending flrell. It inhabits the Indian leas, are fometimes arbitrary and at the will of the lord, whence it was imported into the European. It pe- fometimes fixed by cuftom ; but, even when arbitrary, netrates eafily- into the ftouteft oak-planks, and produces Tenure Teredo. TER [ 8560 ] TER Terence produces dreadful deftruAion to the (hips by the holes II it makes in their tides; and it is to avoid the effe&s of Termes- this infeA that veffels require theathing. TERENCE, or Publius Terentius Afer, a ce¬ lebrated comic poet of ancient Rome, was born at Car¬ thage in Africa. He was Have to Terentius Luca- nus the fenator; who gave him his liberty on account of his wit, his good mien, and great abilities. Te¬ rence, on his becoming a freed man, applied himfelf to the writing of comedies; in the execution of which he imitated Menander and the other celebrated co¬ mic poets of Greece. Cicero gives him the moll pompous elogiums, both for the purity of his lan¬ guage and the perfpicuity and beauty of his corapo- fttions, which he confiders as the rule and ftandard of the Latin tongue; and obferves, that they were eileemed fo fine and elegant, that they were thought to have been written by Scipio and Lelius, who were then the greateft perfonages and the moft eloquent of the Roman people. Terence died while on a voyage into Greece, about the 15th year before the Chriftian sera. There are fix of the comedies extant, of which the beft editions are the Elzevir one 1635, izmo ; that cum intsgris not is Donat!-, etfelectis variorum^ 1686, 8vo; Wefterhovins’s, in two vois 4to 1726; and that of Bentley the -fame year, 4.10. Madam Dacier has given a beautiful French verfion of this author ; and an ingenious and correft Englifh tranfiation was pub- lifted in 4(0, 1768, by Mr Colman. TERM, inlaw, is generally taken for a limitation of time or eftate ; as, a leafe for term of life or years. Term, however, is more particularly ufed for that time wherein our courts of juflice are open ; in op- pofition to which, the reft of the year is called vaca¬ tion. Term, in grammar, denotes fome word or expref- fion of a language. Term in the Arts, or Term of Art, is a word which, befidcs the literal and popular meaning which it has or may have in common language, bears a further and peculiar meaning in fome art or fcience. TERMES, a genus of infe&s belonging to the or¬ der of aptera. The antennae are fetaceous, the mouth armed with jaws; the feet are fix, formed for run¬ ning. There are two fpecies. 1. The fatale, or white ant, of a yellowift co¬ lour, is a native of both the Indies; makes its neft of wood, which it draws out into a cylindrical form as it moves along; inhabits dark and ftady places, never appearing in the open air. It is in the higheft de¬ gree pernicious, deftroying every thing of Wood or cloth, whether of animal or vegetable materials, pe¬ netrating into its fubftance and devouring it, while the furface is left entire. It can only be deftroyed by- quicklime. Of the white ants of India and Africa we have a very curious account, publifted in the 71ft volume of the Philofophical Tranfadions by Mr Henry Smeath- iran of Clement’s Inn. According to this account, the works of ^thefe infeds furpafs thofe of the bees, wafps, beavers, and another animals, as mnch at leaft as thofe of the molt polifted European nations excel thofe of the leaft cultivated favages. And, even with regard to man, his greateft works, the boafted pyra¬ mids, faH comparatively far Ihort, even in fize alone, of the ftrudures raifed by thefe infeds. The labour- Termes. ers among them employed in this fervice are not a quarter of an inch in length ; but the ftrudures which they ered rife to to or 12 feet and upwards above the furface of the earth. Suppofing the height of a man to be fix feet, the author calculates, that the buildings of thefe infeds may be confidered, relatively to their fize and that of a man, as being raifed to near five times the height of the £reateft of the Egyptian py¬ ramids ; that is, correfponding with confiderably more than half a mile. We may add, that, with refped to the interior conftrudion, and the various members and difpofitions of the parts of the building, they appear greatly to exceed that or any other work of human conftrudion. The moft ftrikiog parts of thefe ftrudures are—the royal apartments, the nurferies, magazines of provi- fions, arched chambers and galleries, with their va¬ rious communications; the ranges of Gothic-ftapetl arches, projeded, and not formed by mere excavation, fome of which are two or three feet high, but which diminifh rapidly, like the arches of ailes in perfpec- tives; the various roads, floping ftair-cafes, and bridges, confifting of one vaft arch, and conftruded to ftiorten the diftance between the feveral parts of the building; which would otkerwife communicate only by winding paffages. Thefe aftonifting ftrudures are the works of an infed only a quarter of an inch long, and 25 of which weigh only one grain—But thefe and many other curious inftances of the great faga- city and powers of thefe infeds cannot be underftood, without viewing the plates in which their feeble frames, and comparatively ftupendous works, are deli¬ neated. The ceconomy of thefe induftrious infeds appears to have been very attentively obferved by the ingenious author, as well as their buildings. There are three diftind ranks or orders among them, conftituting a well-regulated community. Thefe are, firft, the la¬ bourers, or working infeds ; next the foldiers, or fight¬ ing order, who do no kind of labour, and are about twice as long as the former, and equal in bulk to about of them ; and laftly, the winged or perfed infeds, who may be called the nobility or gentry of the Rate ; for they neither labour nor fight, being fcarce- ly capable even of felf-defence.-—“ Thefe only are ca¬ pable of being eleded kings or queens ; and nature has has fo ordered it, that they emigrate within a few weeks after they are elevated to this ftate, and either eftablift new kingdoms, or perift within a day or two.” This laft-raentioned order differs fo much from the other two, that they have not hitherto been fuppofed to belong to the fame community. In fad, they are not to be difeovered in the neft till, juft before the commencement of the rainy feafon; when they under¬ go the laft change, which is preparative to the forma¬ tion of new colonies. They are equal in bulk to two foidiers and about 30 labourers ; and are furnifted with four wings, with which they are deftined to roam about for a few hours; at the end of which time they lofe their wings, and become the prey of innumerable birds, reptiles, and infeds : while probably not a pair out of many millions of this unhappy race get into a place of fafety, fulfil the firft law of nature, and lay the foun- TER r 8561 ] TER Tcrmes. foundation of a new commiyuty. In this ftate many “ f3H ;nto the neighbouring waters, and are eat with avidity by the Africans. The author found them de¬ licate, nourirtiing, and wholefome ; without fauce or other help from cookery, than merely roafting them in the manner of coffee. The few fortunate pairs who happen to furvive this annua! maffacre and deftru&ion, are reprefented by the author as being cafually found by fome of the la¬ bourers, that arc continually running about on the furface of the ground, and are elefted kings and queens of new ftates. Thofe who are not fo elected and preferved, certainly perifh, and moft probably in the courfe of the following day. By thefe induftrious creatures the king and queen eledt are immediately protefted from their innumerable enemies, by inclofing them in a chamber of clay; where thebufinefs of pro¬ pagation foon commences. Their “ voluntary fub- jeOs” then bufy themfelves in conflrudting wooden nurferies, or apartments entirely compofed of wooden materials, feemingly joined together with gums. In¬ to thefe they afterwards carry the eggs produced from the queen ; lodging them there as faft as they can ob¬ tain them from her. The author even furnifhes us with plaufible reafons to believe, that they here form a kind of garden for the cultivation of a fpecies of mi- crofcopical mufhroom ; which Mr Konig (in an eflay on the Eaft Indian termites, read before the Society of Naturalifls of Berlin) conjedlures to be the food of the young infe&s. But perhaps the moft wonderful, and at the fame time beft authenticated, part of the hi- ftory of thefe Angular infefts is that which relates to the queen or mother of the community, in her preg¬ nant ftate. After impregnation, a very extraordinary change begins to take place in her perfon, or rather in her ab¬ domen only. It gradually increafes in bulk, and at length becomes of fuch an enormous fize as to exceed the bulk of the reft of her body 1500 or 2000 times. She becomes tooo times heavier than her confort; and exceeds 20,000 or 30,000 times the bulk of one of the labourers. In this ftate, the matrix has a conftant periftalttc or undulating motion ; the confequence of which is (as the author has counted them) the protru- fion of 80,000 eggs in 24 hours. Thefe eggs, fays the author, “ are inftantly taken from her body by her attendants (of whom there al¬ ways are, in the royal chamber and the galleries adja¬ cent, a fufficient number in waiting) and carried to the nurferies—which are fometimes four or five feet diftant in a ftraight line.—Here, after they are hatch¬ ed, the young are attended and provided with every thing nectffury, until they are able to (hift for them- fdvcs, and take their (hare of the labours of the com¬ munity.” Many curious and linking particulars are related of the great devaftations committed by this powerful community ; who conftrudt roads, or rather covered ways, diverging in all directions from the neft, and leading to every objedi of plunder within their reach. Though the mifchiefs they commit are very great, fuch is the ceconomy of nature, that it is probably counterbalanced by the good produced by them ; in quickly dellroying dead trees and other fubftances, which, as the author ubferves, would, by a tedious Vol. X. decay, ferve only to encumber the face of the earth. Termes, Such is their alacrity and difpatch in this office, that thfe total deftru&ion of deferted towns is fo effeftually accomplifficd, that in two or three years a thick wood fills the fpace; and not the leaft veftige of a houi'e is to be difcovered. From the many Angular accounts here given of the police of thefe infedts, we (hall feledl and abridge only one; refpedling the different functions of the labour¬ ers and foldiers,or the civil and military eftablilhmenta in this community, on an attempt to examine their neft or city. On making a breach in any part of the ftrudture wdth a hoe or pick-axe, a foldier immediately ap¬ pears, and walks about the breach ; as if to fee whe¬ ther the enemy is gone, or to examine whence the at¬ tack proceeds. In a fhort time he is followed by two or three others, and foon afterwards by a numerous body, who ruffi out as faft as the breach will permit them; their numbers increafing as long as any one con¬ tinues to batter the building. During this time they are in the moft violent buftle and agitation ; while fome of them are employed in beating with their for¬ ceps upon the building, fo as to make a noife that may be heard at three or four feet diltance. On cea- fing to difturb them, the foldiers retire, and are fuc- ceeded by the labourers, who haften in various direc¬ tions towards the breach; each with a burden of mor¬ tar in his mouth, ready tempered. Though there are millions of them, they never ftop or embarafs each other; and a wall gradually arifes that fills up the chafm. A foldier attends every 600 or 1000 of the labourers, feemingly as a diredlor of the works; for he never touches the mortar, either to lift or carry it. One in particular places himfelf clofe to the wall which they are repairing, and frequently makes the noife above-mentioned; which is conftantly anfwered by a loud hifs from all the labourers within the dome: and at every fuch fignal, they evidently redouble their pace, and work as faft again. The work being completed, a renewal of the attack conftantly produces the fame effe&s. The foldiera again ru(h out, and then retreat, and are followed by the labourers, loaded with mortar, and as aftive and diligent as before. “ Thus,” fays the author, “ the pleafure of feeing them come out to fight or to work alternately may be obtained, as often as curiofity ex¬ cites or time permits: and it will certainly be found, that the one order never attempts to fight, or the other to work, let the emergency be ever fo great.” The obftinacy of the loldiers is remarkable. “ They fight to the very laft, difputing every inch of ground fo well as often to drive away the negroes, who are without flvoes, and make white people bleed plentiful¬ ly through their (lockings.” Such is the ftrength of the buildings eredled by thefe puny infe&s, that when they have been raifed to little more than half their height, it is always the pra&ice of the wild bulls to (land as centinels upon them, while the reft of the herd is ruminating below. When at their full height of 10 or 12 feet, they are uftd by the Europeans as places to look out from, over the top of the grafs, which here grows to the height of 13 feet upon an average. The author has flood with four men on the top of one of thefe build- 42 Z ings, TER [ 8562 ] TER Terminalia I'ngs, in order to get a view of any veflel that might H come in fight. erpan er. rp^ pulfatorium, or death-watch, varies in co¬ lour and fize; being fometimes quite white or grey, at others of a lead colour. In fome the abdomen is marked with a brown annular band, after which, near the tail, is found a brown fpot. The ini'eft is common¬ ly found in old wood, decayed tables, or books not often looked into. It runs and even leaps a little when touched. Thofe met with in houfes are whiter than thole which may be feen in gardens and in the fields, on walls, and the trunks of trees, which are more of a brown colour, and fomewhat hairy. This infeft imitates the ticking of a watch, which fome imagine it does by ftriking its head againft the wain- fcot; and hence Linnaeus has given it the name of pulfatorium. But this noife is occafioned by one of theptini, and is an amorous invitation. By fuperfti- tious people it is thought to be a prognoftie of death. TERMINALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated f See by the Romans in honour of the god Terminus f. Terminus. TERMINI, in architefture, denote a kind of fta- tues or columns, adorned a-top with the figure of a man’s, woman’s, or fatyr’shead, as a capital; and the lower part ending in a kind of fheath or fcabbard. TERMINUS, in Pagan worfhip, an ancient deity among the Romans, who prefided over the ftones or land-marks called tSrmini, which were held fo facred that it was accounted facrilege to move them ; and as the criminal became devoted to the gods, it was law¬ ful for any man to kill him. The worlhip of this deity was inftituted by Numa Pompilius, who, to render land-marks, and confequently the property of the people, facred, eredted a temple on the Tarpeian mount to Terminus. TERN, in ornithology. See Sterna. TER NATE, the molt northerly of the Molucca or Clove Iflands in the Eaft Indies. It abounds in cocoa-nuts, bananas, citrons, oranges, almonds, and other fruit proper to the torrid zone ; but cloves are the moft valuable produce. It is in the poflefiion of the Dutch. Malaya is the capital town. E. Long. 125. 10. N. Lat. r, 15. TERNI, a town of Italy in the Pope’s territories, and in the duchy of Spoleto, with a biihop’s fee. It is but a fmall place ; though there are very beautiful ruins of antiquity, it having been a very confiderable Roman colony. It is (ituated on the top of a high mountain, and to the weft of it are fields which are ex¬ tremely fertile. E. Long. 12.50. N. Lat. 42. 4. TERPANDER, a celebrated Greek poet and mu- fician. The Oxford marbles tell us that he was the fon of Derdeneus of Lefbos, and that he flouriihed in the 381ft year of thefe records-; which nearly anlwers to the 27th olympiad, and 671ft year B. C. The marbles inform us likewife, that he taught the nomes, or airs, of the lyre and flute, which he performed him- felf upon this laft inftrument, in concert with other players on the flute. Several writers tell us that he added three firings to the lyre, which before his time had but four; and in confirmation of this, Euclid and Strabo quote twoverfes, which they attribute to Ter- pander himfelf. The tetrachord’s reftraint we now defpife. The feven-ftring’d lyre a nobler (train liipplies. If the hymn to Mercury, which is aferibed to Ho-Tcrpander, mer, and in which the feven-ftringed lyre is mention- Terra, ed, be genuine, it robs Terpander of this glory. The learned, however, have great doubts concerning its authenticity. But if the lyre had been before his time furniihed with feven firings in other parts of Greece, it feeros as if Terpander was the firft who played upon them at Lacedmmon. Among the many fignal fervices which Terpander is faid to have done to mufic, none was of more impor¬ tance than the notation that is aferibed to him for af- certaining and preferving melody, which before was traditional, and wholly dependent on memory. The invention, indeed, of mufical charafters has been at¬ tributed by Alypius and Gaudentius, two Greek wri¬ ters on mufic, and upon their authority, by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who flouriflied full two centuries after Terpander. But Plutarch, from Heraclides. of Pon- tus, affures us that Terpander, the inventor of nomes for the cithara, in hexameter verfe, fet them to mufic, as well as the verfes of Homer, in order to fing them at the public games: And Clemens Alexandrinus, in telling us that this mulician wrote the laws of Lycur- gus in verfe, and fet them to mufic, makes ufe of the fame expreflion as Plutarch; which feems clearly to im¬ ply a written melody. After enumerating the airs which Terpander had compofed, and to which he had given names, Plutarch continues to fpeak of his other compofitions; among which he deferibes the proems, or hymns for the ci¬ thara, in heroic verfe. Thefe were ufed in after-times by the Rhapfodifts, as prologues or introduflions to the poems of Homer and other ancient writers. But Terpander rendered his name illuftrious, no lefs by his performance both upon the flute and cithara, than by his compofitions. This appears by the marbles already mentioned; by a paflage in Athenasus, from the hifto- rian Hellanicus, which informs us that he obtained the firft prize in the mufical contefts at thcCarnean games; and by the teftimony of Plutarch, who fays, that “ no other proof need be urged of the excellence of Terpan¬ der in the art of playing upon the cithara, than what is given by the regifter of the Pythic games, from which it appears that he gained four prizes fucceflively at thofe folemnities. Of the works of this poet only a few fragments are now remaining. TERRA australis incognita, a name for a large unknown continent, fuppofed to lie towards the South Pole, and which for a long time was fought af¬ ter by navigators. The late voyages of Captain Cook have afeertained this matter as much as it probably ever will be; and though this celebrated navigator does not deny the exiftence of fuch a climate, it is by no means probable that ever it will become inhabited, or that any valuable commodity can be produced from it. On this fubjeft Captain Cook expreffes himfelf as fol¬ lows. “ I had now made the circuit of the Southern Ocean in a high latitude, and traverfed it in fuch a manner as to leave not the lead room for the pofiibility of there being a continent, unlefs near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. By twice vifiting the tropical fea, I had not only fettled the fituation of fome old difcoverics, but made there many new ones, and left, I conceive, very little more to be done even in TER L 85.63 ] TER Terra, that part. Thus I flatter myfelf, that the intention of 'the voyage has in every refpeft been fully anfwered; the fouthern hemifpbere fufficiently explored ; and a final end put to the fearching after a fouthern conti¬ nent, which has at times ingrofled the attention of fome of the maritime powers for near two centuries paft, and been a favourite theory amongft the geographers of all ages. That there may be a continent, or large traft of land near the pole, I will not deny : on the contrary, I am of opinion there is; and it is probable that we have feen a part of it. The exceffive cold, the many iflands and vaft floats of ice, all tend to prove that there mull be land to the (outh ; and for my per- fuafion that this fouthern land mutt lie or extend far- theft to the north, oppofite to the Southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans, I have already afligned fome rea- fons; to which I may add the greater degree of cold experienced by us in thefe fcas than in the Southern Pacific Ocean under the fame parallels of latitude.” Terra del Fuego. See Tierra del Fuego. Terra Firma, in geography, is foroetimes ufed for a continent, in contradittindion to iflands. Terra Firma, otherwife called New Caftile, or Cajlilla del Oro, a country of America, bounded on the north by the North Sea and part of the Atlantic Ocean, by the fame fea and Guiana on the eaft, by the country of the Amazons and Peru on the fouth, and by the Pacific Ocean and Veragua on the weft. It lies between 62 and 83 degrees of weft longitude, and between the equator and 12 degrees of north latitude; being upwards of 1200 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 800 in breadth from north to fouth. It had the name of CaJUlla del Oro from the quantities of gold found in the diftrift of Uraba and other parts; and was firft difcovered by the celebrated Columbus in his third voyage. The climate is neither pleafant nor healthy; the in¬ habitants one part of the year being fcorched by the moft intenfe and burning heat, and the other almoft drowned with perpetual floods of rain, pouring from the (ky with fuch violence as if a general deluge was to enfue. In fo large a traft of country the foil muft necefia- rily vary. Accordingly, in fome parts it is a barren fand, or drowned mangrove land, that will fcarce pro¬ duce any kind of grain; in others it yields Indian corn, balms, gums, and drugs, almoft all manner of fruits as well of Old as of New Spain, fugar, tobacco, Brafil wood, and feveral kinds of dyeing woods; a variety of precious (tones, particularly emeralds and fapphires; venifon, and other game. The plantations of cacao, or chocolate nuts, in the diftrift of the Caraccas, are efteemed the belt in America. The mountains abound with tygers, and, according to fome, with lions, and great numbers of other wild beads. The rivers, feas, and lakes, teem with fifh, and alfowith alligators; and the bowels of the earth were once furnilhed with the richeft treafures, now almoft exhaufted. The fame may be faid of the pearl-filheries on the coaft, which are far from being fo profitable now as formerly. Terra Firma is a very mountainous country. Terra Firma Proper, in particular, confifts of prodigious high mountains, and deep valleys flooded more than half the year. The mountains in the provinces of Car- thagena and St Martha, according to Dampier, are the higheft in the world; being feen at fea 200 miles Terra, off: from thefe run a chain of hills of almoft equal II height, quite through South America, as far as the Tcrra»ofU Straits of Magellan, called the Cordilleras des Andes* The province of Venezuela alfo, and diftridl of the Ca¬ raccas, the moft northerly parts of South America, are almoft a continued chain of hills, feparated by fmall valleys, pointing upon the coaft of the North Sea. A chain of barren mountains, almoft impaffable, runs through the province of Popayan from north to fouth, fome whereof are volcanos; but towards the fhores of the Pacific Ocean it is a low country, flooded great part of the year. The principal rivers of Terra Firma are the Darien, Chagtre, Santa Maria, Conception, Rio Grande or Magdalena, Maricaibo, and Oroonoko. Terra Firma contains the provinces of Terra Firma Proper or Darien, of Carthagena, St Martha, Rio de la Hacha, Venezuela, Comana, New Andalufia or Paria, New Granada, and Popayan. Terra-Firma Proper lies in the form of a crefcent, about the fpacious bay of Panama, being the ifthmus which joins South and North America; and extending in length between the two feas 300 miles, but in breadth, where the ifthmus is narroweft, only 60. Here are found gold mines, gold fands, and fine pearls; and though the land is generally rough, there are fome fruitful valleys, watered by rivers, brooks, and fprings. The chief places are Panama and Porto Bello. The inhabitants of Terra Firma have never been tho¬ roughly fubdued, and in all probability never will; as they are a brave and warlike people, have retreats in- acceflible to Europeans, and bear an inveterate enmity to the Spaniards. Terra Japonica, or Japan Earth, improperly fo called; being neither an earth nor the produce of Ja¬ pan ; but an infpiffated vegetable juice, prepared in the Eaft Indies from the fruit, as is fuppofed, of the areca palm-tree. It is dry and pulverable, outwardly of a reddifti colour, inwardly of a (hining dark brown, al¬ moft black, with fome caft of red. When pure, it dif- folves totally in water, and almoft totally in reftified fpirit; as we ufually meet with it, a confiderable quan¬ tity of fandy matter is left by both thefe menftrua. This medicine is a mild aftringent, and frequently em¬ ployed as fuch in alvine fluxes, uterine profluvia, in laxity and debility of the vifcera in general, and in coughs proceeding from thin acrid defluxions. Its tafte is more agreeable than that of moft other fubftances of this clafs; chewed for fome time, it leaves a fweet- iftinefs in the mouth. The troches and tin&ure kept in the (hops are very elegant preparations of it. Terra; Filins, Son of the Earth, a ftudent of the univerfity of Oxford, formerly appointed in public a&s to make fatyrical and jetting fpetches againft the mem¬ bers thereof, to tax them with any growing corrup¬ tions, &c. TERRACE, a walk or bank of earth, raifed in a garden or court to a due elevation for a profpeft. The name is alfo given to the roofs of houfes that are flat, and whereon we may walk. TERRAQUEOUS, in geography, a name given to our globe, becaufe confiding of land and water. TERRASSON (Abbe John), a French writer bora at Lyons in 1669. He diftinguiflied himfelf in the 42 Z 2 difpute TER [ 8564 ] T E S Terreflrial difpute concerning Homer, between La Motte and Tertuflian ^at^am Dacier, by writing a DiJJ'ertation contra PIliade; L he wrote a political and moral romance called Sethos, full of learning and philofophy ; and another capital work of his is a French tranflation of Diodorus Sicu¬ lus. He died in 1750. TERRESTRIAL, fomething partaking of the na¬ ture of earth, or belonging to the globe of earth; thus vve fay, the terreftrial globe, &c. TERRIER, a fmall hound, to hunt the fox or badger; fo called, becaufe he creeps into the ground, as ferrets do into the coney-burrows after the fox, &c. TERRITORY, in geography, denotes an extent or compafs of land, within the bounds or belonging to the jurifdidtion of any ftate, city, or other fubdivi- fion of a country. TERROR, or Fright. The general effe&s of ter¬ ror are a great contraflion of all the fmall velfels, and a revulfion of the blood in the large and internal ones; hence the fuppreflion of perfpiration, the general op- preffion, trembling, and anguilh, from the heart and lungs being overcharged with blood, &c. After great frights, perfons rarely recover their vivacity; and epi- lepfies that are caufed by frights are rarely, if ever, cured. When a perfon is affedled with terror, or fud- den or great frights, the principal endeavours fhould be to reftore the circulation to its due order, to pro¬ mote perfpiration, and to allay the agitation or com¬ motion in which the patient is obferved to be. The cuftom of giving cold water in thefe cafes is bad. Place the affrighted perfon in a quiet fituation; a little warm liquor, fuch as camomile tea, or the like, Ihould be given him to drink; the legs may be put into warm water, and there continue for fome time; they ffiould be rubbed, and the camomile tea repeated every fix or eight minutes: when the fkin becomes warm, and there is a tendency to perfpiration, deep may be promoted by a gentle opiate. TERTIAN fever. See Medicine, n° 134. 237 —248. and p. 4643. TERTULLIAN, or Quintus Septimus Flo- rens Tertullianus, a celebrated prieft of Carthage, was the fon of a centurion in the militia, who ferved as proconful of Africa. He was educated in the Pa¬ gan religion ; but being convinced of its errors, em¬ braced Chriftianityr and became a zealous defender of the faith. He married, it is thought, after his bap- tifm. Afterwards he took orders, and went to Rome; where, during the perfecution under the emperor Se- verus, he publilhed his Apology for the Chriftians, which is, in its kind, a malterpiece of eloquence and learning; and at the beginning of the third century he embraced the fe£t of the Montanifts. He lived to a very great age, and died under the reign of Antoninus Caracalla about the year 216. Many of bis works are ftill extant, in all of which he difeovers a great know¬ ledge of the Holy Scriptures, a lively imagination, a ftrong, elevated, and impetuous ftyle, great eloquence and ttrength of reafoning ; but is fometimes obfeure. His Apology and Prefcriptions are mod efteemed. The befl. editions of his works are thofe of Rigault ; efpecially that of Venice in 1746, folio. Pamelius and Alix, Mr Thomas, and the Sieur du Foffe, have writ¬ ten his life; and Rigault, M. de I’Aube Epine, Father Petau, and other learned men, have publilhed notes Te/Tdated on his works. II TESSELATED pavements, thofe of rich Mo- Ielt- faic work made of curious fquare marbles, bricks, or tyles; called teffelx, from their refembling dice. TESSON, or Testoon, commonly called Tejler, a fort of money which among the French bore the value of i8d.; but being made of brafs lightly gilt with filver, in the reign of king Henry VIII. it was reduced to I2d. and afterwards to 6d. TEST, a large kind of cupel formed of the fame materials with the fmall ones.—Some of the German writers recommend, both for tells and cupels, a fort of friable opake (lone, called •white fpath, which ap¬ pears to be a fpecies of gypfum, or of the Hones from which plafter-of-paris is prepared. The fpatb is di- refted to be calcined with a gentle fire, in. a covered veffel, till the. flight crackling, which happens at firft, has ceafed, and the Hone has fallen in part into powder: the whole is then reduced into fubtile powder, which is palled through a fine fieve, and moi- ftened with fo much of a weak folution ®f green vitriol as is fufficient for making it hold together. Gellert, however, finds, that if the ftone is of the proper kindr which can be known only by trials, calcination is not neceffary. Scheffer obferves, that thefe kinds of tells are liable to foften or fall afunder in the fire, and that this inconvenience may be remedied by mixing with the uncalcined ftone fomewhat lefs than equal its weight, as eight-ninths of fuch as has been already ufed and is penetrated by the fcoria of the lead,, taking only that part of the old tell which appears of a green-grey colour, and receding the red cruft on the top. Tells or cupels made of the fpath are faid not to require fo much caution in nealing and heat¬ ing them as the common ones: it appears, however,, from Scheffer’s account, that they are lefs durable than thofe made of the allies of bones, though greatly fuperior to thofe of wood-allies. Vegetable allies,, which Hand, pretty well the telling of filver, can fcarcely bear any great quantity of gold, this metal requiring a confiderably ftrongcr fire than the other; but bone-allies anfwer fo effedually, and are among us fo eafily procurable, that it is not needful for the refiner to fearch for any other materials ; though thofe who work off large quantities of lead, in order to- gain a little filver or gold contained in it, may poflibly, in places remote from populous cities, avail themfelves of fubftances fimilar to the fpath above-mentioned. The tell, for its greater fecurity, is fixed in the mould in which it was formed ; which is fometimes a lhallow veffel made of crucible earth or call-iron, more commonly an iron hoop, with three bars arched down¬ wards acrofs the bottom, about two inches deep, and of different widths, from three or four inches to fifteen or more, according to the quantity of metal to be tefted at once. The allies or earthy powder, moi- ftened as for making cupels, are prelfed down in the mould fo as to completely fill it or rife a little above the fides; with care to make the mafs equally folid, and to put in at once, or at leaft after the bottom has been preffed clofe, as much of the matter as will be fufficient for the whole; for any additional quantity will not unite thoroughly with the reft, but be apt to part T E S [ 85% ] T E S part from it in the fire. The edges are pared fmooth, and a portion cut out from the middle with a bent ' knife, fo as to leave a proper cavity, which is fmooth- ed by ftrewing fome dry powder on the furface, and rolling on it a wooden or rather a glafs ball. The procefs of tefting is often performed in the fame manner as that of cupellation : but where great quantities of bafe metal are to be worked off from a little gold, recourfe is had to a more expeditious me¬ thod, that of tefting before the bellows. An oval teft is placed in a cavity, made in a hearth of a convenient height, and fome moiftened fand or allies preffed round it to keep it fteady : the nofe of a bellows is directed along its furface, in fuch a man¬ ner, that if allies are fprinkled in the cavity of the teft, the bellows may blow them completely out : fome have an iron plate fixed before the bellows, to direft the blaft downwards. To keep the furface of the teft from being injured in putting in the metal, fome cloths or pieces of paper are interpofed. The fuel confifts of billets of barked oak, laid on the Tides of the teft, with others laid crofswife on thefe: the bellows impels the flame on the metal, clears the furface of allies or fparks of coal, battens the fcorifica- tion of the lead, and blows off the fcoria, as fall as it forms, to one endof the teft, where it runs out through a notch made for that purpofe. About two-thirds of the fcorified lead may thus be colleffed; the reft being partly abforbed by the teft, and partly dilfi- pated by the aftion of the bellows. Care mult be taken not to urge the blaft too ftrongly, left fome portion of the gold Ihould be carried away by the fumes impetuoufly forced off from the lead, and fome minute particles of it entangled and blown off with the fcorias. Test-.//#, a ftatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2. which re¬ quires all officers, both civil and military, to take the oaths and teft, viz. the facrament according to the rites and ceremonies of the church of England; for the negleft whereof, a perfon executing any office mentioned in that ftatute, forfeits the fum of 5001. recoverable by aflion of debt- TESTACEOUS, in natural hiftory, an epithet given to a fpecies of filh which are covered with a ftrong thick Ihelf, as tortoifes, oyfters, pearl-fifii. &c. TESTAMENT, or last-will. Teftaments both Juftinian and Sir Edward Coke agree to be fo called, becaufe they are tejiatio mentis: an etymon which feems to favour too much of conceit ; it being plain¬ ly a fubftantive derived from the verb tejiari, in like manner as juramentum, incrementum, and others, from other verbs. The definition of the old Roman lawyers is much better than their etymology; volun¬ tatis nojlra jujla fententia de eo, quod quis pojl mortem fuam fieri velit: which may be thus rendered into Englifh, “ the legal declaration of a man’s intentions, which he wills to be performed after his death.” It is called fententiat to denote the circumfpedfion and pru¬ dence with which it is fuppofed to be made : it is voluntatis nojira Jententia, becaufe its efficacy depends on its declaring the teftator’s intention, whence in Englifh it is emphatically ftyled his •will: it is jujla fententia; that is, drawn, attefted, and publifhed with all due folemnitks and forms of law; it is de eo, quod quis pojl mortem fuam fieri velit, becaufe a teftament is Teflament. of no force till after the death of the teflator. Thefe teftaments are divided into two forts; written, and verbal or nuncupative: of which the former is committed to writing; the latter depends merely upon oral evidence, being declared by the teflator in extre¬ mis before a fufficient number of witnefles, and after¬ wards reduced to writing. But as nuncupative wills and codicils (which were formerly more in ufe than at prefent when the art of writing is become more univerfal), are liable to great impofitions, and may occafion many perjuries, the flatute of frauds, 29 Car. II. c. 3. ena&s, 1. That no written will fhall be revoked or altered by a fubfe- quent nuncupative one, except the fame be in the lifetime of the teftator reduced to writing, and read over to him, and approved ; and unlefs the fame be proved to have been fo done by the oaths of three witneffes at the leaft, who, by ftatute 4 & 5 Anne c. 16. muft be fuch as are admifiible upon trials at common law. 2. That no nuncupative will fhall in anywife be good, where the eftate bequeathed exceed* 301. unlefs proved by three fuch witneffes, prefent at the making thereof, (the Roman law requiring feven), and unlefs they or lome of them tvere fpecialiy re¬ quired to bear witnefs thereto by the teftator himfelf; and unlefs it was made in his laft ficknefs, in his own habitation or dwelling-houfe, or where he had been previoufly refident ten days at the leaf!,, except he be furprifed with ficknefs on a journey, or from home, and dies without returning to his dwelling. 3. That no nuncupative will fhall be proved by the witneffes after fix months from the making, unlefs it were put in writing within fix days. Nor fhall it be proved till fourteen days after the death of the teftator, nor till procefs hath firft iffued to call in the widow, or next of kin, to conteft it if they think proper. Thus hath the legiflator provided againft any fraud in fetting up nuncupative wills, by fo numerous a train of requifites, that the thing itfelf is fallen into difufe ; and hardly ever heard of, but in the only inftance where favour ought to be fhown to it, when the teftator is furprifed by fudden and violent ficknefs. The teftamentary words muft be fpoken with an intent to bequeath, not any loofe idle difeourfe in his illnefs; for he muft re¬ quire the by-ftanders to bear witnefs of fuch his in¬ tention : the will muft be made at home, or among his family or friends, unlefs by unavoidable accident, to prevent impofitions from ftrangers :. it muft be in his laft ficknefs ; for, if he recovers, he may alter his difpofitions, and has time to make a written will: it muft not be proved at too long a diftance from the teftator’s death, left the words ftiould efcape the me¬ mory of the witneffes; nor yet too haftily and without notice, left the family of the teftator fhould be put to inconvenience, or furprifed. As to written wills, .they need not any witnefs of their publication. We fpeak not here of devifes of lands, which are entirely another thing, a conveyance by ftatute, unknown to the feodal or common law, . and not under the fame jurifdi&ion as perfonal tefta¬ ments. But a teftament of chattels, written in the teftator’s own hand, though it has neither his name nor feal. to it, nor witneffes prefent at its publica¬ tion, T E S [ 8566 ] T E S Teftament. tion, Is good; provided fufficient proof can be had that it is his hand-writing. And though written in another man’s hand, and never figned by the teftator, yet if proved to be according to his inftruftions and approved by him, it hath been held a good teftament of the perfonal eftate. Yet it is the fafer and more pru¬ dent way, and leaves lefs in the breaft of the ecclefi- aftical judge, if it be figned or fealed by the teftator, and publiftied in the prefence of witneffes : which laft was always required in the time ofBradfon; or rather he in this refpedt has implicitly copied the rule of the civil law. No teftament is of any effect till after the death of the teftator ; Nam omnc teflamentum morte confumma- 'tum eft, et voluntas teftatoris eft ambulatoria ufque ad mortem. And therefore, if there be many teftaments, the laft overthrows all the former; but the republica¬ tion of a former will revoke one of a later date, and eftablifhes the firft again. Regularly, every perfon hath full power and liberty to make a will, that is not under fome fpecial prohi¬ bition by law or cuftom : which prohibitions are prin¬ cipally upon three accounts ; for want of fufficient difcretion; for want of fufficient liberty and free-will; and on account of their criminal condudf. 1. In the firft fpecies are to be reckond infants, un¬ der the age of 14 if males, and 12 if females ; which is the rule of the civil law. For though fome of our common lawyers have held that an infant of any age (even four years old) might make a teftament, and others have denied that under 18 he is capable; yet as the ecclefiaftical court is the judge of every teftator’s capacity, this cafe muft be governed by the rules of the ecclefiaftical law. So that no objeftion can be admitted to the will of an infant of 14, merely for want of age : but if the teftator was not of fufficient difcretion, whether at the age of 14 or 24, that will otherthrow his teftament. Madmen, or otherwife non compotes, idiots or natural fools, perfons grown childifh »by reafon of old age or diftemper, fuch as have their fenfes befotted with drunkennefs,—aft thefe are inca¬ pable, by reafon of mental difability, to make any will fo long as fuch difability lafts. To thisclafs alfo may be referred fuch perfons as are born deaf, blind, and dumb ; who, as they have always wanted the common inlets of underftanding, are incapable of ha¬ ving animum teftandi, and their teftaments are there¬ fore void. 2. Stich perfons as are intertable for want of liberty or freedom of will, are by the civil law of various kinds; as prifoners, captives, and the like. But the law of England does not make fuch perfons abfolutely intertable ; but only leaves it to the difcretion of the court to judge upon the confideration of their particu¬ lar circumftances of durefs, whether or no fuch per¬ fons could be fuppofed to have liberum animum le¬ ft andi. And, with regard to feme-coverts, our laws differ ftill more materially from the civil. Among the Romans there was no diftinftion ; a married Woman was as capable of bequeathing as a feme- fole. But with us a married woman is not only utterly incapable of devifing lands, being excepted out of the ftatute of wills, 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 5. but alfo fhe is incapable of making a teftament of chat¬ tels, without the licence of her hufband. For all her perfonal chattels are abfolutely his own ; and he may Teftament. difpofe of her chattels real, or (hall have them to him- 5 felf if he furvives her: it would be therefore extremely inconfiftent to give her a power of defeating that provi- fion of the law, by bequeathing thofe chattels toanother. The queen-confort is an exception tojthis general rule, for file may difpofe of her chattels by will, without the confent of her lord ; and any feme-covert may make her will of goods which are in her poffeffion in auter droit, as executrix or adminiftratrix ; for thefe can ne¬ ver be the property of the hufband: and if (he has any pin-money or feparate maintenance, it is faid fhe may difpofe of her favings thereout by teftament, without the controul of her hufband. But if a feme-fole makes her will, and afterwards marries, fuch fubfequent mar¬ riage is efteemed a revocation in law', and entirely va¬ cates the will. 3. Perfons incapable of making teftaments, on ac¬ count of their criminal conduit, are in the firft place all traitors and felons, from the time of conviftion ; for then their goods and chattels are no longer at their own difpofal, but forfeited to the king. Neither can a felo de fe make a will of goods and chattels, for they are forfeited by the adt and manner of his. death ; but he may make a devife of his lands, for they are not fubjefted to any forfeiture. Outlaws alfo, though it be but for debt, are incapable of making a will fo long as the outlawry fubfifts, for their goods and chat¬ tels are forfeited during that time. As for perfons guilty of other crimes, fhort of felony, who are by the civil law precluded from making teftaments, (as ufurers, libellers, and others of a worfe ftamp), at the common law their teftaments may be good. And in general the rule is, and has been fo at leaft ever fince Glanvil’s time, quod libera fit cujufcunque ultima vo¬ luntas. Teftaments may be avoided three ways: 1. If made by a perfon labouring under any of the incapacities before-mentioned ; 2. By making another teftament of a later date ; and, 3. By cancelling or revoking it. For tho’ I make a laft will and teftament irrevocable in the ftrongelt words, yet I am at liberty to revoke it: be- caufe my own a& or words cannot alter the difpofition of law, fo as to make that irrevocable which is in its own nature revocable. For this, faith lord Bacon, would be for a man to deprive himfelf of that which of all other things is moft incident to human condition; and that is, alteration or repentance. It hath alfo been held, that, without an exprefs revocation, if a man, who hath made his will, afterwards marries and hath a child, this is a prefumptive or implied revocation of his former will which he made in his ftate of celibacy. The Romans were alfo wont to fet afide teftaments as being inofficiofa, deficient in natural duty, if they difin- herited or totally paffed by (without affigning a true and fufficient reafon) any of the children of the tefta¬ tor. But if the child had any legacy, though ever fo fmall, it was a proof that the teftator had not loft his memory or his reafon, which otherwife the law pre¬ fumed ; but was then fuppofed to have adted thus for fome fubftantial caufe: and in fuch cafe no querela in- officioft teftamenti was allowed. Hence probably has arifen that groundlefs vulgar error of the neceffity of leaving the heir a (hilling, or fume other exprefs le¬ gacy, in order to difinherit him effeftually: whereas. ; T E S [ 8567 ] T E T Teftament the law of England makes no fuch wild fuppofition of II forgetfulnefs or infanity ; and therefore, though the heir or next of kin he totally omitted, it admits no inofficiofi to fet afide fuch a teilament. Testament, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxxi. 2, &c. Testament, (Old and New). See Eiele. TESTATOR, the perfon who makes his will and teftament. TESTER. SccTesson. TESTES, in anatomy, the tefticles. See the next article. TESTICLE (teJHs), a double part in animals of the male kind, ferving for the office of generation.— See Anat. n° 371. They are called tejiicles, by di¬ minution of teftet, “ witnefiesas giving teftimony of virility. The Greeks call them didymi, or twins. In man and moft animals, the tefticles are exterior; in fome, as fowls, interior. Some men have only one, ordinarily they have two ; fome have naturally had three ; nay, anatomifts allure us they have known four. TESTIMONY. See Logic, n° 29. and Meta¬ physics, n° 253.—260. Testimony, inlaw. See Evidence. TESTUDO, the tortoise, in zoology, the name of a genus belonging to the order of amphibia repti- lia. It has four legs and a tail, and the body is co¬ vered with a ftrong (hell. There are 15 fpecies, prin¬ cipally diftinguiftud by peculiarities in their feet. The midas,or common turtle, is found on the Afcenfion Hie, and on many other fouthern iflands. The (hell is fo ftrortg, that feveral men may (land on it without do¬ ing it any injury. It digs round holes in the fand,in which it lays feveral membranaceous eggs. It grows to a very large fize ; fome having been found weigh¬ ing 480 lb. Thefe creatures are faid to continue fe¬ veral weeks in the a6l of copulation. The Americans find fo good account in catching turtle, that they have made themfelves very expert at it : they watch them from their nefts on (hore, in moon-light nights; and, before they reach the fea, turn them on their backs, and leave them till morn¬ ing ; when they are fure to find them, fince they are Utterly unable to recover their former pofture : at other times they hunt them in boats, with a peculiar kind of fpear, (hiking them with it through the (hell; and as there is a cord faftened to the fpear, they are taken much in the fame manner as the whales. Testudo, in antiquity, was particularly ufed among the poets, kz. fur the ancient lyre ; by reafon it was originally made by its inventor Mercury, of the black or hollow of the teftudo aquatica, or fea-tortoife, which he accidentally found on the banks of the river Nile. See Lyre. Testudo, in the military art of the ancients, was a kind of cover or fereen which the foldiers, e. gr. a whole company, made themfelves of their bucklers, by holding them up over their heads, and (landing clofe to each other. This expedient ferved to (belter them from darts, (tones, &c. thrown upon them, efpecially thofe thrown from above, when they went to the aflault. Testudo, was alfo a kind of large wooden tower which moved on feveral wheels, and was covered with bullock-hides, ferving to (belter the foldiers when they approached the walls to mine them, or to batter Tetanus them with rams. It was called tejludo, from the Tetj!ao ftrength of its roof, which covered the workmen as the ra0‘ (hell does the tortoife. TETANUS, a dreadful fpafmodic diforder, in which the whole body becomes rigid and inflexible. It moft commonly proves mortal. See Medicine, n° 387* 389* TETHYS, a genus of infefls belonging to the or¬ der of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong, flefhy, and without feet; the mouth confifts of a cylindrical probofeis under the duplicature of a lip; and there are two foramina at the left fide of the neck. The fpecies are two, both inhabitants of the ocean. TETRADYNAMIA, (Tiaactgtt « four,” and « power”), four powers ; the name of the 15th clafs in Linnaeus’s Sexual Syftem, confiding of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, having fix {lami¬ na, four of which are long, and two (hort; it corrc- •fponds to the filiquofx of Ray, and cruciformes of Tournefort. See Botany, p. 1296. TETRAGYNIA, (rttro-x^?, “ four,” and “ a woman”); the name of an order, or fecondary di- vifion in the 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, and 13th clafles in the Sexual Syftem; confifting of plants which, to the claffic chara£ler, whatever it is, add the circumftance of having four ftyles or female organs. Htrb-paris and grafs of Pgrnaffus furnifh examples. TETRANDRIA, « four,” and «»? “ a man or hufband”) ; the name of the fourth clafs in Linnaeus’s Sexual Syftem, confifting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which have four (lamina or male organs that are of equal length. In this laft cir¬ cumftance confifts the main difference, according to Linnaeus, between the plants of the clafs in queilion and thofe of the 14th clafs, didynamia, in which the four (lamina are of unequal length, two of them being long, and two (hort.—-The orders in this numerous clafs are three, founded upon the number of (Ivies or female organs. Scabious, teazel, barren-wort, .the (larry plants of Ray, and the greater number of ge¬ nera in this clafs, have one ftyle ; dodder, and hype- coum have two; holly, and a few others, have four. TETRAO, in ornithology, a genus of birds, be¬ longing to the order of gailinae, diftinguiffied by ha¬ ving the part of the forehead near the eyes naked and papillpfe. There are many fpecies, diftinguiflted principally by their colour, their having roup 1 or na¬ ked feet, &c. The following are found in Britain, 1. The urogallus, or wood-cock, inhabits wooded and mountainous countries ; in particular, fordls of pines, birch-trees and junipers; feeding on the tops of the former and berries of the latter ; the (irft infefts often the flefli with fuch a talle as to render it fcarce- ly eatable. In the fpring it calls the females to its haunts with a loud and (brill voice ; and is at that time fo very inattentive to its fafety, as to be very ea- fily (hot. It (lands perched on a tree, and defeends to the females on their firft appearance. They lay from 8 to 16 eggs; eight at the firft,and more as they advance in age. Thefe birds are common to Scandinavia, Germany, France, and feveral parts of the Alps.—It is found, in^ no other part of Great Britain than the High¬ lands T E T [ 8568 ] T E T Tetrao. lands of Scotland, north of Invernefs; and is very rare even in thofe parts. It is there known by the name of capercalze, auer-calzet and in the old law books ca- perkally; the laft fignifying the horfe of the woods: this fpecies being, in comparifon of others of the ge¬ nus, pre-eminently large. The length of the male is two feet eight inches; its weight fometimes 14 pounds. The female is much lefs, the length being only 26 inches. The fexes differ alfo greatly in colours. The bill of the male is of a pale yellow; the head, neck, and back, are elegantly mark¬ ed, flender lines of grey and black running tranfverfely. The upper part of the bread is of a rich gloffy green; the red of the bread and the belly black, mixed with fome white feathers; the Tides are marked like the neck; the coverts of the wings eroded with undulated lines of black and reddifh brown ; the exterior webs of the greater quill-feathers are black: the tail confids of 18 feathers, the middle of which is the longed; thefe are black, marked on each fide with a few white fpots. The legs are very drong, and covered with brown fea¬ thers; the edges of the toes are pectinated.—Of the female, the bill is dufky; the throat red: the head, neck, and back, are marked with tranverfe bars of red.and black: the bread has fome white fpots on it, and the lower part is of a plain orange colour: the belly is barred with pale orange and black ; the tips of the feathers are white. The tail is of a deep rud-colour barred with black, tipped with white, and confids of 16 feathers. 2. The tetrix, or black-cock, like the former fpe¬ cies, is fond of wooded and mountainous fituations ; feeding on bilberries and other mountain fruits, and in the w'inter on the tops of the heath. In the fum- mer they frequently defeend from the hills to feed on corn. They never pair: but in the fpring the male gets upon fome eminence, crows and claps his wings; on which fignal all the females within hearing refort to him. The hen lays feldom more than fix or feven eggs. When the female is obliged, during the time of in¬ cubation, to leave her eggs in qued of food, fhe co- - vers them up fo artfully, with mofs or dry leaves, that it is very difficult to difeover them. On this occa- lion fhe is extremely tame and tranquil, however wild and timorous in ordinary. She often keeps to her ned, though drangers attempt to drag her away. As foon as the young ones are hatched, they are feen running with extreme agility after the mother, though fome¬ times they are not entirely difengaged from the fhell. The hen leads them forward for the fird time into the woods, to fhow them ants eggs and the wild mountain- berries, which, while young, are their only food. As they grow older their appetites grow dronger, and they then feed upon the tops of heather and the cones of the pine-tree. In this manner they foon come to per¬ fection: they are an hardy bird, their food lies every where before them, and it would feem that they fhould increafe in great abundance. But this is not the cafe; their numbers are thinned by rapacious birds and beads of every kind, and dill more by their own falacious conteds.—As foon as the clutching is over, which the female performs in the manner of an hen, the whole brood follows the mother for about a month or two ; at the end of which the young males entirely forfake her, and keep in great harmony together till the be¬ ginning of fpring. At this feafon they begin fot the Tetra@. fird time to feel the genial accefs; and then adieu to *" all their former friendfhips! They begin to confider each other as rivals; and the rage of concupifcence quite cxtinguifiies the fpirit of fociety. They fight each other like game-cocks; and at that time are fo inattentive to their own fafety, that it often happens that two or three of them are killed at a (hot. It is probable, that in thefe Conteds the bird which comes off victorious takes poffeffion of the female feraglio, as it is certain they have no faithful attachments. An old black cock is in length 22 inches, and weighs near four pounds. The bill is dufky; and the plumage of the whole body black, gloffed over the neck and rump with a fhining blue. The coverts of the wings are of a dufky brown ; the inner coverts white ; the thighs and legs are covered with dark brown feathers; the toes refemble thofe of the former fpecies. The tail confids of 16 black feathers, and is much forked; the exterior feathers bend greatly outwards, and their ends feem as if cutoff.—The female weighs only two pounds; and its length is one foot fix inches. The head and neck are marked with alternate bars of dull red and black ; the bread with dufky black and white; but the lad predominates. The back, coverts of the wings, and tail, are of the fame colours as the neck, but the red is deeper. The tail is llightly forked; it confids of 18 feathers variegated with red and black. The feathers under the tail are white, marked with a few bars of black and orange. This bird hatches its young late in the fummer. It lays from fix to eight eggs, of a dull yellowifh white colour, marked with numbers of very fmall ferruginous fpecks; and towards the fmaller end with fome blotches of the fame hue. 3. The red game, or moor-fowl, is peculiar to the Britilh iflands. The male weighs about 19 ounces; and is in length 154-inches. The bill is black; the irides hazel-coloured. The throat is red. The plumage on the head and neck is of a light tawny red ; each feather is marked with feveral tranfverfe bars of black. The back and fcapular feathers are of a deeper red, and on the middle of each feather is a large black fpot; the bread and belly are of a dull purplifh brown, crof- fed with numerous narrow dulky lines; the quill-fea¬ thers are dulky; the tail confids of 16 feathers of an equal length, all of them (except the four middlemod) are black, and thejniddle feathers are barred with red: the thighs are of a pale red, barred obfeurely with black; the legs and feetcloathed to the very claws with thick foft white feathers. The claws are whitilh, very broad and drong. The female weighs only 15 ounces. The colours in general are duller than thofe of the male: the bread and belly are fpotted with white ; and the tips of fome of the coverts of the wings are of the fame colour.—Thefe birds pair in the fpring, and lay from fix to ten eggs. The young brood follow the hen the whole fummer; in the winter they join in flocks of 40 or 50, and become remarkably fhy and wild; they al¬ ways keep on the tops of the hills, are fcarce ever found on the (Ides, and never defeend into the valleys. Their food is the mountain-berries and tops of the heath. 4. The lagopus, or ptarmigan, is 15 inches in length, and weighs 19 ounces. Its plumage is of a pale brown or afh colour, elegantly croffed op motled with fmall dufky fpots, and minute bars; the head and neck with broad T E T [ S569 ] T E T ^brbad bars of black, ruft-colonr, and white: the belly and wings are white, but the (hafts of the greater quill- feathers black. In the male, the grey colour predo¬ minates, except on the head and neck, where there is a great mixture of red, with bars of white. The females and young birds have a great deal of ruft-colour in them. The tail confifts of 16 feathers; the two middle of which are afh-coloured, motled with black, and tip¬ ped with white; the two next black, (lightly marked with white at their ends, the reft wholly black: the feathers incumbent on the tail are white, and almoft entirely cover it. 1 Ptarmigans are found in thefe kingdoms only on the fummits of the higheft hills of the Highlands of Scotland and of the Hebrides; and a few dill inhabit the lofty hills near Kefwick in Cumberland. They live amidft the rocks, perching on the grey ftones, the gene¬ ral colour of the ftrata in thofe exalted fituations. They are very filly birds; fo tame as to bear driving like poultry; and, if provoked to rife, take very (liort flights, making a fmal! circuit like pigeons. Like the grous, they keep in fmal! packs; but never, like thofe birds, take (belter in the heath, but beneath loofe ftones. To the tafte they fcarce differ from a grous. Thefe birds are called by Pliny, lagopi, their feet being cloathed with feathers to the claws, as the hare’s are with fur: the nails are long, broad, and hollow. The firft circumftance guards them from the rigour of the winter; the latter enables them to form a lodge under the fnow, where they lie in heaps to protedl them from the cold. The feet of the grous are cloathed in the fame manner ; but thofe of the two firft fpecies here deferibed, which perch upon trees, are naked, the legs only being feathered, not being in want of fuch a pro¬ tection.— In Scotland, they inhabit from the hill of are generally from 10 to 1510 a covey Ben Lomond to the naked mountain of Scaroben in - r - ■ Caithnefs, the ifle of Arran, many of the Hebrides and the Orkneys. 5. The perdrix, or partridge, is fo well known, as to render any technical defeription unneceffary. “ Thefe birds (fays Willoughby) hold the princi¬ pal place in the feafts and entertainments of princes; without which their feafts are efteemed ignoble, vul¬ gar, and of no account. The Frenchmen do fo highly value, and are fo fond of the partridge, that if they be wanting, they utterly (light and defpife the bed fpread tables; as if there could be no feaft without them.” But however this might be in the times of our hifto- rian, the partridge is now too common in France to be confidered as a delicacy; and this, as well as every other fimple difb, is exploded for luxuries of a more compound invention. In England, where the par¬ tridge is much fcarcer, and a great deal dearer, it is ft ill a favourite delicacy at the tables of the rich; and the defire of keeping it to themfelves has induced them to make laws for its prefervation, no way harmonifing with the general fpirit of Englifh legiflaiion. The partridge feems to be a bird well known all over the world, as it is found in every country and in every climate; as well in the frozen regions about the pole, as the torrid tracks under the equator. It even feems to adapt itfelf to the nature of the climate where it refides. In Greenland, the partridge, which is brown in fummer, as foon as the icy winter fets in, begins to take a covering fuited to thefeafon: it is then cloathed Vol.X. ith a warm down beneath; and its outward plumage Tetrao. affumes the colour of the fnow awongft which it fecks its food. Thus it is doubly fitted for the place, by the warmth and the colour of its plumage; the one to de¬ fend it from the cold, the other to prevent its being noticed by the enemy. Thofe of Barakonda, on the other hand, are longer legged, much fwifter of foot, and choofe the higheft rocks and precipices to refide in.—They all, however, agree in one charafter, of be¬ ing immoderately addifted to venery; and, as fome wri¬ ters affirm, often to an unnatural degree. It is cer¬ tain, the male will purfue the hen even to her ntft; and will break her eggs rather than not indulge his in¬ clinations. Though the young ones have kept toge¬ ther in flocks during the winter, when they begin to pair in fpring their fociety difperfes; and combats, very terrible with refpetft to each other, enfue. Ttieir manners in other circumftances, referable all thofe of poultry in general; but their cunning and inftinft feem fuperior to thofe of the larger kinds. Perhaps, as they live in the very neighbourhood of their enemies, they have more frequent occafion to put their little arts in pra&ice, and learn by habit the means of evafion or fafety. Whenever therefore a dog or other formidable animal approaches their neft, the female tifes every means to draw him away. She keeps juft before him, pretends to be incapable of flying, juft heps up, and then falls down before him, but never goes off fo far as to difeourage her purfuer. At length, when (lie has drawn him entirely away from her fecret treafure, (he at once takes wing, and fairly leaves him to gaze after her in defpair. After the danger is over, and the dog with¬ drawn, (he then calls her young, who affemble at once at her cry, and follow where (he leads them. There are generally from 10 to 15 in a covey; and, if unmo- lefted, they live from 15.10 17 years. There are fe- veral methods of taking them, as is well known; that by which they are taken in a net with a fetting dog, is the moft pleafant, as well as the mod fecure. The dog, as every body knows, is trained to this exercife by a long courfe of education : by blows and careffes he is taught to lie .down at the word of command; a partridge is fliown him, and he is then ordered to lie down ; he is brought into the field, and when the fportf- man perceives where the covey lies, he orders his dog to crouch : at length the dog, from habit, crouches wherever he approaches a covey; and this is the fignal which the fportfman receives for unfolding and cover¬ ing the birds with his net. A covey thus caught, is fometimes fed in a place proper for their reception ; but they can never be throughly tamed like the reft of our domeftic poultry. 6. The coturnix, or quail, is not above half the fize of the partridge. The feathers of the head are black, edged with rufty brown ; the bread is of a pale yellowifh red, fpotted with black; the feathers on the back are marked with lines of pale yellow, and the legs are of a pale hue. Except in the colours thus deferibed, and the fize, it every way refembles a par¬ tridge in (hape, and, except that it is a bird of paffage, all others of the poultry kind in its habits and nature. The quail is by all known to be a bird of paffage; and yet, if we confider its heavy manner of flying, and its fcantinefs, of plumage with refpetft to its corpulence, we (hall be furprifed how a bird fo apparently ill qua- 43 A lifted T E T [ 8570 ] T E U Tetran, USed for migration, fhould take fuch extenfive jour- 1 etraodon. neyS< Thie, however, is aflerted: “ When we failed from Rhodes to Alexandria (fays Bellonius) about autumn, many quails, flying from the north to fouth, were taken in our fliip; and failing at fpring-time the con¬ trary way, from the fouth to the riorth, I obferved them on their return, when many of them were taken in the fame manner.” The fame account is given by many others; who aver, that they choofe a north wind for thefe adventures; the fouth wind being very unfa¬ vourable, as it retards their flight by moiftening their plumage. They then fly two by two ; continuing, when their way lies over land, to go farter by night than by day; and to fly very high, to avoid being fur- prifed or fet upon by birds of prey. However, it ftill remains a doubt whether quails take fuch long journeys as Bellonius has made them perform. It is now aflert- ed by fome, that the quail only migrates from one pro¬ vince of a country to another. For inftance, in Eng¬ land they fly from the inland counties to thofe border¬ ing on the fea, and continue there all the winter. If froft or fnow drive them out of the ftubble-fields or marlhes, they then retreat to the fea-fide, Ihelterthem- felves among the weeds, and live upon what is thrown up from the fea upon fhore. Particularly in Effex, the time of their appearance upon the coafts of that coun¬ try exaftly coincides with their difappearance from the more internal parts of the kingdom; fo that what has been faid of their long flights, is probably not fo well founded as is generally fuppofed.—Thefe birds are much lefs prolific than the partridge; feldom laying more than fix or feven whitifh eggs, marked with rag¬ ged ruft-coloured fpots. But their ardour in court- fhip yields fcarce to any other bird, as they are fierce and cruel at that feafon to each other, fighting moft defperately, and (a punilhment they richly deferve) being at that time very eafily taken. Quail-fighting wasa favourite amufement among the Athenians. They abftained from the flefli of this bird, deeming it nn- wholefome, as fuppofing that it fed upon the white hellebore: but they reared great numbers of them for the pleafure of feeing them fight; and flaked firms of money, as we do with regard to cocks, upon the fuc- cefs of the combat. Fafliion, however, has at prefent changed with regard to this bird; we take no pleafure in its courage, but its flefh is confidered as a very great delicacy.—Quails are eafilycaught by a call: the fowler early in the morning having fpread his ner, hides him- fclf under it among the corn; he then imitates the voice of the female with his quail-pipe, which the cock hear- ing, approaches with the utmoft afiiduity; when he has got under the net, the fowler then difeovers him- felf, and terrifies the quail, who attempting to get a- way, entangles himfelf the more in the net, and is ta¬ ken. TETRAODON,'a genus of fiflies, belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The jaws are bony, flretched out, and cloven at the point: there is a linear aper¬ ture; no ventral fins. There are feven fpecies; of which the moft remarkable is the lineatus, called by Mr Haf- felquift fahaka, which is the Egyptian and Arabic name. It has of late been found in the Nile about Cairo, but was never known in former times. It is laid to grow to a prodigious fize. When jntt caught, it pricks the fliin if it is taken in the bare hands? and produces fmall puftules in the fame manner as nettles. Teirracb The flefli is poifonous. Mr Forfter confirms the ac- II count of the poifonons nature of a fpecies of tetraodon, ^'eucriun ip his account of Caledonia. TETRARCH, a prince who holds and governs a fourth part of a kingdom. Such originally was the import of the title tetrarch; but it was afterwards ap¬ plied to any petty king or fovereign. TETRASTYLE, in the ancient archite&ure, a building, and particularly a temple, with four columns in its front. TETUAN, an ancient and pleafant town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Habata. It is pretty well built, and the inhabitants are about 15,000 in number, who call themfelves dalufiam, and almoft all fpeak Spanifh ; but they are great pirates. Some fay there are 30,000 Mooriih inhabitants, and 5000 Jews. W. Long. 5. 18. N. Lar. 35. 25. TEUCRIUM, tree germander, a genus of the gymnofpernia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. There are many fpecies; of which the moft remark¬ able are, 1. The flavum, yellow fhrubby teucrium, commonly called tree gemander; rifing with ereft flirubby (talks and branches, only a foot and a half or two feet high ; having fmall heart-fliaped, obtufely ferrated, foot-ftalked leaves, hoary underneath, with the floral leaves concave and entire; and numerous flowers by threes, in whorls, along the upper part of the branches, of different colours in the varieties. This flirub is durable in root, (tern, and branches, foliated moft part of the year, and produces flowers ornamentally in July, fucceeded by ripe feed in au¬ tumn. It is an exotic from Spain and Italy, long fince introduced into our gardens ; formerly kept as a green-houfe plant, but now is fufSciently naturalized to this climate to fucceed in the open air all the year. 2. The (bordium, or common water-germander, hath creeping perennial roots, fending up many fquare, procumbent, or trailing (talks, branching diffufely; oblong, indented, ferrated, clofe-fitting, oppofite leaves; and fmall redifh flowers, generally two toge¬ ther, from the fides of the (talks and branches, in July and Augufh This is a medicinal herb, and fmells (trongly of garlic. It grows naturally in mar- fhy places, in the ifle of Ely and other parts of Eng¬ land, and moft parts of Europe; and fometimes ad¬ mitted in gardens, in moift places, for variety, and as a medical plant. 3. The chamasdrys, or finaller creeping germander, hath fibrous, very creeping, fpreading roots ; many four-cornered, very branchy, trailing (talks, near a foot long; oval, cuneiform, cut, crenated leaves on (hort fpot-ftalks; and reddilh ‘‘ flowers, growing almoft in a verticillus, or whorls, round the (talk, three on each peduncle; appearing in June and July. Is a native of Germany, France, ; &c. 4. The polium, or common yellow mountain- poly, hath a fibrated perennial root; herbaceous, | trailing, branchy (talks, praftrate on the ground; ob¬ long, obtufe, crenated, downy, feffile leaves; and the / branches terminated by roundifh heads of yellow and other coloured flowers in the varieties; appearing in June and July. There are many varieties of this fpe¬ cies, diftinguiflied by fome little variation in their growth. T E U Tentones, growth, having all roundifh heads of flowers 5 moftly, Teutonic, however, either white or yellow. It grows naturally in Spain and Portugal, See. 5. The montanum, mountain-poly, with lavender leaves, hath a fibrous, tough, ligneous root; fomewhat ligneous, weak, pro¬ cumbent Italks; fpear-fliaped entire leaves, hoary un¬ derneath ; and fmall white flowers in a corymbus at the termination of the branches, in June and July. They are all perennial plants, durable in root; and fome of the ligneous kinds are alfo abiding in ftalk, more particularly fome of the poliums. The leaves and feed of the chamaedrys have been recommended as diuretic, fudorific, and emmenagogue; but are how very little ufed. TEUTONES, or Teutoni, (anc. geog.) a peo¬ ple always by hiftorians joined with the Cimbri ; both feated, according to Mela, beyond the Elbe, on the Sinus Codanus, or Baltic; and there, it is fuppofed, lay the country of the Teutones, now Ditmarjh; diverfity of diale&s producing the different termsIT^a/, Tr.t, Dit, Tid, and Thod, which in the ancient German language fignified people. Of thefe Teu¬ tones, Virgil is to be underftood in the epithet Teu- totiicus, an appellation which more lately came to be applied to the Germans in general, and later ftill the apellation Alemanni. The Teutones, in conjunftion with the Cimbri and Ambrones, made war on the Romans, and marched to¬ wards Italy in the year 101 B. C. We are told, that the Teutones alone were fo numerous, that they were fix whole days without intermiflion in paffing by the Roman camp. In Tranfalpine Gaul they engaged the Roman conful Marius; but were defeated with incredible flaughter ; 100,000 of them, according to the loweft calculations, being killed on thefpot. Ac¬ cording toothers, the number of thofe killed and taken prifoners amounted to 290,ooo< The inhabitants of the neighbouring country made fences for vineyards of their bones. Their king Teutobochus, faid to be a monftrous giant, was taken prifoner and carried to Rome. See the article Giant. TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the Teu¬ tones. The Teutonic is fuppofed to have been the language of the ancient Germans, and hence is reckon¬ ed amongft the mother-tongues. The German or Dutch is It ill called the Teutonic. Teutonic Order, an order of military knights, eftablifhed towards the clofe of the twelfth century, on the following occafion.—When the emperor Barbarofi'a engaged in a crufade forthe recovery of the Holy Land out of the hands of Saladin, he was followed by great numbers of German volunteers, who from various mo¬ tives enlitted under his banners. After the death of Barbaroffa, the Germans, who had iignalized them- -felves before Acre or Ptolemais, refolved to choofe another leader; and at lait fixed their choice upon Frederic duke of Suabia, fecond fon to the emperor and Henry duke of Brabant. Under thefe generals they behaved with fo much bravery, that Henry king of Jerufalem, the patriarch, and feveral other princes, determined to reward their valour by infiituting an order of knighthood in their favour. This was ac¬ cordingly done ; and our new knights had at firft the title of the knights of St George ; afterwards it was thought proper to put them under the tutelage of the TEX Virgin Mary, fo whom there was already an hofpital Teutonle dedicated on Mount Zion, for the relief of German II pilgrims. From this time they were called Equites a °r‘ Mariani, or knights of St Mary. Laws, regulations, and ftatntes, were drawn up for them by the Chriftian kings in Syria and the patriach; and among other ob¬ ligations it was required, that every perfon admitted to the privileges of the order fhould be of noble pa¬ rentage ; that the order fhould defend the Chriftian religion, and the Holy Land ; that they fhould ex- ercife hofpitality towards the Chriftians in general, but particularly thofe of their own country ; and that they fhould with all their power endeavour to propa¬ gate and extend the Chriftian faith and the religion o£ Jesus. In the year 1190, having become rich by donations from the fuperftitious, they elefted their firlt graudmafler, Henry Walpot, a German, who had diftinguifh himfeif by his zeal and valour; and their choice was confirmed by the emperor. The following year, pope Celeftine III. confirmed their privileges already granted, giving them the title of the Teu¬ tonic knights of the hofpital of St Mary the Virgin. By the conditions of this bull, they vowed perpetual con¬ tinence, obedience, and poverty; obligations which it may well be imagined were not very firictly kept. TEWKSBURY, a town in Gloucefterfhire, formerly noted for its monaftery. It is now a large handfome corporation, containing about 500 houfes, with a magnificent church. It is feated at the Confluence of of the rivers Severn and Avon, has a cotton manu- fa&ory, and fends two members to parilraent. W, Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 52. o. TEXEL, a town of the United Provinces, in N. Holland, feated at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, with a good harbour, and a ftrong fort. It is feated in an ifland, which is feparated from the continent of Holland by a narrow channel, through which mofl: of the fhips pafs that are bound to Amfterdam. E. Long. 4, 25. N. Lat. 53. 12. TEXT, a relative term, contradiftinguifhed to glofs or commentary, and fignifying an original dif- courfe exclufive of any note or interpretation. This word is particularly ufed for a certain paflage of feripture, chofen by a preacher to be the fubjeft of his fermon. TEXTURE, properly denotes the arrangement and cohdion of feveral {lender bodies or threads in¬ terwoven or entangled among each other, as in the webs of fpiders, or in the cloths, fluffs, &c. Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or conftituent particles of a concrete body, whether by weaving, hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indent¬ ing, intruding, comprefliog, attradiing, or any other way. In which fenfe we fay, a clofe compaft tex¬ ture, a lax porous texture, a regular or irregular tex¬ ture, &c. THABOR, or Tabor, (anc. geog.) a mountain of Galilee, fituated in a plain, and equally terminated or defined on every fide ; lying in the middle between the Campus Magnus or Great Plain, and Scythopolis. This mountain was the boundary oflflacharto the north, on the borders of Zabulon ; and, according to Light- foot, was diftant about 10 milea to the north-weft of Capernaum; which agrees with the relations of travel¬ lers. The molt beautiful mountain in the world, both 43 A 2 in [ 8571 1 ThaW, Thales. T H A [ 8572 ] T H A in itfelf, and in the profped it affords. Seen on the eaft and weft Tides, it exaftly refembles a fugar-loaf; on the north and fouth fides, it appears of an oval round, with a deep valley running about it, fo as to lie de¬ tached from, though near to, the other mountains, which it overtops. To the north-eaft, the eaft, and fouth-eaft, it has the plain of Galilee lying before it, and to the fouth and fouth-weft the incomparably beau¬ tiful plain of Efdrelon ; quite round, it rifes equally high and fteep, and appears green on every fide, (Korte). A top, it has an oval plain about three miles in compafs. Over the plain of Efdrelon there is a view of the mountains of Gilboa ; to the fouth and to the foutb-weft, that of Mount Carmel; to the weft, a profpeft of the mountains of Nazareth, and over them of the Mediterranean ; and to the north that of the beginning of I.ebanon, and then that of Bafhan, (/- lid.) At this mountain Barak colle&ed the army he raifed againft S'fera, and in the plain below fought with him. Whether this was the high mountain on which our Saviour’s transfiguration happened, men¬ tioned by the evangelifts, though affirmed by the ge¬ nerality, is however queftioned by fome. Ancient tradition is for it : whereas Lightfoot will have it to be a mountain near Caefarea Philippi; probably that very high one which, according to Jofephus, hangs over the fprings of the Jordan, and at the foot of which flood Caefarea. THALES, a celebrated Greek philofopher, and the firft of the feven wife men of Greece, was born at Miletum, about 640 B. C. In order to improve him- felf in the knowledge of the fciences, he travelled into Egypt, where he difeourfed with the priefts and other learned men. Some fay that he married : but others obferve, that he eluded the folicitations of his mother on this head, by telling her, when he was young, that it was too foon ; and afterwards, that it was too late. Thales acquired great reputation by his wifdom and learning : he was the firft among the Greeks who fore¬ told eclipfes of the fun, and made extraordinary difeo- veries in eftronomy. Thales was the author of the Io¬ nian feifl of philofophers, who were thus called from his being born at Miletum, a city of Ionia. He main¬ tained, that water was the principle of which all the bodies in the univerfe are compofed ; that the world was the work of God ; and that God fees the moft fe- iret thoughts in the heart of man. He faid, That “ the moft difficult thing in the world is to know our- ftbes; the moll eafy, to advife others; and the moft; fweet, to accomplilh our defires. That, in order to live web, we ought to abftain from what we find fault with in others. That bodily felicity confifts in health; and that of the mind in knowledge. That the moft an¬ cient of beings is God, becaufe he is uncreated : that nothing is more beautiful than the world, becanfe it is the work of God ; nothing more extenfive than fpace quicker than fpirit, ftronger than neceffity, wifer than time.” It was alfo one of his fentences, That “ we ought never to fay that to any one that may be turned to our prejudice ; and that we fhould live with our friends as with perfons that may become our ene¬ mies.” He thanked God for three things; that he was born of the human, not of the brute fpecies; a man, and not a woman ; a Greek, and not a barba¬ rian. None of the ancient philofophers ever applied themfelves more earneftly to the ftudy of aftronomy than Thales. Diogenes Laertius reports, that lea¬ ving his lodging with an old woman to contemplate the ftars, he fell into a ditch; on which the good wo¬ man cried, “ Howcanft thou know what is doing in the heavens, when thou canft not perceive what is at thy feet ?” He went to fee Crcefus, who was marching with a powerful army into Cappadocia, and enabled him to pafs the river Halys without making a bridge. Thales died foon after, at above 90 years of age. He compofed feveral treatifes in verfe, on meteors, the equinoxes, &c. but they are all loft. THALETAS, an ancient Greek poet and mufi- cian, was, according to Plutarch, cotemporary with Lycurgus the Spartan legiflator, and lived about 300 years after the Trojan war. Plutarch alfo informs us, that though Thaletas was only ftyleda lyric poet and mufician, he was likewife a great philofopher and po¬ litician ; infomuch, that Lycurgus brought him from Crete when he returned from his travels to Sparta, in order to have affiftance from him in eftablifhing his new form of government. His odes, continues Plutarch, were fo many exhortations to obedience and concord, which he enforced by the fweetnefs of his voice and melody. Plato likewife deferibes his captivating manner of finging ; and Plutarch, in his Dialogue on Mufic, aferibes to Thaletas many mufical compofitions and inventions : fuch as pceans, and new meafures in verfe, as well as rhythms in mufic, which he had ac¬ quired from the flute-playing of Olympus, whom he at firft had imitated. Porphyry, in his life of Pytha¬ goras, fays, that this philofopher ufed to amufe him- felf with finging the old Pseans of Thaletas ; and A- thenasus likewife tells us, that the Spartans long con¬ tinued to fing his airs; and according to the Scho- liafl on Pindar, this poet-mufician was the firft who compofed the hyporchemes for the armed or mili¬ tary dance. There was another poet and mufician of the name of Thaletas, who was likewife a Cretan, that flourifh^ ed much later than the cotemporary and friend of Ly¬ curgus. Sirlfaac Newton has named him among the early viiSlors at the Pythic games; and Dr Blair places him 673 years B. C. This is the Thaletas whom Plu¬ tarch makes cotemporary with Solon, and of whom it is related that be delivered the Lacedaemonians from the peftiience by the fweetnefs of his lyre. THALIA, in Pagan mythology, one of the nine mufes. She prefided over Comedy ; and is reprefented crowned with a garland of ivy, holding a mafic in her hand, and wearing bufkins on her feet. THAMES, a celebrated river of England, being the largeft in the ifland. The fources of this river are four rivulets, that rife in different parts of Cotfwold hill in Glocefterfhire, viz. the Lech, the Churne, and the Ifis ; thefe having touched Wiltfhire, and joined th£ir waters in one channel a little below Lechlade, a town on the borders of Oxfordfhire, form a deep and copious flream, which there becomes navigable for very large barges, and is conftantly, after it leaves this place, whatever poetical writers may pretend, called the Thames. Thence it proceeds into Oxfordfhire % and having vifited the city of Oxford, continues to divide that county from Berkfhire ; rolling by Abing- t9P, Wallingford. Reading, Henley, Maidenhead, Windfor3 TFialefa# II Thames. T H A [ 8573 ] T H A Thamyris. Windfor, and fo to Staines, becoming there the boun- 1 ^ dary of the two counties of Middleftx and Surry; and having paffed by Chertfey and Kingfton in the latter, and Brentford in the former, it comes to the capital of the Britifh monarchy, London ; and having tra- verfed that imperial city, and her fitter city of Weft- minftcr, purfues its courfe towards the fea : in its fu¬ ture progrefs it divides Effex from Kent, vifiting in its paffage Deptford, Greenwich, Woolwich, Grays, and Gravefend: at length it opens into the fea with a mouth between the Naze and the North Foreland, near fixty miles broad. In its paffage it receives no fewer than fix confiderable rivers that are not navigable, and eleven that are, which affords a vaft communication within land ; its courfe has been computed about 140 miles, of which it is navigable near 100 from its mouth. In what is called the Pool, and which is properly the port of London, though, in the cuftom-houfe language, that is extended to the whole river below London bridge, has been known to lie upwards of 1000 fhips commodioufly ; and it is univerfally allowed, that in no haven in Europe veffels lie more fafely, take in their ladings with greater cafe, or are delivered with fuperior dexterity and difpatch ; fo that an immenfe commerce is carried on with fuch order and facility as mott aftonifhes thofe to whom it is moft thoroughly known and by whom it is bett underttood. THAMYR1S, an ancient poet and mufician. He is called by Homer « one who fings to the cithara.” Plutarch, in his Dialogue on Mufic, tells us that he was born in Thrace, the country of Orpheus, and had the fweeteft and mod fonorous voice of any bard of his time. Homer, in his catalogue of (hips, where he fpeaks of the cities under the dominion of Neftor, mentions Dorion as the place where Thamyris contended with the Mufrs, whom he had the arrogance to challenge to a trial of (kill in poetry and mufic. The conditions and confequences of this contention are fully dtfcribed by the poet. And Dorian, fair.’d for Thamyris’ difgrace, Superior once of all the tuneful race, Till, vain of mortals empty praife, he ftiove To match the feed of cloud-compelling Jove! Too daring bard! whofe uiifticcefsftil pride Th’ immortal Mufes in their art defy’d : Th’ avenging Mufcs of the light of day Depriv’d his eyes, and fnatch’d his voice away; No more his hcav’nly voice was heard to fing, His hand no more awak’d the filver ftring. Paufanias informs us, that the painter Polygnotus, In his celebrated pifture of Ulyffes's defcent into hell, which was preferved in the temple of Delphos, had re- prefented the wretched Thamyris with his eyes put out, his hair and beard long and difiievelled, and his lyre, broken and unftrung, lying at his feet. It is cer¬ tain too, according to Paufanias, that this bard was not only the fubje£l of painting and poetry, but of fculp- ture f for he tells us, that among the ftatues with which mount Helicon was decorated, he faw one of Thamy¬ ris, reprefented blind, and holding a broken lyre in his hand. According to Diodorus Siculus, he learnt mufic at the fchool of Linus; and if we may credit Suidas, he . was generally regarded as the eighth among the epic poets who preceded Homer. As to his works, which are wholly loft, antiquity has preferved the names of feveral. Tzetzes mentions a cofmogony, or creation Thane of the world, in 500 verfes, and Sutdas a theogony in , H. 3000: perhaps both thefe writers fpeak of one and the 2.heall,tie-‘ fame poem. He was faid chiefly to have excelled in the compofition of hymns: on which account the fan' ciful philofopher Plato compares him with Orpheus; and as he makes the foul of this bard after death pafa into that of a fwan, he fixes the refidence of that of Tha¬ myris in a nightingale. We only know his poem upon- the War of the Titans by what Plutarch tells us of it from Heraclides of Pontus. THANE, or Thatn, Thamut, a name of an ancient dignity among the Englilh and Scots, or Anglo- Saxons. Skene makes thane to be a dignity equal to the fon of an earl. Cambden will have it, that thanes were only dignified by the offices they bore. There were two kinds or orders of thanes; the king’s thanes, and ordinary thanes. The firft were thofe who attended the king in his courts, and who held lands immediate¬ ly of the king. The ordinary thanes, or the thuni niinorer, were the lords of the manors, who had parti¬ cular jurifditftion within their limits and over their own tenants ; thefe changed their names for that of barons, and hence their courts are called courts-bamt to this day. THANET, an ifland of the county of Kent, fur- rounded by the fea except on the north-eaft fide, where it is bounded by the branches of the river Stour, now inconfiderable to what they were formerly. It con¬ tains feveral villages, and the fea-port towns of Mar¬ gate and Ramfden, and has the title of an earldom. THAPSIA, the deadly carrot ; a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There are fix fpecies ; the moft remarkable is the loetida, with many pointed lobes, narrowed at their bafe. It is a native of Italy and Spain. The leaves are cut into many narrow fegments, almoft as fmall as thofe of the garden-carrot, but rough and hairy ; their fegments are always oppofite, and are narrower at their bafe than at their points. The ftalks rife about two feet high, and are terminated by umbels of fmall yeliow flowers, which appear in July:, thefe are fucceeded by flat-bordered feeds, which ripen in the beginning of September. The roots of this fpecies were formerly ordered in medicine, but is now entirely difufed ; a fmall dofe operating with extreme violence both upwards and downwards. THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former fluid ftate by the warmth of the air. See Freezing. THEA, in botany. See Tea. THEATINES, a religious order in the Romiffi church, fo called from their principal founder John Peter CarafFa, then bifhopof Theate, or Chieti, in the kingdom of Naples, and afterwards pope, under the name of Paul IV. The names of the other founders were Gaetan, Boniface,, and Configlieri. Thefe four pious men defiring to reform the ecclefiaftical ftate, laid the foundation of an order of regular clerks at Rome in the year 1524. Pope Clement VII. ap¬ proved the inftitute, and permitted the brethren to ^ make the three religious vows, to eledt a fuperior every three years, and to draw up ftatutes for the re¬ gulation of the order. They firft endeavoured, by their example, to revive among the clergy the poverty of the agoftles and firft difeipies of our Saviour, and were THE [ 8574 ] THE Theatre were the fir ft who aflumed the title of regular clerks. II THEATRE, Starpov, in antiquity, a public edifice 16 es' for the exhibiting of fcenic fpe&acles or fliows to the people; comprehending not only the eminence on which the a&ors appeared and the a&ion pafied, but alfo the whole area of the place common to the aftora and fpe&ators. THEBAID, a celebrated heroic poem of Statius, the fubjeft whereof is the civil war of Thebes, between the two brothers Eteocles and Polynices ; or, Thebes taken by Thefeus. THEBES, the name of a celebrated city of ancient Greece. It is fuppofed to have been built by Cad- 1 mue, about the year of the world 2555. This Cad- Account ofmus, according to the Greeks, was the fon of Age- founder of*nor k'nS Sidon or of Tyre ; but the Sidonians al- Thebes. ^ow to ^ave keen no higher quality than his cook, and tell us that his wife was a mufician at court, with whom he ran away into Greece. The Greek writers tell us, that being commanded by his father to go in fearch of his daughter Europa, whom Jupiter in the fiiape of a bull had carried off, and forbid to return without her, he built, or rebuilt, the city of Thebes, after having long fought her in vain. He was at firft oppofcd by the Hyantes and Aones ; the former of whom he defeated in battle, and forced them to retire into Locris : the latter fubmitted, and were incorporated among his fubjects. Suppofed to Thofe who endeavour to extraft fome truth from the be one of multitude of fables in which the early part of the Gre- the exiled cian hiftory is obfcured, are of opinion that Cadmu Canaanites. was one uf ^ Canaanites expelled by Joffiua ; and that he was of the family of the Cadmonites mention¬ ed by Mofes and Joftiua. He is univerfally allowed to have introduced the Phoenician letters into Greece, fet up the firft fchools, and introduced brafs ; which, from him, had the name of Cadmean given to it. The government of Thebes continued for a long time mo¬ narchical; and the names of a number of its kings have been tranlmitted to us, with fome account of their tranfa&ions; but fo much obfcured by fable, that little or nothing can be determined concerning them. We lhall therefore pafs over this fabulous part of their hiftory, and only take notice of that when the The¬ bans emerged from their obfcurity, and for a time held the fovereignty of Greece. The The- Though the Thebans had been famed in the early bans a de- period of their hiftory for thifir martial atchievements, igenerate yet in procefs of time they feenj to have degenerated, ftupid peo- At the time of the invafion of Xerxes, they-were the Pk* (irft people in Greece who were gained over to the Perfian intereft. On account of this mifbehaviour they were become very obnoxious to the other Hates, efpecially to the Athenians, whofe power and re¬ nown increafed every day, and threatened at laft to fwallow them up altogether. The Thebans being Put them- 00 condition to oppofe fuch a formidable power, felves under put themfelves under the proteftion of the Spartans, the protec- who, out of jealoufy of the Athenians, readily forgave sTrtans*16 » an<* grateful were the Thebans for the kind- p ‘ nefs (hown them at this time, that during the whole of the Peloponnefian war Sparta had not a more faith¬ ful ally. By this means they not only recovered the government of Boeotia, of which they had been for¬ merly in poffelfion till deprived of it on account of their Tiding with the Perfians, but their city became one of The!>«»ip the firft in Greece. By this profpcfity the Thebans became fo much elated, that, When the peace of An- talcidas came to be figned, they refufed to come into it, as they were thus once more deprived of the govern¬ ment of Boeotia ; fo that it was not without the ut- moft difficulty that they were overawed into it by the other (fates. Not content with forcing them to g've y]ie form ^ up this point, however, the Spartans undertook togoVernmeilsi change the form of Theban government, which at this changed, , time was a democracy, and accomplifiied through and the cij | the treachery of thofe who had the care of the citadel. J1a‘^{1gCize ‘ha* Ulcy met with a very mortifying Thebes. reception at their return to Thebes, where they were both arrefled, and clapped np as (late-prifoners, for having prefumed to prolong their command four months longer than the time limited by law, which time took in almoft the whole of their expedition from their firft entrance into Pefoponnefus. However, at lad, the judges being afhamed to proceed any farther, they were both honourably acquitted- This profecution had been chiefly carried on and encouraged by Meneclides, a difeontented Theban, and a bold and able fpeaker, who, by his artful ca¬ lumnies at the trial, had fo far prevailed with the judges as to get Epaminondas deprived of the go¬ vernment of Boeotia for a whole year, though he could not gain the fame advantage againff Pelopidas, who was a greater favourite of the people, as being his fe- niorin point of time. War renew- By this delay the Spartans, with much difficulty, had cd with recovered themfelves from their great defeat at Leuc- Sparu. lr3) an(] fettled their affairs in as good a pofture as they could : but though they had repulfed the The¬ bans in Pelopon'nefus, yet, from the exploits they bad performed there, efpecially in the difmembering the whole kingdom of Meffenia from them, they had {fill caufe to fear what their forces might do under two fuch generals ; and had accordingly taken due care to ftrengthen themfelves againfl them, and to provide themfelves with a good number of auxiliaries from other flates, efpecially fromthat of Athens, with whom they had renewed their old treaty, and had agreed that each fliould have the command five days alternately. Soon after this treaty, the Arcadians re¬ newed the war, and took Pallene in Laconia by Itorm, put the garrifon to the fword, and were pre- fently affiited by the Argives and Eleans, and efpe¬ cially by the Thebans, whofent to them 7000 foot and 500 horfe under the command of Epaminondas. This fo alarmed the Athenians likewife, that they immediately fent Gobrias with fome forces to op- pofe his paffage in good earneft ; and he fo behaved ?x himfelf againlt the Thebans, that they were forced banl re-C" to a^an^on Peloponnefus a fecond time. This ill fuc- pulfed. f^fs gave frefh occafion to the enemies of Epaminon¬ das to blame his conduft in the higheft terms, not- withftanding the Angular bravery with which he and bis troops had forced the pafs. Even his friends could not but fufpeft him of partiality for the Spartans, in twt purfuiog his advantage over them, and making a greater daughter of them when he had it in his power; Thebes. ; whilft his enemies made it amount to no lefs than trea- 1 chery to his country : fo that their brave general was once more deprived of the government of Boeotia, and^. ai^non ] reduced-to the condition of a private man. He diddasTegra-1 not continue long under this dilgrace, before an occa-ded. * fion offered to make his fervices again of fuch neceffity to the Hate, as to give him an opportunity to retrieve his fame, and wipe off the ftain which his enemies hsd thrown upon him The Theffalians, who had groaned fome time under the tyranny of the ufurper Alexander furnamed the Phtraatiy fent an embafly to.Thebes, to implore their aid and proteftion : upon which Pelopidas was imme- 14 | diately fent as ambaffador, to expuftulate with him on Pfl°pidas j their behalf. He was then in Mac.don, from he took the young prince Philip, afterwards the cele-of brated monarch, in order to protect and educate him; and, upon his return, marched directly to Pharfalus in Theffaly, in order to puniflr the treachery of fome mercenaries, who had deferted the Thebans in that expedition ; but when he came thither, he was fur- prifed to be met by the tyrant at the head of a nume¬ rous army before that city, whilll his own was but as an handful of men in comparifon of it. However, whether he fuppofed, or would be thought to do fo, that Alexander came thither to juftify himfelf, and an- fwer to the complaints alleged againlt him, he went, with Ifmenias hiscollegue, to him unarmed and unat¬ tended, not doubting but his charafter as ambaflador from fo powerful a republic, joined to his own cha- ra&er and authority, would protedt them from infult or violence : but he found himfelf miftaken ; for A- lexander had no fooner got them in his hands, than he caufed them to be feized, and fent prifoners to Pherse. The Thebans, highly refenting the indignity offer- i ed to their ambaffadors, fent immediately an army in- a Theban to Theflaly : but the generals were repulfed with army fenc ; great lofs by the Pnerasan ufurper; and it was owingrescue j to Epaminondas, who was among them only as a pri- j?e™e’(jdc~ jj vate centinel, that they were not totally cut off. For ’ : the Thebans, finding themfelves in fuch imminent danger, which they attributed to the incapacity of their generals, had immediately recourfe to him, whofe valour and experience had been fo often tried; and, Epam;non;! partly by perfuafions and intreaties, and partly by da. redo- threats, obliged him to take the command. Thisred. foon gave a different turn to their affairs, and converted their flight into a fafe and regular retreat; for he took the horfe and light-armed foot, and placed him¬ felf at their head in the rear, and charged the enemy with fuch vigour and bravery, that he obliged them to defift from their purfuit. However, as the army had foffered fuch lofs before as not to be fufficient to purfue them in their turn, he was obliged to return with them to Thebes, with their pufillammous generals; where the latter were fined 12,oco drachms each, and the former was reinftated in the command, and fent with a new reinforcement to repair the late difhondur, and profecute their revenge. The news of his being in full march on this errand, greatly alarmed the tyrant: but Epaminondas, prefer¬ ring the fafety of his imprifoned colleague to all other confiderations, forbore pufhing hoffilitieo to extremes, for THE [ 8577 ] THE ’Thebe?, for fear of provoting the enemy to wreak all his fury on ■ " him: to prevent which, he contented himfelf for a while hovering about with his army, and now-and-then with with fuch flight fkirmifhes asfhould intimidate the tyrant, and bring him the fooner to make fome fatisfaflory of- tefcues Pe-fers. Alexander being fully convinced of the fuperio- jpidas. r;ty Qf Theban general, was glad to accept of a truce of 30 days, and to reftore Pelopidas and Ifme- niastohim; upon which he immediately withdrew his forces, and returned with them to Thehes. By this time Thebes was raifed to a fufficient height of reputation and glory to begin to aim in earneft at the fovereignty of Greece in her turn. The main ob- ftacle to it was, that the other ftates grew fo jealous of of her prefent greatnefs, as to enter into the ftrongeft alliances and confederacies to prevent its farther growth; fo that not being able now to procure many allies at home, they made no difficulty to feek for them abroad; and the Lacedaemonians, by leading the van, gave them a plaufible pretence to follow their fleps, and to pro¬ cure an alliance with Perfia, which at that time they found was ready to accept of the offers on any terms; the only queflion was, which of the three ftates fhould be preferred, Sparta, Athens, or Thebes. At the fame time the Thebans propofed to their few confede¬ rates to fend likewife proper deputies to the Perfian court, in order to fupport their refpe&ive intcrefts ; a8 which they readily agreed to. Thefe were the Arca- iccefs of dians, Eleans, and Argives; at the head of whofe de- Pelopidas pUtation Pelopidas was fent on the behalf of the The- ■t t e er- kans. which the Athenians being apprifed of, appoint¬ ed two on their part. Thefe being all arrived at the Perfian court, began to purfue each their refpec- tive interefts; but Pelopidas had by that time gain¬ ed fuch credit there, both for his fingular addrefs and his extraordinary exploits, that he was diftinguifh- ed in a particular manner from all the other deputies, and was received by the king with the moft manifeft marks of honour and efteem, who freely owned himfelf convinced that the Thebans were the people on whom he could moft fafely depend; and after having greatly applauded the equity of his demands, ratified and con¬ firmed them with great readinefs, to the no fmall mor¬ tification of the other ftates. The fubftance of them was, that the liberties formerly granted to the other towns of Greece fhould be confirmed; that Meffenia, in particular, fhould continue free and independent on the jurifdiction of Sparta ; that the Athenians fhould lay up their fleet ; and that the Thebans fhould be looked upon as the ancient and hereditary friends of Perfia. The Thebans took advantage of the diffenfions which prevailed among the Greeks as a pretence for increafing their forces; and Epaminondas thought it a i The The- proper opportunity for his countrymen to make a bold bans pro- effort to obtain the dominion at fea, as they had ob- tained it in a great meafure at land. He propofed it to them in a public affembly, and encouraged their hopes from the experience of the Lacedxmonians, who in Xerxes’s time had, with ten fhips only at fea, gain¬ ed the fuperiority over the Athenians, who had no fewer than 200; and added, that it would be a dif- grace now to Thebes to fuffer two fuch republics to engrofs the empire of fo extenfive an element, without putting in at leaft for their fhare of it. The people Vos.. X. 2 t pofe to 1 build a i fleet. readily came Into his propofal, not without extract*- Thebe*, dinary applaufe, and immediately ordered too galleys^, ~ to be equipped ; and in the mean while fent him to Rhodes,Chios, and Byzantium, to fecure thofe ftates in their intereft, and get what affiftance he could from them. His negociations had all the fuccefs that could be wifh- ed for, notwithftanding the ftrenuous^oppofition of the Athenians, and of their admiral Laches, who was fent with a powerful fquadron againft him. But what more effeftually thwarted all hismeafures, was the work that they found for^bim at land, and the obliging the The¬ bans to take part in the quarrels that then reigned a- mong their neighbours: fo that whatever projeds they had concerted, proved abortive for the prefent ; and the death of Epaminondas, which happened not long after, put an effe&ual ftop to them. During the abfence of that general, and of his col¬ league Pelopidas, the Orchomenians, being fpirited up by fome Theban fugitives, had formed a defign to change the Theban government into an ariftocracy; and 300 horfemen of the former had been aftually fent to put it in execution. Their projeft, however, was timely difeovered by the vigilance of the magiftrates, who caufed them to be feized, and put immediately to 0p death. They next fent a fufficient force againft theorchome-' city of Orchomenos, with orders to put all the men tones razed, death, and to fell the women and children for (laves, which was pun&ually done; after which they rafed that noble city to the ground. Pelopidas was then on his way to Theffaly, at the head of a powerful army, whi¬ ther he had been fent to affift the Theffalians, who ftill groaned under the tyranny of Alexander the Pheraean, 31 and had made fevend brave efforts to recover their li- Pdopidas berty, but had been ftill overpowered by that ulurper. Being joined by the Theffalians, he encamped in the^hciTaliai, face of the enemy, though far fuperior in number, and tyrant, oonfifting of above 20,000 men. A fierce engagement foon enfued, in which both fides fought with uncom¬ mon bravery. The place where the battle was fought was called Cynocephalea, from feveral little hills on it, between which there ran a large plain. Both fides en¬ deavoured at firft to poft themfelves on thefe eminences with their foot, whilft Pelopidas ordered his cavalry to charge that 01 the enemy below ; which they did with fuch fuccefs, that they foon put them to the rout, and purfued them over the plain. This obliged the ty¬ rant to gain the tops of the hills, where he greatly .an- ~ noyed the Theffalians that endeavoured to force thofe afeents; fo that Pelopidas was obliged to give over his purfuit to come to their relief. This immediately in* fpired the Theffalians with frefti courage, who began again to charge the enemy at feveral onfets; and foon threw them into fuch diforder, that they were forced to give way. Pelopidas no fooner perceived the advan¬ tage, than he began to look about for Alexander, with a defign of engaging him. Having found him out as he was commanding his right wing and endeavour¬ ing to rally his men, he moved directly to him; and being got near enough to be heard by him, challenged him to decide the battle by Angle combat with him. Alexander, inllead of accepting the offer, turned about, and with all the fpeed he could ran to fereen himfelf amongft his guards. Upon this Pelopidas charged him with fuch furious fpeed, that he obliged him to re¬ tire farther, and fhelier himfelf within the thickeft 43 B ratios; THE [ 8578 ] THE Thebes, ranks; the fight of which made him attack with frefh ' vigour, and fight more defperately againft him. He tried in vain feveral times to break through their ranks to reach him, cutting down great numbers of thofc that came forward to oppofe him: his eagemefs at length expofed him fo far to the darts that were Ihot at him at a diftance, that fome of them went quite Is killed, through his armour, and gave him a defperate wound or two, while the reft advanced and ftabbed him in the bread with their fpears. It is fcarce poffible for words to exprefs the grief and defpair which not only his brave Thebans, but likewife the Theffalians and other allies, fhowed at the fight of their flain general: fome of the latter, who had perceived the danger he was expofed to, came down the hill with all poflible fpeed to his relief} but when they perceived that they were come too late to fave him, both they and the reft of the little army thought on nothing but how to revenge his death. They ral¬ lied accordingly, both horfe and foot, as quick as pof¬ fible, and began to charge the enemy afrelh, and with 33 fuch defperate fury, that they at length gained a com- Alexander plete vi&ory over them, and killed above 3000 of them defeated. jn tjje;r purfuit, befides a much greater number which they had flain on the field of battle, though they ftill looked upon all thefe advantages as vaftly too fmall to compenfate the lofs of their brave general. The news of his death had no fooner reached Thebes than the whole city was feen in as deep a mourning as his'army. However, they fent a reinforcement to it of 7000 foot and 700 horfe, as well to revenge the death of that general, as to improve the viftory he had gained over the enemy; by the help of which they fell fo furi- oufly on them, that theyquickly brokeand totally defeat¬ ed the fhattered remains of Alexander’s army. Here¬ upon he was forced to fue for peace, and to accept it on 34 fuch conditions as the conquerors thought fit to impofe. And at laft He was at length difpatched in his bed by his wifeThebe, murdered, affifted by her brothers, about feven years after his defeat. His body was afterwards dragged along the ftreets, 3J trodden under foot, and left a prey to the dogs. Ambition All this while the Thebans were watching to im- •f the The-prove every commotion that happened, every fuccefs bans. met t0 the forwarding of their then reigning and favourite project of increafing their power above all the reft, and in their turn to give laws to Greece. Their late fuccefs in Tbeffaly, and the rupture between the Arcadians and Mantineans at the fame time about fome confecrated money which the former had taken out of the temple of Olympias to pay their troops em¬ ployed againft the Eleans, and which the latter called a downright facrilege, befides other difcords that reign¬ ed in the other ftates of Greece, gave frelh encourage¬ ment to Thebes to fet up for arbitrefs in thofe dif- putes; and fo much the more, as thofe who had em¬ bezzled the facred money, and wanted rather to em¬ broil matters than to have them brought to light, fent that republic word that the Arcadians were juft upon the point of revolting to the Spartans, and advifcd them to come and put an immediate ftop to it. At the fame time they difpatched fome private direftions to a Theban officer in Tegea to apprehend feveral of their own people as difturbers of the peace: which was ac¬ cordingly done, and feveral eminent perfons were con¬ fined as prifoners of ftatej but were foon after difchar- ged, and loud complaints were made againft fuch ar- Thebe* bitrary and unjuft proceedings. The officer was accu- fed before the Theban fenate for having intermeddled in their affairs, and endeavoured to interrupt the good correfpondence between the two ftates. It was even infilled on by fome of the Tegeans, that he fhould be indi&ed and proceeded againft by his principals; whilft the more moderate fort, who forefaw the confequences that were like to attend fuch appeals, and that it would infallibly bring the Thebans upon them, loudly protefted againft their marching into their territories, and did all they could to prevent it. The Thebans, however, were become too powerful and ambitious to mifs fo fair an opportunity of getting once more footing in Pelopon- nefus, as they had long ago premeditated ; and Epa-Epaminon minondas was fo far from making a fecret of their de-das fign, that he told the Arcadian deputies in juftification^J^ I of it, that as it was on their account that the Thebans Greece. 1 engaged in the war, they had adted treacheroufly with them in making peace with Athens without their con- fent: however, that when he was got with his army on his march into Peloponnefus to alfift his friends, he would foon fee what proofs they, the Arcadians, would then give of their fidelity. This fpeech did not fail to alarm them greatly; efpectally as it was fpoken in fuch a magifterial ftyle and threatening tone. Even thofe who were beft affedted to the Thebans could not for¬ bear expreffing their difiike of it; and all that had the welfare of Peloponnefus at heart, readily agreed with the Mantineans, that there was no time to be loft to ufe all proper means to prevent the impending ftorm. 37 Athens and Sparta were accordingly applied to, and A were eafily prevailed upon to affift the Mantineans, and to come into a ftridt confederacy againft the Thebans ;xhebes: ‘ and to prevent all difputes about the command of the army, it was agreed that each ftate flrould have it in its own territories; which plainly ihows how terrified they all were at the apprehenfion of a frefh invafion of the Thebans: for this was a point which neither the Spartans nor Athenians would have fo readily given up to the Arcadians, though thefe had for¬ merly as ftrenuouily infilled upon it, even when they were almoft reduced to the laft extremity, and had ne¬ ver been able to obtain it till now. But Epaminondaa was then in full march at the head of his Boeotian troops, with fome Eubcean .auxiliaries and a body of flout Theffalian horfe; and was moreover to be joined by the Meffenians, Argives, and feveral other nations, as foon as he had entered Ptloponnefus. The confe¬ derate army againft him had ordered their rendezvous at Mantinea, the place which they naturally concluded would be firft attacked, as being the chief feat of thofe who had revolted from the Thebans. But whilft they 38 were fecuring themfelves on that fide, Epaminondas.^P3^1^’' who wifely confidered how far this confederacy and ex- a^^{ucC.S pedition muft have drained the city of Sparta of it8Cefsful at« main ftreogtb, broke up privately from Nemasa, where temp: on he had lain for fome time encamped, and marched allsParta* that night with a defign to have furprifed that impor¬ tant capital: but his projeft being timely difeovered, the vigilant king took care to difconcert it; fo that, though, the Theban general made feveral vigorous affaults on that city, he was fo ftoutly repulfed, and the Spartans behaved with fuch intrepid valour, that he was forced to retire and turn his thoughts againft Mantinea, which THE [ 8579 ] THE Thebes, which he judged by this time to have been quite de- fencelefs. He judged rightly indeed; for the place was not only drained of its troops, but likewife of its } inhabitants, who took that opportunity whilit the feene !\ml3on war was ‘n Lacedaemon, to gather in their harveft, tlaminea. ar,d were Mattered all over the country; fo that he would not have met with any difficulty in gaining the town, had not the Athenian auxiliaries come unexpec¬ tedly to its relief and given him a frefh repulfe. Thefe two laft defeats greatly exafperated the The¬ ban general, who had never till now been ufed to them, and could not but forefee that they would not only lef- i fen his reputation with his allies, but, if not timely re¬ trieved, would fully the glory of all his former exploits. What added to his prefent difficulties was, that the time allotted him for his expedition was almoft ex¬ pired; fo that he had but a ffiort fpaee left to under¬ take fome brave atchievement, which might recover his and his country's honour, and keep up the fpirits of his auxiliaries and thofe under his proteftion. He was moreover got very far into the enemy’s country, and faw plainly enough how narrowly they watched all his motions, and how well prepared they were to oppofe him whatever attempt he refolved upon, whe¬ ther to attack them or to retreat. Under all thefe dif¬ ficulties, he rightly confidered, that he mull immedi¬ ately refolve upon a decifive battle; in which, if his priftine fortune followed him, he might at once retrieve 5auie°of affairs> and make himfelf mailer of Peloponnefus; Hantinea. or, if that failed him, as it lately had done, fall honour¬ ably in the attempt. In this engagment Epaminon- das made the wifell difpofition of his troops, attacked and fought with the molt intrepid courage and con- iduft, and had opened himfelf a way through the Spar¬ tan phalanxes, thrown them into the utmoft confufion, and made a terrible flaughter of them, infomuch that the field of battle was covered with their wounded and Haiti, when, in the heat of the fight, having ventured himfelf too far in order to give them a total overthrow, the enemy rallied again, pouring their whole fury and three whole volleys of darts at him, fome of which he drew out and returned to them, till at length, being covered with Ipaminon-wounc*s> an<* weakened with the lofs of fo much blood, las killed, he received a mortal wound from a javelin, and was with great difficulty refeued from the enemy by his brave Thebans, and brought alive, though fpeechlefs, into his tent. As foon as he had recovered, himfelf, he allied his friends that were about him what was become of his Ihield; and being told that it was fafe, he bec¬ koned to have it brought to him, and killed it. He next inquired which fide had gained the viftory ; and being anfwered, The Thebans; he replied, Then all is well: and upon obferving fome of his friends bewail¬ ing his untimely death, and reaving no children behind him, he is faid to have anfwered, Yes; I have left two fair daughters, the victory of Lcu&ra, and this of Man- tinea, to perpetuate my memory. Soon after this, upon the drawing of the point of the javelin out of his body, he expired. The confequence of this great general’s fall, and of this bloody fight, in which neither fide could boall any great advantage over the other, but a great lofs of men on both fides, infomuch that Xenophon makes it a drawn battle, was, that both parties agreed on a cef- fation of arms, and parted as it were by confent, to take care of their wounded and llairi. The Thebans Thebes indeed thus far gained the greater (hare of glory, that they renewed the fight; and after a mod defperate con- ' tefted, gained the vidtory over thofe Spartans that op- pofed them, and refened the body of their dying ge- 41 neral out of their hands. However, an effedtual end eluded/0”" was put to this bloody war, and a general peace agreed on by all but Sparta; who refufed it only becaufe the Meffenians were included in it. But as to the Thebans, they had no great reafon to boall of this dear-bought vidlory, fince their power and glory began to decline from that very time; fo that it may be truly faid, that it rofe and fet with their great general. On the death of Epaminondas, the Thebans relapfed State of into their former Hate of ina&ivity and indolence; and^’-t,ebes at lad having ventured to oppofe Alexander the Great, [|^Prefent their city was taken, and the inhabitants flaughtered for feveral hours, after which the buildings were de- ftroyed. It was rebuilt by Callander, but never after¬ wards made any confiderable figure among the Hates of Greece. About the year 146 B. C. it fell under the power of the Romans, under which it continued till the extin&ion of their empire by the Turks. It is now called Thive, and is nothing to what it was for¬ merly; yet it is four miles in circumference, but fo full of ruins, that there are not above 4000 Turks and Chriftians in it. It is now famous for a fine fort of white clay, of which they make bowls for pipes after the Turkilh falhion. They are never burnt, but dry naturally, and become as hard as a Hone. There are two mofques in Thebes, and a great many Greek churches. It is feated between two fmall rivers, in E. Long. 24. 5. N. Lat. 38. 22. Thebes is alfo the ancient name of the capital of Upper Egypt, named likewife Hecatompdis and Diof- polis. It was celebrated for its grandeur, and among other things, for its having 100 gates. It is now in- confiderable; but there are vaft columns of marble and porphyry lying half buried in the ground, with flatues and obelilks of a prodigious fize, inferibed with hiero¬ glyphics. Not far from this place are to be feen the fepulchresof the kings of Thebes, lying in grottos, cut out of the rock in a moll beautiful manner, with long rooms or galleries under the mountains. The modern name of the place is Sayd. THEFT, or Simple Larceny, is “ the felonious taking and carrying away, of the perfonal goods of another.”. This offence certainly commenced then, whenever it was, that the bounds of property, or laws oi meum and tuum, were eftablilhed. How far fuch an offence can exill in a Hate of nature, where all things are held to be common, is a queftion that may be folved with very little difficulty. The difturbance of any individual, in the occupation of what he has feifed to his prefent ufe, feems to be the only offence of this kind incident to fuch a Hate. But, unqueftion- ably, in focial communities, when property is efta- blifhed, any violation of that property is fubje£l to be punilhed by the laws of fociety ; though how far that punilbment Ihould extend, is matter of confiderable doubt. By the Jewilh law, it was only punilhed with a pecuniary fine, and fatisfa&ion to the party in¬ jured. And in the civil law, till fome very late con- UitutioDf, we never find the punilhment capital. The 43 B 2 laws THE r 8580 ] T ft E Theft. laws of Draco at Athens punifhed it with death : but . jjjj ]^wg Were faid to be written in blood ; and Solon afterwards changed the penalty to a pecuniary mulft. And fo the Attic laws in general continued ; except that once, in a time of dearth, it was made capital to break into a garden and fteal figs: but this law, and the informers againft the offence, grew fo odious, that from them all malicious informers were ftyled fyco- fhants ; a name which we have much perverted from its original meaning. From thefe examples, as well as the reafon of the thing, many learned and fcrupu- lous men have queftioned the propriety, if not law- fulnefs, of inflifting capital punifhment for fimple theft. And certainly the natural punifhment for inju¬ ries to property feems to be the lofs of the offender’s own property : which ought to be univerfally the cafe, were all mens fortunes equal. But as thofe who have no property themfelves are generally the moft ready to attack the property of others, it has been found ne- ceffary, inftead of a pecuniary to fubftitute a corporal punifhment ; yet how far this corporal punifhment ought to extend, is what has occafioned the doubt. Sir Thomas More and the marquis Beccaria, at the diftance of more than two centuries, have very fen- fibly propofed that kind of corporal punifhment which approaches the neareft to a pecuniary fatif- fadtion, viz. a temporary imprifonment, with an ob¬ ligation to labour, firft for the party robbed, and af¬ terwards for the public, in works of the mofl flavifh kind; in order to oblige the offender to repair,by his induftry and diligence, the depredations he has com¬ mitted upon private property and public order. But, notwithftanding all the remonftrances of fpeculativepo¬ liticians and moralifts, the punifhment of theft flill con¬ tinues throughout the greateft part of Europe to be capital j and Puffendorf, together with Sir Matthew Hale, are of opinion that this muff always be referred to the prudence of the legiflature ; who are to judge, fay they, when crimes are become fo enormous as to require fuch fanguinary reftri&ions. Yet both thefe writers agree, that fuch punifhment fhould be cautioufly inflidted, and never without the utmoft ne- ctflity. The Anglo-Saxon laws nominally punifiied theft with death, if above t!»e value of twelvepence : but the criminal was permitted to redeem his life by a pecu¬ niary ranfom ; as, among their anceftors the Germans, by a Rated number of cattle. But in the ninth year of Hen. I. this power of redemption was taken away, and all perfons guilty of larceny above the value of twelvepencc were directed to be hanged ; which law continues in force to this day. For though the inferior fpecies of theft, or petit larceny, is only punifhed by whipping at common law, or, by ftatute 4 Geo. I. c. 11. may be extended to tranfportation for feven years, as is alfo exprefsly diredled in the cafe of the Plate-glafs Company,yet the punifhment of grand larceny, or the ttealing above the value of twelvepence, (which fum was the ftandard in the time of king Athelftan, 800 years ago) is at common law regularly death : which, confidering the great intermediate alteration in the price or denomination of money, is undoubtedly a very rigorous conftitution ; and made Sir Henry Spelman (above a century fince, when money was at twice its prefent rate) complain, that while every thing elfe was rifen in its nominal value, and become dearer, Theft the life of man had continually grown cheaper. It is , H true, that the mercy of juries will often make them iemi ot ftrain a point, and bring in larceny to be under the value of value or twelvepence, when it is really of much greater value : but this, though evidently jufti- fiable and proper when it only reduces the prel'ent nominal value of money to the ancient ftandard, is otherwife a kind of pious perjury, and does not at all excufe our common law in this refpeft from the impu¬ tation of feverity, but rather ftrongly confefles the charge. It is likewife true, that by the merciful ex- tenfions of the benefit of clergy by our modern fta- tute-law, a perfon who commits a fimple larceny to the value of thirteen pence or thirteen hundred pounds, though guilty of a capital offence, (hall be excufed the pains of death : but this is only for the firft offence. And in many cafes of fimple larceny the benefit of clergy is taken away by ftatute: as from horfe-fteal- ing in the principals and acceffories both before and after the fad ; theft by great and notorious thieves in Northumberland and Cumberland ; taking woollen cloth from off the tenters, or linens; fuftians, calicoes, or cotton, goods, from the place of manufafture ;, (which extends, in the laft cafe, to aiders, aflifters, procurers, buyers, and receivers); feloniofly driving away, or otherwife ftealing one or more fheep or other cattle fpecified in the ads, or killing them with intent to fteal the whole or any part of the carcafe, or aid¬ ing or affifting therein ; thefts on navigable rivers above the value of forty fhillings, or being prefent, aiding, and affifting thereat ; plundering veffels in di- ftrefs, or that have fuffered fhipwreck ; ftealing let¬ ters fent by the poft ; and alfo ftealing deer, hares, and conies, under the peculiar circumftances mentioned in the Waltham black ad. Which additional feverity is owing to the great malice and mifehief of the theft in fome of thefe inftances ; and, in others, to the dif¬ ficulties men would otherwife lie under to preferve thofe goods, which are fo eafily carried off. Upon which laft principle the Roman law punifhed more fe- verely than other thieves \\\eAbigeit or ftealers of cattle; and the Balnearii, or fuch as ftole the cloaths of per¬ fons who were waffling in the public baths ; both which conftitutions feem to be borrowed from the laws of Athens. And, fo too, the ancient Goths punifhed with unrelenting feverity thefts of cattle, or of com that was reaped and left in the field: fuch kind of property (which no human induftry can fufficiently guard) being efteemed under the peculiar cuftody of heaven. Theft-^s^, (from the Saxon theof i. e. fur, and bote, compenfatis) is the receivingof a man’s goods again from a thief, after ftolen, or other amends not to profecute the felon, and to the intent the thief may efcape ; which is an offence punifhable with fine and imprifonment, &C-. THEME, denotes the fubjeft of an exercife for young ftudents to write or compofe on. THEMISON, a phyfician of Laodicea, a difciple of Afclepiades. He founded the methodic feft, with a view to the more eafily teaching and pradifmg the art of medicine. See Medicine, n° 78.—80. The- mifon gave the firft account of diacodium, which was prepared of the juice and deco&ion of poppy-heads and honey. THE [ 8581 ] THE ’Themiftius honey. He invented a purging medicine called beira, II See Medicine. Iheodore' THEMISTIUS, an ancient Greek orator and phi- lofopher, a native of Paphlagonia, who flourilhed in the fourth century. He had great intereft and favour with the emperors in his time, and though a heathen, was of a very tolerating fpirit. He taught for many years at Conftantinople, of which city he was made prsefedt by Julian and Theodofius; and lived to be ex¬ ceeding old. More than 30 of his orations are ftill ex¬ tant, befide commentaries on feveral parts of Ariftotle’s THEMISTOCLES, the renowned Athenian ad¬ miral, general, and patriot, who gained the battle of Salamine againft the Perfians. Being banilhed his country by his ungrateful fellow-citizens, he fled to Artaxerxes king of Perfia ; but, in order to avoid ta¬ king up arms againlt his country, he flew himfelf, 464 B. C. See Attica, n° 76, et feq. THEOBALD (Lewis), the fon of an attorney at Sittingbourn in Kent, was a well-known writer and critic in the early part of the prefent century. He en¬ gaged in a paper called the Cenfor, publifhed in Mill’s Journal, wherein, by delivering his opinions with too little referve concerning fome eminent wits, he expo- fed himfelf to their refentment. Upon the publication of Pope’s Homer, he praifed it in terms of extrava¬ gant admiration, yet afterwards thought proper to abufe it as earneftly; for which Pope at firll made him the hero of his Dunciad, though he afterward laid him afide for another. Mr Theobald not only expofed him¬ felf to the lalhes of Pope, but waged war with Mr Dennis, who treated him more roughly, though with lefs fatire. He neverthelefs publifhed an edition of Shakefpeare, in which he corre&ed with great pains and ingenuity many faults th^t had crept into that poet’s writings. This edition is Hill in great efteem; being in general preferred to tbofe publilhed by Pope, Warburton, and Hanmer. He alfo wrote fome plays, and tranflated others from the ancients. THEOCRACY, in matters of government, a Hate governed by the immediate dire&ion of God alone: fuch was the ancient government of the Jews before the time of Saul. THEOCRITUS, a celebrated Greek poet, was born at Syracufe, but lived at the court of Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy Philadclphus, about the 285th year before the Chriftian sera. It is faid that at his re¬ turn to Syracufe, venturing to fpeak ill of Hiero king of that city, he was put to death by his order. There are ftill extant Theocritus’s Idylliums in the Doric dialed, which are mafterpieces in their kind, written with admirable ftmplicity, and filled with inexpreflible beauties. The beft edition of them is that of Oxford, in 1699, 8vo. THEODICY. See Metaphysics, n° 6. 222— 230. THEODOLITE, a mathematical inftrument much ufed in furveying. See Geometry. THEODORE, king of Corlica, baron Nieuhoff in the county of La Marc in Weftphalia. He had his education in the French fervice, and afterwards went to Spain, where he received fome marks of regard from the duke of Riperda and cardinal Alberoni; but be¬ ing of an unfettled difpofition, he quitted Spain, and travelled into Italy, England, and Holland, in fearch Theodore; of fome new adventure. He at laft fixed his attention on Corfica, and formed the fcheme of rendering him¬ felf fovereign of that ifland. He was a man of abili¬ ties and addrefs; and having fully informed himfelf of every thing relating to Corfica, went to Tunis, where he fell upon means to procure fome money and arms; and then went to Leghorn, from whence he wrote a letter to the Corfican chiefs, Giafferi and Paoli, offer¬ ing conliderable affiftance to the nation if they would eleft him as their fovereign. This letter was confign- ed to count Domenico Rivarola, who adled as Corfi¬ can plenipotentiary in Tufcany; and he gave for an- fwer, that if Theodore brought the afiiftance he pro- mifed to the Corficans, they would very willingly make him king. Upon this he without lofs of time fet fail, and land¬ ed at Tavagna in the fpring of the year 1736. He was a man of a very ftately appearance, and theTurk- ifh drefs he wore added to the dignity of his mien. He had a few attendants with him ; and his manners were fo engaging, and his offers fo plaufible, that he was proclaimed king of Corfica before count Rivarola’s difpatches arrived to inform the chiefs of the terms upon which he had agreed. He brought with him about 1000 zechins of Tunis, befides fome arms and ammunition, and made magnificent promifesof foreign affiftance ; whence the Corficans, who were glad of any fupport, willingly gave into his fchemes. Theo¬ dore inllantly aflumed every mark of royal dignity. He had his guards and his officers of ftate. He con¬ ferred titles of honour, and ftruck money both of fil- ver and copper. The filver pieces were few in num¬ ber, and can now hardly be met with ; the copper coins have on one fide T. R. that is, “ Theodorus Rex,” with a double branch crofted, and round it this in- fcription, Pro bono publico Re. Co. that is, “ For the public good of the kingdom of Corfica:” on the other fide is the value of the piece; Cinque Jolidi, or five fous. The Genoefe were not a little confounded with this uncxpedled adventurer. They publiftied a violent ma- nifefto againft Theodore, treating him with great con¬ tempt ; but at the fame time (bowing they were alarmed at his appearance. Theodore replied, in a ma- nifefto, with all the calmnefs and dignity of a monarch; but after being about eight months in Corfica, percei¬ ving that the people began to cool in their affedlions towards him, he aflembled his chiefs, and declared he would keep them no longer in a ftate of uncertainty, being determined to feek in perfon the fupport he fo long expe&ed. He fettled an adminiftration during his abfence, recommended unity in the ftrongeft terms* and left the ifland with reciprocal affurances of fidelity and affe&ion. He went to Holland, where he was fo fuccefsful as to obtain credit from feveral rich mer¬ chants, particularly Jews, who trufted him with can¬ non and other warlike ftores to a great value, under the charge of a fupercago. With thefe he returned to Corfica in 1739 ; but by this time the French, as auxi¬ liaries to the Genoefe, had become fo powerful in the ifland, that though Theodore threw in his fupply of warlike ftores, he did not incline to venture his perfon, the Genoefe having fet a high price on his head. He therefore again departed; and after many unavailing attempts THE Theodoret, attempts to recover his crown, at length chofe for re- tirement a country where he might enjoy the partici¬ pation of that liberty which he had fo vainly endea¬ voured to give his Corficans; but his fituation in Eng¬ land by degrees grew wretched, and he was reduced fo low as to be feveral years before his death a prifoner for debt in the King’s bench. At length, to the honour of fome gentlemen of rank, a charitable.contribution was let on foot for him in the year 1753. Mr Bofwell obferves, that Mr Horace Walpole generoufly exerted himfelf for the unhappy Theodore, and wrote a paper in the World with great elegance and humour, foliciting a contribution for the unhappy monarch in diftrefs, to be paid to Mr Robert Dodfley bookfeller, as lord high trealurer. This brought him a very nandfome fum, and he was allowed to get out of prifon. That gentleman adds, that Mr Walpole has the original deed, by which Theodore made over the kingdom of Corfica in fecurity to his creditors, and that he has alfo the great feal of the kingdom. Theodore died in 1756, and was buried in St Anne’s church-yard, Weftmin- ller; where, in 1757, a Ample unadorned monument of marble was eredted to his memory by a gentleman, with an infeription, which, after mentioning fome of the above particulars, concludes with the following lines: The grave, great teacher, to a level brings Heroes and beggars, galley-flaves and kings: But Theodore this moral learn’d ere dead, T Fate pour’d its leflbn on his living head, £ Bellow’d a kingdom and deny’d him bread. j Theodore left a fon, who is an accomplilhed young gentleman. THEODORET, bilhop of St Cyricus in Syria, in the 5th century, and one of the moft learned fathers of the church, was born in the year 386, and was the difciple of Theodorus Mopfuefta and St John Chryfo- ftom. Having received holy orders, he was with dif¬ ficulty perfuaded to accept of the bilhopric of St Cy¬ ricus, about the year 420. He difeovered great fru- T H E gality in the expences of his table, drefs, and furni- Theodolms ture, but fpent confiderable fums in improving and Thcognis. adorning the city of Cyricus. He erefted two large bridges, public baths, fountains, and aquedu&s, and laboured with great zeal and fuccefs in his diocefe. Yet his zeal was not confined to his own church: he went to preach at Antioch, and the neighbouring towns; where he became admired for his eloquence and learn¬ ing, and had the happtnefs to convert multitudes of people. He wrote in favour of John of Antioch and Neftorious, againlt Cyril’s Twelve Anathemas: he af¬ terwards attacked the opinions of Neitorius, and was depofed in the fyned held by the Eutychians at Ephe- fus; but was afterwards reftored by the general coun¬ cil of Chalcedon, in which he was prefent, {11451. It is thought that he died foon after; though others fay that he lived till the year 470. There are ftill extant Theodorel’a excellent Commentary on St Paul’s E- piftles, and on feveral other books of the holy Scrip¬ tures. 2. His Ecclefiaftical Hiftory from the time of Arius to Theodofius the Younger. 3. The hiftory of the famous Anchorites of his time. 4. Epiftles. 5. Dif- courfes on Providence. And, 6. An excellent trea- tife againft the Pagans, intitled, De curandis Grxco- rum ajfeSlibus; and other works. The beft edition of all which is that of Father Sirmond in Greek and La¬ tin, in 4 vols folio. THEODOSIUS I. called the Great, was a native of Spain. The valour he had fhown, and the great fervices he had done to the empire, made Gratian, at¬ tacked by the Goths and Germans, to admit him as a partner in the government. He received the purple in 379, aged 43. See Constantinople, n°8i—92. THEOGNIS, an ancient Greek poet of Megaram Achaia; flouriflied about the 59th Olympiad, 144 B. C. We have a moral work of his extant, containing a ufual fummary of precepts and reflexions, to be found in the colledions of the Greek minor poets. [ 8584 ] THEOLOGY; Or, The Study of Religion. HPO afeend by a chain of reafoning from things vifible to things invifible, from palpable to im¬ palpable, from terreftrial toceleftial, from the creature even up to the Creator, is the bufmefs of theology : it is not furprifing, therefore, that the union pf many do&rines is neceffary completely to form fuch a feience. To underftand, and properly to interpret, the feriptures or revelation, demands not lefs fagacity than afliduity. The gift of perfuafion is alfo effential to the minifters of the gofpel. And laftly, the civil government has committed to their care certain funftions of fociety, which relate, or feem to relate, either to the dodrines or morality of the gofpel. They aflemble, for ex¬ ample, in bodies to form confiftories; they judge in matrimonial cafes; they carry confolation and hope to the fouls of the fick ; they prepare for death thofe criminals which juftice facrifices to public fafety; they take upon themfelves the charge of Ephori, with the infpedion of fome pious foundations: they diftribuie alms; they adminifter the facraments, &c. To difeharge fully fo many duties, the theologian has need, 1. Of feveral preparatory ftudies; 2. Of fome theoretic fciences; and, 3. Of many dodrines which have for their objeft his minifterial ofiice. The firft are, 1. The languages; and among thefe, (a) His native language, in which he is to preach and exercife his miniftry, and with which he ought to be perfedly acquainted. (£) The Latin language, which is the language of the learned world in general. (c) The Greek language, in order to underftand the new Teftament. (d) The Hebrew’ language, of which the Tal- mudian and Rabbinical idioms are a part. (e) The Arabic language. (/■) The Syriac language. (g) The French language. And, (/$) The Sea. r. THEOLOGY. Theological (i>) The Engllrti language. The two latter of Studies. which now appear neceffary to every man of letters, and particularly to a theologian, on ac¬ count of the excellent works which are wrote in thofe languages. 2. The principal parts of philofophy ; as, (a) Logic. (£) Metaphyfics. (c) Moral philofophy. 3. Rhetoric and eloquence, or the art of fpeaking correftly, of writing with elegance, and of per- fuafion. To which may be added, 4. The elementsofchronology, and univerfal hiftory. 5. The ftudy of the Jewifh antiquities. He who would devote himfelf to the important em¬ ployment of a theologian, and has the noble ambition to excel in it, fliould early imprefs on his mind thefe truths: that the years which are pafled at an univerfity are few; that they run rapidly away; that they are' entirely engroffed by the theoretic fciences; and that he who does not carry with him to the univerfity a fund of knowledge in the preparatory parts of learn¬ ing, commonly brings very little away, when his age or his parents oblige him to quit it. The theoretic fciences of a theologian are, 1. The dogmatic, or the theory of theology; which fome Latin authors name alfo thetica, oxfyjimatica. 2. The exegefis, or the fcience of attaining the true fenfe of the holy fcriptures. 3. The hermeneutic, or the art of interpreting and explaining the fcriptures to others. This differs in general but little from the exegefis, and in fome refpe&s is quite the fame. 4. Polemic theology, or controverfy. 5. Natural theology. 6. Moral theology. 7. The hiflory of the church under the Old and New Teftaments. The pra&ical fciences are, 1. Homiletic theology. 2. Cathechetic theology. 3. Cafuiftic theology. We do not here particularly name the patriflic the- dopy, [theologia patrum feu patrifica), becaufe. all Chriitian communions are not agreed in their opinions concerning the degree of authenticity and infallibility that is to be attributed to thefc ancient fathers of the church. The Proteftants believe, that thefe primitive theologians were liable to error in their fentiments as well as thofe of our days; and, in all probability, that they were lefs fleilful, lefs learned, lefs clear, and lefs aecumllomed to clofe reafoning, than the latter, as philofophy was then more iroperfeff. But as we find in the writings of thefe fathers, many elucidations of the do&rine of the primitive apoftles, and many ir¬ refragable teftimonies of the authenticity of divers re¬ markable events, which ferve to eftablifh the truth of Chriftianity ; and as we there fee,, moreover, the origin of errors, of arbitrary ceremonies, and of many doftrines that have been introduced into the Chriftian church ; the reading and the ftudy of thefe fathers cannot but be of great utility to the theologian. To a virtuous citizen, who unites fuch various fciences, and employsthem in pointing out to his fellow-citizens the path that leads to temporal and eternal felicity; in a word, to a wife theologian, what veneration is not due? Sect. I. Of the Dogmatic. Under the general term of dogmatic, we compre¬ hend that part which the different writers on theology have called fometimes theoretic, fometimes fyjlematic, and fometimes thetic theology, &c. The term dogmatic appears to us the moft general, and the moft juft, to exprefs the fubjeft that we intend, as it comprehends an entire fyftem of all the dogmas or tenets that each religion profeffes: whether it teach thefe dogmas by the way of thefis, as articles of faith; by public le&ure; by catechifing ; or any other manner whatever. Every pofitive religion muft naturally have a fyftem of certain points of do&rine to propofe to its followers; otherwife each one would form a particular fyftem according to his own fancy : there would be as many different religions as there are individuals on the earth, and each fociety would confift of a confufed mafs of fantaftic opinions 5 as the different modes of thinking, and the different degrees of difcernment, are varied and compounded by mankind to infinity; but truth, on the contrary, is uniform and invariable. The Chriftian religion is as compound in its dog¬ mas as it is Ample in its moral principle. It includes, 1. The dogmas founded on the lights of reafon. 2. Thofe drawn from the Old Teftament and the law of Mofes. 3. Thofe taken from the New Tefta- ment and the do&rine of Jesus Christ. 4. Thofe that the fathers of the church have drawn from the Holy Scriptures. 5. Thofe that the church under the New Teftament has prefcribed to Chriftians by oecu¬ menical and other councils affembled in different ages. 6. The dogmas that the popes, in quality of heads of the church, have eftablifhed by their bulls : and to thefe muft be added, on the part of the Proteftants, 7. The dogmas that the reformers, efpecially Luther and Calvin, have taught. 8. The decifions'of fynods ; and laftly, the tenets that are maintained by the different fe£ts, as Socinians, Anabaptifts, Quakers, &c. Each of thefe particular religions or feds pre¬ tend to fupport their dogmas both by reafon and re¬ velation: we do not here offer a work of controverfy, and are very far from attempting to determine on which fide truth and reafon are to be found. Our zeal, however, for the Chriftian religion in ge¬ neral, which we regard as perfeftly divine, and as the only religion adapted to promote the happinefs of mankind in this world, and to fecure it in the next, , and the defire we have that it may endure to the end of time, compels us to make in this place one impor¬ tant refle&ion; which is, that fimplicity is ever an effential attribute of perfe&ion, as complexity is of imperfe&ion. Now, it cannot be denied, without doing violence to truth, that among the different dog¬ mas of which we have been fpeaking, there are feveral that feem to be founded on fpeculations very abftrufe, on fubtleties very intricate, and on interpretations very ambiguous. Goo certainly never intended that all mankind fliould be theologians ; he has not given them his divine word to be the caufe of difebrd among men, nor that they fliould pafs their whole lives in a painful fearch after obje&s of belief and articles of faith 3; 8583 Dogmatic rheology: 8584 Dogmatic Theology. T H E O faltli; and that they fhould forego, in that purfuit, the neceffary offices of life, and their duties as citizens. The dogmas, then, efientially neceflary to the welfare of mankind, ought to confut of a fmall number, and to bear the marks of fimplicity and perfpicuity; with¬ out which they muft be imperfeft, and confequently the work of man. Our intention, in making this re¬ mark, is, to extend our voice, if it be pofiible, even to pofterity, whom we would conjure not to injure our religion, fo holy and fo admirable, by a multiplicity of dogmas. It is neceffary, however, that the divine, who makes it his ftudy and his profelhon, fhould be thoroughly acquainted with the theory of this fcience, in order that he may be able to inftruft the fincere Chriftian, and to explain the nature of each particular dogma, as well as the folidity of its proofs; and to this it is that the fludy of the dogmatic leads; of which we fhall now continue the analyfis. The dogmatic is then nothing but a fuccinft expofi- tion of all the dogmas of the Chrifian religion, in a na¬ tural andphilofophical order. By the word philofophic, we do not here precifely mean, the method of mathe¬ maticians, in the manner the lateM. Wolff has applied it to philofophy; every fubjtdf is not capable of a de- roonflration fo exaft and rigid ; but a regular order is required in the arrangement of the general fyftem, and a connexion is to be preferred in the feveral matters that form it: the definitions fhould be juft ; the aivi- fions exa& ; the arguments folid ; the proofs clear ; the citations conclufive ; the examples ftriking ; and, in a word, every thing fbould be adduced that apper¬ tains to fo important a difcipline. It is very effential, moreover, in the dogmatic, at the beginning of each thefis, to explain the feveral terms that are peculiar to it, and that ufe has eftabli- fhed in treating of theology ; to draw from each de¬ finition certain axioms, and from thence to form propo- jitions, and to illuftrate them by folid reafoning. Laft- Jy, we fhould not negledf, in fucb a fyftem, to make ufe of the expreflions ufed in the fymbolic books that have been received by the whole Chriftian church, and which cannot be reje&ed or altered, without caufing a confufion in our ideas, and in the general fyftem of the Chriftian religion. But before we make the leaft ad¬ vance in the ftudy of Chriftian theology, it is indif- penfably neceffary to examine the proofs by which the truth, the authenticity, and the divinity of the facred and canonical books are eftablifhed; for this is the foundation of all the dogmas, and the axis on which its whole doftrine turns. The fyftematic part of the Chriftian religion, among the great number of its dogmas or thefes, has three principal, from which all the reft are derived, and which form the bafis of its whole dodtrine : 1. The exiftence of one God in three perfons. 2. The neceffity of a Mediator or Redeemer. 3. The real appearance of the Mediator or Meffiah on the earth. Whoever writes, profefles, or teaches the dogmatic, fhould be, above all things, careful well to eftablifh thefe important truths; to evince them by the ftrong- eft and moft evident proofs, drawn partly from the lights of reafon, and partly from revelation : and he will then fee with what facility all other thefes flow from, and how eafy it will be to prove them by, thefe. LOGY. Sea. r. The infinite variety that is found among mankind Dogmatic in their manner of thinking, and in their method of Theol°gy treating fubjefts; the frequent changes that have hap¬ pened in the exterior form of philofophy, and in the method of treating it; the oppofitions that have been raifed at all times againft divers do&rines of the Chri¬ ftian religion ; all thefe have produced among theolo¬ gians, different fyftems of the dogmatic. Sometimes they have combined pofitive theology with morality, and have formed a fyftem that they call iheologia theo- retico-praftica, or theologia thetico-moralis, &c. : fome- times they have refuted the arguments that others op- pofe to certain tbefes ; and from thence has arofe a fyftem that they call theologia thetico, or dogmatico, or pofitivo-polemica : fometimes they have joined to natu¬ ral theology that of revelation ; and have formed a dogmatic, called philofophico theologka: and fo of the reft. But, befides that thefe diftindtions and denomi¬ nations are in themfelves pedantic, it is at all times more eligible, in every fcience, to avoid confounding with each other the feveral branches of which it con- fifts. The different dogmas, morality, philofophy, and controverfy, are feparate articles; and when each of thefe parts of theology are feparately treated, they are difpofed with more order in the mind, and a greater light is diffufed over their feveral fubjefts. It appears, moreover, from the Ample enumeration that we have made above, of the different principles on which the dogmas of the Chriftian religion are founded, that, to be thoroughly acquainted with its whole theory, the theologian ftiould alfo apply himfelf to the ftudy of the fymbolic books of its communion, and efpecially ftiould be well verfed in the Creed of the Apoftles; that of Nice and St Athanafius ; the book called Formula Concordia; the Thefes of the council of Trent; the Catechifms of Luther; the Confeffion of Auglhurg ; the Articles of Smalcalden ; the Cate- chifm of Heidelberg, &c. That he fliould be well acquainted with that part of theology that is called patrifica: that is to fay, that he fhould be well read in the fathers of the church ; that he fliould not be ignorant even of fcholaftic theology ; that he fliould at leaft know the frivolous fubtleties and the complicated method of the ancient feholaftic divines, which was derived from the philofophy of Ariftotle and the fchools; that he fliould make a ferious ftudy of the facred hi- ftory of all ages, the councils and fynods ; that he ftiould, above all, never lofe fight of natural theology"; and laftly, that it is indifpenfably neceffary that he fliould procure a good bibliotheque, or treatife of eccle- fiaftical writers (a), which he may confult occafion- ally, and learn from thence to know the beft guides. The more a theologian applies himfelf to all thefe fub- je&s, the more ability he will acquire in this fcience, and the more perfedl he will be in the theory of that religion which it is his duty to teach to others. Revealed religion being founded (at leaft in great part) on natural religion, and philofophy being the fource from whence the principles and the knowledge of the latter are derived, it is evident that philofophy is intimately connedled with theology : neverthelefs, the aid of the former is to be employed with precau¬ tion, and is not to be regarded as the foundation of the theological dogmas, but only as a mean by whick they may be explained and enforced. The Holy Scrip- turn (a) Thofe of Du Pin and William Cave are moft celebrated. Sea. II. T H £ 0 Hermeneu- tures conilitilte perpetually the true bafis of revealed L t'f: theology : philofophy elfedtually concurs, however, to °gy' prove the exiftence and the attributes of the Supreme Being ; the neceffity of the creation of the univerfe by Almighty God, in oppofnion to every other poffible manner of its being produced : it furnifhes, moreover, plauftble conjeftures concerning the intention of the Almighty in creating this world; it proves the necef¬ fity of a perpetual power to preferve it ; it fuppofes, that as God could not produce any thing that was not perfedt in its kind, he could not have created man as he now is; it vindicates the condudt of the Supreme Being, in appointing chaftifements for tranfgrefiionp, by fhovving that moral evil was not introduced into the world by abfolute necefiity, but by the abufe of liberty, the moft noble prerogative of the human foul ; it de¬ termines the necefiity of a Mediator; it furnilhes ar- I* guments for the belief of the immortality of the foul, and of a future date that has a relation to the' moral a&ions of this life ; and laftly, it infpires a love of God as a Being of fovereign perfe&ion, a gratitude towards him as our Creator and Preferver, and a fub- miflion to his will as our Supreme Ruler and D’re&or ; motives of all others the moft powerfully conducive to a virtuous conduct. It is this ufe which theology makes of philofophy, that has given occafion to divide the thefes of the dog¬ matic into pure and mixed ; that is, into thefes that are founded entirely upon revelation; and futh as arife from an union of reafon with revelation. Of the firft fort are, i. The article of the Holy Scripture itfelf; which treats of its divine origin, its authority, and its efficacy. 2. The dogma of the Trinity. 3. That of the origin of evil, or of original fin. 4. Tne whole article of Jefus Chrift. 5. The dogma of the efficacy and operations of the Holy Ghoft. 6. That of the facraments. 7. That of repentance. 8. That of the belief in Jefus Chrift. 9. That of good and bad an¬ gels. JO. That of the end of the world, and the laft judgment. 11. That of the church, See. The mixed dogmas or thefes are, 1. The dofkrine of a Supreme Being in general ; his being, his attributes, and his works. 2. That of the creation. 3. That of provi¬ dence, or the confervation of the world. 4. Of fin, as a tranfgreffion of the laws of God. 5. Of rewards and puniftiments after death, &c. He that attentively ftudies, thoroughly comprehends, and well digefts, all thefe thefes, will have reafon to reft content with his knowledge of the dogmatic. Sect. II. ^9/*Exegesis awi M*? Hermeneutic. The term Exegefis is derived from the Greek verb exe'gonstaj, which fignifies \o relate or explain; and that of Hermeneutic from erme'neuein, which means to fearcb into; and, in a figurative fenfe, thoroughly to examine and interpret. The learned, but efpecially the theologians, make ufe of thefe words, fometimes as fynonima, to exprefs the fame thing, and fometimes (as there are fcarcc any terms that are perfe&ly-fyno- nymous) to denote a fmall difference betwee&two parts of learning of the fame nature. By the wbrd Exe¬ gefis they mean, that fcience which teaches clearly to invejligate the true fenfe of the original text of the Holy Scriptures; and by the Hermeneutic, the art of inter¬ preting and explaining the Holy Scriptures to others (b). Vol. X. (a) The Exegefs is a kind of rational grammar. LOGY. 858$ This diftinftion is fo fubtle, that it becomes almoft M;>rai frivolous. They are, in fa&, the fame fcience ; the Theology, one is only an explication of the other, and for that reafon we think we are authorifed to treat of them to¬ gether in this place. In order to the true underftanding of the facrcd text of all the books contained in the Holy Bible, whether of the Old or New Teftament, it is abfolute- ly necefiary that the theologian be thoroughly ac¬ quainted, not only with the languages in which thefe books were originally wrote, but likewif? with the hiftory and antiquities of thofe remote times in which their authors lived. With regard to refearches into the hiftory of the Jewifh nation, their antiquities, their morals, and their cuftoms, it will be found ad¬ vantageous to purfue it as far as the nature of the fub- jedt will admit, without, however, engaging in critical i ubtleties that lead to a labyrinth to which there is no end, and have fpread more clouds over theology than even the fcholaftic controvetfies have formerlydooe. He who would fuccefsfully interpret any work what¬ ever, Ihould firft confider the fpirit in which it is wrote : he Ihould attentively refledl on the general defign of that work, and the particular motives that induced the author to undertake it; his genius, his -paffions, his tafte; the time, the place, and the people for whom it was written. Thefe confiderations are, above all, Hecedary, when we would undertake the explication of the Holy Scriptures. Independent of thofe refleclions which the theologian will of himfelf naturally make on the fubjedt, the excellent Commentaries which we have on the Bible, in which the greateft men of every age have exercifed their genius, may ferve him as a guide in this courfe. The critical hiftories will likewife af¬ ford great aid, and throw admirable lights on this matter. Clear ideas, amacute difeernmeut, and a fo¬ il'd judgment, will complete the work. Furniffied with ideas from fuch fources, the theolo¬ gian may venture to inveftigate the true fenfe of thofe pafiages of Holy Scripture that may appear to him obfeure, contradidlory, or difficult, and to interpret them to others: but lie will be more wife and lefs vain than to attempt to impofe his decilions on mankind, at all times, as authentic and infallible. The human difeernment is ever confined and imperfedl ; and God has not granted to any man, to any theologian, or alfembly of divines, an exclufive power of interpreting his divine word : he has moreover denounced his ana¬ thema againft all ihofe who lhall edd or take away a fingle word thereof. But to explore the true fenle of any paffage, and to explain it to others, cannot certainly be deemed either adding or retrenching. Sect. III. 0/* Moral Theology. ' If it were allowable to compare the Saviour of the world to a weak mortal, we would Cay, that the con- dudl of Jefus Chrilt rcfembled that of Socrates, who has left us no part of bis dodtrine in writing, but whole whole inftrudtions (as well as the particulars of his life) have been colledled, digefted, and publilhed, by his difciples. The- evangebfts are the only hiftorians of the Meffiah : it is to their labours that we owe the knowledge of his adlions upon earth, and his di¬ vine dodlrine. The four Evangelifts, and the Adis of the Apoftles wrote by St Luke, contain therefore 43 C alone The Hermeneutic is the art of interpreting entire pafiages. B5S6 T H E O Moral afone the hiftory of the life of Jefus’Chrift, and the Theology, that he taught. His apoftles and difciplea began by parapbrafing his dodrine, as well by their evangelic fermons as in the epiftles they addreffed to the faithful of feveral Chriftian churches : they have given explications, and have added paftoral inftruc- tions,. which are in effed admirable; but which, ne- vertlielefs, form not the original text of the difcour- fes of our Saviour. The bifhops of the apodolic cen¬ tury, the fathers of the church in all fucceeding cen¬ turies, the other bifliops and ecclefiaftics, the coun¬ cils, the fynods, the dodors of theology, the popes, the confiftories, the reformers likewife, and an infi¬ nity of theologians, have drawn from the Gofpel, and fometimes alfo from the letters of the apoftles, and from other commentaries on the gofpel, va¬ rious tenets ; which, united, form at this day the general fyftem of the Chriftian religion. The theolo¬ gians who devote themfelves to the fervice of the altar, ftudy this fyflem in the dogmatic:- the laity learn-it by means of catechifms; and after they have made confeffion of their faith, folemnly adopt it when they are received into the bofom of the church. It is not the fame with regard to the morality of Jtfus Chrift, which every one may read in the Go¬ fpel ; and to know which, it is not neceflary to be¬ come learned, nor to ftudy a complicated fyftem. If the dogmatic were not armed with a thoufand argu¬ ments to eftabliih the divinity of Jcfus Chrift, yet would the morality of his gofpel fufficiently prove it; feeing that it is perfedly holy, entirely fimple, ftridly juft, and moft completely adapted to promote the fe¬ licity of the human race in this world, and in that which is to come. The Saviour of the world has not enjoined any part of mankind to engage in difputes or abftraft refinements; the foie command that he has given them is, io believe in his gof]>el\ and that iscom- prifed in one word only, Love: the grand and only principle on which the whole of his facred dodlrine is founded. To produce the greateft effefts poffible by the leaft efforts, is the higheft perfe&ion in nature, and at the fame time the true charafteriftic of divinity. God has given to all the beings that compofc the univerfe,. one fimple principle alone, by which the whole, and every part, is conne&ed and perpetually fupported ; and that is Love- The attraction of the celeftial bodies, as well as of thofe of which our globe is formed, is a fpecies of love; a mutual tendency toward each other. The uniform generation, by which all beings are per- petuated, is founded in love. This is the true minimum> the true fyftem of the leajl afiion, which includes fomething fo divine.. It appears to be the will of God to eftablifir by the mouth of the Meffiah, the fame fimple principle in morality, that is, in the rule of hu¬ man adions^ by faying Love: in a word, it was his will, that in the conduft of mankind, as in every other part of nature, there fhould be no other principle than that of Love. That in the different fyftemsof ethics of the ancient heathen philofophers many maxims and precepts of admirable morality are to be found, cannot be denied ; but, befide that thefe philofophers are almoft conti¬ nually contrsdifting each other in their maxims, no one of their fj ftems is founded on the true principle.. log y. s«a. nr.'' In fearching after it, they have difeovered fome excel- Moral lent truths ; but it has been by chance, and they are 'theology.. at bell imperfeft. Jefus Cnvt has abce taught man- “ j kind perfeft thorals, by deducing them from this true principle. Every principle ffiould be fimple : the idea of a compound principle implies at once an imperfec¬ tion. Every principle (hould be comprehenfive, even univerfal, in itseffeds. Every principle, whofc effefls are limited, is imperfedL God himfelf is uniform in his principle, and infinite in bis effedls. His do&rine, or his law, fliould be the fame. Jefus Chrift has made knowpi to. mankind this principle, fimple and univerfa). He has therefore been, in this fenfe alfo, the true Sa¬ viour of the world. He haspreached to mankind; and his only doilrine has been that of love. By the word Love, with regard to bodies in gene¬ ral, is meant a tendency, a mutual inclination, that urges them to join and to coalefce ; and with regard to men in particular, a lively affefting pleafure that poffeffcs the mind on contemplating the perfe&ions of any object. This pleafure is always accompanied with a defire either to poffefs that objeft, or to render it propitious. By adopting therefore this principle, and this laft definition of Love, it follows, that all the du¬ ties of man confift, r. In the love of God in prefe¬ rence to. all other obje&s. 2. In the love of himfelL 3. In the love of his own fpecies. 4. In the love of every other creature to a certain degree. i The doftrines of Jefus Chrift are, in thefe refpeds, the moft explicit. From this principle flows our duty towards God, towards ourfelves, our neighbour, and to thofe beings that arefubjeft to our power. The firft rule is,to com¬ municate to all thofe, whom it is our duty to love, all the good, and to preferve them from all the evil in our power. The fecond, to do to no one what we would not have done to ourfelves in fimilar circum- ftances. The third, which is the fimple effeft of love, is to endeavour to pleafe the obje& that we ought to love. The fourth, to endeavour to render the plea- fures that we communicate to others, as lively as pof¬ fible, and thofe inevitable evils, which we are fome¬ times conftrained to do to them, as fuppertable as we can ; and fo of the reft. The whole evangelic doflrine of our Saviour is replete, from beginning to end, with admirable precepts for thefe purpofes; and thefe precepts,' with their applications, general and par¬ ticular, we learn from that fcience which we call moral theology. This do&rine we diftinguifh from moral phjlofophy, or the fimple doctrine of Ethics; becaufe Jefus Chrift has made known, in his divine morality, a far greater degree of perfection than is difcoverable by the mere light of human reafon. For the renouncing of felf- intereft, and private pleafure; the forgivenefs of of¬ fences; the love of his enemies; the triumph over de- ftrudtive paffions ; and many other like virtues,, the Chriftian is alone indebted to the dodtrine of Jefus Chrift. A fecond difference between Chriftianity and philo- fophy confifts ii^this, That the firft adds to the fecond ftill new motives to the practice of virtue. That of redemption and pardon, obtained by Jefus Chrift, is not one of the leaft. Its argument is this: If God has fo loved mankind, as to afford them the means Sea. IV. T H E O Polemic means by which the evil, caufed by their own fault, Theology. m?iy be abolifhed, it would be the greateft of all ingra¬ titude and malice towards himfelf, if man (hould not endeavour to acknowledge this love, to merit it, and to embrace the means of pleafmg God. A third mo¬ tive, taken alfo from the merit of Jefus Chrift, here offers itfelf as an auxiliary to the two former. Ac¬ cording to the Chriftian do&rine, man has not by nature the power to praflife all thofe virtues which are agreeable to God : but the fame do&rine teaches, on the other hand, the conditions by which it is poffible to pleafe that moft holy and perfedl Being; and gives the Chriftian hope alfo that he fhall neverlabour in vain. Laftly, the Chriftian morality is of far greater effi¬ cacy in adverfity than philofophy: it carries with it a wonderful confo’ation in misfortune, and even in the hour of death; for the Chriftian may fay, with the Apoftle, that godlinefs (or the pra&ice of evangelic morals) is in all things profitable, having the promife of the prefent life, and that ’which is to come. Sect. IV. Of Polemic Theology, or Contro¬ versy. We cannot fufficiently lament, that the church of the God of peace fhould be a church-militant ; and that a dodfrine fo Ample and clear as that of the Gofpel fhould be the caufe of difeord even among Chriftians themfelves. Neverthelefs, as the truth is fo difficult to difeover in all things, and efpecially in matters of religion ; as it is fo frequently covered with the clouds of intereft and ambition ; as the fame ob¬ ject appears fo different to different men; and as error in the face of the world conflantly affumes the mafic of truth; it is but juft that the true religion be fur- nifhed with arms to combat error, and to pluck off that deceitful mafic by which fo many poor mortals are feduced. The theologian, who has made the proper prepara¬ tory ftudies, who is thoroughly inftrudted in natural religion, in the dogmatic and the hermeneutic, and who joins to thefe found logic, is already well pre¬ pared for this fpiritual combat: he is armed, but he -is ftill to learn how to ufe thefe arms: he muft alfo be made acquainted with the enemies he is to encoun¬ ter, to know their force, and the arts they will ufe againft him. It is plain enough, we fuppofe, that we here fpeak of fpiritual arms ; of thofe with which we are furnifhed by reafon and the Holy Scripture : evil be to him that employs any other: force is ever an infallible proof of the want of argument. The pro¬ pagation of a religion by the fword, after the manner of Mahomet ; perfecutions, either fecret or open ; conftraint, violence, every fort of religious war, is fo atrocious, fo contrary to the fpirit of the Gofpel, in a word, fo deteftable, that every true Chriftian muft; avert his fight from fuch infamous horrors. Controverfy is conduced either from the pulpit or chair, by way of harangue, by converfation, or by writing. The firft quality that is neceffary to a difputant is reafon, and the next moderation; in what manner foever the conteft is conduced, thefe two qualities fhould conftantly be manifeft, during the whole courfe of altercation. There are feme errors that attack the fjftem of re- LOGY. 8587 ligion, and there are others that attack even its mora- Polemic lity. In order properly to oppofe an error, we muft Theology. begin by finding out its real meaning : we rnuft therefore ftudy the different fyftems of other religions, and the principal herclies, if we would fuccefsfully re¬ fute them. We do not mean by this, that the theolo¬ gian Ihould know all the errors that fpring up in the brain of each individual; we fpeak only of thofe that are profeffed by whole feds. They who attack our religion, found their opinions, either on the interpretation of the facred text, or on philofophy or hiftory; and we fhould always oppofe them with the fame arms with which they pretend to defeat us. It is neceffary to begin by divefting our- felves of all prejudice, in order the better to ftiow others thofe prejudices by which they are deluded. We fhould never make ufe, but efpecially when we oppofe weak minds, of opprobrious terms in the courfe of the debate, nor contend about words oi>exprefiions, nor attack incidental circumftances that may attend erroneous principles; but bend our whole force againft the root of the tree, the principal error; to uncover it, to dig it up, to deftroy it. Polemic theology is taught in univerfities by two methods, according to the views of the ftudent. If he learn it merely in order hereafter to defend his pa- riihioners againft the moft prevalent errors, he is only to examine the principal controvcrfies according to the fyftematic order of theology ; and may content himfelf with knowing their true meaning, together with the arguments of thofe that oppofe them. But if it be his intention to teach this fcience to others, or to engage in controverfy, either by converfation or writing ; in fhort, if he afpire to renown in it, he fttould ftudy the origin and hiftory of each controverfy, he fhould make himfelf a complete matter of the argu¬ ments for and againft it, the exceptions that it makes, its interefts, its different revolutions and actual Hate, &c» Thefe follow, in this fludy, either the order eftablifhed in the dogmatic, or that which is ufed in fymbolic books, that is, fuch as treat on articles of faith. In order the better to elucidate the method to be obTerved in this fort of ftudy, we fhall fay, that to ac¬ quire a complete knowledge of theological difputes, the ftudent fhould, 1. Make the examen of each re¬ ligion, and even of each controverfy. 2. He fhould thoroughly examine his fyftem in the fymbolic books, and likewife the fources of his religion. 3. He fhould precifely determine the principal and capital error of each religion, fed!, or individual ; that which is the fource from whence all the other errors flow. 4. Search into the political caufes of each error, and each con¬ troverfy, from hiftory. 5. Examine the natural order according to which all the errors have taken their rife, the one from the other: and laftly, 6. Confront the refpedlive arguments, the anfwers, and exceptions, that each party has made to defend its caufe. To all this is to be added, 7. What they call collegium dip- putatorium'; an exercife by which all that is learned in the clofet and in the fchools is called forth and ani¬ mated, under the infpedtion of a profeffor; and the mind is accuftomed to think, and the tongue to fpeak, with facility and efficacy. 43 C 2 The 8588 T H E O Polemic Th« principal contells in which the theologian may Theology. 'oe engaged' are> 1. Againfl thofe who admit of no revealed religion; as the atheift and deift. 2. A- gainft thofe who admit of a revealed religion, but adopt not the true Revelation ; as the Heathens, the Mahometans, &c. 3. Againfl thofe who believe only a part of the true Revelation ; as the Jews. 4. Againlt thofe who add to the true Revelation matter foreign to it ; as traditions, See. 5. Againll thofe who make a. falfe interpretation of the facred text, and draw from it erroneous fyftems ; as the heretics and the fchifma- tics, &c. And laftly, 6. Againll thofe who make a wrong ufe of certain expreffions of Revelation, and build on wl.imfical notions, ridiculous^ fyftems; the Fanatics, &c. According to this-divifion,. the theologian will have to combat principally with, 1. The Atheifts, with Spinofa at their head. 2. The Deilts. 3. The Heathens and Idolaters. 4. The Mahometans. 5. The modern Jews. 6. The Arians and the Manitheans, or rather thofe who in thefe days follow their ancient errors. 7. The Socinians. 8. The Catholics, oppofed to the Proteftants. 9. The Pro- ttHants, oppofed to the Catholics. 10. The Molinifts, oppofed to the Janfenifts. 11. The Janfenills, oppo¬ fed to the Molinilts. 12. The Reformed, oppofed to the Lutherans. 13. The Lutherans, oppofed to the Reformed. 14. The Arminians. 15. The Anabap- tiils. 1.6. The Quakers. 17. The Fanatics, at the head of whom is Jacob Bohm. 18. The Pietills. 19. The Moravian Brethren, or the Herenhuters, See. Now, as each of the religions, communions, or he- refies above-mentioned, have not fcrupled to publilh to the world their dogmas and creeds, the theologian ought carefully to inltrudl himfelf in thofe fymbolic books, in which each of them have comprifed its fy- ftem; to ftudy and to make a good analyfis of them; and to prepare fuch arguments as are the moft juft, the mod weighty, and proper to confute them. Before we quit this fubjed, there is one remark to be made,, or rather one caution that is very effential, which we would offer to the young theologian; which is, that the polemic is uftful, and even neceffary, in the ftudy of theology in general; but that it is a difeipline which ought to be treated with great prudence and mo¬ deration. Difputation in general is a dangerous art; and religious difputation is a deceitful art, and of in¬ finite peril. The (ludent will do right well to remem¬ ber, that there is no fedl,Ino communion on earth, that is perfeftly true in all its dogmas without exception; that there are fome fmall errors in all religions; that infallibility never was, nor ever will be, the portion of humanity. He fhould likewife remember, that the matters who teach him, or the bopks that he reads, are conllantly partial to the religion they profefs: and that when he has fupported a thefis, and confuted his ad- verfaries in a collegial difpute, (where his adverfaries, as well as his preceptors, are of the fame fide of the queftiop, and will not fail to adjudge him the victory), be fhould be perfuaded, that the victory would not have been fo eatily obtained had he contended with able ad¬ verfaries of theoppofite religion: he fhould remember, that we triumph without glory when we combat with¬ out danger; and let him not be vain of his laurels, nor imagine hirafelf fome wonderful fcholar; feeing that it LOGY. Sea.V. is very pofiible that he may go off vi&orious from fuch Pafloral j a difpute, that he may receive vaft applaufe from his Theology,- profeffors and his colleagues, and at the fame time have reafoned like a dolt. On the other hand, the moft able theologians, and the moft confummate profeffors in this fcience, ought to be conftantly on their guard againft the abufe of polemic theology; which frequently ferves lefs to clear and confirm the truth of the dogmas of a communion, than to eflablifh perpetual difeord and hatred among Chriftians. Every theologian fhould alfo remember, that, by the nature of the fubjedl, it is not poffible to produce demonflration in fupport of histhefesand opi¬ nions; but that his arguments will be only valid, and preponderate in proportion to their degree of evidence ;• and laftly, that it is a ridiculous and infufferable vanity to imagine, that every man, who does not think pre- cifely as we do, is guilty of palpable error. Sect. V. Pastoral Theology. Haveng deferibed the theoretic fciences of theo- logy, we now come to thofe which regard the pradlice. It would be to bury the talents that God has given him, and the ftudies that he has made, if the theolo¬ gian did not employ them to the edification of his neighbour and the profperity of. the church. His of¬ fice in fociety is attended with conftant and anxious la¬ bours. He is charged with the cure of fouls, with the inflrudlion of youth, with preaching of the Gofpel,. the condudl of his flock, and the adminiftration of the facraments, with vifitations to the Pick and the dying,, with calming the terrors of weak minds, with admini- ftering comforts to affli&ed fouls, and many other func¬ tions equally difficult and important. As the homily makes a part of eloquence, it is un- neceffary to fay any thing of it in this place, but treat the others in their order. It is in vain that a fan of the church poffeffes all the fciences that belong, to his proftffion, that he is an. agreeable and even a renowned preacher, if he do not. give a life, an efficacious fpirit,. to his miniftry, by a good example ; for that is the firlt precept in paftoral. theology. He is at the head, of a flock, and ought to be their guide: but how abfurdv if his words and his a&ions be at continual variance with each other! How fcandalous, if he be not the firft to praftife thefe lef- fons of wifdom that he preaches! How indecent, if, while he edifies by bis difeourfes, he difgufts by bis morals! What bafenefs, if he fliould even glory in his irregularities! It is lefs fhameful for a foldier to relate that he has tamely fuffered an affront, than for an ec- clefiaftic to boaft of his debaucheries! Both the one and the other is. a difgrace to his proftffion. But th:s exemplary condodl (hould be free from all affedation in the external behaviour. A Angularity of' drefs, and an air of aufterity; the head declined, the eyes turned up to heaven, the hands conllantly clafp- ed, a plaintive tone of voice,, and a folemn gait; a fcrupulolity in things indifferent, and a dogmatic and clerical manner of deciding in the common affairs of life; a ridiculous inclination to difeover iniquity in in¬ nocent adions; to confound pleafure with vice, and to be an enemy to joy, the greateft boon that God has bellowed on man; and a hundred other like fopperies there are, with which the religious make a parade. Sea. VI. T H E O Catechetic that Js fiiocking both to good fenfe and the evangelic Theology, morality, and which render their miniftry, in the eyes .1 of fenfible people, raore contemptible than refpeftable. Thefe are rocks on which the young theologian is much too liable to run, and of which he cannot be fufiicient- ly cautioned. After this candid caution and brief introdu&ion, we pafs to the examen of the different parts, the union of which compofes the fyftem of the paftoral, the moft important article perhaps in all theology. The defign of Revelation was, without doubt, to conduct man by faith to a virtuous life. It is not the opinions or the learning of weak mortals that can determine their in- trinfic merit; it is their wifdom, their regularity of conduft, that muft damp their value. Experience fhows, that a man of g.eat genius and learning may be alfo a great villain ; one who is unable to pleafe God or his neighbour: the virtuous Chriftian, on the contrary, mult be agreeable to both: it follows there¬ fore, that the practical part of theology, which leads mankind to a virtuous conduct, is of all its parts the molt important. Sect. VI. Catechetic Theology. By Catechetic Theology is meant, The art of teacb- ing youth, and ignorant perf ns, the principal points of the Evangelical Doflrine, as ’well ’with regard to belief as praflice. This application of the theoretic fciences of theology ought to be condu&ed in the moft Ample manner poilible. It is not every one who is poffeffed of the talent of properly compofing and delivering ca¬ techetic inftru&ions: and it is an art that is very ne- ceflary in the Chriftian church. The greateft difficulty confills in ft parating the ar¬ ticles of faith that are abfolutely effential and indifpen- fable to the falvation of mankind, from thofe that are fubtle and fpeculative, more liable to contradiftion, and lefs neceflary to fuch as do not make theology their profcffion. However, as children do not always remain children, and as the church is compofed of per- fons of both fexes and of ail ages, it is neceflary that, in the explanations of the catechifm, there fhould be employed different degrees of (implicity, proportioned to the age and capacity of thofe that are to be inftru£l- ed. . It is expedient for young people to retain in their minds the fiift principles of religion, fuch as are con¬ tained in good catediifms; and that they be explained to them in particular ledtures; which is the molt ufual and moft natural method of enabling youth to give an account of their faith. The fermons that are given in the Catholic churches on controverfy, and in Proteft- ant churches on the catechifm, ferve to inftruft thofe who are of riper years and have their judgment more formed. Thefe fermens compofe, at the lame time, a fort of courfe of the dogmatic and the polemic theo- logy. Both in private catechifing, and in fermons that are purpofely intended to explain the catechifm, the theo¬ logian fhould avoid, as much as poffible, the life of technical terms; or (which is ftill better) he ought to begin by explaining tbofe terms, of which he fhould. gjve fuch clear and determinate definitions, that no perfon of a moderate capacity can poffibly miftake them.. Iji a word, he fhould endeavour more to prove than to perfuade; and as eloquence foavetiraes perluades at the LOGY. expence of truth, he fhould ca^itioufly avoid that fort of delufive perfuafion, and in its room fubftitute clear and folid argument. Sect. VII. ^Casuistic Theology. By cafuiftfc theology is meant, the fcience that de¬ cides in doubtful cafes of moral theology, and that calms the fcruples of confctence.which arife in the Chriftian’s foul during his fejourn in this world. The ftudies relative to thefe objedls, which the theo¬ logian is fuppofed to have made, and the confidence that the common rank of Chriftians place in thu'r pa¬ llors, afford them the means and the opportunities of rendering fignal fervice to thofe of their fellow-citizens who have need of their counfel and confolation; for where there is one roan of a philofopbic fpirit, one Chriftian of a well-grounded knowledge in theology, there are in a fociety a thoufand that are not, and who are yet defirous of being inftruiled, guided, comforted, eftablifhed. It is therefore both juft and important that he who devotes himfelf to the fervice of the altar, fhould early ftudy all thofe fciences that will enable him worthily to perform this important part of his mi¬ niftry. God forbid, however, that we (hould countenance the abufe that is made, in fome Chriftian countries, of the duties that we have here explained. To reduce thefe matters into a political fyftem ; to make the di¬ rection of confciences a profeffion, a regular trade; to. provide each houfe with a fpiritual direftor, as with > butcher or baker, a fteward or porter, who by that means may infinuate himfelf into the confidence of fa¬ milies, and become the depofitory of all their fecrets may fometimes fow difeord between hufband and wife, or the neareft relations; who may avail himfelf of the. confidence of his devotees, to direft them conftautly in- matters of a worldly,and fometimes even of a criminal,, nature; to efface the legitimate and facred authority of the father of a family, and in its place to fubfti- tute a foreign power; to undermine the confidence, the union and concord of famib’es, in order to confirm and render necefiary this fecondary authority ; to captivate the fpirit,and oft-times the heart,.of a wife or daugh¬ ter, and in general of weak minds; to enjoin them ri¬ diculous mummeries that lead to fanaticifro, and a tbou- fand. dangerous fuperftitions, or to religious exercifes that divert them from their domeftic duties; in a word, to affume an abfolute authority over the confciences of mankind, is a pernicious invention, contrary to the evangelic moral, to the welfare of fociety, to the inte- reft of the ftate, and to thd fovereign authority; and well dtferves an exemplary pnnilhment. But the cure of fouls, faithfully intended, and pro¬ perly limited, differs totally from this defpotic power. He who is charged with it by a lawful vocation,, fhould remember that there are four claffes of men with whom he will be engaged: i. With thofe of weak minds; of little knowledge and little ability. 2. With thofe whofe fpirhs are afflifted.by fome great reverie of fortune. 3. With thofe of nice and timorous con¬ fciences, who fuffer by their fcruples, whether they be vain or.rational. ; 4. And laftly, the wicked, the har¬ dened and- incorrigible finner. The grand art here: confifts in reprefenting to each of thefe chffes of men, the truth, jo a manlier fo clear, fo ftrong and full, that. 8589 Catiiftie Theologj* 8590 T H E O Cafuiitic they can no longer retain any doubts that conviftion Theology. mu^ take p]ace> ancj confolation or converfion be the confequence. Truth is in its nature highly problematic: each one, however, is perfuaded that he knows it, that he pof- feffes it, and is guided by it; every man thinks himfelf in the right. We Ihould therefore begin by difcover- ing the truth in the fubjeft before us, and in placing it upon a folid foundation. This bufinefs of demon- ilrating the truth to others, is attended in the mean time with infinite difficulty. Every mind is not ca¬ pable of difcovering it at the firft glance; nor can all difcern it from the fame point of view. Sometimes men require convidlion by abftrafl or philofophical ar¬ guments, and fomettmes by the exprefs decifions of the Holy Scripture. Sometimes by authority, fome- times by gentle remonftrance, and fometimes by dread¬ ful menaces. Sometimes they are to be reclaimed by properly expofing the neccflary and fatal confequences that refult from their conduit; and at others, by the alluring promifes of the. gofpel. Now vice is to be boldly confronted; and now the tranfgreffor is to be conducted into the right path by artful turnings: now the (inner’s crimes are to be painted in the llrongeft colours; and now a veil is to be lightly caft over them; and fometimes we fliould even indulge a favourite in¬ clination, in order to induce them to abandon a more pernicious paffion: and fo of the reft. As it is impofiible that the books which have been wrote on this fubjedf, though of an immenfe quantity, can contain every cafe that daily occurs in the miniftry of the gofpel; and as thefe cafes are not always juftly decided by thefe authors; and, if they were, the con- fulting of fuch enormous works would take up too much of a theologian’s time, and divert him from his other ftudies; and as thefe cafuiftic writers contain, more¬ over, a number of puerile fubtleties and wretched chi- T H E Theophilus THEOPHILUS, the fixth biftiop of Antioch; was Theophraf-raifed to that fee in 169, and inftrudfed his church till tus- about the year 182. There are ftill extant his three , ‘ books, written in Greek, againft the calumniators of the Chriftian religion,, addreffed to Autolycus. They were printed at Oxford in 1684, in duodecimo, under the infpedfion of Dr Fell. There are alfo other works at¬ tributed to him; but thefe are written by later authors. THEOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Greek philofo- pher, was the fon of Melanthus, and was born at Ere- fus in Boeotia. He was at firft the difciple of Lucip- pus, then of Plato, and at laft of Ariftotle. He fuc- ceeded the latter in the J22d year before the Chriftian sera, and taught philofophy at Athens with extraordi¬ nary applaufe. He faid of an orator without judg¬ ment, “ that he was a horfe without a bridle.” He was accuftomed to fay, “ There is nothing fo valuable as time, and thofe who lofe it are the moft inexcufable of all prodigals.” He died at above 100 years of age. Thcophraftus wrote many works; of which the follow¬ ing are the principal of thofe that are ftill extant, 1. An excellent moral treatife intitled Charters, which he fays in his preface he compofed at 99 years of age. Ifaac Cafaubon has written learned Commentaries on this fmall treatife: it has been tranflated from the 4Greck into French, by M. de la Bruyere; it has alfo LOGY. Sea. VII. meras; it is highly proper that the minifter of the al- Cafuiftic tar, whom we fuppofe to have a mafterly knowledge Theology. of the principles, the dogmas, and moral of the Chri- flian religion, (hould endeavour to draw from the true fource the means that he is to employ on each occur¬ rence, and not have recourfe to books for their deci¬ fions. For which purpofe it is neceffary, 1. That he accuftom himfelf to reafon according to the rules of found logic. 2. That he learn to know the human heart, under its different difguifes ; the charadters of men, their arts, and ruling paffions. 3. That he da not attempt to gain or convince by little pious frauds, of by lucky fophifms artfully reprefented. 4. That he do not inflidl what are called penances, which are the height of abfurdity. 5. That he do not enjoin mum¬ meries, pilgrimages, auftericus, and a thoufand liko- matters, which can never carry with them a real con- viftion, and only ferve to divert men from their labours and the duties of fociety. But, f anifeeds, water, and other liquors, might freeze in different degrees of heat. In this opinion he was followed by Dr Halley, Who propofed for a ftandard the temperature of deep caves below ground. Thefe indeed do always preferve the fame temperature, but the ufe of them would be found not a little inconvenient for the purpofe of adjufting. thermometers; nor, afterall, could there be any certain¬ ty even in this method ; for we are by no means fure that the temperature of the ground is the fame in all places at the fame depth from the furface. Dr Hal¬ ley therefore propofed another point, namely, that in which fpirit of wine boils; and he all'o mentioned the heat of boiling water as a point very fixed and deter¬ mined, and in which he has been followed by all that came after him. From this one paint of the heat of boiling water, it has been propofed to eonftruft thermometers in fueh a manner that they (hall all correfpond with each other. This triethod is by marking the degree of expanfiou or contradlion of the fluid in thermometers, as the heat applied is either greater or lefs than that of boiling water. Suppofing, for example, the whole volume of this fluid to confift of 10,000 parts, we muft mark on the tub£, where that volume is expanded by heat or contradVed by cold, 1,2, 3, 4, &c. of thefe parts; all which may be done by different perfons and in different places, fo that they fhall anfwer precifely to one ano¬ ther.—Yet this method,, fo plaufiblc in appearance, is found not to be very practicable; it being difficult to determine exadtly ail the divifions from the alteration of the bulk of the fluid. The beft method, therefore, is to have two fixed points of heat at a confiderabk diftance the one from the other ; fuch as that of boil¬ ing and freezing water; after which we are to divide the fcale or tube between them into any convenient number of equal parts or degrees. The method juft now propofed is that which has for a long time been univerfally followed; and the only difficulties which remained in the confti udf ion of ther¬ mometers were the choice of a proper fluid, the ad- jufting of the two fixed points, and the divilion of the fpace between them in fuch a manner as to make pro¬ per allowance for any inequalities that might happen Thermo- * See Cold, Congelation, and ^ukk- Jilver, -Plate tci-xxvm THE to be in the diameter of the tube through which the fluid moves. With regard to the fluid, quickfilver has univer- fally obtained the preference, as being fooner heated and cooled than any other with which we are acquaint¬ ed, and requiring fo great a degree of cold to congeal it, that till very lately it was thought impoffible to do fo; though the contrary is now fliown by undeniable experiments*. Tne heat alfo which quickfilver re¬ quires to make it boil, is very confiderable, fothat the fcale on a quickfilver thermometer may be enlarged greatly beyond that made with any other fluid. In extreme degrees of cold, indeed, where quickfilver freezes, the thermometer fhould be filled with highly re&ified fpirit of wine, or the fluid petroleum, called naphtha; both of which are found unalterable in the greateft degrees of cold, either natural or artificial, hitherto obferved in any part of the world. The adjuftment of the two fixed points of heat, viz. that of boiling and that of freezing water, has been found a matter of confiderable difficulty, as they vary confiderably according to the height of the mercury in the barometer at the time. Hence the greateft philofophers have not thought it below them to beftow their labour in attempting to bring this matter to its utmoft exaflnefs; and for this purpofe a committee of the Royal Society was lately appointed. This inaccuracy in the heat of boiling water at dif¬ ferent times, was obferved by Mr Fahreinheit, a cele¬ brated artift at Amfterdam, from whom the kind of thermometers now mofily ufed took their name. He fuppofed the variation, to be much greater than it really is ; but Mr de Luc, by a great number of ex¬ periments made at different heights above the level of the fea, found a rule by which the difference in the boiling point, anfwering to different lieights in the ba- rometer, is determined with great exa&nefs. Accord¬ ing to this rule, the alteration of the boiling point by the variation of the barometer from 29I to 30-r inches is i°.59 of Fahreinheit. The committee of the So¬ ciety (of whom M. de Luc was one), after a number of experiments which our limits will not allow us to infert, lay down the following pra&ical rules for ad- jufting the boiling and freezing points. “ Rules to he obferved in adjujling the boiling point. —The moft accurate way of adjufting the boiling point is, not to dip the thermometer into the water, but to expofe it only to the fleam, in a veffel clofed up in the manner reprefented in fig. 4. where ABi^ is the veffel containing the boiling water, T)d the co¬ ver, E a chimney made in the cover intended to carry off the fleam, and M?« the thermometer pa fled thro’ a hole in the cover. Thofe who would make ufe of this method, muft take care to attend to the following particulars. “ 1 ft, The boiling point muft be adjufted when the barometer is at 29.8 inches; unlefs the operator is willing to correft the obferved point in the manner di- redltd below. THE {hall rife very little above the cover ; for olherwife Thermo- part of the quickfilver in the tube will not be heated, ITietcr' and therefore the thermometer will not rife to its pro¬ per height. The furface of the water in the pot alfo fhould be at leaft one or two inches below the bottom of the ball; as otherwife the water, when boiling fall, might be apt to touch the ball: but it does not fig- nify how much lower than that the furface of the wa¬ ter may be. 3dly, Care muft be taken to flop up the hole in the cover through which the tube is inferted, and to make the cover fit pretty clofe, fo that no air fhall en¬ ter into the pot that way, and that not much fleam may efcape. A piece of thin flat tin plate muft alfo be laid on the mouth of the chimney, fo as to leave no more paf- fage than what is fufficient to carry off the fleam. The fize of this plate fhould be not much more than fuffi¬ cient to cover the chimney, that its weight may not be too great; and the mouth of the chimney fhould be made flat, that the plate may cover it more com¬ pletely. It muft be obferved, that when the tin-plate is laid on the mouth of the chimney, it will commonly be lifted up by the force of the fleam, and will rattle till it has flipped afide fufficiently to let the fteara efcape without lifting it up. In this cafe it is not ne- ceffary to put the plate back again, unlefs by acci¬ dent it has flipped afide more than ufual. If the ar¬ tift pleafes, he may tie each corner of this plate by a firing to prongs fixed to the chimney, and (landing on a level with the plate, as thereby it will neceffarily be kept always in its place (a) ; but we would by no means recommend having it made with a hinge, as that might be apt to make it flick, in which cafe the included vapour might be fo much compreffed as to caufe an error. We would alfo by no means advife lining the tin-plate with leather, or any other foft fubftance for the fake of making it fhut clofer, as that alfoT'might be apt to make it flick. The chimney alfo ought not to be made lefs than half a fquare inch in area : for though a fmaller chimney would be fufficient to carry off the fleam, unlefs the veffel is much larger than what we ufed ; yet the adhefion which is apt to take place between it and the tin-plate when wet, might perhaps bear too great a proportion to the power which the included fleam has to lift it off, if it was made much lefs. It is convenient that the chim¬ ney be not lefs than two or three inches long, as there¬ by the obferver will be.lefs incommoded by the fleam; but it would be improper to make it.much longer, for the longer the chimney is, the greater difpofnion has the air to enter into the pot between it and the cover. “ It is mod convenient not to make the cover fit on tight, but to take on and off eafily ; and to wrap fome fpun cotton round that part of the cover which enters into the pot, in order to make it fhut clofer ; or, what feems to anfwer rather better, a ring of woollen cloth may be placed under the cover, fo as to lie between the top of the pot and it. Thefe methods of making the cover fhut clofc can be ufed more con¬ veniently when the cover is made to enter within the pot, as in the figure, than when it goes on on the out- fide. [ 8592 1 “ zdly, The ball of the thermometer muft be placed at fuch a depth within the pot, that the boiling point (a) Fig. 2. n° 3. is a perfpeftive view of the chimney and tin plate; ABCD is the plate; E the chimney, Yf Gg, Mm, and N«, the prongs fattened to the chimney, to which the four corners of the plate are to be tied by the firings AF, BG, CM, and DN; the ends F, G, M, and N, of the prongs muft be on a level .with the .plate, and the firings fhould W. be flu-etched tight. it ■ *\ ■ \ ■■ ;i\ - . /. Tixe Order of file Tkiftle Hate (X XXXXffll '*97 TE-SeKRTILXO or Shfew-Baf . r/£>e//' frtityt THE [ 8593 ] THE ienr.0- “ There are various eafy ways by which the hole chimney very narrow would not ant'wer the end pro¬ in the cover, through which the tube of the thermo- perly meter is paffed, may be (topped up, and by which the thermometer may be fufpended at the proper height. The hole in the cover may be (lopped up by a cork, which mud firft have a hole bored through it big enough to receive the tube, and be then cut into two, parallel to the length of the hole. Another method Iplate more convenient in ufe, but not fo eafily made, is re- IxKxiii. prefcnted in fig- 6* which exhibits a perfpeftive view B inthe°f t^ie aF'Paratus 5 A a, is the cover; H, the hole jeding through which the thermometer is paffed ; B£, a flat piece of brafs fixed upon the cover; and GdEe, a Aiding piece of brafs, made fo as either to cover the ^ hole H, or to leave it uncovered, as in the figure, and and in to be tightened in either pofition by the fcrew S Aiding fPiatTiys’10 t*ie ^ 1 M m; a femi-circular notch being made in s. n° 3/the edge B^, and alfo in the edge Dd, to inclofe the 1 n"' tube of the thermometer: pieces of woollen cloth fhould alfo be fattened to the edges B£ and Ddtl and alfo to the bottom of the fliding-piece Ee, for if it was made fo fmall as to make the vef- fel fufficiently clofe when the water boiled gently, it would not leave fufficient paffagc for the cfcape of the fleam when the water boiled fait. “ Another way of adjufting the boiling point is, to try it in a veffel of the fame kind as the former, only with the water rifing a little way, namely from one to three or four inches above the ball, taking care that the boiling point (hall rife very little above the cover, as in the former method. In this method there is no need to cover the chimney with the tin-plate ; and there is lefs need to make the cover fit clofe, only it muft be obferved, that the clofer the cover fits, the lefs the operator will be incommoded by the (team. The height of the barometer at which the boiling point (hould be adjufted, when this method is ufed, is 294- inches, or three-tenths of an inch lefs than when the former method is ufed. “ It will be convenient to have two or three pots of different depths; for if a fliort thermometer is to be unlefs that piece and the cover are made fufficiently adjufted in the fame pot which is ufed for a long one. flat, to prevent the efcape of the fleam. In order to keep the thermometer fufpended at the proper height, a dip may be ufed like that reprefented in fig. 6. which, by the fcrew S, muft be made to embrace the tube tightly, and may reft on the cover. That part of the clip which is intended to bear againft the tube had bed be lined with woollen cloth, which will make it will require a great depth of water, which, befides taking up more time before it boils, makes the obfer- vation rather lefs accurate, as the heat feems to be lefs regular when the depth of water in the pot is very great, than when it is lefs. “ Perhaps fome perfons, for the fake of heating the water more expeditioufly, may be inclined to ufe an it (tick tighter to the tube, and with lefs danger of apparatus of fuch kind that the fire (hall be applied to i •- A L-J —l:_i_ • l a Confiderablp part of the Tides of the pot as well as to the bottom; we would, however, caution them againft: any thing of that kind, as the obfervations are con- fiderably lefs regular than when little more than the bottom of the pot is heated. If the pot is heated over a chafing-dfth or common fire, we apprehend that there can fddom be any danger of too much of the (ides being heated ; but if theoperatdrfliould be apprehenfive that there is, it is eafily prevented by fattening an iron ring an inch or two broad round the pot near the bottom. This precaution is equally neeeffiry when the thermometer is adjufted in (team, efpecially when there is not much water in the pot. The greateft inconvenience of this method of ad- breaking it. Another method, which is rather more convenient, when the top of the tube of the thermo¬ meter is bent into a right angle, in the manner fre¬ quently pradtifed at prefent for the fake of more con¬ veniently fixing it to the fcale, is reprefented in the fame figure; Gg¥f, is a plate of brafs, (landing perpendicularly on the cover ; and L/N«, a piece of brafs, bent at bottom into the form of a loop, with a notch in it, fo as to receive the tube of the thermo¬ meter, and to fuffer the bent part to reft on the bot¬ tom of the loop ; this piece muft Aide in a flit K/f, cut in the plate L/N;/, and be tightened at any height by the fcrew T. 1 4thly, It is bed making the water boil pretty brilkly, as otherwife the thermometer is apt to be a jutting the boiling point is the trouble of keeping a pro¬ great while before it acquires its full heat, efpecially per tlepth of water in the pot; as to do this it is ne- if the veffel is very deep. The obferver, too, (hould wait at lead one or two minutes after the thermometer appears to be (lationary, before he concludes that it has acquired its full height. “ fthly. Though, as was faid before, this appears to be the mod accurate way of adjufting the boiling- point ; yet, if the operator was to fuffer the air to have any accefs to the infide of the veffel, he would be liable to a very great error: for this reafon, we (trongly re¬ commend it to all thofe who ufe this method, not to deviate at all from the rules laid down, without affuring themfelves, by repeated trials with a pretty fenfible thermometer, that fuch alteration may be ufed with fafety. But the covering the chimney with the tin¬ plate ought by no means to be omitted ; for though, if the cover of the pot fits clofe, it feldom fignifies whether the plate is laid on or not, yet, if by acci¬ dent the cover was not to fit clofe, the omitting the tin-plate would make a very great error. Making the Vol. X. 2 ~ ceffary firft to find the height of the boiling point coarfely by trying it in an open vefiVl, and then to put fuch a quantity of water into the pot that it (hall rife from one to three or four inches above the ball, when the thermometer is placed at fuch a depth with¬ in the pot that the boiling point (hall rife very little above the cover. The operator mu ft be very careful that the quantity of water in the pot be not fo fmall as not entirely to cover the ball. “ A third way of adjufting the boiling poin1 is to wrap feveral folds of linen rags or flannel round the tube of the thermometer, and to try it in an open veffel, taking care to pour boiling water on the rags, in order to keep the quickfilver in the tube as nearly of the heat of boiling water as pofiible. The belt way is to pour boiling water on the rags three or four times, waiting a few feconds between each time, and to wait fome feconds after the laft time of pouring on water before the boiling point is marked, in order that 43 D the T’ enrur- THE [ 8594 ] THE Thermo* the water may recover its full ftrength of boiling, meter• which is in good meafure checked by pouring on the boiling water. “ In this method the boiling point (hould be ad- jufted when the barometer is at 29.8 inches, that is, the fame as when the firft method is ufed ; the water Ihould boil fatt, and the thermometer fhould be held upright, with its ball two or three inches underwater, and in that part of the vcfiel where the current of wa¬ ter afcends (b). “ Whichever of thefe methods of adjufting the boiling point is ufed, it is not nectflary to wait till the barometer is at the proper height, provided the ope¬ rator will take care to correft the obferved height ac-i cording to the following table. “ To make ufe of this table, feek the height which the barometer is found to ftsnd at in the left-hand column, if the boiling point is adjufted either in the firft or third method, and in the fecond column if it is adjufted in the fecond method; the correfponding number in the third column fhows how much the point of 2120 muft be placed above or below the obferved point, exprefled in thoufandth parts of the interval be¬ tween the boiling and freezing point: for example, fuppofe the boiling point is adjufted in (team when the barometer is at 29 inches, and that the interval between the boiling and freezing points is it inches; the neareft number to 29 in the left-hand column is 29.03, and the correfponding number in the table is 7 higher, and therefore the mark of 2120 muft be placed higher than the obferved point by ^ie interval be¬ tween boiling and freezing, that is, by ii2L2-, or .077 of an inch. “ This- method of corre&ing the boiling point is not ftri&ly juft, unlefs the tube is of an equal bore in all its parts; but the tube is very feidom fo much un¬ equal as to.caofe any fenfrble error, where the whole comftion is fo fmall. The trouble of making the cor- reftion will be abridged by making a diagonal fcale, fuch as is reprefented in fig. 4. “ It is not very material what kind of water is ufed for adjufting the boiling point, fo that it is not at all fait ; only, if any kind of hard w'ater is ufed, it is better that it fhould be kept boiling for at leaft ten minutes before it is ufed. But we would advife Then all thofe defirous of adjufting thermometers in the mcu moft accurate manner for nice experiments, to em- ’’ ploy rain or diftilled water, and to perform the opera¬ tion in the firft-mentioned manner, that is, in fleam. “ On the freezing point.—In adjufting the freezing as well as the boiling point, the quickfiiver in the tube ought to be kept of the fame heat as that in the ball. In the generality of thermometers, indeed, thediftance of the freezing point from the ball is fo fmall, that the greateft error which can arife from negledting this precaution is not very confiderable, unlefs the weather is warmer than ufual; but as the freezing point is frequently placed at a confiderable diftance from the ball, the operator fhould always be careful either to pile the pounded ice to fuch a height above the ball, that the error which can arife from the quickfiiver in the remaining part of the tube not (being heated equally with that in the ball, fhall be very fmall; or he muft correft the obferved point, upon that account, according to the following table ; “ The firft column of this table is the heat of the air, and the fecond is the corre&ion exprefied in 1 oooth parts of the diftance between the freezing point and the furface of the ice: for example, if the freezing point Hands feven inches above the furface of the ice, and the heat of the room is 62, the point of 320 ftiould be placed 7X.00261, or .018 of an inch lower than the obferved point- This corredlion alfo would be made more eafy by the help of a diagonal fcale, fimilar to that propofed for the boiling point. “ On the precautions necejfary to he obferved in making, obfervations with thermometers.—In trying the heat of liquors care (hould be taken that the quicklilver in the tube of the thermometer be heated to the fame degree as that in the ball; or, if this cannot be done conve¬ niently, the obferved heat fhould be corredled on that account.” After having adjufted the fixed points of ther¬ mometers in this manner, the divifion of the fcale is eafy; for by making a certain quantity of mercury, fuppofe as much as fills the tube the length of hajf an inch, pafs through the whole length of it when open at both ends, we can perceive what length of fpace it occupies in different parts of the tube, and divide ac¬ cordingly. However, even after thermometers are eonftruded in this manqer with the utmoft ac¬ curacy, a very confiderable inconveniency attends the ufing them, namely, that the ofcferver’s eye muft be on the inftrument the very inftant that the mercury Hands at the higheft or lowell degree ; for fin.ee the time when that may happen is utterly uncertain, if it be not immediately noticed, it can never afterwards be known. The fultry heat of the furnmer’s day, and the freezing cold of the winter’s night, render it very ua- “ (b) In a veffel of boiling water one may almoft always perceive the current of water to afeend on one fide of the veffel, and todefeend oa the other. ■ .• • ‘ THE r 8505 ] T H E Thermo- unpleafant to be abroad at fuch times in the open air, meter, although it is abfolutely neceflary that the thermome- • — ter fhould be fo. It would therefore be a very great improvement could a thermometer be eonftruftedinfuch a manner as to Ihow the greateft height to which it had afcended, or the lowed point to which it defcended,in the obferver’sabfence. One of this kind has been con- ftrutSted by Mr James Six, of which the following ac¬ count is given by him in the yad vol. of the Phil. Tranf. Plate (( jr;g_ 1. ai is a tube of thin glafs, about 16 inches 'long, and five fixteenths of an inch in diameter; cde fgh, a fmaller tube with the inner diameter, about one fortieth, joined to the larger at the upper end i, and bent down, fird on the left Tide, and then, after dc- fcending two inches below ab, upwards again on the right, in the feveral dire&ions cje^fgh, parallel to and one inch didant from it. On the end of the fame tube at h, the inner diameter is enlarged to half an inch from b to which is two inches in length. This glafs is filled with highly re&ifted fpirits of wine to within half an inch of the end excepting that part of the fmall tube from d to g, which is filled with mercury. From a view of the indrument in this date, it will rea¬ dily be conceived, that when the fpirit in the large tube, which is the bulb of the thermometer, is ex¬ panded by heat, the mercury in the fmall tube on the left fide will be preffed down, and confeqnently caufe that on the right fide to rife; on the contrary, when the fpirit is condenfed by cold, the reverfe will hap¬ pen, the mercury on the left fide will rife as that on the right fide defcends. The fcale, therefore, which is Fahrenheit’s, beginning with 0 at the top of the left fide, has the degrees numbered downwards, while that at the right fide, beginning with 0 at the bottom, af- cends. The divifions are afcertained by placing this thermometer with a good dandard mercurial one in wa¬ ter gradually heating or cooling, and marking the di- vifions of the new fcale at every 50 (c). Thus far our thermometer refembles in fome refpeds thofe of Mr Ber¬ noulli and Lord Charles Cavendifh: but the method of ihowing how high the mercury had rifen in the obfer- wer’s abfence, the eflential property of an inllrument of this kind, is wholly different from theirs, and effeft- ed in the following manner. Within the fmall tube of the thermometer, above the furface of the mercury on either fide, immerfed in the fpirit of wine, is placed a fmaH index, fo fitted as to pafs up and down as occa- fion may require: that furface of the mercury which rifes carries up the index with it, whkh index does not return with the mercury when it defcends; but by remaining fixed, fiiows diftin&ly, and very accurately, how high the mercury had rifen, and confequeiuly what degree of heat or cold had happened. Fig. 2. repre- fents one of thefe indexes drawn larger than the real ones, to render it more diftin£t. « is a finall glafs tube, three quarters of an inch long, hermetically fealed at each end, inclofing a piece of fteel wire nearly of the fame length ; at each end cd is fixed a fhort piece of a 1 tube of black glafs, of fuch a diameter as to pafs freely up and down within the fmall tube of the thermome- "_ ter. The lower end floating on the furface of the mer¬ cury, is carried up with it when it rifes, while the piece at the upper end being of the fame diameter, keeps the body of the index parallel to the fides of the thermometrical tube. From the upper end of the body of the index at c is drawn a fpring of glafs to the fine- nefs of a hair, about five-fevenths of an inch in length, which being fet a little oblique, preffes lightly againft the inner furface of the tube, and prevents the index from following the mercury when it defcends, or l>e- ing moved by the fpirit pafiing up or down, or by any fudden motion given to the inftrument by the hand or otherwife; but at the fame time the prtffure is fo adjufled as to permit this index to be readily carried up by the furface of the rifing mercury, and down¬ wards whenever the inftrument is to be re&ified for ob- fervation. To prevent the fpirit from evaporating, the tube at the end i is clofely fealed (d). Fig. 3. repre» fents the thermometer on its frame; the plates on which the fcale is graved on either fide are made to Aide out, and the frame is open to the back behind the large tube, which does not touch it, except at each end. The cap a, and the bafe bt are made to fix on with ferews, and only cover the turning of the finall tube. By a ferew at the bottom of the frame, it may be made fall to the wall againft which it is to hang without doors, to prevent its being fliaken by violent winds. Towards evening I ufually vilit my thermo¬ meter, and fee at one view, by the index; on the left fide, the cold of the preceding night; and by that oh the right, the heat of the day. Thefe I minute down, and then apply a fmall magnet to that part of the tube againft which the indexes reft, and move each of them down to the furface of the mercury : thus, without heating, cooling, feparating, or at all difturbing the mercury, or moving the inftrument, may this thermo¬ meter, without a touch, be immediately redified for an¬ other obfervation. When I wifti to put the thermome¬ ter out of my hand without hanging it up, I have a ftand to place it on; for if the mercury preffes againft the index while the inftrument lies in an horizontal po- fition, it is in danger of pafiing by it, which is avoided by keeping the thermometer in a pofition nearly ver¬ tical. To prevent the mercury fliifting its place in the fpirits within the tube (which I apprehend it might do on account of the fuperiority of ita fpecific gravity, efpecially when kept for a confiderable time, very high on one fide, and low on the other), I made that part of the fmall tube from e iof with the inner diameter exceeding (mail; and found upon trial, that after the fummer’s heat had kept the mercury for a long time high on one fide, the winter’s cold brought it again as accurately to the freezing point on the other as at firft (e). This thermometer may be made a mcrcu- 43 1) 2 rial c< (c) The divifions below the freezing point are taken by means of a mixture of fea-falt and ice, as deferibed by INollet, De Luc, and others. “ (d) When this tube is clofed (not hermetically, but only fo as to prevent the fpirits evaporating) the thermome¬ ter muft be brought to the greateft heat it is likely at any time after to fuftain; and though no more air is incloled than what remains at that time above the fpirits, yet that will, by its elafticity preffing on the fluid, anfwer every purpoie as well as if the external air was freely admitted. “ (e) -With a thermometer of this fort I obferved the gre.iteft heat and cold that happened every day and night throughout the year 1781. THE [ 3596 ] THE Thermo- rial one by Inverting the glafs, and filling with mer- meter. cury that part which in the firll is filled with fpirits, and with fpirits that part of the fmall tube from d log which in the former is filled with mercury; the indexes in either cafe may be the fame, and will be carried up in the fame manner upon the furface of the mercury; but the end of the tube at inftead of being fealed, muft then be left open, and Hand inverted in a bulb, or fmall ciftern of mercury, into which the external air has free accefs. The diameter of the tube ab (hould be confi- derably increafed if the degrees on the fcale are requi¬ red to be as wide as thofe in the fpirit-thermometers. It is indeed better in this cafe to have a double rather than a larger fiogle tube; but finding the weight of fo great a quantity of mercury in a thin glafs tube at¬ tended with many difadvantages, and the motion of the fluids in the fpirit-ones perfeftly agreeing with, and being as readily excited by change of heat and cold as in the mercurial thermometers, I preferred the for¬ mer as much more commodious. A perfon cannot ap¬ proach near to the thermometer firll deferibed when the air is very cold (efpecially with a light, which by night is necelfary) without caufing the fpirits prcfently to expand, and confequently the mercury on the left fide immediately to defeend. This fenfibility is here attended with every advantage, without the inconve¬ nience to which common thermometers in this cafe are liable (f); for the index will accurately fhow the great- eft height to which the mercury had rifen, although, before the exaft degree can well be diftinguilhed, it will appear feparated from the index, and defeending apace. As the fcale is 16 inches long, and divided into ioo° only, which are more than fufficient For the temperature of. the air, they are large enough to be fubdivided at pleafure. The indexes, though of a tender and delicate nature, when once placed in the tube, are not liable to fuffer any alteration by time or accident; and the thermometer may be expofed to rain at all times, without fulfering the lead injury in any refpeft. “ In conftru&ing the thermometer before-mention¬ ed, I at firft hit on a plan by which the fame end was obtained by a different method; and though in fome refpedls, and for fome purpofes, it may not be fo pro¬ per as that already deferibed, yet for fome others it may be found ufeful; and therefore I fhall briefly de- fenbe it. The glafs'of this inllrument is in all refpe&s the fame as in the former, excepting that the diame¬ ters of the tubes are fomething larger. It is likewife fiiled with fpirits of wine and mercury, in the fame manner; but the indexes are different, being only a fmall tube of black glafs, about five-fevenths of an inch in length, hermetically fealed at each end, con¬ taining a piece of Heel wire. An index of this fort is placed in the thermometer on either fide, which ha¬ ving no fpring to fupport them, fink down In the fpl- Thermo- j rits, and reft upon the mercury. Whenever the mer- meter- | cury defeends, the index will follow it; but when it rifes, the index will not rife with it, and by remaining at the place to which the mercury had defeended, will Ihow the greateft degree of heat or cold which had hap¬ pened. In this manner do thefe indexes anfwer the fame purpofe, though they move diredtly contrary to the others in the other thermometer; but this inftru- * ment is not fo eafily re&ified as the former, for the moft powerful magnet will not bring the index up again while the mercury above preffes againft them; and al¬ though it is poffible to remove the mercury, and by that means fet the index at liberty, yet inconveniences will be incurred from which the other is entirely free. “ In fome cafes it may be found expedient, inftead of the double thermometer firft deferibed, to make two Angle ones; one to Ihow the greateft degree of heat pnly, and. the other the cold, each having its proper index (fee fig. 4. and 5.) The firft has the fmall tube as this thermometer was principally to be ufed immer- fed in a bulb or fmall ciftern of mercury, to which the external air has free accefs; the other has the fmall tube turned up on the right fide, with fome mercury let down to the bottom, and the upper end clofely fealed, as in the double inftrumenU Making a ftand- ard mercurial thermometer, by which the fcale of the fpirit-one was to be divided, I endeavoured to obtain as wide degrees as pofiible, that the motion of the mer¬ cury might thereby be rendered more confpicuous, and the height of it afeertained with greater precifion. It is true, the larger the degrees, the larger in fome mea- fure muft be the bulb, and therefore the fluid contain¬ ed in it not likely to be fo foon affedted by any change bent down on the left fide, and the lower end immer- of heat or cold in the atmofphere as in a fmaller. But fed in a large quantity of water, gradually heating or cooling, little or no difadvantage could arife from ma¬ king the bulb fomewhat larger than thofe commonly made ufe of in the air. Not being able, however, to procure glafs tubes folong as I had occafion for, whofe inner diameters were perfe&ly equal, I took the fol¬ lowing method to adjuft the divifions on the fcale to the inequality of the tubes. Cboofing a tube of a length fuitable to my purpofe, with a proper bulb at the end, I put into it a fmall quantity of mercury (g) fufficient to fprm a column about one inch in length. Drawing then on a board the three lines aa, bb, cc% fig. 6. I placed the glafs tube on the line aa, and while the mercury remained at reft at the end of the tube, near the bulb, I made two pencil-marks on the line^, one at d, and the other at e, perfeflly coinciding with the two ends of the column of mercury: then caufing the mercury to move flowly on farther from the bulb,, till that end of the column which was firft at d coinci¬ ded “ (F) The mod fenfible mercurial thermometers commonly have the column of mercury, as well as the degrees, very imall; and a perfon afiifted with a light can hardly view them near enough, when the weather is very cold, without caufing the mercury to rife before the degrees where it flood can be well afeertained. “ I reezing fogs alfo, which with us ufually attend the greateft degrees of cold, by covering the glafs’with froft,.ren¬ der the mercury mvifible, and cannot well be removed without cauling the mercury to rife, or at leaft render the ob- feryation doubtful, which at fuch a time is very difagreeable; for in proportion to the extraordinary degree of cold, fo is our curiofity likely to be excited. “ (G) To put in a fmall quantity of mercury, and meafure its length at different parts of the tube, as deferibed by Abbe Nollet, vol. iv. p. 370. Lecens Phyjtque, is a very excellent method to difeover the error; but in what manner readily to adjuft the fcale fo as to avoid any inaccuracy from fuch inequality (which in tubes of the length I had oc- cation for feemed to n e unavoidable), was a matter concerning which I could meet with no information. ' ' Thermometer . Thermo¬ meter, Thertno- pyl®. THE ded with the mark at e, and letting it reft again, I made another mark at f\ after which, caufing the mer¬ cury to move on as before, and continuing to mark its length at every part of the tube till it reached the end fartbeft from the bulb; by thefe means I obtained the feveral intermediate points on the line aa. Through thefc feveral points I drew dotted lines parallel to each other, and at right angles with the line aa to the line lb. Taking now, with a pair of compaffes, the wideft intervals between any of the dotted parallels, which in this cafe is from d to e, 1 inferred that diftance fuccef- fively between the feveral parallels, beginning at the lowed pair, as from d to e, from e to f, from f to gt and fo on to b, as exhibited in the figure; and the ag¬ gregate of thefe lines may be confidered as one conti¬ nued line, without any error of confequence in this matter. Having now the thermometer completely fill¬ ed with mercury, the air expelled, the point of the fcale at 102°, and the freezing point properly taken (h) and marked upon the tube, which was now her¬ metically fealed, I again applied the tube to the line aa, and marked on that line the point of ioi° and the freezing point. Through thofe points I drew the lines ii, kk, and divided that part of the compound line db included between it and kk into 14 equal parts, begin¬ ning at 0, the point where ii cuts the line dh, conti¬ nuing afterward fix divifions now on that line below kk, making in all 20 equal divifions. If now lines be drawn through each of the dividing points, from 0 to 20 to the line cc, at right angles with the fame, they will give on the line cc the true thermometrical fcale to every 50 from 2 to 102, properly adjufted to the in¬ equality-of the tube (i), which in this cafe is nearly of the fame diameter at each end, but fmaller towards the middle. Tubes may indeed be found of /ome con- fiderable length with lefs inequality than what this fcale exhibits; but the error is here enlarged to render the method of corre&ing it more confpicuous.” Though Fahrenheit’s thermometer is that moft com¬ monly ufed, yet as others have been invented by dif¬ ferent perfons, we have thought proper, in Plate CCLXXXV. to give a comparative view of their diffe¬ rent fcales; by which if the reader happens to meet with any of thofe inftruments, or to perufe the accounts of obfervations made by them, they may be eafily redu¬ ced to one ftandard. THERMOPYLAE, (anc. geog.); a narrow pafs or defile, between the wafli of the Sinus Maliacus; on the eaft and fteep mountains," reaching to Oeta, made dreadful by unpaffable woods; on the weft, leading from Theffaly to Locris and Bceotia. Thefe mountains divide Greece in the middle, in the fame manner as the Apennine does Italy ; forming one continued ridge from Leucate on the weft to the fea on the eaft, with thickets ,and rocks interfper- fed’; that perfons even prepared for travelling, much THE lefs an army encumbered with baggage, cannot Ttiefea eafily find a commodious paffage. In the valley ver- | . ging towards the Sinus Maliacus, the road is only lixty paces broad; the only military way for an army to pafs, if not obftrudled by an enemy; and therefore the place is called Paylce, and by others, on account of its hot water, ‘Tberrnopylte. Ennobled by the brave (land made by Leonidas and three hundred Spartans, againft the whole army of Perfia; and by the bold refolution of blind Euthycus, choofing rather to fall there in fight, than return to Sparta, and efcape the common danger. Famous alfo for the Amphy&iones, the common council, or ftates general of Greece, affembling there twice a-ytar, fpring and autumn. THESEA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the Athenians in honour of Thefeus, confiding of fports and games, with mirth and banquets; fuch as were poor and unable to contribute to them were entertain¬ ed at the public expence. THESEUS, a famous hero of antiquity ranked among the demi-gods, whofe hiftory is fabulous. He was the reputed fon of AEgeus king of Athens. He threw Sciron, a cruel robber, down a precipice; faftened Procruftes tyrant of Attica to a bending pine, which being let loofe, tore him afunder ; killed the Minotaur kept in the labyrinth by king Minos, in Crete ; and by the affiitance of that prince’s daugh¬ ter, Ariadne, who gave him a clue, efcaped out of that labyrinth, and failed with his deliverer to the ifle of Naxos, where he had the ingratitude to leave her. Thefeus afterwards overcame the Centaurs, fubdiied the Thebans, and defeated the Amazons. He affifted his friend Pirithous in his expedition to the infernal regions to carry off Proferpine; but was imprifoned by Pluto, till he was releafed by Hercules. He is alfo faid to have eftablifhed the Iflhmean games, in honour of Neptune; to have united the twelve cities of Attica ; and to have founded a republic there, 1236 B. C. Some time after, taking a voyage into Epirus, he was feized by Aidonius king of the Moloffians; mean¬ while Meneftheus rendered himfelf mafter of Athens. But at length Thefeus being releafed from prifon, re¬ tired to Scyros, where king Lycomedes caufe'd him to be thrown from the top of a rock. Thefeus had fe¬ veral wives; the firft of whom was Helena the daughter of Tyndarus; the fecond, Hypolita queen of the Amazons; and the laft, Phedra fifter to Ariad¬ ne, who punilhed him for his infidelity to her fifter, by her inceftuous paffion for his fon Hippolitus. THESIS, a general pofition which a perfon ad¬ vances, and offers to maintain. In colleges it is fre¬ quent to have placards containing a number of them in theology, in medicine, in philofophy, in law, &c. THESPIS, a famous Greek tragic poet, and the firft reprefenter of tragedy at Athens. He carried his “ (h) The freezing point marked on the tube of this thermometer is immediately taken by means of grated ice but the point of ioo° by a ftandard mercurial thermometer, the upper point of the fcale of which was properly taken by bouing water, and the lower one by grated ice; but it is more commodious in the firft to have the tube no loneer than the air-fcaler efpecially as the degrees are pretty wide. The method ofadjufting the fcale to the inequality of the tube remains the fame, let the given points be at any diftance, or the divilions increafed to any number. • , . Experimentalty to prove this method, I have made mercurial thermometers, whofe fcales from the freezing point to that of boiling neat were nearly three feet; and though the inequalities of the tubes were very confiderable yet wh“thcy wm “,tc bme «■“'> ^ wwi *>» t 8597 1 THE [ 8598 ] THE Theflaty. his troop from village to village in a waggon, from 'which they performed their pieces. Alceftis was the firft tragedy they performed at Athens, 536 B. C. THESSALY, a country of ancient Greece, fup- pofed to have received its name from Theflalus the fa¬ ther, or, according to others, the fon of Grascus, an ancient king of an obfcure village, from whom the Greeks are faid to have been defcended. It was alfo called JEmonia, the origin of which name is uncertain; Pelafgia, from Pelafgus one of the firit Grecian princes; and Pyrrhxa, from Pyrrha the wife of Deu¬ calion. It was anciently divided Into four diftri&s, or per¬ haps kingdoms. Theffaliotes, Iftceotis, Pelafgiotis, and Phthiotis. Deucalion was king of this iatt when the deluge that goes by his name happened, which de- ftroyed all the inhabitants of this and the neighbour¬ ing countries, except only fuch as happily efcaped in¬ to the high mountains of Theffaliotis, and Deucalion and his wife, who were carried in an ark upon the waters nine days and nights, and relied at length up¬ on Parnaffus, from which they were feigned to have repeopled the country by throwing of itones behind them. However, the name of Theflaly and Thefla- lians in time prevailed, and came to fignify all the four parts. Sometimes it included Magnefia and Phthiotis, and fometimes not; fometimes it was joined with Ma¬ cedonia, and fometimes fevered from it, and again re¬ joined to it. ThefTaly, properly fo called, had on the call the provinces of Magnefia and Phthia abovementioned, and thefe two were bounded by the iEgean fea. On the weft it had Illyricum and Epirus, now Albania; oa the north Macedonia and Mygdonia, and on the fouth Grecia Propria. It extended from 24 deg. 10 min. to 25 and a half eaft longitude, and from north to fouth, from 39 deg. 50 min. to about 41 deg. north latiftide. Theffaly was famous, among other things, for fuch an extraordinary breed of oxen, that Neleus king of Pylns refufed to give his daughter in marriage to Melampus king of Tyrius, except he procured him fome of them ; which he foon after did by the help of his brother Bias. What fine horfes they bred, and how expert they were in the ufe and management of that noble creature, is evident, fince the fi£lion of the Centaurs is allowed to have taken its origin from them. This fable, however, refle&s no lefs difgrace upon them for their brutifli incontinency, than it commends them for their Ikill in horfemanlhip. The attempt which they made upon the women at the nuptials of their neighbour Pirithous king of the Lapithse, if not forged on purpofe to call an ignominious brand upon them, is a pregnant proof of the one; and the hiftory of their wars with other nations afford us a conftant proof of the latter: fo that in fpite of their debauchery, they have fhowed themfelves a warlike nation ; and as luch, their alliance as well as afiiftance, efpecially that of their cavalry, was ever highly courted by contend¬ ing powers. And indeed, if we confider how liable the pleafantnefs and fertility of their country made them to foreign invalions, it will be no wonder they fhould be fo well inured to the trade of war. Nor can it be luppofed that any thing but their extraordinary valour could have faved them from being fwaliowed up by fome of their neighbours, confidering that their fcanty Theflaly. territories confifted only of four fmall kingdoms or * diftri&s, as often disjointed from each other under different princesjas united together under one. At the head of the Theffalian hiftory mull be placed the celebrated Argonautic expedition, which happened in the reign of Pelias king of Theffaly, about the year of the world 2720, or too years be¬ fore the taking of Troy. The occafion of this ex¬ pedition was as follows: JEfon the third in defeent from iEolus, being either worn out w.ith age or weary of government, whilft his fon Jafon was yet very young, appointed Pelias, his brother by the mother’s fide, guardian of the kingdom till his fon came of age. Pclias on the other hand, who had refoived to fecure the government to himfelf, fent to conlult the oracle about it, and was bid to beware of the man that had but one ftioe. It happened fome time after, that as he was^acrificing to Neptune, he called his nephew to him, who was on the other fide of a rivulet, and Jafon having dropped one of his fiioes in crofting the brook, gave him occa¬ fion to think that he was the perfon pointed out by the oracle. He then afleed him what courfe he would take with the perfon of whom the oracle had bid him beware ; and Jafon readily anfwered, That he would fend him to Colchis in fearch of the golden fleece. H:s uncle took him at bis word, and fent him immediately upon that enterprife. Jafon made no difficulty to obey ; and having engaged a confiderable number of young noblemen, the flower of all Greece, to this ex¬ pedition, he procured a fhip to be built for this pur¬ pofe at Pegafa, by one Argus, from whom he called it Argos ; and hence he and his gallant company were called Argonaut#. Tbefe adventurers, after many ftrange difficultiea and exploits, arrived at length at the land of Colchis, where the golden fleece was kept. They went imme¬ diately to the metropolis, where Jafon acquainted jEetes king of the country with Pelias’s command, and demaded the fleece of him. iEetes promifed to deliver it to him, provided he coujd yoke together by his own Angle ftrength two fierce and terrible bulls (which had brazen hoofs, and breathed out fire and flame, and had been prefented to him by Vulcan), and plough the ground with them, fowing it with the dra¬ gon’s teeth which Minerva had given him, and were the remainder of thole which Cadmus had fown at Thebes. Jafpn, perplexed how to perform thefe conditions, was happily relieved by Medea the king’s daughter, who was fallen in love with him. She promifed him that if he would marry her, (he would aflift him in it; and he had no fooner agreed to it, than (he gave him a medi¬ cine, with which having anointed his body and armour, he became proof againft the violence of the bulls; or, according to others, (he taught him howto tame thofe fierce creatures, fo as to be able to yoke and make ufe of them. She told him, moreover, that the teeth which he was to fow would prefently fpring up into armed men, which would infallibly deftroy him unlefs he rai- fed &n immediate diffention among them, by throwing (tones at them, during which he might eafily cut them off. Jafon having fuccefsfuliy performed the tafle, went and demanded the fleece according to iEetes’s promife, whilft THE [ 8s99 ] THE Thefialy. whilft he, inflead of delivering if, was contriving how _ to deftroy him and his company, and burn their fhip. To prevent this, Medea went, and by her inchantments call the dragon into a deep deep, dole the fleece, and brought it to her lover, who took, her, and, at her de¬ fire, alfo her brother Abfyrtus, into his (hip, and fail¬ ed away immediately with his companions. iEetes, who was foon informed of his daughter’s treachery, purfued immediately after them ; which when flie per¬ ceived, (he cut her brother in pieces, and fcaltercd his mangled limbs about in hopes to flop his farther pur- fuit, as it adually did: for the difconfolate king, fur- prifed at her unnatural barbarity, flaid to gather up the fragments of his fon’s body, and buried them in a place called from thence Tomi; and in the mean time the and the Argonauts efcaped into Theflaly, not without having full felt the effedls of Jupiter’s anger for the murder of Abfyrtus, and after having fpent four whole months in this expedition. Daring the abfence of Jafon, Pelias, who never ex- pecled his return from Colchis, had taken fome means to cut olf his father, in order to fix the kingdom upon himfelf and his fon Acaflus; and the old king being apprifed of his plots, had poifoned himfelf by drink¬ ing a draught of bull’s blood. His queen likewife, op- prefled with grief for his death, and the fuppofed lofs of her fon and kingdom, had hanged herfelf; fo that Pelias now thought himfelf fecureon his throne, when, contrary to his expedfatioo, Jafon returned fuccefsful and vidorious, and brought the'fleece to him. How¬ ever, he had fo well ftrengthened himfelf in it, that Ja¬ fon did not dare to undertake any thing againft him qpenly. Medea was forced to have recourfe to her ma¬ gic to be revenged on the tyrant, and, as fome fay, re- ftored Jafon’s father to life. After this fhe perfuaded Pelias’s daughters to boil their old father, on pretence flie would reltore him to life and youthful vigour; but upon hernon-performance Acaftus mounted the throne, and having performed his father’s funeral obfequies, banilhed Jafon and his wife from Thtfialy, who went and dwelt at Corinth. Acaftus is famed for having been a great hunter, and for the incontinency of h:s wife Hippolyta, or, as flie is called by others, Crctkeis; which proved fatal to him. She was in love with Peleus the fon of Cacus, and had folicited him in vain for fome time, till, enra¬ ged at length at his conftant refufal, flie accufed him to her hufband for making fome attempts upon her honour. Acaftus believing her, and endeavouring to kill Peleus, was himfelf and his upchafte wife flain by him. The next Thtfialian prince, both in time and fame, was the celebrated Achilles, the fon of Peleus and The¬ tis, the goddefs of the fea. This hero was king of Phthia, one of the four provinces of Theffaly, and is feigned to have been dipped by his mother in the river Styx when he was a child, and to have been made in¬ vulnerable by it in every part except the heel, by which flie held him. After this flie fent him to be brought up by the Centaur Chiron, where he learned mulic, arms, and the riding of the great horfe. Being after¬ wards warned by the oracle, that if he went to the Trojan war In fliould meet with his death there, flie difpatched him privately iu womens apparel to Lyco- medes king of Scyrus, an ifland in the JEgean fea, and TfidLly, one of the Cyclades. Thetis. In the mean time the Grecian chiefs, being likewife forewarned by an old prophecy, that their enterprife againft Troy would prove unfuccefsful unlefs they had Achilles with them, Ulyffes undertook to find him our, and to bring him to that war; which he accordingly did. Thetis finding that her fon was determined to prefer a glorious death before the walls of Troy to an inglorious immortality, prevailed upon Vulcan to make him an impenetrable armour, with which he went at the head of his bold myrmidons to the fatal fiege. Here he forbore aiding for fome time, upon a pique he had taken againft Agamemnon on account of a beau¬ tiful female captive; but his refentment giving way to his grief for the death of his dear friend Patroclus, who had been killed by Heftor, Achilles thenceforth fought nothing but to revenge it; which he foon after did. He&or was not only flain, but moft barbaroufly ufed by him after his death, he having caufed his body to be tied to his chariot and dragged thrice round the walls of Troy. This inhumanity did not go long un- punifhed; and Priam having redeemed his fon’s flutter¬ ed remains at an exceflive price, Paris, another of his fons, foon after (hot Achilles in the heel, the only place in which he was not invulnerable. The two moft memorable things which the Theffa- lians are fince recorded for, are their driving the Boe¬ otians from the country of Arne, a fmall territory in- Theflaly; fo called from its metropolis built by Bceo- tus the fon of Neptune, by Arne the daughter of aEo- lus, the fecond of that name, who was the fon of Hyp. potes, and grandfon-of Mimas king of iEolis ; and their conftant wars againft the Phocians. The former of thefe happened, according to Thucidydes, 60 years after the taking of Troy, and about too after their firft fettlement in that territory; when the Boeotiahs being driven thence, went and pofiVfled themfelves of a country then named Cadmeis, and called it by their name Bosotia. We have elfewhere fpoken of that coun¬ try, and given another etymology of it, to which we refer the reader. As for their wars with the Phocians, it is not eafy to guefs at the true ground of them ; only we find, that there was an irreconciieable hatred entailed between thofe two nations, which proved a conftant fource of frtlh and bloody encounters, in which the Theflalians, though fuperior in ftrengtb, efpecially on account of their cavalry, were very often worded by the policy of their enemi-.s; witnefs thofe ftatues-of Apollo, Mi¬ nerva, Diana, and oth.-r trophies, which Paufanias tells us they fet up both on their borders and at the temple of Delphos, in memory of their lignal vidlories over them. The truth is, the kingdom of Phocis was very mountainous, and the avenues to it very rugged; fo that the Thtffaiians, who feem ftilt to have been the aggreflbrs, could receive but little benefit from their horfe.—Thefialy is now called Janna, a province of European Turkey, bounded by Macedonia on the north, by the Archipelago on the eaft, by Achaia or Livadia on the foutb, and by Epirus on the weft. THETIS, in Pagan mythology, the wife of Ocea- nus, and the mother of Nereu's and Doris, who were tnarried Thibet. T H I [ 8600 ] T H I Thevenot, married to each other; and from this marriage fprung Thibet, nymphj 0f the earth and fea. Among the fea- nymphs there was one named Thetis the Younger, who excelled all the reft in beauty, and for whom Jupiter conceived fuch a paffion, that he refolved to efpoufe her : but being informed by the Ddtinies that the would bring forth a fon who would rife above his fa¬ ther, he married her to Pcleus. To their nuptials all the gods and goddeffes were invited, except Difcord, who, to be revenged for this contempt, threw a golden apple into the affembly, on which was engraven, This for the faireji. Juno, Pallas, and Venus, difputed for this apple ; but Paris being chofen to decide the difference, adjuged it to Venus. From the marriage of Thetis and Ptleus fprung Achilles. THEVENOT (Melchifedeck), a celebrated writer of travels, and keeper of the French king’s library, was born at Paris. At a very early period he difeo- vered an extreme defire to fee foreign countries ; and notwithftanding the intreaties of his mother, who ftrove to detain him, he fet out from Paris on his travels. However, he vifned only a part of Europe ; but the ftudy of the languages of different countries, and the great pains he took to obtain a knowledge of their manners and cuftoms, rendered him, perhaps, as well {killed in them as if he had himfelf travelled in thofe countries. He collefted a great number of curious manuferipts in Englilh, French, Spanifti, Italian, La¬ tin, Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Turkifh, and Perfic. He applied himfelf to ftudy during his whole lifetime; and his Travels into the Levant are efteemed. They were publilhed in folio, in French, in 1663, and in Englifli in 1687. THIBET, a country of Afia, very little known to the Europeans, till of late that it has been in fome meafure explored by Mr Bogle, one of the fervants of the Engliih Eaft India Company. In Bengal this country is known by the name of Boutan, and lies to the northward of Hindoftan, feparated from it by a range of high and fteep mountains, properly a conti¬ nuation of the celebrated mount Caucafus. This chain of mountains ftretches from the ancient Media and the (hores of the Cafpian Sea, round the north eaft frontiers of Perfia to Candahar and Caffamire ; from thence dire&ing its courfe more eafterly, it forms the great northern barrier to the various provinces of the Mogul empire, and probably ends in Affam or China. In the valleys lying between the lower mountains are many tribes of Indian people ; and a difpute happen¬ ing between the heirs of one of the rajahs or petty princes, one party called to their affiftance the Bou- taners, and the other the Britifh. The latter pre¬ vailed ; and the fame of Britilh valour being carried to the. court of Thibet, the Tayfhoo-Lama, who ruled the ftate under the Delai-Lama, at that time in his minority, fent a deputation to Bengal, defiring peace for the prince who had been engaged in war with the Britifh. This was readily granted by the governor ; and Mr Bogle was- fent ambaffador to the court of Thibet, where he refided feveral months ; and after an abfence of a year and a quarter, returned to Cal¬ cutta. The account of this gentleman’s expedition hath not been publifhed by himfelf; but from Mr Stewart’s letter to Sir John Pringle, publifhed in the Philofophtcal Tranfa&ions, vol. 67. we karn the fol¬ lowing particulars, collefted from his papers. “ Mr Bogle divides the territories of the Delai Lama into two different parts. That which lies im¬ mediately contiguous to Bengal, and which is called by the inhabitants Docpo, he diltinguifhes by the name of Boutan; and the other, which extends to the north¬ ward as far as the frontiers of Tartary, called by the natives Pu, he ftyles Thibet. Boutan is ruled by the Dah Terriah, or Deb Rajah, as I have already re¬ marked. It is a country of fteep and inacceffible mountains, whofe fummits are crowned with eternal fnow ; they are interfeiffed with deep valleys, through which pour numberlefs torrents that increafe in their courfe, and at (aft, gaining the plains, lofe themfelves in the great rivers of Bengal. Thefe mountains are covered down their fides with forefts of (lately trees of various forts ; fome (fuch as pines, &c.) which arc known in Europe ; others, fuch as are peculiar to the country and climate. The valleys and (ides of the hills which admit of cultivation are not unfruitful, but pro¬ duce crops of wheat, barley, and rice. The inhabi¬ tants are a (lout and warlike people, of a copper com¬ plexion, in fize rather above the middle European fta- ture, hafty and quarrelfome in their temper, and ad¬ dicted to the ufe of fpirituous liquors ; but honed in their dealings, robbery by violence being almoft un¬ known among them. The chief city is Taffey Sed- dein fituated on the Patchoo. Thibet begins pro¬ perly from the top of the great ridge of the Caucafus, and extends from thence in breadth to the confines of Great Tartary, and perhaps to fome of the dominions of the Ruffian empire. Mr Bogle fays, that having once attained the fummit of the Boutan mountains, you do not defeend in an equal proportion on the fide of Thibet; but continuing ftill bn a very elevated bafe, you traverfe valleys which are wider and (Cot fo deep as the former, and mountains that are neither fo fteep, nor apparently fo high. On the other hand, he re- prefents it as the mod bare and defolate country he ever law. The woods, which every where cover the mountains in Boutan, are here totally unknown; and, except a few draggling trees near the villages, nothing of the fort to be feen. The climate is extremely fe- vere and rude. At Chamnanning, where he wintered, although it be in latitude 310 39', only 8° to the northward of Calcutta, he often found the thermo¬ meter in his room at 290 under the freezing point by Fahrenheit’s fcale ; and in the middle of April the (landing waters were all frozen, and heavy (bowers of fnow perpetually fell. This, no doubt, muft be owing to the great elevation of the country, and to the valt frozen fpace over which the north wind blows unin¬ terruptedly from the pole, through the vaft deferts of Siberia and Tartary, till it is (lopped by this formi¬ dable wall. “ The Thibetians are of a fmaller fize than their fouthern neighbours, and of a lefs robuft make. Their complexions are alfo fairer, and many of them have even a ruddinefs in their countenances unknown in the other climates of the eaft. Thofe whom I faw at Calcutta appeared to have quite the Tartar face. They are of a mild and cheerful temper; and Mr Bogle fays, that the higher ranks are polite and entertaining in converfation, in which they never mix either drained compliments or flattery. The common people, both T H I [ 8601 ] T H I gpiiibet. In.Boutan and Thibet, are cloathed in coarfe woollen f ” fluffs of their own manufafture, lined with fuch lliins as they can procure ; but the better orders of men are drtffed in European cloth, or China filk, lined with the finetf Siberian furs. The ambaffador from the Deb Rajah, in his fummer-drefs at Calcutta, appeared exa&ly like the figures we fee in the Chinefe paint¬ ings, with the conical hat, the tunick of brocaded filk, and light boots. The Thibetian who brought the firft letter from the Lama was wrapped up from head to foot in furs. The ufe of linen is totally un¬ known among them. The chief food of the inhabi¬ tants is the milk of their cattle, prepared into cheefe, butter, or mixed with the flour of a coarfe barley or of peafe, the only grain which their foil produces; and even thefe articles are in a fcanty proportion : but they are furniflied with rice and wheat from Bengal and other countries in their Neighbourhood. They alfo are fupplied with fiih from the rivers in their own and the neighbouring provinces, failed and fent into the interior parts. They have no want of animal-food from the cattle, flieep, and hogs, which are raifed on their hills; and are not deftitute of game, though I believe it is not abundant. They have a fingular me¬ thod of preparing their mutton, by expofing the car- cafe entire, after the bowels are taken out, to the fun and bleak northern winds which blow in the months of Auguft and September, without froft, and fo dry up the juices and parch the Ikin, that the meat will keep uncorrupted for the year round. This they ge¬ nerally eat raw, without any other preparation. Mr Bogle was often regaled with this difli, which, how¬ ever unpalatable at firft, he fays, he afterwards pre¬ ferred to their dreffed mutton juft killed, which was generally lean, tough, and rank. It was alfo very common for the head men in the villages through which he .paffed, to make him prefents of flieep fo pre¬ pared, fet before him on their legs as if they had been alive, which at firft had a very odd appearance. “ The religion and political conftitution of this country, which are intimately blended together, would make a confiderable chapter in its hiftory. It fuffices for me to fay, that at prefent, and ever fince the ex- pulfion of the Eluth Tartars, the kingdom of Thibet is regarded as depending on the empire of China, which they call Cathay ; and there a&ually refide two mandarines, with a garrifon of a thoufand Chinefe, at Lahaffa the capital, to fupport the government; but their power does not extend far: and in faA the lama, whofe empire is founded on the fureft grounds, per- fonal affedfion and religious reverence, governs every thing internally with unbounded authority. Every body knows that the Delai Lama is the great objeift of adoration for the various tribes of heathen Tartars, who roam through the vaft tradl of continent which ftretches from the banks of the Volga to Correa on the fea of Japan, the molt extenfive religious dominion, perhaps, on the face of the globe. He is not only the fovereign pontiff, the vicegerent of the Deity on earth; ■ but, as fuperftition is ever the ftrongell where it is moft removed from its objedl, the more remote Tar¬ tars abfolutely regard him as the Deity himfelf. They believe him immortal, and endowed with all knowledge and virtue. Every year they come up from different parts, to worihip and make rich offerings at his (brine* Vol. X. even the emperor of China, who is a Mantchou Tar- Thibet, tar, does not fail in acknowledgments to him in his" ‘ religious capacity ; and adlually entertains at a great expence, in the palace of Pekin, an inferior lama, de¬ puted as his nuncio from Thibet. It is even reported that many of the Tartar chiefs receive certain prefents, confifting of fmall portions of that, from him, which is ever regarded in all other perfons as the moft humi¬ liating proof of human nature and of being fubjedl to its laws, and treafure it up with great reverence ia old boxes, to be mixed occafionally in their ragouts, t is, however, but juftice to declare, that Mr Bogle ftrenuoufly infifts, that the lama never makes fuch prefents ; but that he often diftributes little balls of confecrated flour, like the pain lenit of the Roman- Catholics, which the fuperftition and blind credulity of his Tartar votaries may afterwards convert into what they pleafe. The orthodox opinion is, that when the grand lama feems to die, either of old age or of infirmity, his foul in faft only quits an a&ual crazy habitation tp look for another younger or bet¬ ter, and it is difeovered again in the body of fome child, by certain tokens known only to the lamas or priefts, in which order he always appears. The pre¬ fent Delai Lama is an infant; and was difeovered only a few years ago by the Tayfhoo Lama, who in autho¬ rity and fandlity of charafter is next to him, and con- fequently, during the other's minority, afts as chief. The lamas, who form the moft numerous as Well as the moft powerful body in the ftate, have the prieft- hood entirely in their hands; and, befides, fill up many monadic orders, which are held in great veneration among them. Celibacy, I believe, is not pofitively enjoined to the lamas ; but it is held indifpenfable for both men and women who embrace a religious life: and indeed their celibacy, their living in communities, their cloifters, their fervice in the choirs, their firings of beads, their fads, and their penances, give them fo much the air of Chriftian monks, that it is not furprifing an illiterate capuchin ftiould be ready to hail them bro¬ thers, and think he can trace the features of St Fran¬ cis in every thing about them. It is an old motion, that the religion of Thibet is a corrupted Chriftianity; and even Father Difederii, a Jefuit (but not of the Chinefe million) who vifited the country about the be¬ ginning of this century, thinks he can refolve all their myfteries into ours ; and afferts, with a truly myftical penetration, that they have certainly a good notion of the Trinity, fince, in their addrefs to the Deity, they fay as often konciok-oik in the plural as konciok in the fingular, and with their rofaries pronounce thefe words, om> ha, hum. The truth is, that the religion of Thi¬ bet, from whence-ever it fprung, is pure and fimplein its fource, conveying very exalted notions of the Deity, with no contemptible fyftem of morality: but in its progrefs it has been greatly altered and corrupted by the inventions of worldly men; a fate we can hardly regret in a fyftem of error, fince we know that that of truth has been fubjedl to the fame. Polygamy, at lead in the fenfe we commonly receive the word, is not in pra&ice among them : but it exifts in a man- manner Hill more repugnant to European ideas; I mean in the plurality of hufbands, which is firmly eftablilhed and highly refpe&ed there. In a country where the means of fubfifting a family are not eafily 43 E found, T H I [ 8602 ] T H O Thibet foun<3, it feems not impolitic to allow a fet of brothers , ji to agree in raifing one, which is to be maintained by 11 e‘ their joint efforts.' In fhort, it is ufual in Thibet for the brcihers in the family to have a wife in common, ant’ they generally live in great harmony and comfort with her ; not but fometimes little diffenfions will arife (as may happen in families conflituted upon different prineiples) an inflance of which Mr Bogle mentions in the cafe of a modeft and virtuous lady, the wife of half a dozen of the Tayfhoo Lama’s nephews, who complained to the uncle that the two youngeft of her hufbands did not furnifh that fhare of love and bene¬ volence to the common flock which duty and religion required of them. In fhort, however ftrange this cufiom may appear to us, it is an undoubted fa& that it prevails in Thibet in the manner I have deferibed. “ The manner of bellowing their dead is alfo An¬ gular : they neither put them in the ground like the Europeans, nor burn them like the Hindoos; but expofe them on the bleak pinnacle of fome neighbour¬ ing mountain, to be devoured by wild beads and birds of prey, or waded away by time and the viciffitudes of weather in which they lie. The mangled carcafes and bleached bones lie fcattered about ; and, amidd this feene of horror, fome miferable old wretch, man or wo¬ man, lod to all feelings but thofe of fuperflition, ge¬ nerally ftts up an abode, to perform the difmal office of receiving the bodies, affigning each a place, and gathering up the remains when too widely difperfed.” THIGH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 57. THINKING, a general name for any aft or ope¬ ration of the mind. Sec Metaphysics, n° 70. THIRLAGE. See Law, N°clxx. 12—18. THIRST, an uneafy fenfation arifing from a defi¬ ciency of the faliva to moiden the inward parts of the mouth. Hence arifes a drong defire for drink ; and third is a fymptom generally attending fevers of all kinds.—Third is bed allayed by acids; water kept a while in the mouth, then fpit out, and repeated as required ; a bit of bread chewed with a little water, which latter may be gradually fwallowed ; if the per- fon is very hot, brandy is the bed for holding in the mouth, but fhould be fpit out again : except in fevers, large draughts of cold water are hurtful. Prefervation againjl Hanger and Thirst. See Hunger. THISTLE, in botany. See Carduus.—The dried flowers of the carduus lanceolatus or fpear-thidle, and carduus nutans or roufk-thidle, are ufed in fome coun¬ tries as a runnel for curdling their milk. Many kinds of phalense are fond of the flowers, and hover over them at n ght; the tender dalks of the paludris or marfh-thiftle, and indeed of mod thidles, are efculent, being fird peeled and boiled. In this manner the in¬ habitants of Smaaland in Sweden, as Linnaeus informs us, often eat them. Order of the Thistle, or of St Andrew, a military order of knighthood in Scotland, the rife and inditu- tion whereof is varioufly related by different authors. iLefley bifhop of Rofs reports, that the night before the battle between Atheldan king of Northumberland, and Hungus king of the Pifts, a bright crofs, in form of that whereon St Andrew (the tutelar faint of Scot¬ land) fuffered martyrdom, appeared to Hungus ; who having gained the viftory, ever* after bore the figure of that crofs on his banners. Others aflert, that Achaius Tiddler • king of Scotland firft indituted this order, after having II made the famous league offenfive and defendve with'Thomaea|1 Charlemagne king of France. But although the thidle had been acknowledged as the fymbol of the kingdom of Scotland from the reign of Achaius, yet fome re¬ fer the beginning of this order to Charles VII. of France. Others place the foundation of it as low as the year 1500. The chief and principal enfign is a gold collar com- pofed of thidles and fprigsof rue interlinked with amu¬ lets of gold, having pendent thereunto the image of St Andrew with his crofs, and the motto, Nemo me IMPUNE LACESSET. The ordinary or common enfign worn by the knights, . I is a dar of four filver points, and over them a greenccLxioti' circle, bordered and lettered with gold, containing the fig. 1. ’ faid motto, and in the centre is a thidle proper; all which is embroidered on their left bread, and worn with the collar, with a green ribband over the left fhoulder, and brought under the right arm ; pendent thereto is the image of St Andrew, with his crofs, in a purple robe, within an oval of gold enamelled vert, with the former motto : but fometimes they wear, en¬ circled in the fame manner, a thiftle crowned. About the time of the Reformation, this order was dropped, till James II. of England refumed it, by creating eight knights : however, the Revolution un- fettled it again; and it lay neglefted, till queen Anne, in 1703, redored it to the primitive defign, of twelve knights of St Andrew. THLASP1, mithridate, or Treacle tmjfard; a genus of the filiculofa order, belonging to the tetra- dynamia clafs of plants. There are tofpecies; of which the mod remarkable are, i.The arvenfe, or penny-crefs, is a native of feveral places of England and Scotland, growing in corn-fields, but not very common. The llalk is a foot high, angular and branched; the leaves feffile, embracing the dalk at their bafe; the flowers very fmall and white. The plant fmells of garlic; and in countries where it abounds, is found often to com¬ municate its difagreeable odour to the milk of cows that feed on it. The feeds abound with an oil for¬ merly ufed for the rheumatifm and fciatica, but now taken no notice of. 2. The burfa padoris, or (hep* herd’s purfe, is common in corn-fields, gardens, wade places, and by way-fides. , This plant affords us a itrong indance of the influence of foil and fituation ; for in fome places it is not more than two inches high when it flowers and perfefts its feeds, in others it rifes to the height of two or three feet. It is infipid; but was neverthelefs formerly much recommended in haemorrhagies of all kinds, though defervedly rejefted in the prefent praftice. THOMcEANS, Thomists, or Chrifians cf St Thomas, a people of the Ead- Indies, who, according to the tradition, received the Gofpel from St Thomas. Upon the arrival of the Portuguefe at Calicut, in their fird voyage to the Indies, they met with ancient Chri- ftians, who pretended to be defeended from thofe con¬ verted by St Thomas. The Thomaeans being inform¬ ed of a new people arrived among them, who bore a particular veneration for the crofs, fent ambaffadors to them to make an alliance with them, and to folicit their affidance againft the Gentile princes, by whom T H O [ 8603 1 T H O Thomaeans they were greatly opprefled. A mixture of opinions, and his followers the Thomifls, chiefly with regard to Th II with a total interruption of paftor.5, fometimeo for fe- predeftination and grace. There is fome doubt what — omiim' veral years together, occafioned that horrible chaos the true genuine Thomifm is; but there are authors their religion was in at the arrival of the Portuguefe ; who diftinguifh the Thomifm of St Thomas from for a fpecimen whereof we (hall add their manner of that of the Dominicans. Others again make Thomifm celebrating the eucharift : Over their altar was a kind no other than a kind of Janfeniim difguifed : but Jan- of gallery ; and while the pried was faying the be- fenifm, it is known, has been condemned by the popes, ginning of the office below, a cake of flour of rice was which pure Thomifm never was: in effed, the writings frying in oil, or butter, above; when enough, the cake of Alvarez and Lemos, who were appointed by their was let down in a balket upon the altar, where the order to lay down and defend, before the holy fee, the prieft confecrated it: as to the other fpecies, for wine dogmata of their fchooi, have fince been reputed the they ufed a kind of brandy or arrack, varioufly pre- rule of pure Thomifm. pared in that country. Nor was their ordination much THOMSON (James), an excellent Britilh poet, more regular ; the archdeacon, who was fometimes the fon of a Scots divine, was born in the (hire of Rox- more refpe&ed than the bifliop himfelf, frequently or- burgh in 1700, and was educated in the univerfity of dained priefls : their other abufes were infinite. The Edinburgh with a view to the miniftry. But his ge- Portuguefe, for thefe two lad centuries, have laboured nius inclining him to the ftudy of poetry, which he the-: reformation of this church, and have employed foon found would be incompatible with that of theo- both the ecclefiaftic and fecular power therein : for logy, or at lead might prevent his being provided for this end they have called the Thomasan bifliops to in that way in his own country, he relinquiflied his the council at Goa, haye inftrufted, charged them, See. views of engaging in the facred fun&ion; and repaired and even fent them for inftruffion to Portugal and to London in confequence of fome encouragement he Rome ; but finding that they were dill apt to relapfe had received from a lady of quality there, a friend of at their return, and that no good was like to be done his mother’s. with them, they refolved to exclude them once for all, The reception he met with wherever he was intre- and to appoint an European bifliop in their room, duced, emboldened him to rifle the publication of his Thefe proceedings have rendered the Portuguefe in- excellent poem on Winter.—This piece was publiflied finitely odious to the Thomteans. in 1726; and from the univerfal applaufe it met with, St THOMAS tie Apcjlle, furnamed Didymis. He Mr Thomfon’s acquaintance was courted by people of was not with the difciples when Chrifl appeared to the firll tade and fadiion. But the chief advantage them after his refurre&ion, and therefore would which it procured him, was the acquaintance of Dr tiot believe that be was really rifen from the dead ; Rundle, afterward biftiop of Derry, who introduced but eight days after, Chrid making him feel the him to the late lord chancellor Talbot; and fome years place where the wounds had been made in his fide after, when the elded fon of that nobleman was to and in his hands, he was thoroughly convinced of that make his tour of travelling, Mr Thomfon was chofen important truth. His infidelity, indeed, furniflled fuch as a proper companion for him. The expectations an incontedible proof of our Saviour’s refurreCtion, which his Winter had raifed, were fully fatisfied by the that it made fome of the lathers fay, that “ St Tho- fucceffive publications of the other feafons: of Summer, mas’s incredulity was of greater fervice than the faith in the year 1727; of-Spring, in the following year; of the other apodles.” St Thomas preached the gof- and of Autumn, in a quarto edition of his works, in pel to the Ethiopians, Parthians, Medes, &c. It is 173°* Befide the Seafons, and his tragedy of Sopho* even faid that he preached to the Indians ; and was nilba, written and afted with applaufe in the year 1729, run through with a lance, near the town of Mcliapore, he had, in 1727, publiflied his poem to the memory called the of St Thomas; but this is now gene- of Sir Ifaac Newton, with an account of his chief dif- rally allowed to be a miltake, and the converfion of coveries ; in which he was affifted by his friend Mr the people called the Chriftians of St Thomas, is, with Gray, a gentleman well verfed in the Newtonian phi- great certainty, attributed to another Thomas, who lofophy. That fame year the refentment of our mer- lived fome centuries after the apoftle of that name. chants, for the interruption of their trade by the Spa- 5/Thomas, a city of the Hither India, on the coaft niards in America, running very high, Mr Thomfon of Coromandel, three miles fouth of Fort St George ; zealoufly took part in it, and wrote his fpirited and fubjeft to the Portuguefe, public-fpirited Britannia, to roufe the nation to re- St Thomas, is alfo an ifland in the Atlantic ocean, venge. fituated under the equator, in 8° E. Long. With the Hon. Mr Charles Talbot, our author vi- .SV Thomas is alfo a town of Guiana, in South A- fited mod; of the courts in Europe, and returned with merica, fituated on the river Oroonoko; fubjedt to his views greatly enlarged; not of exterior nature only, Spain. and the works of art; but of human life and manners, .S'#Thomas’s Day, a feftival of theChriftian church, and of the conftitution and policy of the feveral dates, obferved on Dec. 21. in commemoration of St Thomas their connexions, and their religious inftitutions.— the apollle. How particular and judicious his obfervations wer^, we St Thomas of Canterbury's Day, a feftival of the fee in his poeip on Liberty, begun foon after his re- Romifti church, obferved on Dec. 29. in memory of turn to England. We fee at the fame time, to what Thomas Becket archbifhop of Canterbury, who was a high pitch his care of bis country was rajfed, by the murdered, or, as the Romanifts fay, martyred, in the comparifons he had all along been making of our hap- feign of king Henry II. py government with thofe of other nations. To in- THOMISM, the doXrine of St Thomas Aquinas, Ipire his fcllow-fubjeXs with the like femiments, and 43 3 Ihow T H O [ 8604 ] T H O Thomfon. fhow them by what means the precious freedom we en- joy may be preferred, and how it may be abufed or loft, he employed two years in compoftng that noble work; upon which he valued himfelf more than upon all his other writings. On his return to England with Mr Talbot (who foon after died), the chancellor made him his fecretary of briefs; a place of little attendance, fuiting his retired indolent way of life, and equal to all his wants. This place fell when death, not long after, deprived him of his noble patron, and he then found himfelf reduced to a ftate of precarious depend- ance, in which he paiEd the remainder of his life; ex¬ cepting only the two laft years of it, during which he enjoyed the place of furveyor-general of the Leeward- iflands, procured for him by Lord Lyttelton. His ge¬ nius, however, could not be fupprefted by any reverfe of fortune. He refumed his ufual cheerfulnefs, and never abated one article in his way of living; which, though fimple, was genial and elegant. The profits arifing from his works were not inconfiderable ; his tragedy of Agamemnon, ailed in 1738, yielded a good fum. But his chief dependence was upon the late prince of Wales, who fettled on him a handfome al¬ lowance, and honoured him with many marks of par¬ ticular favour. Notwithftanding this, however, he was refufed a licence for his tragedy of Edward and Elea¬ nors, which he had prepared for the ftage in the year 1739. Mr Thomfon’s next performance was the Mafque of Alfred, written jointly with Mr Mallet, by the com¬ mand of the prince of Wales, for the entertainment of his royal highnefs’s court, at Clifden, his fummer-re- fidence, in the year 1740. Mr Thomfon’s poem, en¬ titled the Cajile of Indolence, was his laft work publifh- ed by himfelf; his tragedy of Coriolanus being only prepared for the theatre, when a fatal accident robbed the world of one of the beft of men and btft of poets. He would commonly walk the diftance between Lon¬ don and Richmond (where he lived), with any acquain¬ tance that offered, with whom he might chat and reft himfelf, or perhaps dine by the way. One fummer evening being alone in his walk from town to Ham>- merfmith, heshad over-heated himfelf, and in that con* dition imprudently took a boat to carry him to Kew; apprehending no bad confequence from the chill air on the river, which his walk to his houfe, towards the upper end of Kew-lane, had always hitherto prevent¬ ed. But now the cold had fo feizcd him, that the next day he found himfelf in a high fever. This, however, by the ufe of proper medicines, was removed, fo that he was thought to be out of danger; till the fine wea¬ ther having tempted him to expofe himfelf once more to the evening dews, his fever returned with violence, and with fuch fymptoms as left no hopes -of a cure. His lamented death happened on the 27th of Auguft 1748. Mr Thomfon had improved his tafte upon the fineft originals, ancient and modern. The autumn was his favourite feafon for poetical compofition, and the deep filence of the night he commonly chofe for his ftudies. The amufement of his leifure-hours were civil and na¬ tural hiftory, voyages, and the beft relations of tra¬ vellers. Though he performed on no inftrument, he was paflionately fond of mufic, and would fometimes liften a full hour at his window to the nightingales in Richmond gardens; nor was his tafte lefs exquifite in Thomfom the arts of painting, fculpture, and architecture. As , H for the more diftinguifhing qualities of his mind and °11^ *' heart, they beft appear in his writings. There his de¬ votion to the Supreme Being, his love of mankind, his country, and friends, fhine out in every page; his ten- dernefs of heart was fo unbounded, that it took in even the brute creation. It is not known, that through his whole life he ever gave any perfon a moment’s pain, either by his writings or otherwife. He took no part in the political fquabbles of his time, and was therefore refpedled and left undifturbed by both Tides. Thefe amiable virtues did not fail of their due reward; the applaufe of the public attended all his productions, and his friends loved him with an enthufiaftic ardour. His teftamentary executors were the Lord Lyttel¬ ton, whofe care of our poet's fortune and fame ceafed not with his life; and Mr Mitchell, a gentleman equally noted for the truth and conftancy of his private friend- fhip, and for his addrefs and fpirit as a public minifter. By their united interefts, the orphan play of Coriola¬ nus was brought on the ftage to the belt advantage; from the profits of which, and the fale of manufcripts and other effe&s, a handfome fum was remitted to his fifters. His remains were depofited in the church of Richmond, under a plain ftone, without any infcrip- tion. A handlome monument was ereCled to him in Weftminfter abbey, in the year 1762, the charge of which was defrayed by the profits arifing from a fplen- did edition of all his works in quarto; Mr Millar the bookfeller, who had purchafed all Mr Thomfon’s co¬ pies, giving up his property on this grateful occafiom THORN, a town of Poland, in Regal Prufiia, and in the palatinate of Culm. It was formerly an Hanfe* atic town, and ftill enjoys great privileges; is large and well fortified; but part of the fortifications, and a great number of houfes, were ruined by the Swedes in 1703. It is feated on the Viftula, in E. Long. 19. 22. N. Lat. 52; 56. THORNBACK, in ichthyology. See Raia. THORNHILL (Sir James), an eminent Englilh painter, was born in Dorfetfhire in 1676, of an anci¬ ent family; but was conftrained to apply to feme pro- feffion by the diflrefies of his father, who had been re¬ duced to part with his family-eftate. His genius di- reSed him to the art of painting, which his uncle Dr Sydenham enabled him to ftudy by placing him with a middling painter: however, his own talents fupplied the deficiences of his inftruCtor; and by a happy ex¬ ertion of them, he gradually rofe to the higheft repu¬ tation. The dome of St Paul’s church at London, with his works at Hampton-court and Greenwich hof- pital, are public proofs of his merit that will convey his name to pofterity with the greateft honour. He enriched himfelf fo far by his works that he purchafed back his paternal eftate; was appointed ftate-painter to queen Anne, received the honour of knighthood, and was feveral years a member of parliament. H* died in 1732. THOROUGH.wax, in botany. See Bupleurum. THOUGHT, a general name for all the ideas con- fequent on the operations of the mind, and even on the operations themfelves. See Metaphysics. Thought, in compofition, See Oratory, n° ioi* 104, m. When T H O [ 8605 ] T H R SPhougfit; Wlien fpeaking with a particular reference to the belles letters and polite arts, we mean, by thoughts, the ideas which theartift attempts, toraife by his per¬ formance, in contradiftindlion to the manner in which they are raifed or expreffed. In works of art, thoughts are what remains of a performance, when ftripped of its embellifhments. Thus, a poet’s thoughts are what remains of his poems, independently of the verfiiication, and of feme ideas merely ferving for its decoration and improvement. Thoughts, therefore, are the materials propofed and applied by art to its purpofes: The drefs in which they appear, or the form into which they are moulded by theartift, is merely accidental. Confequently, they are the firft objeft of attention in every work of art ; the fpirit, the foul of a performance, which, if its thoughts are indifferent, is but of little value, and may be compared to a palace of ice, raifed in the moft regular form of an habitable ftrufture, but, from the nature of its materials, totally ufelefs. While, therefore, you are contemplating an hifto- rical pifture, try to forget that it is a pidure: forget the painter, whofe magic art has, by lights and (hades, created bodies where there are none. Fancy to yourfelf that you are adualiy looking at men, and then attend to their adions. Obferve whether they are interelling; whether the perfons exprefs thoughts and fentimems in their faces, attitudes, and motions; whether you may underhand the language of their airs and geftures, and whether they tell you fomething remarkable. If you find it not worth your while to attend to the perfons thus realifed by your fancy, the painter has thought to little purpofe. Whilft liftening to a mulical performance, try to forget that your are hearing founds of an inanimate inftrument, produced only by great and habitual dex¬ terity of lips or fingers. Fancy to yourfelf, that you hear a man fpeaking fome unknown language, and ©bferve whether his founds exprefs fome fentiments; whether they denote tranquillity or difturbance of mind, foft or violent, joyful or grievous affedions ; whether they exprefs any charader of the fpeaker; and whether the dialed be noble or mean. If you cannot difcove.r any of thefe requifites, then pity the virtuofo for having left fo much ingenuity deftitute of thought. In the fame manner we mud alfo judge of poems, efpecially of the lyric kind. That ode is valuable which, when deprived of its poetical drefs, ftill affovds pleafing thoughts or images to the mind. Its real merit may belt be difcovered by tranfpofing it into iimple profe, and depriving it of its poetical colouring. If nothing remains that a man of fenfe and refledion would approve, the ode, with the moft charming har¬ mony anel the moft fplendid colouring, is but a fine , . drefs hung round a man of draw. How greatly then are thofe miltaken, who confider an exuberant fancy and a delicate ear as fufficient qualifications for a lyric poet! It is only after having examined the thoughts of a performance in their unadorned ftate, that we can pronounce whether the attire, in which they have been drefled by art, fits and becomes them well or ill. A thought, whofe value and merit cannot be eftimated but from its drefs, is, in effcft, as futile and infignifi- cant as a man who affe&s to difplay his merit by ex- Thrace ternal pomp. 1 H THRACE, a country very frequently mentioned -i- by the Greek and Latin writers, deriving its name, according to Jofephus, from Tiras one of the fons of Japhet. It was bounded on the north by mount Hasmus; on the fouth, by the iEgean Sea ; on the weft by Macedon, and the river Strymon; and on the eaft by the Euxine Sea, the Hellefpont, and the Pro¬ pontis.—The Thracian Cherfonefus is a peninfula in- clofed on the fouth by the TEgean Sea, on the weft by the gulf of Melas, and on the eaft by the Hel¬ lefpont ; being joined on the north to the continent by a neck of land about 37 furlongs broad. The in¬ land parts of Thrace are very cold and barren, the fnow lying on the mountains the greateft part of the year ; but the maritime provinces are produftive of all forts of grain and neceflaries for life; and withal fo pleafant, that Mela compares them to the moft fruitful and agreeable countries of Alia. The ancient Thracians were deemed a brave and warlike nation, but of a cruel and favage temper; be¬ ing, according to the Greek writers, quite ftrangers to all humanity and good-nature. It was to the Thra¬ cians, however, that the Greeks were chiefly indebted for the polite arts that flourifhed among them; for Or¬ pheus, Linus, Mufasus, Thamyris, and Eumolpus, all Thracians, were the firft, as Euftathius informs us, who charmed the inhabitants of Greece with their eloquence and melody, and perfuaded them to exchange their fiercenefs for a fociable life and peaceful manners; nay, great part of Greece was anciently peopled by Thra¬ cians. Tereus, a Thracian, governed at Daulis in Pho- cis, where the tragical (lory of Philomela and Progne was adled. From thence a body of Thracians paflcd over to Euboea, and poffeffed themfelves of that ifland. Of the fame nation were the Aones, Tembices, and Hyanthians, who made themfelves matters of Bceotia; and great part of Attica itfelf was inhabited by Thra¬ cians, under the command of the celebrated Eumol¬ pus. It is not therefore without the utmoft ingrati¬ tude and injuftice that the Greeks ftyle them Barba¬ rians, fince to them chiefly they were indebted both for the peopling and polifhing of their country. Thrace was anciently divided into a number of petty dates ; which were firft fubdued by Philip of Macedon. On the decline of the Macedonian empire, the country fell under the power of the Romans. It continued under fubje&ion to them till the irruption of the Turks, in whofe hands it ftill remains. THRAVE, of Corn, an exprtfiion denoting 24 {heaves, or four fhocks of fix (heaves to the (hock ;. though in fome countries they only reckon 12 (heaves to the thrave. THRASYBULUS, a renowned Athenian general and patriot, the deliverer of his country from the yoke of the 30 tyrants, lived about 294 B. C *« *SetAtticar- THRASYMENUS lacus, (anc. geog.) a lake of n° ><*9— Etruria, near Perufia, and not far from the Tiber, fa-174’ tal to the Romans in the Punic war. Now il lago de Perugia on the ecclefiaftical ftate. THREAD, a fmall line made up of a number of fine hairs of any vegetable or animal fubftance, fuch as flax, cotton, or filk; from which thread takes its name of linen, cotton, or filk. Nettle: THU r 8606 1 THU read iW///!? Thread. See Nettle and Urtica. ■I Dyeing Thread black. Lined and cotton thread .T.',.s may be dyed of a durable and deep black by folution of iron in four beer, in which the linen is to be fteep* ed for fome time, and afterwards boiled in madder. See the article Dyeing, Part III. THREATENING letters. Knowingly to fend any letter without a name, or with a fidlitious name, demanding money, or any other valuable thing, or threatening (without any demand) to kill or lire the houfe of any perfon, is made felony with¬ out benefit of clergy. And fending letters, threaten¬ ing to accufe any perfon of a crime punifhable with death, tranfportation, pillory, or other infamous pu- nilhment, with a view to extort from him any money or other valuable chattels, is punifhable by ftatute 30 Geo. 2. c. 24. at the difcretion of the court, with fine, imprifonment, pillory, whipping, or tranfportation for feven years. THRIPS, a genus of infefts, belonging to the order of hemiptera. The roftrum is obfcure, or fo fmall as to be fcarce perceptible. The antennae are filiform, and as long as the thorax. The body is flender, and of equal thicknefs in its whole length. The abdomen is reflexible, or bent upwards. The four wings are extended, incumbent upon the back of the infed, narrow in proportion to their length, and crofs one another at fome difiance from their bafe. The tavfi of thp feet are compofed of only two articu¬ lations. There are five fpecies. The largefl js the juniperina, of a glofly black colour with yellowifh antennx; the wings and elytra are whitifh, narrow, and furnifhed at the point with a few fmall hairs. The infeds live under the bark of old trees, in flowers, and under the juniper-tree. In the fame places are to be found their larvae, which only differ from them by the want of wings and elytra; but it is difficult to obferve thefe differences in fuch diminutive crea¬ tures, which look rather like moving atoms than any thing elfe. THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, be¬ tween the head and the fhoulders, wherein is the gullet. THRONE, a royal feat or chair of ftate, enriched with ornaments of archite&ure and fculpture, raifed on one or more fteps, and covered with a kind of ca¬ nopy. Such are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings and other fovereigns. THRUSH, in ornithology. See Turdus. Thrush, or Aphthx. See Medicine, n°2i4. THUANUS (Jacobus Auguftus), youngefl fon of the prefident de Thou, was famous for the depth and erudition of his works. He was born in 1553 ; and having finilhed his ftudies and travels, was made pre¬ fident a-Mortier, and took pofleffion thereof in 1595. He was employed in feveral important offices of (late, and in reforming of the univerfity of Paris ; which he difcharged with fo much prudence, that he was efteem-1 ed the Cato of his age, and the ornament of France.: He wrote the hiftory of his own time in Latin, from the year 1543 to 1608, in 138 books; a work, both for fubjeft and ilyle, worthy of the ancients. He al- fo left memoirs of his own life, befides poemS; and died at Pin's, 1617. THUCYDIDES, a celebrated Greek hiftorian, was born at Athens 475 B. C. He was the fon of Olorus, and grandfon of Miltiades, who is thought to Thucydldei have been defcended from Miltiades the famous Athe- nian general, and to have married the king of Thrace’s daughter. He was educated in a manner fuitable to bis quality, that is, in the ftudy of philofophy and eloquence. His mafter in the former was Anaxago¬ ras, in the latter Antiphon ; one, by his defcription in the eighth book of his Hiftory, for power of fpeech almoft a miracle, and feared by the people on that account. Suidas and Photius relate, that when He¬ rodotus recited his hiftory in public, a fafhion in ufe then and many ages after, Thucydides felt fo great a fling of emulation, that it drew tears from him ; in- fomuch that Herodotus himfelf took notice of it, and congratulated his father on having a fon who fhowed fo wonderful an affedtion to the mufes. Jlerodotus was then 29 years of age, Thucydides about 16. When the Peloponnefian war began to break out, Thucydides conjedtured truly, that it would prove an argument worthy of his labour; and it no fooner com¬ menced than he began his hiftory, purfuing the fame, not in that perfect manner in which we fee it now, but by way of commentary, and in writing down plain adlions or paflages thereof, as from time to time they fell out and came to his knowledge. We know na- thing with certainty of Thucydides, but what he him¬ felf has delivered in his hiftory. He was a lover of contemplation and retirement ; yet did not decline the fervice of the ftate, and accepted accordingly of a com¬ mand in the army. This, however, proved unfortu¬ nate to him ; for while he relided in the ifle Thafus, it happened that Brafidas the Lacedaemonian befieged Amphipolis, a city belonging to the Athenians, about half a day’s fail from Thafus. Thucydides being one of the ftrategj, or of. thofe who had authority to raife forces in thofe parts for the fervice of the common¬ wealth, the Athenian captain fent to him to levy a power and haften to his relief. Thucydides did fo ; but not arriving till too late, and when the city was already yielded up, he was afterwards banifhed, as if he had done this either through negligence or fear of the enemy; which, however, there was no juft reafon to fufped ; for he put himfelf into the city Eion, and preferved it to the Athenians, with the repulfeof Bra¬ fidas, who came down the next morning from Amphi- polis and befieged it. After his baniftiment, which happened in his 48th year, he lived in Scapte-Hyle, a city of Thrace, from whence he married a very wealthy wife ; and he had large poffeffions and rich mines of gold, as he himfelf tells us in his fourth book. He was not how¬ ever fo affected with his difgrace, as to fliut himfelf up from the world, and drag on, as many have done, a life embittered with fpleen and difappointment; on the contrary, he went abroad, and was prefent at the a&ions of the reft of the war. This appears from his own words, in the fifth book of his Hiftory ; where he fays, that he was prefenl at the adtions of both parties, and by reafon of his exile no kfs at thbfe of the Peloponnefians than thofe of the Athenians. Du¬ ring this time he perfected his Hiftory, fo far as is now to be feen. He was very nice and curious con¬ cerning a perfed infight into affairs ; in order to ob¬ tain which he employed great fums of money in pro¬ curing authentic memorials, not only from the Athe¬ nians but the Lacedaemonians alfo, that out of his collec* THU [ 8607 ] THU Thule co'leftions from both the great tranfa&ions of that II time might be better and more impartially fet forth. ?~hu'‘dfr‘ At the end of 20 years, his fentence of banifhment was revoked. Some authors affirm that he returned to Athens, and was treacheroufly killed in that city. % But others aflert that he died in Thrace, at the ad¬ vanced age of 80 years, leaving his hiftory unfinifhed. It is contained in eight books, and ends with the 21ft year of the war of Peloponnefus. The moft efteemed edition is that of Oxford in 1696, folio. Demoft- henes fet fuch a value on Thucydides’s hiftory, that he tranfcribed the whole feveral times with his own hand. THULE, or Thyl^:, (anc. geog.) an ifland about the fituation of which authors difagree. Strabo frank¬ ly owns that it lies in obfcurity, and that what Py- theas of Marfeilles fays about it is not to be depended on. Pliny feems to have known a little more; name¬ ly, that it is the outmoft or laft of all the known iflands, in which there are no nights at the fummer- folllice : Ptolemy makes the longed day there 24 hours, and affigns it 63 degrees of north latitude. Stephanus allows but 20 for the longeft day. From all which it appears evident to fome, that the ancients could not mean Iceland, as is commonly thought, but either Shetland or Ferro, as agreeing tolerably well with the days and hours above-mention¬ ed ; though others are of opinion that Iceland'is the Thule of the ancients. Agricola, in failing round Bri¬ tain, fay;, he had then a view of Thule, lying in fnow and involved in winter; whereas Iceland lies at too great a diftance to be feen in failing round Britain. Nor is it certain whether they took it for fome ordi¬ nary ifland, or for the great peninfula of Scandinavia; that is, Sweden and Norway, which very many authors formerly took for an ifland. Pliny, however, feems to have diftinguifhed Norway from Thule; who places beyond it, at the diftance of a day’s fail, the Frozen Sea, called Cronium by fome, and Pigrum by Taci¬ tus. All the knowledge either Greeks or Romans had of this ifland, Bochart fuppofes to have been de¬ rived from the Phoenicians. Antonips Diogenes, a very ancient author, who lived in the time of Alexan¬ der the Great, and who wrote concerning the ifland of Thule, profefles he drew his tale or his ftory from the Tabula Cyparifima dug up at Tyre, when taken By Alexander, from the tomb of the Tyrian adven¬ turers who failed thither. Southern Thule. See America^ n° 2 i. * THUMB, in anatomy, one of the extremities of the hand. Thumb-Cap, an ifland in the South-Sea, lies about feven leagues north-weft of Lagoon-ifland ; it is a low, woody iflaud, of a circular form, and not much above a mile in compafs. There was no appearance of in¬ habitants ; the land was covered with verdure of many hues. THUMMIM. See Urim. THUNDER, the noife occafioned by the explo* fion of a fiafti of lightning echoed back from the in¬ equalities, on the furface of the earth, in like manner as the noife of a cannon is echoed, and in particular circumftances forms a rolling lengthened found. Although thunder, properly fpeaking, is only a mere found capable of producing very little effeft, yet the word is generally fuppofcd to include the pheno- Thunder. me-na of lightning alfo ; and elc&rified clouds are by univerfal confent called thunder-clouds, and the explo- fions of many fiaihes of lightning proceeding from them are generally called thunder-Jlortns. Though the phenomena of lightning, therefore, have been at great length explained and accounted for under the articles Electricity and Lightning, and though the im¬ mediate caufe of electrical explofions from clouds is explained under the article Rain; yet the ultimate caufe remains ftill to be ftiown, and properly belongs to the prefent article. It is univerfally allowed, that the variation of the eledtricity in different parts of the atmofphere is the caufe of thunder. Under the article Electricity, it has been fhown why lightning explodes after the thun¬ der-clouds are charged. Under the article Light¬ ning it is fhown why that meteor puts on the various forms in which we fee it, why it fometimes ftrikes houfes or animals, and fometimes .not, &c. • and un¬ der the article Rain, why the aimofpbere in fome cafes parts with the vapours which at other times it fo obftinately retains. It remains, therefore, only to fhow why rains are fometimes attended with thunder, and fometimes not; which, to thofe who attentively perufe the articles above-mentioned, may be done in few words. In this part of Great Britain, and for a confiderable way along the eallern coaft, although thunder may happen at any time of the year, yet the month of July is that in which it may almoft certainly be expected. Its duration is of very uncertain continuance ; fome¬ times only a few cracks will be heard at any particu¬ lar place during the whole feafon ; at others the florin will return at the interval of three or four days for a month, fix weeks, or even longer; not that we have violent thunder in this country diredtly vertical in any one place fo frequently in any year, but in many fea- fons it will be perceptible that thunder-clouds are formed in the neighbourhood even at thefe fhort in¬ tervals. Hence it appears, that during this particular period there muft be tome natural caufe operating for the produdlion of this phenomenon, which does not take place at other times. This cannot be the mere heat of the weather, for a great trad of hot weather is very often obferved without any thunder being heard; and befides, though not common^ it is fometimes heard in the winter alfo. As therefore the heat of the weather is common to the whole fummer, whether there be thunder or not, we muft look for the caufes of it in thofe phenomena, whatever they are, which are peculiar to the months of July, Auguft, and the beginning of September. Now it is generally obferved, in the tradl of country of which we now fpeak, that from the month of April an eaft or fouth-eaft wind generally takes place, and continues with little inter¬ ruption till towards the end of June. At that time, fometimes fooner, and fometimes later, a wefterly wind takes place ; but as the caufes producing the ealt wind are not removed, the latter oppofes the weft wind with its whole force. At the place of meeting, there is naturally a moft vehement prelfure of the atmofphere, and fri&ion of its parts againft one another; a calm enfues, and the vapours brought by both winds begin to collect and form dark clouds, which can have little motion THU r 8608 1 THU Thunder, motion either way, becaufe they are prefled almoft Thuringia. equal!y on al] fides. For tbe moft part, however, the “weft wind prevails, and what little motion the clouds have is towards the eaft ; whence the common remark in this country, that “ thunder-clouds move againft the wind.” But this is by no means univerfally true: for if the weft wind happens to be-excited by any tem¬ porary caufe before its natural period when it ftiould take place, the eaft wind will very frequently get the better of it; and the clouds, even although thunder is produced, will move weftward. Yet in either cafe the motion is fo flow, that the moft fuperficial obfervers cannot help taking notice of a conliderable refiftancc in the atmofphere. That when two ftreams of air are thus driven againft each other, the fpace where they meet muft become highly eletftrified, is as plain as that an eledfric globe rnuft be excited when fridlion is applied. It is true, as the fubftances here to be excited are both eleftrics ferfe, it may be obje&ed, that no eledlricitycould be produced ; for we cannot excite one eleftric by rub¬ bing it with another. Yet it is obferved, that glafa may be ele&rified by blowing ftrongly upon it, or by the explofion of cannon; and even when glafs is ftrongly prefled upon glafs, both pieces become elec¬ trified as foon as they are feparated. When glafs is rubbed upon glafs, no attraftion or repulfion can be perceived, nor is any fign of ele&ricity obferved on bodies brought near to it; yet a very bright eleddric light always appears on the glafles, and a phofphoreal isfraelrf ; which (hows, that though the elec- $6. ‘ricity does not fly out through the air in the ufual way, yet the fluid within the glafs is agitated, and there is little reafon to doubt that any conducing body inclofed within the fubftance of the glafs would be electrified alfo. The vapours therefore, which are the conducting fubftances in the atmofphere, become im¬ mediately eleCtrified in confequence of the preffure above-mentioned, and all the phenomena defcribed un¬ der the various articles already referred to take place. In like manner, by the ftruggle of two other winds as well as thofe of the eaft and weft, may a thunder- ftorm be produced ; but it is always neceffary that the refiftance of the air to the motion of the clouds (hould be very great, and nearly equal all round. For if the vapour (hould get off to a fide, no thunder would take place; the electricity would then be carried off as faft as it was collected, and rain would only be the confe¬ quence, by reafon of the eleCtrified vapours parting with their latent heat, as is explained under the article Rain. In faCt, we very often obferve that in the time of rain the clouds evidently move acrofs the wind, and the ne.arer their motion is to a direCt oppofition, the heavier will the rain be ; while on the other hand, if they move brilkly before the wind, let the direction be what it will, the atmofphere foon clears up. But for a farther illuftration of thefe matters, fee the articles Weather, and Wind. THURINGIA, 'a divifion of the circle of Upper Saxony in Germany. It is a fruitful track, abound¬ ing in corn, efpecially wheat ; in black cattle, fheep, and horfes; and in fome places with vines and woad, and other valuable plants. It contains 47 towns, 14 boroughs, betwixt 700 and 800 villages, 300 noble eftates, 7 fuperintendencies, and 5 undtr-confiftorks. Thuringia, the country of the ancient Thuringi, or Thurlae 5 Catti, a branch of the Vandals, mentioned by Tacitus, II 1 was formerly a kingdom, afterwards a county, then a _ landgravate, and was governed by its own princes for many ages, till 1124, when it devolved to the marquis of Mifnia, and, with that country, afterwards to the duke of Saxony. But the modern Thuringia is only a part of the ancient, nay, but" a part of the ancient South Thuringia, which comprehends befides, a large fhare of the modern Franconia, Hcffe, &c. On the extindion of the male line of the ancient landgraves in 1247, it came to the margraves of Meiffen, anceftors to the prefent electoral family. The eieCtor has no voice in the diet, on account of his fhare in the landgra¬ vate or circle of Thuringia. THURLOE (John), an Englifh flatefman under Oliver Cromwel; was born at Abbots Roding in Ef- fex in 1616, of which parifh his father was reCtor; and -was educated to the ftudy of the law. In 1648 he was made receiver or clerk of the curfitor fines; and though bis attachments were entirely on the fide of the parliament, he declares himfelf totally unconcerned in all counfels relative to the death of the king: however, on that event, and on the eftablifliment of the com¬ monwealth, he was diverted from profecuting his em¬ ployments in the law, by engaging in public bufinefs. When Cromwel affumed the proteftorfhip, he became fecretaryof ftate; in 1655, he had the care and charge both of foreign and inland poftage committed to him by the proteCtor; and was afterward fworn one of his privy-council, according to “ The humble petition and advice.” He was continued in the fame capacities under Richard Cromwel, and until meafures were taking for the reftoration; when he made an offer of his fervices to that end, which however were not accepted. May 15th 1660, he was committed to the cuftody of the ferjeant at arms on a charge of high-treafon; but being foon releafed, he retired to Great Milton in Oxfordlhire: and though he was afterward often folicited by Cha.TI. to engage in the adminiftration of public bufinefs, he thought proper to decline the offers. He died in 1668; and was a man of an amiable private charafter, who in the higheft of his power exercifed all poffible modera¬ tion toward perfons of every party. The moft authentic teftimony of his abilities is that vaft colleftion of ftate- papers, 7 vols folio, now in the hands of the public; which place the affairs of Great Britain, and of Eu¬ rope in general, during that remarkable period, in the cleared light. THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftian week, but the fixth of that of the Jews. THUYA, the arbor vitje, a genus of the mo- nodelphia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants. The fpecies are, 1. The occideotalis, or common arbor vitse, grows naturally in Canada, Siberia, and other northern coun¬ tries. In fome of the Englifh gardens a few of thefe trees are to be met with of a large fize: it has a ftrong woody trunk, which rifes to the height of 40 feet or more. The bark, while young, is fmooth, and of a dark brown colour; but as the trees advance, the bark becomes cracked, and lefs fmootb. The branches are produced irregularly on every fide, (landing almoft ho¬ rizontal, and the young flender (hoots frequently hang downward, thinly garnilhed with leaves; fo that when THY [ 8609 ] TIB Tlmya the trees are grown large, they make but an indifferent _ IL appearance. The young branches are flat, and their _ ‘ fmall leaves lie imbricatim over each other like the icales of a fifh ; the flowers are produced from the fide of the young branches pretty near to the foot-ftalk; the male flowers grow in oblong katkins, and between thefe the female flowers arecollc&ed in form of cones. When the former have fhed their farina, they foon af¬ ter drop off; but the female flowers are fucceeded by oblong cones, having obtufe fmooth fcales, containing one or two oblong feeds. The leaves of this tree have a rank oily fcent when bruited. 2. The orientalis, or China arbor vitre, grows na¬ turally in the northern parts of China, where it rifes to a conliderable height; but this has not been long . enough in Europe to have any trees of large fize. The feeds of this fort Were firft fent to Paris by fome of the mifiionaries; and there are fome of the trees growing in the gardens of the curious there, which are more than 20 feet high. The branches of this fort grow clo- fer together, and are much better adorned with leaves, which are of a brighter green colour, fo make a much better appearance than the other, and being very hardy, it is efteemed preferable to moft of the evergreen trees with fmall leaves, for ornament in gardens. The branches of this tree crofs each other at right angles: the leaves are flat; but the Angle divifions of the leaves are flender, and the fcales are fmaller and lie clofer over each other than thofe of the firft fort. The cones are alfo much larger, and of a beautiful grey colour; their fcales end in acute reflexed points. Thefe trees are propagated by feeds, layers, or cut¬ tings. THYMUS, thyme, a genus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants. There are feveral fpecies, all celebrated for their agree¬ able flavour, but fo well known that no defcription is neceffary. The whole plant is fragrant* and yields an effential oil that is very heating. An infufion of the leaves removes the headach occafioned by the debauch of the preceding evenings A general opinion prevails that the flefh of flieep that feed upon aromatic plants, particularly upon thyme, is much fuperior in flavour to common mutton: but the ingenious author of the account of the Sheep-walks in Spain (Gent. Mag. 1764.) confiders this as a vulgar error. He fays flieep are not fond of aromatic plants ; that they will care¬ fully pufli afide the thyme to get at the grafs growing beneath it ; and that they never touch it unlefs when walking apace, and then they will catch at anything, —The attachment of bees to this and other aromatic plants is well known. In the experiments made at Upfal, fheep and goats were obferved to eat it, and fwine to refufc it. Thymus, in anatomy. See Anatomy, 1)6379, THYRSUS, in antiquity, the fceptre which the poets put into the hand of Bacchus, and wherewith they furnilhed the menades in their Bacchanalia. Thyrsus, in botany, a mode of flowering refem- bling the cone of a pine. It is, fays LinnSeus, a pa¬ nicle contrafted into an oval or egg-fhp.ped form. The lower foot-ftalks, which are longer, extend horizon¬ tally, whilft the upper ones are Ihortcr and mount ver¬ tically. Lilac and butter-burr furnilh examples! Vol. X. TIARA, an ornament or habit wherewith the an- Tla cient Perfians covered their head; and with which the . M Armenians and kings of Pontus are reprefented on me- ' J dils; thefe laft, becaufe they were defcended from the Perfians. Latin authors call it indifferently t/ara and cidaris* Strabo fays, the tiara was in form of a tower; and the fcholiaft on Ariftophanes’s comedy, ad. 1. fcene 2. affirms, that it was adorned with pea¬ cock’s feathers. The kings of Perfia alone had the right of wearing the tiara ftraight and ered ; the priefts and great lords wore it depreffed, or turned down on the fore-fide. Xenophon in his Cyropsedia fays, that the tiara was fometimes encompaffed with the diadem, at leaft in ce¬ remonies; and had frequently the figure of a half-moon embroidered on it : others are of opinion, that the dia¬ dem was in figure of a moon, and that it was hence the tiara was called lunata: laftly, others think that the tiara itfelf was fometimes in form of a half-moon. In fad, it appears that there were different forms of tiaras; and Pafchalius Du coronis, diftinguiflies no lefs than five different kinds. Tiara is alfo the name of the pope's triple crown. The tiara and keys are the badges of the papal dig¬ nity ; the tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his jurifdidion: for as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are reprefented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a round high cap. John XXIII. firft encompaffed it with a crown. Bo¬ niface VIII. addedafecond crown ; and Brnedid XII. a third. TIBER, a great river of Italy, which runs through the pope’s territories, paffing by Perugia and Orvietto ; and having vifited Rome, falls into Tufcati fea at Oitia, fifteen miles below that city, TIBERIAS, (anc. geog.) the laft town of Ga¬ lilee, fituated on the fouth fide of the lake Tibe¬ rias ; built by Herod the tetrarch, and called Tiberias in honour of the emperor Tiberius; diftant 30 ftadia from Hippus, 60 from Gadara, and 120 from Scy- thopolis: whence it appears to have been at no great diftance from where the Jordan runs out of the lake. It is a number of times mentioned by John the Evan- gelift. Pliny places it on the weft extremity of the lake, commending the falubrity of its hot waters. Jerome fays, the ancient name was Cbenneretb; which, if true, will account for the name of the lake. TIBULLUS (Aulus Albius), a Roman knight, and a celebrated Latin poet, was born at Rome 43 B. C. He was the friend of Horace, Ovid, Macer, and other great men in the reign of Auguftus. He accompanied Meffala Corvinus in bis expedition againft the ifland of Gorcyra : but falling fick, and being unable to fuppor tthe fatigues of war on account of the weaknefs of his conftitution, he quitted the profeffion of arms, and returned to Rome, where lie died be¬ fore the year 17 ; when Ovid (bowed his grief for his death by writing a fine elegy upon him. Tibullus wrote four books of elegies, which are ft ill extant: they are written in a tender and agreeable ftyle, and in a very elegant Latin. Muret and Jofeph Sca- liger have written learned and curious commentaries on the works of this poet. The bell edition of Ti¬ bullus is that of Janus Bronckhufius, publifhed at 43 F Amftcr- T I D [ 8610 ] TIL Tibur Amlterdam in 1708, in one volume quarto. We have an Englifh poetical verfion of them by Mr Grainger. * TIBUR, (anc. geog.) a town of Latium, pleafant- ly fituated on the Anio. Here Horace had his villa and houfe; and here he wilhed to end his days. Here Adrian built an extraordinary villa called Tibur- tina, infcribed with the names of the provinces and of the moft confiderable places, (Spartian); near which Zenobia had a houfe called (Trebellius, Pollio). Hither Augullus often retreated on account of its falubrity, (Suetonius): for which it is greatly commended, (Martial). Anciently, when the Romans had far extended their territory, it was the utmoft ?lace of banilhment, (Ovid). It had a temple of lercules; and therefore called Herculeum. In the temple was a library, (A. Gellius). Now Tivoli in the Campagna di Roma on the Teverone. TICINUM, (anc. geog.) a town of Infubria, built by the Gauls ; fituated on the river Ticinus near its confluence with the river Po : a municipium, famous # under the Gsefars. Now Pavia in the Milan, from its ; name Pabia or Papia in the middle age. TICINUS, (anc. geog.) a river in Infubria, rifing in mount Adula, traverfing the Lacus Ver- banus fouthwards, and falling into the Po near Tx- cinum. Between this river and the Po Hanibal gained his firft vidlory over the Romans under P. Sci- pio. The general himfelf efcaped with the utmofl; difficulty, and that by the bravery of his fon the firft Scipio Africanus. Now the Tefino, rifing in mount Godard, running fouth through the Lago Maggiore and Milan, by Pavia, into the Po. TICKELL (Thomas), an excellent Englifh poet, was the fon of a clergyman who enjoyed a confiderable preferment in the north of England ; but we have no account where or when he was born. He was edu¬ cated at (Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he was made-fellow; and while he continued at that univerfity, he addreffed to Mr Addifon a complmentary copy of verfes on his Opera of Rofamondr which intro¬ duced him to an acquaintance with that gentleman, who difcovering his merit, became bis fincere friend. On Mr Addifon’s being made fecretary of date, he appointed Mr Tickell his under-fecretary; and on his being obliged to refign that office on account of his ill health, he recommended him fo effedtually to Mr Craggs his fucceflbr, that he was continued in his poft till that gentleman’s death. In 1724 Mr Tickell was appointed fecretary to the lords juftices in Ire¬ land, and enjoyed that place as long as he lived. He wrote fome poems, which, when feparately publilhed, met with a favourable reception, and paffed through feveral editions: they are now printed in the fecond volume of The Minor Poets. After Mr Addifon’s death Mr Tickell had the care of the edition ofhis works printed in 4 vols 410; to which he prefixed an account of Mr Addifon’s life, and a poem on his death. Mr Tickell died in the year 1740. TIDES. See Astronomy, n° i6i.etfeq. TIDE-waiters, or Tidefmen, are inferior officers belonging to the cuftom-houfe, whofe employment is to watch or attend upon (hips until the cuftoms be paid : they get this name from their going on board fliips on their arrival in the mouth of the Thames or other ports, and fo come up with the tide. TIEND, in Scots law. See Law, n° clxxi. Tiend?- TIERCE, or Teirce, a meafure of liquid things, II as wine, oil, See. containing the third part of a pipe, o'r 42 gallons. TIERCED, in heraldry, denotes the fhield to be divided by any part of the partition-lines, as party, coupy, tranchy, or tailly, into three equal parts of different colours or metals. TIGER, in zoology. See Felis. TIGRIS, a river of Afia, which has its fource near that of the Euphrates in the mountain Tchildir in Turkomania : afterwards it feparates Diarbeck from Erzerum, and Khufiftan from Irac-Arab!; and uniting with the Euphrates at Gorno, it falls into the gulph of Buzarab, under the name of Schat el-Arab. This river paffes by Diarbekar, Gezirah, Mouful, Bagdad, Gorno, and Buzarah.. TILBURY, a fortrefs in the county of Effex^ feated on the river Thames, oppofite to Gravefend in Kent. TILIA, the lime or linden tree ; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. The moft remarkable fpecies is the Europcea, or common lime-tree, a native of Britain and other nor¬ thern countries of Europe. The leaves are heart- fhaped, with the apex produced, and ferrated on the edges; the flowers grow in a thin umbel, from three to nine together, of a whitifh colour and a fragrant fmell; very grateful to bees. The wood is light, fmooth, and of a fpongy texture, ufed for making lads and tables for Ihoemakers, &c. Ropes an‘d bandages are made of the bark, and mats and ruftic garments of the inner rind, in Carniola and fome other countries The lime-tree contains a gummy juice, which being repeatedly boiled and clarified, produces a fubftance like fugar. TILLANDSIA, the large barren wild pine of the Weft Indies; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants. It is called Caragatua by Father Pltimier, and is a parafitic plant, and ought perhaps, in ftrift propriety, to be denomi¬ nated an aquatic: for although it is fufpended in the air among the branches of lofty trees, to whofe boughs. it is fattened by its numerous roots; yet it is not indebted to thofe boughs, like the mifletoe and other parafitic plants, for nourifliment, but merely for fupport ; pro¬ vident nature having, in a very extraordinary manner, fupplied this with other means to preferve its exiftence:. for the leaves, which much referable thofe of the pine¬ apple, but are larger, furround this plant in a circular, manner ; each leaf being terminated near the ftalk with a hollow bucket, which contains about half a pint of water. It is by thefe numerous fmall refer- voirs of water, that the roots, as well as every other, part of this plant, are fupplied with nourifhment, with¬ out the-help of any earth. The flourifliing condition of this plant, as well as the great growth of fig-trees,, upon barren rocks, fliows that water is of greater ufe to vegetation than earth. One contrivance of nature in this vegetable, fays- Dr Sloane, is truly admirable. The feed is crowned with many long, downy threads, not only that it may be carried everywhere by the wind; but that by thofe threads> when driven through the boughs, it may be held faft; and flick to the arms and prominent partaof TIL [ 8611 ] TIM TiUemont the barks of trees. So foon as it fprouts of germi- n,... I! nates, although it be on the uoder-part of a bough, 1 01 on' its leaves and flalks rife perpendicular or eredt ; if they affumed any other diredtion, the ciflern or refer- voir juft mentioned, made of the hollow leaves, could not hold water, which is neceffary to the lift and nou- rifhment of the plant. In fcarcity of water this refer- voir is uftful, not to the plant only, but to men, and even to birds and all forts of infedls, which come thither in troops, and feldom go away without refrelhment. To the fame purpofe, Dampier, in his voyage to Campeachy, relates, “ that the wild pine has leaves that will hold a pint and a half or quart of rain-water, which refrefhes the leaves and nourishes the roots. When we find theft pines we flick our knives into the leaves, juft above the root; and the water gufhing out, we catch it in our hats, as I myfelf have fre¬ quently done, to my great relief.” TILLEMONT. See Na.n. TILLER of a Ship, a ftrong piece of wood faften- ed in the head of the rudder, and in fmall fhips and boats called the helm. TILLOTSON (John), a celebrated archbifhop of Canterbury, was the fon of Robert Tillotfon of Sawer- by, in the parifh of Hallifax in Yorkfhire, clothier; and was born there in the year 1630. He ftudied in Ctare-hall, Cambridge ; and in 1656 left this college, in order to become tutor to the fon of Edmund Prl- deaux, Efq; of Ford-abbey in Devonfhire. He was afterwards curate to Dr Hacket vicar of Chefhunt, in Hertfordfhire. In 1663, he was prefented by Sir Thomas Barnardifton to the re6tory of Ketton or Ked- dington in the county of Suffolk ; but was the next year chofen preacher to Lincoln’s Inn, when he pro¬ cured Ketton to be beftowed on his curate. He was greatly admired in London for his fermons ; and the fame year was appointed Tuefday-lc&urer at St Law¬ rence’s church, London, where his ledlures were fre¬ quented by all the divines of the city and many per- fons of quality and diftin&ion. In 1666, he took the degree of doftor of divinity at Cambridge ; in 1669, was made prebendary of Canterbury; in 1672, was admitted dean of that cathedral; and three years after, was made a prebendary of St Paul’s cathedral, Lon¬ don. In 1679, he became acquainted with Charles earl of Shrewfbury, whom he converted from Popery ; and the next year refufed to fign the clergy of I.on- don’s addrefs of thanks to king Charles II. for not agreeing to the bill of exclufion of the duke of York. In 1683, he vifited the unhappy lord Ruffel when un¬ der condemnation ; and attended him in his laft mo¬ ments on the fcaffold. In 1689, he was inftalled dean of St Paul’s ; made clerk of the cloftt to king William and queen Mary; and appointed one of the commif- fioners to prepare matters to he laid before the convo¬ cation, in order to a cocnprehenfion of all Proteftants, asjwell diffenters as churchmen ; but this attempt was fruftrated by the zeal of thoft members of that body, that refufed to admit of any alteration in things con- ftfftdly indifferent. In 1691, Dr Tillotfon was, not- withftanding the warmeft remonftrances and intreaties on his part, confecrated archbifitop of Canterbury, and four days after was fworn one of the privy-council; their majcfties always repofing an entire confidence in his prudence, moderation, and integrity. In 1694, he was feized with a dead palfy, of which he died in the Timatus 63th year of his age. He was interred in the church II of St Lawrence Jury, London, where a neat monu- Tlmbers, ment is ere&ed to his memory. This learned and pious divine, while living, was greatly inveighed againft by the enemies of the revolution. After his death there was found a bundle of bitter libels which had been publiffied againft him, on which he had written with his own hand, “ I forgive the authors of theft books, and pray God that he may alfo forgive them.” It is remarkable, that while this truly great man was in a private ftation, he always laid afide two-tenths of his income for charitable ufes. One volume in folio of Dr Tillotfon’s ftrmons was publifhed in his lift-time, and correded by his own hand: theft Barbeyrac tranf- lated into French. Thoft which came abroad after his death, from his chaplain Dr Barker, made two vols in folio, the copy of which was fold for 2500 1. and this was the only legacy he left to his family, his extenfive charity having confumed his yearly revenues as conftantly as they came to his hands. However, king William gave two grants to his widow; the firft of which was an annuity of 400]. during the term of her natural lift, and the ftcond of 2001. as an addition to the former annuity. Dr Tillotfon wrote fome other works befides his Sermons; and alfo publifhed Dr Bar¬ row’s works, and Dr Wilkins’s Treatift of the Prin¬ ciples and Duties of Natural Religion, and a volume of that divine’s Sermons. TIMiEUS, a Greek hiftorian, the fon of Andro- nicus, who was eminent for his riches and excellent qualities, was born at Tauromenium in Sicily, and flourifhed in the time of Agathocles. He wrote ft- veral books, and among the reft an hiftory of his owa country ; but they are all loft. TiMiEus, a famous Pythagorean philofopher, was born at Locres in Italy, and lived before Plato. There is ftill extant a fmall treatife of his on the Nature and Soul of the World, written in the Doric dialed. This treatife, which is to be found in the works of Plato, furnifhed that great philofopher with the fubjed of his treatife intitled Timeeus. TIMBER, a name for all kinds of felled and fea- foned woods. See Trees and Wood. TIMBERS, the ribs of a (hip, or the incurvated pieces of wood, branching outward from the keel in a vertical diredion, fo as to give ftrength, figure, and folidity to tbe whole fabric. It has been obferved in the article Naval Architecture, that one timber is cpmpofed of ftveral pieces united into one frame, which is accordingly called a frame of timbers by the ar¬ tificers. Theft different pieces are exhibited in Plate * CCLXVI. fig. 3. by U, V, and W ; the head of the lower piece, called the floor-timber, being cut fquare, to join the heel of the next above it. To fupport the connedion of the timber in that place, another affemblage of pieces are formed, aud joined in the fame manner ; fo that when both the fets are faft- ened together, the joinings in one fet will be. nearly oppofite to the middle of the pieces in the other. Hence it is evident, that the mould which ferves for the lowed piece will conform to the under part of the correfponding piece above it : and thus the mould ap¬ propriated to every divifion of a timber will determine or anfwer to the figure of the next adjoining thereto. 43 F 2 The TIM [86 Timf, —The timbers, whofe areas or planes sre perpendicu¬ lar to the keel, are called fquare-timbers; and thofe which are placed obliquely on the keel, as at the ex¬ tremities of a (hip, are called cant-timbers. The fore- moft: of thofe pieces on the fhip’s bow are called the knuckle-timbers; and the hindmoft on the quarter are called the faJhion-pieces.—Thi: outlines, or bends of the principal timbers of the fhip, are geometrically de¬ lineated in the plane of projedfion, ibid. fig. 4. as alfo In Plate CLIX. fig. 2. and Plate CCLXXVII. fig. 2.; and their particular flations in the fhip’s length are reprefented in the horizontal plane, and that of the ele¬ vation, PlateCCLXVI.fig. 1,2. In order to give a more comprehenfive idea of their figures and dimenfions, we have exhibited a perfpeftive view of the carcafe of a fmall veil'd Plate CCLXXXVI. fig. 1. confiding only of the keel A, the dern-poft B, the dem G, the tran- foms KLM, and the ribbands F F. TIME, a fucceffion of phenomena in the. univerfe, or a mode of duration marked by certain periods or meafures, chiefly by the motion and revolution of the fun- See Astronomy. The general idea which time gives in every thing to which it is applied, is that of limited duration. Thus we cannot fay of the Deity, that he exids in time ; becaufe eternity, which he inhabits, is abfolutely uni¬ form, neither admitting limitation nor fucceffion. Time, in mufic, is that which meafures the dura¬ tion of founds; and is marked by emphatic or accent¬ ed notes, which are heard at equal didances, or by the regular returns of cadences. A fucceffion of founds, fays Roufleau, however hap¬ pily it may be conduced in its procedure, in its tran- fitions from low to high, or from high to low, will produce nothing, if we may fpeak fo, but indetermi¬ nate effedts. It is the relative and proportionate du¬ ration of thefe very founds that fixes the genuine cha- rsdter of any mulic, and gives it its full energy. Time is the foul of melody: airs, whofe movements are flow, naturally dejedf our fpirits, and infpire fadnefs; but thofe which proceed with cheerfulnefs and vivacity, whofe cadences ?re regular and properly marked, ex¬ cite us to joy, and fcarce can the feet redrain them- felves from dancing. Remove meafure, dedroy the proportions of duration between founds, and the fame airs which thofe proportions rendered agreeable to you, wiii remain without charms and without force, will, in .fhort, become incapable of pleafing or intereding. Time, on the contrary, has its own intrinfic power; it depends on itfelf alone, and can fubfid without di- verfi.y of founds. Of this the drum prefents us with an example; rude indeed, and extremely inadequate, becaufe in it the founds cannot be fupported. Time in mufic is confidered, either with refpedl to the general movement of an air, and in this fenfe it is faid to be fwift or flow:' or it is confidered with re- fpeft to the aliquot parts of every bar; thefe parts are marked by motions of the hand or foot, and in a par- ticul-r fenfe are called times: or, in fhort, it is confi¬ dered with refpeft to the proper value of each parti¬ cular note in duration. In his Mufical Di&ionary, at the word Rhythme, Roufleau has fufficiently treated concerning the time of mufic among the Greeks. Such readers as wifh to examine the rhythtnus of the ancients more curioufly, 12 ] TIM may derive confiderable advantage from reading Cice¬ ro’s treatife De Oratore, and Burney’s diflertation pre-' fixed to his hiflory. We are more particularly con¬ cerned in the time of modern mufic. Thofe muficians who may be called ancient modernst only recognize two different fpecies of meafures or times; one containing three equal divifions of time, which they called perfect meafure; the other comprehending two, which they termed imperfeil meafure; and they deno¬ minated the figns which they added to the cleff, times-i modes, or probations, to fix the chara&er of the bars, whether of the one or the other kind. Thefe figns did not, as at prefent, ferve for that ufe alone, but they like- wife fixed the relative value of notes; as may be feen at the words Mode and Prolation in Rouffeau’s Mufical Di&ionary, with refpeft to the maximum or large, the long, the femibreve. With refpeA to the breve, the manner of dividing it was what they more precifely- called time; and that time was perfed or imperfe&. When the time was perfeft, the breve or fquare was equivalent to three femibreves; and this they fignified by a full circle, fometimes with lines drawn through it and fometimes not, fometimes likewife it was marked* thus j. When the time was imperfett, the breve was only equivalent to two femibreves; and this was marked by a femicircle or C. Sometimes this C was inverted; and this fignified that the value or duration of each parti¬ cular note was diminifhed by one half. We at prefent exprefs the fame thing by interfering C with a line. Sometimes the quantity of a bar, fignified by the in¬ terfered G, where the notes only are protrared to half their value, divided into what they called minor times; and that which was marked by the C without a line, win re the notes occupied their full duration, into- major times, in which the bar was generally divided into four equal parts or times. We have exailly retained the triple time of the an¬ cients, as well as the double, which wc call common time; but, by an unaccountable caprice, we have hardly retained any thing in their manner of dividing notes except by duplicates, though their divifion into three equal parts is often no lefs neceffary to us than to- them; fo that to divide a bar into three equal parts, or a time in the fame manner, we are at a lofs for cha- radfers of expreffion, and fcarcely can we tell how to fupply them. We muff have recourfe to the figure j, or to other expedients of the fame kind; which demon- ftrate how inadequate our mufical charafters are to an- fwer their proper purpofes^ SeeTaipnE in the Afw/f*- cal Dictionary. To ancient mufic we had added a combination of time, by which the bar, inlfead of two, is divided by four, equal parts or times; but as they may always be reduced to bars containing only two, it may be faid,, that in reality wc have only two or three times as the aliquot parts of all our different bars. The value of times is as numerous and different aa the diverfities in the quantity of bars and the modifi¬ cations of movement. But when the bar and the move¬ ment are once fixed, all the bars fli >uld be perfectly ^ equal, and all the times contained in each bar perfedfly equivalent one to another. Now, to render this equa¬ lity lenlible, every bar is (truck, and every time dittin- guiflied, by a motion of the hand or foot; and by thefe motions Time. ‘ * TIM [ 8613 ] TIM Time, motions the different values of notes are exa&ly regu- lated, according to the genius and character of the bar. It is a furprifing phenomenon to obferve with bow much precifion, by the affiftance of a little habit and practice, initiates may be brought to follow and diftinguifh the times, with an equality fo perfeft, that no pendulum can vibrate more ju&ly than the hand or foot of a good mufician, and that even the internal perception of this equality is fufficient to conduit them and to anfwer with accuracy every purpofe of fenfible motion ; fo that, in a concert, every performer plays or fings the bar with the utmoft exaititude, without hear¬ ing the time diftinguilhed by any other, or diftinguifh- ing it himfelf any other ways than by the fucceflion of his own ideas. Of the different times included in a bar, though all are equal, yet there are fome more Ilrongly and fenfi- bly marked than others. This diftinition is expreffed in execution by emphatic or accented notes, and by fuch as are unaccented or common. The time which is thus more fenfibly dittinguilhed is called the perfett time; that which is more feebly diflinguifhed, or which is occupied by unaccented notes, is called the imper* fed time. (See Music, art. 17+ ) The perfeft is the iirft of every bar, confiding of two times; it is the firft and third of fuch bars as include three or four times. The fecond time is always impelin every bar, and it is the fame cafe with the fourth in bars containing four times. If every time be fubdivided into two other equal parts, which may likewife be called ifochronic or hemi- chronic times, for the firft part of this fubdivifion you will likewife have a perfcfil time, and for the fecond an imperfed ; and there is no part of any time which may not, according to Roufleau, be fubdivided in the fame manner. Here, however, we muft difient; and for this plain reafon, that notes may be fo minutely fubdivided, as by the fhortnefs of their duration to be rendered inca¬ pable of emphafis; and we fhould be glad to know how this author, either with his hand, his foot, or this thought, could diltinguifh the pprftd and imperfed times of a demi-femiquaver. Every note which begins in the imperfed and ends in the perfed time, is an antichronic note; and as it violates and fhocks in fome meafure the order of the bar,_its commencement in the middle of one time, and its continuation to another, is called Jyncopatic/n. Thefe obfervations are neceffary to fuch as would learn how they may employ diffonances with fuccefs. For every diflonan'ce properly introduced, ought to be prepared in the imperfed, and (truck in th«, ptrfed time: except, however, in fueceffions of cadences a- voided, where this rule, though applicable to the firft diffonance, is not equally fo to thofe which fucceed it. See Discord and Preparation. Ilim's.-Keepers, or Injlruments far vicafuring Time. See Clock, Dial, &c. Time Keepers for finding the Longitude. Gemma Frifius feems to have been the fie;! who fuggeited the method of finding the longitude at fea by means of watches or time-keepers; which machines were then, as he fays, but lately -'nvented. After him Melius, and fome others, attempted it; but the date of watch¬ making was then too imperfed for this purpofe. The difpute between Hooke and Huygens, concerning the Time, invention and application of the pendulum-fpring to watches, was long and violent: each of them claiming this curious and moft ufeful invention, and reprefent- ing the other as a pirate. It is probable that their claims were each of them juft ; nor is this the only in- ftance in which different perfons have made the fame difeovery, nearly about the fame time. Hooke and Huygens, each of tbem, on making this difeovery, ap¬ plied it to the purpofe of difeovering the longitude at fea. Some difpute?, however, between the former of thofe gentlemen and the EngLfh miniftry at that time, prevented the making any experiments with watche* conftruded by him; but many experiments were made with watches conftrufted by Mr Huygens, from which it appeared that thofe watches were of no real ufe at fea for this purpofe. Dr Hooke never, as far as we know, made a full difeovery of bis inventions of this kind; but many hints are dropped in different parts of the Philofophical Tranfadions, his Philofophical Col- ledions, and Cutlerian Ledures; of which later me¬ chanics have undoubted availed themfelves. In 1714, an ad paffed for giving 20,000!. to that perfon who fhould firft difeover a method by which a fhip might fail from England to any port in the Weft: Indies, without having committed an error of 30' in her longitude, on arriving at the faid port. The firft who turned his thoughts this way, in confequence of this public encouragement, was Henry Sully, an Eng- liihman, but who had left England before the pi fling of this ad: for in 1714 he printed, at Vienna, a (mall trad on the fnbjcd of watch-making ; and foon after he removed from thence and fettled at Paris, where he fpent the remainder of his life in improving time¬ keepers for the difeovery of the longitude. In 1716’ he prefented a watch of his own making to the Royal Academy of Sciences, which was much approved. It is particularly faid, that he had greatly diminilhed the fridion; and that what he had not taken entirely away, he had by a very Singular addrefs rendered uniform. He went to Bourdeaux in 1726, for the convenience of trying his watches, and died there in 1728. The greater part of wbat is yet known of watch-making in France is principally to be attributed to him ; for the famous Julien le Roy was bis pupil, and owed moft of his inventions to him, which he afterwards perfeded and executed; and this gentleman, his fon, and M. Ber- thoud, are the only perfons in France who have turn¬ ed their thoughts this way Since the time of Sully. Se¬ veral watches made by the two latter artilts have been- tried at fea at the expence of the king of France, and very voluminous accounts of thefe trials have been pub¬ lished with great pomp; but the fads which are there related are fo very few, and thole few enveloped in fuch a volume of words, vague and indeterminate in their meaning, that it is fcarcely pofftbie to difeover from thence what thefe watches are capable of per¬ forming. M. Berthoud, in a pretty bulky pamphlet in 410, has with great labour collede/l together a few of the principal fads which refulted from the three laft trials that were made of two time-keepers conftruded by M. Le Roy, marked A and S; and of two of bis own con- ftrudion, denominated N° 6. and N° 8, which are as follow; June Time. TIM [ 8614 ] TIM June 8th, 1768, being then at Havre de Grace, M. Le Roy’s time-keeper A loft i"£ a-day on mean time; and S gained 4" a-day. At the ifland of Miquelon, on the coaft« of Newfoundland, A was lofing at the rate of o" -f a-day, and S gaining about 10" a-day on mean time. At Cadiz S gained on different days be¬ tween the 16th and 30th of September 1"^, 3", 2"5-, 3"-g-, 2" \ and \ a-day on mean time; and A gained on the fame day, refpeflively, 2", 3" |r, 2"4-, ■?’ and i4"-g-a-day. A gained on mean time, at Breft, from the 4th of November to the 7th, at the rate of 7" -f in 24 hours, and S at the rate of '5 " h -In November 1768, the time-keepers, N° 6. and N° 8. made by M. Berthoud, were put to the trial in a voyage conduced by M. Heurieu. Nov. 14th to Dec. 7th, at Rochford, Ji)ec. 2 2 d to Jan. 18 th, 1769, Ifled’Aix, March 1 ft to the 4th, at Cadiz, April 13th to 18th, at St Jago, May nth to 14th, Martinico, June 7th to the 1 ith, at St Domingo, July 25th to the 31ft, at Tercera, Aug. i8;h to the 21ft, at Teneriffe, Otft. 4th to the 10th, at Cadiz, Nov. ift to the 13 th, at the Ifleof Aix, Sfo 8 loft 4" 12 5 09 8 54 u 61 13 47 14 42 16 75 19 27 15 92 18 60 No 6 loft P6"33 4 80 5 61 7 81 4 17 7 94 12 78 14 05 25 03 25 10 In the month of Oftober 1771, two watches made by M. Le Roy, marked A and S, and M. Berthoud’s, N° 8. were again fent out on trial under Meff. Verdun, Borda, and Pingre. A was the fame watch which had been tried before by the Marquis de Courtanvaux and M. Caflini; but that marked 5 was a new one. They had alfo with them a fmall watch made by M.Le Roy, which, on account of its fize and form, they called La petite roJide,: but this did not anfwer at all. The per¬ formances of the other three were as follow: N° 8. At Breft, 0&. 10th tozdth, 1771, Gain.i"39 Cadiz, Nov. 21ft to Decern, ift, Do. o 50 St Crutz, Dec. 24th to Jan. 3d, 1772, Do. o 19 Goree, 16th to 25th January, Do. 1 46 Fort Royal, 17th to 26th Feb. Do. x 1 Fort Royal, 12th to i6;h March, Fort Royal, 28th Mar. to 7th Apr. Do. O 50 Cape Frangois, 18th Mar. to 30th Apr. Loft o 63 Miquelon, 30th May to 4th June, Do. 3 00 Patrixfiord, I oth to xSthJuly, Do. 4 72 Copenhagen, 20th Aug. to4th Sept. Gain.o 5 Breft, 10th to 17th! O&ober, Do. o 04 Loft 2"f4Gain.i"48 Do. 1 00 Do. 1 38 Gain.o 44 Do. 2 63 Do. 1 44 Do. 1 67 Do. 2 66 Do. o 66 Do. 4 19 Do. 1 12 — Do. 1 09 — Do. 2 24 — Do. 9 00 — Do. 8 22 — Do. 7 01 — Do. 8 07 On the 17 th of March the fhip ftruck on the Wil¬ Watch A. Watch S. mington Rock, which lies off the ifland of Antigua; and the thermometer of compenfation for heat and cold of the watch A was broken by the fhock, and the watch put entirely out of order. This accident was the caufe of their putting back to Port Royal. From this account it would appear, that M. Ber¬ thoud’s time-keepers greatly exceed thofe of M. Le Roy: but it ought perhaps to be obferved, that this (N° 8.) is the only one of his making which has per¬ formed fo well; and even this, on the former trial, did not go with any very great degree of regularity. About the year 1726, Mr John Harrifon, whofe name is now fo well known on account of his time¬ keepers, began to apply himfelf to the conftruftion of them: and in the year 1736, one of them was tried on board his Majefty’s fhips, in a voyage to and from Lifbon; in which trial it gave fo much faiisfa&ion, that he received public encouragement to proceed, and began to entertain hopes of obtaining the reward of¬ fered by the aft of the 12th of Queen Anne; in or¬ der to which, he made three other time-keepers, every one of which was more accurate, and better ad¬ apted to the purpofe of meafuring time truly at fea, than the former. The fecond of thefe was finilhed in 1739; and during the next ten years, its going was fo much admired by the ingenious men of thofe times, that the annual prize-medal, diftributed by the Royal Society, for improvements in experimental philofophy, was given to Mr Harrifon on St Andrew’s day, 1749. Mr Harrifon did not finifh his third machine until the year 1758; having then a fourth in confiderable for- wardnefs, and which he finifhed in Oftober 1761: this proved fo much to his fatisfaftion, that he wrote im¬ mediately to the commiffioners of the board of longi¬ tude, informing them that he was then ready to make the ultimate trial prefcribed by the above-mentioned aft. Accordingly Mr William Harrifon, fon of the inventor, embarked on board his Majefty’s fliip Dept¬ ford, in November 1761, with this fourth time-keeper, on a voyage for Jamaica; and the longitude of the ifland, as fliown by the time-keeper on his arrival there, differed but one minute and a quarter of the equator from the true longitude deduced from aftronomical ob- fervations. The time-keeper alfo pointed out the lon¬ gitudes of the feveral places which they faw in the courfe of the voyage, in a very exaft manner. Mr Harrifon junior returned to England with the time¬ keeper, in the latter end of March 1762, and found that it had erred in the whole, from its fetting out to its return to England, no more than 1' 54"-^ in time, or 28-I- minutes of longitude. Mr Harrifon now claimed the whole reward of 20,0001. offered by the aft of the 12 th of Queen Anne (1714); but fome doubts arifing in the minds of the commiflxoners concerning the true fuuation of the ifland of Jamaica, the manner in which the time at that place had been found, as well as at Portfmouth; and it be¬ ing further fuggefted by fome, that although the time¬ keeper happened to be right at thefe two times, name¬ ly when at Jamaica and on its return to England, it was by no means a proof that it had been always fo in the intermediate times, another trial was propofed in a voyage to the ifland of Barbadoes, in which precau¬ tions were taken to obviate as many of thofe objec¬ tions as pofiible. Accordingly, the commiffioners ha- TIM r 86 ’Pnne, vJng previoufly fent out proper perfons to make aftro- ' nomical obfervations at that ifland, which, when com¬ pared with other correfponding ones made in England, would determine beyond a doubt its true fituation; Mr William Harrifon again fet out with his father’s time¬ keeper, in the latter end of the month of March 1764, the watch having been compared with equal altitudes before he fet out at Portfmouth; and arrived at Bar- badoes about the middle of May: where, on compa¬ ring it again with equal altitudes of the fun, it was found to (how the difference of longitude between Portfmouth and Barbadoes 3h 55' 3". The true diffe¬ rence of longitude between thefe places, refulting from gftronomical obfervations, is 3h 54' 20": confequently the error of the watch was 43", or 10' 45" of longi¬ tude. The watch gained at the rate of 2", 58 a-day on mean time, from February 29th to March 2iff, at Portfmouth; and loft at the rate of 2", 8 a-day, from May 14th to May 17th, at Barbadoes. In confequence of this and the former trials, Mr Harrifon received a moiety of the reward offered by the a£t of the 12th of Queen Anne, on his explaining the principles by which his time-keeper was conftrudf- ed, and delivering it, as well as the former three, up to the commiffioners of the longitude for the ufe of the public. He was alfo promifed the other moiety of the reward, when other time-keepers were made on the fame principles, either by himfelf or others, whiqh per¬ formed equally well with that which he had laft made. This laft time-keeper was alfo fent down to the royal obfervatory at Greenwich, to be tried there under the dire&ion of the Rev. Mr Mafkelyne, his Majtfly’s aftronomer royal. It did not appear, however, that during the time of this trial the watch went with the regularity that was expedfed; nor indeed with any thing near the regularity that it muff adfually have gone with during the courfe of the two voyages that had been made with it; which furprifed many, and conveyed no favourable impreffion of the general uti¬ lity of this method of difcovering the longitude at fea; as it gave reafons for apprehending that the perform¬ ance, even of the fame watch, was not at all times equal; and confiquently that little certainty could be expedt- ed in the performance of different ones. Moreover, the watch was now found to go fader than it did du¬ ring its voyage to and from Barbadoes, by abotit 18 or 19 feconds in 24 hours: but this circufnllance was accounted for by Mr Harrrifon, in a publication inti- tled, Remarks on a Pamphlet lately pulli/hed by the Rev. Mr Majkelyne; where he tells us, that not expedling the watch would be required of him fo foon as it was, he had altered the rate of its going, by trying fome experiments which he had not time to finifh before he was ordered to deliver the watch up to the board. It is pofiible that the watch might be difordered by thefe experiments, and that diforder be the caufe of its fub- fequent irregularity. Soon after this trial, the commiffioners of longitude agreed with Mr Kendall, one of the watchmakers ap¬ pointed by them to receive Mr Harrifon’s difcoveries, to make another watch on the very fame conftruftion with this, in order to determine whether other watch¬ makers could make them from the account which Mr Harrifon had given, as well as himfelf. The event proved the affirmative: for the watch produced by Mr 15 ] TIM Kendall, in confequence of this agreement, went con- Time, fiderably better than that which had been made by Mr Harrifon himfelf: and indeed better than any which have been made fince on other principles, this only ex¬ cepted which is the fubjedt of the account before us. This watch, made by Mr Kendall on Mr Harrifon’s conftruftion, was fent out in the fecond voyage which Captain Cook made towards the South Pole, and round the world, in the years 1772, 1773, 1 774> and I775» to be tried under the care of Mr Wales, who was employed by the board of longitude for that pur- pofe: and it appears from his account, that this watch was lofing at the rate of 4 of a fecond a-day, from March the 24th to April 25th 1772, at the royal ob¬ fervatory at Greenwich. Auguft ift 1772, at the ifland of Madeira, latitude 32°^ N. longitude 170 W. it loll at the rate of 1", 77 a-day on mean time. At the Cape of Good Hope, latitude 33°!: S. longitude 184 E. it gained at the rate of 1", 2 a-day on mean time, from November 2d to the 14th, 1772; and the great- eft variation between the rates of its going on any two days was 5", 4. At Bulky Bay, in New Zealand, la¬ titude 45°4 S. longitude 1660 E. the watch gained at the rate of 6", 7 a-day, from the 6th of April to the 25th, 1773, and its greateft variation was 3", 6 from any one day to any other in that time. The watcli gave the longitude of the ifland of Madeira 170 6'-j-W. which, for aught that is yet known to the contrary, is the exa£t longitude of that place. It made the longi¬ tude of the Cape of Good Hope 180 12'^ E. which is about 11' Ihort ‘of the truth; and the longitude of Bulky Bay, in New Zealand, 163° 47'|- E. or too little by about 2° But we ought, perhaps, with the perfon who had this watch then under his care, to obferve, that in the compafs of thefe 13 months the watch had palled through all climates, from the lati¬ tude of 5 ii N. to 67° S. and over a fpace nearly equal to the whole equatorial circumference of the earth. The only defedl which appears to have been in this watch is, that its rate of going was continually acce¬ lerated; but in the three years and a half that it was under this trial, it never amounted to I4"4 a-day; for on its return to Greenwich,- in the month of Auguft 1775» ^ gained only 137 a-day; and its greateft rate during the voyage was at Fayal, one of the weftern iflands, where it gained at the rate of 13"} 5 a-day on mean time. In confequence of the going of this watch, the Houfa of Commons were plea fed, in 1774, to order the other moiety of the reward offered by the a& of the 12th of Queen Anne, to be given to Mr Harrifon : and to ena6t, that any other ptrfon who, by means of a time¬ keeper, the principles of which had not then been made public, fhould enable a fhip to keep her longitude du¬ ring a voyage of fix months, within 60 geographical miles, or a degree of a great circle, flrould be entitled to a reward of 5000I.; that in cafe he could enable her to keep her longitude for the fame time within 40 .geographical miles, or two-thirds of a degree of a great circle, he fhould be entitled to a reward of 7500!.; oy to a reward of io,oaol. if he enabled her to keep it for that time, within 30 geographical miles, or half a degree of a great circle. This determination, however, ought clearly to have been in minutes of the equator; as it now is, it may be fubje& to ntjtnberlefs depute*... TIM [ 8616 1 TIM Time. Thia reward was in 1780 claimed by Mr Arnold,"who invented a new balance fpring, with a compenfation for the effefts of heat and cold in the balance. It appears from this report of the going of Mr Ar¬ nold’s watch, that the mean rate which it went at du¬ ring the month of February 1779, was lofing o", 51 a-day on mean folar time : during the month of March, its mean daily lofs was 1", 37: during the month of April, i", 38; during the month of May, 1", 34; the month of June, , 47; July o", 31 ; Align,ft o", 55. In the month of September it gained, on mean folar time, at the rate of o'\ 44 a-day ; in Octo¬ ber, at the rate of o", 38; at the rate of o", 04 in the month of November; and it loft at the rates o ', 50, o", 68, and o", 60, refpeftively, in the months of December 1779, January and February 1780. From hence it appears, that the parts of this machine which are tocounteradt the effedts of heat and cold, are moft exadlly adjufted; and perform their office with all the regularity that can ever be expedted. It further appears, that Mr Arnold has very happily adjufted his balance, to go alike in the different pofi- tions that the watch may be put into: for we find, that when the watch was in an horizontal pofition, with the face upwards, it gained at the rate of 1", 72 a day, on mean folar time; with the face downwards, it gain¬ ed 2", 83: in a vertical pofition, with the hour XII. upwards, it gained at the rate of o", 55 a-day; with the hour VI. higheft, at the rate of 3", 85 a-day; with the hour IX. higheft, at the rate of o", 29 a-day; and with the hour III. hightft, it loft at the rate of o", 35 per day.—The greateft difference between the rates at which the watch went on any two days in thefe 13 months, is 6", 69; namely, between its rates on Oc¬ tober 8;h and December 26th. The greateft diffe¬ rence between its rates of going on any day, and the next to it, is 4", 11; namely, between the 26th and 27th of December. So that the greateft error that it would have committed in the difference of longitude on any one day, would have been very little more than one minute; which, as Mr Arnold jnftly obferves, is determining the longitude daily, to as great precifion as the latitude can in general be determined. If we take the mean rate which it went at during the month of February 1779, as a ftandard rate with which we may compare its going for the following 12 months, we {hall find that the greateft error which it would have committed in the longitude fhown by it, would have been 2', 33", 2, or 38' 18" in longitude: and this error happened about the end of fix months, or in the beginning of September; for during thefe fix months, the watch had all along gone flower than it did in the month of February, with which rate of go¬ ing it is compared ; but about the beginning of Sep¬ tember it began rather to go fafter than it did in the month of February, and by that means began to leffen its total error. And it continued to do fo until the latter end of November, when it began again to go ’flower than it had done in the month of February, and of courfe to increafe the quantity of its total error. And this it continued to do until the latter end of Fe¬ bruary 1780, when the error appeared again to be at a maximum, and equal to 2' 6", 6 in time, or 31' of longitude. After this time it rather decreafed to the end of the month. Harrifon’s Tm*.-Keeper. See Longitude, and the Time j preceding article. II TIMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian general. ot!ieu* who reftored the Syracufans to their liberty, and drove the Carthaginians out of Sicily. See Syracuse, 5°—54- TIMON, furnamed Mifanlhropos, or the Man- hater, a famous Athenian, who lived about 420 B. C. He was one day afked, why he loved the young Alci- biades while he detefted all the reft of the human race ? on which he replied, “ It is bctaufe I forefee that he will be the ruin of the Athenians.” He care¬ fully avoided all forts of company; yet went one day to an aflembly of the people, and cried with a loud voice, “ That he had a fig-tree on which feveral per- fons had hanged themfelves; but as he intended to cut it down, in order to build a houfe on the place where it flood, he gave them notice of it, that if any of them had a mind to hang themfelves, they muff make hafte and do it fpeedily.” He had an epitaph engraved on his tomb, filled with imprecations againft thofe who read it. Shakefpeare has formed au excellent tragedy on his ftory. TIMOR, an ifland of AGa, in the Eaft-Indian fea, to the fouth of the Moluccas, and to the eaft of the ifland of Java, being 150 miles in length, and 37 in breadth. It abounds in fandal-wood, wax, and honey; and the Dutch have a fort here. The inhabitants are Pagans, and are little better than favages; and fome pretend they had not the ufe of fire many years ago. TIMOTHEUS, one of the moft celebrated poet- muficians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city of Caria, 446 years B. C. He was co¬ temporary with Philip of Macedon and Euripides ; and not only excelled in lyric and dithyrambic poetry, but in his performance upon the cithara. According to Paufanias, he perfefted that inftrument, by the addition of four new firings to the feven which it had before; though Suidas fays it had nine before, and that Timotheus only added two,the tenth and eleventh, to that number. See Lyre. With refpeft to the number of firings upon the lyre of Timotheus: The account of Paufanias and Suidas is confirmed in the famous fenatus-confultum againft him, tlill extant, preferved at full length in Boethius. Mr Stillingfleet has lately given an extrad from it, in proof of the fimplicity of the ancient Spartan mufic. The fad is mentioned in Athenams; and Cafaubon, in his notes upon that author, has inferted the whole original text from Boethius, with corredions. The following is a faithful tranflation of this extraordinary Spartan ad of parliament. “ Whereas Timotheus the Milefian, coming to our city, has difhonoured our ancient mufic, and, defpifing the lyre of feven firings, has, by the introdudion of a greater variety of notes, corrupted the ears of our youth ; and by the number of his firings, and the novelty of his melody, has given to our mufic an effeminate and artificial drefs, inftead of the plain and orderly one in which it has hitherto appeared ; rendering melody infamous, by compofing in the chromatic inftead of the enharmonic: The kings and the ephori have therefore refolved to pafs cenfupe upon Timo¬ theus for thefe things: and, farther, to oblige him to cut all the fuperfluous ftnngs of his eleven, leaving only TIN [ 8617 ] TIN Timothy, only the feven tones ; and to banifli him from our city; Tin‘ that men may be warned for the future not to intro- ' ’ * duce into Sparta any unbecoming euftom.” ] The fame ftory, as related in Athenaeus, has this additional circumftance, That when the public ex¬ ecutioner was on the point of fulfilling the fentence, by cutting off the new firings, Timotheus, perceiving a little ftatue in the fame place, with a lyre in his hand of as many firings as that which had given the offence, and fhowing it to the judges, was acquitted. It appears from Suidas, that the poetical and nautical compofitions of Timotheus were very nume¬ rous, and of various kinds. He attributes to him nineteen nomes, or canticles, in hexameters; thirty-fix proems, or preludes; eighteen dithyrambics; twenty- one hymns; the poem in praife of Diana; one pane¬ gyric ; three tragedies, the Perfians, Phinidas, and Laertes; to which mull be added a fourth, mentioned by feveral ark;‘*’nt authors, called niobe, without for¬ getting the poem on the birth of Bacchus. Stephen of Byzantium makes him author of eighteen books of nomes, or airs, for the cithara, to eight thoufand verfes; and of a thoufand n^ooi^a, or preludes, for the nomes of the flutes. Timotheus died in Macedonia, according to Saidas, at the age of ninety-feven; though the Marbles, much better authority, fay at ninety ; and Stephen of By¬ zantium fixes his death in the fourth year of the 105th Olympiad, two years before the birth of Alexander the Great; whence it appears, that this Timotheus was not the famous player on the flute fo much efleemed by that prince, who was animated to fuch a degree by his performance, as to feize his arms; and who employed him, as Athenseus informs us, toge¬ ther with the other great muficians of his time, at his nuptials. However, by an inattention to dates, and by forgetting that of thefe two muficians of the fame name the one was a Milefian and the other a The¬ ban, they have been hitherto almoft confounded. TIMOTHY (St), the difciple of St Paul, was the fon of a Gentile: but his mother was a Jewilh convert. St Paul wrote two epiftles to him, which are acknow¬ ledged to be canonical. St Timothy was ftoned at Ephefus for oppofing the worfhip of Diana and the fuperftition of the Gentiles, at one of that goddefs’s feftivals, about the year 109. TIN, one of the feven perfeft metals. See Che¬ mistry, n° 150, 203, 246, 285, 406. See alfo Metallurgy. This metal is found very plentifully in the fouthern parts of Britain, particularly Cornwall, to which and Devonfhire the mines are now principally confined. Though in itfelf the lighted, it is in its ore the heavieft of all the metals. It is very feldom, if ever, found pure, and the appearances of its ore are very different. The fineft and richeft are ftyled tin grains, or corns of tin, being crydals of a black colour of dif¬ ferent fizes. It is alfo found in an heavy black Hone, fometitnes in a more porous yellow-coloured one, and is commonly intermixed with fpar, arfenic, &c. Tin- mines are generally found, on the Tides of the hills, though veins fometimes pafs through valleys or brooks between two hills, and may be traced to the oppofite hill. The miners work with the utmoft difficulty through hard rocks from three to 70 fathoms depth; Vol. X. and it is no lefs troublefome, as well as dangerous, Tindal where the earth is loofe and apt to crumble. Tintoretto veins are of an uncertain thicknefs ; from three inches 1 to three feet. Tin grains or corns of tin yield five parts in eight of metal'; whereas tin ftones yield only from one in 30 to one in 60, and to one in 120; for thefe laft are alfo wrought with fome fmall profit. After melting it is called black tin ; but before it can be expofed to fale it is carried to one of the five coinage-towns, where, after examination of a piece that is broke from the corner of a block, the arms of the duchy of Cornwall are impreffed with an ham- me’-, and then it is called fwhite tin. The duty on coinage, which is four ftiillings on the hundred-weight, belongs to the prince of Wales as duke of Cornwall, and produces a revenue of upwards of 10,0001. per annum. TINDAL (Dr Matthew), a famous Engliflt writer, was the fon of the reverend Mr John Tindal of Beer- Ferres in Devonrtttre, and was born about the year 1657. He ftudied at Lincoln college in Oxford, whence he removed to Exeter, and was afterwards elected fellow of All Souls. In 1685 he took the degree of dodtor of law, and in the reign of James II. declared himfelf a Roman Catholic; but foon renounced that-religion. After the Revolution he publifhed feveral pamphlets in favour of government, the liberty of the prefs, &c. His “ Rights of the Chriftian Church afferted,” oc- cafioned his having a violent contell with the high- church clergy, and his treatife “ Chriftianity as old as the Creation,” publifhed in 1730, made much noife, and was anfwered by feveral writers, particu¬ larly by Dr Conybeare, Mr Forller, and Mr Leland. Dr Tindal died at London in Auguft 1733. He left in manufeript a fecond volume of his “ Chriftianity as old as the Creation the preface to which has been publiftied. Mr Pope has fatyrized Dr Tindal in his Dunciad. TINDALE, or Tyndale. SccTyndale. TINE. There are two rivers of this name ; the one called North Tine, which rites on the borders of Scotland; and the other called South Tine, which rifes on the confines of Cumberland ; the one running fouth-eaft, and the other north-eaft. They unite their waters at Hexham ; and continuing to run call, divide the counties of Durham and Northumberland, palling by Newcaftle, and falling into the German fea at Tinmouth. TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with # melted tin, or tin reduced to a very fine leaf. Look- ing-glaffes are foliated or tinned with thin plates of beaten tin, the whole bignefs of the glafs, applied or faltened thereto by means of quickiilver. See Foli¬ ating. TINNITUS aurium, a nolle in the ears like the continued found of bells, very common in many dif- orders, particularly in nervous fevers. TINTORETTO, fo called from being the Ton of a dyer, but whofe proper name was Giacomo Robujii ; was an excellent painter, born at Venice in 1512. He was a difciple of Titian ; who having oblefved fomething extraordinary in his genius, difmiffed him from his family, for fear he fhould become his rival: yet he adhered to Titian’s manner of colouring as the molt natural, while be ftudied Michael Angelo’s gufto 43 G of TIP [86 Tipperary of defigning as the moft correfl. He was called the . il . Furious Tintoret, from his bold manner of painting, p with ftrong lights and deep fhadows ; from the rapi¬ dity of his genius ; and from his grand vivacity of fpirit, fo much admired by Paul Veronefe. Venice was the place of his conflant abode, where he was made a citizen, and was wonderfully beloved: he died in 1594. Tintoret had a fon and a daughter, both of whom excelled in the art of painting; his daughter Maria efpecially, who was eminent for an admirable ftyle in portraits, and for her mufical talents. She married a German, and died in 1530. Dominico his fon gave great hopes in his youth of being a confider- able portrait-painter ; but fell fhort by neglefting his talents: he died in 1637. TIPPERARY, a county of the province of Mun- fler in Ireland, bounded on the weft by that of Lime¬ rick and the river Shannon, on the eaft by the county of Kilkenny, on the fouth by the counties of Cork and Waterford, and on the north and north-eaft by King’s-county and the territory of the ancient 0‘Car- rols. Ir extends about 60 miles in length, 36 in breadth, containing 599,500 acres, divided into 14 baronies, in which are feveral market-towns and bo¬ roughs. It fends eight members to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for the city of Cafhel, and two for each of the boroughs of Clonmell, Fethard, and Thurles. The north part of it is mountainous and cold ; but in the fouth the air is milder, and the foil much more fertile, producing plenty of corn, and good pa ft u re for the numerous herds of cattle and flacks of fheep with which it abounds. The north part is called Ormond, and for a long time gave the title of earl, and afterwards of marquis and duke, to the noble family of Butler, defcended from a After of Thomas a Becket archbilhop of Canterbury, till, at the acceflion of George I. the lait duke was attainted of high-treafon, and died abroad. In that part of the county, the fa¬ mily had great prerogatives and privileges granted thfm by Edward III. Another diftridl in this county was anciently called the county of the Holy Crofs of Tip- perary, from a famous abbey in it ftyled Holy Crofs, on account of a piece of Chrift’s crofs that was laid to be preferved there. This abbey and diftridl enjoyed alfo fpecial privileges in former times. The remains of the abbey, or rather the fpot where it Rood, are Ail! held in great veneration, and much refoned to by the Roman Catholics. TIPSTAFF, an officer who attends the judges with a kind of ftaff tipped with filver, and takes into his charge all prifoners. who are committed or turned over at a judge’s chambers. TIPIJLA, the crane-fly ; a genus of infefls be- longing to the order of diptera. The mouth is.a pro¬ longation of the head ; the upper-jaw is arched. They have two palpi, which are curved, and longer than the head. The probofeis is (hort, and bends inwards. They are divided into two families. I. Thofe with wings difplayed. 2. Thofe with wings incumbent, and which in form refemble a gnat. This two-winged infeft is often taken for the gnat, which it refembles, but has not its mifehievous inftind, nor its murderous probofeis. The larger tipulas go by the name offempjlreffes, the fmall ones by that of c-ulioiform; which latter, in fine fumraer-evenings, flut- [8 ] T I R ter about the water-fide in legions, through which a perfon may pafs on his way unhurt. The (brill noife they make with their wings is not very difcernible. Tipulse, before they become inhabitants of the air, creep under the form of grubs. Thofe which turn to larger tipulse dwell in holes of decayed willows, in the dampeft. places, where they change into chryfalids, and in that ftate have the faculty of breathing through two fmall curve horns; befides which they are endowed with progreffive motion, but not retrogreffive, being impeded by little fpines placed on every ring of the abdomen. When the (hroud is torn, the infe£f, pret¬ tily apparelled, efcapes from his gloomy habitation by means of his wings, which often are variegated, and takes his paftime in the fields. Its long legs, and its wings, mutually affift each other when it either walks or flies. The larva and chryfalids of the little tipulas are found in water. They are various in colour, form, and carriage ; fome being grey, others brown, and others red ; fome, like the polypus, furnifhed with a pair of arms ; feveral with cylindrical tubes that per¬ form the office of vent-holes. Thefe fwim with nim- blenefs; thofe never leave the holes they have dug themfelves in the banks of rivulets. Laftly, others make a filken cod that receives part of their body ; but all of them, after a period, renounce their reptile and aquatic life, and receive wings from the hands of nature. Their frame is then fo weak, that a touch is enough to crufli them. They are fometimes of a beau¬ tiful green, fometimes coal-black ; and the moft. re¬ markable are tbofe whofe fore-legs, extraordinarily long, do not touch the ground, and are moveable like antenuse. In this ftate of perfection, the tipulae being provided with proper organs, apply themfclvea to the propagation of the fpecies. Tuofe fame poor infefis, who in the ftate of larvae have efcaped the vqraciouf- nefs of fifties, often become, in their progrefs through the air, a prey to equally mercilefs birds. TIRE, in the fea-language, is a row of cannon placed along a (hip’s fide, either above upon deck, or below, diftinguiftied by the epithets of upper lower tires. TIRESIAS, a famous foothfayer of antiquity, was the fon of Everes and the nymph Charielo. Phere- cydes fays, that Minerva being accidentally feen by Tirefias, as (he was bathipg with Chariclo in the fountain of Hippocrene, the goddefs was enraged, and declared that he (hould fee nothing more, on which he inftantly loft his fight: but afterwards received from the goddefs fupenor endowments. Others fay, that Juno (truck him ftone-blind for deciding a cafe be¬ tween Jupiter and her, to her diffatisfadion ; for which Jupiter gave him the faculty of divination : He was the moft celebrated prophet, in the Grecian annals. Ulyfles is ordered by Circe to confult him ia the (hades. There feek the Theban bard depriv’d of fight. Within irradiate with prophetic light. But, befides the honour done to him by Homer, Sophocles makes him add a venerable and capital part in his tragedy of Oedipus. Callimachus aferibes to Minerva the gift of his fuperior endowments; the pre¬ eminence of his knowledge is likewife mentioned by Tally in his firft book of Divination. And not only Tirefias is celebrated by Diodorus Siculus, but his daughter Daphne, who, like her father, was gifted with T I R [ 8619 ] TIT Tiro!, a prophetic fpirit, and was appointed prieftefsat Dd- ' phos. She wrote many oracles in verfe, from whence Homer was reported to have taken federal lines, which “he interwove in his poems. As {he was often feized with a divine fury, (he acquired the title of/%/, which fignities “ enthufiaft.” She is the firfl on whom it was fceftowed : in after-times this denomination was given to feveral other females that were fuppofed to be infpired, and who uttered and wrote their predict tions in verfe ; which verfe being fung, their funftion may be juftly faid to unite the priefthood with pro¬ phecy, poetry, and mufic. TIROL, or Tyrol, a county of Auftria, under which may be included the territories belonging to the bifhops of Brixen, Trent, and Chur, Teutonic Order, and the prince of Deitrichftein, the Auftrian feignio- ries before the Arlberg, and the Auftrian diftridts in Swabia. This county, with regard to the face of it, is very mountainous. Of thefe mountains, fome have their tops always buried in fnow ; others are covered with woods, abounding with a variety of game ; and others are rich in metals, and marble of all colours. Of the lower, fome yield plenty of corn, others wine, and woods of chefnut trees. The valleys are exceeding fer¬ tile alfo, and pleafant. In fome places confiderable quantities of flax are raifed, in others there is a good breed of horfes and horned cattle ; and, among the mountains, abundance of chamois and wild goats. In this country are alfo found precious ftones of feveral forts, as granates, rubies, amethyfts, emeralds, and a fpecies of diamonds, agates, cornelians, chalcedonies, malachites, &c. nor is it without hot-baths, acid wa¬ ters, falt-pits, mines of filver, copper, and lead, mine¬ ral colours, alum, and vitriol. The principal river of Tyrol is the Inn, which after traverfing the country, and receiving a number of leffer ftreams into it, enters Bavaria, in which, at Pafiau, it falls into the Danube. The men here are very tall, robuft, and vigorous; the women alfo are flout, and generally fair: and both fexes have a mixture of the Italian and German in their tempers and chara&ers. As there is little trade or manufacture in the country, except what isoccafioned by the mines and falt-works, many of the common people are obliged to feek a fubfiftence elfewhere. A particular kind of falutation is ufed all over Tyrol. When a perfon comes into a houfe, he fays, Hail ! Jefus Chrift the anfwer is, “ May Chrift be praifed, and the Holy Virgin his mother.” Then the mafter of the houfe takes-the vifitor by the hand. This fa¬ lutation is fixed up in print at all the doors, with an advertifement tacked to it, importing, that pope Cle¬ ment XI. granted an hundred days indulgence, and a plenary abfolution, to thofe who fliould pronounce the falutation and anfwer, as often as they did it. The emperor has forts and citadels fo advantageoufly fitua- tcd on rocks and mountains all over the country, that they command all the valleys, avenues, and pafles that lead into it. The inhabitants, however, to keep them in good humour, are more gently treated, and not fo highly taxed as thofe of the other hereditary countries. As to the ftates they are much the fame in this coun¬ try as in the other Auftrian territories, except that the peafants here fend deputies to the diets. Tyrol came to the houfe of Auftria ia the year 1.363, when Margaret, countefs thereof, bequeathed it to her uncles Titan,. the dukes of Auftria. The arms of Tyrol are an eagle TltflcSi gules, in a field argent*. The counts of Trap are he- reditary ttewards; the lords of Glofz, chamberlains; the princes of Trautfon, marlhals ; the counts of Wol- kenftein, matters of the horfe and carvers j the houfe of Spaur, cup-bearers; the counts of Kunig!, fewers and rangers; the counts of Brandis, keepers of the jewels; the houfe of Welfperg, purveyors and ftaff- bearers ; and the counts of Coalto, falconers. Betides the governor, here are three fovereign colleges, fub- ordinate to the court at Vienna, which fit at Infpruek, and have their different departments. Towards the expences of the military eftablithment of this county, the proportion is 100,000 florins yearly; but no more than one regiment of foot is generally quartered in if. Tyrol is divided into fix quarters, as they are called, namely, thofe of the Lower and Upper Innthal, Vintf- gow. Etch, Eifaqk, and Pufterthal. TITAN, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Coelus and Terra, and the eldeft brother of Saturn, fuffered the latter to enjoy the crown, on condition that he fliould bring up none of his male iffue, by which means the crown would at length revert to him; but Jupi.er be¬ ing fpared by the addrefs of Rhea, Saturn’s wife, Ti¬ tan and his children wer? fo enraged at feeing their hopes fruftrated, that they took up arms to revenge the injury; and not only defeated Saturn, but kept him and his wife prifoners, till he was delivered by Jupiter, who defeated the Titans; when from the blood of thefe Titans (lain in the battle, proceeded ferpents, fcorpions, and all venomous reptiles. See Saturn. TITHES, in ecelefiaftical law, are defined to be the tenth-part of the increafe, yearly arifing and re¬ newing from the profits of lands, the (lock upon lands, and the perfonal induftry of the inhabitants: the firifc fpecies being ufually calledas of corn, grafs, hops, and wood ; the fecond mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &c. confifting of natural products, but nurtured and preferved in part by the care of man ; and of thefe the tenth muft be paid in grofs: the third perfonal, as of manual occupations, trades, fiftierics, and the like; and of thefe only the tenth-part of the clear gains and profits is due. We fliall, in this article, confider, 1. The original of the right of tithes. 2. In whom that right at pre. fent fubfifls. 3. Who may be difeharged, either to¬ tally or in part, from paying them. 1. As to their original, we will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right ; though fuch a right certainly commenced, and we believe as certainly ceafed, with the Jewilh theocracy. Yet an honourable and oompetent maintenance for the mini- fters of the gofpel, is undoubtedly jure divino, what¬ ever the particular mode of that maintenan-ce may be. For, befides the pofitive precepts of the New Tefta* ment, natural reafon will tell us, that an order of men who are feparated from the world, and excluded from other lucrative profeffions for the fake of the reft of mankind, have a right to be furniflied with the necef- faries, conveniences, and moderate enjoyments of life, at their expence ; for whole benefit they forego the uiual means of providing them. Accordingly all mu¬ nicipal laws have provided a liberal and decent main¬ tenance for their national priefts or clergy: ours, in 43 G 2 parti- 1Tithes. T I T f 8620 1 TIT particular, have eftabliftied this of tithes, probably in imitation of the Jewifh law : and perhaps, confidering the degenerate ftate of the world in general, it may be more beneficial to the Engliih clergy to found their title on the law of the land, than upon any divine right whatfoever, unacknowledged and unfupported by tem¬ poral fan&ions. We cannot precifely afcertain the time when tithes were firil introduced into this country. Poffibly they were cotemporary with the planting of Chriftianity among the Saxons by Auguftin the monk, about the end. of the fixth century. But the firft mention of them which we have met with in any written Englifii law, is a conftitutional decree, made in a fynod held A. D. 786, wherein the payment of tithes in general is ftrongly enjoined. This canon or decree, which at firlt bound not the laity, was effedtually confirmed by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary conventions of eftates, refpe&ively confiding of the kings of Mercia and Northumberland, the hilltops, dukes, fenators, and people. Which was a few years later than the time that Charlemagne eftablilhed the payment of them in France, and made that famous divifion of them into four parts ; one to maintain the edifiee of the church, the fecond to fupport the poor, the third the bifitop, and the fourth the parochial clergy. The next authentic mention of them is in the fxdus JLJwardi et Guthruni; or the laws agreed upon be¬ tween king Guthrun the Dane, and Alfred and his fon Edward the Elder, fucceflive kings of England, about the year 900. This was a kind of treaty be¬ tween thofe monarchs, which may be found at large in the Anglo-Saxon laws : wherein it was neceffary, as Guthrun was a Pagan, to provide for the fubfiltence of the Chriftian clergy under his dominion ; and ac¬ cordingly, we find the payment of tithes not only en¬ joined, but a penalty added upon non-obfervance : which law is feconded by the laws of Athelftan, about the year 930. And this is as much as can certainly be traced out with regard to their legal original. 2. Upon the firft introdu&ion, though every man was obliged to pay tithes in general, yet he might give them to what priefts he pleafed ; which were called arbitrary confeeratiom of tithes; or he might pay them into the hands of the biftiop, who diftributed among his d ocefian clergy the revenues of the church, which were then in common. But when diocefes were di¬ vided into parifties, the tithes of each parifli were al¬ lotted to its own particular minifter ; fit ft by common content or the appointments of lords of manors, and afterwards by the written law of the land. However, arbitrary contecrations of tithes took place again afterwards, and became in general ufe till the time of king John. Which was probably owing to the intrigues of the regular clergy, or monks of the Bene¬ dictine and other rules, under archbifhop Dunftan and his fuccefibrs; who endeavoured to wean the people fr«m paying their dues to the fecular or parochial clergy, (a much more valuable fet of men than them- felves), and were then in hopes to have drawn, by fanc- timonious pretences to extraordinary purity of life, all ecclefiaftical profits to the coffers of their own focie- ties. And this will naturally enough account for the number and riches of the monaftcries and religious houfes which were founded in thofe days, and which were frequently endowed with tithes. For a layman, who was obliged to pay his tithes fomewhere, might think it good policy to ereft an abbey, and there pay them to his own monks, or grant them to fome abbey already erefted: fince for this donation, which really coll the patron little or nothing, he might, according to the fuperftition of the times, have maffes for ever fung for his foul. But in procefs of years, the in¬ come of the poor laborious pariftv priefts being fcanda- loufly reduced by thefe arbitrary confecrations of tithes, it was remedied by pope Innocent III. about the year 1200, in a decretal epiftle fent to the archbilhop of Canterbury, and dated from the palace of Lateran: which has occafioned Sir Henry Hobart and others to miftake it for a decree of the council of Lateran, held A. D. 1179, which, only prohibited what was called the infeodation of tithesy or their being granted to mere laymen; whereas this letter of pope Innocent to the archbilhop enjoined the payment of tithes to the par- fons of the refpeftive parilhes where every man inha¬ bited, agreeable to what was afterwards diredted by the fame pope in other countries. This epiftle, fays Sir Edward Coke, bound not the lay fubje&s of this realm; but being reafonable and juft, it was al¬ lowed of, and fo became lex terra. This put an ef- fe&ual flop to all the arbitrary confecrations of tithes; except fome footfteps which ftill continue in thofe por¬ tions of tithes which the parfon of one parilh hath, though rarely, a right to claim in another: for it is how univerfally held, that tithes are due, of common right, to the parfon of the parilh, unlefs there be a- fpecial exemption. This parfon of the parilh may be either the adtuai incumbent, or ell'e the appropriator of the benefice: appropriations being a method of en¬ dowing monafteries, which feems to have been devifed by the regular clergy, by way of fubftitution to arbi» trary confecrations of tithes. Lands and their occupiers may be exempted or dff- charged from the payment of tithes, either in part or totally, firft, by a real compofttion; or, fecondly, by cuftom or prefeription. Firf, a real compofition is when an agreement is made between the owner of the lands and the parfon or viear, with the content of the ordinary and the pa¬ tron, that fuch lands (hall for the future be difeharged from payment of tithes, by reafon of fome land or other real recompenfe given to the parfon in lieu and fatif- fadlion thereof. This was permitted by law, becaufe it was fuppofed that the clergy would be no lofers by fuch compofition ; fince the content of the ordinary, whofe duty it is to take care of the church in general, and of the patron, whofe intereft it is to protedl that parti¬ cular church, were both made neceffary to render the compofition effedtual: and hence have arifen all fuch compofitions as ex ill at this day by force of the com¬ mon law. But experience Ihowing that even this cau¬ tion was ineffeftual, and the poffcffions of the church being by this and other means every day dirainifhed, the difabling ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. was-made; which prevents, among other fpiritual perfons, all parfons and vicars from making any conveyances of the eftates of their churches, other than for three livess or 2i years. So that now, by virtue of this ftatute, no real compofi¬ tion made fince the 13 Eliz. is good for any longer v term TIT F 8621 1 TIT thes. term than three lives or 21 years, though made by confent of the patron and ordinary : which has indeed leffe&ually demoldhed this kind of traffic; fuch compo- fitions being now rarely heard of, unlefs by authority of parliament. Secondly^ a difcharge by cuftom or prefcription, is where time out of mind fuch perfons or fuch lands have been, either partially or totally, difcharged from the payment of tithes. And this immemorial ufage is binding upon all parties; as it is in its nature an evi¬ dence of univerfal confent and acquiefcence, and with reafon fuppofesa real compofition to have been former¬ ly made. This cuftom or prefcription is either wwfo decimandi, or de non dechnando. A modus decimandi, commonly called by the fimple name of a modus only, is where there is by cuftom a particular manner of tithing allowed, different from the general low of taking tithes in kind, which are the ac¬ tual tenth-part of the annual increafe. This is fome- times a pecuniary compenfation, as twopence an acre for the tithe of land: fometimes it is a compenfation in work and labour, as that the parfon (hall have only the twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, in confidera- tion of the owner’s making it for him: iometimes, in lieu of a large quantity of crude or imperfedt tithe, the parfon (ball have a lefs quantity when arrived to greater maturity, as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe- eggs, and the like. Any means, in fhort, whereby the general law of tithing is altered, and a new method of taking them is introduced, is calltd a modus decimandi, or fpec’a! manner of tithing. A prefcription de non decimando is a claim to be en¬ tirely difcharged of tithes, and to pay no compenfa¬ tion in lieu of them. Thus the king by his preroga¬ tive is difcharged from all tithes. So a vicar (hall pay no tithes to the redfor, nor the redfor to the vicar, for ecckfia decimas non folvit ecclefue. But thefe perfonat privileges (not ariling from or being annexed to the land) are perfonally confined to both the king and the clergy; for their tenant or leffee fhall pay tithes, tho’ in their own occupation their lands are not generally tithable. And, generally fpeaking, it is an eltabiifhed rule, that in lay hands, modus de non decimando non va¬ let. But fpiritual perfons or corporations, as mona- fteries, abbots, bifhops, and the like, were always ca¬ pable of having their lands totally difcharged of tithes by various ways: as, 1. By real compofition. 2. By the pope’s bull of exemption. 3. By unity of poffef- fion ; as when the redtory of a parifh, and lands in the fame parifh, both belonged to a religions houfe, thofe lands were difcharged of tithes by this unity of poffef- fion. 4. By prefcription; having never been liable to tithes, by being always in fpiritual bands. 5. By virtue of their order; as the Knights Templars, Cifter- cians, and others, whofe lands were privileged by the pope with a difcharge of tithes. Though, upon the diliblution of abbeys by Henry VIII. moft of thefe ex¬ emptions from tithes would have fallen with them, and the lands become trthable again, had they not been fupported and upheld by the ftatute 31 Henry VIII. c. 13. which enadls, that all perfons who fhould come to the poffeffion of the lands of any abbey then diffol- ved, fliould hold them free and difcharged of tithes, in as large and ample a manner as the abbeys themfelves formerly held (hem. And from this original have fprung all the lands which, being in lay hands, do at Tithing prefent claim to be tithe-free: for if a man can fliow Tit-an0 his lands to have been fuch abbey-lands, and alfo im- ltlAn°* memorially difcharged of tithes by any of the means before-mentioned, this is now a good prefcription de non decimando. But he muft (how both thefe requifites: for abbey-lands, without a fpecial ground of difcharge, are not difcharged of courfe; neither will any prefcrip¬ tion de non decimando avail in total difcharge of tithes, unlefs it relates to fuch abbey-lands. TITHING, (Tithinga, from the Sax. Tbeothunge, h- e. Decuriam), is in its firft appointment the num¬ ber or company of ten men with their families, held together in a fociety, all being bound for the praceable behaviour of each other? and of thefe companies there was one chief perfon, who was called teothung-man, at this fay tithing-man: but the old difopline of tithings is lohg fince left off. In the Saxon times, for the bet¬ ter confervation of the peace, and more eafy admini- (Iration of juftice, every hundred was divided into ten diftridls or lithings ; and within every tithing, the ti- thing-men were to examine and determine all lefi'er caufes between villages and neighbours; but to refer greater matters to the then fuperior courts, which had a jurifdi&ion over the whole hundred'. TiTHiNG-fffew, are now a kind of petty conftables, elefted by pari(hes, and fworn in their offices in the court-leet, and fometimes by juftices of the peace, &c. There is frequently a tithing-man in the fame town with a conftable, who is as it were a deputy to execute the office in the conftable’s abfence; but there are fome things which a conftable has power to do, that tithing- men and head-boroughs cannot intermeddle with. When there is no conftable of a pariffi, the office and authority of a tithing-man feems to be all one under another nam^. TITHONUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Laomedon king of Troy, and the brother of Priamus J was beloved by Auiora, who carried him to Delos, thence to Ethiopia, and at laft to heaven, where (he prevailed on the Deftinies to beftow upon him the gift of immortality; but forgot to acid that of youth, which could only render the prefent valuable. At length Ti- thonus grew fo old that he was obliged to be rocked to deep like an infant, when Aurora, not being able to put an end to his mifery by death, transformed him into a grafshopper; which renews its youth by calling his (kin, and in its chirping retains the loquacity of olT age. TITIANO, or 'Eitian, the moft univerfal geniua for painting of all the Lombard fchool, the bell co- lourift of all the moderns, and the moft eminent for hiftories, portraits, and landfcapes, was born at Ca- dore, in the province of Friuli, in the ftate of Venice, in 1477. His parents fent him at ten years of age to one of his uncles at Venice, who finding that he had an inclination to painting, put him to the fchool of Giovanni Bellino, where he greatly improved himfelf, by his endeavouring to excel Giorgone his fellow dif- ciple, and became the greateft coloured ever known. He defigned with much greater eafe than Giorgone. Some of his women and children, fays du Frefnoy, are admirable both for the defign and colouring; they are in a delicate and noble gufto, with a certain pleafing ne¬ gligence of the head-dreffes, draperies, and ornaments TIT [ 8622 ] T O B Titiano, of the habits peculiar to him. However, the figures of his men are defigned but moderately well, and fome of their draperies are mean. His painting is wonder¬ fully glowing, fweet, and delicate. He made portraits that were extremely noble ; the attitudes being very graceful, grave, and adorned after a becoming man¬ ner. Nobody ever painted landfcapes with fo great a manner, fo good a colouring, and with fuch a refem- blance of nature. For eight or ten years he took the pains to copy with great exaftnefs whatever he per¬ formed, in order to obtain an eafy method, and to ella- blifh fome genera! maxims for his future conduft. Be- fides his excellent gufto in colours, in which he excel¬ led all mankind, he perfe&ly underftood how to give every thing the touches moft proper and fuitable to it, fuch as diilinguifti them from each other, and which give the greateft fpirit and the moft of truth. He was, however, cenfured b) Michael Angelo Buonaruoti for want of corre&nefs in defign, a fault common to all the Lombard painters who had not been acquainted with the antiques, yet that defeft was abundantly fopplied by his being matter of all the other parts of an accom- plilhed artift. Titian made three portraits of the emperor Char.V. who honoured him with knighthood, created him count palatine, made all his defcendants gentlemen, and afiigned him a confiderable pen lion out of the cham¬ ber of Naples. It is faid this emperor one day took up a pencil that Titian dropped when drawing his pic¬ ture; and that upon the compliment made him by the artift on this occafion, he replied, “ Titian deferves to be ferved byCasfar.’' In fliort, fome of that emperor’s courtiers being unable to conceal their jealoufy on the vifible preference he Ihowed to Titian’s perfon and con- verfation, the emperor told them, That he could never want courtiers, though he might a Titian. He ac¬ cordingly loaded him with wealth ; and whenever he fent him money, he did it with this obliging obferva- tion, That it was not to pay him the value of his pic¬ tures, becaufe that was above all price. Titian alfo painted that emperor’s fon Philip II. Solyman empe¬ ror of the Turks, three kings, two emprefles, feveral queens, two popes, and almott all the princes of Italy; and fo great was his reputation, that there was hardly a perfon of any eminence in Europe from whom he did not receive fome marks of efteem; for being of an ob¬ liging and generous temper, his houfe at Venice was the conftant rendezvous of all the virtuofi and people of quality. He was of fo happy a conftitution, that he was never ill till the year 1576, when he died of the plague, at 99 years of age. His difciples were Paulo Veronefe, Giacomo Tintoret, Giacomo de Ponte Baffauo, and his fons. Horatio, Titian’s youngeft fon, painted feveral por¬ traits that might ftand in competition with thofe of his father. He was alfo famous for many hiftory-pieces, which he executed at Venice in concurrence with Paul Veronefe and Tintoret: but, bewitched at laft with al¬ chemy, he laid afide his pencil, and, in fearch of the phibfophers’s ftone, converted all his paternal inheri¬ tance into fmoke. TITLE, an appellation of dignity or quality, gi¬ ven to princes and other perfons of diftin£tion. Thus the title of his Britannic majefty is, King of Great Bri¬ tain, France, and Ireland', that of the French king is, King of France and Navarre: and fo of others. The Title j pope aftiimes the title of Holtnefs, and the cardinals that To|a Q ; 1 of Eminence, See. 0 Z -g Title, in law, denotes any right which a perfon has to the pofieffion of a thing; or an authentic mftru- ment whereby he can prove his right. See the arti¬ cles, Right, Property, &c. Title t» the Cro'wn in the Brit if) Conjhtntion, See Succession. TITMOUSE, in ornithology. See Parus. TITULAR, denotes a perfon invefted with a title, in virtue of which he holds an office or benefice, whe- » ther he perform the fun&ions thereof or not. TITUS Vespasianus, the Roman emperor, the fon of Vefpafian; of whom it is related, that not be¬ ing able to recolleft any remarkable good adtion he had done on a certain day, he exclaimed, “ I have loft a day !” He might truly be called the father of his people; and though Rome laboured under various pub¬ lic calamities during his reign, fuch was his equitable and mild adminiftration, that he conftantly preferved his popularity. He was a great lover of learning, and compofed feveral poems. He reigned but two years; and it is thought Domitian his brother poifoned him, A. D. 8i, aged 41. See [Hifory of) R"me. TIVIOT, or Cheviot, hills, are high hills in the county of Northumberland in England. TOAD, in zoology. See Rana. ’TQAts Fifb. See Lophius. 'YoA.'a-Flax, in botany. See Antirrhinum. TOBACCO, in botany. See Nicotiana. 'YoTS&.cco-Pipe-Fifj. See Fistularia. TOBAGO, one of the Caribbee iflands, ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris in 1763, but ta¬ ken by the French in the courfe of Jaft war. It lies in the latitude of 11 degrees 10 minutes north, and 59 degrees 40 minutes longitude weft from London, a- bout 40 leagues foulh-by-weft from Barbadoes, 35 fouth-eaft from St Vincents, 20 fouth-eaft from Gre¬ nada, 12 north-eaft from the Spanifh ifland of Trini- dada, and between 30 and 40 north-eaft from the Spar nifh main. According to the latett accounts, it is fomewhat more than 30 miles in length from north-eaft to fouth-weft, between 8 and 9 in breadth, and from 23 to 25 leagues in circumference. The Englifh vt- fited this ifland very early, Sir Robert Dudley being there in the reign of queen Elizabeth. In that of Charles I. William Earl of Pembroke procured a grant of this, with two other fmall iflands; but died before he was able to carry into execution bis defign of fettling them. In A. D. 1632 fome merchants of Zealand fent over a fmpll colony thither, and gave it the name of New Walcheren; but before they were able tho¬ roughly to eftablilh themfelves, they were deftroyed by the Indians affifted by the Spaniards. Ten years after, James Duke of Courland fent a colony thither, who lettled themfelves upon Great Courland bay, and made a confiderable progrefs in planting. A. D. 1654^ Mefiieurs Adrian and Cornelius Lampfins, two opu¬ lent merchants of Flulhing, fent a confiderable num¬ ber of people thither, who fettled on the other fide of the ifland, and lived in amity with the Courlanders un¬ til they learned that the king of Sweden had feized the perfon of their duke and difpoffefied him of his do¬ minions, when they attacked and forced his fubjsfls to fubmit. T O B [ 8623 ] T O L iTobago, fubmit. The duke being afterwards rellored, he ob* Tobolfl.!. tained from Charles II. a grant, dated the i7thofNo- * vember 1664, of this ifland. In the fecond Dutch war the count d’Ellrees, by order of his mailer, to¬ tally ruined it at the clofe of the year 1677, and from that time it continued wade till we took pofleffion of it after the treaty of Paris. The climate, notwithlland- ing its vicinity to the line, is fo tempered by the breezes from the fea, as to be very fupportable even to Euro¬ peans; and hath the fame advantages with that of Grenada, in having regular feafons, and alfo in being exempt from the hurricanes. There are throughout the ifland many riling grounds, though, except at the north-eaft extremity, there is no part of it that can be flyled mountainous, and even there the country is far from being rugged or impaflable. The foil, if we may credit either Dutch or French writers, is as fertile and luxuriant as any of the iflands, and very finely diverfi- fied. Ground provifions of all forts have been railed in great plenty, a vail variety of vegetables, excellent in their kind, fome for food, fome for phyfic. Almoil every*fpecies of ufeful timber is to be found here, and fome of an enormous fize; amongil others, the true cinnamon and nut-meg tree, as the Dutch confefs, and of which none could be better judges; whole groves of faflafras, and of trees that bear the true gum copal, with other odoriferous plants that render the air whole- fome and pleafant. It is as well watered as can be wifhed, with rivers that fall into the fea on both fides, many fmaller dreams, and fine freih fprings in almoft every part of the ifland. The fea-coaif is indented by 10 or 12 fair and fpacious bays, and there are amongil thefe one or two ports capable of receiving as large fhips as ever vifited thofe feas. There are wild hogs in great plenty, abundance of fowls of different kinds, and a vafl. variety of fea and river fifh. At the north- eall extremity lies Little Tobago, which is two miles long, and about half a mile broad, very capable of im¬ provement. TOBOLSKI, the capital of Siberia, is fituated at the confluence of the rivers Tobol and Irtifh, in N. Lat. 58. E. Long. 63. The city ftands upon the af- cent of a high hill, the lower part of which is inha¬ bited by Mahometan Tartars, who carry on a con- fiderable traffic upon the river Irtifh, and convey their merchandife quite acrcfs Great Tartary, as far as China. The river Irtifh is reckoned as rapid as the Danube; runs from the foutb, and empties itfelf into the Oby : the Tobol wafhes the other fide of the town, and a little below it falls into the Irtifh. By means of thefe two rivers, there is a condant flow of merchandife into the city during the fummer-feafon. Toboldci is therefore a great mart for the commodities of Mufcovy, Tartary, and other countries: and here is a great concourfe of merchants. All forts of provi¬ fions are plentiful and cheap. An hundred weight of rice is fold for fixteen copecs, equal to about eight-' pence derling; a flurgeon, weighing forty pounds, for half that money ; an ox for two rix-dollars, and every other article in proportion : the adjacent coun¬ try abounds with game in great variety. The fu- prtme court of judicature for all Siberia is held in this city, which is alfo the feat of a metropolitan, fent hither from Mofcow to exercife fpiritual jurifdidlion over the whole kingdom. Tobolfki is well fortified, and defended by a drong garrifon, under the com- Tockay mand of the waiwode, who refides in the place, and takes charge of the fur tribute, which is here depo- ■0. filed in proper magazines. This governor enjoys a very extenfive command, and can occafionally bring into the field nine thoufand men, befides a drong body of Tartars on horfeback, to make head againtt the Khalmucks and Coflacks, in their repeated in- curfions. A fufficient number of Ruffians, called JemJkoiks, are kept in continual pay by the govern¬ ment, on the banks of the Irtifli, to fupply travellers on the czar’s account with men, boats, or carriages, to convey them as far as Surgut on the Oby, a voy¬ age of two hundred leagues by water. This is the common method of travelling in the fummer ; but in winter the journey by land is not half fo long, being performed in fleds over the ice and fnow, with which the country is covered. Thefe fleds are moved by a pair of dogs, which will draw a load of three hundred pounds with furprifing expedition. They are hired at eafy rates, and during one half of the year may be feen flying over the fnow in great numbers. TOCKAY, a very drong town of Upper Hungary, in the county of Zimplin, with a cadle. It is noted for its excellent wine, which is produced but in ore vineyard, infomuch that it is fcarce at Vienna itfelf j fo that it is no wonder to find other wines oftep, fold for it. Some didance from the town are large falt- works. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers Bodrag and Teifle. E. Long. 21.5. N. Lat. 48. o. TODDY. S?e Arack. TOGA, in Roman antiquity, a wide woollen gown or mantle ; which feems to have been of a femi- circular form, without fleeves ; differing both in rich- nefs and largnefs, according to the circumdances of the wearer, and ufed only upon occafion of appearing in public. Every body knows that the toga was the didin- guifhed mark of a Roman : hence, the jus toga, or privilege of a Roman citizen ; i. c. the right of wear¬ ing a Roman habit, and of taking, as they explain it, fire and water through the Roman empire. TOISE, a French meafure containing fix of their feet, or a fathom. TOLAND (John), a very famous writer, was born near Londonderry in Ireland, 1670, and edu¬ cated in the Popifh religion; but at fixteen years of age embraced the principles of the Protedants. He dudied three years at the univerfity of Glafgow; was created mader of arts in the univerlity of Edinburgh ; and afterwards completed his dudies at Leyden, where he redded two years. He then went to Oxford, where, having the advantage of the public library, he collefled materials upon various fubjedls, and com- pofed fome pieces, among which was, A Didertation to prove the received hillory of the tragical death of Atiiius Regulus, the Roman conful, to be a fable. He began likewife a work of greater confequence, in which he undertook to diow that there are no myde- ries in the Chrillian religion. He publifhed it in 1696 at London, under the title of Chriftianity not myjierious. This book gave great offence, and was attacked by feveral writers. He afterward wrote in favour of the Hanoverian fucceffion, and many other pieces. lu 1717 he went into Germany, where he vi- T O L [ 8624 ] Toledo, fited feveral courts; and in 1710 he was introduced to following obferyatu Toleration.prjnce Eugene, who gave him feveral marks of his ge- ~ nerofity. Upon his return to England he was for fome time fupported by the liberality of the earl of Oxford lord-treafurer, and kept a country-houfe at Epfom ; but foon lofing his lordfhip’s favour, he publiihed fe¬ veral pamphlets againll that minifter’s meafures. In the four laft years of his life he lived at Putney, but ufed to fpend mod part of the winter in London. Mr Toland died at London in 1722. He was a man of uncommon abilities, publilhed a number of curious trades, and was perhaps the mod learned of all the in¬ fidel writers: but his private chara&er was far from being an amiable one; for he was extremely vain, and wanted thofe focial virtues which are the chief orna¬ ments as well as duties of life. His podhumous works, 2 vols 8vo, were publifhed in 1726, with an account of his life and writings, by Mr Defmaizeaux. TOLEDO, an ancient and trading city of Spain in New Cadile, of which it was formerly the capital. It is advantageoufly feated on the river Tajo, which furrounds it on two fides ; and on the land-tide it has an ancient wall built by a Gothic king, and flanked with 100 towers. It is feated on a mountain, which renders the dreets uneven, and which are narrow; but the houfes are fine, and there are a great number of fuperb druftures, befides 17 public fquares, where the markets are kept. The fined buildings are the royal cadle and the cathedral church ; which lad is the riched and mod confiderable in Spain. It is feat¬ ed in the middle of the city, joining to a handfome ftreet, with a fine fquare before it. Several of the gates are very large, and of bronze. There is alfo a fuperb deeple extremely high, from whence there is a very didant profpeft. The Sagrariro, or principal chapel, is a real treafury, in which are 15 large cabi¬ nets let into the wall, full of prodigious quantities of gold and filver vefielf, and other works. There are two mitres of filver gilt, fet all over with pearls and precious dones, with three collars of maffy gold, enriched in like manner. There are two bracelets and an imperial crown of the Virgin Mary, confiding T O L s in Dr Robertfon’s hiftory ofTbleratidfrj Charles V. “ Among the ancient heathens, all whofe : deities were local and tutelary, diverfity of fentimenta concerning the objefts or rites of religidus worthip feems to have been no fource of animofuy; becaufe the acknowledging veneration to be due to one God, did not imply a denial of the exidence or the power of any other god -K nor were the modes and riles of wordiip edablithed in one country incompatible with thofe which other nations approved and obferved. Thus the errors in their fydem of theology were of fuch a na¬ ture as to be produ&iveof concord; and notwithdand- ing the amazing number of their deities, as well as the infinite variety of their ceremonies, a fociable and tolerating fpirit fublided almod univerially in the Pa¬ gan world. “ But when the Chridian revelation declared one Supreme Being to be the fo!eobjt& of religious vene¬ ration, and preferibed the form of worfhip mod ac¬ ceptable to him, whoever admitted its truth, h id every other mode of religion to be ablurd and impious. Hence the zeal of the fird converts to the Chridian faith in propagating its do&rints, and the ardour with which they laboured to overturn every other form of wordiip. They employed, however, for this pur- pofe, no methods but fuch as fuited the nature of reli¬ gion. By the force of powerful arguments, they con¬ vinced the underdandings of men ; by the charms of fuperior virtue, they allured and captivated their hearle. At length the civil power declared in favour of Chri- fh’anity, and though numbers, imitating the example of their fuperiors, crowded into the church, many dill adhered to their ancient fuperditions. Enraged at their obdinacy, the minillers of religion, whofe zeal was dill unabated, though their fandtity and virtue Were much diminilhed, forgot fo far the nature of their own miflion, and of the arguments which they ought to have employed, that they armed the imperial power againd thefe unhappy men ; and as they could not perfuade, they tried to compel them to believe. “ At the fame time, controverfies concerning ar¬ ticles of faith multiplied, from various caufes, among of large diamonds and othef jewels. The weight of Chridians them dives ; and the fame unhallowed w the gold in the crown is 15 pounds. The veflel which contains the confecrated wafer is of filver gilt, as high as a man, and fo heavy, that it requires 30 men to carry it ; within it is another of pure gold enriched with jewels. Here are 38 religious houfes, mod of which are worthy a traveller’s notice, with many other facred buildings, a great number of churches belonging to 27 pariflies, and fome hofpitals. With¬ out the town are the remains of an amphitheatre, and other antiquities. It is an archbilhop’s fee, has a famous univerfity, and feveral manufadtories of filk and wool. It is very pleafantly feated in E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 43. 6. TOLERATION, in matters of religion, is either civil or ecclefiaitical. Civil toleration is an impunity and fafety granted by the date to every fedt that does not maintain doftrines inconfident with the public peace: and eccldiadical toleration is the allowance which the church grants to-its members to. differ in certain opinions, not reputed fundaments. See Non¬ conformists. On the fubjedt of religious toleration, we have the pons which had fird been ufed againd the enemies of their religion were turned againd each other. Every zealous difputant endeavoured to intered the civil ma* gidrate in his caufe, and each in his turn employed the fecular arm to crufh or to exterminate his oppo¬ nents. Not long after, the bilhops of Rome put in their claim to infallibility in explaining articles of faith, and deciding points in controverfy ; and, bold as the pretenfion was, they, by their artifices and perfeverance, impofed on the • credulity of mankind, and brought them to recognize it. To doubt or to deny any doc¬ trine to which thefe unerring indrudiors had given the fandfion of their approbation, was held to be not only a refiding of truth, but an adt of rebellion againd their facred authority ; .and the fecnlar power, of which, by various arts, they had acquired the abfolute diredfion, was indantly employed to avenge both, “ Thus Europe had been accudomed, during many centuries, to fee ^eculative opinions propagated or defended by force,- the charity and mutual forbearance which Chridianity recommends with fo much warmth, were forgotten, the facred rights of confcience and of private T O L <1 862^ ] TON toleration private judgment were unheard of; and not only the ■ToiJfera ^ea to^frat*on» ^>’ut CTen l^e word itfelf, in the fenfe -l a_‘ now affixed to it, was unknown. A right to extirpate error by force, was univerfally allowed to be the prero¬ gative of thofe who poffefled the knowledge ®f truth ; and as each party of Chrtftians believed they had got poflcffion of this invaluable attainment, they all claim¬ ed, and exercifed, as far as they were able, the rights which it was fuppofed to convey. The Roman Ca¬ tholics, as their fyfiem refted on the decilions of an infallible judge, never doubted that truth was on their fide, and openly called on the civil power to repel the impious and heretical innovators who had rifen up againft it. The Proteftants, no lefs confident that their doflrine was well founded, required with equal ardour the princes of their party to check fuch as pre¬ fumed to impugn or oppofe it. Luther, Calvin, Cran- mer, Knox, the founders of the reformed church in their refpeftive countries, inflifted, as far as they had power and opportunity, the fame punilhments which were denounced againft their own difciples by the church of Rome, on fueh as called in queftion any ar¬ ticle in their creeds. To their followers, and perhaps to their opponents, it would have appeared a fymptom ef diffidence in the goodnefs of their caufe, or an ac¬ knowledgment that it was not well-founded, if they had not employed in its defence all thofe means which it was fuppofed truth had a right to employ. “ It was towards the clofe of the 17th century, be¬ fore toleration, under its prefent form, was admitted firft into the republic of the United Provinces, and from thence introduced into England. Long expe¬ dience of the calamities of mutual perfecytion, the in¬ fluence of free government, the light and humanity ac¬ quired by the progrefs of fcience, together with the prudence and authority of the civil magiftrate, were all requifite in order to eftablifh a regulation fo re¬ pugnant to the ideas which all the different fefts had adopted from miftaken conceptions concerning the na¬ ture of religion and the rights of truth.” TOLOSA, a town of Spain, in the province of Bifcay, and capital of Guipufcoa. It is not large, but it is the capital of the province. It is feated in a gleafant valley, between two rivers, Araxes and Oria ; ever which there are two handfome bridges, and near them are feveral natural cafcades. W. Long. 2. 3. N. Lat. 43. 12. TOLU, a town of South America, in Terra Fir- ma, and in the government of Carthagena ; famous for the fine balfam of Tolu, brought into Europe from thence, and produced from a tree, like a pine. It is feated on a bay of the north fea, 60 miles fouth of Carthagens. W. Long. 72. 55. N. Lat. 9. 40. TOLUIFERA, the balsam of Tolu tree ; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de- candria clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies, growing naturally near Carthagena in America, from wl?Ence the late Dr Houftoun fent the feeds to Eng¬ land : in its native place this grows to a tree of a large fize. The bark is very thick, rough, and of a brown colour; the branches fpread out wide on every fide, and are garnifhed with winged leaves, compofed of feveral oblong lobes, placed alternately along the foot- ftalk, terminated by an odd one, rounded at both ends, but run oiit to an acute point at the top; they are Vol. X. fmootb, of a light-green colour, and fit clofe to the Toluifer* foot-ftalk. The flowers are produced in fmall bunches II at the wings of the branches, each (landing upon a on*‘ (lender foot-ftalk almoft an inch long; their empale- ments are of the round bell-fhape, being of one leaf, which is flightly fcolloped at the brim into five ob- tufe parts. The flower has four narrow petals of a yellow colour, which are a little longer than the em- palement, and one more whofe tail is of the fame length with the other petals ; the top is of an oval beart-fhape, ftretched out beyond the other parts; it has ten fhort flamina within the tube of the flower, which are ter¬ minated by oblong eredl fummits, of a fulphur colour; and at the bottom of the tube is fnuated a roundifli germen, having a very fhort ftyle, crowned by an acute-pointed ftigma. After the flower is paft, the germen turns to a roundifh fruit the fize of a large pea, divided into four cells, each containing one ob¬ long oval feed.-—This tree may be propagated by feeds, which muft be procured from the country where it grows naturally, and fhould be frefh, otherwife they will not grow. When they are gathered from the tree, they fhould be put up in fand to preferve them ; for when they are fent over in papers, the infe6ls ge¬ nerally devour them. Thefe feeds mufl be fown in pots filled with light earth as foon as they arrive, and plunged into the tan. If it fhould happen in autumn or winter, they fhould be plunged into the (love ; but in fpring or fummer, they may be plunged into the tan- bed under a frame; they fhould be taken out of their covers, otherwife they will be long in the ground be¬ fore they vegetate. When the plants come up, and are fit to remove, they fhould be carefully tranfplanted, each into a feparate pot, and plunged into a good hot¬ bed of tanners bark, (hading them from the fun till they have taken new root; after which they fhould be treated in the fame way as the coffee-tree, with which management the plants will fucceed. TOMPION, a fort of bung or cork tifed to flop the mouth of a cannon. At fea this is carefully en¬ circled with tallow or putty, to prevent the penetra¬ tion of the water into the bore, whereby the powder contained in the chamber might be damaged or ren¬ dered incapable of fervice. TON, a meafure or weight. See Tun. TONE, or Tune, in mufic, has feveral fenfes. 1. It is moft immediately taken for that interval which characterizes the diatonic fyftera or fpecies, or what, in our language, we call a note played or fung. In this acceptation there are two kinds of tones ; viz. the major tone, whofe proportion is as 8 to .9, and which refults from the difference between the fourth and the fifth ; and the minor tone, whofe proportion is as 9 to 10, and which refults from the difference be¬ tween the third minor and the fouuh.-^-The produc¬ tion of the major and that of the minor tone, are equally- found beginning with ut at the fecond re, which forms a fifth abo-ve felt for the quantity by which this re is Superior to the odave of the firft ut, is exadly in the proportion of 8 to 9 ; and that by which the fame re is inferior to mi, the third major of that odave, is in the proportion of 9 to to. 2. That degree of elevation which is taken by voices or inflrnments for performing a piece of mufic, is like-, wife called the/ot? or/-/Yc/fc. It is in this fenfe that 43 H we TON [ 8626 ] TON ■'rone, we fay, in a concert, the t:m is too high or too low. 3. Tone is taken for a rule of modulation with re¬ lation to a fundamental note or principal found, which ia called the tonic or key note. See Tonic. With refpeft to the tones of the ancients, may be confulted Roufieau’s Di&ionary, at the word Mode. As our modern fyftem contains in each o&ave 12 different notes or founds, which, relatively to that oc¬ tave, are called femi-tones; each of thefe founds may ferve for the fundamental of a tone, that is to fay, may be its tonic. Thefe tones are already 12 ; but as the major and minor modes are applicable to each of them, upon thefe 12 there are 24 different modulations of which our mufic is fufceptible. See Modulation. Thefe tones differ one from another by various de¬ grees of elevation between the loweft and higheft, ac¬ cording as the tonic takes its ftation. They differ alfo by the different alteration of founds and intervals pro¬ duced in each tone by the temperament; fo that, upon a harpfichord properly in tune, a praflifed ear recog¬ nizes any tone whatever whofe modulation it hears ; and tbefe tones are equally recognized upon harpfi- chords, though tuned higher or lower feme than others: which fhows, that this difeernrnent proceeds at leaft as much upon the modification which every note receives from the whole chord, as upon the degree of eleva¬ tion which the tonic occupies in the harpfichord. From hence arifes a fucceffion of varieties and beau¬ ties in modulation. From hence arifes a wonderful diverfity and energy in the exprefiion. From hence arifes, in fhort, the power of exciting different feelings by fimilar chords, when (truck, in different tones. Would you produce the majeflic, the grave ? The F lit /a, and the major tones effeauated by a flat, will exprefs it nobly. Would you produce the gay and the cheerful ? Take A mi la, D la re, the major tones effe&uated by a (harp. Would you produce fuch ftrains as are moving and tender ? Take the mi¬ nor tones effectuated by a flat. G fol ut minor, infpire the foul with tendernefs ; Y ut fa minor, carry it even to melancholy and grief. In a word, every tone, every inode, has its peculiar txpreflion, which ought to be known and perceived with delicacy ; and this is on* of the means which render a compofer of art and ge¬ nius in fome degree mailer of the affe&ions of thofe who hear him. It is, however, a kind of fuccedaneum to the ancient modes, though far from reaching their expreflion or energy. Yet it is this rich and agreeable diverfity of which (fays Roufftau.) M. Rameau would deprive mufic, in wholely reducing every mode to one infipidely equal and monotonous harmony, by his rule for temperament, though it had been fo often propofed and negle&ed before him. According to this author, the whole har¬ mony would be more perfeft by its obfervation. It is neverthelefs abfolutely certain, that nothing can be gained by this on one hand, without lofing its equi¬ valent on the other ; and though we fhould grant (what is by no means true) that by this temperament the harmony in general would be rendered more pure, would this compenfate what we lofe in point of expref¬ iion? See Temperament. To what has been already faid by M. Rouffeau, we mult beg leave to add two obfervations. 1. The tffence of the tone confiits in this, that by it the fecks of diatonic intervals immediately rifing or defeendiog, Tone* whether major or minor, is regulated and known from any fundamental note which we affume. Tone, there- Tor“c' fore, is the conftitution of the octave, as determined by that fundamental note. The fundamental note it- felf is the key. Hence the tone differs from the mode, as the former regulates the nature and fucceffion of in¬ tervals contained in the oftave ; the latter modifies all the chords whether natural or artificial, particularly the third and fifth. 2. M. D’Alembert, in the fe- cond edition of his Elements, (fee the article Music, n°72. note u) has confidered at fome length, and with fome degree of accuracy, the advantages and inconve¬ niences refulting from temperament. He feems fairly to have Hated the objeftions of muficians agaioft it. He affirms, that without it, in paffing from one mode to another, the ear is (hocked ; and agrees with M. Rameau, that the charedter of different harmonica does not arife from any differences in the intervals of the diatonic fcale, but from the ingenious and agree¬ able intertexture of the modes, and from other circum- ftances enumerated in the note. He adds, that from all which has been faid in his work concerning the for¬ mation of the diatonic fcale, and that fpecies of mufic which it charadterizes, it mud appear to be the obvious intention of nature, that the intervals in that fyftem, whether major or minor, whether confifting of a femi- tone or a full note, fhould each of them be exadtly fi¬ milar one to another, which cannot be effedtuated without having recourfe to temperament. TONGUE, in anatomy. See there n° 366, d. and 4°3- TONIC, in mufic, fignifies a certain degree of ten- fion, or the found produced by a vocal firing in a giveu degree of tenfion, or by any fonorotis body when put in vibration. It has already been obferved in other articles, that the word tone fignifies the natural feries or fuccef¬ fion of the diatonic fcale, whether major or minor, or confiding in intervals of both kinds, commencing from any particular note. The tonic therefore, or key, is the found from whence that feries commence* ; and it is fo called, becaufe it eftablifhes the nature of the fe¬ ries, and, as it were, opens a paffage to it. With this every piece of mufic, whether in harmony or melody, for the mod part begins, at leaft when the excluded notes are finifhed. By excluded notes we mean thofe notes which are feparated from the air by a bar, yet which do not conftitute a bar; becaufe they are parts of a time, the reft of which is fuppofed to have paffect before the commencement of the air ; and for which, at the end of the drain, there is, or ought to be, always an interval in duration left unoccupied. Here then we have faid, that the air commences fo^ the moft part with its tonic or key; that it fhouhl end with the fame note, is a rule more generally obferved,, and more neceffary to be obferved; but that its bafs fhould end upon the tonic, is indifpenfabfc. Whatever kind of third the key or tonic has above it, deter¬ mines the mode. If the third be major, fuch likewife is the mode ; if minor, the mode is alfo minor. Thus, upon every tonic or key, we may compofe in either mode. In fliort, muficians recognize this peculiarity in the tonic, that the perfedt chord does not rigoroufly belong to any other note except itfelf. When that chord is (truck upon another note, either fome diffo- nar.es TON [ 8627 ] TON Tonte nance is underftood, or fome other note becomes the II key for that inftant. -"Tonguin. By this method of tranfpofition, the tonic or key bears the name of C or ut in the major mode, and of A or la in the minor. See Music, Chap. XII. Tonic, fays Rouflean, is hkewife the name given by Ariftoxenus to one of the three kinds of chromatic mufic whofe divifions he explains, and which was the ordinary chromatic of the Greeks, proceeding by two femi-tones in fucceffion, and afterwards a third minor. Tome See Dominant. TONNAGE and Poundage, an ancient duty on wine and other goods. The origin of tonnage and poundage feems to have been this. About the 21ft of Edward III. complaint was made, that merchants were robbed and murdered on the feas. The king there¬ upon, with the confent of the peers, levied a duty of 2 s. on every ton of wine, and 6d. in the pound on all goods imported; which was treated as illegal by the commons. About 25 years after, the king, when the knights of (hires were returned home, obtained a like grant from the citizens and burgeffes, and the year af¬ ter it was regularly granted in parliament. Thefe du¬ ties were diminifhed fometimes, and fometimes increa- fed; at length they feem to have been fixed at 3 s. ton¬ nage and 1 s. poundage. In old times thefe were di- ftinguiflud from cuftoms, which were confidcred as du¬ ties on ftaple commodities, though they have been long fiace blended together. The fixing of llaple towns had its advantages and difadvantages; and even the great ftaple at Calais, which rendered the lofs of that place fo much regretted, cramped our navigation. By fuccelfive a£ls of the legifiature, the liberty and pro¬ perty of the fubjefts of all ranks being better fecured, promoted domeftic induftry, and thereby the welfare and happinefa of the people. TONQUIN, a kingdom of Afia, in the Eaft In¬ dies, beyond the Ganges; bounded on the north by the province of Yunnan in China, on the eaft by the province of Canton and the bay of Tonquin, on the fouth by Cochin China, and on the weft by the king¬ dom of Laos. It is about 1200 miles in length, and 500 in breadth ; and is one of the fineft and molt con- iiderable kingdoms of the Eaft, as well on account of the number of inhabitants, as the riches it contains and the trade it carries on. The country is thick fet with villages.; and the natives in general, are of a middle ftature and clean-limbed, with a tawny complexion. Their faces are oval and fiattifti, and their nofes and lips well proportioned. Their hair is black, long, lank, and coarfe; and they let it hang down their (boulders. They are generally dexterous, nimble, adlive, and in¬ genious in mechanic arts. The weave a multitude of fine filks, and make curious lacker-works, which are tranfported to other countries. There is fuch a num¬ ber of people, that many want employment; for they feldom go to work but when foreign (hips arrive. The money and goods brought hither by the Englifti and Dutch put them in aftion, for they have not money of their own fufficient to employ themfelves; and there¬ fore one-third at lead, muft be advanced before-hand by the merchants: and the (hips muft ftay here till the goods are finiftied, which is generally five or fix months. They are foaddifted to gaming, that when every thing eife is loft, they will (take their wives and-children. The garments of the Tonquinefe are made either of Tonqyin. filk or cotton ; but the poor people and foldiers wear T01””8 only cotton of a dark tawny colour. Their houfes are " fmall and low; and the walls either of mud, or hurdles daubed over with clay. They have only a ground-floor, with two or three partitions; and each room has a fquare hole to let in the light. The villages confift of 30 or 40 houfes, furrounded with trees; and in fome places there are banks to keep the water from over¬ flowing their gardens, where they have oranges, be¬ tels, melons, and falad-herbs. In the rainy fea- fdn they cannot pafs from one houfe to another with*, out wading through the water: they fometimes have boats. In the capital city called Cacho> there are about 20,000 houfes, with mud-walls, and covered with thatch ; a few are built with brick, and roofed with pan-tiles. In each yard is a fmall arched building like an oven, about fix feet high, made of brick, which ferves to fecure their goods in cafe of fire. The prin¬ cipal ftreets are very wide, and paved with fmall Hones. The king of Tonquin has three palaces in it, fuch as they are; and neSr them are (tables for his hoi fes and elephants. The boufe of the Englilh factory is feated at the north end of the city, fronting the ri¬ ver; and is the bed in the city. The people in genera! are courteous, and civil to Grangers : but the great men are proud, haughty, and ambitious; the foldiers infolent, and the poor thievifti. They buy all their wives, of which the great men have feveral ; but the poor are dinted for want of money. In hard times the men will fell both their wives and children, to buy rice to maintain themfelves. The women offer themfelves to ftrangers as wives, while they ftay, and agree with them for a certain price. Even the great men will of¬ fer their daughters to the merchants and officers who are likely to ftay fix months in the country. They are not afraid of being with child ; for if they are girls, they can fell them well when they are young, becaufe they are fairer than the other inhabitants.' Thefe wo¬ men are faid to be very faithful; and are trufted with money and goods by the Europeans during their ab- fence, and will make great advantage with them. The firft new moon in the year that happens after the middle of January, is a great feftival; when they rejoice for to or 12 days together, and fpend their time in aH manner of fports. Their common drink is tea, but they make themfelves merry with arrack. The lan¬ guage is fpoken very much in the throat; and feme of the words are pronounced through the teeth, and has a great refemblance to the Chinefe. They have feveral mechanic arts or trades ; fuch as fmiths, carpenters, join¬ ers, turners, weavers, taylors, potters, painters, money¬ changers, paper-makers, workers in lacker, and bell- founders. Their commodities are gold, roelk, filks, callicoes, drugs of many forts, woods for dyeing, lac¬ quered wares, earthen wares, fait, anifeeds, and worm- feeds. The lacquered ware is not inferior to that of Ja¬ pan, which is accounted the belt in the world. With all thefe merchandifes, one would expe& the people to be very rich, but they are in general very poor; the chief trade being carried on by the Chinefe, Englifti, and Dutch. The goods imported, befides fiber, are falt-petre, iulphur, Englifh broad cloth, pepper, fpices, and great guns. TONSILS, in anatomy. See there n° 366, g. 43 H 2 TON, TOP [ 8628 ] TOT Tonfure TONSURE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a particular manner of (having or clipping the hair of ecclefiaftics °p* or monks. The ancient tonfure of the clergy was no¬ thing more than polling the head, and cutting the hair to a moderate degree, for the fake of decency and gra¬ vity: and the fame obfervation is true with refpeft to the tonfure of the ancient monks. But the Romans have carried the affair of tonfure much farther; the candidate for it kneeling before the bifhop, who cuts the hair in five different parts of the head, viz. before, behind, on each fide, and on the crown. TOOL, among mechanics, denotes in general any fmall inftrument uied as well for making other complex inftruments and machines, as in moft other operations in the mechanic arts. TOOTH, in anatomy. See there, n° 26. TOOTHACH. See Medicine, n° 621, 622, and Electricity, parag. ult. Toothach tree. See Xanthoxylum. TOP, a fort of platform, furrounding the lower malt-head, from which it projects on all fides like a fcaffold. The principal intention of the top is to extend the top-mail fhrouds, fo as to form a greater angle with the maft, and thereby give additional fupport to the latter. It is fuftained by certain timbers fixed acrofs the hounds or (hbulders of the mail, and called the trejHe-trees and croft-trees. Befides the ufe above-mentioned, the top is other- wife extremely convenient to contain the materials ne- cefiary for extending the fmall fails, and for fixing or repairing the rigging and machinery with more facility and expedition. In (hips of war it is ufed as a kind of redoubt, and isaccordingly fortified for attack or defence; being furnifhed with fwivels, mufketry, and other fire¬ arms, and guarded by a thick fence of corded ham- mocs. Finally, it is employed as a place for looking out, either in the day or night. The frame of the top is either clofe-planked like a platform, or open like a grating. The former kind is generally ftronger and more convenient; but the latter is much better in tempeftuous weather, as prefenting a fmalier furface to the wind when the (hip leans over to one fide, and by confequence being, lefs expofed to its e|Forts. In all (hips of war, and in the larged merchantmen; the top is fenced on the aft*fide by a rail of about three feet high, (treiching acrofs,and fupported by ftanchions, between which a netting is ufually conftru&ed. The outfide erf this netting is generally covered with red baize or red painted canvas, which is extended from the rail down to the edge of the top, and called the top-armour. By this name it feems to have been confidered as a fort of blind, behind which the men may conceal them- felves from the aims of the enemy’s fire-arms in time of adion, whilft they are charging their own mufkets, carabines, or fwivels. 'Yov-Majiy the fecond divifion of a maft; or that part which (lands between the upper and lower pieces. See the article Mast. - Top Sails, certain large fails extended acrofs the top-mafts by the topfail-yard above, and by the yard attached to the lower maft beneath ; being faftened to the former by robands, and to the latter by means of two great blocks fixed on its extremities, thro’ which the topfail-(heels are inferted, pafiing from thence to Topaj; two other blocks fixed on the inner part of the yard II clofe by the maft: and from thefe latter the (beets lead ToPie^ downwards to the deck, where they may be (lackened or extended at pleafure. See the article Sail. TOPAZ, in natural hiftory, a gem called by the ancients chryfolite, as being of a gold colour. The topaz, when perfed and free from blemifties* is a very beautiful and valuable gem ; it is, however, very rare in this date. It is of the number of thofs gems which are found only in the round or pebble form, there never having been yet fecn a true and genuine topaz of a columnar figure, though the far greater part of what our jewellers call fuch are in that form. The greateft part of the true topazes are no larger than grains of a coarfe feed ; among thefe there are, how¬ ever, fome met with of the fize of a pea, and fome much larger, though thefe are very rare. It is of a roundifh or oblong figure in its native or rough (late, and ufually is flatted on one fide; and is generally of 3 bright and naturally poliflied furface, . tolerably tranf- parent. They are ever of a fine yellow colour; but they have this, like the other gems, in feveral different degrees: the fined of all are of a true and perfedl gold colour; but there are fome much deeper, and others extremely pale, fo as to appear fcarce tinged. The oriental topaz is equal to the ruby in hardnefs, and is fecond only to the diamond in luftre. The topazes of the other partaof the world fall off greatly from this hardnefs ; but the pureft of the genuine ones are con- fiderably harder than cryftal. The topaz on being thrown into a charcoal fire entirely lofes its colour; and when taken out, is a very fine colourlefs (lone, undi- ftinguifhable from that known by the name of the ’white fapphire. Upon the whole it appears, that the oriental- coloured gems are much alike in their matter,differing, fcarce at all, except in colour; and that when they are found either naturally colourlefs, or rendered fo by art, it is not eafy to diftiuguifti one of them from the other. The fined topazes in the world are found in the Eafl Indies; but they are very rare there of any great fize;. the Great Mogul, however, at this time, poffeffes one which is faid to weigh 157 carats, and to be worth, more than 20,000 pounds. The topazes of Peru come next after thde, in beauty and in value. The Euro¬ pean are principally found in Sdefia and Bohemia, and are generally full of cracks and flaws, and of a brown- ilh yellow. Beiides all thefe degrees of value in the genuine to¬ pazes, our jewellers keep what they call a kind of them, inferior greatly to the true ones; all thefe are common hexangular cryftals, coloured to a paler or deeper yellow in mines: thefe they cut into ftones for. rings, and fell under the name of topazes; and moft of the ftones we fee under that name are fuch. TOPHUS, in medicine, denotes a chalky or ftony concretion in any part of the body ; as the bladder, kidney, &c. but efpecially in the joints. TOPIC, a general head, or fubjeil of difeourfe. Tories, in oratory. See Oratory, n° 2—23. Topics, or Topical Medicines^ are the fame with external ones, or thofe applied outwardly to fome dif- eafed and painful part: fuch are plalters, cataplafms; unguents, Sec. TOPO- TOR [ 8629 ] TOR Top^gra- TOPOGRAPHY, a defcn'ption or draught of s, pliy fome particular place, or fmall track of land, as that of a city or town, manor or tenement, field, garden, houfe, ^ orpeco. ca^]ej or jj^ . as furveyors fet out in their plots, or make draughts of, for the information and fatisfaflion of the proprietors. TOPSHAM, a town of Devonlhife, in England, feated on the river Exmouth, five miles fouth-eaft of Exeter, to which place the river was formerly navi¬ gable; but in time of war was choaked up designedly, fo that (hips are now obliged to load and unload at Topfham. W. Long. 3.40. N. Lat. 50. 37. TOR, a town of Alia, in Arabia Petraea, feated on the Red Sea, with a good harbour defended by a eaftle. There is a handfome Greek convent, in whofe garden are fountains of bitter water, which they pre¬ tend are thofe rendered fweet by Mofes by throwing a piece of wood into them. Some think that this town is the ancient Elana. E. Long. 3 r. 25. N. Lat. 28. o. TORBAY, a fine bay of the Englifh channel, on the coalt of Devonlhire, a little to the eaft of Dart¬ mouth, formed by two cape?, called Bury Points, and Bob's Nofe. TORIES, in the hiftory of England, a fa&ion or party oppofed to the whigs. See Whigs.—The lo¬ ries are great (ticklers for the prerogatives of the crown, as the whigs are for the liberties and privileges of the people: though, in truth, the principles of the moderate people of both parties do not greatly differ. TORMENTILLA, Tormentil; a genus of the polygynia order, belonging to the iconfandria ciafs of plants. There are two fpecies, the mod remarkable of which is the ere&a, growing very frequently in bar¬ ren paftures, moors, and heaths, in Scotland, Eng¬ land, and the neighbouring iflands. The roots confid of thick tubercles, an inch or more in diameter, re¬ plete with a red juice, of an aftringent quality. They are ufed in moft of the Weftern Ifles, and in the Ork- neysr for tanning of leather; in which intention they, are proved by fome late experiments to be fuperior even to the oak-bark. They are firft of all boiled in wa¬ ter, and the leather is afterwards deeped in the liquor. In the iflands'of They and Col the inhabitants have dedroyed fo much ground by digging them up, that they have lately been prohibited the ufe of them. A deco&ion of thefe roots in milk is alfo frequently ad- minidered by the inhabitants of the fame iflands in di¬ arrhoeas and dyfenteries, with good fuccefs; but per¬ haps it would be mod proper not tosgive it in dyfen¬ teries till the morbid matter be fird evacuated. A fpirituous extraft of the plant dands recommended in the fea-fcurvy, to drengthen the gums and faden the teeth. Linnasus informs us, that the Laplanders paint their leather of a red colour with the juice of the roots. , TORNADO, a fudden and vehement gud of wind x from all points of the compafs, frequent on the coad of Guinea. TORNE, the capital of Torne Lapmark, a pro¬ vince of Sweden,, fituated at the mouth of the river Torne, at the bottom of the Bothnic Gulph, upon little ifland made by the river, 400 miles north of Stockholm. E. Long. 22, 45. N. Lat. 65,45;. TORPEDO, the Cramp fish. See Raja. The.furprifing property of this fifh in giving a vio¬ lent (hock to the perlon who takes, it in his bands, or who treads upon it, was long an obje& of wonder. Tor For fome time it was in general reckoned to be en- tirely fabulous; but at lad the matter of fad being af- certaintd beyond a doubt, philofophers endeavoured to find out the caufe. M. Reaumur refolved it inta the adion of a vad number of minute mufcjes, which by their accumulated force gave a fudden and violent droke to the perfon who touched it. But folutions of this kind were quite unfatisfadory, becaufe the ftroke was found to be communicated through water, iron, wood, &c. When the phenomena of eledricity began to be better known, it was then fufpeded that the (hock of the torpedo was occafioned by a certain ac¬ tion of the eledric fluid; but as not the lead fpark of fire, or noife, could ever be perceived, this too feemed infufficient. Of late, however, Mr Wallh has with in¬ defatigable pains, not only explained this furprifing phenomenon on the known principles of eledricity,- but given a demondration of his being in the right, by conltruding, an artificial torpedo, by which a (hock re- fembling that of the natural one can be given. - The eledric organs of the torpedo confid of two fets of very fmall cylinders lying under the (kin, one of which is eledrified pofitivcly and the other nega¬ tively, feemingly at the p.leafure of the fi(h. Wheo a communication is made between the fet of cylinders pofitively eledrified, and thofe which are negatively fev- a difeharge and (hock enfue, like what happens in the cafe of the Leyden vial. The only difficulty now is to account for the total abfence of a (park, (-which in the cafe of the torpedo never exills even in the fmaliett degree,) and the impoflibility of conduding the fliock through the fmalled interval of air. But this aifj is explained in a fatisfadory manner by Mr Walfli, and (hown to be nothing elfe than what every day takes place in our eledrical experiments. It is well known, that a fmall charge of eledricity, if put into a little vial, will occafion a bright (park and loud noife when difeharged. But if the fame charge is put into a vial much larger, the fpark and noife will be lefs in pro¬ portion ; neither will the fpark break through near luch a fpace of air in the latter cafe as in the former j though the fliock would in both cafes be the fame to a perfon who received it through his body. If, in- ftead of a large vial, we fuppofe the charge to be dif- fufed all over a large battery, the fliock would ftiii be the fame, and yet the fpark and noife attending it would be almoft imperceptible. The cafe is juft the fame with the torpedo., Each of the eledric organs is a battery compofed of innumerable fmall cylinders, which difeharging themfelves all at once produce a formidable fliock; but by reafon of the fmallnefs of the charge of each, the fpark is imperceptible, and can¬ not break through the fmallelt fpace of air. The truth of this was exemplified in Mr Walfli’s artificial torpedo, which though it would give a very confider- able fliock through a condudor totally uninterrupted, yet on the lead breach therein, even for the breadth- of a hair, no fliock was felt. In every other refped the eledricity of the torpedo, agrees with that exhibited by the common eledrical machines. An infulated perfon cannot receive a fliock by touching one of the eledric organs of thefifli; but a violent ftroke is given to the perfon, whether infulated or not, who lays one hand on- the pofitive and th« TOR [ 8636 ] TOR Torpor the other on the negative organ. The fifli, as is rea- Torfk f°na^^c t0 imagine* feems to have this eleftric pro- or perty in its own power j and appears fenfible of his giving the ihock, which is accompanied by a kind of .. winking of his eyes. TORPOR, a numbnefs, or defeat of feeling and motion. Galen fays it is a fort of intermediate dif- order between palfy and health. TORREFACTION, in chemiftry, is the roafting or fcorching of a body by the fire, in order to dif- charge a part either unnecefiary or hurtful in another operation. Sulphur is thus difcharged from an ore be» fore it ca* be wrought to advantage. TORRENT, denotes a temporary dream of water falling fuddenly from mountains, whereon there have been great rains, or an extraordinary thaw of fnow. TORRENTIUS (John), a painter of Amfter- dam, born at Haerlem in 1589, who excelled in re- prefenting obje&s of ftiil life, and fometimes painted converfations which were admired for a lovely tone of colouring. While he pra&ifed in this manner, he lived in general efteem and affluence ; but, unhappily, he grew abandoned in his morals, and equally fo in his fiyle of painting, proftituting a delicate pencil to the mod obfcene and depraved purpofes. At laft, by Inftituting a fecret fociety of Adamites, he attra&ed the notice of the magiftrates, who brought him to trial; and as .he denied bis own performances, and any connedion with his deteftable aflembly, he was condemned to the torture, his lewd pi&ures were burned by the common executioner, and be was fen- tenced to the houfe of corredion for 20 years. He fupported the torture with incredible obtlinacy ; and after fome time of confinement, being releafed at the requeft of the Englifh ambafiador, he went to Lon¬ don, where he refided for a few years. But the Englifh, who detefted his profligacy more than they admired his art, difcountenanced him fo much that he retired to Amflerdam, where he died in obfeurityand contempt in 1640. TORRICELLI (Evangelifle), an illuftrious Ita¬ lian mathematician and philofopher, born at Faenza in 1608.' He was trained in Latin literature by his uncle a monk ; and after cultivating mathematical knowledge for fome time without a mafter, he (ludied it under father Benedid Caftelli, profeflbr of mathe¬ matics at Rome. Having read Galileo’s dialogues, he compofed a treatife on motion, on his principles, which brought him acquainted with Galileo, who took him home as an affiftant : but Galileo died in three months after. He became profelfor of mathe¬ matics at Florence, and greatly improved the art of makingtelefcopes and microfcopes: but he isbeft known for finding out a method of afeertaining the weight of the atmofphere by quickfilver ; the barometer being called, from him, the Torricellian tube. He publirtied Opera Geometnca, 4(0, 1644; and died in 1647. TORRICELLIAN experiment, a famous ex¬ periment made by Torricelli, a difciple of the great Galileo, by which he demonftrated the preffure of the atmofphere in oppofition to the dodrines of fudion, &c. finding that preffure able to fupport only a certain length of mercury, or any other fluid, in an inverted glafs tube. See Barometer. TO RSIS, or Tusk, ia ichthyology. See Gadus. TORTOISE, in zoology. SeeTEsTUDO. Tortoife.1 ToRToisE-iSAe//. The upper Ihell of the tortoife is | compofed of two diffimilar fubftances: that which i j immediately invefts the back of the animal is of the bony kind, and almoft as hard as (tone ; the outer lamina is horny, flexible, here and there tranfparent; It is only this laft that is called tortoife-Jhell, and in which the beautiful colours and variegations refide. The hortiy (hell confifts of feveral pieces, whofe feams and jundures with one another, and wiih the bony part underneath, are fufficiently diftinguifhable. The workmen fplit them afunder by certain inftrumentSj and employ the elegant horn for a variety of toys and utenfils, combs, fword-hilts, clock-cafes, boxes, coverings for mufical inftruments, perfpedivc-glafies, &c. &c. Working and joining of Tortoise-SA//—Tortoife- fhell and horn become foft in a moderate heat, as that of boiling water, fo as to be preffed, in a mould, in¬ to any form, the (hell or horn being previoufly cut in¬ to plates of a proper fize. Plumier informs us, in his Art de tourner, that two plates are likewife united into one by heating and preffing them ; the edges being thoroughly cleaned, and made to fit clofe to one another. The tortoife- (hell is conveniently heated for this purpofe by apply¬ ing a hot iron above and beneath the jundure, with the interpofition of a wet cloth to prevent the (hell from being fcorched by the irons : thefe irons (hould be pretty thick, that they may not lofe their heat be¬ fore the union is affeded. Both tortoife-(hd! and horns may be ftained of a variety of colours, by means of the colouring drugs commonly ufed in dyeing, and by certain metallic fo- lutions. TORTURE, a grievous pain inflided on criminals to make them confefs the truth. See Rack.—The ftatute-law of England doth very feldom, and the common law doth never, inflid any puniftiment ex¬ tending to life or limb, unlefs upon the higheft necef- fity. But note—on an indidment for high-treafon, or for the lowed fpecies of felony, viz. petit larceny, and in all mifdemeanors, (landing mute is equiva¬ lent to convidion. But upon appeals or indidment for other felonies or petit treafon, the prifoner (ball not be looked upon as convided, fo as to receive judg¬ ment for the felony; but (hall, for his obftinacy, re¬ ceive the terrible fentence of penance, or peine forte if dure. See Arraignment, and Yzhiil fot-te & dure. The rack, or queftion, to extort a confeffion from criminals is a pradice of a different nature : this be¬ ing only ufed to compel a> man to put himfelf upon bis trial ; that being a fpecies of trial in irfelf. And the trial by rack is utterly unknown to the law of England. No perfon to be fubjed to torture in Scot¬ land, 7 Ann. c. 2 r. TORUS, in arebitedure, a large round moulding ufed in the bafes of columns. See Plate XXIX. fig. 3. TOUCAN, in ichthyology. See Rhamphastos. TOUCH-meedee, among affayers, refiners, &c. little bars of gold, filver, and copper, combined toge¬ ther in all the different proportions and degrees of mixture ; the ufe of which is to difeover the degree of purity of any piece of gold or filver, by comparing the Tcrach ' I! ■Toiilon. T O U r 8631 ] T O U mark it leaves on the touch-ftone \vith thofe of the bars. The metals ufually tried by the touch-ftone are gold, filver, and copper, either pure, or mixed with one an¬ other in different degrees and proportions, by fuficn. In order to find out the purity or quantity of bafer metal in thefe vauous admixtures, when they are to be examined they are compared with thefe needles, which are mixed in a known proportion, and prepared for thisufe. The metals of thefe needles, both pure and mixed, are all made into laminae or plates, one-twelfth of an inch broad, and of a fourth part of their breadth in thicknefs, and an inch and half long; thefe being thus prepared, you are to engrave on each a mark in¬ dicating its purity, or the nature and quantity of the admixture in it. The black rough marbles, the bafaltes, or the fofter kinds of black pebbles, are the mod proper for touch- ftones. Now the method of ufing the needles and ftone is this : The piece of metal to be tried ought firft to be wiped well with a clean towel or piece of foft leather, that you may the better fee its true colour ; for from this alone an experienced perfon will, in fome degree, judge beforehand what the principal metal is, and how and with what debafed. Then choofe a convenient, not over large, part of the furface of the metal, and rub it feveral times very hardly and ftrongly againft the touchftone, that in cafe a deceitful coat or cruft fhould have been laid up¬ on it, it may be worn off by that friction : this, how¬ ever, is more readily done by a grindftone or fmall file. Tbeti wipe a flat and very ckan part of the touchftone, and rub againft it, over and over, the juft mentioned part of the furface of the piece of metal, till you have, on the ftat furface of the ftone, a thin me¬ tallic cruft, an inch long and about an eighth of an inch broad : this done, look out the needle that feems mod like to the metal under trial, wipe the lower part of this needle very clean, and then ruh it againft the touchftone, as you did the metal, by the fide of the other line, and in a dire&ion parallel to it. When this is done, if you find no difference between the colours of the two marks made by your needle and the metal under trial, you may with great probability pronounce that metal and your needle to be of the fame ailoy, which is immediately known by the mark en¬ graved on your needle. But if you find a difference between the colour of the mark given by the metal, and that by the needle you have tried, choofe out an¬ other needle, either of a darker or lighter colour than the former, as the difference of the tinge on the touch¬ ftone direfts; and by one or more trials of this kind you will be able to determine which of your needles the metal anfwers, and thence what alloy it is of, by the mark of the needle; or elfe you will find that the alloy.is extraordinary, and not to be determined by the the comparifon of your needles. TOUCHWQOD. See Boletus. TOULON, an ancient, ftrong, rich, and populous city of France, with a famous harbour, well covered from the north winds; and a bifhop’s fee. It is the principal town for naval (lores on the Mediterranean fea, and is fortified with ftrong walls defended with baftions. It has two molts, each feven hundred paces in length, which almoft furround the harbour, and TouJoufe- leave but a narrow entrance for (hips. There are al- rcur‘ ways men of war here, as well as other drips; and there is a very fine quay paved with bricks. Near the arfenal, On the fide of the quay, are magazines full of naval (tores. The cathedral is remarkable for its high, altar, and two fine chapels on each fide, where there are feveral filver (hrines fet with precious (tones. There are feveral other churches and convents ; and a fchool for officers, where they are taught every thing that regards the land or fea fervice. The harbour is de¬ fended by feveral forts, and is one of the belt in Eu¬ rope. E. Long. 6. 2. N. Lat. 43. 7. TOULOUSE, one of the principal cities of France,» in Upper Languedoc, and capital of the whole pro¬ vince, with an archbifltop’s fee, a famous univerfity,- a parliament, a mint, and an academy of belles lettres. It is feated on the river Garonne, which divides it into two unequal parts, that communicate by a large (tone-bridge. It is very large, but is not peopled iit proportion to its extent. The (treets are very hand- fome, and the wails of the city, as well as the houfes, are built with brick. The metropolitan church (tands- in a large fquare, adorned with a fountain. It has fe¬ veral fine chapels, and the choir is very raagnificeor. There are feveral other churches and convents, too nu¬ merous to mention in particular. The town-houfe, which they call the Capitoli is very magnificent. It is a place of fome trade, and is feated at the end of the canal of Languedoc. Ev Long. 1. 30. N. Lat, 42. 36. 10UR (Henry de la), vifeount Turenne, a cele¬ brated French general, was the fecond fon of Henry de la Tour duke of Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in 1611. He made his firft campaigns in Holland un¬ der Maurice and Frederic Henry princes of Orange, who were his uncles by the mother’s fide; and even then diftinguiflied himfelf by his bravery. In 1634 he marched with his regiment into Lorraine ; and ha¬ ving contributed to the taking of La Mothe, was, though very young, made marefchal de camp. In 1636 he took Saverne, and the year following the caftles of Hirfon and Sorle; on which occafion he per¬ formed an action like that of Scipio’s, with refpedl to a very beautiful woman whom he fent back to her huf- band. The vifeount Turenne continued to diftinguiffi himfelf in feveral fieges and battles, and in 1644 was made marffial of France; but had the misfortune to be ' defeated at the battle of Mariendalin 1645. How¬ ever, he gained the battle of Nortlingen three months' after; rettored the ekdtor of Treves to his dominions; and the following year made the famous junction of the French army with that of Sweden commanded by general Wrangel, which obliged, the duke of Bavaria to demand a peace. Afterwards that duke breaking the treaty be had concluded with France, he was de¬ feated by the vifeount Turenne at the battle of Zumarf- haufen, and in 1648 driven entirely out of his domi¬ nions. During the civil wars in France he fided with the princes, and was defeated at the battle of Rheiel in 1650; but foon after was reftored to the favour of the king, who in 1652 gave him the command of his- army. He acquired great honour at the battles of Jer- geau, Gien, and the fuburbs of St Anthony, and by the retreat he made before the army commanded by tbd T O U [ 8631 ] T O U Ttfuraine the princes at Ville-Neuve St-George. In 1654 he II made the Spaniards raife the fiege of Arras.: the next ments1 yearhetook Conde, St Guilian, aodfeveral other places; gained the famous battle of Dunes; and made himfelf mailer of Dunkirk, Oudenarde, and almoft all Flan¬ ders; this obliged the Spaniards to conclude the peaee of the Pyrenees in 1660. Thefe important fervices oc- cafioned his being made marlhal-general of the king’s camps and armies. The war being renewed with Spain in 1667, Turenne commanded in Flanders; and took fo many places, that in 1668 the Spaniards were ob¬ liged to fue for peace. He commanded the French army in the war againft the Dutch.in 1672; took 40 towns in 22 days ; purfued the eleftor of Brandenburg even to Berlin; gained the battles of Slintfheim, Laden- Jburg, Enfheim, Mulhaufen, and Turkeim ; and obli¬ ged the Imperial army, which confided of 70,000 men, to repafs the Rhine. By this campaign the vifeount Turenne acquired immortal honour. He paffed the Rhine to give battle to general.'Montecuculi, whom he followed as far as Safpach; but mounting upon an emi¬ nence to difeover the enemy’s camp, he was killed by a cannon-ball in 1675. All France regretted the lofs of this great man, who by his military exploits had railed the admiration of Europe. TOURAINE, a province of France, bounded on the north by Maine, on the ead by Orleanois, on the fouth by Berri', and on the wed by Anjou and Poitou. It is about 5S? miles in length, and 55 in breadth where it is broaded. This country is watered by 17 rivers, befides many brooks, which not only render it delight¬ ful, but keep up a communication with the neighbour- ing provinces. The air is temperate, and the foil is fo fruitful, that it is called the garden of France. Tours is the capital town. TOURNAY, a town of the Audrian Netherlands, in Flanders, and capital of a didrift called TournayftSt. with a bilhop’s fee. It is divided into two parts by the river Scheld; and is large, populous, well built, and carries on a great trade in woollen duffs and dock¬ ings. The cathedral is a very handfome drufture, and contains a great many chapels with rich ornaments, and feveral magnificent tombs of marble and brafs. The town was taken by the allies in 17P9; but was ceded to the houfe of Audria by the treaty of Utrecht, tho’ the Dutch had a right to put in a garrifon. It was taken by the French in June 1745, who demolifhed the for¬ tifications. E. Long. 3, 36. N. Lat. 50. 41. TOURNAMENTS, in chivajry, were honourable exercifes formerly ufed by all perfons of note that defired to fignalize themfelves by their dexterity, &c. They were fird indituted in Germany, according to hidori- ans, towards the beginning of the -loth century, and became afterwards a general praftice: they derived their name from the French word tourner, i. e. “ to turn round,” becaufe to be expert in thefe exercifes, much agility both of horfe and man was reqftifite, they riding round a ring in imitation of the ancient Circi. They were the principal diverfion of the 13th and 14th century. The following account of Englifh tournaments, ex- trafted from Maitland’s Hidory of London, will not, it is hoped, be difagreeable to the reader.—In the reign of Edward IV. Roch, who was better known by the appellation of the Bajiard of Burgundy being greatly celebrated for his afts of chivalry, came over Tourna- | and challenged the Lord Scales, brother to the queen, ™en,s’ J to fight with him; which Scales readily accepting, theTQL'f“e 011 king commanded lids to be prepared in Smithfield (wherein to perform combat), of the length of 370 feet, and breadth of 260, with magnificent galleries for the reception of the illudrious fpeftators; where affembled the king, the nobility, and the principal gen¬ try of both fexes. The fird day they fought with fpears, without a vifible advantage on either fide. The fecond they tournayed On horfeback, when the Lord Scales having a long pike fixed on his chaffron (pom¬ mel of his faddle), which as they clofed, ran into the nodrils of the Badard’s horfe, by the anguifii where¬ of he reared himfelf with that violence, that he dum- bled backwards, whereby his rider was unfortunately unhorfed; which occafioned him to cry out, “ That he could not hold by the clouds;” and that though his horfe had failed him, he would not fail to meet his ad- verfary the next day. This being accordingly per¬ formed, they fought on foot with pole-axes; when Scales foon penetrating the Baftard’s helmet, the king threw down his warder, whereupon they were imme¬ diately parted by the marlhal. But the Baftard in¬ filling upon fighting out that weapon, a council was held to deliberate thereon. The refult was, that if he perfifted in renewing the combat, he mu ft, accord¬ ing to the law of arms, be delivered to his adverfary in the fame condition he was in at his horfe’s misfor¬ tune: but rather than fubmit to thofe terms, he waved his pretenfion. King Richard II. defigning to hold a tournament at London on the Sunday after Michaelmas, fent divers heralds to make proclamations of it in all the principal courts of Europe; and accordingly not a few princes, and great numbers of the prime nobility, reforted hi¬ ther from France, Germany, the Netherlands, &c. This folemnity began on Sunday afternoon, from the Tower of London, with a pompous cavalcade of 60 ladies, each leading an armed knight by a Giver chain, being attended by their’fquires of honour, and, paffing through (Iheapfide, rode to Smithfield, where the jufts and tournaments continued feveral days with magnifi¬ cent variety of entertainments; on which occafion the king kept open houfe at the bifhop of London’s pa¬ lace for all perfons of dilUnftion, and every night con¬ cluded with a ball. Not long after this, three Scotch champions chal¬ lenged three Englilh to fight, which was performed in . Smithfield with the greateft folemnity; the earl of Mar againft the Lord Nottingham; Sir William Dor- rel the king of Scotland’s banner-bearer, againft Sir Pierce Courtney the king of EnglandJs ftandard-bear- er; Cockburne, Efq; againft Sir Nicholas Hawkirke. Mar and Cockburne were unhorfed; but the two ftasd- ard-bearers were fo well matched, that betwixt them it was a drawn battle. Voltaire, in hisEffay upon the Civil Wars of France, p. 4, obferves, that this roman¬ tic and dangerous fport was put an end to by the death of Henry II. king of France, who was killed at Paris in a tournament, which was the laft in Europe. ■>. TOURNEFORT (Jofepli Pitton de), a famous French botanill, born at Aix in Provence in 1656. He had a paffioa for plants from his childhood, which overcame his father’s views in putting him to ftudy philo- • T R A { 8633 ] T R A Tourniquet philofophy and divinity ; therefore on his death he -rr v quitted theology, and gave himfelf up entirely to phy- Trac liius' fie, natural hiftory, and botany. He wandered over the mountains of Dauphine, Savoy, Catalonia, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, in fearch of new fpecies of plants, which be acquired with much fatigue and dan- danger. His fame in 1683 procured him the employ¬ ment of botanic profeiTor in theking?s garden; and by the king’s order, he travelled into Spain, Portugal, Holland, and England, where he made prodigious col- le&ions of plants. In I700, Mr Tournefort, in obe¬ dience to another order, fimpled over all the ifles of the Archipelago, upon the.coafts of the Black Sea, in Bi- thynia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, and Georgia; making obfervations on natural ■hiftory at large, an¬ cient and modern geography, religion, manners, and commerce. He fpent three years in this learned voyage; and then refuming his profeffion, was made profefibr *" of phyfic in the college-royal. He died in confequence of an accidental crulh of his breaft by a cart-wheel, which brought on a fpitting of blood and hydrothorax, that carried him off in 1708. He wrote Elements of Botany, both in French and Latin; A Relation of his Voyage into the Levant; with other pieces of lefs con¬ sideration. TOURNIQUET, in furgery, an inftrument form¬ ed with Screws, for compreffing any part with rollers, &c. for the Hopping of hasmorrhagies. See Sur¬ gery, n° 407, et feq. TOWER, a tall building confiding of feveral do¬ ries, ufually of a round form, though fome are fquare or polygonal. Towers are built for fortreffes, prifons, &c. as the Tower of London, the Tower of the Ba- 'ftile, &c. TOWN, a place inhabited by a confiderable num¬ ber of people, being of a middle frze between a city and a village. TOXICODENDRON, in botany. See Rhus. TRACHEA, in anatomy. See there, n° 380. TRACHINUS, the weever, a genus of fifties be- longing to the order of jugularis. There is but one •fpecies, viz. the draco, or common weever. The qua¬ lities of this fi(h were well -known to the ancients, who take notice of them without any exaggeration: the wounds inflidted by its fpines are exceedingly painful, attended with a violent burning and mod pungent -ftiooting, and Sometimes with an inflammation that will extend from the arm to the ftioulder. It is a common notion that thefc fymptoms proceed from Ssmeihing more than the fmall wound this fifli is capable of inflicting; and that there is a venom infu- fed into it, at leaft fuch as is made by the fpines that form the firft dorfal fin, which is dyed with black, and has a moft fufpicious afpedl; though it is poffible, that the malignity of the fymptoms arifes from the habit of body the perfon is in, or the part in which the wound is given. The remedy ufed by fome fifliermen is the fea-fand, with which they rub the place affeded for a confiderable time. At Scarborough, ftale urine, warmed, is ufed with fuccefs. In the Univerfal Mufeum for November 1765, is an inftance of a perfon who was reduced to great danger by a wound from this fifti, and who was cured by the application of fweet oil, and ta¬ king opium and Venice treacle. This fifh buries itfelf in the fands, leaving only its nofe out, and if trod on immediately llrikes with great TraA force; and they have been feen direding their blows^ ^ with as much judgment as fighting cocks. Notwith- ™ e can ‘ Handing this noxious property of the fpines, it is ex¬ ceeding good meat. The Englifli name fee ms to have no meaning, being corrupted from the French, la vive, fo called as being capable of living long out of the water, according to the interpretation of Belon. It grows to the length of 12 inches, but is commonly found much lefs. The irides are yellow : the under jaw is longer than the up¬ per, and Hopes very much towards the belly: the teeth are fmall. The back is ftraight, the fides are flat, the belly is prominent, the lateral line ftraight : thecovera of the gills are armed with a very ftrong fpine. The firft dorfal fin confifts of five very ftrong fpines, which, as well .as the intervening membranes, are tinged with black; this fin, when quiefeent, is lodged in a fraall hollow. The fecond confifts of feveral foft rays, com¬ mences juft at the end of the firft, and continues al« moft to the tail. The pedoral fins are broad and an¬ gular; the-ventral fins fmall. The vent is placed re¬ markably forward, very near the throat: the anal fin extends to a fmall diftance from the tail, is a little hol¬ lowed in the middle, but not fo much as to be called forked. The fides are marked lengthwife with two or three dirty yellow lines, and tranfverfely by numbers of fmall ones: the belly filvery. TRACT, in geography, an extent of ground, or a portion of the earth’s furface. Tract, in matters of literature, denotes a fmall trea- tife or written difeourfe upon any fubjeft. TRADE, in general, denotes the fame with com¬ merce, confiding in buying, felling, and exchanging of commodities, bills, money, &c. See Commerce, Coin, Money, Company, &c. Trade-/F/W/, denote certain regular winds at fea, blowing either conftantly the fame way, or alternately this way and that ; thus called from their ufe in navi¬ gation, and the Indian commerce. See Wend. TRADESCANT (John), an ingenious naturalift and antiquary, was, according to Anthony Wood, a Fleming or a Dutchman. We are informed by Parkin- fon, that he had travelled into moft parts of Europe, and into Barbary; and from fome emblems remaining upon his monument in Lambeth church-yard, it plainly appears that he had vifited Greece, Egypt, and other saltern countries. In his travels he is fuppofed to have collefted not only plants and feeds, but moft of thofe curiofities of every fort which after his death were fold by his fon to the famous Elias Afhmole, and depofited in his mufeum at Oxford. When he firft fettled in this kingdom cannot at this diftance of time be afeertained. Perhaps it was at the latter end of the reign of queen Elizabeth, or the beginning of that of king James I. His print, engraven by Hollar before the year 1656, which reprefents him as a perfon -very far advanced in years, feems to countenance this opinion. He lived in a great houfe at South Lambeth, where his mtifeum was frequently vifited by perfons of rank, who became benefa&ors thereto: among thefe were king Charles I. (to whom he was gardener), Henrietta Maria his queen, archbiftiop Laud, George duke of Buckingham, Ro¬ bert and William Cecil earls of Saliftxiry, and many other perfons of diftin&ion. John Tradefcaiit may 43 1 there- T R A [ 8634 ] T R A Trade (cant therefore be juftly confidered as the earlieft collec- „ I tor (in this kingdom) of every thing that was cu- rious in natural hiftory, viz. minerals, birds, fifhes, infedls, &c. He had alfo a good colle&ion of coins and medals of all forts, befides a great variety of un¬ common rarities. A catalogue of thefe, publifhed by his fon, contains an enumeration of the many plants, fhrubs, trees, &c. growing in his garden, which was pretty extenfive. Some of thefe plants are, if not to¬ tally extinft, at lead become very uncommon, even at this time: though this able man by his great induftry made it manifetl, in the very infancy of botany, that there is fcarce any plant extant in the known world that will not with proper care thrive in this kingdom. When his houfe at South Lambeth, then called Tradefcant’s Ark, came into Afhmole’s pofieffion, he added a noble room to it, and adorned the chimney •with his arms, impaling thofeof Sir William Dugdale, whofe daughter was his third wife, where they remain to this day. It were much to be wiftied, that the lovers of bo¬ tany has vifited this once famous garden, before, or at lead in the beginning of the prefent century. But this feems to have been totally negle&ed till the year 1749, when Dr Watfon and the late Dr Mitchell favoured Royal Society with the only account now extant of the remains of Tradefcant’s garden. When the death of John Tradefcant happened is tiot known; no mention being made thereof in the regider- booth of Lambeth church. TRADITION, among ecclefiadical writers, de¬ notes certain regulations concerning the rites, ceremo¬ nies, &c. of religion, which we fuppofe to have been handed down from the days of the apodles to the pre¬ fent time. TRAGACANTH. See Gum Tragacanth. TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, reprefenting fome fignal a&ion performed by illudrious perfons, and which has frequently a fatal iffue or end. See Poetry, Part. II. fefl. 1. TRAGI-comedy, a dramatic piece, partaking both of the nature of tragedy and comedy; the event whereof is not bloody nor unhappy, and wherein is admitted a mixture of lefs ferious charafters. TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius), a celebrated Roman emperor, who gained many viftories over the Parthi- ans and Germans, pufhing the empire to its utmod ex¬ tent on the ead and north fides. He died at Silinunte, a city of Cilicia, which from him was called Trajanor polls, in the year 117. Trajan’s Column, a famous hidorical column ere&- ed in Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. It is of the Tufcan order, though fomewhat irregular;, its height is eight diameters, and its pededal Corinthian: it was built in a large fquare there called Forum Ro- vianum. Its bafe confids of 12 dories of an enormous fize, and is raifed on a focle, or foot, of eight deps: withinfide is a dair-cafe illuminated with 44 windows. It is 140 feet high, which is 35 feet fhort of the An- tonine column, but the workmanfhip of the former is much more valued. It is adorned from top to bottom with baffo relievos, reprefenting the great adlions of the emperor againd the Dacians. TRAJECTUS rheni (anc. geog.), a town of Bel- gica; didant 15 miles by the Itinerary, but fcarce fiXj from Mannaricium. Its name and fituation fiiow it tb Train iti be Utrecht, capital of the province of that name. E. II ? Long. 50, Lat. 520, 7'. The appellation Utrecht, isTransfl'fil from Qud trecbt, the “ old padage;” Vetus Trajcttus, as it was called in Charlemagne’s days; whence fome barbaroufly form Ultrajeftutn; more elegantly called Trajeftus Rheni, or ad Rhenum. TRAIN, a line of gun-powder laid to give fire to a quantity thereof, in order to do execution by blow¬ ing up earth, works, buildings, &c. Train of Artillery, includes the great guns and other pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the field. Train-0/7, the oil procured from the blubber of a' ’ whale by boiling. TRALLIAN (Alexander), a Greek writer on phyfic, a native of Tralles in Lydia, who lived about the middle of the fixth century. His works are divi¬ ded into 12 books, in which he treats of didempers as they occur, from head to foot; he was the fird who opened the jugular vein, and that ufed cantharides as. a blider for the gout. Dr Friend, in his Hidory of Phyfic, dyles him one of the mod valuable authors fince the time of Hippocrates. Though he appears on the whole to have been a rational phyfician, yet there are things in his writings that favour of enthufiafm and fuperdition. TRALOS montes, a province of Portugal, called in Latin Franfmontana; becaufe fituated on the eaft fide of a chain of hills that feparate it from Entre Min- ho e Douro. It is bounded on the north by Galicia; on the fouth by the provinces of Beira and Leon; by the lad of which it is bounded alfo to the ead. Its length from north to fouth is upwards of 120 miles, and its breadth about 80. It is full of mountains, and produces little corn, but plenty of wine, fruits of feve- ral forts, and abundance of game. TRANS ACTION, an accommodation of fome bu- finefs or difpute between two parties by a mutual and voluntary agreement between them. TRANSCENDENTAL, or Transcendent,. fomething elevated, or raifed above other things ; which paffes and tranfeends the nature of other infe¬ rior things. TRANSCRIPT, a copy of any original writing, particularly that of an aft or indrument inferted in the body of another. TRANSFER, in commerce, an aft whereby a per- fon furrenders his right, intered, or property in any thing moveable or immoveable to another. TRANSFORMATION, in general, denotes a change of form, or the affuming a new form different from a former one. TRANSFUSION, the aft of pouring a liquor out of one veffel into another. Transfusion c/'Blood, an operation by which it was fome time ago imagined that the age of animals would be renewed, and immortality, or the next thing to it, conferred on thofe who had undergone it. The methods of performing it were as follow. 1. Take up the carotid artery of the dog, or other animal, whofe blood is to be expended ; feparate it from the nerve of the eighth pair, and lay it bare for above an inch. Then make a drong ligature, not to- be untied again, on the upper part of the artery ; but an T R A [ 8635 ] T R A ^Transfufion an inch below, viz. towards the heart, make another * ligature with a running knot, which may be loofened or faltened as eccafion requires. Having made thefe two knots, draw two threads under the artery, between the two ligatures; then open the artery, and put in a quill, or rather a crooked pipe of filver or brafs, fo flender that one end may enter a quill, and having at the other end, which is to go into the artery, a fmall knob. This being done, make fall the artery to the pipe by means of the two threads abovementioned, flopping the end of the quill with a peg till there be * occafion for opening it. Perform a iimiiar operation on the jugular vein of another dog j and having made a communication between the two animals, let another vein be opened in the animal into which the blood is to be transfufed, and let the blood run freely out from it. The blood from the animal which is to be killed will run into the jugular vein, and fupply the place of ^ f that which runs out from him ; arid thus the one dog will be bled to death, while the other fuffers nothing, but will run abput briikly as foon as he is ubloofed and the wounds tied up. 2. In making this experiment, the fallowing cir- cumflances are to be attended to. 1. That the ani¬ mals be faftened at fuch convenient diftance from one another that the vein or artery be hot ftretched. 2. If the pulfe fails beyond the quill in the jugular vein, the paflage will be flopped up by coagulated blood, in which cafe the quill muft be taken out and cleaned. 3. It muft alfo be confidered, that after a few mi¬ nutes the blood of the emittent animal will mix with the other, and run out at the orifice } therefore, in or¬ der to be affurcd that the recipient animal has none of his own blood in him, two or three or more animals may be prepared, and all of them bled into one. 4. The moft probable ufe of this experiment may be, that from feveral found animals a difeafed one may be fupplied with an entire new mafs of blood, and that without deftroying or hurting in the lead the animals which give it; as an healthy animal could at any time fpare a pretty large quantity of blood without any ap¬ parent detriment. 5. In this manner a maftiff dog was bled into a curr; and the little dog emitted, at leaft, double the quan¬ tity of blood which he could be fuppofed to poffefs naturally, when the maftiff died. The cuvr being un¬ tied, ran away and (baked himfelf as if he had been thrown into water. 6. A communication was made between the jugular vein of a calf and a (beep ; the former being defigned for the emittent, and the latter for the recipient ani¬ mal. The fheep loft 49 ounces, avoirdupois weight, of blood, before any of the calf’s blood was received} and at this time it was judged that the (beep mull have been very faint. The calf’s blood was then fuffered to run into a porringer for 40 feconds, in which time the animal had bled 10 ounces. This was done with a view to afcertain the quantity which fhould be received bytheihcep; but as it could not be fuppofed that the blood would run fo faff into the fheep’s vein as in¬ to the porringer, the calf was allowed to bleed for five minutes; when it was fuppofed that the (heep had re¬ ceived as much blood as (he had loft. Being then un¬ tied, fhe feemed to have as much ftrength as before the operation. 7. A fheep, having bled 4$ ounces, was fupplied Transfudon with as much or more from a calf; after which fhe ap- — peared not at all to be hurt by the experiment, but continued lufty and ftrong. 8. A young land-fpaniel was bled to 14 or i6oun* ces, which was at the-fame time fupplied by the blood of an old mongrel curr all over-run with the mange; but the fpaniel was not in the leaft hurt by the ex¬ change, though the curr was tmred of his mange by the evacuation. 9. The blood of a young dog being transfufed into the veins of an old one almoft blind with age, the lat¬ ter began to leap and frifk, though he could hardly ftir before. What became of him afterwards is not mentioned. 10. The blood of three calves was transfufed into three dogs; after which all the dogs eat as well as be*- fore ; and one from whom fo much blood had been drawn the day before that he could fcarcely (Hr, ha- ving been fupplied the next morning with the blood of a calf, inftantly recovered his ftrengtb, and (howed a furpriling vigour. 11. A bitch, having loft 30 ounces of blood, and being fupplied with an equal quantity from fome other animal, not only furvived that experiment, but alfo the lofs of her fpleen, which was afterwards cut out. with¬ out tying up the veffels. 12. The blood of one lamb was entirely transfufed irito another ; after which the lamb that had received the blood feemed to be well, and grew like other lambs; but in eight months after the operation it died; whether from the cotlfequences of the transfufion or not, cannot be determined. 13. The blood of a lamb was transfufed into the veins of a fpaniel 13 years old, who for three years had been fo deaf that he was infenfible fto the loudeft noife. He walked very little, and was fo feeble, that being unable to lift up his feet,, he only trailed his bo¬ dy forward. After the operation he remained for an hour upon the table, then he leaped down, and went to feek his mafter who was in another room. Two days after he went abroad, and ran up and down the llreet with other dogs, without trailing his body as he had done formerly. He alfo began to recover his hearing, and in a month’s time had recovered it fo fair that he always returned at the voice of his mailer. 14. The blood of four wedders was transfufed into a horfe 26 years old, who by that means was much invigorated, and had his appetite greatly increafed. ij. The experiment of Transfufing blood into an human vein was performed by Dr Richard Lower and Sir Edmund King, upon one Mr Arthur Coga, o« the ^ ^ , 23d of November 1667. The manner of doing it is re- rhii.r/unf lated in the following words. “ Having prepared the abridged, carotid artery in a young Iheep, we made an incifion vol. HI. p. in the vein, obferving the method above-mentioned without any alteration but in the fhape of one of our pipes, which was found more convenient for our pur- pofe. And having opened the vein in the man’s arm with as much cafe as in common venseftftion, we let thence run out fix or feven. ounces of blood. Then we planted our filver pipe into the faid incilion, and in- ferted quills between the two pipes already advanced in the two fubjefts, to convey the arterial blood from the flieep into the vein of the man. The-blood ran 43 I * freely T R A [ 8636 ] T R A Transfufion freely into the vein for the fpace of two minutes at 1 raafyl- jea[{. f0 we COuld feel a pulfe in the faid vein ^u(l beyond the end of the ftlver pipe. The patient faid he did not feel the blood hot, (as had been reported, of a man upon whom the like transfufion bad been prac- tifed in FranceJ; which may very well be imputed to the length of the pipes,,through which the blood paffed, lofing thereby fo much of the heat as to come into a temper very agreeable to the venous blood. That the blood did run all the time of thofe two minutes we con¬ clude from hence. Firft, Becaufe we felt a pulfe during that time. Secondly, Becaufe when, upon the man’s faying he thought he had enough, we drew the pipe out of the vein, the fheep’s blood ran through it in a full ftream; which it would not have done if there had been any flop before, in the fpace of thofe two mi¬ nutes, the blood being fo very apt to coagulate in the pipes upon the lead ftop, efpecially as the pipes were as long as three quills. From the quantity of blood which run through the pipe into a porringer, we judged that about nine or ten ounces were received into the man’s veins. The man, after the operation, as well as in it, found himfelf very well.” Thefe are very favourable teftimonies for this prac¬ tice. . However, according to Heifter, it could fcarce be ventured upon even in the mod defperate cafes: “ For (fays he) almod all the patients who have been this way treated, have degenerated into a Rapi¬ dity, foolidmefs, or a raving or melancholy madnefs ; or elfe have been taken off with fudden death, either in or not long after the operations. Thefe lamentable and fatal confequencea have brought the art of injec¬ tions and transfufion into negleft at prefent: fo that being fufpe&ed and condemned by proper judges at Paris, where they mod flourifhed, we are told they were in a little time prohibited by a public edidl of that par¬ liament.”—Yet, a little after, the fame author adds, “ But whether or no this method of injefting proper medicines into the blood may fucceed, efpecially in defperate apoplexies, anginas, hydrophobia, &c. and ■whether it may not be often ufeful to difcharge the morbid blood, and transfufe fuch as is found, or warm milk or broth in its dead, ought, in my opinion, to be determined by future and repeated experiment. Burmannus, in his Surgery, (Part III. cap. 31.) tells us, that he has not only performed the operation with luccefs on others, but very happily on himfelf, being by this means cured not only of a troublefome itch, but alfo of a llubborn fever.” On the whole, it feems yet to be a matter of doubt whether the infufion of certain liquors, or the tranf- fufion of blood into the veins, ought to be accounted a poifonous operation or a medicinal one ; but if ever the transfufion of blood is meddled with, common fenfe feems to indicate that it is the blood of a human creature which ought to be received by one of the fame ipecies, and not that of a bead. TRANSYLVANIA, a province of Europe, an¬ nexed to Hungary, and bounded on the north by Upper Hungary and Poland, on the ead by Mol¬ davia atid Walachia, on the fouth by Walachia, and on the wed by Upper and Lower Hungary. It is fur- rounded on all pans by high mountains, which, how¬ ever, are not barren. The inhabitants have as much corn and wine as they want themfelves; and there are rich mines of gold, filver, lead, copper, qutckfilver, Traon and alum. L has undergone various revolutions; but H It now belongs to the houfc of Aullria. The inhabi-i'rtraa"p^llv’ tants are of feveral forts of religions ; as Papids, Lu therans, Calvinids, Socinians, Photinians, Arians, Greeks, and Mahometans. It is about 162 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. The adminidration of affairs is conducted by 12 perfons^ namely, three Roman Catholics, three Lutherans, three Calvinids, and three Socinians. The militia is commanded by the governor, whofe commifiion is the more important^ as Tranfylvania is the bulwark of Chridendom. It is divided into feveral fmall diftrifts, caUed/>a/atinafes and counties; and is inhabited by three different nations, Saxons, Sicilians, and Hungarians. Hermandadt is the capital town. TRAON, or Traw, a flrong and populous town of the republic of Venice, in Dalmatia, with a bifhop’s fee, feated on the gulph of Venice, in a fmall ifland, joined to Terra Firma by a long bridge of wood, and to the ifle of Bua by another of done. It is not very large, but drong and populous. E. Long- 17. 10. N. Lat. 43. 50. TRAPANI, or Trapano, a town of Italy in Sicily, feated on the wed fide of it, in the Val-di- Mazara, with a harbour and a cadle. It is feated in a fmall peninfula, and built in the form of a fickle 5 is a trading place, and the harbour defended by a fort. It is famous for its falt-works, and its fifheries of tunnies and coral. E. Long. 12. 45. N. Lat. 38. 5' TRANSIT, in adronomy, fignifies the paffage of any planet jud by or over a fixed dar or the fun; and of the moon, in particular, covering or moving over any dar. See Astronmy, n° 193. TRANSITION, the paffage of any thing from one place to another. Transition, in oratory. See Oratory, n° 38. TRANSITIVE, in grammar, an epithet applied to fuch verbs as fignify an adlion which paffesfrom the fobjedl that does it, to or upon another fubjeft which receives it. Under the head of verbs tranlitive corns what we ufoally call verbs a Rive and pajjive; other verbs, whofe aftiondoes not pafs out of themfelves, are called neuters. TRANSLATION, the adf of transferring or re¬ moving a thing from one place to another ; as we fay, the tranflation of a bidiop’s fee, a council, a feat of judice, &c. Translation is alfo ufed for the verfion of a book or writing, out of one language into another. TRANSMARINE, fomething that comes from or belongs to the pans beyond fea. TRANSMIGRATION, the removal or tranfla¬ tion of a whole people into another country, by the power of a conqueror. Transmigration is particularly ufed for the pafi fage of the foul out of one body into another, being the fame with what we otherwife call Metempsychosis. TRANSMUTATION, the ad of changing or transforming one nature into another. Transmutation of Acids. See Chemistry, n° i7o, 192, 219. Transmutation of Metals. See Chemistry, “°3S'' 374- 4’3' TRAN- T R A [ 8637 TRANSOM, among builders, denotes the piece that is framed acrofs a double-light window. 5 TRANSOMS, in a fhip, certain beams or timbers — extended acrofs the ftem-poft of a fhip, to fortify her after-part, and give it the figure moft fuitable to the fervice for which (he is calculated Tranfoms are here defined beams or timbers, becaufe they partake equally of the form and purpofe of thofe pieces. Thus the deck-tranfom is the aftmoft or hindmoll beam of the lower deck, whereon all the deck-planks are rabbeted : and all the tranfoms are fixed athwart the ftern-poft, in the fame manner as the floor-timbers are laid upon the keel. As the floor-timbers alfo, with regard to their general form and arrangement, have a rifing, by which the bottom becomes narrower as it afcends to¬ wards the extremities; fo the arms of the tranfoms, being gradually clofer in proportion to their diftance from the wing-tranfom downwards, give a fimilar fi¬ gure to that part of the fhip, which accordingly be¬ comes extremely narrow, from the counter towards the keel; and this general figure or curve is called the flight of the iranfims.—Although thefe pieces are there¬ fore extremely different in their figures, according to the extent of the angles formed by their branches or horns, each of them has neverthelefs a double curve, which is partly vertical and partly horizontal, with regard to its fituation in the fhip'. The former of thefe is called by the artificers the round-up, and the latter the round-aft.—As the tranfoms fill up the whole fpace comprehended between the head of the ftern-poft above and the aftmoft floor-timbers below, it is neceftary to diftinguifh them by particular names. Thus the high- eft is called the nuing- tranfom} the next, the deck- tranfo??i; and afterwards follow the firft, fecond, and third tranfoms ; together with the intermediate ones. —The vertical dire&ion of the arms or angles of the tranfoms, with regard to the fhip’s length, are expref- fed in the plane of Elevation, and their horizontal curves are alfo delineated on the plane of Projeftion. See Smr-Building—The higheft tranfoms are con- nefted to the fhip’s quarter by knees, which are bolted to thofe pieces and to the after-timbers. TRANSPARENCY, in phyfics, a quality in cer- ] T R A their natural order of conflruclion, to pleafe the ear by rendering the contexture more fmooth, eafy, and harmonious. See Music, par. 256. Transposition, in mufic. the note. TRANSUBSTANTIATION, in theology, the converfion or change of thefubftance of the bread and wine in the eocharift, into the body and blood of Je- fus Chrift ; which the Romifh church fuppofe to be wrought by the confecration of the prieft. TRANSVERSALIS, in anatomy. See there. Table of the Mufcles. TRANSVERSE, fomething that goes acrofs ano¬ ther from corner to corner : thus bends and bars in heraldry are tranfverfe pieces or bearings ; the diago¬ nals of a parallellogram or a fquare are tranfverfe lines. TRAPEZIUM, in geometry, a plane figure con¬ tained under four unequal right lines. TRAPEZIUS, in anatomy. See there, Table of' the Mufcles. TRAPP (Dr Jofeph), an Englifh divine of ex¬ cellent parts and learning, was born at Gherington in Glocefterlhire, of which place h:s father was red*or in 1579. He was the firft perfon chofen to the profeC- foifhip of poetry founded at Oxford by Dr Birkhead; and publiihed hisleftures under the title of Pralcdlior.es Poetica, in which he laid down excellent rules for every fpecies of poetry in Very elegant Latin. He fhowed afterwards, however, by his tranflation of Virgil, that a man may be able to dii cft who cannot execute, and may have the critic’s judgment without the poet’s fire. In the early part of his life Dr Trapp is faid to have been chaplain to the father of the fa¬ mous lord Bolingbroke; he obtained the living of Ghrift-church in Newgate Street, and St Leonard’s, Fofter-lane, London; and his very high-church prin¬ ciples probably obftru&ed his farther preferment. He publiftied feveral occafional poems, a tragedy called Abramuls, tranflated Milton’s Paradife Loft into Latin verfe, and died in 1747. TRAVERSE, or Transverse, in general, denotes fomething that goes athwart another j that is, crofles tain bodies, whereby they give paflage to the rays of and cutsTt obliquely. light; in contradiftinaion to opacity, or that quality Tra verse, in navigation, implies a compound of bodies which renders them impervious to the rays of courfe, or an aflemblage of various courfes, lying at different angles with the meridian. Thus fig. 6. Plate It has been generally fuppofed by phitofophers, CCLXXVI. exhibits the traverfes formed by a ftiip, that tranfparent bodies have their pores difpofed in when making an oblique progrefiion againft the ftraight lines, by which means the rays of light have direflion of the wind, as explained in the article Tacking- The true courfe and diftance refulting from this di- verfity of courfes is difeovered by colledting the diffe- opportunity of penetrating them in all direftions, but fome experiments in eleftricity have made it ap¬ parent, that by the adion of this fluid the moft opaque , bodies, fuch as fulphur, pitch, and fealing-Wax, may rence'of latitude and*departure of wchcouffe, and re- be rendered tranfparent as %lafs, while yet we cannot ducing the whole into one departure and one diffe- fuppofe the diredion of their pores to be any way al- rence of latitude, according to the known rules of f.See.. ^ered what it originally wasf. A curious in-, trigonometry. This redudion will immediately after- hUetiricity, nance of an increale of tranfparency we have in rub- tain the bafe and perpendicular ; or, in other words* bing a piece of white paper over one that has been will give the difference of latitude and departure to written upon or printed : while the white paper is at diftover the courft and diftance. See Navigation. ^ .wr*“nS or Pr\nt W*H perhaps ftaree appear TRAvERSE-i^9rfn3,, a thin circular piece of board, through it; but when in motion, will be very eafily marked with all the points of the compafs, and having' e^'.,If’.^°nt‘nue fotil! the motion is diftontinued. eight holes bored in each, and eight fmal! pegs hang- i RANbPOSITION, in grammar, a difturbing ing from the centre ir diflocating the words of a difeourft, or a changing teimine the different eight fmal! pegs hang- e of the board. It is ufed to de^ t esurfes run by a fhip during the the Trarfpo fuiou Traverfe. T R E { 8638 ] T R E Treacle, tHe period of the watch, and to afcerlain the diftance of each courfe. This implement is particularly ufeful in light and variable winds, at which time the helmf- man marks the courfe every half hour, by fixing a peg in that point of the compafs whereon the (hip had ad¬ vanced, Thus, if the wind is northerly at the be¬ ginning of the watch, the (hip, being ciofe-hauled on the larboard tack, will (leer W. N. W. If, after the firft half hour, the wind changes to N. by W. the (hip will fall off to W. by N. both of thefe courfes are marked by the helmfman upon the traverfe-board, by putting in one peg for every half hour on which (he (leers the fame courfe; as, one peg into W. N, W. and two pegs into W. by N. if (he fails an hour on the latter courfe ; and fo on. The lee-way and vari¬ ation of the compafs are afterwards allowed by the pilot, on fumming up the whole, TREACLE, See Theriaca.—Some alfo give the name treacle to melaifes- • TREASON (prcdiiio), in its very name (which is borrowed from the French) imports a betraying, treachery, or breach of faith. It therefore happens only between allies, faith the Mirror of Juftice : for treafon is indeed a general appellation, made ufe of by the law, to denote not only offences againft the king and go¬ vernment ; but alfo that accumulation of guilt which arifes whenever a fuperior repofes a confidence in a fubjecl or inferior, between whom and himfelf there fubfifts a natural, a civil, or even a fpiritual relation; and the inferior fo abufes that confidence, fo forgets the obligationsof duty, fubje£lion, and allegiance, as to deftroy the life of any fuch fuperior or lord. This is looked upon as proceeding from the fame principle of treacheiy in private life, as would have urged him who harbours it to have confpired in public againft his liege lord ancl fovereign *: and therefore for a wife to kill her lord or hufband, a fervant his lord or mafter, and an eccleliaftic his lord or ordinary ; thefe, being breaches of the lower allegiance, of private and domeftic faith, are denominated petit treafons. But when difloyalty fo rears its creft, as to attack even majefty itfelf, it is called by way of eminent diftinflion high treafon^ alta proditio; being equivalent to the crimen lafee majejlatis of the Romans, as Glanvii denominates it alfo in our Englifti law. ///^-Treason. As this is the higheft civil crime, which (confidered as a member of the community) any man can pofllbly commit, it ought therefore to be the moft precifely afeertained. For if the crime of high-treafon be indeterminate, thisalone (fays the pre- fident Montefquieu) is fufficient to make any govern¬ ment degenerate into arbitrary power. And yet, by the ancient common, law, there was a great latitude left in the bread of the judges, to determine what was treafon, or net fo : whereby the creatures of tyrannical princes had opportunity to create abundance of conftmftive treafons ; that is, to raife, by forced and arbitrary conftruclions, offences into the crime and puniftiment of treafon, which never were fufpe